Teaching Languages Online 9781783093786

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Teaching languages online

MM Textbooks Advisory Board: Professor Colin Baker, University of Wales, Bangor, UK Professor Viv Edwards, University of Reading, Reading, UK Professor Ofelia García, Columbia University, New York, USA Dr Aneta Pavlenko, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA Professor David Singleton, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland Professor Terrence G. Wiley, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA MM Textbooks bring the subjects covered in our successful range of academic monographs to a student audience. The books in this series explore education and all aspects of language learning and use, as well as other topics of interest to students of these subjects. Written by experts in the field, the books are supervised by a team of world-leading scholars and evaluated by instructors before publication. Each text is student-focused, with suggestions for further reading and study questions leading to a deeper understanding of the subject. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

MM Textbooks: 12

Teaching languages online Second Edition Carla Meskill and Natasha Anthony

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Buffalo • Toronto

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Meskill, Carla, author. Teaching Languages Online/Carla Meskill and Natasha Anthony. — Second Edition. MM Textbooks: 12 Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Language and languages—Study and teaching—Technological innovations. 2. Language and languages—Computer-assisted instruction. 3. Intercultural communication—Study and teaching— Data processing. 4. Web-based instruction. 5. Educational technology. I. Anthony, Natasha, author. II. Title. P53.28.M48 2015 418.0078’5–dc 3 2015007888 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-377-9 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-376-2 (pbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Website: www.multilingual-matters.com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright © 2015 Carla Meskill and Natasha Anthony. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Techset Composition India(P) Ltd, Bangalore and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by the CPI Books Group.

Contents Introduction to the second edition

ix

1. Teaching languages online: the essentials What this book is about Available time Instructional time Task design Management Content/Sequencing Assessment The four environments Blended learning Learning community A sociocultural view of language teaching and learning Why online? Traditional forms of f2f classroom discourse Instructional conversations Conclusion End-of-chapter activities References

1 2 3 3 4 6 7 7 8 10 10 11 13 15 16 18 19 25

2: Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments Calling attention to forms Calling attention to lexis Corralling Saturating Using linguistic traps Modeling Providing explicit feedback Providing implicit feedback Summary End-of-chapter notes End-of-chapter activities Further reading References

27 30 39 46 53 55 58 62 70 75 75 78 82 82

3: Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments Calling attention to forms Calling attention to lexis Corralling Saturating Using linguistic traps Modeling Providing explicit feedback

85 87 93 97 101 104 107 111

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Providing implicit feedback Summary End-of-chapter notes End-of-chapter activities Further reading

115 116 116 122 125

4: Oral venues amplified via text and visuals Non-intrusiveness Time savers and L2 gatekeepers Salience Accessibility Familiarity Attentiveness Summary

127 129 130 132 134 137 138 141

5: Language learning and teaching in written synchronous environments Overview Calling attention to forms Calling attention to lexis Corralling Saturating Using linguistic traps Modeling Providing explicit feedback Providing implicit feedback Summary End-of-chapter notes End-of-chapter activities References

143 144 145 152 159 162 164 166 168 170 172 172 172 173

6: Language learning and teaching in written asynchronous environments Overview Calling attention to forms Calling attention to lexis Corralling Saturating Using linguistic traps Modeling Providing explicit feedback Providing implicit feedback Summary End-of-chapter activities Further reading

175 176 177 180 186 191 192 193 195 197 199 199 201

7: Written venues amplified via sound and visuals Non-intrusiveness Time savers and L2 gatekeepers Salience Accessibility Familiarity

203 205 206 208 209 210

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Attentiveness Summary

212 213

8: Continuing the conversation Designing online language learning curricula Instructional design The craft of language education Playfulness The future is now? Chapter discussion questions End-of-chapter activity Further reading References Free online teaching spaces

215 219 222 223 224 224 225 225 225 226 226

Glossary of terms

229

Author index

233

Subject index

235

vii

Introduction to the second edition The goal of the second edition of Teaching Languages Online continues to be to support the professional development of language educators as they teach all or part of their courses online. Since its original publication in 2010, it has become more often the case that language teaching professionals actively integrate learning resources, assignments and experiences that are both internet sourced and that reside at hand in contextually rich online environments. With the new edition of this text, it is our aim to supply additional models, illustrations and heuristics of these new sources and contexts to help further support research-based conceptualization, creativity and practice. Ours has been a lively undertaking as the quantity and quality of online tools and materials, along with widening access to these, grow. More importantly for us, however, is the growing knowledge and skills – the digital fluency of new and practicing language educators – which likewise continue to flourish. This means that the less effort there is in the access and manipulation of ever-more powerful materials, the greater the uses to which these can be put in the service of student learning through instructional conversations. In short, it is less about what icon to click and more about finessing the conversation than in earlier decades. Language education is doubly committed to both the targeted language per se and targeted understanding of other peoples and their ways of making meaning through that language. Techno-pedagogical developments that support this learning are integrated and illustrated throughout this new edition.

Mobility Since the original edition of this text was published, the most likely venue for students to learn their new language has become the palm of their hand with a listening device. In other words, the days of being parked in front of a desktop computer are waning with contemporary networked peoples carrying on a range of sophisticated activity as they physically move from place to place with their hand-held (head-held, car-held) devices. In addition to work, family obligations, recreation and socializing, many a mobile device user is concurrently an online student as well; completing assignments on the subway, in the line at the coffee shop and so on. It is not unusual, for instance, to overhear an Englishspeaker learning German at Starbucks or a Chinese-speaker learning English while watching her children at the playground. Learning can go with you 24/7: every teacher’s dream? Perhaps. With a loud caveat: the trade-off of attention. Throughout this edition we illustrate and address what we call the ‘attentiveness’ dimension of mobile instructional conversations and suggest compensatory strategies to assure students are doing what they are expected to do; in short, to assure they are paying attention.

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Introduction to the second edition

3D Environments Contemporary online language teaching takes place in three-dimensional (3D) environments, environments that can represent and even be ‘peopled’ by target language and culture venues and inhabitants. Russian learners touring and undertaking scavenger hunts of an online Kremlin, for example, is becoming commonplace. And, if an educator cannot locate a venue that meets her pedagogical needs, with very little time and effort, she can alter an existing context and/or build one herself and tailor it to current curricular needs and task toolkits. Immersion in a semi-authentic host country through a 3D environment where one uses the target language productively is clearly advantageous. Opportunities for powerful instructional conversations are likewise bountiful. Adding to the mix students who are developing and taking on the persona of an avatar might also be advantageous in terms of students’ identity and confidence as users of the new language. Many studies from the 1950s and 1960s suggest that operating as someone else in a new language and context lowers affect and promotes confidence.

New resources Throughout this second edition we reference a host of new online learning resources that teachers can make use of in their teaching. Although such an accounting can never be exhaustive, those resources that we have selected to include are those that we have used ourselves, those cited in the online learning research literature, or those that respected online language teaching colleagues have suggested. As always, by including illustrations of such resources in action, our aim is to introduce a practice and its rationale that can stimulate the reader/educator to take these up according to her perspective, her experiences and her learners.

Seventy additional examples Readers of the first edition were quick to appreciate our extensive use of illustration – a picture suggesting a thousand possibilities. In this edition we have included many more to exemplify the new venues, new tools and new pedagogical fluencies that continue to evolve. These also include any number of examples from student pair and group projects that are proliferating and which can be readily tailored to meet contextual needs. Another group of new examples illustrates additional instructional conversation dimensions not discussed in the first edition; e.g. attentiveness, scaffolding synthetic thinking. Finally, a number of examples of instructional conversations in a wider range of target languages is included. Since the advent of personal computers some 35 years ago, humanity has enjoyed unbounded potential across life domains. Since that time we have also been waiting for the other ‘next big thing’: some thing, some invention of comparable magnitude that will similarly alter the ways we think and live. That computing devices now make information access and social mediation an integral part of daily life suggests that the next big thing may indeed be right around the corner.

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Like the first edition, this text maintains the position that online tools and information are only as useful as excellent educators and the pedagogical uses to which they put these wonders. Language educators are the crux, the center of the online language learning process no matter how many advertisements there are that guarantee no need for one given heavily marketed commercial product. Anyone who has attempted to teach and learn language with such products will assure you that this is not the case. Talented language educators, in tandem with the conceptually grounded, research-based illustrations and discussions of effective instructional conversations presented here, will clearly achieve high-quality, high-level mastery of new languages with her students. Our wish is that these proven strategies for online teaching and learning support teaching professionals through immersion in the myriad potential of the ever-more enriched and enriching online instructional conversations that new technologies are provoking and supporting.

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1 Teaching languages online: the essentials

What this book is about—2 Available time—3 Instructional time—3 Task design—4 Management—6 Content/Sequencing—7 Assessment—7 The four environments—8 Blended learning—10 Learning community—10

■

This initial chapter discusses the fundamental concepts involved in online language teaching and introduces the approach and format for the proceeding chapters.

■

With the focus in this and subsequent chapters being on active teaching in online venues, foundations of task design and their orchestration via instructional conversations are established.

■

The chapter supplies definitions for the four online language learning environments and their affordances.

■

Fundamentals of designing task toolkits for online language teaching are outlined and illustrated.

A sociocultural view of language teaching and learning—11 Why online?—13 Traditional forms of f2f classroom discourse—15 Instructional conversations—16 Conclusion—18 End-of-chapter activities—19 References—25

Teaching languages online

Teaching languages online: the essentials There is no question that teaching and learning languages online is growing in popularity. The reasons for this growth are many. Chief among them is the matter of convenience. Rather than traveling distances short and long to participate in face-to-face (f2f) courses, people wishing to study a new language have only to turn to their computer or mobile screens at any hour of the day or night and access instruction. The forms that this instruction takes are many and varied; some depending on instructors, some depending on stand-alone instructional materials and many a combination of both. Moreover, many language educators who teach in the traditional f2f classroom are making good use of online tools and materials as complements to their courses as places where students can practice and study outside of class time. In short, the amount of instructional activity taking place in cyberspace is enormous and, as we hope you will find in this text, enormously exciting. Those who are skeptical about online learning tend to point to the loss of the fast-paced, stimulating interaction that takes place in live language classrooms. It is true that the timing, and with it the dynamics of interactions is radically different. However, as we explore throughout this text, there are numerous affordances that can, when exploited by excellent instruction, mitigate the absence of live interaction. Indeed, since we first began teaching online several years ago, students report that where they once enjoyed the lively pacing and adrenaline of live classes, they were finding the timing aspect in online forums more to their liking. This seems especially true for learners who are less outgoing in live contexts; the luxury of time and quasi-anonymity work in their favor. Language learners who otherwise do not react well under the pressure of real-time comprehension and production in live classrooms particularly enjoy online language learning.

What this book is about This text lays out methods and their rationale for optimal uses of online environments for effective language teaching. It primarily addresses professional language educators, those new to the field, those with experience in traditional classrooms and those who teach partly or fully online. Our three foundational premises are as follows. ■

Language learning is made up of primarily social/instructional processes.

■

Online environments can be used well socially and instructionally.

■

Teaching well in online environments requires skilled instruction.

We therefore focus on the kinds of teacher instructional moves in conversation with students, what we call, along with Tharp and Gallimore (1991), ‘instructional conversations’ that in our

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

work are proving highly effective for teaching language in online environments. Before expanding further on these three foundational premises for our approach to online language teaching, we will address some essential practical matters that concern the mechanics and logistics of online teaching: time, management, learning goals and assessment.

Available time Online teaching and learning can take place as it does in f2f classroom synchronously, that is in real time, or asynchronously, whenever it is participants choose to interact. Both of these teaching modes require conceptualizations of time that are quite different from traditional meet-four-times-a-week planning and participation structures. At the beginning design stages, the development of online instructional elements is time consuming. In the long term, however, the fact of having all materials and structures in a single place is a time saver. In regard to the actual teaching/contact time with students, online teaching is often viewed as requiring more time than face-to-face as instead of having contact with students three to four times per week, one is having contact every day. And, as mentioned earlier, students who would otherwise shy away from actively participating in f2f contexts are more than likely contributing more and more often for reasons we will discuss shortly. This in turn compels instructors to be more actively and continuously responsive throughout the term. Although instructors are quick to point out these time investments, they are also quick to qualify these by citing other areas where enormous amounts of time are saved. We mentioned having all one’s course materials in once place. In addition, there is the matter of convenience. Many online instructors log onto their courses when it suits their schedules; not at 11:00 am every Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, but rather some days, evenings or mornings as their schedules permit. Traveling to and from a physical classroom, parking, meals away from home, even clothing and childcare can all be factored in to counterbalance the time investment in online education. Most instructors who calculate and consider the shifts in how their time is spent testify to the increase in the quality time they can spend teaching well in exchange for time spent on activity extraneous to actual instruction. Students also enjoy the time savings of online learning. For many contemporary students, the time and logistics of traveling to a physical classroom according to a set schedule can be challenging. Students who work and who have families can study anytime and anywhere that suits their busy schedules. There are the larger life time issues and then there is the matter of instructional time itself.

Instructional time In addition to available time (above), this text is particularly interested in instructional time; that is, the time that both instructors and learners have to carefully consider the form

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Teaching languages online

and content of their online postings in online venues. For learners, it is within this thinking, comprehending and composing time that active language learning is taking place. For instructors, it is within this thinking, comprehending and composing time that optimal instructional conversation moves can be devised given the current status of the class discussion. Both students and their teachers can, moreover, use this time to access any and all information they need to comprehend, compose and instruct. For students, the most obvious example might be taking advantage of online resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses and even native speaker friends in composing their posts. For instructors, they can access and in turn make use of background cultural information, artifacts, visuals, animated grammar explications and the like to amplify instructional conversation moves.

Task design Like in the traditional f2f language classroom, a major part of instructional routines involves tasks in which learners engage with the aim of their practicing and thus learning target language forms and functions. A language learning task can be thought of as a structured activity that has clear instructional objectives, content and context that is culturally authentic and appropriate and specified procedures for its undertaking. Tasks are, then, activities in which learners engage for the purpose of mastering aspects of the target language under study. They range in complexity from brief language workouts (e.g. listen and repeat, listen or read and perform a grammatical transformation) to more complex activities such as role play simulations, group decision making, or sustained interactions with native speakers for problem solving. The essential element that defines language learning tasks is the purpose, objective or outcome of the task, an element that we will stress throughout this text. It is through a consistent focus on task objectives that teachers make productive use of instructional conversation moves to guide and enhance the learning. Sample Language Learning Task Template Topic: Duraon: Skills focus: Overall instruconal aims: Task structure: Task toolkit Roles for learners Seng the scene Acon expectaons Acon monitoring instruconal conversaon (feedback) Expected outcomes

Figure 1 Sample language learning task template

The task toolkit is a convention that we use throughout this text. It is the set of language elements that make up the focus of a given language task. One advantage of online instruction in this regard is that these toolkits can be collected and managed in a course

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

task repository and reused as needed. The information in the task toolkit should be as simple and direct as possible as it is to these language elements that instructors and students refer as they undertake and evaluate the processes and outcomes of the given task. Our convention is to place this boxed text in the upper right-hand corner of all screens as a consistent anchoring and referencing tool (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 2 Sample task toolkit

Roles for learners can be specified much as they are in the live classroom. In online environments, however, one can also provide links to background language and cultural information concerning the roles that learners are assigned. If, for example, a student is assigned the role of a bank manager in a bank robbery role play, links to target culture sites and information (video clips are particularly useful in understanding target culture social roles) can be included in the description of the particular assigned role. In this way also learners can have background about one another’s roles so as to better attune their communication patterns with one another. Similarly, in setting the scene for a language learning task, students and instructors have at their fingertips massive amounts of background information in multimodal forms. Taking the bank robbery role play task as an example, learners can see and explore banks and banking routines, even delve into famous historical robberies in the target culture as part of preparing to undertake the task. Action expectations and action monitoring constitute the heart of powerful instructional conversations. As you will see throughout the text, this aspect of language learning tasks is

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Teaching languages online

where we believe the real teaching and learning occur. Learners are expected to comprehend and produce specified language correctly (action expectations) and instructors monitor accordingly. In monitoring these task-guided conversations, instructors seek out teachable moments – moments where learners need a push, a reminder, reference to the task goals and/or task toolkit, or probes of their understanding of target culture and context. These teachable moments represent rich opportunities in online environments in terms of time and available resources as we discussed above. We will discuss the goals and anatomy of instructional conversations more thoroughly at the end of this chapter and, subsequently, illustrate these throughout the remaining chapters.

Management Managing ten to thirty students three or four times per week in traditional classroom settings is onerous. How does one manage the learning in online environments? As mentioned earlier, the sheer fact of having all of one’s materials, all student work, all archives of what has taken place in one online location is a great time saver in the long term. Being able to revisit what has already occurred in class over time can be a powerful management tool in assisting with future instructional planning as well. Managing all of this information can be facilitated through the use of a Course Management System (CMS) whereby special tools are provided to track learners, their assignments, their participation structures and their contributions. Thus, the kinds of continually and automatically updated information about online learning activity can greatly ease the overall management of coursework that takes place online. An element of management that can in large part determine the level of success for an online course or online component of a course is the setting of norms and expectations. Because learners are structuring their own time in these online venues, the amount and quality of their participation for optimal learning, and optimal grades, need to be clearly specified and pointed to throughout the term. Actual models and exemplars of optimal participation structures can be provided so that learners are 100% clear on the mode, purpose and level of quality expected. Reminders of these expectations can be visually present and pointed to throughout the term. In addition to management, one of the most critical features of successful online instruction as reported in research studies is the online behaviors of the instructor. When students log on to their course site, they immediately seek out information on the instructor’s recent participation. Likewise, anecdotal and formal research accounts point out that students attend most to the posts of instructors and less to the posts of other students. Consequently, being present and active in the online venue is a critical factor for successful instruction. This means logging on and actively instructing on a consistent, continual basis. Many online students have reported feeling ‘abandoned’ when instructors take a day off. Thus, part of the online instructional equation is to ‘be present’ even if it means announcing that you will be offline for the weekend.

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

Content/Sequencing In structuring online content and activities, instructors can use a variety of approaches, just like in traditional f2f classes. If the course is structured around the content and sequence of a textbook, support materials and activities can be likewise sequenced. One of the most common uses of an online portion of a language course is to use online discussion spaces as a place for learners to engage in complementary tasks and activities that align with textbook units. In this way online portions are used to support and amplify the content under study. A fully online course can be structured in a similar manner. In many cases language textbook publishers provide online supplementary and support activities that can be incorporated and used to structure the online portion of a language course. The breadth of any language course is, of course, dependent on its length of study and goals. The depth, however, when undertaken all or in part on the internet, is potentially limitless. Reference, background and expansion materials abound. Making good, sound use of these limitless content possibilities starts with examining the purposes and goals of the tasks and activities that make up the course. Websites from the target language and culture can be effectively repurposed and mined for use by learners as the basis of communicative language learning tasks. Examples of ways to make use of these resources appear throughout the following chapters.

Assessment Micro-level As language learning is a dynamic and multifaceted enterprise, one that is influenced by any number of individual and contextual factors, in this text we advocate the centrality of ongoing formative assessment of student learning. In this view, the two – instruction and assessment – are viewed as interdependent. As an instructor is evaluating learner comprehension and performance, it is on this evaluation that she bases the construction of her subsequent instructional moves, her instruction in effect. This marriage of instruction/assessment happens in instructional conversations where opportunities for authentic interaction in the target language are orchestrated and overseen by an instructor with specific plans and goals. Her responses to learners as they undertake instructional activities are responsive to her assessment of learner performance and, thereby, readiness in a given teachable moment. This is instruction that pushes a learner along his or her developmental trajectory towards mastery of the focal target language (Meskill, 2009).

Task

learner post

instructor assessment

instruconal conversaon move

learner post

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Teaching languages online

Macro-level Online venues are excellent ones for tracking learner progress. Whether you use a free and open communication forum or a sophisticated CMS, you will have digital records of student performance. These can be in the form of graded exercises, essays and other kinds of individual assignments. Assessments can also be made of the threaded discourse contributions learners have made while undertaking tasks and while responding to instructor prompts and guidance. These kinds of running records of learner growth and development in the new language take assessment to a new and quite powerful level as they supply archived information upon which to base subsequent instruction – something the most expert teachers would have difficulty tracking in f2f venues. These digital records, moreover, can serve as a guide for learners themselves to gain a sense of their strengths, weaknesses and overall progress. Collecting exemplary moments in class discussions and/ or learning tasks and assembling these in a student-generated electronic portfolio is an excellent instructional strategy both in terms of student learning and in conserving instructor time for actual teaching.

The four environments When setting out to learn on the internet, we can simply interact with the materials and resources available via searching and referencing information. We can also make use of widely available digital learning objects (DLOs). These are materials that are explicitly instructional and, in most cases, interactive: games, tutorials, fill in the blank, videos, teaching animations, drills, simulations and the like. What marks these as DLOs is their instructional purpose. Numerous online DLO repositories curate collections of these objects for more streamlined access by educators (http://merlot.org, for example). These kinds of learning objects can be assigned to learners for independent work. They can also be incorporated into online coursework whereby students are assigned collaborative tasks that make use of these learning objects thereby serving as springboards or catalysts for instructional interactions between and among learners and instructors. In addition to online materials in the form of digital learning objects, there are four venues for teaching and learning online, each with its distinct characteristics and affordances (Figure 3): written asynchronous, written synchronous, oral asynchronous and oral synchronous. Written asynchronous environments are likely the most familiar to anyone who uses telecommunications. Email is the quintessential written asynchronous venue whereby messages are composed and comprehended outside of real time, much as a letter or postcard sent via land mail. In written asynchronous learning environments, learners read and respond to posts made by their instructor and their fellow students when it is convenient to do so. For online instruction, this mode or venue is by far the most popular. This is in great part attributable to the fact that instruction can be accessed and engaged at any time from

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

any location. For this reason, written asynchronous is the most widely used mode of online instructional delivery by educational institutions around the world. Indeed the majority of Learning Management Systems (LMS) – software whereby one can build and orchestrate instruction – are designed for the written asynchronous mode of instruction. Written synchronous environments can be readily compared to texting. Interlocutors compose and comprehend messages in real time. The resulting posts are naturally shorter, less thoughtfully composed and more conversation-like in their form and content. As we will see, written synchronous communication often accompanies oral synchronous communication whereby side conversations take place via text while the main focus of a learning session is oral and synchronous. Written synchronous messaging can also take place in learning environments that are otherwise written asynchronous. Most LMSs have a chat-like feature that can be used by prior arrangement for real-time interactions. Affordances of asynchronous online teaching and learning environments – convenience – connecvity – membership (playing field is leveled) – authenc audiences – tailored audiences – strategies to compensate for lack of non-verbal info – richness of informaon (links, mulmedia) – time to focus and review – time to compose, resources to compose – time and opportunity to reflect – opportunity to witness and track learning – opportunity to demonstrate learning

Affordances of synchronous online teaching and learning environments – convenience – connecvity – membership (playing field is leveled) – authenc audiences – tailored audiences – richness of informaon (links, mulmedia) – opportunity to witness and track learning in real me – opportunity to demonstrate learning in real me

Figure 3 Affordances of online teaching and learning environments

Oral asynchronous environments are popular for informal learning on the web. Similar to blogs, posters can record and post their thoughts, questions and responses to others via audio. Similarly, recorded audio posts can be inserted into just about any online environment, page, or document for instructional purposes. Audio responses to written compositions, for example, can be inserted as a means of feedback. Recorded audio commentary can also accompany student products such as poster sessions, gallery tours of portfolio work, or other multimodal creations. Likewise, instructors can insert their recordings of mini-lectures within their written asynchronous materials. Further, as we

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Teaching languages online

will see, oral synchronous becomes particularly attractive for teaching aural/oral skills in another language. Finally, and perhaps the most robust of online instructional environments, oral synchronous environments are marked by combining multiple modalities in real time. This is the most demanding environment for instructors and students as attention is simultaneously drawn to real-time speech, real-time visual information and synchronous written messages. Learners and instructor log on at the same time to interact in ways similar to the live classroom. Information is visually represented and manipulated by the instructor while she speaks. Responses from learners are elicited and responded to. Pair and groupwork are assigned, orchestrated and evaluated. As with the other three online environments, sessions can be recorded and archived for later reference by both learners and instructors.

Blended learning Blended learning, whereby live in-class time is supplemented or supplanted by either synchronous or asynchronous online work, is also growing in popularity. There are several scheduling/design schemes one can use for blended instruction: ■

front-loaded whereby online work leads up to the live sessions in terms of learner preparation;

■

book-ended whereby live class meetings are bracketed at the beginning and end by online sessions;

■

intermixed whereby live class meetings are interspersed or replaced with online sessions.

When well planned and well strategized, there are numerous advantages to blended forms of course design. Conversations that require reading, reflection and careful composing can be allocated to asynchronous online sessions; those that thrive on more rapid-fire give and take can be allocated to live meetings. Also, use of an online course space to complement live sessions means that less productive work (managerial, documents review, etc.) can happen online thus allowing more time for the kinds of live conversations that make sense to particular instructional aims.

Learning community A focus on active, authentic language use as a means to acquiring literacy and fluency can best be undertaken in environments conducive to productive communication. Instructional environments where learners are at ease with their developing new language and new language identities are a central concern in language education. A major affordance of all online learning venues is the fact that learners can exercise their new language in environments where they are safe, valued and, perhaps most importantly, members of a learning community. That sense of membership helps in authentic practice with target

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

language use. Language is, after all, used in and by communities. In language education contexts, these communities are the venues where members are invested in the common goal of acquiring and mastering a new language through its productive use. These are communities whereby instructors play the practical role of curricula and activities determiners, designers of instructional tasks through which curricular goals are met and orchestrators and guides of moment-by-moment language learning routines and instructional conversations. Building rapport and a sense of community while not being in the physical company of others can at first appear to be enormously challenging. But, if one considers the quick and undirected proliferation of informal online communities – communities that form around myriad common goals, interests and opinions – digital natives (see insert on p. 13–14) may be more comfortable and adept at online community membership than face-to-face. Indeed, as communicators we seem to do just fine forming and maintaining social relationships synchronously and asynchronously online. Moreover, we increasingly seem to enjoy doing so as a major form of social activity. These pleasures, along with the multimodal literacy skills now commonplace for both digital natives and immigrants, are important to consider and we have integrated ways to capitalize on them throughout this text. All of these instructional modes or environments boast special features and affordances that are particularly attractive to language education. Taking best advantage of the features and affordances of each is our focus. Before addressing these, we situate our discussion in our broader view of how we see language as best taught and learned.

A sociocultural view of language teaching and learning Historical shifts away from teaching language in the abstract to teaching language in use have been significant. Where language was once treated as a subject area, the substance of which was to be talked about, contemporary views see the goal of language instruction to be active, productive use of the new language. With these shifts have come reconceptualizations of just what it means to acquire and know a language well, along with reconsideration of what teaching and learning processes best affect this. Chomsky’s 1965 critical distinction between language performance and language competence – a distinction that explains our ability to judge grammaticality (competence) while at the same time making mistakes in our speaking and writing (performance) – forms the basis of Dell Hymes’s later characterization of the complexities of language use via his definition of communicative competence. In order to demonstrate communicative competence, Hymes argued, a speaker must say the right thing, in the right way with the right effect given a specific communicative situation and all of its contextual complexities (Goodwin & Duranti, 1992; Hymes, 1971, 1972). This notion of competence represented a sea change in our conceptions about what it meant to know or speak another language well. In the decades leading up to Hymes’s insight, learning another language often meant

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Teaching languages online

learning to read, perhaps translate, and rarely involved communicative proficiency. Professional language educators, researchers in applied linguistics and publishers actively responded to Hymes’s insight by developing materials, methods and research methodologies that aligned with this view of language competence. Shortly thereafter Sandra Savignon coined this new, overall approach ‘communicative language teaching’ (CLT), a moniker which is used to this day to describe language educators’ efforts to nurture full communicative competence in their second and foreign language learners (Savignon, 1983, 1991). Growing interest in Vygotsky’s views of learning has begun to influence language education as well (e.g. Lantolf & Pavlenko, 1994). A sociocultural view sees learning as dynamic, ongoing and developing throughout the lifespan with critical influences coming from the surrounding social order writ both large and local. The act of teaching from this perspective is primarily that of mediation whereby a learner is guided to appropriation and internalization of meaning within the social environment, an environment that has been shaped and continues to shape ways of being and communicating. Many argue that this sociocultural view is entirely compatible with earlier communicative views of language education (e.g. Block, 2003; Foster & Ohta, 2005; Lantolf, 2000; van Lier, 2000). Although varying perspectives and theories related to sociocultural views of learning abound, we limit use and discussion to those that have been laid out in the recent literature as pertaining directly to second and foreign language education generally, and how this view frames our concepts of learning and teaching in online environments particularly. Two aspects of the sociocultural view of learning align particularly well with what applied linguists generally agree about the process of attaining communicative competence in a new language. First, a sociocognitive view sees learning as dialogic with authentic language in use as the primary mediating tool for learning. So that regardless of the content or task, it is the language used by instructors, peers and, finally, the learner herself that directly steers or mediates the learning. Thus, directly comprehending and responding appropriately to language – conversation – is central to all developmental processes. Second, when it comes to learning a new language, by experiencing mediation via the target language, learners also experience the opportunity to internalize the language they experience that can, in turn, be used passively and/or productively by them in novel contexts (Swain, 2000). From an instructional stance, these mediation and internalization (what Vygotsky termed intermentation) processes that lead to development of the new language are orchestrated by talented instructors who simultaneously assess where a learner’s development lies on the target language trajectory and tailors instructional strategies in such a way as to move the learner along their individual developmental pathway (Lantolf & Poehner, 2008; Meskill, 2009). Key to viewing learning as a dynamic, developmental process is the notion of guided participation, the kinds of participatory structures that we tend to value in contemporary language education contexts. The design of effective participatory structures guides learners to accomplish tasks through the means of language with the assistance of instructors and peers. Providing this kind of support and assistance is what Tharp and Gallimore have called the instructional conversation, an aspect of teaching well online that we hold as central throughout this text.

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

Why online? All learning is socially mediated. Lev Vygotsky, 1978 Why are more and more people across the globe seeking out instruction online? One part of the answer to this question is quite obvious: it is terribly convenient to type in a search word and have the information one needs in less than a second. And, nowadays, one need only visit a DLO repository to find not just information on a particular topic, but instruction in and about that topic. In short, access to information and instruction is quick, convenient and for the most part sufficient for much of the daily learning we need to do, or is it? In this information/instruction retrieval scenario, what is patently missing is the human teacher, the interlocutor who designs and guides learning processes, the person who engages the learner in instructional conversations. In the next sections we will discuss the social/interactional dimension with others as a key attribute to learning online generally and learning language online in particular. First, a word about contemporary learners or ‘digital natives’.

Digital natives Today’s language learners come to the task of language learning equipped with any number of highly developed digital literacy skills (Meskill, 2007). These skills develop via interaction with computers and with others using computers. Although they are generally considered recreational interactions, the concomitant digital prowess young people develop carries implications for their undertaking the study of foreign and second languages. Take the following skills for example: Multitasking: making and mentally tracking progress toward more than one goal at a time. Bookmarking: mentally marking one’s progress on one task while shifting to and engaging in one or more others. Updating: continually making changes to one’s tracking and bookmarking. Self-modulating: tracking the process and progress with what has been defined as one’s goal structures. Conjecturing: making informed guesses as to the likely results of one’s actions. Exploring: taking risks, tolerating ambiguity to discover new territory. Reading discourse contexts: adapting one’s language behaviors to align with a given communication context. Navigating: holding draft navigational maps in memory while revising routes. Learning from missteps: gaining understanding from unintended outcomes of one’s actions. Representing: representing one’s self in a way that contributes towards meeting one’s goals, achieving membership. Reading others’ representations: making judgments about the identity and agendas of what and whom is represented.

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Teaching languages online

Judging: evaluating information, its sources, its veracity. Filing: deciding the importance of particular information for the moment or for later on. Backchanneling: providing linguistic or visual cues to others to indicate that you are attending to what they say. There are likely several additional evolving digital literacy competencies that can be added to this brief list. The importance of these digital native competencies is that they cry out to be exploited in language education! If students undertake some or all of these simultaneously as a matter of course for recreational purposes, then they can be expected to undertake some or all in their pursuit of foreign or second language competence. If they are able to move fluidly from one online context to another, they can be guided to do so in the target language/culture. If they are employing sophisticated skills to manipulate what is on the screen, they can do likewise in practicing and mastering the language(s) they study. Digital natives are well versed in online socializing and collaborating, a main attraction for recreational technologies uses. As we will see throughout this text, instructional tasks that capitalize on the attractiveness of social interactions can enrich and enliven language education. Appealing to digital natives is not the only reason that online learning makes sense. In conjunction with Vygotsky’s crucial observation, that all learning is socially mediated, we can address the question Why online? A decade or less ago, a language educator may have viewed the internet as a non-social forum, an unfriendly venue for undertaking language instruction, something that is an otherwise highly social enterprise. With the boom in social networking, however, along with sophisticated CMSs for online instruction, the key notion of learning as social is solidly supportable. With the advent of online instruction and the myriad instructional possibilities it represents, there arises a central question: What exactly is it that instructors who are accustomed to live, f2f interaction with learners are to do in these environments? Should one continue to use the instructional strategies that have served them well in the live classroom, or are there special affordances of the medium that can be exploited and thereby require a shift in instructional thinking and method? If we accept as a given that computers are inherently social machines, most pleasurably used for communication and conversation with others, and that learning is best mediated by instructional conversations, then online can be viewed as an optimal venue for language instruction. Indeed, spectacular results from thoughtful integration of online components into teaching and learning abound. Whether it is an elementary science class where students develop and use the language of scientists to work through and solve problems (Zhang et al., 2007) or foreign language instructional contexts where learners develop and use language to solve authentic problems with native speakers of the language they study (Meskill & Anthony, 2007), student-centered, idea-centered instructional conversations online are proving to be invaluable in effectively apprenticing learners into the discourse practices of the target discipline. By actively engaging in contributive conversations with instructors and others, students experience models and appropriate ways of understanding and using the language of specific, authentic domains. For instructors, this means direct, recordable evidence of student learning that is both quantifiable (e.g. how many times did they employ a concept or linguistic form correctly?) and qualifiable (e.g. how richly embedded are the

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

student’s observations in the class readings and discussions?). In this way online instructional conversations provide instructors the on-the-fly formative assessment information that steers subsequent instructional moves and activities. Indeed, teachers have the very information they need regarding both individual learners and the group as a whole that generates the next logical step in their instructional sequencing. Armed with this formative input, instructors know just how to push learners toward specific goals and standards. In short, where educators have long complained that more process-oriented, student-centered learning activities are messy with the goals and objectives often getting lost amidst the natural chaos of developmental human activity, when undertaken in online environments there is not only a record of the instructional conversations, but also a record of individual and group progress towards meeting the instructional goals. Such records can be continually consulted with the luxury of time for review and reflection, time that can be productively used to calculate and compose appropriately targeted instructional conversations.

Traditional forms of f2f classroom discourse Studies of live classroom discourse reveal that the vast majority of teacher utterances are managerial in nature. This is not terribly surprising in teacher-centered classrooms where the onus for most activity is on the person standing at the front of the room! In such a context, teachers spend a good deal of time establishing and maintaining control, directing learners’ attention, checking for understanding, correcting, keeping to the topic and moving things along (‘Now we are going to . . .’). That teacher talk is dedicated mostly to management is attributable to the nature of the classroom itself: a large group of diverse individuals in a single venue whose expectations and the expectations of the larger institution in which the groups reside are that learning will take place in a fairly orderly undisrupted manner. This is a prodigious task for any individual to orchestrate for extended periods of time. The obvious strategy is to use one’s speech to manage and maintain order. How that speech gets used varies according to the goals and dynamics of any given moment. However, there is a particular pattern of teacher talk that seems to predominate in a good deal of live classroom learning. That pattern or routine is known as the Initiation–Response–Evaluation (IRE) sequence, a sequence patently familiar to anyone who has ever sat in a classroom. Decades of research on classroom discourse shows that besides management, this form of talk takes up the majority of class discourse. Here is a familiar IRE sequence:

Initiation: What is the capital of Afghanistan? Response: Kabul. Evaluation: Very good. 15

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Since the IRE label was established by classroom discourse researchers Sinclair and Coulthard in 1975, these routines have been variously called known-answer question routines, inauthentic exchanges and monologic conversations (versus dialogic whereby the information requested and shared is new, not already known). Sinclair and Coulthard later dubbed the third move in such exchanges feedback, a term subsequently changed to follow-up. They proposed three categories of action that can occur in this slot: accept/reject, evaluate and comment with the latter category expanded to include the more specific sub-categories exemplify, expand and justify. Teachers can equally ask a further question to the speaker or any other student in order to obtain a more adequate answer. Beyond their role in directly evaluating learning, IRE sequences can serve a number of additional purposes as well. For example: ■

Buying time.

■

Directing a topic.

■

Gaining attention.

■

Punishing.

■

Rewarding.

■

Moving things along.

Although all of these conversational moves serve teachers’ larger agendas of maintaining order and ‘covering’ a preset amount of material, they remain wholly rhetorical in their communicative purposes. Nevertheless, the pervasiveness of this speech sequence is prominent. The alternative to this familiar sequence is the concept of conversation, sequences between teacher and learners that represent active give and take negotiation of meaning.

Instructional conversations As defined by Tharp and Gallimore, instructional conversations are those carefully calibrated and constructed things we say that comprise the essence of good teaching. These conversations can be initiated and guided by both learners and teachers who recognize and respond appropriately to the myriad teachable moments that present themselves in the course of human activity. To be successful instruction, the conversation involves several kinds of understandings: understanding the aims and purposes of the learning, understanding the learner(s), understanding the factors that constrain the conversation, understanding the importance of being open to multiple contingencies in the conversation, understanding what language would best bring about learner comprehension and action and the like. It is a highly complex activity that we have all witnessed excellent teachers undertake facilely and effectively. As regards types or moves within instructional conversations, Tharp (1993) provides the following categories of assistance: ■

Modeling.

■

Feeding back.

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

■

Contingency management.

■

Instructing.

■

Questioning.

■

Cognitive structuring.

■

Task structuring.

Further regarding these specific forms of assistance in learning processes, Tharp states that ‘when the means of assistance are woven into the meaningful dialog during joint activity, there exists the instructional conversation, the sine qua non of teaching’ (Tharp, 1993: 273). In contrast to the tenacious IRE sequence, instructional conversations engage learners not in recitation of known answers (or punishment/remediation for unknown ones), but in thoughtful, engaging, communicative interaction. Learners thereby hone fluency in the social and intellectual practices of a given discipline. In language education, professional educators step beyond these types of sequences in their quest to render their oral output comprehensible to learners, thereby assisting in learner comprehension and the potential for internalization or acquisition of certain features of the utterance or the utterance as a whole (Donato, 2000; Swain, 2007). Indeed, viewed as the primary meditational tools for second and foreign language development, instructional conversations serve simultaneously as language socialization for learners of additional languages. What renders the instructional conversation quintessentially instructional is the tailoring that a professional language educator undertakes to their side of the conversation. That tailoring involves aligning moment-by-moment learner comprehension and production using as a guide and touchstone the curricular trajectory she has set for groups and the individuals within. Conversations focus on meaning primarily with the modeling, guiding, redirecting and authentic responding on the part of the teacher having its instructional objectives as structuring background. As Donato states, ‘Instructional conversations are relevant to language classrooms because they socialize students into language learning in pragmatically rich contexts that facilitate language growth and development and provide opportunities for experiencing how language is used outside of the classroom’ (Donato, 2000: 34). What distinguishes a conversational move as instructional? First, there is instructional intention in the mind of the speaker or poster in online environments. This means that the instructor has in her mind a set trajectory along which she wishes to push the learning with goals and checkpoints along the way. Second, she has a sense of the current progress of an individual or group of learners along this trajectory. Gauging the current progress and rate of progress, she can appropriately design responses ‘on the fly’ that move the learning along successfully (Meskill, 2009). For the field of language education, we can refine Tharp’s list to include the following kinds of instructional conversation moves. Calling attention to forms Instructor (or a student) points out forms that a learner needs to be using.

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Calling attention to lexis Instructor (or a student) points out vocabulary words that a learner needs to be using. Corralling Instructor (or a student) redirects learner’s attention to specifics of language used. Saturating When a particular form (sets of vocabulary items and/or syntactic forms) is introduced and/or reinforced, the instructor saturates the conversation with these focal forms. Using linguistic traps Instructor (or a student) traps a learner into using specific target language forms under study. Modeling Instructor (or a student) models forms for learners to appropriate and use. Providing explicit feedback Instructor (or a student) explicitly points out mistakes and remediates. Providing implicit feedback Instructor (or a student) implicitly indicates a mistake. Indeed, in language education, the kinds of instructional conversation moves made on the part of excellent teachers are doubly complex in that they are instructional à la Tharp’s definition, while being simultaneously language instruction, thus tailored and refined even more to the individual learning moment and event. In online environments, these socioinstructional moves carry particular potency where language learners can closely attend to instructional utterances and carefully compose their instructed responses. Teaching becomes running conversations to facilitate, synthesize, stir up opposing perspectives, play devil’s advocate while drawing learners’ attention to the very acts of instructional language use.

Conclusion Engaging in instructional conversations in and of itself does not guarantee learning. It is the role of excellent language educators to craft tasks and accompanying responsive conversations so that opportunities for learning are optimized. Fully online and online portions of blended courses can be orchestrated as motivating communities where sociability and social processes constitute the forum for learning the new language. In such venues, learner development is focal and valued in every respect, not simply linguistic. The special features of online environments can bring us to attend to our own dialogic, responsive practices with students, both online and in live classrooms. Given the time to draft and craft our conversations with students, we can use the medium to great advantage for language education. As we have seen, each of the four online environments offers a number of affordances that can support and enhance online instructional conversations: time to construct; time to think more carefully and complexly; time to compose questions and responses more thoughtfully; opportunities to recognize and respond to teachable

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

moments; opportunities for evaluation to become part of the conversation with learners coming to be verified, acknowledged and valued beyond the ‘That’s right’ evaluative turn of the IRE sequence. In the following chapters, additional affordances and instructional tools for teaching language well online will be discussed and illustrated.

End-of-chapter activities Activity A. Visual conventions The fact that internet environments are generally constructed using set conventions with which most are familiar and comfortable means that little or no time is needed for learner orientation. Indeed, this familiarity can be viewed as a kind of foundation and scaffold for learning. Take a language textbook, for example. The more consistent the layout, the locations and character of the information, the more readily learners can make optimal use of the text. In this text, we use the set of conventions below in discussing and providing examples of online language instruction: Discussion, Chat, Voice Board, Virtual Classroom (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Visual conventions. How do they work?

How might this task be adapted for each of the four modes of communication? Have a look at some of the language learning sites available on the internet. Does their visual design make sense? Do the page designs conform to any inherent conventions? Which are the most intuitively appealing? Why?

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Activity B. Ask yourself Consider the various ways that you interact with others online. When do you consider this teaching? Learning? In what venues does this informal teaching and learning take place? Share your observations with others.

