Teaching Group Work Content in Social Work Education [1 ed.] 9780872931879, 9780872931756

Citation preview

Teaching

Group Work Content in Social Work Education

Dominique Moyse Steinberg

Teaching

Group Work Content in Social Work Education

Teaching

Group Work Content in Social Work Education

Dominique Moyse Steinberg

Alexandria, Virginia

Copyright © 2019, Council on Social Work Education, Inc. Published in the United States by the Council on Social Work Education, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any manner whatsoever without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBNs: 978-0-87293-175-6 (paperback); 978-0-87293-207-4 (Kindle); 978-0-87293-208-1 (ePub) Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standards Institute Z39-48 standard. CSWE Press 1701 Duke Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314-3457 www.cswe.org

Contents

Unit 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Unit 2 Using This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Part A: Developing a Group Work Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Attitudinal Reality and Practice Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Unit Part A: Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Unit Part B: Inserting Group Work Content Into a Practice Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Ways and Means: At a Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Unit Part B Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 What’s Next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Proposed Outline for Timing Content for a 15-Week Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Unit 3 Evolution of Social Work With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Historical Highlights of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Models of Group Work Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Unit 4 Planning for Practice With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Part A: Using the Kurland Planning Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Outreach and Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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Unit 4 (continued) Part B: Retrospective Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Part C: Planning for Curriculum-Based Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Sample Lecture on Planning for Social Work Practice With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Handouts 4.1

Stages for Putting EBGW Into Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.2 A Model of Planning for Social Work With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.3 Focus on Individual Planning Components: Need, Purpose, Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.4 A Guide to Retrospective Planning for Practice With Groups . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.5 Applying the Kurland Planning Model When Composition Is Not Predetermined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.6 Applying theKurland Planning Model When Composition Is Predetermined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.7 Class Exercise Planning ApplicationOption, Focus on Individual Planning Components: Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.8 Stages for Putting EBGWInto Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.9 Skills for Integrating Evidence Into Group Work Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.10 Essential Characteristics of theEngagement Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.11 EBGW Homework: Guide to Reviewing an Empirical Article . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.12 Essential Characteristics of theEngagement Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.13 Skills for Practice With Curriculum-Based Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Unit 5 Practice With the New Group: Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Overview: Practice With the Beginning-Stage Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Beginning-Stage Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 The First Meeting Role Play (Client Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

CONTENTS  |  vii

Unit 5 (continued) Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Handouts 5.1

Stages of Group Development: Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.2 Common Skills for Practice With Beginning Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.3 Character Scenarios for Practicing Skills With the Beginning Group . . . 125 5.4 The First Meeting and Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.5 Principles for Disclosure in Work With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Unit 6 Helping Students Problem Solve in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Problem Solving in Group Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Individual Problem Solving in Groups (IPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Individual Problem Solving in Groups Case Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Common Skills for Problem Solving in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.1

Dewey’s Problem-Solving Process Transposed to Group Work . . . . . . . 142

6.2 Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.3 Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.4 Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.5 Hallmarks of IPS With Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.6 A Model for IPS in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.7 Individual Problem Solving, Case 1: Part One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 6.8 Individual Problem Solving, Case 1: Part Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.9 Individual Problem Solving: Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.10 Common Skills for Problem Solving in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Unit 7 Practice With the Middle-Stage Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Overview Work With the Middle-Stage Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

viii  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Unit 7 (continued) Common Skills for Practice With Groups in the Middle Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 7.1

Stages of Group Development: Middles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

7.2 Common Skills for Practice With Middle-Stage Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Unit 8 Helping Students Deal With Emerging Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Roles in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Common Skills for Dealing with Group Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Handouts 8.1

Roles That People Adopt in Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8.2 Portrait of a Scapegoat: Amy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 8.3 Portrait of a Scapegoat: Gladys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 8.4 The Nature of Roles and Interventions in Small Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.5 Intervening in a Scapegoat Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 8.6 Common Skills for Dealing With Group Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Unit 9 Helping Students Manage Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Conflict Fears and Myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Types of Difference Leading to Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Common Skills for Managing Conflict and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Handouts

CONTENTS  |  ix

Unit 9 (continued) 9.1 Differences of Opinion Between Mrs. P. and Mrs. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 9.2 Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members— Potato Grater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 9.3 Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members— SRO Bathrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 9.4 Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Ralph . . . . . . . 207 9.5 Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Race . . . . . . . . 210 9.6 Descriptive Differences Among Members: Some Girls Don’t Talk . . . . . . 211 9.7 Common Skills for Addressing Conflict and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Unit 10 Practice With the Ending Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Work With the Ending or Transitional Stage of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Preparing the Group for Ending or Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 From Ending to Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Expected Member Behaviors in the Ending Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Ending-Stage Practice Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Dealing With the Less Than Satisfying Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Common Skills for Work With Ending-Stage Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Handouts 10.1 Stages of Group Development: The Ending Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 10.2 Case Record: Good-Bye and Good Riddance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 10.3 Case Record: Do You Think Old Blind People Are Different? . . . . . . . . . 227