Activity C. Language learning task development: chunquing1 Designing online language learning tasks and activities begins with the notion that useful material comprises real, not contrived or prescribed language. Historically, language instructors looked to ‘the academy’ or ‘the queen’ for a standard of language use for syllabus and materials design. Nowadays, it is the everyday discourse of the masses – how language is actually used to get things done by those who are not ‘the queen’ – that is the subject of study. Even though contemporary language textbooks aim towards authentic everyday culture and the discourse enacted within it, it remains the purview of the instructor to continually exercise her discourse analysis skills to determine the what to teach in language teaching. ‘Chunquing’2 is something very experienced language instructors do as a matter of course in their curricula and materials planning. Essentially, it is taking a broad view of language as it is used in real-life target language contexts and selecting elements of that reality that make sense in combination. The resulting ‘chunque’ of language then becomes the targeted material that can be worked in any number of ways to teach the language. It is, in short, the essential building block in developing the kinds of language learning tasks you will encounter throughout this text. Textbooks serve up ready-made chunques and accompanying activities. Experienced language instructors, especially those who are using online venues, are the first to say that this is not sufficient. Textbook materials often need ‘rechunquing’, reanalysis and expansion to be useful for a given population at a given point in a course, online or f2f. The central question is, given the infinite ways in which language is used in society, what system can a language task designer apply to create a tailored chunque for the focus of learning? The chunquing tool is just such a system. It can guide you in attending to the anatomy of the language you teach and in thinking through, designing and implementing mediated language learning tasks and activities. The system is by no means linear or simple. It requires that a number of considerations be attended to at the same time. Thoughtful construction of language chunques and the design of activities around them involve being a good eavesdropper. Listening critically and analytically to the target language as it is used around you is the fundamental basis for chunquing. Being aware of how the target language gets used, employing your linguistic and sociolinguistic competencies in determining appropriacy and viewing language from the perspective of a non-native speaker – what queries or confusions might that learner have about how the language works – make up the chunquing process. The first thing to understand about this tool is that there is no one right way to go about using it. It can be used to develop, supplement, or enhance your materials in any way you

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

see fit. Because we are dealing with teaching online, we can assume that the Chunquing Tool would be used to either repurpose existing materials (recorded sequences, digital learning objects, internet sites, etc.) or homemade materials. Either way, the place you begin to use this tool to think through your project is completely up to you. Though the skeleton below looks like it should be used linearly, it should not. Start anywhere. Revisit and revise each category as others evolve. Don’t stop thinking, adding, deleting, expanding and contracting until you’re happy with the chunque. Here’s what the tool looks like (Figure 5). The Chunquing Tool Learners: Topic: Situation: Function(s): Structure(s): Lexis: Skills foci: Cultural notables: Special expressions/idioms: Medium/materials: The chunque:

Figure 5 The chunquing tool

Here’s a simple example of a ‘from scratch’ chunquing process: You are midway through a 12-week term of teaching integrated skills to low-intermediate learners of ESL in a blended environment. Your course has been an eclectic, integrated combination of reading, writing and communicative work. Your learners are at a point where they are able to handle fairly sophisticated/abstract topics in their class activities. Their mastery of syntax in their speaking and writing is progressing and they respond well to challenges. At this point, your students have difficulty making and responding to polite requests. You decide they could use some extra practice. You plug in making polite requests and responding to polite requests under function in the chunquing tool. You then consider the structures inherent in this activity (your eavesdropping and analytic skills are coming in handy now). You write down a couple of sample requests from your mental database – Could you please. . . I would appreciate it if you. . . Do you think you might. . . – and note that the past modal form is a common and, for your students, challenging structure. You fi ll in past

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Teaching languages online

modals under the structure heading. But, you realize that making this type of request is one thing; you had better include structures in appropriate ways of responding. Again you jot down samples from your internal dataset: I’d be happy to, I’m afraid I can’t. But, wait a minute. Your learners are struggling with the appropriate negative replies to polite requests. You therefore decide to limit responding to polite requests to responding to polite requests in the negative. This will be sociolinguistically challenging given the complexity of this action in the target culture. Jump to cultural notables. Here you note that in the US it is imperative to ‘soften’ a negative response to a request, and that not doing so is perceived as very rude. You jump back up to structures: I’m afraid I can’t. I’d like to but + excuse. I’m terribly sorry, but + excuse. Oh, yes, you say to yourself. The excuse. Back down to cultural notables where you make a note regarding the absolute requirement of some kind of excuse on the part of a speaker responding in the negative to a request. Back to structures. In generating a list of possible responses to requests, you notice that there are apologies of one sort or another built in to each. You also note that if your students are going to practice making excuses, these need to be made a part of your chunque. You add apologizing and making excuses to the functions heading and return to considering the structures inherent in these functions. You note that present modals and ‘have to’ are structures learners will use in politely refusing requests. You add these to the structures heading. You need to start limiting the context of these utterances so you begin brainstorming actual situations in which these utterances would naturally occur, and not only occur once, but many times as this will ultimately be the focus of learner activity/practice with this language. You imagine a character who is requesting the unthinkable or the undoable of relative strangers. In what context, in what circumstances might this be authentic? What kind of request would elicit polite refusals accompanied, of course, by an apology? How might the excuse given for refusing be somewhat uniform across those being addressed by the request? Although there are numerous situations that one can concoct for this linguistic transaction, you choose one you feel confident your students are familiar with, having most likely visited an airport at one time or another, and having followed the news regarding airport security regulations. They have, most likely, been asked by an airline employee, if they have at any time left their bags unattended, and whether someone asked them to put something in their luggage. The situation for the chunque, then, tentatively becomes someone in an airport approaching other passengers in the terminal and asking them to watch his/her luggage while s/he runs to the page phone. As the situation begins to take shape, you review what you have already filled in regarding functions and structures and see you are on track. Next you start generating a tentative list of vocabulary items that may come into play. You fill these in under lexis: e.g. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) agent, luggage, security, terrorism (terrorist, terrorize), prohibited, unsafe. Then you make a list of special expressions: against the rules/ regulations, catch a plane, running late, ask a favor of, do someone a favor. You started this chunque with functions, intending for learners to focus primarily on practicing sociolinguistic points, but see opportunities to integrate many more chunque

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Teaching languages online: the essentials

elements as well. You see this as evolving into a chunque that is dense in linguistic, cultural and sociopolitical issues. You believe that you can get a lot of mileage out of the chunque by integrating skills foci as well by designing multiple activities each with emphasis on a linguistic aspect, skill, or issue. For example, in English when we make a polite request, there is a very formulaic pattern of intonation that looks something like this: ExCUSE me (better add that in the function heading – getting someone’s attention) Could YOU please watch my LUGgage for a minute while I run to the page phone? I’m SORry, I CAN’t. I HAVE to CATCH my PLANE. -orI’m SORry, but it’s aGAINST AIRport reguLAtions. You also note that the structures inherent in this chunque, the present and past modal forms, are structures that your learners would benefit a great deal from reviewing, especially the purposes these structures are put to in such situations. Focus and awareness of these, the functions outlined and the lexis you have begun to build will serve as the primary focus of the briefs, series of activities and debriefs for activities related to this chunque. Additionally, each activity will have one or more skills foci, like intonation in the case above. A sample activity generated from this chunque is an extended role play cued by role play cards where one learner is given an A card and his/her partner a B card: A: You are running to catch a plane when you’re approached by a stranger. Use: I’m sorry, but . . . It’s against the rules to. . .

B: You’re in a rush to catch your flight at the airport. Suddenly, you hear your name over the intercom. You’re being paged and need to run to the page phone. Ask your partner to watch your bags. Use: Excuse me, but I’m in a rush Could you please . . . I realize that, but . . .

Cues like these can be given to learners as practice using the forms, functions and lexis in a more controlled communicative activity in either written or oral, synchronous or asynchronous forums. Likewise, more open-ended communicative practice can take place with simple cueing such as: ■

a panel of airline customers making recommendations to airline security personnel;

■

a scene where an airline check-in employee is told by a passenger that someone indeed handed them something to put in their bag or had offered to watch their bags while they were in the restroom;

■

a scene where someone is stopped at the metal detector, searched and nothing is found; or searched and a weapon is found.

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Possibilities for extension activities related to this chunque abound: ■

going to the international airport security website and researching regulations;

■

finding additional sites that discuss international terrorism at airports;

■

locating news reports of air bombing.

All can be read, summarized, discussed and additional expansion activities can be built around them. To integrate writing practice, students can be asked to write about the situation you have designed or related topics (e.g. emails or letters to airline security officials commending their diligence; accounts to friends or family of their being asked to watch luggage and refusing; recommendations for passengers on how to behave in similar situations). Listening is part and parcel of the communicative activities – learners practice listening to one another during role plays. This can be made purposeful and form-focused. Specific listening activities can be designed by: ■

locating or recording a sample/model conversation between native speakers and having learners isolate the forms and functions used;

■

responding to a complete-the-dialog orally or in writing;

■

actively viewing airport video clips to compare the discourse to that of teacher- and/or class-generated discourse chunques.

A ‘cultural notable’ for a learner of ESL in the US would be that the simple excuse of I’m sorry, but I’m in a hurry would be a very common, non-confrontational response. Acceptable responses by country/culture will vary and the issue of these differences is a prime opportunity for discussion whereby students can be chunquers themselves and report on what would work and not work in their native tongue/contexts. Another ‘cultural notable’ for ESL in the US would be the ‘rush culture’; that is, being in a hurry is characteristic of many North Americans. The extent to which you choose to employ the chunquing tool is always optional. Remember it is a tool to think with when designing and implementing language learning tasks generally and online language learning tasks in particular. Now, give it a try. Select a real or fictitious group of language learners and determine a chunque of the target language they need work with. Use the chunquing tool to develop two or three tasks.

Notes 1.

Adapted from Meskill (2002), Teaching and learning in real time: Media, Technologies, and Language Acquisition. Houston, TX: Athelstan.

2.

The terms ‘chunque’ and ‘chunquing’ are used here in the context of social, integrative views of language teaching and learning. This spelling is used so as not to be confused with ‘Chunking’, Miller’s (1956) cognitive strategy of breaking information into smaller units in order to facilitate memorization and recall.

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Sinclair, J. and Coulthard, M. (1975) Towards an analysis of discourse. New York: Oxford University Press. Swain, M. (2000) The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition through collaborative dialog. In J. Lantolf (ed.) Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). New York: Oxford University Press. Swain, M. (2007) Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced language proficiency. In H. Byrnes (ed.) Advanced language learning: The contributions of Halliday and Vygotsky. London: Continuum. Tharp, R. (1993) Instruction and social context of educational practice and refor. In E. Forman, N. Minick and A. Stone (eds) Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp. 269–282). New York: Oxford University Press. Tharp, R. and Gallimore, C. (1991) The instructional conversation: Teaching and learning as social activity. Research report 2, National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Retrieved July 12, 2004 from http://wee.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/ cnrcdsll/rr2.htm van Lier, L. (2000) From input to affordance: Social-interactive learning from an ecological perspective. In J. P. Lantolf (ed.) Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 245–260). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zhang, J., Scardamalia, M., Lamon, M., Messina, R. and Reeve, R. (2007) Socio-cognitive dynamics of knowledge building in the work of nine- and ten-year-olds. Educational Technology Research and Development 55 (2), 117–145.

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2 Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments ■

Oral synchronous environments, their features and affordances, are presented.

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Illustrations and discussions of instructional conversations in these environments provide foundational understanding of how language learning and teaching are carried out in real time with voice.

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Methods of evaluating student learning are suggested.

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Issues involved in using translation and language teaching and learning in less formal environments are considered.

Calling attention to forms—30 Calling attention to lexis—39 Corralling—46 Saturating—53 Using linguistic traps—55 Modeling—58 Providing explicit feedback—62 Providing implicit feedback—70 Summary—75 End-of-chapter notes—75 End-of-chapter activities—78 Further reading—82 References—82

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments Objectives: In this chapter you will learn: – the definition of oral synchronous online environments; – the special affordances of oral synchronous online environments for language education; – how different instructional conversation strategies can be undertaken in these environments; – how the environment’s affordances can be taken advantage of to support and amplify these conversations; – methods for developing and applying language learning rubrics to align with task goals. Oral synchronous online environments are one of the most promising instructional modes in online language education (Meskill & Anthony, 2014). Indeed, there is growing evidence that indicates that the environment’s many affordances prove to be beneficial for developing learners’ communicative skills in the target language (Levy & Kennedy, 2004; Wang, 2004, 2006). Audio/video conferencing in many ways resembles face-to-face (f2f), real-time classrooms by providing an environment whereby students can talk to each other and with their instrucsing headsets or speakers and microphones. Most oral synchronous online environments offer the following functions: lists of participants, whiteboards for displaying and manipulating different documents, chat boxes, breakout rooms where an instructor can put her students for small group activities, video camera connectivity and application sharing features whereby instructors and students can display the content of their desktops. There are, as illustrated in Figure 1, a number of multimodal tools that can be used to amplify instructional conversation for language learning. By manipulating uploaded fi les and electronic whiteboard tools, instructors can design and conduct activities emulating the f2f classroom’s student–student and student– teacher interactions. In addition, oral synchronous online environment features not available in traditional classrooms such as public and individual text messaging in the chat area, breakout rooms, web application sharing and recorded archives can be very useful instructional tools. Archiving preserves not only the sounds but also all the movements performed on the whiteboard and in the chat area, such as typing or drawing foreign language characters and words, circling, underscoring, making notes, etc. so that what is spoken and typed is complemented in real time by any variety of visual supports. Figure 2 is an illustration of an instructor’s interface in an oral synchronous online environment. The application is Wimba Classroom, one of many that are used in academic institutions (Wimba Classroom has since been purchased by Blackboard and is now called Blackboard Collaborate).

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 1 Oral synchronous online environment: instructor’s interface

In addition to audio/video conferencing technologies supplementing the majority of online language courses, virtual online environments such as Second Life, The Sims, Active Worlds, Kaneva, IMVU, Onverse, SmallWorlds, Moove and the like offer unprecedented affordances for language pedagogy. 3D virtual realities allow language learners to be surrounded by linguistically valuable objects which they can manipulate. These environments are close to authentic situations and circumstances that language learners will encounter as proficient users of the language under study. To utilize virtual worlds in language learning activities, teachers can use public domains such as Second Life (SL) and ask students to select an avatar and a name. Via their avatars, language learners can communicate with voice, text chat, emoticons, facial expressions and

Figure 2 Virtual world online environments. Active Worlds. Role play of celebrating a friend’s birthday

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body language. The following activities can be implemented in lessons utilizing virtual realities: ■

tasks;

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role play;

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handcrafted 3D stories;

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games;

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dubbing;

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adding subtitles;

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singing songs;

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pair/group projects.

Figure 2 is an illustration of an interface in a typical virtual environment. The application is Active Worlds. The affordances of oral synchronous online environments that distinguish this environment from the other three that we discuss is the incorporation of teacher and student voices in real time while the teacher orchestrates visual information on the screen. A central role for the teacher is to make what learners hear and read in the target language understandable. By rendering the language comprehensible, teachers are in fact teaching the language, teaching learners what things mean and how the language works to make meaning. Language educators accomplish this in any number of creative ways, using any and all the physical resources at hand. Online there are, of course, unlimited resources, all of which are not only accessible but can be both manipulated and archived and thus returned to and referred to instantaneously and repeatedly as needed as part of the flow of instructional conversations. These resources can be images (still, video or animations), textual information and sounds. Unlike text-based online environments, teachers in synchronous oral environments such as Second Life can enjoy using tools that address all learning modalities, including their voices. Like in the live language classroom, when it comes to rendering challenging target language comprehensible to learners, these multiple modalities can be used to great effect. In the following sections, we discuss and illustrate how this orchestration happens while focusing on the instructional conversations that generate language instruction.

Calling attention to forms Much like the live classroom, oral synchronous online environments offer similar visual, aural and action-oriented tools to draw learners’ attention to the particular forms under study during authentic task-based exchanges. Learners listen to the instructor’s and their

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classmates’ voices while viewing visual information that complements and anchors the meaning-focus of the oral/aural and optional text communication. And, as is the case in the live classroom, learners can take action based on what they understand or don’t understand.

Task-level attention to forms Tasks can be assigned to individuals, pairs or groups of students much as they can be assigned in the live classroom. The form(s) and/or lexical items on which learners are to focus during the task can be made prominently known via text, icon and/or diagram. A consistent location on the screen for this instructional objective information is a must. We call this a task toolkit. This way, both learners and instructor can simply point to, or highlight key linguistic information when attention needs to be drawn to it; e.g. if learners stray from the target forms in unproductive ways, or there is an error or gap in learner output. In the following example, middle school students learning Chinese have difficulties recalling proper forms to create questions similar to the one modeled in the task toolkit. The teacher calls student attention in multiple ways. She writes, points out with arrows, draws diagrams, circles, underscores, crosses out, adds questions, manipulates with symbols, uses different colors, etc. (Figure 3) thus attracting student attention to the forms indicated in the task toolkit.

Figure 3 Textual/diagrammatic task-level attention to form

T:

S1: T:

(oral; making marks on the slide) To find out which month and which day, we use a time word. ‘Today’ is 今天 (Jı¯ ntia¯n) [today]. ‘Shi’ is the verb. Use ‘ji’ which means ‘which month’. ‘Jihao’ – which which day to find out. So please remember this sentence. (switches the slide) So please, Student 1, read this question. Student 2, please read the answer. Practice together. (oral; reading) (Jı¯ ntia¯n) shì ji yue ji hao? [What date is today?] (oral; making marks on the slide) Right, ‘Yeu’ is ‘day’, ‘hao’ is ‘month’. (Jı¯ ntia¯n) shì ji yue ji hao? – What day is today?

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S2: T: S1: T: S2: T:

(written) (今天是)四月十八屆 (Jı¯ ntia¯n) shì sì yuè shíba¯.) [Today is April 18th.] (oral) (Jı¯ ntia¯n) shì sì yuè shíba¯ [Today is April 18th.] (oral) Good. What if I change (Jı¯ ntia¯n) [Today] to Míngtia¯n [Tomorrow]? (writes on the slide) 明天 (Míngtia¯n) [tomorrow]. Student 1? (oral) No, I don’t know. (oral) Student 2? Míngtia¯n? Míngtia¯n? (oral) I don’t remember. (writing a diagram; oral) Please remember. We know (Jı¯ntia¯n) – ‘today’, right. So Míngtia¯n... Remember this character? Míngtia¯n – ‘tomorrow’. And 昨天 (Zuótia¯n) is ‘yesterday’. It’s really important for you to remember these words to ask people what day is today or was yesterday or will be tomorrow. And also 前天 (Qiántia¯n) – ‘day before yesterday’.

The more sophisticated new audio conferencing technologies become, the more opportunities they provide for task-level attention to form whereby visual representations of rules can be continuously incorporated into communicative streams as tools to guide, remind, direct and thereby serve to reinforce the form as it is used. In this example, Russian learners are prompted to answer the questions: Do you often go to New York? Do you often go to Russia? Where do you go often? Where did you go in August? Where did you go last summer? Do you like to ride in cars? Do you ride a motorcycle well? Do you like to drive around the city? All these questions are displayed on the primary screen. With the help of the application sharing feature, the instructor opens a new window displaying a Word document file with the visual representations of the four situations in which a certain form of a verb ‘to go’, a multidirectional form, would be used: habitual movement, round trips in the past, random movement and preferences/qualities of the movement (Figure 4). The small screen also provides a model of use for this verb in the first person singular form, the one that students are most likely to use when answering these questions. This type of task-level attention to form is supported by multi-pane views of internet sites and TV news.

Figure 4 Textual/iconic task-level attention to form

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T: S: T:

S:

(oral) Майкл, ты часто ездишь в Нью-Йорк? [Michael, do you often go to New York City?] (oral) Нет, я не часто еду в Нью-Йорк. [No, I don’t often go (wrong form of the verb) to New York City.] (oral) Я не часто езжу в Нью-Йорк. Езжу. Езжу. [No, I don’t often go (correct form of the verb) to New York City. Go. Go.] (pulls up the rule and circles the symbolic drawings representing multiple movements) (oral) Нет, я не часто езжу в Нью-Йорк. [No, I don’t often go (correct form of the verb) to New York City.]

Often instructors use the same screen to display the task/activity explanation and directions as well as the task toolkit to assist learners with their task. In the following example, pairs of English as a second language learners can simultaneously speak to and text one another while they accomplish the assigned task of planning a trip abroad with the specific goal of choosing the best country for traveling (Figure 5). The focal forms are the ways in which suggestions are made and accepted or rejected.

Figure 5 Textual task-level attention to form

This core information – the task toolkit – is displayed in the upper right-hand corner of the screen with links to elaborations on use, usage and additional contexts of use for these forms so that students can constantly refer to them while performing the task (Figure 5). Prior to the pair tasking conversations, the instructor models (1) the pronunciation and intonation of these forms; and (2) how to point to this instructional objectives information – the task toolkit – during the task both when assisting a partner and producing the language oneself as part of the task. As the instructor monitors individual pairs while they undertake the task, she too can point to the task toolkit in the corner of the screen to remind learners of the activity focus/the linguistic objectives while not interrupting the flow of authentic communication practice in the target language. The instructor can easily call additional attention to these forms by using such whiteboard functions as drawing and making arrows. As task synthesis, pairs can report back both the meaning content of their work as well as the linguistic object content of their work again by referring to the key information in the upper right-hand corner of the screen. S1: S2:

(texting in a chat area) If we go to Russia, we’ll be cold (texting in a chat area) No, we’ll not. It’s hot in Russia in the summer.

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S3: S1: S3: S2:

(using clapping hands emoticon) (texting in a chat area) Still I would rather go to Egypt. It should be fun!! (texting in a chat area) Great idea! (texting in a chat area) Let’s think about Italy. I’ve heard it’s beautiful.

In the following example, we see how the task toolkit is referred to by learners themselves in this mid-beginning Spanish class whose small group task it is to direct the movements of screen avatars using the imperative form of the verb. In their task toolkit (Figure 6) they see: sobre el suyo [above yours] debajo el suyo [below yours] a la derecha el suyo [to the right of yours] a la izquierda el suyo [to the left of yours] Una vez que usted tiene la forma correcta, tome una fotografía. Entonces, demuestre la fotografía a la clase con el diálogo correspondiente. [Once you have the correct form, take a picture. Then, show your picture to the class with the corresponding dialog.] el imperativo -ar verbs tu el, ella, usted nosotros, tras vosotros, tras ustedes > -ir > -er

-a -e -emos -ad -en

Figure 6 Task-level attention to form. Task toolkit in Second Life

T:

Dígale el amigo cómo mover al avatar. [Tell your partner to move his avatar.]

In another window (Figure 7) they are in Second Life where each pair has their own avatar active on the screen. As they give commands to one another to move the avatars into the indicated configurations, two additional declensions for -er and -ir verbs can be turned to as well. As the pairs work independently to accomplish the task, the instructor monitors and calls attention to uses of the imperative and prepositional phrases as needed. During the whole class review of the pair photographs plus dialogs, students themselves can make use of referring to the task toolkit’s elements as needed.

Figure 7 Task-level attention to form. Task toolkit in Second Life

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A task toolkit can be the subject of student creation as in the following example. The teacher provided ordinal numerals in Spanish in random order and asked her students to write down numbers next to them. During the task which was focused on identifying the number of each item in a row, students could refer to this ‘cheat sheet’ (Figure 8) to match the ordinal numerals.

Figure 8 Task-level attention to form. Referring to task toolkit

T: S1: T:

S2: T:

(oral) ¿Cual persona es? [What person is?] (with an arrow points to the third person in the picture) (types in the chat box) tercero [third (incorrect ending)] (oral) Good. Now watch what’s gonna happen. I have to make it agree – Tercera persona. [Third person (correct ending)] (types in the chat box) TercerA persona [Third person] (oral) Tercera persona. [Third person.] Has to match. (with an arrow points to the fifth person in the picture) ¿Cual la persona es? [What person is?] (types in the chat box) quinto [fifth (incorrect ending)] (oral) Now as I just told Student 1 make sure that it matches. Quinta persona [Fifth person (correct ending)] (types in the chat box) QuintA persona [Fifth person] (oral) Quinta persona. [Fifth person.]

(After the task is completed the teacher switched to the slide with the grammatical rule) T:

(oral) If you use primero- first or tercero – third, if it’s before a masculine noun, you have to drop the o. Are there cases you have to use the o? Of course! Look at this sentence. (types in the chat area) Es el primero de febrero. [It is February 1st.] (oral) Es el primero de febrero. [It is February 1st.] But! If it’s before a noun (types in the chat area) primer libro [first book] (oral) Primer libro – first book, drop the o.

This teacher turned to the formal task toolkit after completing the task to cement the understanding of Spanish grammar that students had figured out from direct practice. In the following example, learners of English as a second language were asked to get together in the virtual concert hall in Second Life and do karaoke. The grammatical focal point of the lesson was conditional sentences. Students practiced their use in a relaxing and fun environment (Figure 9).

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Figure 9 Task-level Attention to Form. Karaoke in Second Life

S1, S2: (together; oral) If I had a million dollars, If I had a million dollars, Well, I’d buy you a monkey. Haven’t you always wanted a monkey? If I had a million dollars I’d buy your love. If I had a million dollars. . .

Incidental attention to forms While students are communicating with the instructor and classmates in various configurations for any number of authentic and orchestrated purposes, there is ample opportunity, any number of teachable moments whereby learners’ attention can be drawn to form(s) via: circling, underscoring, arrows, wiping clean, crossing out, writing (e.g. particles, morphological pieces), check marking, drawing, bracketing, etc. Indeed, attention to form can be called in ways similar to those of the traditional classroom as in the following example. Here students are provided different photographs and are asked to play detective: to tell as much about the people in the photographs as they can, trying to figure out their occupations and nationalities (see Figure 10). In this example one of the students becomes confused about the use of two different forms: ‘Russian’ as a noun and ‘Russian’ as an adjective. The instructor explicitly explains the difference and, after several turns, calls students’ attention to the same linguistic concept, using a different word, ‘American’, as a noun and as an adjective. Simultaneously, the teacher uses her voice to draw attention and to emphasize the salient similarities and differences in linguistic forms.

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 10 Incidental attention to form

T: S: T: S: T: S: T:

S:

(oral) Как его зовут? [What is his name?] (oral) Его зовут доктор Пол Смит. [His name is Dr. Paul Smith.] (oral) Кто такой доктор Пол Смит? [What is Dr. Paul Smith?] (oral) Он профессор. [He is a professor.] (oral) Он русский профессор? [Is he a Russian professor?] (oral) Нет, он американский американец. (No, he is an American. . . American. . .) How’s that, I’m sorry. Он американец or ... [He’s American or. . .] (oral) If you say ‘He is an American professor’ then American is an adjective – американский [American]. And if you say ‘He is American’ then American is a noun – американец [American] (American as a noun and American as an adjective have slightly different forms). (oral) OK, all right.

(After several turns, the instructor decides to reinforce the form incidentally as a part of a meaningful conversation) T: S: T: S:

(oral) Его зовут Ричард Гир. Он русский? [His name is Richard Gere. Is he Russian?] (oral) Нет, он американец. [No, he’s American.] (oral) Он русский актер? [Is he a Russian actor?] (oral) Нет, он американский актер. [No, he is an American actor.]

Online language instructors keep piles of task toolkits handy. They refer to them when appropriate. Calling attention to form can be amplified via additional visual emphasis. In the next example, the instructor opens a task toolkit on the slide from one of the previous lessons and draws shapes and circles as an intensifying gesture calling attention to the linguistic form (Figure 11).

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Figure 11 Visual reinforcement of incidental attention to form

T: S: T:

S:

(oral) В каком общежитии ты живёшь? [What dorm do you live in?] (oral) Я живу в плохом общежите. [I live in a bad dorm (wrong ending).] (circles the ending –u on the slide; switches the slide and returns to the grammar explanation; underscores ‘-ue’) (oral) John, if a noun ends in –ие like здание [building] (puts the ending and the example in red rectangles), in Prepositional case we have the ending –и instead of the typical ending –e. This is an exception and needs to be memorized. (oral) Я живу в плохом общежитии. [I live in a bad dorm (correct ending).]

In the following example, a teacher of English brought her students to the virtual garden in Second Life to do a scavenger hunt but was herself so amazed by the beauty of the virtual nature that she immediately seized this opportunity to practice conditional sentences with her students (see Figure 12).

Figure 12 Incidental attention to form. New vocabulary in Second Life

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

T:

S: T: S:

(oral) Look around! What a beautiful garden! What beautiful flowers! If you were a flower, what flower do you think you would be? This or that? Why? If I were a flower, I would be a lotus because I have a pink dress! (oral) And if I were a flower, I’d be. . . mmm. . . I’d be. . . which one is this flower? A daisy? (oral) This? Or that? This one is a chrysanthemum and that one is an aster. (typing) aster chrysanthemum (oral) I think I’d be an aster I think. I dunno (laughing).

This teacher seized an opportunity to practice a construction that came along while the main grammatical focus of the lesson was on a different structure.

Calling attention to lexis In authentic meaning negotiation, comprehending and using lexical items appropriately in a new language is challenging. In oral synchronous environments there are numerous resources and tools – aural, visual, textual and action-oriented – that instructors can make productive use of to call attention to lexical items and their corresponding meaning. These features, when used thoughtfully, can be viewed as visually enriching and, therefore, enriching the acquisition experiences of learners.

Task-level attention to lexis Tasks that focus learner attention on comprehending and producing specific lexical items during authentic communication practice can be generated from the syllabus, core text, or based on students’ instructional needs and/or personal interests. Infinite visual resources freely available online along with ready translations, digital pronunciation and authentic, contextualized uses of target lexical items make drawing attention to the connection between spoken/written words and their meanings a richly enhanced proposition. And, like calling attention to form(s), calling attention to lexical items for comprehension or production can happen on the fly, in real time by manipulating what is on the screen and thereby not interrupting the natural flow of meaningful interaction. In this ESL/EFL example, students have been studying vocabulary associated with global warming. Here as a group they are discussing actions that they can take as individuals and as members of their communities to halt negative climate change. In the upper right corner of the screen, a word bank containing lexical items typically occurring in discourse concerning global warming has been created and students and their instructor have cached a number of key vocabulary words there to reference during this and subsequent learning activities that are related to this theme (Figure 13). Note: the list will become part of a larger vocabulary bank that is being built in the course and that can be referenced throughout. The instructor has asked each student to formulate and pose a discussion question. They can, of course, make use of whatever online and offline resources they

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wish to do so. As they pose and respond to their online colleagues’ questions, the students use the word bank and its links to visuals and extended meanings to comprehend and produce utterances in the target language. When there is a gap or error in word use, the instructor and/or other students use the word bank to point this out without breaking up the flow of conversation. They can, when the discussion is over, access the recording of their discussion accompanied by the visual tracking of screen activity for their review. Using these same records, the instructor can construct future assignments based on the strengths and weaknesses of the language comprehension and performance thus documented.

Figure 13 Task-level attention to lexis

T:

S: T:

(oral) What is the greenhouse effect? Does anyone know? Greenhouse. (circles the word ‘greenhouse’ and the picture of a greenhouse and draws an arrow from the word to the image) (oral) When it’s hot. Like very hot. (oral) And how does it happen that the climate becomes very hot? What happens? What factors influence this? What words on this slide denote the factor that contribute to global warming?

In the following example, English-speaking middle school students learning Spanish are internalizing the vocabulary focusing on describing what one likes to do. After the teacher models the vocabulary items for students, they are assigned to record their answers to three questions at the bottom of the screen using the task toolkit which in this case consists of a list of questions and parts of answers (Figure 14). The items in the task toolkit serve as an anchor to keep student attention focused on the focal lexical forms while they are practicing the use of these forms in their answers to the questions.

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 14 Task toolkit for Spanish vocabulary items

T:

S: T: S: T: S: T: S: T:

(oral) Let’s review some of these questions and what they mean. Repita clase [Repeat, class.] ¿Que te gusta haser? [What do you like to do?] ¿Que te gusta haser? [What do you like to do?] (oral) ¿Que te gusta . . . (oral) Haser. (oral) Hase. . . (oral) Haser. (oral) Haser. (oral) Muy bien! [Very good!] What does ‘¿Que te gusta haser?’ mean? (oral) It means ‘What do you like to do?’ (oral) Muy bien! [Very good!]

Calling attention to lexis in oral synchronous online environments can occur in ways similar to how this happens in a face-to-face classroom. In meaning negotiation, students simply ask how to say this or that word in the target language. Instructors can provide lexical forms immediately when students request these. Alternately, students can be prompted and encouraged to search for the lexical item on their own. In this example, the student asks how to say ‘fun’ in Russian. The instructor does not answer right away but in a playful manner prompts students to make guesses. She provides a translation only after attempts to find synonyms fail. S1: S2: T: S2: T:

(oral) Что мы делаем весной? [What do we do in spring?] (oral) Мы катаемся на рафтах. [We raft.] (oral) Ты правда катаешься на рафтах? [Do you indeed raft?] (oral) Один раз. Да. [One time. Yes.] (oral) Ты не боишься? [Aren’t you afraid?]

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S2: T: S2: T: S3: S1: T: S2:

(oral) Нет, мне очень нравится. [No, I like it very much.] (oral) Я никогда не каталась на рафтах, но очень хочу. [I have never done rafting but I want to very much.] (oral) Очень [Very] fun. Wait, how to say ‘fun’? (laughing) (oral) Я не знаю, как сказать ‘fun’. Это английское слово. [I don’t know how to say ‘fun’. It’s an English word.] (oral) Интересно? [Interesting?] (oral) Хорошо? [Good?] (oral) Весело. [Fun.] (oral) Очень весело. [Very much fun.]

Calling attention to lexis in oral synchronous online environments can be done on the fly by using the range of multimodal resources immediately available. Internet sources such as web encyclopedias, informational sites, online dictionaries, search engines, etc. can all be accessed by instructors and by students to supply and reinforce the lexical items. In the following example, a student asks what the word ‘велосипед’ [bicycle] means and the instructor, using the application sharing feature, immediately sends an image to students, having Googled the image of a bicycle. This is an enormous advantage of online synchronous teaching. All the possible sources are right at the instructor’s fi nger tips. T: S: T:

(oral) Энн, ты любишь ездить на велосипеде? [Ann, do you like to ride a bicycle?] (oral) Я не знаю, что «велосипед» значит. [I don’t know what ‘velosiped’ means.] (oral) I’ll show it to you through the Application Sharing. (turns on the application sharing feature, opens another window on her desktop, goes to the Google website, types in ‘велосипед’ [bicycle] into the search box; the page with the image appears on the screen) Это велосипед. А это красные велосипеды. Много велосипедов. Энн, ты любишь ездить на велосипеде? [This is a bicycle. These are red bicycles. Many bicycles. Ann, do you like to ride a bicycle?]

Incidental attention to lexis Gaps and misunderstandings around lexical items happen frequently in conversations using the target language. In order to draw learner attention to form(s) while these learners are engaged in activities not containing those forms as their underlying linguistic objectives, instructors can take advantage of the tools and resources at hand to support attention to, and connectivity of lexical items and their meanings. T: S: T:

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(oral) Умница. Очень хорошо [Good girl. Very good]. Do you know the meaning of the word ‘умница’ [‘good girl’]? (oral) Нет [No]. (oral) УМНИЦА [SMARTY] means smarty. (draws the word on the whiteboard while pronouncing it slowly with an emphasis) (Figure 15)

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 15 Incidental attention to lexis in Russian class

In the following example, learners of German notice a new noun which is a synonym to the one they have already learned. The teacher explains the nuances of each of those nouns and pulls out images from the net to illustrate her explanations (Figure 16).

Figure 16 Incidental attention to lexis in German class

T:

(oral) You are going to the same website now. It’s about the street called Schellingstrasse 60. We’ll learn a little bit about the people in the house. We gonna

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look at one page together. These people is one family. You will read aloud what these people tell about themselves. (in several turns) T: S1: T: T: S2: T:

(oral) This last line tells us about his occupation. Does anybody know what ‘Schreiner’ [carpenter] means? (writes on the slide) Carpenter (oral) Right! ‘Schreiner’ means ‘carpenter’. (oral) Gut! [Good!] (oral) Sorry for interrupting but isn’t ‘carpenter’ would be ‘Tischler’? (oral) ‘Schreiner’ is also called ‘Tischler’ which as you know is from the word ‘Tisch’ – table. It means ‘carpenter’ – somebody who builds things out of wood. ‘Schreiner’ literally means ‘a joiner,’ someone who puts things together. Sehr gut! [Very good!] (opens up images of ‘Schreiner’ and ‘Tischler’ from the Net to show the difference)

In an example from a Japanese classroom, it is observable that students often use vocabulary items given by commonly used dictionaries or translators without considering subtle nuances in their use. Here the teacher explains the difference when a noun comes in accidentally in the conversation (see Figure 17).

Figure 17 Incidental attention to lexis in Japanese class

T:

S1: T: S1:

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(oral) 何を着ているの？(Nani o kite iru no? ) [What are you wearing?] Remember we talked about different kinds of words for wearing things in Japanese? So everybody tell me what you’re wearing. Perhaps, you’re wearing a t-shirt or – it’s a little chilly – may be you have a sweater on. And maybe you can talk about the color of something. . . (puts an arrow next to the student’s name on the slide) ) 何を着ているの？ (Nani o kite iru no? ) [What are you wearing?] (oral) 私はパンツを履いてる。(Watashi wa pantsu o hai teru.) [I’m wearing underpants.] (oral) ) パンツ (Pantsu) usually means ‘underpants’. (laughing) (laughing) (oral) I’m sorry!

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

T:

S2: T:

(oral) ズボン (Zubon) is the word for trousers. If it’s jeans, you can say ジーンズ (Jı¯nzu). Where do you wear ‘zubon’ [trousers]? (underscores the task toolkit) This is kind of general word for wearing but if it’s pants, you put them on over your legs. So the word is. . . (writes in the chat area) what is vest? (oral) ベスト (Besuto) [Vest]

Virtual worlds are an ideal environment for incidental attention to lexis. Culturally authentic virtual streets are filled with signs in a target language. Commands and links are in the target language as, for example, in the virtual fashion boutique where students are instructed to buy or sell clothes. All the buttons are in Russian: старт [start], игрок [player], настройки [settings], скачать [to download], ещё игры [more games]. Inside the store, participants are given clues such as ‘Клиент просит вас дать ему юбку’ [The client is asking you to give him a skirt] (Figure 18).

Figure 18 Incidental attention to lexis. Virtual Russian fashion boutique

S1: S2: S1:

S2: S1:

(oral; reading the direction) Клиент выбрал красную майку. [The client chose a red t-shirt.] What’s the красную [red] mean? I forgot. Red? Or blue? (oral) I think ‘blue’ is ‘голубая’. I think. . . (oral) Oh yeah right! He wants that red t-shirt. What do we need to do? Oh here is a hint. (reading) Возьмите красную майку и отдайте её клиенту [Take the red t-shirt and give it to the client.] What ‘возьмите’ and ‘отдайте’ mean? (oral) I’m looking up. (pause) ‘Take’ and ‘give’. (presses the buttons) (oral) Хорошо. Вот красная майка! Возьмите! [OK. Here is the red t-shirt! Take (it)!]

These real-time voice-plus-visual strategies for drawing learners’ attention to vocabulary items take advantage of the aural (teacher stress and intonation) and the visual (circling the image to which the lexical item corresponds). The synchronous aspect requires that both instructor and students attend carefully to the moment-by-moment unfolding of their conversations as well as to aspects of written and spoken production and comprehension whereby lexical learning and reinforcement are possible.

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Corralling A key part of language instruction is providing effective cues and guidance so that learners can both understand and produce the portions of the language that the instructor intends; in short to orchestrate practice with the target language that is narrowly focused on her instructional objectives at the moment. A strategy that accomplishes this goal is corralling; by analogy, rounding up learners’ attention into a specific corner of the corral so that their attention is fi nely focused on what language should be attended to and learned. It is a common strategy in f2f settings as students can stray from the instructional path the instructor has in mind. Even when learners are ‘on track’, it is the instructor who directs them to go on comprehending and producing the language of her instructional objectives.

Task-level corralling When there are carefully designed language objectives behind well-designed tasks, corralling may be in order. Students, after all, do not always follow predictable paths in what they do and say. A group task whereby members are all equally involved in accomplishing a common goal needs instructor support to move it along but also to redirect and refocus learners’ attention to the featured forms or lexical items or phonemes that are the educational purpose of the task. In this task, a group of English learners has been directed to design a website for a class member’s new online business. As a group they have brainstormed forms and lexical items germane to both the new business (electronic business card design and production) and to the process of designing a website. Some of the language the group suggests in the process is not appropriate to either and digressions about language irrelevant to the task begin. S1: S2: S1: S3: T: S1: T:

(oral) And, you know, we can make nice letters like card. . . (oral) Font, you mean? (oral) Fountain? You mean like fountain? (oral) In church. Yes, font for washing. (oral) You mean the shape of the letters, the font, correct? (oral) Yes. Font. We can make nice font on the page like card. (oral) Yes, font. Can you all repeat: fOnt (emphasizing vowel sound)

Learners are thus corralled into the appropriate meaning and later for appropriate use of a key word they will need to use in their discussion. Later, once the group has generated a list of focal forms and lexical items to go into the task toolkit in the upper right-hand corner of the screen, this information becomes available to reference throughout the actual task of designing a website for a student in the class. In the next example, a Spanish teacher corrals her students into answering the question about the quality of food in the school cafeteria by using the task toolkit with descriptive adjectives and some pictures to avoid the use of English (Figure 19).

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 19 Task-level corralling in Spanish class

T: S: T: S:

(oral) ¿Como es la sopa en la cafeteria? [How’s the soup at the cafeteria?] (oral) La sopa ser horrible. [The soup to be horrible.] (oral) OK, what you have to do is to conjugate your verb. La sopa [soup]. . . you can’t say ‘ser’ because ‘ser’ means ‘to be’. (types in the chat area) ser = to be (oral) La sopa es horrible. [The soup is horrible.]

This teacher corrals her students into using adjectives and conjugating the verb ‘ser’ and making parallels with English by providing word by word translation. In this example, Japanese learners were assigned to congratulate their classmate on his birthday in Second Life. Giving a speech in a foreign language in real life can be a tough task. Doing it in a virtual word environment can reduce anxiety and help students concentrate on what they are saying rather than what impression they make (Figure 20).

Figure 20 Task-level corralling. Wishing happy birthday in Second Life

S1: S2:

(oral) 誕生日おめでとう(Tanjoubi omedetou!) [Happy birthday!] (oral) やった 年はいくつですか (Yatta! Toshi wa ikutsu desu ka?) [Yay! How old are you?]

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The following pair of students learning Chinese were assigned to go to a Chinese Island in Second Life and ‘buy’ airplane tickets (Figure 21).

Figure 21 Task-level corralling. Buying airplane tickets in Second Life

S1: S2: S1: S2: S1:

(oral) 请问在哪里可以买到票？ (Qıˇngwèn zài naˇlıˇ keˇyıˇ maˇi dào piào?) [Excuse me, where can I buy tickets?] (oral) 就在这里。(Jiù zài zhèlıˇ.) [Right here.] (oral) 你確定嗎? (Nıˇ què dìng ma?) [Are you sure?] (oral) 你說什麼？(Nıˇ shuo¯ shénme?) [What did you say?] (oral: laughing) 對不起. . .沒關係。(Duìbùqıˇ. . . Méigua¯ nxì.) [Sorry. . . It doesn’t matter.]

One of the popular tasks used in live language classrooms is the interview. Interviews can be successfully implemented in virtual world environments to corral students into using target constructions such as using proper question words. An instructor of Spanish assigned her students to work in pairs and interview each other about their favorite things and other aspects of their lives (Figure 22).

Figure 22 Task-level corralling. Interviewing in Second Life

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S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2:

(oral) ¿Que es tu Musica Favorita? [What is your favorite music?] (oral) Mi música favorita es el rock. [My favorite music is rock.] (oral) ¿Donde vives? [Where do you live?] (oral) Yo vivo en Atlanta. [I live in Atlanta.] (oral) ¿Cuál es tu comida favorita? [What’s your favorite food?] (oral) Me encanta buritos. [I love burritos!]

In Second Life, there is a plethora of simulated activities for English learners to practice their English skills in places such as restaurants, cafés, airports, hotels, hospitals, etc. where you can order your meal, check in a hotel, describe your symptoms or order your airplane tickets. The following two examples are taken from two simulated virtual places: a restaurant (Figure 23) and a hotel (Figure 24).

Figure 23 Task-level corralling. Ordering in restaurants in Second Life

Figure 24 Task-level corralling. Checking in hotels in Second Life

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The following dialogue is taken from http://youtube/rMMd6dHxwFY: S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2:

(oral) Are you ready to order, madam? (oral) Yes, I’d like steak please. (oral) Certainly. Would you like your steak to be cooked medium-rare or well done? (oral) Medium-rare please. Could I have it with the potatoes instead of chips? (oral) Certainly, madam. Would you like salad or vegetables? (oral) What are the vegetables today? (oral) Carrots, broccoli and cauliflower. (oral) I’ll have vegetables.

In the following example from http://youtu.be/O9zImwkHqGU students learning English as a second language ‘check in’ a hotel and learn how to talk about using different facilities such as restaurants, bars, pools, etc. S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2:

(oral) Hello. I have a reservation for one. (oral) May I see your ID please? (oral) Certainly. Here it is. (oral) Thank you. Will you pay with your credit card? (oral) Yes. Is MasterCard fine? (oral) Of course. You are in room 203. (oral) Where is it? (oral) Take an elevator to the second floor. Your room is at the end of the hallway, to the right.

Incidental corralling As we all know, tasks of all kinds are subject to meandering digressions. In language education contexts, however, all of these can be viewed as teachable moments by the attentive educator. Take, for example, learners veering off track and thereby avoiding use of the focal syntactic or lexical forms of the assigned task. In this example, the task is to report events from the past weekend using the past progressive (was/were –ing) plus when plus the past tense; e.g. I was watching television when the phone rang. As learners take turns reporting while their partners type in the chat box what they hear, the instructor monitors their use of this syntactic form as well as their use of lexical items from the list provided as part of the task. She hears the following and sees the partner’s written version: S1: T: S1: T: S1: T: S1: S2 T: S2:

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(oral) The sun shine yesterday and I go park. (oral plus text with tenses highlighted) The sun was —-?? yesterday? (oral) Sun was shining.. (oral) When you —- to the park? (oral) When I went to the park. (oral) So, when you went to the park, the sun was shining? (oral) The sun was shining when I went to the park. (typing in correct sentence) The sun was shining when he went to the park. (oral) And what was —-ing? (oral) And, what was going on when you arrived at the park?

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Both partners are thereby corralled into producing, both in text and writing, the correct form of their utterances with the aid of live speech and synchronous written messages. In this way the instructional conversation is fully supported by the affordances of the synchronous aural environment. Instructors often make attempts to elicit target forms from students as a way to practice the target language. In trying to elicit certain forms, instructors often provoke numerous guesses from students which lead to an authentic conversation involving the active use of different words and constructions in the context of a meaningful conversation. In the following example, the instructor tries to elicit the verb ‘to tan’ from the student by asking what people do on a beach. However, the student, who is not a fan of tanning, makes several guesses, suggesting other possible activities which she preferred to do on a beach. In doing so, she uses verbs from the list of active vocabulary in the task toolkit and from those of previous lessons, such as ‘to sleep’ and ‘to read’. She also uses the word ‘accidentally’, not on the vocabulary list for this course, which she knew from other sources. The situation is perfect for prompting her to use those otherwise non-active vocabulary items. A visual representation of the target lexical item is finally provided to avoid translation and to direct the student to using the target form (see Figure 25).

Figure 25 Visual attention to lexis

S1: S2: T: S2: T: S2:

(oral) Что они делают летом? [What do they do in summer?] (oral) Они лежат на пляже. [They are lying down on the beach.] (oral) Да, они лежат на пляже. И что они делают на пляже? Лежат и? [Yes, they are lying down on the beach. And what are they doing on the beach? Lying down and?] (oral) Спят. Спят? [Sleeping. Sleeping?] (laughing) (oral) Нет, они не спят. [No, they are not sleeping.] (oral) Я спю. [I sleep.]

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T: S2: T: S2: T: S2: T: S2:

(oral) Ты спишь? [Do you sleep?] (oral) Да. На пляже летом. [Yes. On a beach in summer.] (oral) А ты загораешь? [Do you tan?] (oral) Загораешь? [Tan?] (draws a sun with the beams) (Figure 25) (oral) Yeah.. Нечаянно. [Accidentally.] (oral) А, случайно загораешь? [Oh, get tanned by chance?] (oral) Да. Иногда загораешь. . . загораю. Но я люблю спать больше. И читать на пляже. [Yes. Sometimes I tans. . . tan. But I like to sleep more. And read on a beach.]

Situations whereby instructors can coral students into using the target language in authentic conversations are numerous. At times, even a task explanation or discussing technical problems can prompt students to respond in the language they are learning. In this example, a Chinese instructor expected her students to respond in Chinese to her comments about an echo in the virtual classroom. T: S1: S2: S3: T:

(oral) I can hear some part of it but still there is an echo. Did you hear an echo? (written) shi [yes] (written) shi [yes] (written) shi [yes] (oral) I think we’ll postpone this activity till we solve our technical problem. Hao bu hao [OK or not?] (written) hao bu hao? [ok or not?] S4: (written) can i record my voice board tomorrow’ T: (oral) Yes, you can. S4: (written) ok xie xie [thank you thank you] In the following example, a Russian instructor brought her students to the virtual doctor’s office to practice talking about their health problems and any symptoms they were experiencing. In addition to the task toolkit with situation-typical questions and answers, students are eager to use the constructions and vocabulary related to their personal health conditions. They consequently ask questions and the instructor corrals them into using the linguistic material (Figure 26).

Figure 26 Incidental corralling. Talking about symptoms in Second Life

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S: T: S: T: S:

(oral) У меня болит горло, голова и у меня насморк и кашель. [I have a sore throat, headache and I have a runny nose and cough.] (oral) Что ещё у вас болит? [What else do you have?] (oral) У меня. . . Я.. How to say ‘I’m tired’? [I have. . . I. . . How to say ‘I’m tired’?] (oral) Устала. Ты устала? [Tired. Are you tired?] (oral) Да, я очень устала. [Yes, I’m very tired.]

Instructional conversations whereby such forms of incidental attention to lexis can be commonplace teaching strategies in oral synchronous online environments.

Saturating In live language learning contexts, repetition of the target words and forms are standard fare. It is, after all, by hearing, using, reading and, in general, encountering the target language over and over that learning is facilitated. Language learners often use repetition on their own to reinforce remembering the sound, look and feel of new forms. The instructional conversation technique of saturation differs from simply repeating because what gets repeated is conversationally authentic. Rather than simply saying or writing what the instructor wants learners to attend to and internalize, she can use the target within a meaningful context repeatedly. Take the following example. EFL learners are discussing their hobbies. It is clear that three of the lexical items in the task toolkit list are unknown to them. Realizing that these are new vocabulary items, the instructor uses them as frequently as possible in her spoken and written utterances. T:

(oral) Yes, in the US biking is a popular hobby. People go biking all the time. Some go biking for exercise, some go biking to be outside in good weather. Families often go biking as a family activity.

In turn, she can employ corralling techniques to guide learners in producing utterances with the target words as well as a means of reinforcing attention to the new term. As the class task toolkit expands with new words and new forms, it can be continually referred to by both students and instructor. Students themselves can be encouraged to use saturation as well as a means of reinforcing their own mastery of new words and forms and also as a way to play an instructional role in the class’s instructional conversations. In oral synchronous online environments, saturating can be accomplished in several modes simultaneously. Instructors can inject the target forms into their oral production and at the same time call attention to those, using non-verbal clues (Figure 27) as in this example.

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Figure 27 Visual saturating

T:

(oral) When we talk about playing sports and playing musical instruments, we use the same verb ‘ИГРАТЬ’ [TO PLAY] in both constructions, right? (underscores the verbs ‘ИГРАТЬ’ [TO PLAY] in two places). But we use different prepositions and different cases in these constructions. (wipes everything away) You have to remember when you talk about playing sports, after ‘ИГРАТЬ’ [TO PLAY] (underscores ‘ИГРАТЬ’ [TO PLAY]) you use ‘в’ [in] (underscores ‘в’ [in]) and then Accusative forms (underscores the word ‘Accusative’) of sports. (wipes everything away) The nouns for sports are masculine. So, in Accusative case you don’t change them. Don’t add any endings. ИГРАТЬ в гольф, ИГРАТЬ в теннис, ИГРАТЬ в баскетбол, ИГРАТЬ в воллейбол. . . [TO PLAY golf, TO PLAY tennis, TO PLAY basketball, TO PLAY volleyball. . .] (as she names the sport activities, she underscores them) When we talk about playing musical instruments, we use ‘на’ [on] (underscores ‘на’ [on]) and then the Prepositional case which has the ending ‘e’ [e] (underscores the endings of all the nouns). ИГРАТЬ на скрипке, ИГРАТЬ на рояле, ИГРАТЬ на гитаре, ИГРАТЬ на барабане. . . [TO PLAY violin, TO PLAY piano, TO PLAY guitar, TO PLAY drum. . .] (as she names the musical instruments, she underscores them)

These visual gestures calling attention to forms while saturating the discourse with those forms are instrumental in anchoring students’ attention to them. Virtual worlds are ideal environments for saturating. The object of saturation can be anything on the screen: game/assignment directions, rules of participation, signs on different sites in the simulated situations, hints and clues, etc. In the following example from a Russian lesson, students wandering around Red Square in virtual Moscow have an opportunity to read various advertisements on billboards in order to complete the assignment to find an advertisement for renting a car in Moscow. By reading a number of ads, students saturate their linguistic repertoire with various vocabulary items and constructions related to the topic of renting a car (see Figure 28).

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Figure 28 Saturating. Reading billboard commercials in Second Life

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S2:

(oral; reading) Ваш автомобиль находится на ремонте, а нужно срочно ехать по делам? Приходи к нам! И получи скидку на аренду автомобиля 10%. [Your automobile is in the service and you need to immediately go to do your business? Come to us! And get 10% car rent discount.] «Аренду автомобиля». . . [‘Car rent’] Is it a car rent? I think so. What is ‘скидку’ [discount] ? A discount? (oral) Must be so. Oh look! Here is another one! (reading) Арендуйте авто без посредников в три коротких шага. [Rent a car without brokers in three short steps.] Three steps?

Using linguistic traps Although we realize that ‘trapping’ students may have negative connotations, we find it more appropriately descriptive than ‘tricking’. We use the word ‘trap’ to mean that learners have no choice but to use the linguistic target we have in mind; e.g. the focal elements of the task toolkit and/or broader instruction goals. Say, for example, an instructor is orchestrating a whole class task with the main focus being on comprehension and the use of gerunds (-ing forms of verbs that serve as nouns in special contexts). Her secondary objective is intonation. The task is designed so that learners share things that their friends or family members do that they find annoying. The teacher models how to use the target form including using her voice to model the intonation for complaints and commiserating

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by saying ‘My mother likes to hum. Her humming drives me crazy. What drives you crazy?’ Students in turn cue one another by asking the question: What drives you crazy? When students hesitate, falter or use an incorrect form, she employs linguistic traps such as the following. T: S: T: S: T: S: S: T: S: T:

(oral) So, your brother plays the drums. Does his drumming drive you crazy? (oral) Yes. Crazy. (oral) His drumming – (oral) His drumming drive (oral) His drumming drives (oral) His drumming drives me crazy. (oral) His drumming drives me crazy. (oral) His drumming drives me crazy. (oral) His drumming drives me crazy. (oral) I can see why. Drumming drives me crazy too.

In the next example, the instructor traps Russian learners into using the verb play using non-verbal means (Figure 29).

Figure 29 Non-verbal linguistic trap

T: S: T: S:

(oral) Что они делают? [What are they doing?] (circles the images of two baseball players) (oral) Они в бейсбол. [They baseball] (misses the verb ‘to play’) (oral) Right but what are they doing? How do we say ‘playing’? [underscores the word ‘playing’ on the slide] (oral) Они играют в бейсбол. [They play baseball.]

In the following example, students are asked to tell what they did during a certain period of the day. One says ‘в три часа’ [at 3 o’clock] but does not specify the time of the day by adding the word ‘вечера’ [PM]. The instructor silently underscores ‘PM’ on the slide

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Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

(Figure 30) pointing out to the student that he needs to be more specific thus visually trapping the student to employ the correct form.

Figure 30 Non-verbal linguistic trap

S1: S2: T: S2:

(oral) Во сколько вы играете в теннис? [At what time do you play tennis?] (oral) Я играю в теннис в три часа. [I play tennis at 3 o’clock.] (underscores ‘PM’ on the slide) (oral) Я играю в теннис в три часа дня. [I play tennis at 3 o’clock in the afternoon.]

In the next example, a French teacher ‘trapped’ her students into using phrases from each other’s projects by assigning them to comment on each other’s presentations by pointing out things they like (Figure 31).

Figure 31 Linguistic trap using students’ projects

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S1: S2: S3:

(oral) J’aime le dessin d’une voiture bleue. C’est rapide! [I like your drawing of a blue car. So quick!] (oral) J’aime votre avion vert mon ami! [I like your green airplane my friend!] (oral) J’adore votre chat noir. Très mignon! [I love your black cat. Very cute!]

In the following a Russian teacher ‘traps’ her students into using the accusative case endings by asking them questions requiring its use (Figure 32).

Figure 32 Using linguistic traps. Talking about TV programs in Second Life

T: S: T: S: T: S:

(oral) Что ты хочешь смотреть? [What do you want to watch?] (oral) Я хочу смотреть фильм. [I want to watch a movie.] (oral) Какой? Комедию или триллер? [What kind of? Comedy? Thriller?] (oral) Комедию. [Comedy.] (oral) А ты хочешь смотреть спорт? Футбол? Американский футбол? [Do you want to watch sport? Soccer? Football?] (oral) Я хочу смотреть теннис. [I want to watch tennis.]

Such ‘traps’ are, in effect, guides for learner production and support their constructing and uttering focal pieces of the target. This kind of guidance can be employed to great effect in synchronous oral online environments where traps can be set by the teacher’s voice, accompanying images, text, or actions illustrating what she is saying, and pointing and referring to the correct form in the task toolkit.

Modeling Clearly, any task we assign learners must be made comprehensible to them so that they can succeed in undertaking it. The most straightforward way to assist learners in understanding

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what it is they are to do is by modeling. For example, stress and intonation are exquisite tools for drawing learner attention to an aspect or aspects of what they hear, read, or are producing. In oral synchronous environments this modeling can be done in any one or combination of modalities. For example, if the task involves learners using correct intonation contours in making requests, instructors can assist by modeling the target intonation pattern with her voice: – plus line diagram – plus in-text emphasis (caps, bold, italics, font size) – plus animated spectrograph – plus video clips of native speakers doing same In this example, an EFL instructor models the US intonation pattern of accepting a gift. The target pattern is: You SHOULDn’t have. As she models the intonation pattern with her voice, she draws an accompanying intonation contour line above the text version of her utterance. Then she plays the spectrograph of her output as well as two video clips (labeled ‘At a Birthday Party’ and the other is ‘On Valentine’s Day’) of native speakers in authentic situations using this pattern conversationally, thereby culturally situating the focal language. In this example, double underscoring is used to focus students on new words useful to the task at hand: invitations to different places. The instructor wants to introduce the phrase for answering the invitation – ‘С удовольствием’ [I’d love to!/With great pleasure]. The instructor underscores this phrase twice (Figure 33) while modeling its use in a dialog. She also slows down her pace and stresses the intonation as the word is difficult to pronounce.

Figure 33 Visual models

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T:

(oral) - Я хочу пригласить тебя на концерт. - Спасибо. С удовольствием. [- I want to invite you to the concert. - Thank you. It would be my pleasure (to go).] (underscores the last phrase)

In this example, a Japanese instructor repeatedly models the use of a common expression while highlighting it (Figure 34) on the screen.

Figure 34 Visual models

T:

(oral) This expression ‘so deskhaa’ (highlights the Japanese word) is used to disagree with someone. Are you sure? Really? Is that so? Using a long vowel standard pronunciation ‘хаа’ with the raising intonation. So deskhaa? Right? Are you sure? So deskhaa? OK.

While resembling a real classroom in many ways, the oral synchronous environments do not yet completely replicate affordances such as the constant presence of the teacher. It should be noted, though, that language-teaching robots are being used on a 24/7 basis for language practice in some contexts. This requires teachers to pre-task as well as post-task model while emphasizing intonation and pitch. In the following example, a Chinese teacher asked her students to write the names of the occupations on the course screen by combining the syllables of those words in cherries. She orally modeled the correct answers during and after the task (Figure 35).

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Figure 35 Repetitive modeling during and after the task

S1: T: S2: T: S3: T: S4: T: S5: T:

(types on the slide) huajia [artist] (oral) Hua jia [Artist]. Great! Good start, Student T. (types on the slide) Kexuejia (oral) Good job, K! You got that. Kexuejia. (draws a smiley face on the slide) (types on the slide) yundongyuan athlete (oral) Youndongyuan. Right. Athlete. (draws a smiley face on the slide) (types on the slide) yinyuejia- musician (oral) Yinyuejia. Musician. (draws a smiley face on the slide) (types on the slide) janyuan - actor (oral) Janyuan. Actually, this word for both actor and actress. (types a slash and ‘acresst’) Nice. (draws a smiley face on the slide)

Such focused, extensive modeling helps students better internalize new vocabulary and serves to establish a sense of teacher presence and community. The virtual world mode allows for highly visualized modeling. Actions accompanying visual and verbal cues are readily at hand as in the following example. Here the instructor provides a model for the assignment on arranging furniture and decorating a dorm room. The instructor manipulates pieces of furniture while verbalizing her actions and modeling the use of the verbs of placement such as поставить [to put in a vertical position], положить [to put in a flat position] and повесить [to hand], the constructions with first-person imperative, and spatial prepositions (Figure 36).

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Figure 36 Arranging furniture in Second Life

T:

(oral) (moving subjects around) Давайте поставим диван у стены. Давайте поставим стол в середине комнаты, а стулья поставим вокруг стола. Давайте повесим картину на стену над диваном, а на пол положим красивый ковёр. [Let’s put the sofa next to the wall. Let’s put the table in the middle of the room and put chairs around the table. Let’s hang the picture on the wall above the sofa and let’s put a beautiful area rug on the floor.]

Providing explicit feedback A good deal of language teaching involves explaining the quirks and mechanics of the target language to students as these arise. Common to such explanations is the use of metalanguage, or language about language. Research indicates that learners beyond childhood generally respond well to such explanations as they are equipped with the higher cognitive skills and abilities to both comprehend and internalize patterns and their rules. The judicious use of explicit language about the targets under study is indeed an important pedagogical tool. What, then, do we do with explicit forms of feedback in online teaching? As with the other instructional conversation strategies we have discussed, we make use of explicit feedback by using the modalities that oral synchronous environments afford. ■

Referring to the relevant rule in the toolkit

■

Pointing to a visual representation

■

Pointing to a rule in text form

■

Speaking/writing the rule (having another student do the same)

■

Combining all of the above to make feedback more salient

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Corrective feedback in oral synchronous online environments is often transformed into explicit non-verbal indications of errors in students’ utterances. Moves such as silently marking the slide with underscoring, circling, or drawing emoticons/icons/metaphors, silently returning to the slides with explicit grammar explanations or models and silently writing down on the slide or typing in the chat box correct forms are common instructional conversation strategies in oral synchronous online environments. These moves allow for an economical use of time and a friendlier and even more playful environment for learning (Anthony, 2013). Here a Chinese teacher provides an explanation of the task, along with the task toolkit and invites her students to complete the task while referring to the task toolkit when necessary. After a student makes a mistake, using the affordances of the medium she highlights items in the task toolkit by putting different parts of it into different colored shapes, reads the rule explicitly and slowly and connects each sentence to the corresponding rule (Figure 37).

Figure 37 Providing visual explicit feedback

T:

S: T: S: T:

S: T:

(oral) So you’ve having all these words. So what you’re supposed to do is to use these words to make up two sentences about occupations. Let me remind you that when you talk about someone’s occupation, first, you use a subject. (types on the slide) S (oral) plus shi (types on the slide) + shi (oral) and then plus occupation (types on the slide) + occupation. (types on the slide) wo ba ba shi [my daddy is] wo ma mama shi [my mommy is] (oral) Oh somebody is doing that right now. Who did this? Maaa. You do not use three words to call mama. Mama is one word together. Put them together. One ma. (crosses out one ‘ma’ on the slide) (oral) Correct. Yeah. That’ correct. The first sentence you got that correct. But not the second. Let’s say the top one is the first sentence. (writes on the slide) | (oral) So this applies to this sentences structure. (writer an arrow to the first second structure and puts it in a red rectangle) Somebody ‘shi’ some occupation. (crosses out ‘shi’ in the second sentence) (oral) Aha. Now you got that correct. So you say ‘wo ba ba’. So that is the first sentence. ‘My papa’ and then ‘she’ – ‘is’ and then occupation – ‘jing cha’ [policeman]. And then

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the bottom one applies to the second structure. A different person – ‘ye she’ – ‘is also’ the same occupation – ‘jing cha’ [policewoman]. So mama has the same occupation. Does that make any sense to you? If we talk about two people whose occupation is the same, for the first person we use the first sentence structure (puts the first part of the task toolkit into a red rectangle): Somebody + shi [is] + something. And the bottom – we just add a different person and ‘also’ – ‘ye’ and ‘shi’ – ‘is’. (puts the second part of the task toolkit into a blue rectangle and writes arrows from each sentence to each part of the rule) As we can see, explicit feedback brings student attention back to the task toolkit making the focal grammatical points clear. The instructor refers to the task toolkit by putting it in differently colored shapes, drawing arrows to various portions of it, and repeating the rule. The instructor of an intermediate Russian class provides negative explicit feedback with the use of visual metalanguage (Figure 38).

Figure 38 Providing visual explicit feedback

T: S: T: S: T: S: T:

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(showing the slide with the images of people) (oral) Tell me if these clothes look nice or not so nice on these people (circles the name Вера [Vera]). (oral) Вера. . . [Vera. . . (incorrect ending)] (underscores the ending in ‘Vera’) (oral) Вере [Vera (correct ending)]. (draws a smiley face) (oral) Идут платье. . . [Dress look (erroneously used the plural ending instead of the singular ending) good on. . .]. (circles the dress, writes the digit 1 next to it, underscores the verbs ‘идёт/идут’ [looks nice/ look nice] and draws a question mark).

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Student:

(oral) Oh, it’s идёт [looks nice].

Explicit feedback in the above example is provided silently. The instructor manipulates the slide, provides hints and clues and avoids the use of dense metalanguage and grammatical terms. Yet, the student is able to figure out his problems and correct himself. Silent visual explicit feedback is effective for students of different language competency levels and minimizes the interruption of conversational flow. Metalanguage as explicit feedback can thereby be replaced by its iconic or metaphoric representations as in these examples. In this drill and practice assignment, students are asked to change the adjectives and nouns in parentheses, putting them into the accusative forms. S: T:

(oral) Ты понимаешь новый профессор? [Do you understand the new professor?] (incorrect Accusative case endings for masculine animate nouns and modifiers) (draws a male figure to hint to the gender of the noun and modifiers and a sad face) (Figure 39)

Figure 39 Iconic representation of metalanguage

In another example, the instructor draws a house while pointing out the difference between the use of the prepositions B [in] and HA [on]. B [in] is mostly used in talking about enclosed spaces such as buildings, rooms, apartments, etc. as opposed to open spaces such as streets, stadiums, etc. S: T:

(oral) Я хочу пригласить тебя на музей. [I want to invite you on (wrong preposition) the museum.] (underscores the word museum and draws a house, referring to the idea of a museum being a building, not an event or an open space) (Figure 40)

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S: T:

(laughing) (oral) Я хочу пригласить тебя в музей. [I want to invite you to (correct preposition) the museum.] (draws the preposition B [in])

Figure 40 Metaphoric representation of metalanguage

Form-focused explicit feedback in drill and practice activities can be provided both in oral and textual forms doubling the effectiveness of it as in the following example. Here a Spanish teacher both types her comments in the chat box and later elaborates her corrections orally. The assignment was to type in the proper forms of the verbs ‘ser’ and ‘estar’ into the sentences on the slide. S: T: T:

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(types in ‘somos’ into the sentence ‘La cocina _____ grande y amarilla’.) (types in the chat area) jason look at 2 again (types in the chat area) right verb - wrong conj (pause) (oral) Jason, dear, let’s take a look at number 2. My dad and I prepare breakfast. Good. La cocina [the kitchen] is big and yellow. I know you know ‘cocina’ [kitchen]. Now let’s think about conjugation. If you conjugate it for ‘yo’ [I] you get ‘I am’. If you conjugate it for ‘tu’ [you],you get ‘you are’. The only one that conjugates to he/she is ‘is’ and that’s what you conjugate ‘it’ for if you have an object. So you have the right verb – ‘ser’ because you’re describing it – it’s big and yellow – but we don’t want ‘somos’ because that’s for ‘kitchen are’ and we don’t want ‘kitchen are’. We want ‘kitchen is’. So we need to conjugate it for ‘he/she/it’ which would be . . .? (pause) Es [Is]. You see guys there is no word for ‘it’ in Spanish, I mean ‘it’ as a ‘subject’. If you want to say ‘it’s big,’ you just say ‘es grande’ [it’s big]. There is no word for ‘it’. (types in the chat area) es grande [it’s big] (Figure 41)

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

Figure 41 Explicit feedback on written and oral forms

In the example above, the teacher explicitly called her student’s attention to the forms in both oral and written formats as a means of reinforcement. Form-focused feedback can be provided in a non-intrusive yet effective way by utilizing the overhead projector technique (writing on slides). Students are engaged in a drill and practice activity, asking each other ‘What is it?’ with the purpose of practicing how to use the word ‘and’. The instructor reacts to an error in the student’s utterance by drawing a missing word on the slide. S1: S2: T: S2:

(oral) Что это? [What is it?] (oral) Это письмо книга. [This is a letter a book.] (draws ‘И’ [and] in between the two pictures) (Figure 42) (oral) Это письмо и книга. [This is a letter and a book.] (corrects herself )

Figure 42 Non-verbal explicit feedback

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With text messaging features explicit feedback can be much less intrusive than in a traditional classroom. Students often become engaged in meaningful conversations by simply switching to the text-based mode while instructors take a break on focusing on focal forms. Combined with non-verbal focus on form by the instructor, this switch to another mode helps the conversation continue and minimizes the effects of interruptions. It should be noted that continuation of conversations through the chat box can be playful. Students used to text messaging probably find it safe and fun to continue a conversation in a humorous way without any specific instructional constraints. S1: (oral) Ты в чём сейчас? [What do you have on right now?] S2: (oral) Я в джинсах. [I’m in jeans.] S1: (oral) Какого цвета твои джинсы? [What color are your jeans?] S2: Зелёный. [Green. (erroneous ending)] (simultaneously) T: (circles the adjectival ending in the model provided) S1: (types in the chat box) Ооооо почему??? Я хочу знать, почему! Пожалуйста, почемууууу? [Ohh why??? I want to know why! Please whhhhhhy?] Sometimes students become engaged in a text chat conversation going on in tandem with the focal oral instructional conversation. They can thereby make jokes, ask each other and instructors questions, etc. In the following example, a teacher of Arabic enhances her feedback on student’s pronunciation by displaying the content of related websites and YouTube videos (http:// www.arabion.net/lesson5.html; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CUKvz7XTRv8; https:// play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=air.Hamza.Fos7a).

Figure 43 Explicit feedback enhanced with references

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T: S: T: Ss: T:

(oral) How to say ‘airplane’ in Arabic? Write it down and say it aloud. (ta ira) [airplane] (oral) Ta ira. (Figure 43) (writes on the slide) (oral) Taaaaa ira. Remember taaaa is deeper. Do you remember? Taaa. Taaaaa ira. Can everybody repeat? Taaaaa ira. (oral) Taaaaa ira. (oral) Very good. Taaaaa ira. That’s ‘airplane’. Remember that a hamza is on ‘i’ here. When there is a hamza on ‘i’, there is no dot. And you have ‘i’ sound. ‘I’. (displays various web sources on the whiteboard making references to them)

Involving students in providing explicit feedback can be undertaken in oral synchronous environments by encouraging students to interact with the virtual whiteboard via typing, drawing, writing and using shapes and arrows and selecting different colors for writing, typing and drawing. In the following example, a Japanese teacher asked students to pick their own unique ways to express their answers on the whiteboard. She assigned them to point out the representation of the sound she was saying in each row (see Figure 44).

Figure 44 Explicit feedback visualized by studetns interacting with the whiteboard

T: S1: Ss: S2: T:

(oral) Sarah, say one of these in the second row and everybody will click. (oral) き(ki) (the student pronounces this syllable much like ち(chi)) (all the students circle in different colors, put into a shape, or insert arrows pointing to ち (ki)) (circlesち (chi)) (oral) I think he said き(ki), right? It’s a little hard sometimes to get the first sound. It’s き (ki).

Making the answers visible on the whiteboard calls student attention to the correct answers. In the following example, Russian students bump into each other in different parts of an island in Second Life and act out dialogs asking each other where they are going (see Figure 45).

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Figure 45 Providing explicit feedback. Acting out basic dialogs in Second Life

S1: S2: S1: T:

(oral) Привет! Куда ты идёшь? [Hi! Where are you going] (oral) Я иду в магазин. А ты? [I’m going to the store? What about you?] (oral) А я иду в лекцию. [And I’m going in the lecture.] (oral) На лекцию, Антон. На лекцию. Лекция is an event, not a building. [To the lecture, Anton. To the lecture. ‘Lecture’ is an event, not a building.]

Providing implicit feedback As we have seen, there are numerous techniques common to language classrooms whereby instructors explicitly comment on and correct what learners say and write. Indeed, providing explicit feedback is the mainstay for a good deal of learning in general. Language education, however, is unique in this respect because while learners are attending to what they say and write in the target language, they are at the same time learning the language they are producing while communicating meaningfully. This, as many researchers have pointed out, is cognitively and affectively demanding work. To interrupt learners as they undertake this complex process of production and comprehension, whether it is to insert a comment or to overtly correct their grammar, pronunciation or word choice is to potentially derail an utterance in the making. The alternative to explicit feedback and the risk of pushing learners off track is the use of implicit feedback such as recasts and echoing, in tandem with the visual and aural cuing inherent in synchronous oral online environments.

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Recasts A recast is ‘a well-formed reformulation of a learner’s non-target utterance with the original meaning intact’ (Lyster, 2004: 403). It is feeding back to the learner his or her utterance with any errors in form, word choice or pronunciation/intonation corrected and orally and/ or in text emphasizing the corrected portion. Recasts are ideally spoken in such a way as to be conversational and thereby not disruptive of the ongoing exchange. Although recasts appear to be an effective strategy to preserve the flow of conversation while drawing attention to students’ errors, in live classrooms they carry the risk of passing by unnoticed by learners. Synchronous oral online venues, however, have tools and features that support teacher and student recasts while (1) the meaning-making aspect of the conversation is sustained; (2) attention is visually drawn to the correct, recasted form; and (3) an archive of the recasted portions of conversations can be utilized to further draw attention to and review the focal language as it was used. In an advanced intermediate EFL course, a learner misuses the focal form (might have been) for the task of speculating on the motives for a crime. The might have been form is in the task toolkit and both instructor and students are monitoring the utterances produced for the correct construction of this form during the task. When a student makes an error in producing the correct form, fellow students type the correct form into the text box and/or point to the correct form in the task toolkit as a form of recast. If this is insufficient, the instructor or another student can speak (recast) the correct form while visual attention is drawn to the text representations. S1: S2:

(oral) Hi might have stole that painting. (oral) Stolen (circles the word ‘stolen’) (Figure 46)

Figure 46 Recasts in oral synchronous environments

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Recasting as a non-intrusive instructional conversation strategy often takes place in an online class in much the same way as it does in an f2f classroom as in this example from an online Russian lesson: S1: S2: S1: S3: T: S3: S1:

(oral) Весной я люблю работать в саде. [In spring I like to work in the garden (erroneous ending)] (oral) Ты бегаешь летом на улице? [Do you run along the street?] (oral) Нет. Никогда не бегаю. [No, I never run.] (oral) Ты сказала, ты работаешь в саде? [You said you worked in the garden (erroneous ending)] (oral) В саду. [In the garden (corrected ending)] (oral) В саду. [In the garden (correct ending)] (oral) I must’ve said it wrong. В саду. [In the garden (correct ending)]

Sometimes, however, recasting can be strictly visual. Instructors either replace or supply oral recasting with visual ones. S: T: S:

(oral) Ты давно ждает Ивана? [For how long do you wait (incorrect form) for Ivan?] (oral) Ты давно..? [For how long do you . . .?] (switches to one of the previous slides and circles the correct form for the verb ‘to wait’ in the conjugation table) (Figure 47) (oral) Ты давно ждёшь. . . ждёшь Ивана? [For how long do you wait (correct ending). . . do you wait (correct ending) for Ivan?]

Figure 47 Visual recast

Meaning/Form-focused feedback Meaning/Form-focused feedback is different from recasting in that it is a natural part of a conversation with corrected student utterances fluidly integrated into the communicative stream. It is ‘provided as a part of an authentic conversation on the topic of the learner’s

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personal interest without discourse derailment’ (Meskill & Anthony, 2005: 100, 2014). Seedhouse (1997) called such corrective feedback ‘camouflaged’ repair. The difference between recast and meaning/form feedback is that recasts are exact repetitions of students’ utterances with only one form corrected. On the contrary, meaning/form-focused feedback consists of a teacher’s response to a student’s utterance, with only one piece of the student’s utterance corrected and injected into the teacher’s utterance with the teacher’s utterance being a natural part of the conversation. Meaning/form-focused feedback is often followed by linguistic traps, or questions forcing learners to answer, using vocabulary or grammatical structures that are problematic. Table 1 provides an example of how the same initial erroneous statement can be treated via recast, corrective recast, meaning/form-focused feedback and modeling. Table 1 Examples of the differences between recasts, corrective recasts, meaning/form-focused feedback and models Recast

Corrective recast

Meaning/Form-focused Models feedback

The corrected problematic form is used as a part of the initial utterance.

The corrected problematic form is used as a part of the initial utterance supplied with linguistic and nonlinguistic cues. S: I drinked tea yesterday.

The corrected problematic form is used as a part of a natural conversation.

The corrected problematic form is used several times in different contexts.

S: I drinked tea yesterday.

S: I drinked tea yesterday.

S: I drinked tea yesterday.

T: I drank tea yesterday. T: I DRANK (stressed) tea yesterday.

T: I drank coffee. I don’t T: Drank. I drank coffee. He drank milk. She like tea at all. Did you drank juice. drink coffee, too?

The effectiveness of meaning/form-focused feedback as compared to, for instance, corrective recasts, can be questionable. Although this instructional move may work well in written asynchronous environments as a non-disruptive part of authentic conversations in text-based discussion forums (Meskill & Anthony, 2004–2005, 2005), its impact on language acquisition in the oral mode with its lack of visualization and time affordances can be undermined by the specifics of the medium. There is some evidence that equipped with visual and voice characteristics, meaning/form-focused feedback can be noticed by students and, hence, be instructionally effective. In a warm-up activity, a Russian instructor asks a student whether she has a car. The student confirms, mispronouncing the word ‘car’ in her answer. The instructor keeps asking for details about the student’s car, modeling and saturating the correct use of the word for the student and forcing her to follow the model. T: S: T:

(oral) У тебя есть машина? (Do you have a car?) (oral) Да, у меня есть мaсина. [Yes, I do have a car (pronunciation error).] (oral) Тебе нравится твоя машина? [Do you like your car?] (deliberately distinguish pronunciation of the word ‘car’)

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S: T: S: T: S:

(oral) О да! [Oh yes!] (laughing) It’s Mitsubishi Gallant. Очень очень хорошая. [Very very nice.] (oral) Какого цвета твоя машина? Синяя? [What color is ar car? Blue?] (quickly draws a car with a digital blue marker and writes ‘машина’ [car]) (oral) Моя машина красная. [My car (correct pronunciation) is red.] (oral) Твоя машина новая или старая? [Is your car new or old?] (oral) Моя машина новая [My car is new (correct pronunciation)].

In the following example, a group of students learning Russian was taken to the Moscow island in Second Life to buy souvenirs. The role of salesperson was assigned to the teacher who gently corrected her students if they made mistakes (Figure 48).

Figure 48 Providing implicit feedback in Second Life

T: S1: T: S:

(oral) Я могу вам помочь? [May I help you?] (oral) Да, пожалуйста. Дайте, пожалуйста, мне эту сувенир. [Yes please. Give me please this (incorrect use of the demonstrative pronoun) souvenir.] (oral) Этот сувенир или этот сувенир? Или, может быть, этот? [This souvenir or this souvenir? Or perhaps this one?] (oral) Да, этот, пожалуйста. [Yes, this (corrected) one please.]

Thus, the meaning/form-focused feedback as implicit correction gets integrated into the meaningful conversation. When supplied with intonation and text clues, this becomes a central working model in the oral synchronous mode.

Echoing Synchronous oral environments lend themselves particularly well to oral/written echoing of learner output. Echoing is repeating back what the student has said as a method of

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drawing attention to errors while requesting a reformulation. Synchronous oral environments work well as instructors can signal their request for reformulation via the intonation of their voice. Simultaneously, they can signal where in the utterance the error has occurred in visual (text with highlighting) ways. These multimodal echoes ensure that learners attend to both the fact that a reformulation is requested and to what in the utterance needs to be amended. In the following example, a beginning level EFL learner has been describing his trip to the doctor’s office. The focal form in this task’s task toolkit is the irregular past tense. S: T:

(oral) Then I tell her, the doctor, I tell (oral) I tell her?

As she echoes, the instructor also points to the list of irregular past verb forms in the task toolkit. Attention to voice and/or visual can thereby assist the speaker in modifying his output using the correct form of the verb.

Summary The affordances of synchronous oral online environments allow for the extension and amplification of the kinds of instructional conversations language educators typically conduct in live classrooms. By considering these multimodal tools and resources as means for such support, language educators can maximize the teaching and learning possibilities they represent. We have examined our eight instructional conversation strategies and sample ways in which they can be undertaken using the tools and resources of the environment to best effect. We will approach the other three online learning environments similarly in the following chapters.

End-of-chapter notes Instructional conversations in informal oral synchronous online environments The preceding examples of instructional conversations in oral synchronous environments are based on formal, instructor-led conversations. It is important to note that these instructional conversation strategies work equally well in less formal oral synchronous environments. As language learners seek opportunities to practice and receive additive feedback informally on the internet (PalTalk, iVisit, NetMeeting, Skype, Yahoo Voice Chat, AOL Voice Chat, Windows Messenger, etc.), casual online conversation partners can find themselves being asked to instruct. A common plea of ‘please correct my English/Japanese/ Russian’ can be met by observing here how instructional conversations support language learning and apply these in informal environments.

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Translation When is translation a good option? At lower proficiency levels, translation (using the instructor and learners’ common non-target language) is a very useful tool for dealing with course management. In this context it might thereby be best considered an expedient throughout instruction with the proviso that translating may represent a missed learning opportunity, a missed teachable moment. It is up to the instructor to continually weigh these two considerations. In synchronous environments where time is a premium commodity, expedience may outweigh all else. As we will see in subsequent asynchronous environments, expedience is eliminated and translation, therefore, becomes less useful. Translation can be significantly reduced and even eliminated owing to instantaneous access to digital resources based on the needs of learners and instructors. In oral synchronous environments there are ample opportunities for avoiding excessive use of the target language in task explanations. In the following, a Russian instructor directs the task almost entirely in the target language with the help of different visuals to which she refers (Figure 49).

Figure 49 Avoiding translation

T:

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(oral) Let’s imagine you’re visiting one of your friends. Вы пришли в гости к другу. И вы звоните в дверь. [You came to visit your friend. And you ring the door bell.] (circling several times the picture with the thumb on the doorbell). Но вы не знаете, здесь ваш друг живёт или нет. [But you don’t know whether your friend lives here or not.] (drawing a question mark on the picture with the woman ringing the doorbell) Какой-то человек открывает дверь. И вы спрашиваете: «Здесь живёт Валентина Ивановна Петров?» [Some person opens the door. And you ask ‘Does Valentina Ivanovna Petrova live here?’ (circling the bullet next to the first line that asks this question). И вам говорят: «Да, здесь.» [And you are answered: ‘Yes, here’. (circling the next bullet with these words) А вы говорите: Она дома? [And you say: ‘Is she at home?] (circling the next bullet) И вам говорят: «Да, дома.» [And you are told ‘Yes, at home’. (circling the next bullet) (short

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

pause) Вместо имени «Валентина Петровна Петрова» [Instead of the name of Valentina Ivanovna Petrova. . .] (crossing out the name) говорите другие имена из этого списка, например, Татьяна Владимировна Майорова. [. . .say different names from this list, for example, Tatyana Vladimirovna Mayorova.] (underscoring the name from the list and drawing an arrow from the name used in the model to one of the names in the list) As we can see, combining images and connecting them with non-verbal clues such as circling, underscoring, crossing out and drawing arrows can neatly substitute for translation. In oral synchronous environments, translation can also be undertaken with the use of visuals. Here the instructor uses English words to point out Spanish equivalents of each English word. The instructor wants to make sure that the students understand the difference between the verb conjugation for the following constructions: ‘I am from. . .’ and ‘S/he is from. . . (see Figure 50)’

Figure 50 Using translations to focus on form

T: S: T: S: T: S: T: S:

(oral) So. . . ¿De dónde es Lorenzo? ¿De dónde es Lorenzo? [Where is Lorenzo from? Where is Lorenzo from?] (oral) Lorenzo es de Uruguay. [Lorenzo is from Uruguay.] (oral) ¡Muy bien! ¡Muy bien! [Very good! Very good!] Uruguay. ¡Excelente! [Excellent!] And YOU - you Marcia - ¿De donde eras to? [Where are you from?] (oral) Yo este. . . (oral) No-no-no-no-no! No-no-no! You have to say ‘I am’. Different conjugation. (writing on the slide) Yo soy es de [I am is from] (oral) Yo soy es de. . . [I am is from. . .] (oral) No-no-no. No este. No-no este. (whining)

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T:

S:

(oral) It’s OK. No-no, it’s OK. Watch me! Yo soy (writing on the slide) Yo soy es de (oral) Just like English. Every word means something. That’s what you said. I. Am. Is. From. (crosses out ‘es’) So we don’t need this. (oral) Oh OK. Yo soy de los Estados Unidos. [I’m from the United States.]

End-of-chapter activities Activity A. Oral synchronous environment affordances For each of the eight instructional conversation strategies discussed for oral synchronous online environments, how can each of the following affordances be capitalized on for language teaching and learning? Affordances Convenience Connectivity Membership (playfield is leveled) Authentic audiences Tailored audiences Strategies to compensate for lack of non-verbal info Richness of information (links, multimedia) Time to focus and review Time to compose, resources to compose Time and opportunity to reflect Opportunity to witness and track learning Opportunity to demonstrate learning

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7

8

Key to table: 1. Calling attention to forms; 2. Calling attention to lexis; 3. Corralling; 4. Saturating; 5. Using linguistic traps; 6. Modeling; 7. Providing explicit feedback; 8. Providing implicit feedback.

Activity B. Online literacy skills Review the online literacy skills that digital natives possess (Chapter 1, pages 13–14). For each of the examples of instructional conversation in this chapter, discuss if and how these skills are employed. If they are not, could they be? What are the advantages of exploiting these skills for language learning purposes?

Activity C. Evaluating the learning A rubric is an excellent teaching and learning tool. It helps in course design and when making adjustments based on student learning. For students, it assists them in realizing what is expected of them, how far they have developed and the learning that remains to be done. In oral synchronous environments, rubrics can be one of many windowed resources which all can consult prior to, during, and after a synchronous session. Select one of the language learning tasks described in this chapter. For this task, develop an evaluation rubric with which both teacher and student can assess the language learning that took place.

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Create a matrix that contains the four portions of an evaluation rubric: ■

description of the task;

■

levels of performance while undertaking the task;

■

the evaluation dimensions: comprehension, pronunciation, syntax, lexis (you decide);

■

description of exemplary performance for dimensions (Scoring guide).

Rubric Task description: Dimensions

Competent

Developing

Needs work

Scoring guide Task description: Dimensions

Description of competent performance

Comments

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Once you and your students are accustomed to using rubrics productively, students can be asked to develop these on their own, complete them and submit them as part of an individual electronic portfolio that reflects their learning of the language. This kind of self-assessment can be highly motivating, especially for students who are learning 100% online.

Activity D. Applying instructional strategies to the task Analyze the following example from an oral synchronous lesson and identify the instructional strategies it contains. The task is for students working in pairs to survey each other about the places they have visited using pictures provided of famous places. The task toolkit at the top of the slide provides an example of a question to be asked (Figure 51).

Figure 51 Simulated oral synchronous lesson

S1: S2: S1: T: S1: S2: T: S2: T:

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(oral) Have you ever been in Japanese? (oral) In Japan? No, I have never been in Japan. Have you ever been in. . . What is that on that picture? At the bottom? (oral) I’m not sure. Dessert? (oral) Actually, it’s not a desert even though it looks like a desert. It’s the Great Wall of China. (oral) Oh I see. Have you ever been in China? (oral) No, I have never been in China. Have you ever. . . Is it a Croatian church? (switches on the application sharing feature and shows several pictures of Russia stored on her desktop) (oral) So it’s Russia then. Have you ever in Russia? (circles the word ‘been’ that was missed by the student)

Language learning and teaching in oral synchronous online environments

S2: S1: S2:

(laughing) (oral) Have you ever been in Russia? (oral) Yes. I have been in Russia. Actually I live in Russia till I was 10. (oral) You lived in Russia? So you are Russian, right?

Activity E. Designing and conducting a task for the oral synchronous environment Design a five-minute mini-task to be used in an oral synchronous environment. Conduct your task with your classmates functioning as your students via any available oral synchronous venue. You can use such free applications as Skype or Yahoo Voice Chat. Use as many of the eight instructional conversation strategies as possible. Make notes while observing other classmates’ mini-tasks.

Activity F. Analyzing instructional conversation strategies Discuss your own and your classmates’ mini tasks. What instructional conversation strategies were used? What instructional conversation strategies appeared to be the most/ least effective from your point of view? What factors have contributed to the degree of effectiveness of these instructional conversation strategies? Complete the matrix below. Instructional strategies

Most effective

Least effective

Factors influenced

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Activity G. Creating a lesson plan Create a lesson plan for a 30-minute oral synchronous lesson for the language you teach. Include tasks and activities that you see as suitable for this environment. Provide a rationale for your design.

Activity H. Analyzing lesson plans Analyze your own lesson plan. How do the knowledge of eight instructional conversation strategies you have learned about in this chapter and the affordances/limitations of the oral

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synchronous environment influence your way of organizing the materials, tasks and activities? Write a one-page reflection, answering these questions.

Further reading Anthony, N. (2013) Perceptions of humour in oral synchronous online environments. In C. Meskill (ed.) Online teaching and learning: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 157–175). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Arcos de los, B. and Arnedillo Sánchez, I. (2006) Ears before eyes: Expanding tutors’ interaction skills beyond physical presence in audio-graphic collaborative virtual learning environments. In P. Zaphiris and G. Zacharia (eds) User-centered computer aided language learning (pp. 74–93). Hershey: Idea Group, Inc. Cziko, G. and Park, S. (2003) Internet audio communication for second language learning: A comparative review of six programs. Language Learning & Technology 7 (1), 15–27. Hampel, R. and Hauck, M. (2004) Towards an eff ective use of audio conferencing in distance language courses. Language Learning & Technology 8 (1), 66–82. Kötter, M. (2001) Developing distance language learners’ interactive competence – can synchronous audio do the trick? International Journal of Educational Telecommunications 7 (4), 327–353. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2004–2005) Teaching and learning with telecommunications: Forms of instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 33(2), 103–109. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2005) Foreign language learning with CMC: Forms of instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. System 33 (1), 89–105. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2014) Synchronous polyfocality in new media/new learning: Online Russian educators’ instructional strategies. System 42, 177–188. Rosell-Aguilar, F. (2005) Task design for audiographic conferencing: Promoting beginner oral interaction in distance language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning 18 (5), 417–442. Wang, Y. (2004) Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth-generation Internet-based videoconferencing. Calico Journal 21 (2), 373–395. Wang, Y. (2006) Negotiation of meaning in desktop videoconferencing-supported distance language learning. ReCALL 18 (1), 122–145.

References Anthony, N. (2013) Perceptions of humour in oral synchronous online environments. In C. Meskill (ed.) Online teaching and learning: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 157–175). London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

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Levy, M. and Kennedy, C. (2004) A task-cycling pedagogy using audio-conferencing as stimulated refl ection for foreign language learning. Language Learning & Technology 8 (2), 50–68. Lyster, R. (2004) Diff erential eff ects of prompts and recasts in form-focused instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 399–432. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2004–2005) Teaching and learning with telecommunications: Forms of instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 33 (2), 103–109. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2005) Foreign language learning with CMC: Forms of instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. System 33 (1), 89–105. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2014) Synchronous polyfocality in new media/new learning: Online Russian educators’ instructional strategies. System 42, 177–188. Seedhouse, P. (1997) Combining meaning and form. English Language Teaching Journal 51, 336–344. Wang, Y. (2004) Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth-generation Internet-based videoconferencing. Calico Journal 21 (2), 373–395. Wang, Y. (2006) Negotiation of meaning in desktop videoconferencing-supported distance language learning. ReCALL 18 (1), 122–145.

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3 Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments ■

Oral asynchronous environments, their special affordances for language education, are discussed.

■

Descriptions and representations of how instructional conversations are carried out in these environments are presented.

■

Limitations for practical use of the oral asynchronous mode are outlined.

Calling attention to forms—87 Calling attention to lexis—93 Corralling—97 Saturating—101 Using linguistic traps—104 Modeling—107 Providing explicit feedback—111 Providing implicit feedback—115 Summary—116 End-of-chapter notes—116 End-of-chapter activities—122 Further reading—125

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Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments Objectives In this chapter you will learn: – the definition of oral asynchronous online environments; – the special affordances of oral asynchronous online environments; – how different instructional conversation strategies can be undertaken in these environments; – how the environment’s affordances can be taken advantage of to support and amplify these conversations; – methods of formative evaluation of student learning in oral asynchronous modes. Oral asynchronous online environments are venues where individuals and groups can post recorded audio messages. Accompanying these audio messages can be visual and textual information. Venues for posting and sharing these multimodal messages can be almost any telecommunications medium: email, blogs, message boards, community messaging sites, etc. For individuals wishing to learn and practice another language, there are a number of publically accessible oral asynchronous sites whereby they can seek out tutors and conversation partners with whom to exchange such multimodal messages (see list of Free resources, p. 226–227). The chief difference between the online environment described in the previous chapter (oral synchronous) and the online environment described in this chapter (oral asynchronous) is, of course, the issue of synchronicity. We will see the same central contrast between Chapters 5 and 6, written synchronous and written asynchronous. The difference between real time versus delayed time in online communication is vast in terms of the essential nature of the communication process. When it comes to teaching and learning in general, this difference becomes substantial; the time one has to think, assimilate and compose making a world of difference. When it comes to teaching and learning language, this difference is tremendous, most notably as regards affect; time being a second language learner’s largest hurdle for comprehending and producing meaningful target language utterances. With oral asynchronous modes, language learners have the luxury of time to repeat recorded messages, access resources and thereby comprehend and strategize their responses. In composing their responses, they can again enjoy the luxury of unlimited time with which to rehearse, record and revise their posts. Likewise, instructors can take their time to develop and construct their instructional conversation strategies in response to learners. The affordance of being able to scan, recap and repeat an audio post as many

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times as needed can be capitalized on to focus on both comprehending native speaker recordings and in attending to and practicing the phonological features of the target language. Moreover, instructors and learners can use their voice in conjunction with other modalities to draw attention to certain linguistic features and to optimize the intonation features that shape conversations. As we will see in this chapter, the asynchronous aspect, along with the oral/aural, hold numerous possibilities in this regard. Note: Unlike the oral synchronous online environment, an entire language course, indeed a good portion of a language course, would be cumbersome in the oral asynchronous mode only. In combination with the other three modes, however, it is a viable supplement especially when the emphasis is on listening and speaking development in the target language. Additionally, the oral asynchronous mode works nicely as a complement to blended courses: courses which take place partly face-to-face, and partly online. Voice worksheets Voice journals Voice emails Voice boards Voice post its Voice over presentations Voice over tours of work accomplished

Calling attention to forms In generating multimodal posts for language learners, instructors can consider the numerous combinatorial possibilities to draw learner attention to forms under study or that appear in student posts and are in need of attention/repair. Using voice plus image, plus text in any combination can guide learners to attend to highlighted aspects of the spoken and or written language. Again, the advantage of asynchronous multimodal messages is the comprehending, planning and composing time afforded to both learners and instructors in employing these kinds of attention-drawing strategies. If, for example, a learner submits an audio file of their response to an instructor’s question, instructor oral responses can be inserted and embedded into the student’s original fi le for review. In the following example an EFL learner submitted a brief monolog in response to the instructor’s prompt, ‘Tell us about your weekend’. On reviewing the learner’s submission, the instructor locates mistakes in the use of the simple past tense, the focus of current coursework. Using a simple audio editing program, she interleaves her prompts which call attention to the focal forms that the learner has misused: S: T:

(oral) And I have a good time at party. . . (oral) You ‘have’ a good time?

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In response to the instructor’s prompt the student then re-records his original monolog making the corrections as the teacher has indicated. Recording tasks such as this simple one can be powerful forms of close study and review of learner performance. Inserting prompts and corrections after the fact is an ideal approach to encouraging fluency (while speaking) while coaching attention to focal forms.

Task-level attention to forms As in the above brief example, task-level attention to form can be nicely achieved using oral asynchronous modes. Moreover, in this mode, learners have as many opportunities as they need to refer to the focal task information in the task toolkit as they record, review and re-record their posts. This form of self-assessment and self-monitoring can help build and hone these very useful language learning strategies for future implementation throughout the language learning enterprise. This is a particularly attractive aspect of the oral asynchronous mode. This example from an online Russian course demonstrates the use of a voice board for a role-play activity, ‘The new recreation room’. Students are asked to virtually furnish their new recreation room on campus, using the vocabulary and grammatical structures that are the focus of the lesson: furniture, spatial prepositions and verbs of placement. While in English, there is only one verb ‘to put’ used for placing objects to hang in horizontal, or vertical positions, Russian has three verbs for indicating these actions. The task is: ‘For this week, you will have a Voice Discussion that will be conducted through the Wimba Voice Board. The topic of this voice discussion is “The New Recreation Room.” Imagine that there is a new recreation room for online Russian students on campus. You have a limited budget to buy furniture and other stuff and then furnish and decorate this room. Submit at least three messages discussing your decoration plans’. Model: - Давайте поставим диван к стене. – Хорошо. Давайте повесим русский флаг над диваном. – Нет, давайте лучше повесим русский ковёр над диваном [- Let’s put the sofa next to the wall. – OK. Let’s hang a Russian fl ag above the sofa. – No, let’s put a Russian rug above the sofa.] The information in the task toolkit is in both written and in oral forms. Students listen to the models by clicking on the play button. Students are also provided with references to the meaning with the visuals indicating the differences in actions and examples containing grammatical peculiarities in form changes (Figure 1).

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Figure 1 Task toolkit for task-level attention to form

S1: S2:

S3:

S1:

S2:

S3:

(oral) Давайте поставим диван у стены. Давайте поставим торшер справа от дивана. [Let’s put a sofa next to the wall. Let’s put the floor lamp to the right from the sofa.] (oral) Давайте поставим диван в центре комнаты и повесим домашний кинотеатр на стену. Давайте поставим бильярд за диваном. [Let’s put the sofa in the middle of the room and put the home theater on the wall. Let’s put the billiard table behind the sofa.] (oral) Я тоже хочу бильярд. Но я думаю, бильярд надо поставить в центр комнаты. [I want the billiard, too. But I think we should put the billiard in the middle of the room.] (oral) Хорошо. Давайте поставим бильярд в центре комнаты, но давайте поставим диван возле стены. [Good. Let’s put the billiard table in the middle of the room but let’s put the sofa next to the wall.] (oral) Ладно, ребята. Давайте поставим бильярд в центре комнаты и поставим диван у стены. Что вы думаете о домашнем кинотеатре? Вы хотите это или нет? [OK guys. Let’s put the billiard in the middle of the room and sofa next to the wall. What do you think about a home theater? Do you want one or not?] (oral) Согласна. Но надо повесить телевизор на стену напротив дивана. [Agreed. But we have to put a TV on the wall across from the sofa.]

This example illustrates how the oral nature of this activity is instrumental in the development of students’ oral skills and their ability to freely communicate in Russian in an attempt to reach a reasonable compromise. The asynchronous nature of this activity helps the students concentrate on the formal aspects of their utterances by checking dictionaries and grammar notes. They also had time to think and plan before recording these messages. The oral asynchronous modes provide an opportunity then for students to

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use Russian at a higher level of proficiency in an environment less associated with beginners’ language anxiety. Students can play back their classmates’ messages as many times as they want or need to, which helps them develop listening comprehension skills. In the following example, beginning learners of ESL/EFL are assigned a role play activity whereby pairs are asked to practice, then record and post a conversation. The scene is in a restaurant with one learner playing the role of the waiter and the other the customer. In the task toolkit are the following structures and lexis: Waiter: Can I take your order? That’s a (repeat back customer’s order) Anything else? Thank you. Customer: I would like. . . . And can I please have. . . That’s all. Thank you. S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2:

(oral) Can I take your order? (oral) I would like to order spaghetti with meat sauce. (oral) Anything else? (oral) And can I please have a glass of hot water? That’s all. (oral) Sure. I’ll be right back with your order. (oral) Thank you.

A menu in simplified English is provided for the pair to use in developing their recording. Once the pair has rehearsed and recorded this assignment (note: if learners are geographically distant, this can be accomplished via oral synchronous means), they post the draft audio assignment to either a course site or the particular public forum that the class uses for such purposes. Both the instructor and classmates can then review the pair work, insert audio comments and corrections to the pair’s uses of the target forms and/or leave written comments and questions for the pair to address. An intermediate learner of ESL/EFL submits the following post in response to the Voice Board assignment ‘Who is your favorite movie star? Imagine you meet this person in real life. Invite them to have coffee with you’. The task toolkit contains the following in both text and audio with intonation of humble requests an integral part of the focal language:

Would you possible consider. . . Do you think you might do me the honor of. . . Would you maybe have the time to. . .

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S1:

S2: S1: T:

S1: S3: S2: T:

(written and spoken) I like Tom Hanks. He is my favorite. I would say to him: Do you think you might do me the honor to have a coffee with me? [pronunciation of think, might and honor very weak] (written) Try, do me the honor of having (written) OK. Listen to me now. (spoken) Do you think you might do me the honor of having a coffee with me? (written) Nice job, Naomi. Now, listen to me. Pay special attention to my pronunciation of the ends of words. (written with consonants in caps and spoken) Do you thinK you mighT do me the ∂honor of having coffee with me? (rising invitation intonation). (written) OK. I try again. Listen. (spoken) Hello, Mr. Hanks. I like you very much. Do you think you might do me the honor of having a coffee with me? (written) Is it coffee or a coffee? (written) I think a coffee, no? (written) Coffee is most often a non-count noun but informally people use it as a count noun, a coffee meaning ‘a cup of coffee’. Now listen to my pronunciation. (spoken). Do you think you might do me the honor of having coffee with me?

Oral asynchronous contexts are also excellent for role playing. The following dialog between students learning French is based on the task toolkit: how to talk to a policeman and/or other authorities in case of a problem. Puis-je vous aider? [How can I help you?] Je pense que j’ai besoin d’aide. [I think I need help.] Comment puis-je trouver . . . [How do I find . . .?] Où est cette rue? [Where is this street ?] Quel est leur numéro de téléphone? [What is their phone number?] S1: S2: S1: S2: S1:

(oral) Puis-je vous aider? [How can I help you?] (oral) Je pense que j’ai besoin d’aide. Je me suis perdu. [I think I need help. I got lost.] (oral) Connaissez-vous le nom de la rue? [Do you know the street’s name?] (oral) Oui. C’est Broadway. Comment puis-je le trouver? [Yes. It’s Broadway. How can I find it?] (oral) Est-ce votre ami? Quel est leur numéro de téléphone? [Is this your friend? What is their phone number?]

Incidental attention to forms There are several ways that oral asynchronous messages can be used incidentally throughout online learning processes in order to draw learners’ attention to forms. In the process of responding to learners’ posts, instructors and other students can use a combination of text and recorded audio to simultaneously address the meaning of the learner’s post and to visually, aurally and textually draw their attention to any mistakes or gaps in the language they used in constructing it. Indeed, responses can be specifically labeled as addressing meaning or pronunciation or intonation, etc.

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During an open asynchronous discussion about a current event, an advanced ESL/EFL learner makes a mistake using the English gerund. Doing a quick search of her prerecorded library of audio reminder files, the instructor locates the appropriate fi le and adds it as an audio post-it note to the student’s post. S: T:

(oral) I enjoyed to cook dinner last night. (audio file attached) Remember, we use the –ing form with the verb enjoy. For example, I enjoy going to the theater.

Incidental attention to form can take place in a structured activity focused on specific forms. This example demonstrates how a Russian instructor structures a discussion activity on students’ likes, dislikes and favorites by asking them questions. The focal form is the use of possessive pronouns in their masculine, feminine and neuter forms. The instructor notices that one of the students uses the word ‘музыканта’ (an incorrect feminine form of the noun ‘музыкант’ [musician]). She seized the opportunity to remind this student that the noun ‘музыкант’ [musician] has only a masculine form by asking her questions requiring the use of this word in this specific context. S: T:

(oral) Моя любимая музыканта – Кортни Лав. [My favorite musician (incorrect form) – Courtny Love. (oral) А мой любимый музыкант – Вики Мартинез. А любимый музыкант Жаклин – Ля Тойя Джексон. [And my favorite musician (correct form) is Vicci Martinez. And Jacqueline’s favorite musician is La Toya Jackson.] (written) While some nouns denoting professions have masculine and feminine forms, for example, ‘журналистжурналистка’ [journalist], many don’t, for example, ‘музыкант’ is for male and female musicians as well as ‘директор’ is used for both male and female directors.

Incidental attention to form can certainly take place in informal, non-instructional asynchronous audio conferencing between NS–NNS or NS–NS. Voxopop http://www. voxopop.com/ is one of the sites that allows for free and open oral asynchronous interactions among native and non-native speakers of world languages. In the forum ‘What is your favorite car and why?’ the following incidental focus on form takes place regarding the word ‘inexpensive’. NNS1: NNS2: NNS3:

(oral) My favorite car is Nissan Rouge. It’s reliable, fast and inexpensive. (oral) My favorite car is Mazda-6. It is so fast. They call it zoom-zoom how fast it is. But I cannot say it’s unexpensive. . . inexpensive?. . . inexpensive (laughing). (oral) There are not too many inexpensive cars that are nice.

Such incidental focus on form can be enhanced by links to various online resources and supplemental materials as in the following example from the voicethread ‘Say Hello’ http:// voicethread.com/share/2028497/. T: S1: T: S2:

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(oral) Hello! My name’s Lynn. (written) If you notice - you can say ‘My name is . . . . .’. . or ‘My name’s . . . . . .’ - ‘. . . name’s’ = the short form of ‘name is’. (unintelligible) (written) Hi Ester, I’m afraid your recording didn’t work. Check this VT:- http:// voicethread.com/?#q+sound+settings.b415.i3143. (oral) Hi, my name is Maynor. I come to El Salvador.

Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments

T: S3: T:

(written) Hi Maynor, Well done. Just one thing, you need to say: - ‘I come from El Salvador’’ (It sounded like ‘I come to El Salvador’.) (oral) Hello, my name is Charuka. I am from Sri Lanka (mispronounced). (written) Charuka, we pronounce Sri Lanka like Shree Lanker. http://www.howjsay. com/index.php?word=Sri+Lanka

While focusing on the structure of introductions, this teacher directs student attention to other forms as they come up conversationally; the names of countries and ‘to come to’ vs. ‘to come from’, for example.

Calling attention to lexis Oral asynchronous modes are particularly useful for learning and reinforcing new vocabulary in the target language. Like in the oral synchronous examples we examined in Chapter 2, there are ample opportunities for teachers and learners to access visual equivalents and translations for new words and expressions in online venues. Oral recording can be made use of to model the pronunciation of new words and to model their use in spoken contexts. Indeed, by making and collecting audio clips of many different native speakers using the target words or phrases, learners can hear new words spoken by those with a range of dialects and speaking patterns, thus extending their ability to comprehend in contexts and situations well beyond the language instruction environment.

Task-level attention to lexis The design of any solid language learning task requires that focal vocabulary needed for successful task processes be reviewed and highlighted in some manner. This can be accomplished in any number of ways using the oral asynchronous in conjunction with other modalities; text, visuals, video, animations, etc. These multimodalities can both enliven the task toolkit where focal vocabulary can be continually accessed and attention drawn, as well as inserted in ongoing task conversations for clarification and calling attention to features such as pronunciation and appropriate use. Again, the greatest affordance of oral asynchronous modes is the control learners can exercise over how much and how often a recorded sequence is repeated and the capacity to rerecord posts until a communicative standard is met. That also means that any online resources that might aid comprehension and production can be accessed at the same time. Such resources to support understanding and using new vocabulary come in the form of (1) intonation within audio posts that highlight a word use and its meaning; (2) visual supports to link meaning; (3) and highlighting text that support meaning. In an intermediate ESL/EFL discussion on talking about the weather, the instructor uses intonation in her oral asynchronous post to draw learners’ attention to a new lexical item. This audio post is inserted in a student post about the weather and outdoor activities in order to draw attention to a potentially novel lexical item that can be used in subsequent

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discussion. In the same intermediate ESL/EFL discussion, the instructor pastes in a video clip of a dark, lightening-filled sky accompanied by the sounds of thunder along with her audio post (Figure 2). Finally, in the same discussion, the instructor simply uses visual highlighting of a focal lexical item, highlighting that indicates that by clicking on the highlighted word, an audio version of the word will play. T: T: T:

(oral) It’s too chilly (brrr sound) to go swimming. (oral) We need to be careful during thunderstorms. (oral) We’ll need to keep an eye on the barometer.

Figure 2 Voice presentation activity

To call attention to lexis, instructors use both visual and voice emphases. An ESL instructor provides students with instances of common phrases used to talk about the weather. While she reads these phrases, she underscores them on the slide (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Visuals and voice

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T:

(oral; with emphasis) SUNNY (underscores the word). (oral; with emphasis) IT’S SUNNY (underscores the phrase)

In this next example the focus is on teaching Turkish words denoting food for beginners. It is called ‘A Tour of a Turkish Breakfast’. The teacher makes pictures of food which she supplies with English transliterations (Figure 4). T:

(written) Here we have a selection of Turkish breads. They’re all salty. The round rings are covered in sesame seeds. They’re sold on the street all day long and make a simple, cheap snack. (oral) They are called ‘simit’ and white bread is called ‘ekmek’. Hmm. . . (laughing) actually my last name is Smith and as Turkish doesn’t have a ‘th’ sound and doesn’t allow consonant clusters at the beginning of the words, people can’t say Smith and they end up saying ‘simit’. Simit. Simit. Which makes me sound like a bread roll (laughing)

Figure 4 Visuals, text and voice

In the following example from http://voicethread.com/share/1364658/, discussion participants were provided a task toolkit with phrases used for expressing opinions. Participants were asked to discuss whether cell phones are necessary or not using those phrases (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Task-level attention to lexis using a task toolkit

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P1:

P2: P3:

P4: P5:

(oral) As I see it, cell phone can be used and abused. In other words, I think there are many things that cell phones can be used for positive communication but I personally believe that especially for children, if they want cell phones, they pay for them themselves. (oral) I feel that texting is a great way to keep in contact with friends. (oral) If you ask me, I cannot live without a cell phone these days. Our life is so fast-paced. Everyone expects an answer yesterday. And if you are in a business area like myself, boy, you need a cell phone for every aspect of your life. (oral) Personally I think that cell phones are just indispensable. You really need them for your life in case of emergency or you can call your family. (oral) In my opinion, there are people who use them in many different ways not only to communicate but I think the latest changes are not as necessary as the chat. Very positively to the development of society I feel that using a cell phone is a tool that is already part of us in our lives and is a personal object I do not think people can be without a tool. And if you ask me about this, I think everyone should properly use the cell without damaging their ears with music or chatting on the phone all the time is important for the development of communication in a very quick and effective manner.

Incidental attention to lexis As we discussed in the context of the oral synchronous mode, visuals can be called up at any time during online conversations to clarify the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items. The oral asynchronous mode is distinct in that both instructors and students have the luxury of more time to assemble and post multimodal messages. For incidentally occurring vocabulary words with which learners struggle, they can, for example, be asked to repeat the word five or ten times, use it in a sentence, then use it in a question. This recorded post can be saved in a learner’s personal online space for review at any time, prior to a quiz, for example. In voice discussions, voice messages are often accompanied by text remarks, usually functioning as organizing or clarifying tools when incidental focus on lexis occurs. In the activity on http://www.voxopop.com/topic/ecc9f625-43f0-49eb-a3e0-79f8088c7c9f#. VEFNCRa5LdU a group of English learners discusses the topic ‘Have you ever been influenced by a movie?’ While the oral conversation between two interlocutors is entirely on topic whereby they provide their own examples of the movies and reasons why they influenced them, their text messages are focused on clarifying the title of the movie. In this example, participants focus on lexical items with the help of both voice and text. NNS1:

NNS2:

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(oral) I watched several musical films like Phantom of the Opera. It is so impressive. I haven’t watched the Chicago yet. And you mentioned about the film about the Jewish family. I want to know the title. Please type the title of the film you’ve mentioned in the message option. (written) Please type the title of the film about the Jewish family. (oral) I don’t have any program telling you the title of the movie especially I think that you should see it. It’s amazing. For the topic, for the actors and also for the music. The music is it is classical but it is also musical. It is amazing. It’s just amazing. (written) the title is ‘the fiddler of the roof’.

Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments

Voice forums such as voxopop are particularly useful for incidental focus on lexis. Learners can acquire a substantial amount of new vocabulary by listening to their virtual interlocutors and responding to them. Here a group of English learners practices their English skills by discussing the topic of animal rights at http://www.voxopop.com/topic/ d365f8e9-98e4-45f b-badc-8e551f483fde#.VEFRtha5LdU. Each participant contributes to the discussion focusing on one of the aspects of the problem thus providing a set of vocabulary items that pertain to their particular aspect. NNS1:

NNS2:

NNS1:

NNS3:

NNS2:

NNS1:

(oral) My uncle is a hunter. Actually I’m against hunting because I consider it useless but for hunters it’s sport. Here is the video about Brigitte Bardot and her advocating for animal rights. (written) Hunting Brigitte Bardot www.google.com/ hostednews/afp/article/ALeq (oral) I’m really interested in animal rights. I even was a member of an organization dealing with animal rights. We tried to force politicians to change some regulations against animal hunting. And in my private life, in my everyday life, I follow this recommendation to not to harm any animal and to deal with them in a positive way, to treat them well. I’m a vegetarian myself. (oral) I would never hunt or fish but my father has always been a fisherman. My uncle has always been a hunter. My grandfather was a hunter. But if I think about what I eat, I like different types of fish, fried or baked. And I like eating meat, of course. (oral) Sometimes we need to hunt or fish because it’s our nature. It’s a human nature. If you have to survive, you have to do fishing and hunting. We cannot avoid that. It’s difficult to draw the line between protecting animals and hunting and fishing. (written) sport hunting :(( (oral) I would like to address these two topics: eating meat and sport hunting. Even though I am a vegetarian, I’m not against eating meat. Eating meat has deep roots in our culture. But as for hunting for sports, I fail to understand why people especially from Western high developed countries go to the forest and kill innocent animals. I think it’s really horrible. This is done for pure sport and this is really cruel. (written) hunting in Italy rome.angloinfo.com/information/17/hunting.asp stray animals

The first participant in the above discussion introduced the theme of hunting and fishing thus steering two other participants to focus on the lexical items related to this: hunting, fishing, sport, etc.

Corralling Task-level corralling One of the most effective methods of corralling learners into using a focal form or lexical item is using an audio dubbing assignment. This kind of activity makes excellent use of the

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oral synchronous mode. Learners are assigned a brief video clip with no audio. The video can depict either people talking, in which case a learner or learners would be charged with dubbing their voices, or a documentary-like scene in which case a learner or learners would be assigned to provide commentary for the visuals (Figure 6). The visual context and content of the video clips can be aligned with current focal target language and/or language for review. Appropriate task toolkits can thereby be made accessible for learners to access while undertaking the assignment. The dubbed audio portions can then be reviewed and evaluated by both instructor and peers.

Figure 6 Task-level corralling. Dubbing

(the video displays two women talking) S1: S2: S1:

(oral) Здравствуйте, Татьяна Денисовна. Как у вас дела? [Hello, Tatiana Denisovna. How are you doing?] (oral) Хорошо, Лена. А у тебя? [Good, Lena. How are you?] (oral) Неплохо. [Not bad.]

The task toolkit with the greeting/farewell phrases is provided to students in both in written and oral forms. Another means of task-level corralling in the oral asynchronous mode consists of posting recorded instructor utterances that steer the requisite response to use the focal forms and/ or lexis for the task at hand. In the next scenario, a pair of beginning ESL/EFL learners has posted their audio post assignment of a direction asking and giving role play task. The focal forms in the task’s task toolkit consist of certain vocabulary items.

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across from next to right left corner on the ___ turn walk you will see

The task toolkit contains picture icons of those items. A simple map of labeled city streets and landmarks is provided along with the model dialog (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Task-level corralling. Locations and directions

When reviewing one of the pair’s recorded role play, the instructor notes that both learners are inserting an extra ‘to’ in their sentences; e.g. You turn to right, You turn to left. In her recorded post, she says the following to the pair. T:

(oral) I see. You turn RIGHT at CHURCH Street, then you turn LEFT at STATE Street. Can you please repeat these directions? WHERE do you turn?

The teacher thereby corrals the learner into supplying the appropriate form. The beauty of the oral synchronous mode is that learners can replay this post as many times as they need to hear the correct form and the instructor can repost the post as many times as need be for the learners to attend to the correct model. At any time, the instructor can also complement her post with visuals representing the oral directions. An ESL teacher provides mid-beginning students with a picture asking them to discuss what they think is going on in the picture. Students discuss possible choices. They are reminded via a task toolkit that they are expected to use vocabulary to express emotions

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in ways that involve participles such as ‘scared’, ‘thrilled’, ‘surprised’, ‘stressed’, etc. (Figure 8). T: (oral) Tell the story about this picture using your own voice. P1: (written) I think there was a giant rat running across their floor, so they. . .

Figure 8 Task-level corralling. Emotions

As an extension, the instructor can ask students to upload pictures on a given topic and describe them using an appropriate toolkit in the archives. In the following example, ESL students are asked to find funny sport pictures and describe them in English. S:

(uploads the picture; Figure 8) (oral) This player is caught and stuck on the net. He run over speed limit and lost his control. So nobody in the team could unlock him.

In being asked to describe events in a picture, students are corralled into using, in this case, constructions with past tense action verbs ‘ran’, ‘got’, ‘hit’, ‘laughed’, etc.

Incidental corralling At any point in a synchronous or asynchronous oral or written conversation, instructors can make good use of the oral asynchronous mode to guide learners in producing target forms and lexical items. The use of voice and intonation in this regard can be quite compelling – it is, after all, the voice in the live classroom that accomplishes this kind of corralling of learner output. The stretching out of the final syllable with question intonation in such a corralling prompt is quite common in English: T:

(oral) You turn right (pause) at (pause)?

Using intonation, an instructor’s corral could in effect be a cloze sentence with the ‘mmmm’ sound serving as the blank learners are corralled to complete. T:

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(oral) So, you turn right at mmmm Street?

Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments

Similar corralling audio posts can focus on pronunciation, syntax and clarification of learner comprehension. In the following description task, a learner’s audio response indicates that she is struggling with pronouncing the English word kitchen. S: T:

(oral) You go living room into chichen. In chichen I see two window. . . (oral) Kit – chen. Kit – chen. You go into ?

Again, by virtue the oral asynchronous, the learner can repeat this teacher audio post as many times as she wishes and rehearse prior to recording and re-recording her corrected response. Because this is an audio fi le, she can also save it in a special folder that in this case she has entitled Needs More Work. The asynchronous nature of voicethreads often corrals students into using constructions that are not necessarily required but that can be used logically in responses. Students elaborating on topics can look up structures that can help them further express their thoughts. In this example from a German class the teacher asked her students to answer a set of questions about what food they prefer, what food they don’t like and what food they like the most. Some students having answered all these questions also recorded their comments on what food they hate the most. T:

S1:

S2:

(oral and written) Was magst du essen? Was magst du nicht essen? Was magst du lieber Eis oder Brezel? Was magst du am liebsten? [What do you like to eat? What do you not like to eat? What do you prefer ice cream or pretzels? What do you like most?] (oral) Ich mag das Eis, das Stück Kuchen, die Karotte und der Spinat. Ich nicht mag die Gurken, die Auberginen and die grünen Bohnen. Ich mag das Eis lieber. Ich mag das eis liebsten auch. [I like ice cream, cakes, carrot and spinach. I don’t like pickles, eggplants and green beans. I like ice cream better. I like ice cream the most.] (oral) Ich mag das Brot und die Tomate. Ich mag es night Spinat and Kuchen. Ich mag Brezel lieber. Ich mag die Süßigkeiten am liebsten. Ich hasse Zwiebel am meisten. [I like bread and tomatoes. I don’t like spinach and cake. I like more pretzel. I like candy the most. I hate onion the most.]

Having the time to construct their answers can incidentally corral learners into going over the assigned structures and explore something new and not required but certainly conversational. Answering the questions not in real time assists students to use supplemental materials and construct their responses carefully.

Saturating A cornerstone of language learning, especially at beginning levels, is repetition. The more one encounters a form or lexical item in the target language, be it in written and/ or aural form, the more likely one is to remember and incorporate that language into

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one’s developing repertoire. A concomitant instructional conversation strategy for language education has thereby been to saturate instructional utterances and design instructional conversation tasks that saturate the learner with the targeted language of the moment. In oral asynchronous modes, instructors have ample time to generate oral plus written and visual posts that indeed accomplish this well. Not only can she saturate by oral repetition, but she can make both meaning and form triply redundant by incorporating multiple modalities as in the following example. Here low intermediate learners of ESL/EFL have been working on a themed module on things that one can and can’t depend on. In the task toolkit is an ever expanding list of vocabulary items that describe such things:

a politician a car salesman a real estate agent a weather forecast a bus schedule an electronic translator

Because these are new vocabulary items, the instructor makes a point to saturate her oral posts with these terms as in the following: T:

(oral) Yes, you can’t depend on a bus schedule. Bus schedules are almost always wrong. I have a bus schedule that I can’t depend on to come to class. I know several people who have bus schedules they can’t depend on. Bus schedules make them late for class and appointments. Which bus schedule do you use to come to class? Is your bus schedule correct?

The use of online resources can be truly creative. In the following example, an ESL instructor created a voice thread for students to use when practicing English pronunciation. She also provides an animated illustration of the song You Brush Your Teeth. The song itself is saturated with the phrase ‘You brush your teeth’ (Figure 9). The animated context makes the pronunciation task more relaxing and can free beginning level students from the embarrassment and anxiety often associated with pronunciation exercises. T:

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(oral) When you wake up in the morning, it’s a quarter to one And you want to have a little fun, You brush your teeth ch ch ch ch, ch ch ch ch. . . You brush your teeth ch ch ch ch, ch ch ch ch. . . When you wake up in the morning, it’s a quarter to two And you want to find something to do, You brush your teeth ch ch ch ch, ch ch ch ch. . . You brush your teeth ch ch ch ch, ch ch ch ch. . .

Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments

Figure 9 Saturating and visual clues

Saturation can very positively impact students’ target language output. Students tend to notice the words and constructions that are repeated in messages especially when the words are given in their different forms and variants as in the following: NNS1:

(oral) Hello everybody! The next topic is a stress. I guess the job market and private life can feel stressful. And I’d like to ask you a question. To reduce your stress, to not to be stressed all the time, what do you do? And how you cope with your stress?

Free voice thread sites such as voxopop.com also allow learners to practice interacting with native speakers beyond the course. As in the following, an article or TV show can spark lively, vocabulary-rich conversation. In the following from http://www.voxopop.com/ topic/99010370-9248-429b-a080-d1f0b70df8c0#.VD7M4Ba5LdX, the group of English learners discuss the topic ‘Dentist’s drill and other irrational fears’. Such phrases as ‘irrational fears of’, ‘fear of’, ‘scare’, ‘fearful’, ‘phobia’, etc. are on the radar of the conversation. P1: (oral) Hello, everybody! If you want to have a look at the following link, please click. (written) http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/general/sixminute/ 2011/01/110112_6min_dentist_page.shtml (oral) This program is about the dentist’s drill and also about irrational fears. I would like to tell you two things. First is that I hate going to the dentists. I should go to the dentist every year to check my teeth. Instead the last time I went in 2007 only to check them. I fear pain because once

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P2:

P3: P4:

P1: P5:

I went to a doctor and I felt real pain. I also have an irrational fear of heights: balconies. . . If I look down, I’ll get dizzy. (written) No fear of dentist but fear of height. (oral) I don’t have a fear of drill and of pain but I would share your fear of height, for example, when I’m on a tower and I look down I feel myself quite unpleasant and don’t really like it. But it’s not totally irrational I think. It has a reason. May be it’s like a protecting mechanism. May be I’m a bit exaggerating. May be I’m a bit too sensitive. But generally I would say I don’t have any irrational fears. (oral) I’m having a fear of injections. The most fearful factor is injections. (written) Apiphobia Acarophobia Acerophobia phobialist.com/ (oral) I found this site containing the list of phobias. Based on that, I can say that I have three phobias: apiphobia – fear of bees, acarophobia – fear of insects and acerophobia – fear of sourness. Actually I don’t like to eat sour food like oranges and lemons. (oral) Thank you so much for that list. There are so many phobias. (oral) Yes, many people have dental phobia even my children do not like to go to dentists because of the needles and the smell of medicine.

Here saturating utterances with certain phrases in both written and oral forms leads to internalizing them via direct participation. Such multi-party conversations are a great opportunity for learners to be exposed to various forms of the target vocabulary and grammatical structures.

Using linguistic traps The oral asynchronous mode can be used effectively to trap learners into using the focal forms and lexis of a lesson or module. Instructor posts that respond both to meaning and to the learner’s need to re-form their post to be phonologically, lexically or grammatically correct can be designed and recorded to this end. By trapping learners, we call their attention to the focal language and use instructional conversation in such as way as to force them to adjust their output accordingly. Again, the luxury of the asynchronous mode is the element of unlimited time: time for instructors to design effective traps, and time for learners to make use of instructor posts and other available resources online to refashion their responses using the correct language. A simple generic audio post reminder to learners to: Check the task toolkit can serve as an effective trap that directs learner attention to the focal language they are to use productively. Other forms of traps can complete the phrase or sentence prompts that again make use of instructor intonation to signal the need for learners to supply the missing, required information thus trapping them into using the target language in the task toolkit. Linguistic traps often take the form of questions asked in a way that ‘traps’ students in using only particular forms as in the next example. ESL students are asked questions that make it impossible to avoid using the present progressive form in their answers.

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T:

(oral and written; page 1) On the next pages you will see pictures of ‘actions in progress’. Click the record button at the bottom center of the page to record your sentence. Describe what you see by saying a complete sentence using the present continuous form. There is an example on the next page. (oral and written; page 2) What is the baby doing? He is sleeping. (Figure 10) (oral and written; page 3) What is the girl doing?

Figure 10 Linguistic traps. Teachers ‘trap’ students

S:

(oral) The girl is skiing.

The great way to ‘trap’ students into using target vocabulary and constructions are so-called guided dialogs when students are provided with models and later with just some parts of the dialogs into which they have to fill in the missing parts (Figure 11) as in the following activity from http://voicethread.com/share/4722455.

Figure 11 Linguistic traps. Guided dialogs

T1: (oral and written) Do you like juice or smoothies best? T2: (oral and written) I like smoothies best. (on the slide: D. . . you l. . . juice o. . . smoothies b. . .?)

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S1: (oral) Do you like juice or smoothies best? (on the slide: I l. . . smoothies b. . .) S2: (oral) I like smoothies best. Linguistic traps can occur spontaneously during the flow of a conversation when discussion participants ask each other questions related to the topic of their discussion or when they share their opinions as in the following example from http://www.voxopop.com/ topic/faccc0cd-c8a3-4c26-afc4-e915598e11c5#.VEAfaxa5LdU. ESL learners discuss the topic ‘Complaining’ based on BBC Learning English series. The site provides a vocabulary task toolkit (Figure 12). to make a fuss to make a scene to annoy to irritate formal complaint

Figure 12 Linguistic traps. Learners ‘trap’ each other

P1: (written) www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/general/sixminute/ 2011/07/110721_6min_english_complain_page.shtml (oral) I know that British don’t like complaining. What about your country? Here in Italy we like to complain. We complain a lot. And I’m one of these complainers. I often lose my temper. If there is something wrong or something that I consider wrong, sometimes I make a

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P2:

P1:

P2:

P1:

fuss. I have also made scenes when I was in unpleasant situations. I don’t think that formal complaints are useful. I do my complaints on Facebook joining the groups who complain about something or I think the good form of complaints is not to pay bills but I fear of charges. What about in your countries? Do you make a fuss? (oral) I think everybody gets into a situation when they have to complain even though they don’t want to do that. It’s hard for me to complain and make a fuss. I have never complained about food. I mean about the taste of food. But I complain when a waiter is late. Sometimes I even cancel my order when it’s too late. (oral) I remember complaining many times about rudeness, rudeness of people in general and employees in offices. It also happened to me to change things I bought because they did not fit or suit. I also in general have seven days to return things I don’t like. It depends on shops. Some shops give you a voucher to spend in their shop to buy another thing but other shops give back the money paid and so you can also go away without buying anything. (oral) Sometimes they even forget the order. Sometimes my family gets into a bad mood because of that. I mean we are so hungry but we did not get some food. It doesn’t happen too often but when we have this problem, we won’t go to that restaurant again. We’ll try to find another place. (oral) Oh yes! You’ve mentioned something that is very annoying, when you go to a restaurant and you order but you never get food. I get very nervous and I also don’t want to go to that restaurant anymore.

These two learners of English successfully use the vocabulary from the task toolkit on the website. By asking questions ‘What about in your country?’ and ‘Do you make a fuss?’ the first learner ‘trapped’ the second one into using target vocabulary items such as ‘complain’ and ‘make a fuss’. The second learner ‘trapped’ the first one into staying on the subject of complaining about delayed orders in restaurants.

Modeling Again, the oral asynchronous mode allows for as much time as instructors need to record models using their own voices, find and attach the voices and images of native speakers modeling the same targets, locate and add to modeled speech still and moving images that support comprehension and, in the case of pronunciation, adding cutaway images of vocalization and/or spectrographic images of the targeted language. Such multimodal posts can effectively model and even amplify the language currently under study. Posts to which learners may want to refer at a later time can of course be stored in the personal file folder of their choice for later review and reference. To model authentic uses of the targets that appear in a task toolkit, in oral asynchronous modes instructors can enlist the voices of other speakers and engage in audio theater. If

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non-verbal gesturing is deemed key to a particular model, if the non-verbal behavior is particular to the target culture and not that of the learners, then video clips can be likewise fashioned and posted as models or simply located from internet video repositories. In the following, for example, the focal language for this ESL/EFL is language and culturally appropriate behavior (in this case, in the US) for apologizing for having forgotten something. A typical non-verbal behavior that accompanies verbal apologies is the open palms facing up and the shrugging of shoulders. Several video clips of native speakers apologizing while doing the ‘palms up and shrug’ are supplied as links from the task toolkit as models for apologizing in US English (Figure 13). Video 1: Video 2: Video 3: Video 4:

(man, oral) My apologies. . . (man, oral) I’m very sorry! (woman, oral) Pardon me. (man, oral) Please forgive me.

Figure 13 Modeling supplemented by videos

Modeling authentic dialogs in voicethreads is productive in that students can listen to them as many times as they want, repeat and respond accordingly as in the following activity on asking for and providing directions (Figure 14) at http://voicethread.com/ share/34182/.

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Figure 14 Modeling supplemented by visuals and drawing

P1: (oral) Please, please! Somebody help me! I’m lost! How do I get to the airport? Please help me? P2: (oral) Don’t worry. I can help you get to the airport. Go up River Street (drawing a line) to Third Avenue (drawing a line) and turn left (drawing a line). Then go along Third Avenue, go past the post office (drawing a line) and the flower shop on the left, go past the shopping mall on the right (drawing a line) go through the intersection of Park Street and Third Avenue. You’ll see the airport on the right across from the zoo and the ice cream shop. But you better hurry! You don’t want to miss your fl ight. P3: (oral) Maybe you can help me. I just parked my car in the parking garage on River Street and now I’d like to walk to the bookstore. Could you please tell me how to get to the bookstore from here? P1: (oral) Oh that’s easy. You want to go from the parking garage? Well just go straight down River Street two blocks (drawing a line), turn right on Second Avenue (drawing a line), go past the shoe store (drawing a line) and go past the Laundromat (drawing a line), turn right again (drawing a line) and the bookstore is on your left. You can’t miss it. Modeling can be accompanied with visuals, text and audios as in this example from an ESL lesson on describing people (Figure 15). At the beginning the teacher provides his students with a toolkit of face vocabulary and then models their use in a context. The teacher also provides task toolkits for describing eye color and hair.

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Figure 15 Modeling with visuals, text and audio attention

T:

T:

(oral; page 1) Before we begin, let’s have a quick review of face vocabulary. Here are many words that describe the face. Before I tell you the answers, take a few minutes to draw or say the meanings of the words. For instance, you could go ‘head’ and then circle the head. Have fun. (oral, page 2) All right. Now that you had a try, I’ll tell you what the meanings of the words are. As I’ve already said, this is the head (underscores the word and circles the appropriate part of the face). Now I’m going to describe one of these two lively ladies. Silvia has straight brown hair and she has green eyes. Have you guessed yet? Now I’ll tell you Silvia does not wear glasses. This is Silvia, right here. Now you should describe Kristina. This is Kristina.

Modeling can be followed by an activity allowing students to use the forms they had practiced in the modeling part of the task. In the following example, students practice their pronunciation of the construction ‘I could have been. . .’ (Figure 16) using the poem from http://voicethread.com/share/332702/:

Figure 16 Modeling and post-modeling task

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I could have been a soldier. I could have been a slave. I could have been an actor Standing on a stage. I could have been a dentist Pulling people’s teeth. I could have been. . . I could have been. . . I could have been a priest. After students practice their use of this structure in the voicethread, they are assigned to record their own sentences using the task toolkit ‘I could have been. . .’ telling about their own experiences and thoughts providing reasons for their choices. The model ‘I could have been a fireman because I like to rescue people and animals’ was provided and students were asked to follow the model. S1: S2:

(oral) I could have been a champion because I like to win. (oral) I could have been a musician because I like to play guitar.

In oral asynchronous modes modeling can be performed as a dialog between two or more people as in the example from this Spanish class. The teacher asked her students to record their answers to the question ‘¿Como es tu major amiga?’ [What is your best friend like?] She recorded a dialog with one of her students and uploaded it as a model to follow. T & S1: (oral) - ¿Como es tu major amiga? [What is your best friend like?] - Mi mejor amiga es muy cómica y baja. ¿Como es tu major amiga? [My best friend is very funny and short. What your best friend is like?] - Mi mejor amiga es muy simpatico y tiene los ojos castaño. [My friend is very nice and she has brown eyes.] S2: (oral) Mi mejor amiga es guapa. [My best friend is beautiful.] S3: (oral) Mi mejor amiga es pelirroja y vieja. [My best friend is red haired and old.]

Providing explicit feedback As with oral synchronous modes, explicit feedback can be provided silently via visual markings and cues in oral asynchronous modes. In addition, instructors can incorporate pre-recorded explication posts about the focal forms and lexis. These can be inserted into the online conversations as they develop. Learners can opt to open these explanatory audio files while reviewing their and their classmates’ online conversations. Additionally, these oral explanations can be accompanied by any number of supporting links and files; links to further explication, models and practice, files of the same. The beauty of this accessibility in asynchronous modes is that learners can select to attend to the kinds of explicit feedback they find most useful to them, be it aural, visual, textual, rules or examples. Oral asynchronous environments are particularly well suited for explicit correction, considering the asynchronous and recorded nature of the medium when students can

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repeatedly listen to the instructor’s postings, work more closely on their own utterances distributing their attention to meaning and form more equally, and spend some time on reaching clarity on the use of new forms. In a beginning level online Russian class, the assignment is to describe one’s own physical appearance. S: T:

S:

T:

S:

(oral) У меня есть коричневые волосы. Мои глаза тоже коричневые. [I have brown hair. My eyes are also brown.] (oral) Джон, вы сказали, что у вас каштановые волосы и карие глаза. А какие глаза и какие волосы у вашей мамы? [John, you said you have chestnut hair and hazel eyes. What kind of eyes and hair does your mom have?] (written) Is кареы [hazel] a better substitute for каречневиы [brown] when referring to eye color? (oral) Да, у меня есть каштановые волосы и карие глаза. У моей мамы голубые глаза и светлые и прямые волосы. [Yes, I have chestnut hair and hazel eyes. My mom has blue eyes and blonde straight hair.] (written) Да, the adjective карий [hazel] (карие [hazel] for plural) refers to eyes ONLY. Russians do not normally say коричневые глаза [brown eyes] but карие глаза [hazel eyes]. By the same token, the adjective каштановые [chestnut] refers to hair only. You can’t say каштановая ручка [chestnut pen] или карий карандаш [hazel pencil]. I’m glad you picked that up. Your next assignment is to describe a picture of a man (attached) and his physical appearance. (oral) У этот мужчины есть серьга. У него есть карие глаза и каштановые волосы. [This man has an earring. He has hazel eyes and chestnut hair.]

As is exemplified here, oral asynchronous modes are excellent for explicit feedback as the class discussion continues on two levels, oral – for discussing the topic, and written – for an accompanying discussion on meaning negotiation. Thus, the main discussion can run smoothly in an oral mode, without visible interruptions. The example from http://voicethread.com/share/2037430/ (see Figure 17) also illustrates the fact that the oral mode is for communication while the written channel is used more

Figure 17 Explicit feedback combined with references to cultural realia and modeling

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often for explicit feedback. In addition, written comments are often used by students to ask questions and by the teacher for providing all kind of models and references. (oral) I come from England but I live in Germany. (modeling) (oral) I come from France and I live in the capital Paris and my house is not at all like the picture. T: (written) Well done. I will try and find a more appropriate picture. One without a wonky chimney. :-) (reference to culture) S2: (oral) I come from Austria and the capital city is called Vienna. T: (written) Perfec. :-) BTW - You can simply say ‘The capital is Vienna’. (explicit correction) S2: (written) Is my intonation right? BTW, the chimney is fine :) (inquiry from a student) T: (written) The intonation was fine. Try to sound a bit more relaxed though. :-) (suggestions) S3: (oral) I come from Bulgaria but I live in United Kingdom. T: (written) !Note - We usually say ‘the United Kingdom’. I hope you are enjoying yourself there. :) (explicit correction) S4: (oral) I come from Lebanon and I live too from Lebanon. T: (written) Hi, Say ‘I come from Lebanon, and I live in Lebanon’. (explicit correction) S5: (oral) I come from Jordan and I live in Saudi Arabia. T: (written) Hi, Well done. ‘I come from Jordan, but I live in Saudi Arabia’, is better. We use ‘but’ because there is unexpected information in there.) Make sure you get the endings of words like ‘but’, otherwise you’ll sound like you come from Nottingham. :-) (grammar reference) T: S1:

Here the teacher used written channels to praise, correct, provide grammar explanations, model, answer student questions and make cultural comments. All of this was accomplished without breaking the flow of communication. As is reflected in the following example of a mid beginning Spanish class, instructional conversations can be readily enhanced using explicit feedback with grammar notes, videos, audios, online exercises, etc. that can be easily viewed and accessed from the instructors’ postings. T: S:

T:

T:

T:

(oral) ¿Te gusta la cocina mexicana? ¿Qué te gusta en particular? [Do you like Mexican cuisine? What do you like in particular?] (oral) Me gustan los tacos. ¡Los burritos es (wrong verb) buenos! ¡Y los burritos es (wrong verb) deliciosos! [I like tacos. They is (wrong verb) good. And burritos is (wrong verb) delicious.] (oral) Me gustan los burritos también. Los burritos SON (with emphasis) deliciosos. [I like burritos too. Burritos ARE (with emphasis) delicious.] (simultaneously provides a visual with the verb conjugations by adding a link to a grammar website http://www. learningspanishlikecrazy.com/Spanish_Grammar/Lesson007.html) (written; in next turn) Look at this video. It might give you more ideas about Mexican food. (provides a link to a video from a website http://www.dailymotion.com/swf/x8s2m0 as in Figure 18; students can view the video by clicking on the play button right on the screen; the video contains the grammar material in a context) (written; in next turn) Do this exercise (provides a link to http://www.spanishdaddy.com/ Tests/VerbLessons/SerVrsEstar.aspx with an online self-check exercise on the use of Spanish verbs).

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Figure 18 Explicit feedback. References to grammar materials, videos and online exercises

This example illustrates the numerous available tools (grammar notes, videos, audios and exercises) that can be used in layering explicit feedback into different forms and activities and, consequently, making it more effective. Oral asynchronous, like oral synchronous, allows for the use of iconic metalanguage in explicit feedback. In the following example from a Japanese class, an instructor provides a visual iconic representation of the concept of being animate/inanimate, critical in selecting correct grammatical structures in Japanese. S1: S2: T:

S2: T:

(oral) Mari-san no here nyu a? Nanik arimaska. [What is in Mari’s room?] (oral) Niko a um. . . arimas. . . [A cat is (wrong verb) there. . .] (written) Be careful! Niko [cat] is alive, right and moves around. So arimas [is] isn’t the right verb. What is it then? (simultaneously provides an animation of a moving person, as in Figure 19) (oral) Uh. . . Imas? [Is (correct but without a required subject mark)] (oral) Hai [Good]. In this case, Niko GA (with emphasis) imas [A cat IS (with emphasis) there], OK?

Figure 19 Explicit feedback. Iconic metalanguage

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This example illustrates different forms for explicit feedback. The Japanese instructor uses the written mode in parallel with the oral conversation: corrections, notes, examples, references to web sources, etc. He brings some elements of explicit correction into the oral mode only after the written feedback does not produce the correct output. His oral explicit feedback is partially in Japanese.

Providing implicit feedback For many learners, explicit feedback provided in real time can derail the meaning-quality of the target language utterances they are in the process of constructing. Thus, language educators often incorporate implicit feedback in what are otherwise conversational utterances as in the following ESL/EFL example: T: S: T: S:

(oral) Gene, what did you do yesterday? (oral) Yesterday I pick flowers. (oral) Oh, how nice! You pickED flowers, right? What else did you do? (oral) I picked flowers. And I watched TV. Yeah. . . I watched TV.

The asynchronous and recorded nature of oral asynchronous environments allows for implicit feedback to be readily noticed by learners. Meaning/form-focused feedback (Table 1 on p. 71) is a common technique. T:

S:

T:

S:

(oral) Здравствуйте. Расскажите о себе. Как вас зовут? Где вы живёте? Сколько вам лет? Где живут ваши мама и папа? [Hello. Tell about yourself. What is your name? Where do you live? How old are you? Where do your Mom and Dad live?] (oral) Здравствуйте. Меня зовут Джон. Я играю гитара (wrong ending; missed preposition). Я живу в Колорадо. Мне 18 лет. Мою маму зовут Джессика, и моего папу зовут Пол. Они живут в Колорадо. [Hello. My name is John. I play guitar (wrong ending; missed preposition). I live in Colorado. I’m 18. My Mom’s name is Jessica and my Dad’s name is Paul. They live in Colorado.] (oral) Здравствуйте, Джон. Вы играете только НА ГИТАРЕ (with emphasis)? А вы играет на рояле? Вы играете на барабане? У вас есть друг? На чём он играет? [Hello, John. Do you play guitar only? Do you play piano? Do you play drum? Do you have a friend? What does he play?] (oral) Да, я играю только на гитаре. У меня есть друг. Его зовут Стив. Он играет на барабане. [Yes, I play guitar (correct ending; correct preposition) only. I have a friend. His name is Steve. He plays drums.]

In this example from a Russian class, the instructor gently corrects a student’s mistake in the use of the phrase ‘to play a musical instrument’ and also engages him in a continuation of this asynchronous conversation by asking questions that model the correct use of the problematic construction. At the same time she ‘traps’ the student into using the correct form. Here is another example from an ESL class in which one student corrects another one by providing the corrected form as a part of a conversation.

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S1:

S2: S3: S1:

(oral) My name is Maria. I live in Guayama, Puerto Rico. In my free time, I like to read. I prefer to read novels but in addition I like history, political, biography and any kinds of books. (oral) Nice to meet you. (oral) I also like to read. Have you read (incorrect form of the past tense verb) the last book of Tom Braun? (oral) No, I have not read (correct form of the past tense verb) that book yet but I want to.

Summary Comprehending naturally paced spoken language can be a challenge even in one’s native language. In a new target language this is particularly challenging. The oral asynchronous mode is particularly supportive of comprehension in this regard. Audio files generated by instructors and those that are found material can be used to great advantage as primary and corrective models of the focal language. Instructor-generated oral posts have the distinct advantage of being tailored to the particular group and even student and can thus target learner utterances in ways that are conversational (authentic, meaning focused), personalized (incorporating shared information, students’ names, etc.) and optimally instructional.

End-of-chapter notes Free voice recording resources http://voxopox.com http://Audacity.com http://vocaroo.com/ Center for Language Education Research (CLEAR) http://clear.msu.edu/clear/ Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA) http://www.carla.umn.edu/

Free resources allowing for oral asynchronous communication Oral asynchronous is a versatile environment. Among the four instructional venues, it allows for the largest mixture of integrated pieces of text, video and audio. It allows for combinations of languages, genres, cultures in the same virtual room. Using such free

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resources as, for example, VoiceThread at http://voicethread.com instructors can create multilingual and multimodal threads as in the following example from http://voicethread. com/share/249658/. The thread moderator starts a discussion. Participant 1:

(oral; in English) Here is one of my avatars. I just wondered what you think I’m like. You can answer in any language you want, you can answer in English, Spanish, French, German, Welsh, whatever language you want. At the end is the picture of me. How’d you like to comment on my avatar? Do you like me or not? (Figure 20)

Figure 20 VoiceThread

Participant 2: Participant 3:

Participant 4: Participant 5: Participant 6:

Participant 15:

(written; in English) Hello Lisa. Hope this doesn’t make people laugh at you too much. . . ;-) (draws a mustache, a beard and a nose on the avatar) (written; in Spanish) En este foto tienes un flor en el pelo. ¡Cuidado con este toro! [In this photo you have a flower in your hair. Taken care of with this bull!] (oral; in English) This is the avatar I most used to. So this is an avatar I mostly associate with you (written) Tha falt bàn air Lisa! (video plus voice; in English) Hi Lisa. Why do you think it’s my favorite avatar? It might have something to do with this thing standing behind you (circles the dog on the picture) Do you see him there? This bull. . . It does not make me very scared. It must be a nice friendly bull like my Angus. (written; in German) Ich glaube, dass Sie gern singen. [I believe that you like to sing.]

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Such a multilingual, multicultural, multiparty exercise can be useful for those trying to acquire more than one language simultaneously and/or those interested in different cultures and different perspectives on cultures, languages and interactions. Voicethreads can be used in multicultural communication to draw parallels between two languages and learn by comparison and finding cognates as a starting point as in the following example of English and French vocabulary for animals and their descriptions at http://voicethread.com/share/1577564/. P1: (oral) The alligator is notorious for its bone crushing bites. In addition, the alligator has been described as a ‘living fossil’, having been extant for 200 million years, beginning in the Mesozoic Era. P2: (oral) Voici un alligator. Il a une queue (tail) forte et il a beaucoup de dents! [Here’s an alligator. It has a tail (tail) high and has a lot of teeth!] P1: (oral) Cats have been associated with humans for at least 9,500 years, and are currently the most popular pet in the world. P2: (oral) Le chat est un animal domestique. Il ronronne, prrrrrrr. [The cat is a pet. He purrs, prrrrrrr.] P1: (oral) Flamingos often stand on one leg, the other tucked beneath the body. P2: (oral) Le flamant est un oiseau rose. Il habite près de l’eau. [The flamingo is a pink bird. He lives near water.] Discussions develop rapidly because participants are interested not only in acquiring English but in learning about different cultures and their customs. The discussion ‘Drinking Tea’ on http://www.voxopop.com/topic/290e34dd-539a-4499-923ddca4903df9b2#.VD7Nnha5LdU illustrates the motivational nature of multicultural communication with people eager to share and learn. P1: ( from Italy) (written) www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/general/ sixminute/2010/12/101209_6min_tea_page.shtml (oral) Do you drink tea? What kind of tea do you prefer? Is there any kind of a ritual in preparing tea? I know that in Russia people use a particular equipment called ‘samovar’. P2: ( from Japan) (written) Japanese tea ceremony youtubekensaku.com/ detail/7EcrbUc3iYs (Figure 21) (oral) I’d like to introduce the Japanese tea ceremony. I put a link for you to understand better the Japanese tea ceremony. They use a special tool. When I first time joined this ceremony I was confused and embarrassed because I totally did not know how to act. I just sit on my legs and waited for someone to serve the tea. It takes a lot of time. My legs hurt. P3: ( from Thailand) I went to Japan three times. I like green tea from Japan. I did not like it but my Japanese friend gave it to me as a present but when I had tried it I liked it. P4: ( from Sri Lanka) (oral) We are a nation of tea drinkers. No wonder why. Sri Lanka is one of the major producers of tea. We have a lot of tea plantations. I’m a tea addict. Every morning I drink black tea with milk and sugar. After that I drink green tea and ginger tea. I drink five cups of tea every day. P5: ( from France) (oral) In France we are used to drinking coffee. Italian coffee is very-very tasteful. It’s very strong. P6: ( from Germany) (oral) I don’t drink much tea.

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Figure 21 Voxopop

Links to online resources that participants add to their voice posts enhance this discussion making it more interesting and stimulating.

Combinations of online resources Often several online resources become combined in the series of activities on the same topic: blogs and oral asynchronous, Second Life, oral synchronous, etc. Modern technologies allow for embedding different applications into one another to create unique opportunities and smooth transitions between resources. Teachers can take the best from each application and link them in the same activity to create the best opportunities for their students to observe, communicate and learn. Teachers who use blogs and Second Life as a basis for their assignments can also create subactivities for them in different modes. Some instructors call such combined activities ‘mixers’. An ESL instructor conducts a blog for ESL learners on http://ellloblog.blogspot.com/ and embeds audio discussion activities from VoiceThread. Then, he creates a voice discussion thread on the same topic on voxopop to which he provides links from it to his blog. T:

(http://ellloblog.blogspot.com/search?updated-max=2009-06-02T16%3A53%3A0006%3A00) (written) I responded to everyone who commented on the voice thread. Thanks for participating! Click here to listen. (the link is provided) (clicking on the link brings learners to http://voicethread.com/?#u85925.b513413.i2736031 as in Figure 22)

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T:

T:

(oral) Hi. I’ve noticed on the survey I put up on the blog last week many of you responded that you need more output, more speaking in your English practice. So for Mixer # 90 this week I’m going to do a little experiment. I would like you to record short response into this page that you’re seeing right now and for the first five people that recorded response I will give you some suggestions about your pronunciation and about your grammar so you can speak little bit better. OK, record a short response, 30 seconds or so, about how you stay in shape, what you do to exercise and I’ll respond to the first five of you. (written) How often do you exercise? What do you like to do? How long do you usually work out? How do you stay motivated? (clicking on the link brings learners to http://www.voxopop.com/group/01fabd9f-57c2-4246a70f-596993e98e68) (written) Go to mixer #90 at elllo.org to hear some samples of how to answer. (oral) We’re doing a little experiment with a talkgroup discussion. I’d like to answer the question ‘How do you stay in shape?’ another words how do you exercise? And you can find some samples to this on Mixer number 90.

Figure 22 Blog, VoiceThread and Voxopop

Many language teachers who use Second Life start discussion threads on Voxopop and VoiceThread usually to clarify the meaning of common words or practice pronunciation (Figure 23). (in VoiceThread) P1: (on the slide; written) www.SecondLifeEnglish.com hospitalization approximately object (oral) hospitalization hos-pi-ta-li-zation approximately app-ro-xi-ma-tely approximately object ob-ject object (written) The word ‘object’ is pronounced differently when you use it as a verb. I have pronounced the noun here.

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Figure 23 SecondLife in VoiceThread and Voxopop

Combination of text and audio in oral asynchronous environments As we have seen, participants in oral asynchronous environments often switch to text mode to provide supplemental information or to steer focus on form or lexis. T:

(oral) Tea is usually drunk with breakfast. . .while eating breakfast. It is pronounced ‘chai’ in English. That’s easy word for us I guess. And the thing that the Turkish people like is the glass of this shape. Tea is drunk out of glass and it’s a small wasted glass, in Turkish ‘engebelle bardak’. And people put a little bit of sugar in their tea. . . it is. . . I don’t know. . . tea is a little bitter I find. So that’s pronounced ‘sheker’ in Turkish. So the s with a cedilla is a ‘sh’ sound, ‘sheker’ and the c with the cedilla is the ‘ch’ sound in ‘chai’. Chai and sheker. (written) Hi, this isn’t apple tea -I don’t think so many Turkish people really drink that - more the tourists. Lots of people do drink freshly brewed herbal teas, like mountain thyme for the digestion. But at breakfast I see everyone drinking normal black tea. great question - thanks :)) (Figure 24)

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Figure 24 Combination of text and audio

End-of-chapter activities Activity A. Injecting instructional conversation strategies Look at the following transcript of English learners discussing test taking. With a partner, locate spaces within these conversation threads where oral asynchronous instructional posts might guide and/or redirect these learners to improve their English. Why do you think those particular instructional strategies would be effective in this context? Would you use oral or written modes for your instructional posts? Why? Which eating utensils do you use in your country? NNS1:

NNS2:

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(oral) Hi everybody. Here is the topic. Which utensils do you use in your country? We, Japanese, all use chopsticks we call hassy when we eat something. Japanese food sushi and the other kind of food when we try to eat western food like spaghetti we change to the fork but some people like to eat spaghetti with a chopsticks. It is very funny. In my family we have all different chopsticks. My father has a long and kind of thick chopstick. And I and the other brother or sisters when we were kid we use shorter chopsticks. So each family member has their own chopsticks. And I like the chopsticks made of the bamboo or wood natural materials. I don’t like plastic or iron things. So how about you? What kind of utensil do you use in your country? I hope to hear about that. Thank you. (oral) Hello. So in France no chopsticks at all (laughing). We just have the western utensils that are usually for the day meal fork knife and spoon. So they are made usually of metal do be more precise of aluminum in fact. But I want to say that when there are special meals special not special meals but festive dinner for example so that Christmas or if you go to prestigious restaurants, you’ll see more utensils. So

Language learning and teaching in oral asynchronous online environments

NNS3:

NNS1:

usually it’s four forks, four knives and one or two spoons. I’ll try to explain it. In fact, you have a fork and a knife for the starter, a fork and a knife for the fish the fish plate and a fork and a knife for the meat and a fork and a knife for the cheese. And sometimes we have a fifth one for the day sets. If you eat dessert, you ask for a knife and a fork. As for the spoon, you may have a spoon for if you have a soup to eat big spoon and have a small spoon for the dessert. And there is also usually three glass three glasses a glass for the red wine a glass for the white wine and a glass for water. So it’s what you may find if you go to a prestigious restaurant. (oral) Hello to everyone. I have a question and wonder if NNS1 can reply to me. If I went in Japan at the restaurant I wonder if the waiter will ask me if I want to use fork, spoon or a knife. I’m just curious. Thank you. Bye. (oral) Hello NNS1. Your question is very very interesting to me. For foreigners and even for Japanese kid it is difficult to use a chopstick. You need time to practice chopstick. So when you visit Japanese restaurant you can ask the waiter to bring western utensils: a fork or spoon. Um. . . the most of Japanese waiters are nice to foreigners. So they don’t think it’s bad manner. So don’t worry and ask them. Um. . . is it clear now? Thank you.

Activity B. Applying instructional strategies to the task Analyze the following examples from an oral asynchronous discussion, identifying the instructional strategies they contain. Is it easy to say ‘I love you’ in your country? NNS1:

NNS2: NNS3:

(written) http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/video/2007/11/21/ VI2007112101814.html (oral) It give a very good idea of how difficult it is to say ‘I love you’ for Japanese women. So I have posted the link to the video regarding this topic and I would like to know if it is easy in your country to say ‘I love you’ to your partner to show affection. (oral) It’s definitely not easy for Finn to say ‘I love you’. I think Finns often compare to Japanese. They are alike, little shy. (oral) It’s the first time I hear that Japanese are compared to Finns. Usually Finns are compared to Swedes. Japanese are usually compared to Chinese, no? They have similar oriental cultures.

When you go to a restaurant what is the most important thing for you? NNS1:

NNS2:

(oral) When you go to a restaurant, what is the most important thing for you? I mean is the food the most important thing? Or the beverage is the most important things? Or the waiter? Or the waiters are the most important things? Or may be the decoration the most important thing for you? I mean the decoration of the dish or the decoration of the place? (oral) The important thing for me is the taste of the food. Decorations and the waiters are not so important. But if the waiter is so rude I may be don’t want to visit that restaurant. But food is the most important for me.

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NNS3:

(oral) Well I think the oldest sense that this kind of question would be you know the food but when I actually think about it, the most important thing for me the service and the atmosphere at the restaurant. Even if the food is not all that good, if the service is really great and the atmosphere is really good, you know I can still have very enjoyable time. Um. . . if you can get the food and the atmosphere and the service (laughing), obviously that’s fantastic. . . but yeah that’s the service and the atmosphere for me. When you go out to eat, you don’t just going out for the food, you go out for the experience of being out. So that’s sort of why I feel the way I do.

Activity C. Participating in oral asynchronous discussions Pretend that you are an ESL student. Using any available software or website for oral asynchronous communication participate in a discussion on the topic What is your Favorite Country to Travel to and Why? Add at least two postings to it, each at least 20 seconds long.

Activity D. Analyzing instructional conversation strategies in oral asynchronous mode Discuss the online conversation in which you participated in the previous activity. What instructional conversation strategies were used during this oral communication? What instructional conversation strategies appeared to be the most/least effective from your point of view? What factors have contributed to the degree of effectiveness of these instructional conversation strategies? In what situations and/or applying what instructional strategies, did you switch to written mode? In what situations and/or applying what instructional strategies do you prefer to stay in the oral mode? Complete the matrices below. Instructional strategies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Least effective

Factors influenced

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Instructional strategies

Situations

Oral mode

Written mode

Activity E. Creating a lesson plan Create a lesson plan that would include an oral asynchronous discussion for the language you teach. Include tasks and activities that you see as suitable for this environment. Provide a rationale for your design.

Activity F. Analyzing lesson plans Analyze your own lesson plan. How does the knowledge of the eight instructional conversation strategies you have learned about in this chapter and the affordances/ limitations of the oral synchronous environment influence your way of organizing the materials, tasks and activities? Write a one-page reflection, answering these questions.

Activity G. Analyzing video, audio and text in oral asynchronous environments Investigate the threads on http://voicethread.com or another available voice discussion board, searching for educational activities in the language you teach or ESL. Find examples when the use of video, audio and text is indeed instructionally effective. In what situations do you think those modes can be used interchangeably and why? In what situations do you think one mode has instructional advantages over the others and why?

Further reading Blake, R. (2005) Bimodal CMC: The glue of language learning at a distance. CALICO Journal 22 (3), 497–511. Ice, P., Curtis, R., Phillips, P. and Wells, J. (2007) Using asynchronous audio feedback to enhance teaching presence and students’ sense of community. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 11 (2), 3–25. McNeil, L. (2014) Ecological affordance and anxiety in an oral asynchronous computermediated environment. Language Learning Technology 18(1), 142–159. Volle, L. (2005) Analyzing oral skills in voice email and online interviews. Language Learning Technology 9 (3), 146–163.

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Non-intrusiveness—129 Time savers and L2 gatekeepers—130 Salience—132 Accessibility—134 Familiarity—137 Attentiveness—138 Summary—141

Chapter 4 summarizes the oral venues discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 and expands the notion of amplifying oral instruction using text and visuals. The following amplifications are discussed and illustrated: ■

Non-intrusiveness

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Time savers and gatekeepers

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Salience

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Accessibility

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Familiarity

Teaching languages online

Oral venues amplified via text and visuals In language teaching and learning, online instructional conversations in oral environments, both synchronous and asynchronous, are often amplified in two ways. 1. Oral communication is often supplemented with textual communication with voice being a primary means of communication, whereas text is used in various ways to amplify the oral component. 2. Oral communication becomes highly visualized: images, symbols, emoticons, charts, arrows, circling, underscoring, videos, embedded visuals, etc. Six factors can be viewed as influencing these two modes of amplification. 1. Non-intrusiveness: Text and visuals incorporated into oral venues make interruptions to conversations – potential interruptions such as comments, focus on form, requests of clarifications, summarizing, etc. – less intrusive. Indeed, their inclusion can be communicatively seamless. 2. Time savers and L2 gatekeepers: Text and visuals included in oral venues serve as time savers. They make any digressions from the main topic of conversation economical. In addition, they can be useful in avoiding switching to students’ native language and, therefore, can be used to function as L2 gatekeepers. 3. Salience: Text and visuals in oral venues make focus on meaning and focus on form more salient. 4. Accessibility: Unlike spoken words, text and visuals are accessible. It is impossible to review spontaneous oral speech in oral synchronous environments unless it is recorded and archived. On the contrary, text and visuals can be easily reviewed with a single mouse click. 5. Familiarity: Digital natives are quite fluent in these forms of multimodal communication. Their familiarity with text messaging and chatting creates a more comfortable and relaxed atmosphere during communication. 6. Attentiveness: Text chat is a great tool to involve as many students as possible in the task and be able to control their attentiveness all at once. Also, because of the often disembodied nature of the oral synchronous environments, texts serve as indications of student involvement and attentiveness. In oral modes of communication, text and visuals used in addition to voice can play different roles in the task: ■

textual/visual task toolkits;

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duplicating oral messages;

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web links;

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summaries;

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emphasis;

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expressing emotions;

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clarifications;

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negotiation of meaning;

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focusing on meaning;

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focusing on form;

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additional comments on the topic;

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modeling;

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substituting oral postings with textual ones at the beginning stage.

Chat boxes, callouts, added comment functions and small pop-up windows are usually the features through which oral modes are amplified with text. Emoticons, drawing, circling, underscoring, inserting shapes, adding images and embedding videos are common ways visuals can be used to supplement oral modes of instruction.

Non-intrusiveness As the main focus of language education is on meaningful, real-life communication, one would assume that every digression from the topic, be it for focus on form, a question, a comment, an association, or a summary, can be perceived by conversation participants as unnatural and intrusive to the point of being a conversation stopper. Teachers and students intuitively search for ways to make such digressions less disruptive. Focus on form, comprehension checks, commenting, or redirecting in oral modes are often performed by switching to a different modality that is undisruptive to the main conversation. In the following example from an oral synchronous portion of an online Spanish class, students are asked to describe the teacher whose photo is displayed on the slide. The students engaged in a meaning-focused task. They converse and laugh. In this situation, making explicit corrections could be perceived as intrusive and inhibiting to the generation and comprehension of meaning. Rather than halt the conversation, the instructor corrects a student very gently by using a visual (Figure 1). T: S: T:

(oral) ¿Cómo es Señora? ¿Cómo está Señora? [What kind of lady is this? How does the lady feel?] (oral) Señora esta inteligente. Señora esta contenta. [The lady is (wrong verb) smart. The lady is happy.] (laughing) (oral; laughing) I’m so glad you believe I’m smart! Señora (with emphasis) ES inteligente. Señora esta contenta (underscores ‘es’ and ‘ser’ and draws arrows pointing to the phrase ‘using ser here!!!’ and to the word ‘es’)

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Figure 1 Oral venues with text and visuals. Non-intrusiveness

S: T: S: T:

(oral) Oh! Right. Señora es (correct verb) inteligente. (oral) Excelente! [Excellent!] (oral) Señora es cómica y señora esta tranquila. [The lady is funny, and the lady is quiet.] (apploding; oral) Excelente! [Excellent!]

In the next example, students and their ESL teacher asynchronously discuss their attitudes about fast food in different cultures. While keeping the main discussion going, the teacher helps with lexis in the student’s utterance by adding a short text comment. S:

T:

(oral) In my country, we do not eat a whole lot of fast food. We usually cook home or go out to restaurants where we eat with families and friends. We usually eat a lot of pasta with bread and vegetables and. . . I forgot the word. . . (written) spaghetti? (oral) Here is the US people eat a lot of junk food unfortunately. We have chains of fast food restaurants such as McDonald’s, KFC and others.

Time savers and L2 gatekeepers Time is an issue in any instructional environment. Nothing saves time more in oral communication modes than the use of visuals that function as symbolic, iconic, metaphoric, or schematic representations of words. In the following example, a Russian

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instructor teaching in an oral synchronous environment uses symbols and drawings to keep the task going without spending time explaining to the students what was wrong in an utterance. Focus on form, thus, was performed very quickly without verbal interruption of the student’ utterances and by switching to the native language (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Oral venues with text and visuals. L2 gatekeepers

S: T: S:

(oral) Собака в кресле. [The dog is in the armchair.] (draws an armchair and a dog; shows with arrows that the dog can be on the armchair or inside of the armchair; draws a question mark) В кресле? [In the armchair?] (laughing) (oral) Собака . . . HA (with emphasis) кресле. [The dog is on . . . ON (with emphasis) the armchair.]

Text also can function as a time saver in oral asynchronous environments where students use text to express ideas that are not centrally relevant to the main conversation. In the text portion, they can make quick comments, for example. In an elementary German class, students are asked to tell about their families using celebrities instead of their family members. As annotation to one of the student’s oral presentation, others put their written comments about the celebrities he was referring to (Figure 3). S1:

S2:

(oral) Mein Bruders Name ist McLovin. Er ist zwanzig Jahre alt. Sein Haar ist braun und kurz. Er hat braune Augen. [My brother’s name is McLovin. He is twenty years old. His hair is brown and short. He has brown eyes.] (written) Ich liebe McLovin auch! [I love McLovin too!]

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S3:

(written) Ich liebe McLovin!! [I love McLovin!!] (oral) Das ist meine Schwester Ashley. [This is my sister Ashley.]

Figure 3 Oral venues with text and visuals. Time savers

The target language text comments added to the oral messages help students practice the language skills in two modes, save time and avoid switching to L1.

Salience Simply switching to another mode can also function as an attention getter. By using visuals and text, points can be emphasized and key ideas made more salient. For example, an ESL teacher starts a voice discussion thread ‘How’s the neighborhood where your family lives?’ explaining the topic, providing directions and asking navigating questions in the oral part of his message. When he realizes that topic is not stimulating any conversation, he adds a voice message repeating his question while giving textual models of possible answers. T:

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(oral) The question is how’s the neighborhood where your family lives? Perhaps you would like to make a physical description of the street or the tower top building where you stay. Perhaps you can tell us a little bit about your neighbors, who your grandmother loves to talk with or maybe you don’t know anybody in the neighborhood where you live. Describe as much as you can of your neighborhood and possibly your apartment or flat, the house where you live.

Oral venues amplified via text and visuals

T:

( four days later) (oral) What is it like where you live, where your family lives, or where you and your friends are? Tell us all about your neighborhood and your city or your town? (written) There are several cafés, food stores, stationery shops and a few pharmacies with 5 minutes walk in my rather quiet neighborhood.

Such textual models call attention to the task elements while prompting students to contribute to the voice discussion using following the model. Text and visuals in oral synchronous environments can make focus on meaning or focus on form more salient. In an activity about saying what your names are in Japanese, students occasionally make mistakes in pronunciation. The teacher underscores Japanese versions of their names on the slide in addition to verbal modeling (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Oral venues with text and visuals. Salience

S: T:

(oral) Na ma e wa Kelly de ss. [My name is Kelly (mispronounces the name).] (underscores the Japanese version of the name Kelly as Keri on the slide) (oral) Keri. Na ma e wa Kery de ss. [Keri. My name is Keri.]

Such visually enhanced feedback has a better chance of being noticed by a student and consequently there is a better chance that learners will internalize what has been brought to their attention. In the following example, a Japanese instructor while explaining the task, circles, underscores and brackets certain portions of phrases in his models to call students’ attention to these visually while he speaks about them (Figure 5). Again, this renders focal language more noticeable.

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Figure 5 Oral venues with text and visuals. Salience

Accessibility Text in oral modes is perfect for creating accessible focus on form elements. Students engaged in meaningful oral discussions, synchronous or asynchronous, can easily refer to text as review, as a reminder, or as a model. For example, in an oral asynchronous discussion, an ESL instructor explains the task ‘Talk about what you did yesterday, last week etcetera using correct [-ed] pronunciation’. The pronunciation rule in its concise version is displayed in a comment box. Detailed comments can be read in a separate small window by clicking on the plus sign in the comment box (Figure 6). Thus, the brief

Figure 6 Oral venues with text and visuals. Accessibility of grammar rules

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pronunciation explanation serves as a task toolkit which can be accessed and referred to immediately during the task. T:

(written) [-ed] is pronounced three different ways depending on the last sound heard before the -ed. If the sound is voiceless, use [t]; if voiced, use [d]; but if the last sound IS a /t/ or /d/; use [Id] (oral) Today and perhaps tomorrow we gonna work on the past tense or the past participle –ed that is pronounced as [eedee] as in walked, talked, picked. There are some different sounds there. What I’d like you all to do is to post something and tell what you did yesterday, last week, last month, or last year and use the past tense using [-ed] endings correctly.

Such a technique allows for visualization of the rule that can be accessed at any time during the conversation. Moreover, the textual representation of the rule does not disrupt the voice discussion as focus on form is performed on the side. The discussion develops without deviation from meaning making. The issue of comprehensibility is especially acute in oral synchronous environments with their fast pace and the lack of non-verbal cues such as gestures, facial expression and eye movement. Text and visuals can be used productively to help overcome this problem. During an oral synchronous lesson, intermediate Russian students discussed things without which they would not be able to live (Figure 7). The grammatical focus of the activity was on the use of the Genitive case after the preposition ‘без’ [without].

Figure 7 Oral venues with text and visuals. Accessibility of feedback

S: T:

(oral) Я не могу жить. . . как по-русски TV? [I can’t live without. . . how to say ‘TV’ in Russian?] I forgot. . . (types the word ‘телевизор’ [TV] in the chat box)

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S: T: S:

(oral) Я не могу жить без телевизор. [I can’t live without a TV (uses the Nominative case ending instead of the Genitive case ending).] (circles the word ‘без’ [without] and draws arrows from it to the phrase ‘Родительный падеж’ [Genitive case]) (oral) Я не могу жить без телевизора. [I can’t live without a TV (correct Genitive case ending).]

During the remainder of the oral discussion, both the textual representation of the word ‘TV’ and the visually augmented grammar rule are on the screen and can be referred to by the students at any time. In the following example from a Japanese class, the teacher provided her students with models exemplifying the rule of using adjectives plus nouns. When completing the assignment students could immediately refer to the models (Figure 8) that were accessible from the same slide.

Figure 8 Oral venues with text and visuals. Accessibility of models

T: S1: T: S2: T: S3: T:

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(oral) How to say ‘difficult test’? Who can do this? Michael? (oral) Muzukashi tesuto. [Difficult test.] (oral) Muzukashi tesuto. [Difficult test.] (types on the slide) muzukashi tesuto. [Difficult test.] Long movie. How do I say that one? Jane? (oral) Nagai eiga. [Long movie] (oral) Nagai eiga. [Long movie] (types on the slide) nagai eiga [long movie] (oral) How do I say ‘expensive car’? Paul? (oral) Takai kuruma. (oral) Takai kuruma. (types on the slide) takai kuruma

Oral venues amplified via text and visuals

In addition to providing an initial model, this teacher typed her students’ answers on the same slide making them serve as additional models.

Familiarity Digital natives are quite accustomed to text-based means of communication such as text-messaging and chatting and multi-party types of conversations. They are familiar with using text to quickly react to what is going on in oral communication even while maintaining more than one text-based conversation that parallels an oral discussion. Such side conversations when undertaken in the target language can be as beneficial as a main discussion. In the following oral synchronous class, the instructor and her students are discussing what is allowed and what is not allowed to be done in a classroom. T: S1: S2: S1:

(oral) Можно читать книгу в виртуальном классе? [Is it allowed to read a book in a virtual class?] (oral) Нет. . . Да. Я не знаю. [No. . . Yes. I don’t know.] It depends what book I guess (laughing). (written) Лори всегда читаеш Хари Поттер в классе ха ха [Laurie always reads Harry Potter in class ha ha] (oral) Можно читать учебник в классе. Нельзя читать не учебник [It is allowed to read a textbook in class. It is not allowed to read a non-textbook] (laughing). (written) джошь ы читаешь химия только :) [josh you read chemistry only :)]

Two students become engaged in a conversation entirely in Russian that goes on at the same time as the focal, teacher-led conversation. Communication in the target language in two modes simultaneously is enriching for students’ language skills and helps develop their confidence and fluency in using the target language. In oral asynchronous environments, participants develop a style of communication that combines oral messages with written comments in a way that allows for the quick browsing of oral messages. In the following oral asynchronous discussion students talk about how people in different cultures use body language and gestures to greet each other. S1:

S2:

(oral) In Germany, when we meet someone, we treat them with shaking hands. When we meet friends, they hug us. (written) someone = shake hands friends = hug (oral) In Brazil, it’s different from place to place and it depends on the origin of the family but generally speaking I would say if you don’t know a person, just shake the hands. And in the case of friends, you shake hand and give a hug but not for a woman. If this woman is your close friend, you shake her hand and give her three kisses on her face. Young people kiss all young people it doesn’t matter if it’s a man or a woman. In the case of two men, it depends on their relationship but . . . well a man shake your hand and give a kiss on the face and in the case of for instance uncles and nephews or fathers and sons but in the case of the entire family you know they

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kiss everybody (laughing). (written) someone: shake hands friends: shake hands + hug close woman friend: shake hands + 3 kisses (face) Here text is used to schematically represent oral messages for fast browsing and for making the decision as to whether or not to listen to the whole message. It also conveniently summarizes the ideas represented in the thread. The use of visuals to highlight the main points of oral messages is something to which digital natives are accustomed and can be provided immediately in the form of linked or embedded videos and images. For example, in the following oral asynchronous discussion thread about traditional dances and music, students provide links to YouTube videos, Wikipedia articles, illustrations and Google images (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Oral venues with text and visuals. Familiarity

S:

(written) www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5bwS62m_Sk&feature=related (link to a YouTube video) (oral) Here is the piece from Poland. This is a link to a real traditional Polish dance that is called Krakowiak. And you can see on this video where the famous dancing group performs it on the main street of Krakow.

This digital connection between oral speech, text and visuals allows students’ ideas to be viewed in different modes simultaneously. This is something that needs to be incorporated into both traditional and online classrooms to make the best use of young people’s everyday routine communication habits.

Attentiveness The chat area of many audio conferencing programs allows for the simultaneous involvement of many or all students in class as illustrated in the following example from an online Spanish class (Figure 10).

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Figure 10 Oral venues with text and visuals. Attentiveness

T:

S1: S2: T:

(oral) We have some things down the bottom. We’re keeping it fresh but also reviewing the vocabulary in the section. Papers, problems, clock and window all came from our leccion dos [lesson two]. The question is how we say them. So, S1, I’ll give you the first, S2, you get the second. Type it in the chat box and we’ll see what you get, chiquitas [little girls]. (types in a chat area) el problema [problem] (types in a chat area) unas ventanas (oral) Excelente! [Excellent!] For ‘problem’ we use ‘el problema’ [problem]. Remember to use ‘el’ or ‘la, ‘los’ or ‘las’ for ‘the’. And one thing you need to remember is to use ‘el’. It’s masculine. Remember the words ending in ‘ma’ are masculine like ‘el problema’. Then ‘ventana’ – ‘window’ but what about ‘some windows’? Then you go with ‘unos’ or ‘unas’ but since ‘ventana’ [window] is feminine, you go with ‘unas’.

By asking her students to answer the questions on the slide (Figure 11) by typing them into the chat area, the French teacher assured that all her students attended to the task. T:

S1: S2: S3: S4:

(oral) Tape, classe! Tape! [Type, class!] Everybody! Tape! À ma fête, nous regardons. . . . À ma fête, nous regardons. . . . [Type! On my birthday, we watch. . . On my birthday, we watch. . . ] (written) la tele [TV] (written) la télé [TV] (written) football [ football] (written) la television [television]

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Figure 11 Oral venues with text and visuals. Control

The text area of the program is used to involve all the students in the activity and help them keep their focus on the task. In addition to that, students typing their comments in the chat areas confirms that they are indeed paying attention. In voice-only environments, there is not only the problem of teacher presence but also the issue of student presence which can be problematic. Comments from students in the chat box are their presence manifest in class activities. In the following, the teacher receives feedback from her students via text (Figure 12).

Figure 12 Oral venues with text and visuals. Student presence

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T:

S: T:

(oral) ‘Ahora’ means ‘now’. If you ever go to the Dominican Republic, and they say – you know how Spanish people are with time – ‘ahora’, that means ‘now’ but that means now in a general vicinity of ‘now’. As I’ve learned in Venezuela, people would say ‘We are leaving now – ahora’ so I would hurry up, put my shoes on and get ready to go. Well ‘ahora’ means like within an hour. It doesn’t mean immediately like we say it here. If you say to your friends ‘We are leaving now’ that means you are walking off the door. In most Spanish speaking countries if you say we are leaving ahora [now], it means ‘let’s start to get ready to go’. But if you want to say them ‘right now’, they actually have a word for that – ahorita [right now]. ‘Ahorita’ means ‘right now’. (types in the chat area) ahorita - right now (oral) So you might want to write it down because it’s very helpful in Spanish countries. (types in the chat area) yeah i hear that alot!!! the teachers say that alot (laughing) (oral) Yeah. . . The teachers do say that a lot.

Summary Oral online environments can be easily and effectively amplified with text and visuals to great pedagogical effect. Indeed, combining modalities in ways that make sense to digital natives in instructional formats is an important instructional technique that can be used to teach language well online.

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5 Language learning and teaching in written synchronous environments ■

Synchronous written environments and their special features and affordances are defined.

■

Discussion and illustrations of the many ways effective instructional conversations can be employed in these environments are provided.

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The pros and cons of synchronicity in written environments are outlined.

Overview—144 Calling attention to forms—145 Calling attention to lexis—152 Corralling—159 Saturating—162 Using linguistic traps—164 Modeling—166 Providing explicit feedback—168 Providing implicit feedback—170 Summary—172 End-of-chapter notes—172 End-of-chapter activities—172 References—173

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Language learning and teaching in written synchronous environments Objectives In this chapter you will learn: – the definition of written synchronous environments; – the special affordances of written synchronous environments; – how different instructional conversation strategies can be undertaken in these environments; – how the environment’s affordances can be taken advantage of to support and amplify these conversations.

Overview Written synchronous environments are spaces where written exchanges take place in real time. Such real-time text exchanges fall under the names chat or texting. Interlocutors read and type messages often to more than one person at a time. Messages appear instantaneously on the receiver’s screen with all language and typographical errors intact. Thus, in many ways written synchronous modes can be viewed as resembling real-time face-to-face interaction in that these written messages can be just as linguistically messy as they are in live interaction. At the same time, for language learners written synchronous modes have potential benefits in that mutual meaning must be worked for or ‘negotiated’ and when understanding is absent, repairs must be made. In short, like in face-to-face talk, one must work and work hard in real time to assure shared comprehension. This kind of active negotiation work is widely considered a key element in new language development (Blake, 2000; Doughty & Long, 2003). Moreover, research on written synchronous modes used in language learning suggests that learners tend to pay increased attention to lexical production and comprehension than in live talk (Meskill & Anthony, 2004−2005, 2005; Pellettieri, 2000; Smith, 2003). The affordances of written synchronous environments allow learners more time to reflect on their own output, which leads to the increased accuracy of their production (Smith, 2004). The differences between f2f and written synchronous communication are of course important to note. First, because multiple posters are often posting, the threads of online conversations can often become tangled. The sequence or sequences of conversation tend to be scattered, not as linear as in asynchronous modes where time allows for targeted composing and posting. Thus, when orchestrating instructional conversation strategies, instructors must be aware that their real-time posts may appear not as adjacent turns, but in what may appear as random order. The good news, however, is that due to digital native

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multimodal literacy, contemporary learners are quite used to picking through multiple conversation threads and reconnecting where needed to make sense of longer discourse stretches. Indeed, digital smartphone natives are well known to carry on dozens of conversations simultaneously via texting. This form of multimodal literacy or polyfocality, attending to disparate messages and stringing them together to make sense, can be viewed as supportive of linguistic skill generally, and of learning new languages in particular (Jones, 2004). When skilled online language educators capitalize on learners’ predispositions to conversationally multitask, the potential for the written synchronous mode to be one that enriches language development augments. Moreover, research is indicating that language learners tend to take control of the conversation, an excellent means of exercising one’s voice in a new language (Sotillo, 2000). In Chapters 2 and 4, language learners and their teacher used the chat feature while engaging in oral synchronous conferencing as a space in which to have side conversations, duplicate oral posts for clarification and as a place for sundry forms of commentary. It was also pointed out that these written synchronous exchanges can be readily archived and referred back to by both learners and instructor as a means of review and planning next steps in target language development. This chapter builds on these affordances while elaborating, with examples of course, the kinds of instructional conversations that can be orchestrated in written synchronous environments.

Calling attention to forms As was explored in previous chapters, in synchronous online environments, learners can experience and engage real-time communication in the target language with simultaneous visual and textual support. In written synchronous environments, instructors can take advantage of the visual, written exchanges to draw learners’ attention to the focal forms and lexical items under study. Because this happens in real time, the calculus that instructors employ in making on the fly decisions about what language output to focus on and how to achieve this must activate rapidly just as it does in the live classroom. And, due to the less linear progression of synchronous discourse, this challenge is doubled by attending to and management of what could be several threads at once. Like in the live classroom, defining and maintaining a limited focus on both the topic of conversation and the focal language to be used can be instructionally powerful. In written synchronous environments, however, learners and instructors can see a running record of the instructional conversations as they unfold. Instructors and learners can thereby visually refer to, repeat, or modify what has been posted previously as a means of calling attention to focal forms.

Task-level attention to forms The design and orchestration of language learning tasks in written synchronous environments may in many ways resemble the design and orchestration of language

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learning tasks in f2f classrooms. A given period of time when students are to be online has been specified and a task, or series of tasks in which all are to participate is laid out and learner roles assigned. As part of the task assignment, the focal language to be used is presented, discussed and made a permanent feature on students’ screens, the task toolkit, throughout. In this way, students and instructor can refer to the focal language as part of the instructional conversations while planning for, undertaking and presenting the outcomes or products of their language learning tasks. The following example from http://voicethread.com/share/3611845/ illustrates a simple way to incorporate a chat activity into lessons with a task toolkit displayed on the slide during the task. Students can refer to this as they master their use of indefinite pronouns (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Task-level attention to form. Reference to textual representations of rules

T: S1: S2: S3: S4: S5: S6: S2:

(written) Write a sentence using one of these words. . . (written) Something is missing. (written) Each of my badgers are awesome in many ways. (written) Everybody was wearing pink! (written) Everything was green and blue. (written) Everyone ate tons of candy. (written) Several people like potatoes. (written) Each of my badgers are awesome in many ways.

The written nature of this communication channel represents a number of possibilities for self-correction. In the example above, Student 2 made a mistake in subject–verb agreement: Each of my badgers are awesome in many ways. After several turns, the student realized her mistake and posted a corrected answer: Each of my badgers is awesome in many ways.

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One quick and easy visual technique that can be used to great effect in written synchronous environments is the paste-in icon. These icons (Figure 2) can be used as shorthand for any number of conversational and/or instructional purposes. In the following example, the instructor uses the task toolkit icon as a signal to learners to refer back to the focal language in the box that appears continually in the upper right-hand corner of the screen. In this example, the students are beginning level learners of EFL grouped in threes. Their task is to develop a dinner menu that is culturally and individually sensitive to all members in the heterogeneous class. The focal language is the language of making, accepting and rejecting suggestions and count and non-count nouns. As she monitors the trios’ conversations, the teacher notes an error and inserts the task toolkit icon, thus signaling the learners to review and rephrase. To reinforce her point, the teacher provides a link to the web page on countable and non-countable nouns.

Figure 2 Task-level attention to form. Reference to iconic representations of rules

S1: T: S2: S1: T:

(written) How about we have egg on menu? Everybody love egg, no? ▲ (signals the students should refer to what was just posted and compare to task toolkit focal language by drawing the red arrows) (written) Look. Eggs you count, 1, 2, 3 (written) Eggs. We have eggs on menu? (written) http://englishf4umex.wordpress.com/basic/countable-and-uncountable-nouns/

The insertion of this or other icons that serve as signals to learners is a particularly useful technique in written synchronous venues as the insertion takes far less time than typing out

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explications, explications that can be readily accessed via links in the task toolkit if learners wish more clarification. If the inserted icon is overlooked, that is, the learners do not attend to the error(s) in their recent transcript, the icon can be reinserted and/or carry an accompany sound file and/or animate to draw learner attention. Of course, breaking into the conversation by posting a message that directly points out errors in learner posts, especially when those errors are the fixed focus of the particular task, is always an option. Additionally, because most written synchronous venues allow for access to multiple simultaneous conversations, the instructor can always ‘take aside’ a learner for remediation and explanation as needed. This, however, can be disruptive to real-time processes just as it is in the f2f classroom. Task toolkits for written synchronous environments can be linked to or even embedded into the blogs, chat boxes, personal websites, etc. An ESL instructor assigned the task ‘What belongs to you?’ with students directed to ask each other questions following the model: Is this X yours? Yes, it’s mine. No, it’s hers/his. The grammar focus of this activity was on possessive pronouns. The chat activity is linked to VoiceThread grammar material at http:// voicethread.com/share/154217/ on personal and possessive pronouns that incorporates grammar notes with images, a voice lecture, a video with the song ‘The Girl is Mine’ by Michael Jackson and Paul McCartney, and the text of the song with all the possessive pronouns highlighted in a different color. During the activity, students refer to this resource by following the screen shot version of the grammar material on possessive pronouns or by following the link and manipulating the slides in VoiceThread to access the video and voice lecture (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Task-level attention to form. Reference to online resources

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S1: S2: T: S2:

(written) Is this bag hers? (written) No, it’s my. (written) The giiiiiiirl is miiiiiiine. . . . . la la la (written) oh yeah. The bag is mine.

This link allows the instructor to simplify her reference to the task toolkit. She can thereby mention the song, and students could easily follow her link. In the following example in an avatar-based game, students learning Russian were directed to find a certain object and bring it back. The goal was to complete the quest faster than the others. On their way to the object, students needed to perform a series of actions labeled with verbs of motion with prefi xes indicating different types of movements such as movement inside, around, behind, across, etc. In order to perform the task, students had to pay close attention to the forms in order to follow the directions correctly, for example, войди в дом [step inside the house], отойди от телефонной будки [step back from the telephone booth], зайди за дерево [move behind the tree], обойди гору [move around the mountain], and перейди через мост [cross the bridge] (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Task-level attention to form in 3D games

S1: S2: S1:

(written) so it says отойди от телефонной будки [step away from the phone booth]. what are we supposed to do? to go round the booth? (written) i think it means ‘step away from it’ (written) oh! I see. ok. so would it be я отхожу. [I’m stepping back.] now what?

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In the above dialog, it can be observed that the students not only read the provided verbal forms but also changed them by changing their aspect and conjugating them appropriately. This type of activity allows for playing with different grammatical concepts making the use of all the possible forms.

Incidental attention to forms As learners use the language they are learning in written synchronous environments, the likelihood of their making mistakes in their posts is quite high. Granted, like all online environments, they have ready access to a nearly infinite number of supporting resources. In synchronous modes, however, as we have seen in Chapter 2, the pacing of communication often precludes hunting down the needed resource in real time. To overcome this, both teacher and students can keep ready links and fi les of their most commonly used resources right on their desktops to reference while participating in the synchronous conversation. Indeed, these kinds of selective resources can be information about forms, functions, or pronunciations that a learner finds perennially problematic. For the instructor, based on prior live sessions, she too can select resources she knows will be most helpful to a given group of learners. In the following example, an intermediate learner of French has continual problems with the gender of French nouns. With the coaching of his instructor, he is maintaining a spreadsheet of the masculine and feminine and neuter gender nouns (Figure 5) that he confronts and wishes to in turn use in his oral and written conversation practice as well as in the formal academic writing he is being asked to do in his content classes. A shortcut to this spreadsheet resides on his desktop so that he can continually add and refer to its items. When playing an Association Game, students refer to this spreadsheet to use the proper articles.

Figure 5 Incidental attention to forms. References to desktop resources

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S1: S2: S3:

(written) la voiture [car] (written) le bruit [noise] (written) la pluie [rain]

A mid-beginning level learner of EFL easily mixes up English verbs that take the gerund (e.g. going) form only, those that take the infinitive form (e.g. to go) and those verbs that take both. On her own, she devised a text file that lists the three types of verbs. This she stores on her desktop and refers to often while participating in synchronous online class activities and while doing other kinds of target language writing. When her EFL instructor found out that this learner had devised this resource and strategy on her own, she asked the student to share it with the rest of the class. A few weeks into the term, all the students in the class were making use of this gerund/infinitive resource. Indeed, they even devised a special icon that anyone could insert into the online conversation to signal that the poster should reference it and in turn rephrase their post. Incidental focus on form in written synchronous environments can often take place as participants correct each other. To make focus on form more salient, participants use asterisks, capital letters and symbols. P1: (written) Last year I signed in Economic university but I don’t feel like I want to study economic. . . P2: (written) (to P1) economics* P3: (written) (to P1) why? P1: (written) (to P2) thx. . . P1: (written) (to P3) cuz I wanted to study architecture http://www.easyenglish.com/esl-chat.asp P1: (written) I onla know Hans Christian Anderson . . . . . P1: (written) or maybe one of the Brothers Grimm? P2: (written) grimms were german, no? P2: (written) anderson is dane P1: (written) yes P2, they were german P1: (written) P2 . . . . Was dane . . . . he is dead P2: (written) WAS dane. right. Studies suggest that when the learners notice such visual prompts they make significantly more self-corrections than in the face-to-face environment (Lai & Zhao, 2006; Smith, 2004). Self-corrections in written synchronous environments usually take place during the second or even third turn which differs from f2f communication where if self-repair takes place, it is during the same turn when the error took place. In the following example from http://voicethread.com/share/250578/ students practice reflexive verbs in their French class (Figure 6). They self-correct following the other students’ leads.

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Figure 6 Incidental attention to forms. Self-corrections

S1: S2: S3: S1: S4: S5:

(written) elle s’endors [she fell asleep (incorrect)] (written) c’est mahika, pas toi! [this is mahika, not you!] (written) Elle s’endort. J’adore Mihika! [I love Mihika! She falls asleep (corrected).] (written) je suis desole! Elle s’endort. [I’m sorry! She falls asleep (correct).] (written) c’est ton votre jumeau?? [is this your twin??] (written) elle à l’air bizarre [she looks weird]

Calling attention to lexis Whenever there is language teaching and learning in online environments, there are powerful opportunities to visually, aurally and contextually enhance student acquisition of new vocabulary. From initial comprehension of a new lexical item, to its nuanced integration in a learner-generated post, multimodal supports can greatly facilitate the process. In written synchronous environments, pictures, video clips and animations can be included in posts by both learners and instructors as a means of contextualizing and enlivening the meanings of new lexical items. Indeed, in the task toolkit, the venue for continued anchored referencing throughout a given language learning task, new and revived lexical items can have instructor- and student-generated links to previous contexts where the item was encountered, or to any number of related media.

Task-level attention to lexis In the next example, advanced learners of French have been assigned to discuss the contexts and conversations at two French dinner table scenes, one from the fi lm Murmur of the Heart by Louis Malle and the other from Renoir’s Rules of the Game. After having simultaneously viewed and read the captions for each film clip, they are to introduce a point

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of comparison to which other learners respond. In her model for such a comparison and contrast discussion, the instructor uses highlighting in her text model to draw learner attention to some key lexical items that are specific to comparison and contrast, her end goal to guide learners in writing up formal essays using these same lexical items. These focal items are also continually present in the task toolkit. As learners introduce and respond to one another’s points of comparison, the instructor calls attention to correct use of these items by learners in their posts by cutting and pasting the learner’s written utterance, pasting it in a subsequent message of her own with the correctly used lexical items highlighted. S: T: S: T:

(written) Le scene de Malle est plus amusant de l’un de Renoir. [The scene in Malle’s film is funnier .. the one in the Renoir fi lm.] (written) Bien sur que le scene de Malle est plus amusant que l’un de Renoir. [For sure the Malle scene is funnier than the one in the Renoir film.] (written) Oiu cependent tout les deux sont comme meme un peu ridicule, no? [Yes, however they are both a bit ridiculous, right?] (written) D’accord. Autres similitudes? [I agree. Other similarities?]

In this example, a beginning level online Russian class works with vocabulary associated with making ‘Russian Stuffed Cabbage’. Students engage in a series of activities such as listening to the audio and filling in the blanks in the dialog with the words from the list, denoting ingredients for stuffed cabbage, watching the video on making stuffed cabbage and by completing a place maker interactive exercise. This exercise involves dragging the suggested ingredients to the image of the stuffed cabbage with the items that belong. The correct items (e.g. meat or rice) turn green. Incorrect items such as cucumbers or pears turn red (Figure 7). After that students are assigned to create a virtual stuffed cabbage by text chatting with each other.

Figure 7 Task-level attention to lexis. Chat within the series of activities

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During this series of activities, the emphasis is on the following vocabulary items: рис мясо сметана капуста вкусный соль голубцы блюдо

S1: S2: S3: S2:

[rise] [meat] [sour cream] [cabbage] [tasty] [salt] [stuffed cabbage] [dish]

(written) Надо брать рис и мясо. Фарш. [would need to take rice and meat. Ground meat.] (written) и сметана. [and sour cream] (written) нет, дрю. Сметана потом. [no, drew. Sour cream later.] (written) и соль. я не любью когда это нет соленой [and salt. . . I don’t like when it’s not salty]

An affordance of written synchronous environments is the real-time generation of ideas, albeit with the added affordance of unlimited access to information that might assist in generating those real-time ideas. A f2f pre-task technique, brainstorming a semantic net, is thereby an easily transferable technique for drawing attention to and in the case of written synchronous venues, keeping a visual (and aural to be discussed further on) mapping of the lexical items likely to be useful for a given task. Either the instructor or one or more students can be designated scribe while the rest of the group generates a key word list for a given task in advance of undertaking it. Vocabulary items that all see as potentially relevant – this after exploring the items’ meanings and their potential usefulness given the task requirements – are recorded by the scribe(s) and posted as a common document/file accessible throughout. A class of high beginning learners of Spanish has started to brainstorm a lexical list for their upcoming task’s task toolkit. The task is to role play two competing sides to a US Mexican border controversy regarding worker safety. As independent homework, students have read a number of news articles and viewed a number of video clips about the controversy in a particular border village that manufactures small engine parts. The students are given a semantic net with Spanish (Mexican) words for safety, risks, health, accident, air quality, toxins, wages and regulations. seguridad riesgos salud accidente qualidad del aire toxinas salarios regulaciones

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Once the meanings for these vocabulary items are understood by all, be it by the participatory addition of links to visuals, examples of the words in use, or to translations, the group is divided into teams and undertakes the role play (Figure 8). During a subsequent synchronous class meeting, assigned learners will have reviewed the transcript of the role play, underlined the new vocabulary that was used and will then present this in a recycled version to the class as a form of review.

Figure 8 Task-level attention to lexis. Semantic net for a chat activity

In the following example, an Arabic teacher brought her students to a virtual safari in Second Life and asked them to drive around in a jeep (Figure 9). Along the way they were to find, catch and bring her an alligator, a camel and a monkey. The task toolkit with Arabic nouns denoting these animals is presented throughout the task to guide students: (jamal) [camel] and (qerd ) [monkey]. The students are (temsaah) [alligator], encouraged to use simple constructions such as ‘ ’ (Haza yakoon qerd) [This is a monkey] during their virtual trip.

Figure 9 Task-level attention to lexis. Virtual safari for learners of Arabic

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S1: S2: S1:

(written) (written) (written)

[This is a monkey! Look at this monkey!] [Where is it?] [Over there!]

Incidental attention to lexis Just as in the f2f classroom, opportunities for incidental uses and attempted uses of target language vocabulary are many. Fast-paced live instruction whereby moment-bymoment instructional actions – drawing attention alternately to focal pronunciations, syntactic patterns, new or recycled vocabulary – while maintaining attention on the meaning value of all utterances is a complex juggling act. Not all teachable moments can be detected and reacted to in optimal ways in the real-time messiness of human communication. Written synchronous modes can be just as frenetic and messy, but, given a running text record of all course interaction, those teachable moments are not entirely lost. At any point course transcripts can be revisited for any number of instructional purposes. When it comes to calling attention to incidental vocabulary – be it attempted uses of new words, use of words for which a more adequate substitute should have been employed, or as a general vocabulary review of items from a task toolkit used productively, teachers can make use of these for instructional materials and planning while encouraging learners to return to these transcripts and employ their best independent review strategies on them. In the following example, a teacher of EFL directs her intermediate learners to use the transcript of language learning tasks they undertook several weeks ago and do the following as a form of vocabulary review in preparation for a midterm evaluation.

Directions for Midterm Vocabulary Review Next week you will be taking your midterm examination. Included in this exam are the vocabulary items that have been part of our task toolkits that we have used in our learning tasks for the first six weeks of the course. I recommend that you review these sessions (link to location of course archives). Depending on how you learn best, you can – print these out and highlight the words you are less sure about – make a cloze exercise for yourself by replacing words that are challenging with blanks then, at a later time, test yourself – maintain a spreadsheet of the words you find difficult organizing by task, theme, or simply alphabetically – if hearing the word helps you to remember, record (or have a native speaker friend record) it and play the audio and text files together – if you wish to form informal study groups, you can share with one another novel sentences that you write using the new words as practice.

Reviewing vocabulary items as they were productively used in familiar contexts is an excellent means of reinforcement while encouraging good independent study skills. Negotiation of meaning can happen accidentally on the spur of the moment exactly the way it occurs in an f2f classroom.

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P1: (written) By the way, mr P3 i think that you know P5 the chatter from Sweden, one time he said ‘Oh my Thor’ What’s the meaning of Thor? Does it refers to the horns of the Vikings, because Thor means bull in Arabic .. or maybe he was kidding ? P2: (written) Thor is an old god P3: (written) P1: no, Thor is the Thunder God in Scandinavian mythology In a multilingual chat room, incidental focus on lexis can take place not necessarily in a target language but in any other native language of the participants. P1: P2: P1: P3: P2:

(written) I’m going too, have a nice chat all of you! (written) Bye Mr P1, salam (written) salam (written) salam is bye? (written) Salam means Peace!!

Learners can be easily redirected to online resources: dictionaries, references, grammar notes, encyclopedias, thesauruses, etc. P1: P2: P3: P2: P3: P2: P3: P3: P4: P2: T:

(written) Sasha is the Russian petname for Alexander (written) petname? do you mean a nickname? i’m not a pet he he (written) it is not a petname . . . . . it is the abbreviation of Alexander (written) P1, i believe the right way to say is ‘nickname’ for a short name like Sasha for Alexander, Chris for Christina, etc (written) no . . . . nickname is a name that u choose . . . . . Sasha for Alecander . . . it is the shortened version (written) oh so Sasha is the short version for Alexander, not a nickname? (written) no. . . . a nickname would be one that u choose . . . . . or that ur parents choose for u (written) or later your friends (written) not nikname, it short version (written) for example, Christopher is a full name, Chris is a short name and ‘shorty’ is a nickname, right? (written) It can be both a descriptive name and a short form of a personal name. Look at http://www.answers.com/topic/nickname. Listen to the pronunciation, too (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Incidental focus on lexis via online resources

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Incidental attention to lexis is convenient in written synchronous environments as online dictionaries and other online sources are immediately available and can be opened in other windows. Chat aficionados are accustomed to doing this and include online resources often. They even take the initiative to share these sources and references with each other and their teachers. P1: P1: P1: P1: P1: P2: P2: P1:

(written) i dont understand some words so i need online translater to use (written) (later) you´re not allowed of pulling my legs, P2 (written) allowed to* (written) allowed to pull* (written) leg pulling is forbidden in general (written) P1 . . . . it is generally forbidden with centipieds. . . . (written) P1 is looking up the word centipied . . . . . . lol (written) yep and figured out its meaning already

Another example: S1: S2: S3: S2: S3: S3:

(written) what’s up derek? (written) i’m mad at my roommate today. (written) derek is always mad or disgusted or unhappy. . . he’s choleric (written) i’m not always mad. . . please. . . what is choleric means???? (written) just a sec. . . let me open it ha ha (written) (provides a link to the web vocabulary video flash cards) http://www.wordahead.com/VocabularyVideos/Videos/TabId/59/VideoId/638/ Default.aspx (Figure 11)

Figure 11 Incidental focus on lexis via online resources

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Corralling Task-level corralling To review, task-level corralling entails a conversation move or moves that needs to be redirected to accomplish the dual tasks of fulfilling the requirements of the language learning task at hand and using the target items in the task toolkit in meeting those requirements. It is an instructional conversation strategy that succeeds in redirecting learner conversation to a targeted piece or aspect of the language and/or the task momentum and direction per se. Owing to the fast pace of written synchronous environments, opportunities to corral students, while more difficult to determine than in asynchronous environments, abound as more real-time spontaneity tends to mean less focused, well-composed posts. In the following scenario, a teacher of intermediate French notes that a group of students’ conversation is beginning to deviate unproductively from the task and its language objectives. Where the task is to compile survey data they had earlier collected asynchronously from native speaker counterparts concerning their likes and dislikes of popular culture, this group of students has begun to stray into territory unrelated to the task at hand. S1: S2:

(written) Mais ma soeur aime bien les types qui s’habillent comme ça. [But my sister likes guys who dress like that.] (written) Zoot. La mienne aussi. Qu’est-ce qu’elles ont? [Mine too. What’s up with that?]

The teacher joins the conversation instructionally and corralls the students into commenting on the native speakers they surveyed, not the tastes of certain of their family members, while simultaneously corralling use of a key task toolkit item, the verb preferer. T:

(written) Donc, les gens français qui vous avez demandés Ils préfèrent. . . .? [So, the native French who you asked, they prefer. . . ?]

She thus redirects learner output, she corrals, to make use of a focal form for the assigned task. In the following example, ESL learners work on vocabulary items for the topic ‘Poverty’. They read on online resources such as newspaper articles on the topic, grammar notes and interactive exercises on http://www.carmenlu.com/third/vocabulary/relationships3/ poverty3_1.htm. (Figure 12). Students then participate in a discussion on the topic ‘Is poverty inevitable?’ The following lexis is in focus: unemployment, poverty, hunger, famine, homeless, etc. Some students digress from the topic and the instructor uses corralling to get them back on track.

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Figure 12 Task-level corralling

S1: S1: S2:

(written) the half people of planet cant cant have a bread to eat (written) and look where the money goes (written) Ann . . . wrong again.. two thirds of this world’s polulation don’t have more than one meal per day S3: (written) 2 thirds ? wow, that is somewhat of an exaggeration S4: (written) i have one meal per day for most the time. it doesn’t mean i’m in poverty. . . it’s just i don’t have time. . . and simetimes i simply not hungry S1: (written) oh you always say that tim but i saw you eat sandwich the other day T: (written) OK, Tim. That is your own choice to have one meal per day. What about people who do not have choices? What about unemployed people?

Incidental corralling As we have said a number of times, truly excellent language teaching is determined by an instructor’s awareness and subsequent exploitation of the myriad teachable moments that crop up in any language learning environment. No less the case are written asynchronous environments where, under the pressure of semi-real-time, learners are more apt to trip up and make real-time errors much as they do in live classrooms. Detecting just which slip ups are merely a matter of careless typing – for some typing under time pressure can be daunting – or whether the way a target language item was used was a matter of faulty or lack of prior learning, is critical. This is again where archived task toolkits are useful instructional tools for decisions as to whether or not to corral learners into using something they have previously encountered and for which they have in the past been held accountable. Indeed, we have found that actively using and maintaining awareness of what is in the task toolkit archives can even bring other learners to take charge of the corralling that needs to happen to redirect learners to language that should be making its way into their repertoires.

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In this example of incidental corralling, high beginning learners of ESL are rehearsing a role play that they have been assigned to record and post for the rest of the class to listen to. The role play is based on the short story, The Man Who Shouted Teresa, by Italo Calvino in the English translation. Each group has been assigned to sketch the action of the short story using a simple drawing program and to record their parts as characters in the story. The assembled products will be posted to and commented on by the whole class. As one group uses synchronous written communication to prepare their product, the instructor notices a misuse of the infinitive form and inserts her instructional conversation move to corral learners into noticing the correct form that the class had reviewed only a week ago. S1: T: S1:

(written) That guy, your guy he wants go up to the window with others. (written) Your guys wants . . .what? Wants to . . .? (written) He wants to go up to the window.

Corralling written synchronous sessions can often happen in a playful, joking way. In the following example, an ESL instructor seized the opportunity to corral students to discuss the different words denoting the idea of stealing. The topic appeared accidentally during the discussion on a different topic and the instructor used the situation to reinforce knowledge of these lexical items that had been on the radar in previous lessons. P1: P1: P2: P2: P1: P1: P3: P3: T: P3: P1: T: P1: T: P3: P2: T: T: P2: P1: P2: T:

(written) P2 always writes in the burglarlanguage. (written) burglar´s tongue? (written) burglarlanguage . . . . . huhhhh what is this? (written) burglar is the one who robs houses (written) long time I had my last sausage stolen from the neighbor’s fridge (written) I didn´t burgle anything P2, how do you come to think that? (written) P1 talking about stealing. . . (written) i had a burglars steal my cash and laptop (written) P3, were there several burglars or just one? (written) oops. . . just one. . . a burglar (written) what happened to P3 now? Is she burgling her neighbor’s fridge again? in order to serve us some sausages? (written) why do you say ‘burgling’ about the fridge? because it was locked, no? (written) ooops P4, recently P3 has stolen her neighbor’s fridge key. loooool (written) if he stole a key and unlocked the fridge, then yes he is a burglar (written) u got a locked fridge? (written) T . . . . if he unlocks the cage where we are sitting in . . . . . . we might be free . . . . . is he a burglar then too? (written) if he got the hot dog from an open fridge while his neighbor was sleeping, he is a thief (written) if he took it from him by force, it’s a robbery (written) but P1 didn’t steal while his neighbor slept . . . . . . . he locked his neighbor in a wardrobe and took the sausage out of the fridge (written) P2 if he wants to steal us, he is a terrorist hahaha (written) and when his neighbor fainted in the wardrobe he took the second sausage (written) P2 then it’s a robbery perhaps

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T: (written) if he opened the cage and freed us, he is a rescuer P2: (written) no T . . . . inside the cage we were fed and had a place to sleep . . . . . outside we have to earn money for these P1: (written) ok, then he is a revolutionary. T: (written) a burglar breaks into your house, a robber seizes things from you and a thief steals stuff from your pocket secretly

Saturating Saturating – making use of target words and forms as often as possible as an instructional conversation technique – works quite nicely in asynchronous written contexts as the repeated words and phrases can be inserted and reinserted into the stream of any real-time activity for review and reinforcement. Indeed, not only the instructor but others designated by the instructor can engage in saturating the running conversation with targets from the current and/or previously studied task toolkits. In an intermediate French class, the instructor has noted that her students are using clever strategies to avoid using the passé composé, a challenging past form for English speakers. As part of a general discussion about first the travels of famous adventurers and then to students’ own experiences traveling, she purposely saturates her end of the instructional conversation with actions in the past that take this particular form. T:

(written) Alors, et nous savons bien que les genes qu’ont voyagé souvant son plus savant. Ils ont plus vu, ils ont éprouvé plus, ils ont compris le monde de diverses perspectives, ils ont parlé à beaucoup de personnes différentes. . . [Now we know well that people who have traveled are wiser. They have seen more, they have experienced more, they have understood the world from various perspectives, they have spoken with different people. . .]

In turn, learners are encouraged to use this verb tense in their own discussions of their travels and adventurers (Figure 13).

Figure 13 Task-level attention to form and saturation

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T:

(written) Do you ever wish to be somebody or something else? Share your dreams here. Before doing that, go to http://www.boyscouttrail.com/content/song/i_wish_i_ were-1129.asp and listen to the song.

(link to the song; both audio and text) Oh, I wish I were a little bar of soap. Oh, I wish I were a little bar of soap. /. . ./ Oh, I wish I were a little hunk of mud. Oh, I wish I were a little hunk of mud. /. . ./Oh, I wish I were a little can of pop. Oh, I wish I were a little can of pop. Saturation in written synchronous environments can occur simultaneously in several media channels: text in a synchronous chat, text and static visuals in the whiteboard area and links to video and audio clips. Saturation, thus, becomes multimodal. An ESL instructor prepares students for the chat activity on the topic ‘Safe Flight’. Certain vocabulary items pertaining to this topic such as safe, safety, taking off, landing, luggage, baggage, booking the flight, checking in, etc. saturate both the instructor’s initial message and the texts in all the sources to which students are directed. T:

(written) When you hear ‘Have a safe flight’, what does it mean for you? What does it mean to be safe on a plane? Do you feel secure when you fly? For ideas, check this (link) youtube safety demo video and this (link) blog.

(blog) (written) Being safe on a plane has a lot to do with karma. /. . ./ When the attendants start the in flight safety program, it’s important to first put your seatbelt on and then listen to their performance with the utmost attention. (YouTube video) (oral) We want to get you to your destination with comfort and safety. /.../ Before we take off, you count on us that you’ll familiarize yourself with the safety procedures. (Figure 14)

Figure 14 Multimodal saturation

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Using linguistic traps In written synchronous environments, while the pacing can be quite fast, both instructor and learners have the luxury of the text on the screen that can be read and re-read as many times as needed. For the instructor, this means that learners need to attend to her instructional moves. And, as mentioned earlier, if her instructional moves get overlooked in the real-time messiness of synchronous communication, then she can always copy her prior posts and re-insert them into the text as many times as necessary to achieve her instructional aims. She can also fashion her posts into the kinds of linguistic traps that force learners to attend to and in turn produce the targeted language for the given task. In the following example, an EFL teacher is leading her mid beginning learners in a role play whose focus is to ask, accept or reject a favor. The task toolkit looks like this: Asking Can you please. . .? Is it possible that you could. . .? I need a favor. Could you possibly. . .? Accepting Sure. No problem. Yes, I’d be happy to. Absolutely. My pleasure. Rejecting I’m sorry, but I can’t. Sorry, but that’s impossible. Not this time, maybe next time.

Learners are working in a jigsaw configuration whereby each has a different list of favors to ask the others. The goal is for each student to get one ‘yes’ and one ‘no’ for each favor asked in order to complete their asking favors assignment. As the instructor monitors, she notes that one learner is having difficulty with the proper verb form to follow the English model (the infinitive minus the ‘to’). She enters the conversation and traps the learner into using the correct verb form (Figure 15). S: T: S: T: S: T: S: T: S: T:

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(written) Can you to give me ride to airport? (written) Can you. . . ? (written) Can you to give. . . (written) Can you. . . ? (inserts her symbol to check the task toolkit) ۞ (written) Can you give me ride? (written) A ride. (written) Can you give me a ride to airport? (written) THE airport. Again. (written) Can you give me a ride to the airport? (written) Bravo!

Language learning and teaching in written synchronous environments

Figure 15 Using linguistic traps

Note: because this instructional communication is taking place by typing, the chances for typographical errors are strong. Detecting a teachable moment such as the preceding one is confounded by the chance of mistyping. Teachers can corral students into using specific grammatical and lexical forms by assigning group and pair work such as the following from a Spanish class http://voicethread.com/ share/1677120/ with students asked to comment in Spanish on posted images (Figure 16).

Figure 16 Images as linguistic traps

S1: S2: S3:

(written) ¿Qué se pelean sobre? [What do they fight about?] (written) ¡Mis hermanos y yo nos peleamos mucho también! [My brothers and I fight a lot too!] (written) Peleamos sobre quién tiene el controller. [We fight over who has the control.]

(next image) S1:

(oral) Mi madre y mi padre les importa mi familia. Les encanta pasar tiempo juntos. [My mother and father care about my family. They love spending time together.]

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S2: S3: S1:

(written) Me gusta tu madre y tu padre. ¡Tu madre y tu padre son muy simpáticos! [I like your mother and father. Your mom and dad are very friendly!] (written) Mi familia y yo nos encantan viajar también. ¿Dónde te gusta ir? [My family and I we love traveling too. Where do you like to go?] (written) Me gusta ir al lago de Erie cada año. Colleen tus padres son simpaticos tambien. My madre and my padre e les importa me familia. [I like going to Lake Erie each year. Colleen your parents are nice too.]

The written synchronous environment is extremely dynamic. Communication happens rapidly among several participants. In addition, if allowed, some participants simultaneously chat with each other individually. Under these conditions, linguistic traps, usually more noticeable in other modes, can be less salient. Through the use of textual attention getters and repetitions, teachers can trap students into using target forms as in this example from an ESL chat activity on their country of origin (see Figure 17). S: S: T: S: T: S: S:

(written) i’m from philippines. i never leave any where (written) just here in philippines :( (written) So you live in Philippines, right? (written) yeah (written) You have never left (in a different font size, color, face and style) your country or you have never lived (in a different font size, color, face and style) anywhere? (written) never left (written) right thanks

Figure 17 Visualized linguistic traps

Modeling Modeling the target language output that is the objective of a synchronous written online activity is quite straightforward. As part of instructional planning, model monologs, dialogs or group conversations can be composed or copied from a textbook or other source

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well in advance of the actual real-time online meeting. As part of the instructional conversation during the model-focused task, all or portions of the model can then be referred to by inserting an icon that indicates learners should consult the model, or a link from the instructional conversation directly to the model that appears in a pop up window. One variation is to assign learners to either develop or locate models of native speaker interactions or specific genres of writing around which instructional tasks can also be generated. Scripts of videoclips, films and popular songs are particularly motivating in this regard. For example, an advanced ESL class was assigned to watch a US movie on their own. One of the students found a clip from the movie on the internet and transcribed it. She presented the clip and a cloze listening exercise with which she asked her classmates to practice listening and then repeating lines from the movie. Another student assigned the group the task of composing a letter to one of the characters in which they were to use language similar to that in the movie itself. Modeling in written synchronous mode often involves the instructors taking the role of one of the interlocutors in a task to get the conversation started. She thus sets the model and thus the target linguistic output for the task (Ene et al., 2005). The following is an example from a beginning German class. T: S: T: S:

(written) Ich heiße Jay. [My name is Jay.] (written) Ich heiße Lidia. [My name is Lidia.] (written) Ich wohn in New York. [I live in New York.] (written) Ich wohne in New York auch. [I live in new York too.]

Immersive technologies allow for visualized modeling when certain grammatical structures or focal lexical items can be represented in ways that assure comprehension as in the following example from Italian classroom http://voicethread.com/share/134113/ (see Figure 18).

Figure 18 Visualized modeling

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P:

(written) Questa e’ una macchina fotografica. [This is’ a camera.] (circles the image of a camera on the picture)

As with the other instructional conversation strategies, modeling can be performed in several different communication channels. For the chat activity ‘What were you doing during our class meeting yesterday?’ an ESL instructor models the use of the simple and progressive past tense forms for students in different modes: in her own utterance and in the embedded references to the instructional mini-video available online at http://www. geocities.com/hklo.rm/ (Figure 19).

Figure 19 Multimodal modeling

T:

(written) What were you doing yesterday during our virtual class meeting? I know that Lina was smoking. She told us :) I was looking at the screen all the time and talking. I was explaining the rule when my cell phone rang. You heard it, right? For models on using the correct verb forms, watch this (link) cartoon. For more examples, go to http://www.whitesmoke.com/past-progressive-tense.html.

Modeling can be used in written synchronous environments as part of teacher’s feedback as in the following example from an Italian classroom. A student failed to use a verb in her description of a picture. In turn, the teacher points to this fact and models the use of possible verbs. S: T:

(written) uno il compleanno la nipote [one niece’s birthday] (written) Make sure you have a complete sentence for each photograph! You will need to add a verb to this comment to make it a complete sentence! (in next turn; written) Mi piace molto questa foto di tu! Queste foto sono tanto buffi! [I really like this picture of you! These photos are so funny!]

Providing explicit feedback As we have seen, synchronous written contexts are excellent venues for seeing and addressing aspects of learner posts in the target language. One of the instructional

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conversation strategies that works particularly well in this environment is to provide explicit feedback to learners by way of referring to course resources that have been assembled well in advance of synchronous meetings as part of overall planning. These resources can consist of the task toolkit, of course and other reference material that instructors can make use of to explicitly direct attention and that learners can use in composing their posts on the fly. Reference to them can be via an icon, a link made directly within the ongoing course conversation, or as a private aside to a struggling learner. In this next example of intermediate learners of Spanish, the instructor is quite aware having reviewed archived transcripts of prior sessions that a number of students still struggle with verb conjugations. She has therefore assembled quick reference files of conjugations for the different verb endings for which she can insert a link. S1: S2: T: S: T:

(written) ¿Adónde fueron? [Where did they go?] (written) Ellos fue a la tienda. [They .. to the store.] (written) Third person plural, simple past >> link to conjugation file (written) OK. Ellos fueron a la tienda. [OK. They went to the store.] (written) Magnifico! [Magnificent!]

In the next example of beginning learners of Russian, the instructor incorporates visual and thereby highly explicit and attention-getting feedback. S: T: S: T: S: T:

(written) On January I was in Georgia. I was to visit my grandparents. (circles the word ‘Prepositions’ on the whiteboard) (written) On February I was here because I had to go back to the school. (draws an arrow pointed towards the preposition ‘in’ on the whiteboard) (written) In March? (draws a smiley face in the chat area) :))))))))))))))))))) (written) In March. . . That’s right. (Figure 20)

Figure 20 Explicit visual feedback

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Providing implicit feedback Where providing explicit feedback is an expeditious and effective technique, especially at the lower proficiency levels, implicit feedback can be less intrusive and work to keep the conversation on track in terms of its meaning exchange. The goal of using implicit feedback in a synchronous learning environment is to draw learner attention to an aspect of the target language and to do so while avoiding breakdown or distraction from the ongoing monolog or conversation. These implicit forms – highlighting, recasting, or echoing – can work nicely in written synchronous environments. Unlike more explicit strategies, learners can always choose to ignore implicit feedback and continue on with their communication as is. And, if and when this happens, teachers can always make use of the archived version of the conversation as teaching material for a subsequent meeting.

Recasts Because of the real-time aspect of synchronous written environments, recasts are a natural, straightforward strategy. Rather than taking the time to analyze and calculate an appropriate instructional conversation strategy that involves several steps, a recast – simply restating what the learner has written with a question mark – puts the ball in the learner’s court as well as in the court of other classmates who are participating in the conversation. In this example, advanced learners of French are discussing a short story that they have read for homework. One of the students offers her opinion concerning a character’s actions, but misuses a French–English cognate or faux amis. S: T: S:

(written) À mon pense elle devrait être restée à partir de lui. [In my thought she should have stayed away from him.] (written) A votre quoi?? [In your what??] (written) Excusez-moi A mon avis. [Excuse me. In my opinion]]

Visual amplification of recasts in written synchronous modes can also be effective in attracting student attention. Capital letters, different colors, font change, emoticons, asterisks and other visuals can be used with positive effect. S: T: S: T:

(written) I had lived in Albany for three years. (written) Do you still live in Albany? (written) Yes. (written) (in red and bold) I have lived in Albany for three years.

Recent studies suggest that recasts in written synchronous environments should be not only visually enhanced but also followed by a metalinguistic comment or explanation to be more effective (Lluna-Mateu, 2006). S: T: S:

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(written) Yesterday I drink too much coffee and could not sleep. (written) Yesterday I (capitalized) DRANK too much coffee. Past tense :) (written) I drank. Thanks.

Language learning and teaching in written synchronous environments

Meaning/Form-focused feedback Non-native speakers in shared communities can implicitly correct each other during text chat activities as in this example, where two NNS chat via the Rosetta Stone SharedTalk website (Figure 21).

Figure 21 Meaning/form-focused feedback

P1: P2: P2: P1:

(written) do you speak english fluently? (written) i am trying ;) (written) you can juge me (written) I can’t judge you :) i’m not a native english speaker myself :)

To make meaning/form-focused feedback more prominent, instructors use visual strategies thereby increasing visibility and noticeability. S: T: S: T: S:

(written) I worked in American company. (written) For how long did you work in an American company? (written) Actually it wasn’t a real job. I had training in American company. (written) Was it (asterisks) *an* American company or a multicultural company? I used to work in a multicultural company with Americans, Russians and Swedes. (written) It was an American company but we had people from many countries. Mostly Finns...

Echoing As in the other instructional modes, echoing can be used effectively to draw learner attention to an error as an invitation to correct their post. In the next example of an informal conversation between a potential learner–instructor of French, the instructor echoes the learner’s error to draw attention to it. S1: S2: S1: S2: S1: S2:

(written) French is such a hard language to learn. (written) yeah sure but I can learn you if you whish (written) I can learn you??? How can you learn me? I’m not a subject to be learnt he he (written) What do you mean? (written) Will you ***teach*** me French? (written) o yea I see. . . I’ll teach you. oui :)

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Summary As we have seen with synchronous oral environments, there are certainly advantages and disadvantages to the real-time aspect of teaching online. This environment especially requires a great deal of pre-planning to ensure that the value of real-time communicative activity is fully exploited. Pre-planning involves anticipating the kinds of references and resources that can be made use of by both the instructor and students as they participate in task-based language practice accompanied by instructional conversations that are orchestrated by the teacher. While teaching, these resources and reference can be called up, pointed out, referred to and used productively as learners compose their target language posts. Archives of these written synchronous sessions in turn make for excellent planning information and material for subsequent learning sessions and assignments. The most challenging aspect of synchronous online teaching, of course, is the element of time. Just like in the f2f classroom, instructors must juggle a number of instructional activities and conversations simultaneously while detecting and responding to the myriad teachable moments that arise. With practice on the part of students and instructor, however, the environment is a powerful one for language education.

End-of-chapter notes My Language Exchange http://www.mylanguageexchange.com/Learn-Languages.asp Shared Talk http://www.sharedtalk.com/ English Club http://www.englishclub.com/esl-chat/index.htm Dave’s ESL Café http://host8.123flashchat.com/eslcafe/

End-of-chapter activities Activity A. Task development Taking the template from Chapters 2 and 3, with a partner decide on a group of target learners, a language learning objective and develop a synchronous written task. Share your task with the group.

Activity B. Telling the story Learners need not post only text messages in written synchronous environments. They can be assigned in advance of real-time online sessions to assemble multimodal presentations to share with the class. Indeed, these products – animations, video clips, audio clips and

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images in any combination – can serve as springboards for engaged discussion among class members. Visit the Digital Storytelling Project for ideas about assigning such multimodal storytelling projects. http://www.storycenter.org/index1.html

Activity C. Clozing video As mentioned earlier in this chapter, learners can be assigned to transcribe a video clip that they find on the internet. Not only is transcribing in the target language a powerful language learning activity, but transforming the transcript into various exercises for the class is as well. Cloze exercises, sentence scrambling, even deleted lines in dialogs to be completed are all motivating student-generated activities.

Activity D. Visual analysis Visual conventions are many times universal. Have learners locate a television commercial from the target culture. Provide basic descriptive terminology that they may need to present an in-depth analysis of the visual aspects of the commercial. Have learners present, share and discuss one another’s analyses basing this in any new understanding of the target culture they may have gleaned.

Activity E. Evaluating the learning Tracking learner progress can be greatly facilitated via written synchronous environments. Indeed, a complete running record of learner language development can be maintained using archives of the synchronous sessions along with submitted assignments. These records can be shared with and/or assembled by the student in an electronic portfolio, an excellent evaluation devise for language education.

References Blake, R. (2000) Computer-mediated communication: A window on L2 Spanish interlanguage. Language Learning & Technology 4 (1), 120–136. Doughty, C. and Long, M. (2003) Optimal psycholinguistic environments for distance foreign language learning. Language Learning Technology 7 (3), 50–80. Ene, E., Görtler, S. and McBride, K. (2005) Teacher participation styles in foreign language chats and their effects on student behavior. CALICO Journal 22 (3), 603–634. Jones, R. (2004) The problem of Context in computer mediated communication. In P. Levine and R. Scollon (eds) Discourse & technology multimodal discourse analysis (pp. 20–33). Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. Lai, C. and Zhao, Y. (2006) Noticing and text-based chat. Language Learning & Technology 10 (3), 102–120.

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Lluna-Mateu, F.R. (2006) Development of Spanish l2 competence in a synchronous CMC (chat room) environment: The role of visually-enhanced recasts in fostering grammatical knowledge and changes in communicative language use. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2004–2005) Teaching and learning with telecommunications: Forms of instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 33 (2), 103–109. Meskill, C. and Anthony, N. (2005) Foreign language learning with CMC: Forms of online instructional discourse in a hybrid Russian class. System 33 (1), 89–105. Pellettieri, J. (2000) Negotiation in cyberspace: The role of chatting in the development of grammatical competence. In M. Warschauer and R. Kerns (eds) Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 59–86). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, B. (2003) The use of communication strategies in computer-mediated communication. System 31, 29–53. Smith, B. (2004) Computer-mediated negotiated interaction and lexical acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 365–398. Sotillo, S.M. (2000) Discourse functions and syntactic complexity in synchronous and asynchronous communication. Language Learning & Technology 4 (1), 82–119. Retrieved August 12, 2009, from http://llt.msu.edu.vol4num1/sotillo/default.html.

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Language learning and teaching in written asynchronous environments ■

The characteristics and affordances that make written asynchronous environments useful for language education are presented and discussed.

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Detailed illustrations and their contexts provide a sense of how and why instructional conversations best work in these environments.

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Variations on pedagogical uses for written asynchronous environments are included.

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Overview—176 Calling attention to forms—177 Calling attention to lexis—180 Corralling—186 Saturating—191 Using linguistic traps—192 Modeling—193 Providing explicit feedback—195 Providing implicit feedback—197 Summary—199 End-of-chapter activities—199 Further reading—201

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Language learning and teaching in written asynchronous environments Objectives In this chapter you will learn: – the definition of written asynchronous environments; – the special affordances of written asynchronous environments; – how different instructional conversation strategies can be undertaken in these environments; – how the environment’s affordances can be taken advantage of to support and amplify these conversations.

Overview Written asynchronous online learning environments are the most popular and the most widely used of the four. While it is the most technologically simple, accessible and mechanically easy to use, it nonetheless, like the other three environments, requires a great deal of reconceptualization regarding teaching and learning processes. Both commercial and non-commercial written asynchronous utilities have been around in various forms for as long as there have been publicly accessible telecommunications. As early as the late 1980s, instructors used written asynchronous in various ways to post course materials, conduct learning activities, share learner assignments and communicate with learners between live meetings. In some cases, online activities became the equivalent of actual seat time in the f2f classroom, a practice that came to be known as blended learning. In the mid 1990s, online written asynchronous utilities became sufficiently sophisticated that instructors began to migrate their entire courses into written asynchronous formats. When this migration was done expertly with the design of the online instruction exploiting the features and affordances that maximized the online instructional experience, both instructors and students came to enjoy and often prefer online to live meetings. The flexibility in terms of time and place, along with a strong sense of a learning community, compounded with the fact that participation structures allowed for all students to exercise equal voice continued to make online learning an attractive option. Because written asynchronous environments have been around the longest and have been used the most widely, the bulk of research undertaken on online learning has focused on how teaching and learning unfold in this environment. In language education particularly, analysis of learners’ written asynchronous utterances has been a popular topic of research. In our own work, we have found that the most important element in successful online language learning is teacher-orchestrated instructional conversations. In the following

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sections, we again discuss each of the online instructional conversation strategies in turn with examples of how these unfold in written asynchronous environments, a venue where instructors and students enjoy the luxury of time to fully engage teachable moments. There are some caveats, however, based on many years of experience with teaching in written asynchronous venues. When a language task is assigned in written asynchronous environments, time can work both for and against its productive accomplishment. Because fully online asynchronous courses have flexible participation structures, agreements concerning how often students are to log in and participate are critical. As part of any set of instructions for pair or group or whole class work, a clear indication must be made about participation expectations. Pair dynamics will not have a chance if only one member of the pair logs on. Likewise with small groups. In a group of three, if one member fails to log on within a defined period of time, the other members will feel shortchanged. Thus, stating log on requirements and reinforcing these are critical to maintaining an equitable, felicitous community of learners.

Calling attention to forms In written asynchronous environments, calling attention to forms and particular lexical items can be done quite readily via a number of techniques. Again, the element of time allows for careful, thoughtful responses on the part of instructors to the teachable moments that present themselves in asynchronous conversations. Not only can instructors make use of the visual strategies for calling attention that have been discussed in the previous chapters (using capital letters, color, font, size, animations, circling, underlining, etc.), but also inserted and linked to images, video clips, audio clips, reference material and the like. Internal links to other relevant posts within the course are also possible; e.g. remember when we focused on X? [here the teacher might insert a link to prior course conversation]. This internal linking nicely builds an internal coherence to a language course by reminding learners of the whole and the parts of their learning experiences. A written asynchronous language class can develop its own conventions for signaling attention to aspects of the target language. Indeed, learners can take on responsibility for using the group-established conventions themselves by signally attention to one another in threaded discussions during task-based activities. These conventions can be developed as the course progresses – a special area is set up for conventions to be suggested, discussed and determined – or at the start of the course as an introductory unit – how will we signal what should be attended to as we converse in this environment? In either case, active instructional participation on the part of all learners can only serve to enrich the learning experience for all.

Task-level attention to forms As with the other three learning environments, the design and continual use of the task toolkit is an essential aspect of teaching in written asynchronous environments. In addition

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to their central role in delineating focal language for a given task, these can be archived and referred to throughout the course as well as used by individuals and groups of students for unit reviews. For the following task, mid beginning learners of EFL are instructed to read a simplified top news story of the day, summarize it and state an opinion. The task toolkit contains key language for summarizing and expressing an opinion in English. This information is continuously visible on the screen as learners compose their posts, read one another’s posts and respond to one another’s posts. Summarizing In brief, In sum, The main event/idea is Expressing an Opinion In my opinion, To my way of thinking, I think that I believe that When either the instructor or other students detect a need for one or more of these language elements in a learner’s post, they can use the task-level attention to form instructional conversation move by explicitly pointing this out, inserting a commonly understood symbol that indicates the poster should refer to the task toolkit, or more implicitly guide the poster to rephrase using the key language elements of the task.

Incidental attention to forms Attention can be drawn to any aspect of learner output that the instructor tracks as having been studied and therefore used correctly while the class is engaged in any activity, not just one targeting that form or lexical item. In the following, an intermediate EFL class is having a general discussion of a movie they had all viewed independently. The instructor responds to this teachable moment: S: T:

(written) I think he should get all the money. His work is what made the money! (written) So, you think he should have gotten (link to modal perfect task toolkit) all the money? What about you others? Should he have gotten all the money?

In this way she draws attention to a form that the class had studied two weeks earlier in a way that furthers the content and spirit of the conversation. Time and media affordances allow teachers to make incidental attention to form more salient. In the fast-paced f2f classroom, teachers often do not have opportunities to call attention to forms incidentally arising in a conversation. In written asynchronous environments, teachers can underline the targeted forms by using links and references to grammar notes and task toolkits. In the example from an Intermediate Russian II course,

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the instructor responds to a student’s utterance by inserting a link to a grammar note right under the word in which she made a grammatical mistake. She also embeds into her post a task toolkit from a previous lesson. S:

T:

(written) мой русский друг говорит, что южанин из Америки слишком много приветливы. Мы всегду улыбаемся, говорим и махаем рукой каждому. Он думает что мы едим странную пищу. . . Гритс, вареный арахис и чай со льдом. Он также думает, что мы двигаемся медленно. Он хотит спешить! [My Russian friend says that a Southern from America is too friendly. We always smile, talk and wave with a hand to everyone. He thinks that we eat strange food. . . Grits, boiled peanuts and iced tea. He also thinks that we move slowly. He wants (incorrect form) to rush!] (written) Если он хочет всегда спешить, то ему лучше жить в Москве. В Москве все спешат. Там очень быстрый ритм жизни. [If he wants (correct verb under which there is a link to the grammar note in a previous lesson) to always rush, it’s better for him to live in Moscow. In Moscow everybody is n rush. There is a fast life rhythm. (embedded image of a grammar note) (Figure 1)

Figure 1 Incidental attention to form. Linking to and embedding grammar notes

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Calling attention to lexis As we have seen, attention to particular vocabulary items can be drawn by any number of visual, auditory and multimodal means. The affordance of asynchronous instruction, of course, is that as much time as need be taken can be used productively by both instructor and students to mark or annotate lexical items that occur in threaded discussions. It is through the visual and aural amplification of new or recycled words in the target language, in multiple and novel contexts that mastery of these items is attained. Their multimodal attributions serve to make these words more comprehensible and memorable.

Task-level attention to lexis Caches of recycled lexical items can be stored and accessed in any number of ways and students can be encouraged to use these in their own instructional conversation strategies, as a way to review for tests, as a means of preparing and composing posts for a given language learning task. This sample class of mid beginning learners of Spanish has been brainstorming and assembling semantic nets for different kinds of foods one might find at themed restaurants. They have generated a semantic net for seafood items in a seafood restaurant (Figure 2) Scents, tastes, ways of preparing

peces espadas (swordfish) camarón (shrimp) platija (flounder) langosta (lobster) conchas de peregrino (scallops)

Smells

Tastes

Ways of Preparing

huele a pescado (fishy smell) el olor del mar (smell of the sea) un olor fuerte (a strong smell) un olor dulce (a sweet smell)

fuerte (strong) dulce (sweet) parecido a la goma (rubbery)

hervido (boiled) frito (fried) cocido al vapor (steamed) cocido al horno (baked)

Figure 2 Task toolkit for lexical collocations

In groups of four, their task is to develop a script for two couples eating in such a restaurant that includes an ordering sequence and small talk/critique about the food that is served. These scripts are collaboratively composed by the groups, then posted for the rest of the class. They are encouraged to include illustrations (links and/or pasted in images, audio or video files) to accompany the scenes they present (Figure 3). When Group A posts their script to the class, the instructor notices that two of the four group members ordered and commented on the same seafood dish. She interjects, calling attention to new lexical items that might be used in their stead:

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Figure 3 Task-level attention to lexis. Semantic net

T:

(written) Muy bien pero vos dos comen las mismas platas. Porqué no come otra clase de pescados? Langosta, platija . . . [Good, but you both had the same dish. Why don’t you try some other kind of fish? Lobster? Flounder?]

Here she also inserts a picture of each of her suggestions into the post to tempt the group members (Figure 4).

Figure 4 References to semantic nets

In an online Elementary Russian II class, the instructor uses a vocabulary focused activity as the task toolkit. From the four images provided in the activity, students who know the words белый [white] and черный [black] are to figure out the meanings of the adjectives короткий [short], длинный [long], узкий [tights] and широкий [loose]. A screenshot is displayed in the instructor’s initial post on the discussion topic What Clothes are Appropriate to Wear at What Places? In her description of the task and models, the instructor refers to the task toolkit via arrows (Figure 5).

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Figure 5 Task-level attention to lexis

With the help of arrows, the instructor signals students to use the target adjectives. T:

S: T:

(written) (task description) Что можно носить на работу? В университет? На дискотеку? Дома? Можно носить на работу короткие узкие платья? Можно носить дома широкую удобную одежду? Можно носить в университет длинные широкие шорты? [What is appropriate to wear to work? To college? To a disco club? At home? Is it appropriate to wear short tight dresses to work? Is it appropriate to wear loose comfortable clothes at home? Is it appropriate to wear long loose shorts to a college?] (written) На работу я обычно ношу юбку и блузку и туфли. [I usually wear a skirt and a blouse and shoes to work.] (written) Узкую →||← юбку или широкую ←| |→ юбку? [Tight →||← skirt or a loose ←| |→ skirt?]

In the example from http://voicethread.com/share/1252460/ (Figure 6) an ESL teacher assigned her students to answer the question: What things do you consider most when renting an apartment? Please share and explain your ideas on this topic. Students were

Figure 6 Task-level attention to form. Reference to task toolkit

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given a list of words to be used in their answers: rent, space, location, roommates, convenience, storage, contract period, move in, pay a deposit, sign a contract, etc. S1:

(written) Okay. Well, when I rent an apartment, I consider price and location first and equally. In other words, you might find a dirt cheap place on the side of a mountain, but it could be hours away from your work or school. S2: (written) Ah, hands down, roommates are by far one of the most important factors in renting a place. You might find a great deal on a place, but if your roommate is messy, leaves pizza boxes all over the place and holds wild parties all night . . . . and lets strangers eat all of your food, you’re going to be one unhappy person. S3: (written) I like to rent in an apartment with a cozy ambiance, relaxing and well furnished. But it costs a lot of dough. S4: (written) In my opinion, when I look for an apartment I will focus on the price and the security. I’m a student and I have to save money to do many things needed for me. So if I don’t want to spend a lot of money for the rent. In other words, if you live with fright every day, it is really a trouble. S5: (written)Hi I would like to say something about renting an apartment, I like to live an apartment the first time I see the location also not be expensive, I consider about when I pay money, like cash I’m not convenience, because it’s depend on the job if I have good salary I pay at my earliest convenience. Things I consider most when renting an apartment are rent, space and if the university is near. Students successfully used the vocabulary items from the supplied task toolkit which guided them through the activity by setting clear expectations. In the example from Language Life’s virtual city in Second Life taken from http://youtu.be/ gmb7qGx2EZU, Spanish learners study nouns denoting months by using a giant calendar (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Task-level attention to lexis. Learning new vocabulary in Second Life

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T: S: T:

(oral) Enero. Febrero. Marzo. Abril. [January. February. March. April.] (oral) Enero. Febrero. Marzo. Abril. [January. February. March. April.] (oral) Muy bien. [Very well.]

Incidental attention to lexis Because learners have all the time they need to seek out the target language vocabulary that they need in composing their asynchronous posts, there is a higher likelihood of misuse or odd use of lexical items. As we well know, looking up translations and equivalents can often lead to odd collocations. This tendency to look up and use new words can present numerous teachable moments whereby the instructor and/or classmates highlight and provide commentary and remediation on incorrect uses of target language vocabulary. The availability of free concordancing tools whereby vast corpora of written and spoken target language can be accessed and the lexical item in question be run in order to assess successful collocations makes these teachable moments of calling attention to lexis easily managed. Indeed, by simply highlighting a learner’s misuse of a vocabulary word and asking ‘Did you run this? (use the concordance program) may constitute a response that suffices in pointing the learner to the need for more independent research on the word in question. In the following example, advanced learners of ESL have been assigned to annotate or ‘illuminate’ a poem. Annotations or illuminations can take the form of learnergenerated text, audio, video or animations that they embed within the poem for others to access. T:

(written) It’s bleak the night When the sun’s at rest The day’s events Sorry remnants still. Fragile skin and eyes now Saved from the burn, The bright. ——

In one of the annotations a pair of learners writes the following: Ss:

(written) The poem’s narrator implies here that his skin cannot cope with more sun and heat.

The instructor, noting that the term ‘cope with’ is misused as the line of the poem indicates that the narrator’s skin cannot tolerate the heat, posts the students’ sentence with the words ‘cope with’ highlighted. She adds the following lexical heuristic and encourages the pair to run both ‘cope with’ and ‘tolerate’ through the concordance program to see with what words each collocates. T:

(written) skin=inanimate, ‘cope with’ implies volition and purpose

Run ‘cope with’ (link inserted) and ‘tolerate’ (link inserted) and report back the words with which each collocates. (Figure 8)

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Figure 8 Incidental attention to lexis

In an additional example, an intermediate Russian instructor begins the following discussion: T:

(written) For these two weeks you will participate in the discussion forum on the topic ‘Идеальная работа’ [Ideal Job]. Provide four features of your ideal job. As a class you will discuss those features and reach agreement on what feature (ONE) is the most important. Provide all pros and cons. During these two weeks, you will have to post at least three messages to this discussion board.

Students use dictionaries for this assignment which can present word choice problems. When one of the students uses an incorrect word, the instructor continues the discussion using a more appropriate word, demonstrating its natural use in a conversation on the topic. S:

(written) Когда как (хорошая медицинская и зубная страховки, и гибкий график работы), я согласен. Но, я хочу работа что интерересная и другая. Во-первых, Интересная работа будет просыпаться. Во-вторых, хочу работаю в изменение окружение— не хочу врач кто лечит болных ежедневно. C другой стороны я хочу

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T:

S:

работать за рубежом или где можно путешествовать часто. Хочу работать в министерство иностранных деле так как я хочу работа что интересная, другая, и можно путешествовать много раз. [When there is a good medical and dental insurance and flexible work schedule, I agree. But I want the job to be interesting and different. First of all, an interesting job will wake up. Second, I want to work in a changing environment. I don’t want to be a doctor who cures patients every day. On the other hand, I want a job abroad or where I can travel often. I want to work for a Ministry of Foreign Affairs as I want a job that is interesting, different and allowing for often traveling.] (written) Согласна! Интересная работа, которая держит нас , когда каждый день что-то новое, это здорово. С другой стороны, когда каждый день всё новое, это значит, много стресса. Нет? [I agree. Interesting job that keeps us awake, when every day brings something new is great. On the other hand, when every day everything is new it means a lot of stress. No?] (written) Да, когда каждый день всё новое, значит много стресса. Но, это очень интересный:) [Yes, when every day everything is new, it means a lot of stress. But it is very interesting :)]

Corralling As we have seen in oral asynchronous environments, corralling is especially wellfacilitated by the element of time: time for students to compose their posts, time for instructors to detect and design corralling strategies in response to teachable moments and time for all to consider and reflect on instructional conversations overall. Corralling is an effective instructional strategy for getting learners back on track attending to and employing the targeted language of the moment in ways that assist them in incorporating that language into their developing repertoire. As we have discussed, employing this kind of redirecting strategy as part of the natural stream of communication is an effective method for teaching learners to notice, attend to, comprehend and use new language productively.

Task-level corralling An example of corralling is in a mid beginning EFL class. The class is taught entirely in written asynchronous mode, learners have been assigned the roles as ‘fast food coordinators’. Their job, in groups of four, is to develop a schedule for the preparation of food at a fast food restaurant. The task toolkit contains the focal language, some of which is new to students (time intervals and measurement) and some of which is being recycled from an earlier activity (food preparation vocabulary) (Figure 9).

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Open defrost preheat timer mix, blend add prepare check turn, flip remove wrap

first set the timer for x seconds, for x minutes 10 seconds, 20 seconds, one minute later once x, then x (simple present tense)

Figure 9 Task-level corralling

Over a week, the four groups work on the written schedules that they will share with the whole class. While monitoring their task-based discussions, their instructor notices that learners are tending to avoid using the time expressions listed in the task toolkit by simply listing the actions. She uses a corralling strategy within the following group conversation: S1: S2: S3: S4: T: S4: T: S3: T:

(written) Okay. We start with defrost meat. (written) Okay. Open meat package. (written) Defrost the bread also. (written) And defrost french fries. (written) Guys, use this: first, for x, then, once x, then x. Okay? (written) First defrost meat. (written) First defrost the meat for. . . .? (written) First defrost the meat for three hours. (written) Bravo. And then?

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In the next example, a high beginning ESL teacher assigns the task of accounting for a recommendation (should) by using a comparative construction (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Task-level corralling

S1: T: S1:

(written) I think he should go out with Linda because she practices yoga. (written) So, you think Linda is more _____ than Carla? (written) Right. Linda is more fit than Carla.

Story-telling incorporating certain grammatical elements is an effective way to corral students into using those elements as in the following example from an ESL class http:// voicethread.com/share/1211649/ (Figure 11).

Figure 11 Task-level corralling

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T:

S1:

S2:

S3:

(written on the slide) TASK ONE. Take a look at the next pages and find a story board you like. After choosing your storyboard, WRITE a story about it. You must include, at least, FIVE phasal verbs in your story. (written) There was a dog, his name was Bud and he was very tired, so he had a nightmare where he needed to look after some other dogs. Bud cooked, cleared up the house and he was obligated to put up with all the others, in his dream he didn´t eat and he hadn´t a free time, he was so took up with the house, however he was up and discovered all that went on was only a nightmare and he carried on with his slumber. (written) This dog was called Lunna, she was tired out because it has a litter of puppies. She´d been worked so hard to take care, cook, feed up and clean up the mess they´ve been making. Despite this it´s falling love for her puppies and she´s jumped at to tire when their little angels are sleeping. (written) Once upon a time, in a beautiful day the sun had already risen and a young dog mother was giving birth to some little and sweet puppies. They woke up pretty early on the next day, and began to walk, played and run after each other. Everyone did themselves in .When arrived the lunch time the dog mother call them to eat, because she looked after them very carefully. At the same time they came back to the house, and held on for the delicious lunch. The family ate together and licked their lips. With the time they grew up and live happily ever after.

Corralling can be a complicated, multi-level task requiring students to include certain words, phrases and grammatical forms in their utterances as in this example from http:// voicethread.com/share/1393428/ (Figure 12).

Figure 12 Task-level corralling VOCABULARY FROM THE SONG TO GO WITH THE WIND LET IT FLOW TO COME ALONG

TO LIFT SOMETHING OFF THE GROUND TO SPIN SOMEBODY AROUND TO FEEL LIKE

TO BE LOST IN SOMEONE’S EYES TO MAKE LIFE ONE’S OWN TO LIVE FOR

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T:

S1:

S2:

S3:

(written on the slide) Listen to song 1 and then write about the meaning of it according to your interpertation but remember to use the following: 1. Three words from the vocabulary; 2. Three of these connectors: First of all/ At first/ Then/ As a matter of fact/ However/ Therefore/ As a result/ In short/ In the end/ Finally; 3. At least two of these: Simple Present Tense/ Present Continuous/ Simple Past Tense/ Past Continous/ Past Perfect Tense/ Modal verbs. (written) First at all the girl was living life can be then described how is falling in love. All changed in her life after the special person had come along .He until lifted her feet off the ground and she felt like a lover. In short ,she told us ,we can meet special people in our life that will show us ,the most important felling in general ,the love,could change our point of view about how to life for ,however it is the maturity’s process. (written) At first I think the song talks about a girl who was sad. She needed to feel the love in your life. When she found the boy , she feel liked,she could come long someone to be happy.She was feeling well ,because she found Till. However, now she is lifting her foot off the ground .Finally the distance don´t will separate them and now she is living for someone.She had found the love after she went happy.Love could change people for good. (written) At first she speaks, she found no wings to fly and a man came and changed everything in his life, took his feet from the ground and turned around her .. then she was in love with this man .. She’s never been in love before, as a result he taught her to love.

Incidental corralling Based on any prior task focus, corralling can be employed throughout the written asynchronous course or course component as a form of recycling and review of new language. Even if learners are not using this language, if the context of a situation calls for something that they have already explicitly studied, then corralling learners into attending to and possibly producing the known language can be developmentally powerful. It is, essentially, reminding learners of what they already know in a communicative context. In the following example, low intermediate learners of French have been asked to recount their weekend activities – a regular feature of this fully online written asynchronous course for native speakers of English. Weeks earlier the class had encountered one of many of the faux amis (false friends, false cognates that typically trip up English speakers). In one of the student’s accounts, they misuse the French finalment meaning eventually in English, not finally. S1: T: S1: T: S1:

(written) Et puis, apres tout ca, je suis rentre chez moi finalment. [And so, after all I came home eventually.] (written) Ça veut dire que vous êtes rentrés chez vous. . . .? (rappelez-vous les faux amis) [Do you mean to say the you came home. . . ? (remember the false friends/cognates)] (written) Pardon. Je suis rentre chez moi enfin. [Sorry. I came home finally.] (written) Et voilà. C’s’est bien passé enfin le weekend? [There you go. Was your weekend enjoyable after all?] (written) Oui. Enfin c’etait bien passe. [Yes. After all it was enjoyable.]

In the next example, intermediate Russian learners are discussing the topic of ‘Natural Disasters’. The instructor seizes the opportunity to direct a student who is writing in

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English to express his ideas in Russian with the use of constructions he already knows. The instructor corrals the student into using his passive knowledge in active communication in a real life situation. Student 2 picks up the word ‘gangs’ from the post by Student 1, which she accidentally models. S1:

S2: T:

S2:

(written) На 29 августе 2005 году ураган Катрина прошёл через Ню Орлеанс. Ветер разрушил здания и сломал деревья. Электричество, воды, канализации не было. Многие люди, которые не уезжали из города, поднимались на крыши и ждали спасения. Сразу после урагана банды грабили магазины и квартиры. [On August 29, 2005 the hurricane Katrina went through New Orleans. The wind demolished buildings and broke trees. There was not any electricity, water and sewer. Many people who did not leave the city mounted the roofs and waited to be rescued. Immediately after the hurricane gangs robbed the stores and apartments.] (written) I hate you! Just Kidding. I was writing about Katrina as well. (written) Надо писать по-русски: Я тебя ненавижу! :))))))))))) Хотя это слишком сильно будет для русского языка. Русские обычно так не шутят. Они могут сказать ‘Как ты могла?’ - что-то такое. [You have to write in Russian: I hate you! :))))))))) Although it is too strong for the Russian language. Russians usually do not joke like that. They can say ‘How could you?’ – something like that.] (written) Джекки как ты могла? ;) на теме: Грустно видеть как ураган превращает невинные народы во банды :( [Jackie how could you? ;) on topic: It is sad to see how the hurricane turns innocent people into gangs.]

Saturating As we have pointed out in the other three online environments, the more often learners encounter elements of the target language in meaningful contexts, the more likely they are to incorporate these into their developing target language repertoires. In written asynchronous formats, saturating posts with target language elements under study can be as natural as it is in the live classroom. Instructors and students can both make a point of using targeted forms and lexical items repeatedly as they converse to reinforce the learning. And, of course, targets can be highlighted and annotated in a variety of ways to further draw learner attention to them. In the following example of beginning learners of EFL, the instructor uses a focal vocabulary word name as frequently as possible while encouraging the learners in her fully online written asynchronous class to do the same. T: S1: T: S1:

(written) My name is Molly. That is my name. Please call me by that name. I want to know your names also. Mohamed. Is that your name? (written) Yes. Mohamed. (written) Your name is Mohamed? (written) Yes my name is Mohamed.

In this next example, an instructor starts the topic ‘Getting Advice: From Mom or Dad?’ He saturates his topic explanation with the construction ‘who would you’ using it with different verbs, which helps learners focus on and in turn use the construction.

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T:

(written) When you have problem in life, who would you turn to first: your mom or dad? Of course, friends are important in making decisions, but if you had to choose between your mom or dad for help, who would you ask? Does it depend on the situation and topic? If so, share your experiences and feelings about this topic. For example, who would you talk to first in this case: You need advice about breaking up with a girlfriend or boyfriend. If for whatever reason you can’t ask a parent, who would you turn to for advice?

Using linguistic traps Written asynchronous environments might be considered the best of the four for the successful use of linguistic traps. Again, the element of time to ‘set the trap’ and for learners to compose and post a ‘trapped’ response makes a large difference as does the fact that the conversation is written and can therefore be referenced any number of times. As we have seen, linguistic traps can be set with words, the instructor’s or students’ and, as in the following example, they can also be set using visuals. In this high intermediate academic ESL class, students are working on their skills at composing academic papers for their future undergraduate courses. They are currently working on developing a comparison and contrast essay. In preparation, they have researched a topic of their choice to compare and contrast and have read and discussed a number of sample essays. They will post at least three drafts of their essays to the entire class for feedback. As they develop their drafts, the following task toolkit is present in the area of the course where they post and comment on each other’s work (Figure 13).

Figure 13 Using linguistic traps

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A student’s preliminary draft could benefit from using such comparison and contrast transitions. A classmate detects this and traps his online colleague into incorporating transitions in his subsequent draft: S1:

(written) Nice job on this first draft. In your third and fourth sentence you say The outdoor markets in Turkey are noisier than those in the US. The markets in the US have more diverse products than those in Turkey. Combine the two sentences using one of the transition words in the task toolkit. That will make reading this smoother because the writing will be more connected.

In the following, a Russian instructor in an Elementary Russian II class asks questions so as to trap students into using prepositional case endings in describing locations and places to work. T: S1: T:

S2: T: S2: T:

S2:

(written) Ты хочешь работать в полиции? [Do you want to work at the police?] (written) Я хочу работать в лаборатории. [I want to work at the lab.] (written) Я живу в штате Нью-Йорк, но я хочу жить в Мэриленде. Там тепло и нет снега. Там океан. [I live in New York state but I want to live in Maryland. There is warm and no snow. There is an ocean.] (written) Я тоже хочу жить где тепло и много сонце. [I also want to live where it’s warm and a lot of sun.] (written) Где? Во Флориде? Или в Калифорнии? [Where? In Florida? Or in California?] (written) Во Флориде. [In Florida.] (written) А почему не в Калифорнии? Там же тоже много солнца и тепло. Но я не знаю, там океан холодный или тёплый? [Why not in California? There is also a lot of sun and warm. But I don’t know if the ocean there is cold or warm.] (written) Да, в Калифорнии океан холодный. [Yes, the ocean is cold in California.]

Modeling Modeling new language in written asynchronous environments does not have to be confined to text only. Incorporating sound, image and video files that model the target language elements is always possible and, when it comes to emphasizing pronunciation, intonation and listening practice, it is essential. In written asynchronous environments, modeling can be as simple as providing a conversational opener. In this example, an intermediate EFL instructor has posted a series of pictures of various people in the process of undertaking tasks. He models the target structure – the present perfect tense and learners follow his lead. T: S:

(written) What has he been doing? He has been painting his kitchen. What an ugly color! Ugh! What has she been doing? (written) She has been walking her dog. What an ugly dog! Mine so much pretier :)

Models can be easily picked up by students due to the written nature of this online communication venue. In this example, a Russian instructor models the construction ‘to

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be/to become + Instrumental case’ for a student unfamiliar with the construction. The student not only picks up the modeled structure but also uses it with a different word. S:

T: S:

(written) Я хочу учусь на факультете криминологии. Это очень хорошо в университете Торонто. [I want to major in criminology. It’s good at the University of Toronto.] (written) Вы хотите быть юристом? [To you want to be a lawyer?] (written) Я хочу быть криминалистом. Это очень интересно. [I want to be a criminologist. It is very interesting.]

Further, models are often provided in descriptions of tasks as in the following Russian example. T:

S1:

S2: S1:

(written) During the following two weeks, you will participate in a discussion on the topic ‘Your family’. You have to post at least two messages asking your classmates one question about their families and answering other people’s questions. You can ask any questions related to the family: Какая твоя семья? Кто твоя мама? Как её зовут? Кто твой папа? Как его зовут? [What kind of is your family? What is your Mom? What is her name? What is your Dad? What is his name?] (written) Здраствуйте. Моя семья маленькая. У меня есть мама, папа, и брат. Какая ваша семья? [Hello. My family is small. I have Mom, Dad and a brother. What kind is your family?] (written) Кто твой брат? Как его зовут? [What is your brother? What is his name?] (written) Мои брат школьник. Он зовут карлос. Кто твоя сестра? Как ее зовут? [My brother is a school student. His name is Carlos. What is your sister? What is her name?]

For the discussion ‘Come sono loro?’ an Italian instructor models possible constructions and vocabulary. (written) Modelo: [model] Io parlo di Dario Fo: Lui è un uomo molto simpatico e molto intelligente. Lui ha una personalità molto divertente e creativa. Lui è dinamico e molto diretto. Dario Fo è vecchio. Lui ha gli occhi azzurri. Lui ha i capelli bianchi, e lui è un poco calvo. Dario Fo è molto contento. [I speak about Dario Fo: He is a very likeable and intelligent man. He has a very funny and creative personality. He is dynamic and multidimensional. Dario Fo is old. He has blue eyes. He has grey hair, and he is a little bald. Dario Fo is content.] S1: (written) Io parlo di Silvio Berlusconi: Lui e bello e ricco italiano. Silvio ha i capelli castano e gli occhi marrone. Lui e faccia bello. Lui e molto fortunato essere famoso. [I speak about Silvio Berlusconi: He is a handsome and rich Italian. Silvio has brown hair and brown eyes. This makes him handsome. He is very lucky to be famous.] S2: (written) Caio John Io parlo Silvio Berlussconi anche. Lui e molto interessente. [Hi John. I speak about Silvio Berlusconi as well. He is very interesting.] S3: (written) Silvio sguardo molto ricco. Si? [Is Silvio very rich? Really?] S4: (written) Ciao John! Molto Bene descrizione. Siamo Simile. [Hello John! Very good description. We think similarly.]

T:

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Providing explicit feedback In the live classroom when instructors provide explicit feedback, several things can happen. Students may not attend to it, students may attend to it but not incorporate it in amended output, only some learners will attend, the student(s) to whom the explicit feedback is directed will clam up from embarrassment, the explicit feedback may be misconstrued and its intended effect thus lost as activities progress. In written asynchronous environments, however, the feedback does not disappear and cannot be ignored, learners to whom it is addressed have time to consider the feedback and revise accordingly and, less outgoing students who might not be as responsive in a live situation are empowered by both time and ‘face’ issues to react positively. Just as in the other environments, explicit feedback can be as straightforward as pointing the learner to the task toolkit if one of the rules there has been violated, inserting a symbol that represents a rule or concept, or simply stating what needs to be corrected outright. In this example of explicit feedback in a blended low level Spanish course that meets one third of the time in a written asynchronous course space, intermediate learners are carrying out a collaborative shopping task whereby groups of four are examining and comparing the value of items in online stores. The language focus is on making comparisons and expressing preferences (Figure 14).

Figure 14 Providing explicit feedback

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S1: S2: S1: T:

(written) Me gusto esto (link to product description) [I like that one] (written) Prefiero este (link to different product description) [I like this one] (written) No convengo. Este mejor. [I don’t. This better.] (written) Decimos Éste tiene mejores características. [We say this one has better features.]

In this example, students from a Japanese university, learning English, created blogs as a part of their ESL courses. They were assigned to introduce their favorite parts of the Japanese culture. Their instructor encouraged English speakers to comment on students’ blogs: ‘Please keep all comments civil and in English. Corrections are welcome and much appreciated!’ NNS: (written) Anytime I am in my house, I listen the music or watch TV. So I introduce my favorite singer, ‘Chara’, and my favorite drama series, ‘働きマン’. NS: (written) My favorite band in Japan right now is Uverworld. I will look up your favorite singer later tonight! Your English is fine. . . however, you said in the beginning ‘Anytime I am in my house, I listen the music or watch TV’ I would say, ‘Whenever I am in my house, I listen to music or watch TV’. This sounds a little more natural! Explicit feedback in written form is a valuable source for accuracy. In the following example from http://voicethread.com/share/29282/, the teacher, having assigned his students to create sentences using various present tense forms, commented on their utterances while pointing to the grammatical basis for certain forms (Figure 15).

Figure 15 Providing explicit feedback

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S1:

T:

S2:

T:

(written) Examples for Present Perfect: (1) Kip Y. has never been in second life before. (2) Kip Y. has been in Egypt for 2 months. Examples for Present Perfect Continuous: (1) He has been wearing a Santa Claus cap since today morning. (2) He has been waiting for a ship for more than 1 hour. But there has not been arrived one yet. (P. Perfect) (written) Nicely done! Here are some corrections and suggestions. Examples for Present Perfect: (1) Kip Y. has never been in second life before. —> The word ‘before’ is not absolutely needed. (überflüssig) (2) Kip Y. has been in Egypt for 2 months. —> Perfect! Examples for Present Perfect Continuous: (1) He has been wearing a Santa Claus cap since today morning. —> Better: . . . since this morning. (2) He has been waiting for a ship for more than 1 hour. —> Perfect! But there has not been arrived one yet. (P. Perfect) —> Better: A ship hasn’t arrived yet. / One hasn’t arrived yet. (written) Present Perfect: (1) I’ve been in Germany for over sixteen years. (2) He has cleaned his shoes. (3) I’ve bought a new car. (4) I’ve made english exercises. (5) I’ve never been to China. Present Perfect Continuous: (1) I’ve been working for 3 hours. (2) I’ve been learning English since 2006. (3) I’ve been maried since 1990. (4) I’ve been working for Märklin for 7 years.( 5) I’ve been living in Germany since 1991. (written) Your sentences are very well written, but you’ll find a few corrections below. Present Perfect: (1) I’ve been in Germany for over sixteen years. —> Perfect! (2) He has cleaned his shoes. —> Perfect! (3) I’ve bought a new car. —> Perfect! (4) I’ve made English exercises. —> Better: I’ve done English exercises. (5) I’ve never been to China. —> Perfect!

Providing implicit feedback What are the implications and affordances of delayed time and text as mediums for implicit feedback? Signals to learners for needed amendments to their output can, like in synchronous and f2f environments be as subtle as raised eyebrows ^^ or as unsubtle as Try again. Because these signals are in text form and time independent, learners can attend to them more carefully with the aid of any number of resources to use in changing their text utterance to the correct form while the informational or content dimension of the utterance remains intact. As has been illustrated throughout the other three environments, signaling implicitly can take the form of sounds, symbols, links, inserted recordings, and, of course, simple text. In the following example, mid beginning learners of EFL are discussing the places that they would like to visit in the US. The task toolkit contains the rules for using the definite article the with place names. It also contains the symbol ↓ to indicate the need for the definite article with place names. S1:

(written) I want to visit Empire State Building, Niagara Falls and Grand Canyon.

The instructor cuts, pastes and inserts implicit feedback.

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T: S1:

(written) So, you want to visit ↓ Empire State Building, Niagara Falls and ↓ Grand Canyon? Do you want to visit other places as well? (written) Yes, with the Empire State Building, Niagara Falls and the Grand Canyon, I want to visit Hollywood!

In comments to an ESL blog, one of the students posted a comment with an error. Another participant gently corrected him by providing the correct form in his own utterance that was a part of a meaningful conversation about a trip to Disneyland. P1: (written) I’m also going to go Disneyland on next Wednesday! I’m looking forward to go. Let’s talking about Disneyland in April!! P2: (written) That is such a great thing that you are going to Disneyland. Yes! Let’s talk about your trip in April when you get back. (Figure 16)

Figure 16 Implicit feedback

In an Elementary Russian II class, an instructor corrects her student’s incorrect use of the Instrumental case during a discussion about students’ future professions. In the same class, students discuss their daily routines. Two students use the verb ‘to go’ in its incorrect form, unidirectional instead of multidirectional. The instructor intervenes with an implicit correction, using this verb in her utterance, which is meaningfully connected to the previous conversation. S:

T:

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(written) Я хочу быть астронавта. Они работают в Хьюстон в штате Техасе. [I want to be an astronaut (incorrect ending). They work in Huston in the state of Texas.] (written) Ты хочешь быть астронавтом? Ты хочешь летать на Луну? [Do you want to be an astronaut (correct ending)? Do you want to go to the Moon?]

Language learning and teaching in written asynchronous environments

S:

S1: S2: S1: T:

S3:

(written) Да, я очень хочу быть астронавтом. Я очень много хочу летать на Луну и Марс таже! [Yes, I want to be an astronaut (correct ending) very much. I want very much to go to the Moon and Mars too!] (written) Мне нравится делать что-нибудь новое каждый день. [I like to do something new every day.] (written) Вам не нравится каждый день идти в класс? [You don’t like to go (wrong verb) to class every day?] (written) Нет, я не хочу идти в класс каждый день. [Yes, I don’t want to go (wrong verb) to class every day.] (written) Я тоже не хочу ходить в класс каждый день. Поэтому я преподаю онлайн :))))))) [I also don’t want to go (right verb) to class every day. That’s why I teach online :))))))] (written) Мне нравится ходить в клас но не каждый день. [I like to go (right verb) to class but not every day.]

Summary As we pointed out at the start of this chapter, written asynchronous environments are at present the most widely used owing to the ease of accessibility of text-based communication tools and to the irrelevance of moment-by-moment time. Such affordances mean a wide range of possible practices, practices that do not need to be limited to text, but that can incorporate any number of multimodal features to amplify the learning. After nearly two decades of widening use of written asynchronous environments for both blended and fully online instructional purposes, we have a solid body of evidence that supports positive learning outcomes when these are used in pedagogically sound ways. For language education, there is also evidence that these learning forums can work as well, if not better than f2f environments when talented educators recognize and in turn exploit their key affordances: spoken text, multimodal amplification, archives and the time to read, reference, consider and compose that written asynchronous spaces support.

End-of-chapter activities Activity A. Designing an activity for written asynchronous instruction Design an activity (task toolkit, topic, questions, models, examples, etc.) for a text-based discussion in the language you teach. Working in pairs, present your activity to your partner. Discuss in what ways designing the activity the way you did is more beneficial for language learners than merely providing them with a topic for a text-based discussion.

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Activity B. Comparing two types of discussions During one week, participate in two different discussion topics (in groups of 5–6 participants if your class is too large), posting at least three messages to each: 1. An ideal student: What qualities should an ideal student have, the one you would always like to have in your class? As a group, identify the three most important features of an ideal student. Negotiate and compromise. Your final group product is the list of three most important qualities of an ideal student. 2. Good and bad experiences: What good and bad experiences did you have working with students? During your next class meeting, discuss the participation, linguistic production, logistical outcome and other features of these two discussion threads. What have you observed? What makes a discussion more productive and why?

Activity C. Working with an excerpt Read the following excerpt from an ESL class’ discussion. What have you observed? What instructional moves have you identified in this piece? How would you have handled this student’s post? S:

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(written) One phrase from that movie is ‘I think that’s not that big a deal’. The structure seems a little strange, isn’t it. I only know people would say ‘I think that is not a big deal’. (written) The way you have written ‘not that big a deal’ does seem strange, doesn’t it? You have written it the way you heard it. The correct form is ‘that’s not that big of a deal’. It is an idiom that means it’s not very important.

Activity D. Providing your own examples For at least three out of eight instructional moves identified in this chapter, find your own examples from the classes you teach. If you do not currently teach any classes, go to online discussion forums for learners of the language you teach and observe those exchanges. Participate in such discussions as a language expert, using instructional moves you have learned in this chapter. Working in small groups, report your examples and findings to your group.

Activity E. Generating meaningful and form-focused discussion postings Look at the following discussion posting. Working for 10 minutes in pairs or small groups of 3–4, generate the best answer to this posting. Consider the affordances and pitfalls of the written asynchronous medium. S:

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(written) Hi. I’m japanese student I’m going to spesk about marriage. Do you want to marrage or not? In my case, I don’t want to marriage.becouse my dream is singer.

Language learning and teaching in written asynchronous environments

Now I have many audition for singer but my results is bad I don’t want to make many sacrifices to become a singer. It is most important for me to challenge my dream. If my dreams come true, I will be able to satisfaction my life and think about marriage again. Plesae tell me your dream.

Activity F. Blogging Blogs can be considered as written asynchronous environments. However, the nature of blogs is distinct in that posters usually add provocative comments that are rarely related to the comments of others. Blog participants concentrate not on engaging and sustaining meaningful interaction, but rather on expressing their personal opinions. Nonetheless, blogs can still be used in language instruction to great effect by capitalizing on this opinion-oriented aspect. Have a look at several blogs (e.g. http://blogspot.com) and consider how you might offer language assistance to posters via instructional conversations.

Further reading O’Rourke, B. (2005) Form-focused interaction in online tandem learning. The Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium Journal (CALICO) Journal 22 (3), 433–466. Savignon, S. and Roithmeier, W. (2004) Computer-mediated communication: Texts and strategies. CALICO Journal 21 (2), 265–290. Simpson, J. (2005) Conversational floors in synchronous text-based CMC discourse. Discourse Studies 7 (3), 337–361. Weasenforth, D., Biesenbach-Lucas, S. and Meloni, C. (2002) Realizing constructivist objectives through collaborative technologies: Threaded discussions. Language Learning Technology 6 (3), 58–86.

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7 Written venues amplified via sound and visuals This chapter summarizes the written venues discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 and expands the notion of amplifying written instruction using sound and visuals. The following amplifications are discussed and illustrated: ■

Non-intrusiveness

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Time savers and gatekeepers

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Salience

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Accessibility

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Familiarity

Non-intrusiveness—205 Time savers and L2 gatekeepers—206 Salience—208 Accessibility—209 Familiarity—210 Attentiveness—212 Summary—213

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Written venues amplified via sound and visuals Online instructional conversations in written venues can be amplified in two ways. ■

Aural communication can be used with text being a primary means of communication. Aural components can be incorporated to complement the textual component.

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Written communication can be made highly visualized using images, symbols, emoticons, charts, fonts, videos, sound files, links to audios and videos, embedded visuals, etc.

Six factors are in play in the evolution of written communication venues for language education. 1. Non-intrusiveness: Sound and visuals incorporated into written venues render interruptions in the form of comments, focus on form, requests of clarifications, summarizing, etc. less intrusive. By using these amplification techniques, instructors and students can maintain seamless, productive communication. 2. Time savers and L2 gatekeepers: Sound and visuals in written venues serve as time savers. Simultaneous commentaries in different media are thereby economical. They can also function as L2 gatekeepers as there is less need to revert to the native language when other target language means will do. 3. Salience: Sound and visuals in written venues are tools for instructors to render both form and meaning more salient. 4. Accessibility: Owing to the proliferation of simple-to-use online tools, sound and visuals are easily accessible. They can be linked, embedded into the text, or attached. 5. Familiarity: Digital natives are quite fluent in these forms of multimodal communication. Their familiarity with incorporating multiple messages in multiple modalities is part and parcel of their digital literacy and can, therefore, be put to good use in language education. 6. Attentiveness: Sounds and visuals are a great tool to keep students’ attention and focus on the task. In written modes of communication, sound and visuals used in addition to voice can play different roles in the task: ■

task toolkits;

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focusing on meaning;

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focusing on form;

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additional comments on the topic;

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modeling.

Links to videos, audios and images, embedded videos and sound fi les, emoticons, drawings and arrows are just some of the ways visuals and sound supplement and support written modes of instruction.

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Non-intrusiveness Images or sounds can be used to avoid intrusiveness. At the same time, they can serve highly effective instructional purposes such as reminders of certain grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation issues that arise in the written mode. Sound and visuals can link students to previous knowledge and help to cement it into their developing repertoires. In the example below (Figure 1), a student conjugated the verb incorrectly and the instructor linked him to a chart she uses in class that she found online at http://www.musicalspanish. com/tutorial/newsletters/verbs-chart.gif. S: T:

(written) Habla español. (written) ¿Como de bien usted habla español? (link to the conjugation chart)

Figure 1 Non-intrusive visuals in written modes

References to grammar songs or songs related to grammar can be an effective yet nonintrusive way to remind students of a rule without directly pointing to it. In the following example (Figure 2), an ESL instructor adds a link to a song that students had listened to in class.

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Figure 2 Non-intrusive sound in written modes

S: T:

(written) I took a apple and a banana. (written) I also took an apple but I did not take a banana. (link to the grammar song on English articles supplied with lyrics on http://gardenofpraise.com/mugram7.htm)

Time savers and L2 gatekeepers As a means of saving time when learners are actively engaged in authentic target language conversation, pointing or linking to the oral or visual version of lexical items with which they are struggling can serve to save time and discourage learners from reverting to a common L1. In the following example, an elementary Russian II student uses the word ‘nature’ incorrectly by transliterating the English word ‘натура’ [nature; spirit; essence; character; personality], which does not fit the current context. The instructor implicitly corrects this mistake by using meaning/form-focused feedback. In her reply, she uses the word ‘природа’ [nature] and emphasizes the real meaning of this word by listing its components. To insure the transparency of the meaning for the student, the instructor adds a link to a YouTube video about nature in Switzerland.

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S:

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(written) Сейчас, я живу в Атланте. Это большой город! Но, мне нравятся жить в деревне. Натура и очень красивая погода в деревне. Может быть, я могу жить в Европе! Я хочу маленький дом с прекрасная семья. [Now I live in Atlanta. It’s a big city! But I like to live in a country. There are essence (incorrect use of word) and a very beautiful weather in a country. May be I can live in Europe! I want a little house and a great family.] (written) Да! Я тоже так думаю. Природа в деревне красивая. Жить в Европе в деревне очень хорошо, например, во Франции, недалеко от Парижа, или в Швейцарии. Там тоже красивая природа: лес, горы, цветы, озёра, реки, как в этом видео – Швейцария. Природа на Youtube. [Yes! I think so too. Nature (correct word) in the country is beautiful. To live in Europe in a country is very good, for example, in France not far from Paris or in Switzerland. There is also a beautiful nature (correct word): forest, mountains, flowers, lakes, rivers. . . like in this video – Switzerland. Nature on Youtube (link to the video on http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3S_zAzrvFOg and a screenshot from the video).] (Figure 3)

Figure 3 Sound and visuals as L2 gatekeepers

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Acquiring new vocabulary in written environments using multiple modalities can be time saving and effective. In addition to learning from text models of spontaneous reallife text-based communication, students can figure out the meaning of new words from images and familiarize themselves with their pronunciation and additional meanings from links. T: S1: S2: T:

(written) Do you play soccer? (written) No not really. . . I played soccer when I was on high school. (written) Kenta you are probably a sumo restler ha ha (written) No, he is not a sumo wrestler. (link to a dictionary and pronunciation guide http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sumo; an image of a sumo wrestler). (Figure 4)

Figure 4 Sound and visuals save time

Salience Inserting a link to a video clip of a grammar lesson can be another non-intrusive yet salient way to point to an error in the student’s utterance. In the following text-based forum a group of ESL students discuss the topic ‘If you were an animal, which animal would you be?’ While the discussion keeps going on the main topic, the link to a video grammar lesson as a means of directing a student to a grammar rule, does not interrupt the discussion (Figure 5). It does, however, improve the chances of the implicit correction being attended to.

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Figure 5 Sound and visuals. Salience of grammar points

S1: S2: T:

(written) I would like to be a dog. A boxer or a German shepherd. Or a cheetah running at 100 km/hour in the jungles. (written) So you want to be a dog, aren’t you? Well. . . I want to be a flea..which rides dogs at speed 100 km per hour. . .in jungles. (smiley faces) (written) You want to be a flea, don’t you? (link to a YouTube grammar video on tag questions with written and oral models) What you wrote was so funny! (laughing faces) I would like to be a Rattlesnake - doesn’t take much of a guess to know why.

Accessibility While very effective environments for the development of linguistic fluency, written venues are viewed as lacking opportunities for learners to develop oral skills. With newer digital technologies, this issue is easily solved. Task toolkits, models, separate words in a text message, comments and notes can be partially or fully voiced and visualized for better student perception and comprehension. Sounds and visuals can be linked or embedded to make them accessible at any moment to be accessed as many times as students need. In the following chat activity ‘How do you prepare for a birthday party?’ a Japanese instructor in an elementary Japanese II class provides a task toolkit that includes both written and oral models of monologs discussing birthdays from a previous lesson (Figure 6). By clicking on the links English, Grammar, Key Vocabulary and Additional Vocabulary, students can quickly refer to the appropriate portions of the lesson and receive both textual and aural input to help them move along with the chat-based discussion.

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Figure 6 Sound and visuals. Accessibility

Familiarity Digital natives quickly take advantage of multimedia tools and implement visual components in their text-based chat activities at the spur of the moment. They are used to browsing websites, online dictionaries, image databases, etc. The current generation of L2 learners does not hesitate to incorporate multimodalities into their class work. In this example, students in an elementary Russian II class work in pairs to discuss their national heritage. The instructor provides them with a visual task toolkit for the oral activity that students have used in another lesson. Directions are supplied via the instructor’s voice. She also uses visuals with arrows pointing to the words and images, hints for the correct answers, emoticons and question marks that she draws on the whiteboard (Figure 7). Students discuss their heritage and make reference to the Google image database to explain and illustrate their posts. S1: S2: S1: S2: S2:

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(written) Кто твои бабушка и дедушка? (written) Моя бабушка русская. Мой дедушка украинец. (written) Что укараинец значит? (link to the image with Ukrainian people) http://cache.virtualtourist.com/895408Ukrainian_women_in_traditional_dress-Ukraine.jpg (ling to the image with the map of Ukraine and nearby countries) http://www.unc. edu/~noblitt/fall2006/svetlanav_UKRAINE.gif

Written venues amplified via sound and visuals

Figure 7 Sound and visuals. Familiarity

The use of emoticons, icons and avatars is also something to which contemporary students are accustomed while communicating in written modes. The example below shows how a discussion about global warming is spiced up with icons representing such abstract concepts as approval, disapproval, laugh, youth and noticing people (Figure 8). These icons help amplify meaning in a fun, playful manner.

Figure 8 Sound and visuals. Familiarity

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Attentiveness Images are instrumental in attracting and maintaining learners’ attention and to direct focus on the activity and elements within it. Moreover, images can be a catchy starting point for discussions as in the following example from an ESL forum (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Sound and visuals. Attentiveness

P1: (written) Hi All, My idea with this topic is ‘Write down your thoughts’. Most of the time we are not able to write down all the things which is running in my mind. So with this topic i am trying write down all the things which is coming in my mind after looking this attached cartoon. P2: (written) In this picture there are two person walking with the bank of river or pond. Inside the river there is a duke and on the other side there is a one dry(dead) tree. I am assuming the man as a father and the girl as a daughter. Both are walking with the bank of river they are having fun and enjoying the cool breeze which is coming from the river side. The girl seems very excited after seeing the duke she is telling to her father, hey Dad look at the duke. Father also seems very happy he replying her with excitement. On the other side the ‘darker side’ the dry(dead) tree is standing, now it can’t give shadow to any one that’s why its standing alone. May be few time back when it was full of branches with green leafs and fruits. At that time people loves to sit under this tree. But now it can’t give shadow or fruits. That’s why its avoided by the people.

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P3: (written) The first thing came into my mind is that: just one step forward, the man will get hurt because he will strike the tree The daughter is attempting his father to stop walking, she spoke ‘duck’ instead of ‘stop’ P4: (written) The word the girl used is actually correct. In a situation where you want someone to lower their head, you use the word duck. The picture is interesting because it causes confusion with a real duck in the pond. The artist intentionally made this to show the different meaning of the same word ‘duck’. Duck - Lower your head to avoid being hit Duck - A type of bird that goes quack P3: (written) Really? I don’t know that there’s another meaning of DUCK Thanks P5: (written) All I can say is ‘Poor Dad!!’ He must have hurt himself.. And the second information this cartoon gives us is that we must say the complete sentence in order to deliver the correct notion. P6: (written) a very interesting picture you got there . . . i did not know this vocab.. before overall it became more clearer now . . . The visual that inspired the above discussion stimulated learners to participate and illustrated and accentuated well the play of words which was the main point of the discussion topic.

Summary In short, written environments for online language learning and teaching can be greatly augmented using multiple modalities when their use makes good, pedagogical sense. The preceding examples attempt to illustrate some of the methods of written instructional conversation that make use of sounds and visuals to just such ends.

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8

Designing online language learning curricula—219 Instructional design—222 The craft of language education—223 Playfulness—224 The future is now?—224

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Affordances for language teaching and learning in the four environments are summarized.

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Contextualizing the five skills in online language education is taken up.

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Various designs for language curricula are presented.

Further reading—225

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The chapter discusses elements of good instructional design.

References—226

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The craft of language teaching is revisited and future directions suggested.

Chapter discussion questions—225 End-of-chapter activity—225

Free online teaching spaces—226

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Continuing the conversation Objectives/Preview ■

Recap of the four environments and their affordances for: ○

The five skills;

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Building online language learning curricula.

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Review instructional design essentials;

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Consider the craft of online language educators.

It should be clear from the range of illustrations and examples in the preceding chapters that our division of the telecommunications environments presented and illustrated into four discrete types is an arbitrary division. Oral, written, synchronous and asynchronous modes can, of course, be combined in any number of ways that make pedagogical sense. So, if a language course is conducted completely or partially online, instructors can make use of any of these modes and combinations of these modes to best affect the instructional outcomes they desire. In our examples and illustrations of online language learning in action, we hope to have captured this versatility of modalities while focusing on the central element of effective online language education: the instructional conversation. We now discuss the affordances of online instructional venues in terms of the five language skills, one or more of which are the aim of any online language learning task: reading, listening, composition, speaking, pronunciation and intonation.

Reading Reading any target language text can be greatly facilitated and the experience amplified thanks to internet resources. Not only can learners access highly contemporary and motivating authentic reading matter, but they can also engage others who read the text in conversation about it. Periodicals of all kinds have blog extensions whereby readers share thoughts and expand on the focal text. This opening up discussion of a text to the world is a powerful aspect of learning to read in a second language and in many ways encourages the integration of written and spoken language production as a matter of course. Plays, short stories, anime, manga, how to sites, even commercial shopping sites in the target language allow ready access to authentic text and a wide range of genres. The oral online environments are excellent venues for reading instruction at the beginning levels. Learners can access texts in both written and oral modes. Simultaneously listening and reading serves to acclimate learners to the oral and written systems of the new language, whereas digital tools can assist in replaying, annotating and providing glosses and translations. Target language reading practice at all levels can be encouraged through tasks and assignments that require information location, retrieval and synthesis; tasks and assignments shaped around focal target language texts; oral and written discussions about prose and fiction pieces learners have read on their own, etc.

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Listening It is an understatement that opportunities for independent listening are vast on the internet. Target language podcasts, some specifically tailored for learners of the language, some simply authentic listening material for pleasure and/or instruction, are readily available for free download onto students’ computers and/or portable digital players. Assigning learners to listen to target language files with specific accompanying tasks to accomplish (write a summary, letter in response, present key points to the class, assemble a semantic net) is an effective independent learning activity. Moreover, as we discovered in our chapters on online learning environments that make use of teacher and learner voices, archives of classes whereby learners can review audio sequences of the instructional activities in which they engaged (or missed for some reason), archived audio can be a key learning tool. Songs and dramatic readings are excellent pleasure listening that learners can be encouraged to listen to in their free time to improve the overall target language listening comprehension. Practice with listening in the target language can be directly supported in all four instructional environments. Oral synchronous is clearly an aural intensive medium where learners must work to understand both the instructor and fellow students in real time. Nonetheless, as we have demonstrated throughout, there are numerous visual and textual supports to facilitate the kind of contextualized comprehension that language acquisition thrives on. Oral asynchronous modes are particularly useful in that digital voice fi les can be reviewed and annotated according to the task and to individual learner needs. The written modes can be used for listening work as well by linking or attaching files of plays, short dramatic readings, poetry readings, songs, brief fi lm tracks, radio pieces and the like. Written tasks and discussions about these recordings motivate careful, purposeful listening and review.

Composition Most contemporary learners or digital natives are aware of the plethora of resources available to them as they compose in the target language. Nonetheless, raising that awareness and guiding learners in locating and making intelligent use of online resources in their writing is another role of the online language educator. Instructional guidance is also critical as students develop their theses and make decisions about what aspects of their topic need definition and expansion. Instructors can also guide second language writers in pointing to linguistic resources needed in composing while guiding them to authentic models to gain a sense of thematic voice (e.g. refutation, concession, wry critique) in target language exposition. Development of writerly voice in the target language can be shaped with the help of instructors who assist with organizational and language choices throughout the composing process. This composition support and instruction can take place as private writing conferencing online or public. Developing a written piece in a public forum can assist not only the writer who benefits from multiple perspectives and varied input, but also assists others in the class with their own writing efforts. Posting drafts, providing feedback and responding to successive developments is an enriched and enriching form of second language writing development.

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Like the oral mode for listening, the written mode for composition is a logical pairing. However, using voice stimulus, aural feedback and oral synchronous discussion around a writing assignment or piece of student written work can be pleasing and stimulating. Hearing the voices of the instructor and peers talking about one’s work can motivate a writer a great deal. The fluidity and spontaneity of readers’ reactions can be more informative than shorter, more composed written feedback. Of course, both oral and written feedback are valuable to those writing in a new language. Multimodal composition – whereby language learners combine written, visual and oral information into a public product – is something that digital natives are quite versed at doing in their native language, but can also do in the target language. Multimedia presentations that include critical writing practice in condensing messages and rendering them attention-getti,ng and attractive, as well as readily comprehensible, can be very powerful composition assignments in any of the four environments.

Speaking It has long been held that asynchronous and synchronous text exchanges more resemble the spoken form of language than the written, though some have argued that their character lies somewhere between the two. Nevertheless, when learning a language, comprehending and generating a textual version of a conversation is without question valuable. Learners can only benefit from seeing the language used in instructional conversations. In our two oral/aural environments, oral synchronous and oral asynchronous, we saw how learners could engage in speaking activities independent of text if they so chose. These forms of speaking practice – with, without text, in real or delayed time – are powerful, perhaps more powerful, than in f2f environments owing to the following: resources to assist comprehension and production, time to process, multiple and varied voices using the target language productively and, perhaps most importantly, 100% opportunity to participate unlike the live classroom where the floor is typically monopolized by a few more aggressive learners. In oral synchronous and asynchronous environments, practice in speaking the target language can be easily orchestrated. In both written and oral environments, as we have seen, instructional conversations can serve to focus learner attention on correct production in terms of form, lexis and pronunciation while keeping the focus on authentic communication. We have also seen how speaking practice can be greatly facilitated by the presence of concise task toolkits to establish the focal language to be used.

Pronunciation and intonation Even though the logical choice of venue for a focus on pronunciation and intonation would be the oral synchronous and oral asynchronous environments, the written environments can be used as well (see our examples throughout where visual highlighting is used to emphasize pronunciation and intonation). The beauty of all online environments in this regard is that learners struggle to a varying degree with new sounds in the target language. Rather than spending whole class time working with individual learners on their specific

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oral challenges, learners can be ‘taken aside’ and provided remediation in the way of recorded sound files to practice and visual resources that illustrate the physiological positioning of the mouth to reference. Indeed, pronunciation coaching sessions can be set up for single or small groups of learners to focus on specific phonological issues in speech production. For those struggling with the sounds of the new language, relaxed listening to recorded audio sequences should be recommended so learners can become familiar with the sound system and its contours in a casual manner. In short, both asynchronous and synchronous and both written and oral venues can be used to great advantage to focus learner attention on the sounds and sound combination in the target language while providing tailored practice in producing those sounds and patterns.

Designing online language learning curricula When starting out to teach partially or fully online, following an existing, set curriculum provided by your institution or a textbook may be the most straightforward way to begin. By doing so, the burden of macro design is left to someone else thus freeing you to concentrate on smaller online task design, orchestration and assessment, the heart of instructional processes. Once this aspect is fluent and comfortable, you can take on the job of developing part or whole online curricula for your language courses. Developing tailored curricula for individual or groups of language learners is a hefty undertaking with much room for creativity in selection and fashioning of content. The identities and learning purposes of a group of students will determine content and assist you in making curricular decisions along the way. Language learning curricula can be viewed as any one or combination of the following.

Current events-based Assembling reading, writing, discussing and undertaking language learning activities around current events, events of the target culture and/or global culture, is a stimulating approach to curricular design. There is no shortage of readily available, up to the minute current news programming to which an online course or online component of a course can link and/or be constructed around. Indeed, many national and international broadcasting news agencies now have web support for learners of the language of broadcast that include linguistically simplified summaries, glossaries, comprehension exercises and content-based drills and games. The multimedia aspect of news programming – the availability of high-quality video, commentary and writing make this model of curriculum design even more attractive. A particularly powerful feature of this approach is the authenticity of the language used as it is designed for a wide audience. Additionally, if your learners live in a geographical area where

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they have access to native speakers or, in the case of English learners, speakers of English as a Lingua Franca, current events are guaranteed to be a popular topic of everyday conversation.

Literature-based Using the literature of the target language/culture has long been a mainstay of language education. Using literature as the organizing piece for language curricula, especially online makes very good sense. Novels, short stories, poetry and critical essays can be discussed, annotated, resourced, referenced with any number of language tasks built around the literature itself. Numerous internet sites provide free and open access to literary works both complex and simple for lower proficiency learners. The possibilities for mining the depths of craft, content and cultural aspects of literature are well recognized. Online, these expand to include any and all cultural and linguistic references and expansions to amplify the reading and discussion experience.

Culture-based In language education, we refer to Big C culture and Little c culture. Big C encompasses the great art, architecture and literature of the target culture. So, when learning Spanish, for example, the contents of El Prado or the stories of Don Quixote would be focal as far a Big C culture goes. Little c culture, on the other hand, is the culture of everyday life: buying bread at the market, finding a plumber, making a tortilla. Contemporary language curricula, while placing more emphasis on Little c culture, tend to include both. When designing an online course, you can just as well have your learners visit a virtual mall or market place in the target culture as the largest art gallery or museum. In either case, the content is worked for its linguistic and motivational potential, keeping in mind again the learners and their particular goals in learning the language. If they never intend to visit the target culture, then both Little c and Big C can be incorporated for their interest, motivation and authentic value. On the other hand, if they plan to visit, study, or work in the target culture, then the content can be tailored to those future needs.

Theme-based Themes or topics are popular focal organizing devices for language curricula design. Textbooks most often use themes for modules or chapters that organize around a unified idea. Themes can be large life issues such as love, justice, freedom, etc. They can also be more narrow and practically oriented: vacations, food, job interviews, etc. The choice of theme depends a great deal on the age group and interests of students. For example, if students are school-age, using themes from the academic content areas is a useful technique. If students are studying the language for the purpose of emigrating to the target culture, themes of everyday life may be the best focus. Of course in online environments, such themes can be complemented by existing multimodal materials and resources to enliven and expand them. The depth to which your class explores particular themes is only a matter of setting a course, defining requirements and providing language learning activities built in and around the themes selected.

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Grammar-based A long-standing tradition in language education has been to design curricula that use grammar – from easiest to most difficult – as the organizing structure. Most recently, popular curricula are built around a combination of themes and the grammatical structures that naturally occur within them. Using a set progression of grammatical structures as a guide when designing curricula – grammar-based or otherwise – is a useful approach and one that can satisfy learners’ needs to see a measure of progress.

Specific purposes-based More often students are studying a new language for use in specific contexts, for specific purposes. This could be anything from basic tourism purposes to relocating in the target culture and using the language to undertake one’s profession: e.g. language for dentistry, language for information technology, language for international business. When it is the case that students need this kind of language for specific purposes, it is the responsibility of the instructor to design and implement a curriculum accordingly. For many languages, specific purposes language curricula exist and can be located on the internet. For many other languages, these do not. The instructor then becomes a discourse detective and analyst, investigating the contexts in which the special purposes language will be used, analyzing its structures, vocabulary and functional aspects and rendering these into productive online activities for learner mastery.

Functions-based Functions are categories of the ways that meanings get realized in language. They are the basic units that represent how we do things with language to affect change. These communicative acts consist of greeting, leave-taking, promising and apologizing and are, as many have argued, extremely central to overall language proficiency. If we wish to agree with someone in English, for example, we say ‘I agree with you’, an act for which a limited number of enactments exists. In online venues, language functions can be taught explicitly by appearing and being referred to in the task toolkit. There are also language functions that naturally occur in online conversations that are representative of how language is used in live contexts. For example, when instructors direct learners’ attention in online forums, the language function is identical to that of inviting or suggesting: ‘Have a look at Part A of the task toolkit’ ‘You can find out more about the use of this word here [a teacher might insert a link here]’. Likewise, because of the higher chance for misunderstanding in online venues, opportunities naturally arise for apologies and responding to apologies: ‘I didn’t see the link you provided, I’m so sorry I missed it’. Contemporary language syllabi often include language functions as these intersect with themes, culture and even grammar, but rarely serve as a single organizing curricular tool. When undertaking curriculum design, oftentimes the logic of including foci on specific language functions becomes clear by virtue of the content studied.

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Additionally, your curriculum can be linearly and cumulatively designed, organized in a spiraling or recycling fashion or as time-sensitive chunks (as with current events, for example). What is important when making use of online environments is to design using a few heuristics. In the case of blended formats, these include taking optimal advantage of the online and live venues for that which they work best. Time, access to resources and spoken, written and recorded texts are key considerations. Likewise, making optimal use of environmental affordances for fully online courses is a must. Apart from these venuespecific considerations, how the curriculum is sectioned, the amount of time you allot for each section and how much time you indicate that learners should spend on a given activity are considerations that of necessity vary according to the goals, requirements and learners involved.

Instructional design The design of instruction to stimulate, guide and sustain powerful online instructional conversations is something we hope was well illustrated via the examples provided in Chapters 2–6. We have summarized the principles that guide these successful online language learning activities in the following box.

Key Instructional Design Principles – clear objectives, visible during learning activity – structure and sequence – well-designed tasks –

carefully calculated group strategies

– exploitation of teachable moments –

engaging instructional conversations

–

consistent evaluation rubrics

–

targeted inclusion of stimulating, authentic voices and materials

– continuous, active instructional presence –

granting learners active responsibilities

– atmosphere of learning community, mutual respect, love of learning –

cooperation and flexibility above competition

– continual awareness and monitoring of learner trajectories

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These principles underlie the thinking, planning and implementation of online components and courses for effective language education. The overarching principle that pertains to curricular and instructional design is flexible responsiveness. Continually tuning in to learners, their developmental trajectories and the teachable moments that arise through the instructional opportunities you design is by far the most important aspect of online language teaching. After all, predominant theories and practices in language education see learners’ language development as a dynamic ‘in flight’ set of processes. These have variously been called acquisition processes, languaging (Swain, 2006; Tocalli-Beller & Swain, 2007), development through interaction and the like. Contemporary language learning is thereby about productive, socially motivated language use as a route to mastery. As we have illustrated throughout this text, online instructional environments can be viewed as particularly well suited for orchestrating these processes in a number of respects. Each of the four environments that we explored has its own particular attributes and affordances that can support and amplify the kinds of powerful instructional conversations widely viewed as essential to language development. In addition, by virtue of being online, access to vast resources, including ways the target language is used in myriad contexts can be fluently referred to and made use of by both learners and their instructors. By observing how online language learning tasks are designed and guided by seasoned educators, we can conclude that the key to successful instruction rests, without a doubt, on the skills, creativity and craft of language teachers.

The craft of language education Excellent language teaching is often likened to arranging and conducting a complex musical score. Add the dramatic element (the language learning task and its orchestration) and the enterprise begins to resemble opera! Layers and layers of complex, interlocking decisions must be made and actions taken while the overall objective/purpose of a language learning activity anchors those decisions. Historically, we have had few tangible records of excellent language teaching practices, save a handful of devoted pupils who sat at their masters’ feet and recorded their every word. With electronic communications and online teaching, however, we now have a powerful window on the world of seasoned, talented language educators at work, educators whom we can study and from whom we can learn about instructional conversations that work to further students’ language development. We can analyze teacher instructional conversation moves that are tailored to a specific context, situation, learner(s), learning and the specific goals that drive the interaction.

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Playfulness As you may have observed while reading examples of online language learning in this book, learning new languages can be a lot of fun and nowhere else in modern life is fun more likely than on the internet. Two aspects of contemporary online life are relevant in this regard: gaming and social networking. When we design and orchestrate online learning activities, indeed entire courses, these two elements can be integrated with very positive results. From the world of online gaming, for example, we have learned that what keeps players fully engaged is the fact of continuous feedback, a phenomenon that has been casually termed the Nintendo Effect. What could be a better approach to language education than to keep learners continually alert, interested and motivated to engage material for problem solving? From social networking we have learned that a major, if not the major attraction of the internet is human responsivity. In both the cases of gaming and social networking, there is often the element of language play or playing with language. One need only have a look at the ways that language is played with in online communications to see this in action. As language educators, we can incorporate the element of play and playfulness easily into our online instructional practices. In fact, a great deal of language play outside of language education involves the manipulation of forms and meanings as well as resolving incongruities, things that we do in language instruction as a matter of course! In many instances, getting the joke requires sophisticated mastery of the language of the joke. However, jokes and funny stories can be equally appreciated at lower levels of proficiency with some help. It’s worth the effort. Playfulness can indeed help in promoting a strong sense of group membership – an essential element of successful online practices (Anthony, 2013; Darhower, 2002). By literally sharing the joke, students from disparate corners of the planet can experience a sense of belonging. Moreover, research has pointed to play as an important part of cognitive development, especially the development of cognitive flexibility, a required trait for successful language learning. This kind of flexibility is also supportive in group language learning activities, both online and off. Finally, it is viewed as a fruitful aspect of second language learning overall as regards student persistence in learning a new language well. After all, knowing a language well means being able to manipulate it, to play with it to the desired effect.

The future is now? Opportunities for learning have been greatly augmented with telecommunications developments. To no discipline is this more relevant than language education. With interaction with others being the central element of successful mastery of new languages, these online learning opportunities are doubly attractive. Add to the mix the fact that one can immerse oneself in target language cultures through simulated environments and the future is indeed now for those wishing to learn a new language. However, as we hope to

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have illustrated throughout this text, the critical player in the language learning alchemy remains talented educators; educators who plan, orchestrate and guide language learning through productive instructional conversations. Regardless of the medium, the tools and the algorithms, language development depends on humanware; that is, you, the teacher.

Chapter discussion questions 1. In designing a curriculum, what is the best way to find out learners’ needs and interests? 2. Having determined learners’ needs and interests, how might you proceed to determine a macro design for the curriculum? 3. In developing a language curriculum, how do instructional conversations come into play?

End-of-chapter activity Consider the following as metaphors for language teachers: ■

Tour guide

■

Conductor

■

Doctor

■

Systems analyst

■

Director

■

Shill

With a partner, discuss the salience of these metaphors and, based on what you have learned about teaching and learning online, add to the list with some of your own.

Further reading Anthony, N. (2013) Perceptions of humour in oral synchronous online environments. In C. Meskill (ed.) Online teaching and learning: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 157–175). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. DeKeyser, R. (2007) Skill acquisition theory. In B. Van Patten and J. Williams (eds) Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 97–114). New York: Routledge.

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Goertler, S. and Winke, P. (2008) Opening doors through distance language education: Principles, perspectives, and practices. San Marcos, TX: The Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium Monograph Series Volume 7. Goodfellow, R. and Hewling, A. (2005) Re-conceptualizing culture in virtual learning environments: from an ‘essentialist’ to a ‘negotiated’ perspective. E-Learning 2 (4), 356–368. Lamy, M. and Hampel, R. (2007) Online communication in language learning and teaching. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Lyster, R. (2007) Teaching language through content. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Markee, N. (1997) Managing curricular innovation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, B. (2004) Developing materials for language teaching. New York: Continuum. Ur, P. (1991) A course in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Van Ek, J. (1990) The threshold level in a European Unit-credit system for modern language learning by adults. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Warner, C. (2004) It’s just a game, right? Types of play in foreign language CMC. Language Learning Technology 8 (2), 69–87.

References Anthony, N. (2013) Perceptions of humour in oral synchronous online environments. In C. Meskill (ed.), Online teaching and learning: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 157–175). London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Darhower, M. (2002) Interactional features of synchronous computer-mediated communication in the intermediate L2 class: A sociocultural case study. The Computer Assisted Language Instructin Journal 19 (2), 249–277. Lucas, T. (2005) Language awareness and comprehension through puns among ESL learners. Language Awareness 14 (4), 221–238. Swain, M. (2006) Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced second language proficiency. In H. Byrnes (ed.) Advanced language learning: The contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky (pp. 95–108). London: Continuum. Tocalli-Beller, A. and Swain, M. (2007) Riddles and puns in the ESL classroom: Adults talk to learn. In A. Mackey (ed.) Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 143–167). New York: Oxford University Press.

Free online teaching spaces Dimdim http://dimdim.com Moodle http://moodle.org

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Nicenet http://www.nicenet.org/ Learning Activity Management System (LAMS) http://www.lamsinternational.com/ CourseSites https://www.coursesites.com/webapps/Bb-sites-course-creation-BBLEARN/pages/index.html Pbworks http://pbworks.com/ Second Life http://secondlife.com/ ActiveWorlds http://web.activeworlds.com/index.php Kaneva http://www.kaneva.com/ SmallWordls https://www.smallworlds.com/

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Glossary of terms Asynchronous environments Venues where messages are posted and read at any time, not synchronously. Attentiveness The process whereby a learner focuses on linguistic materials under study. Avatar A 3D graphic representing a participant in online environments. Blended learning A course designed to take place partially face-to-face and partially online. Blog An asynchronous space for posting public writings. Calling attention to forms Instructor (or a student) points out forms that a learner needs to be using. Calling attention to lexis Instructor (or a student) points out vocabulary words that a learners needs to be using. Chat Synchronous text-based communication. CMC Computer mediated communication. CMS Course management system. Corralling Instructor (or a student) redirects learner’s attention to specifics of language used. Digital learning object An online item specifically designed for instructional purposes. Digital native Learners born into the age of the internet. Distance education Teaching and learning via telecommunications. Electronic portfolio Cumulative, selected, annotated student work to demonstrate developing language competencies. ELF English as a lingua franca. English as it is used between non-native speakers of English.

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f2f Face-to-face learning as in the traditional brick and mortar classroom. Focus on form Instructional strategy whereby learners use language productively while focusing on specific language items that are pre-taught, monitored and become the focus of feedback. Foreign/World language teaching and learning Instruction that takes place outside of the target language culture. Heritage language learner A language learner who speaks the target language as his/her mother tongue but whose development in the language was usurped by the language of a new homeland at some point. Hybrid course Also, blended. A course partially taught online and partially face-to-face. Hyperlink A link to a file or url embedded within a text. Instructional conversation A conversational move that contributes to learners’ language development. L1 One’s first language or mother tongue. L2 The developing target language. LMS Learning management system. A suite of online tools used to develop an instructional environment. LSP Language for specific purposes. Mobile learning Learning across various channels of communication through interactions with study materials and different level participants via personal mobile gadgets or devices. Modeling Instructor (or a student) models forms for learners to appropriate and use. Online course Typically used to describe a course that is 100% delivered via telecommunications. Online teaching and learning Teaching and learning using telecommunications. NS Native speaker, usually of the target language.

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NNS Non-native speaker, usually of the target language. Podcast Digital audio and video files available to play and download on the internet. Providing explicit feedback Instructor (or a student) explicitly points out mistakes and remediates. Providing implicit feedback Instructor (or a student) implicitly indicates a mistake. Saturating When a particular form (sets of vocabulary items and/or syntactic forms) is introduced and/or reinforced, the instructor saturates the conversation with these focal forms. Second language teaching and learning Language taught and learned within the target culture. Second Life One of many 3D virtual worlds that can be used for synchronous teaching and learning. Synchronous environments Venues for teaching and learning in real time. Synthetic thinking Learning by combining individual thoughts and ideas into a complex notion. Tandem learning A popular form of informal language learning whereby pairs or groups of learners teach and provide practice opportunities to one another in their respective languages. Target language The language under study. Using linguistic traps Instructor (or a student) traps a learner into using specific target language forms under study. Virtual online learning environments Computer-stimulated environments that recreate the reality in which teachers’ and students’ 3D self-representations interact with each other and the context.

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Index Authors Anthony, N. 63, 75, 83, 224, 225, 226 Arcos de los, B., & Arnedillo Sanchez, I. 83 Blake, R. 125, 144, 173 Block, J. 12, 19 Chomsky, N. 11, 19 Cziko, G., & Park, S. 83 Darhower, M. 224, 226 DeKeyser, R. 225 Donato, R. 17, 18, 19 Doughty, C., & Long, M. 144, 173 Ene, E., Görtler, S., & McBride, K. 173 Foster, P., & Ohta, A.S. 12, 19 Goertler, S., & Winke, P. 226 Goodfellow, R., & Hewling, A. 226 Goodwin, C., & Duranti, A. 12, 19 Hampel, R., & Hauck, M. 83 Hymes, D. 12, 19 Ice, P., Curtis, R., Phillips, P., & Wells, J. 125 Jones, R. 145, 173 Kötter, M. 83 Lai, C., & Zhao, Y. 151, 173 Lamy, M., & Hampel, R. 226 Lantolf, J. 12, 19, 20 Lantolf, J., & Pavlenko, A. 12, 20 Lantolf, J., & Poehner, M. 12, 20 Levy, M., & Kennedy, C. 28, 75 Lluna-Mateu, F. R. 170, 174 Lucas, T. 226 Lyster, R. 71, 75, 226 Markee, N. 226 McNeil, L. 125

Meskill, C. 7, 12, 13, 18, 20, 26, 75, 83, 225, 226 Meskill, C., & Anthony, N. 15, 20, 28, 73, 76, 83, 144, 174 Miller, G. 20, 26 O’Rourke, B. 201 Pellettieri, J. 144, 174 Rosell-Aguilar, F. 83 Savignon, S. 12, 20 Savignon, S., & Roithmeier, W. 201 Seedhouse, P. 73, 76 Simpson, J. 201 Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, M. 16, 20 Smith, B. 144, 151, 174 Sotillo, S. M. 145, 174 Swain, M. 12, 17, 20, 223, 226 Tharp, R. 17, 18, 20 Tharp, R., & Gallimore, C. 2, 13, 16, 20 Tocalli-Beller, A., & Swain, M. 223, 226 Tomlinson, B. 226 Ur, P. 226 Van Ek, J. 226 van Lier, L. 12, 20 Volle, L. 125 Vygotsky, L. 12, 13, 14, 20, 226 Wang, Y. 28, 76, 83 Warner, C. 226 Weasenforth, D., Biesenbach-Lucas, S., & Meloni, C. 201 Zhang, J., Scardamalia, M., Lamon, M., Messina, R., & Reeve, R. 15, 20

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Index Subject accessibility 111, 127, 128, 134–136, 199, 203, 204, 209, 210 action expectations 5, 6 action monitoring 5 assessment 1, 3, 7, 8, 15, 20, 81, 88, 219 audio/video conferencing 28, 29, 32, 75, 76, 83, 92, 138, 145 authentic(ity) 4, 7, 10–12, 15–17, 22, 24, 29, 30, 33, 36, 39, 45, 51–53, 59, 73, 79, 107, 108, 116, 206, 216–220, 222 Avatar 29, 34, 117, 149, 211, 229 blended instruction/learning/course(s)/ form(s)/environment(s)/format(s) 1, 10, 19, 23, 87, 176, 195, 199, 222, 229, 230 blog 9, 86, 119, 120, 148, 163, 196, 198, 201, 216, 229 calling attention to form(s) 27, 30, 37, 39, 54, 79, 85, 87, 143, 145, 175, 177, 229 calling attention to lexis 18, 27, 39, 41, 42, 79, 85, 93, 143, 152, 175, 180, 184, 229 chat 9, 21, 28, 29, 33–35, 45, 47, 50, 58, 63, 66, 68, 76, 82, 96, 128, 129, 135, 138–141, 144–146, 148, 151, 153, 155, 157, 158, 163, 166, 168, 169, 171–174, 209, 210, 229 chunque; chunquing 22–26 CMC 76, 83, 125, 174, 201, 226, 229 communicative 7, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28, 32, 72, 93, 128, 172, 174, 190, 221 corral(ling, s, led) 18, 27, 46–50, 52, 53, 79, 85, 97–101, 143, 159–161, 165, 175, 186–191, 229 correction(s) 66, 74, 88, 90, 111, 113, 115, 129, 146, 151, 152, 196–198, 208 CMS (Course Management System)/ LMS (Learning Management System) 6, 89, 229

curricul(a, um, ar) 11, 17, 22, 215, 216, 219–223, 225, 226 digital natives 11, 13, 14, 79, 128, 137, 138, 141, 204, 210, 217, 218 DLO (Digital Learning Object) 8, 22, 229 discourse 1, 8, 14, 15, 16, 20, 22, 26, 39, 54, 73, 76, 83, 145, 173, 174, 201, 221 echoing 70, 75, 170, 171 evaluation 7, 16, 19, 79, 80, 86, 156, 173, 222 explicit feedback/correction 18, 27, 62–70, 79, 85, 111–115, 129, 143, 168–170, 175, 195, 196, 231 Face-to-face (F2f) 1–4, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 22, 28, 41, 46, 72, 87, 144, 146, 148, 151, 154, 156, 172, 176, 178, 199, 218, 229, 230 flexible responsiveness 223 foreign language(s) 12–15, 17, 19, 28, 47, 75, 76, 83, 173, 174, 226, 230 form-focused feedback 67, 72–74, 115, 171, 206 focus on form 68, 78, 92, 121, 128, 129, 131, 133–135, 151, 204, 230 gramma(r, tical(ity) 4, 11, 35, 38, 39, 63–65, 70, 73, 88, 89, 104, 113, 114, 120, 134–136, 148, 150, 157, 159, 165, 167, 174, 178, 179, 188, 189, 196, 205, 206, 208, 209, 221 iconic 32, 65, 114, 130, 147 implicit feedback/correction 18, 27, 70, 74, 79, 85, 115, 143, 170, 175, 197, 198, 208, 231 incidental attention to form(s) 36–38, 91, 92, 150, 152, 178, 179

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Index

incidental attention to lexis 42–45, 53, 96, 156, 158, 184, 185 incidental corralling 50, 52, 100, 160, 161, 190 instructional conversation(s) 1, 2, 4–7, 13–20, 27, 28, 30, 51, 53, 62, 63, 68, 72, 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 102, 104, 113, 122, 124, 125, 128, 143–146, 159, 161, 162, 167, 168, 170, 172, 175–178, 180, 186, 201, 204, 213, 216, 218, 222, 223, 225, 230 instructional design 215, 222, 223 instructional (conversation(al)) move(s)/ strateg(y, ies) 2, 4, 7, 8, 12, 14–18, 28, 62, 63, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 81–83, 86, 102, 122–125, 144, 159, 161, 164, 168–170, 176–178, 180, 186, 200, 223, 230 instructional time 1, 3 Initiation–Response–Evaluation (IRE) 16, 17, 19 language education 11–14, 17–19, 28, 50, 70, 85, 102, 116, 129, 172, 173, 175, 176, 199, 204, 215, 216, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226 L1 132, 206, 230 L2 127, 128, 130, 131, 173, 174, 203, 204, 206, 207, 210, 226, 230 learning community/community of learners 1, 10, 11, 176, 177, 222 Lexis 18, 23–25, 27, 39–45, 51, 53, 79, 80, 85, 90, 93–98, 104, 111, 121, 103, 143, 152, 153, 155–159, 175, 180–185, 218, 229 linguistic traps 18, 27, 55, 56, 58, 73, 79, 85, 104–106, 143, 164–166, 175, 192, 231 listening 22, 26, 87, 90, 97, 153, 167, 193, 216–219 meaning/form-focused feedback 72–74, 115, 171, 206 messaging 9, 28, 68, 86, 128, 137 metalanguage/ metalinguistic 62, 64–66, 114, 170 metaphoric 65, 66, 130 modeling 17, 18, 27, 58, 59, 61, 73, 79, 85, 107–113, 129, 133, 143, 166–168, 175, 193, 204, 230

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multimedia 79, 218, 219 multimodal 5, 9, 11, 28, 42, 75, 86, 87, 93, 96, 107, 117, 128, 145, 152, 163, 168, 172, 173, 180, 199, 204, 210, 218, 220 non-intrusive(ness) 67, 72, 127–130, 203–206, 208 non-verbal 9, 53, 56, 57, 67, 68, 78, 79, 108, 135 online resources 4, 92, 93, 102, 119, 148, 157–159, 217 oral asynchronous 8, 9, 85–89, 91, 93, 95–105, 107, 109, 111–117, 119, 121–125, 131, 134, 137, 138, 186, 217, 218 oral synchronous 8–10, 25, 27–31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41–43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59–63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73 playful(ness) 41, 63, 68, 161, 211, 215, 224 pronunciation(s) 33, 39, 60, 68, 70, 71, 73, 74, 80, 91, 93, 101, 102, 107, 110, 120, 133–135, 150, 156, 157, 193, 205, 208, 216, 218, 219 recast(s, ing) 70–73, 75, 170, 174 reading 10, 14, 15, 20, 23, 27, 31, 45, 53–55, 83, 85, 125, 175, 193, 201, 215–217, 219, 220, 224, 225 repair 73, 87, 144, 151 salien(t, ce) 36, 62, 127, 128, 132–134, 151, 166, 178, 203, 204, 208, 209, 225 saturat(e, ing, ion) 18, 27, 53–55, 73, 79, 85, 101–104, 143, 162, 163, 175, 191, 231 second language(s) 13, 14, 19, 20, 33, 35, 50, 75, 83, 86, 174, 216, 217, 224–226, 231 second life 29, 30, 34–36, 38, 47–49, 52, 55, 58, 62, 69, 70, 74, 119, 120, 155, 183, 197, 227, 231 skype 76, 82 sociocultural 1, 11, 12, 19, 20, 75, 83, 225, 226 speaking 11, 23, 40, 62, 87, 88, 93, 120, 137, 141, 216, 218

Index

synchronous environment(s)/venue(s)/ communication/messag(es, ing)/ work/mode(s), session(s)/lesson(s) 8–10, 27–31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41–43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57–63, 65, 67, 69–71, 73–79, 81–83, 86, 87, 90, 96, 98–100, 111, 114, 125, 128, 129, 131, 133–135, 137, 143–145, 147–159, 161, 163–174, 216, 218, 219, 225, 226, 229, 231 target(ed) language 4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 28, 30, 33, 40–42, 45, 46, 51–53, 62, 70, 76, 77, 86, 87, 93, 98, 101–104, 107, 115, 116, 132, 137, 145, 151, 156, 157, 160, 164, 166, 168, 170, 172, 173, 177, 180, 184, 186, 191, 193, 206, 216–220, 223, 224, 230, 231 task-level attention to form(s) 31–36, 88, 89, 145–149, 162, 177, 178, 182 task-level attention to lexis 39, 40, 93, 95, 152, 153, 155, 180–183 task-level corralling 46–49, 97–100, 159, 160, 186–189 task toolkit(s) 1, 4–6, 31, 33–35, 37, 40, 41, 45, 46, 51–53, 55, 58, 63, 64, 71, 75, 81, 88–91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 102, 104, 106– 109, 111, 128, 135, 146–149, 152–156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 169, 177–183, 186, 187, 192, 193, 195, 197, 199, 204, 209, 210, 218, 221 teachable moment(s) 6, 7, 17, 19, 36, 50, 76, 156, 160, 165, 172, 177, 178, 184, 186, 222, 223 telecommunications 8, 76, 83, 86, 174, 176, 216, 224, 229, 230

textual focus on form translat(ion(s), or(s), e) 12, 27, 39, 41, 44, 47, 51, 76–78, 93, 102, 155, 158, 161, 184, 216 (3D) Virtual (class)room(s)/world(s)/ environment(s)/realit(y, ies) 21, 29, 30, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54, 61, 83, 116, 137, 168, 226, 231 visual(s, ly, ized, ization) 4, 6, 10, 14, 21, 28, 30–32, 37–40, 45, 51, 54, 57, 59–65, 69–73, 75, 77, 78, 86, 88, 91, 93–96, 98, 99, 102, 103, 109–111, 113, 114, 127–141, 145, 147, 151, 152, 154, 155, 163, 166, 167, 169–171, 173, 174, 177, 180, 192, 203–213, 217–219 vocabulary 18, 24, 38–41, 44, 45, 51–54, 61, 73, 88, 93, 96–99, 102–107, 109, 110, 118, 139, 152–156, 158, 159, 163, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 189, 190, 191, 194, 205, 208, 209, 221, 229, 231 VoiceThread(s) 92, 95, 101, 105, 108, 110–112, 117–121, 125, 146, 148, 151, 165, 167, 182, 188, 189, 196 Voxopop 92, 96, 97, 103, 106, 118–121 Wimba 28, 88 writing 11, 23, 25, 26, 32, 36, 51, 53, 62, 63, 67, 69, 78, 150, 151, 153, 167, 190, 191, 193, 217–219, 229 written asynchronous 8–10, 73, 86, 160, 175–179, 181, 183, 185–187, 189–193, 195, 197, 199–201 written Synchronous 8, 9, 86, 143–145, 147–159, 161, 163–173, 176, 216 YouTube 68, 118, 138, 163, 206, 207, 209

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