Unit 11 Teaching Students to Use Program or Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 A Brief History of Programs or Activities in Social Work With Groups . . . . . . . . . 230 Value of Program or Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Classroom Activity 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

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Unit 11 (continued) Classroom Activity 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Handouts 11.1 Varied Purposes of Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 11.2 Exercise Scenario: Parents of Disabled Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 11.3 Class Exercise: Single-Room Residency Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 11.4 Exercise Scenario: High School Seniors Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 11.5 Exercise Scenario: Social Work Practice Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 11.6 Program Activities: An Analysis of Their Effects on Participant Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 11.7 Excerpt: What’s Inside You It Shines Out of You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

UNIT

1

Introduction

W

elcome to the second edition of this teaching book. It is my honor and privilege to offer you a second edition of the book that builds on the work of two social group-work giants, Roselle Kurland and Robert Salmon, who between them, taught, supervised, and mentored thousands of social group work interns and practitioners in their faculty positions at Hunter College School of Social Work in New York City as well as in their individual and independent practices and consultations for many organizations throughout the world. As they wrote in the first edition of this book, social group work is a very positive and optimistic way of working with people (Kurland & Salmon, 1998).As they also noted, it is truly empowering, and I would go even further to suggest that it is the method the social work profession uses to express its desire, ability, and capacity to empower. How so, exactly? It truly affirms people’s strengths by engaging them in all aspects of the service process for their own benefit, as does individual service, and additionally for the benefit of others by requiring the professional’s and client’s greater attention to the ways and means to help people be healthily interdependent. The very act of forming a group expresses the belief that people have something to give to others regardless of their own circumstances. When Kurland and Salmon (1998) wrote the first edition of this book, they stated that group work was needed more than ever, and they wrote the book as a result of that need. They said they intended for the book to help social work faculty to prepare students for competent practice in social work with groups, a task that has become increasingly complex given the increased complexity of the field generally and globalization, calling for increased cultural sensitivity and competence. One can easily argue that today, 20 years later, the need to empower people in this increasingly challenging world not only remains a goal in the profession but has taken on even greater urgency. Issues of safety, self-, and other-directed advocacy, large-scale migrations, and worldwide political tumult abound. They continue to challenge the social work profession to not mirror society but to help everyone’s voice be heard, help those who care about enabling all voices, and help develop good citizenship while helping power structures recognize that good citizenship has many faces, including dissention. Hence the need for social work practice with groups, a method of helping that is predicated on democratic ideals that value voices and humanistic processes that encourage respect for those voices (Glassman, 2009).

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2  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Among the most helpful definitions of the small group as it is conceptualized in social work are those of Hartford (1971) and Schwartz (1971), early pioneers in group work theory and practice. Hartford defined a small group as follows: at least two people—but usually more—gathered with common purposes or like interests in a cognitive, affective, and social interchange in single or repeated encounters sufficient for the participants to form impressions of one another, creating a set of norms for their functioning together, developing goals for their collective activity, evolving a sense of cohesion so that they think of themselves and are thought of by others as an entity distinct from all other collectivities. . . . This definition takes account of size, location, frequency of meetings, purpose for convening, and goals for group activity that emerge out of the interaction. It also contains the notion of mutual influence, the adoption of group norms, and the establishment of a sense of bond in the group cohesiveness that grows out of the members’ attachment to one another and to the group-as-a-whole. (p. 26) Schwartz’s (1971) concise yet profound definition of a group captures further the interrelationship between group members and the agency in which it operates, that is, “a collection of people who need each other in order to work on certain common tasks, in an agency that is hospitable to those tasks.” (p. 7) Thus, between these two definitions we have a basic framework for why people might come together (common purposes or like interests for collective activity), the kind of self-image that might arise from such a collectivity (distinct from all other collectives), and the context where that entity might operate (e.g., an agency that is hospitable to those tasks).Group work practitioners, academicians, and theoreticians had already been working on definitions of small groups and small-group practice, a professional task that continues even today (see, for example, Bernstein, 1973; Clapton & Daly, 2007; Coyle, 1930; Ephross & Vassil, 1988; Garvin, 1996; Glassman, 2009; Kaiser, 1958; Konopka, 1978, 1983; Middleman &Wood, 1990; Newstetter, 1935; also see Further Readings at the end of Unit 3). As you will note throughout this book, the values inherent in group work practice can be specified and transmitted (Middleman & Wood, 1990). The knowledge and the techniques that are the foundation of good practice in social work with groups can be explained and taught (Kurland, 2007; Kurland & Salmon, 1996). Knowledgeable teachers can take students on an educational journey that will prepare them to work effectively with groups. Such teachers lend a vision for the role of the method and share their excitement about the potential of the method to serve, enlighten, and empower. Also, they model for students how to work effectively with a group by using the group-specific skills (Middleman & Wood, 1990) discussed throughout this book in the classroom, conveying an important message to students. Along with humor and empathy, the instructor’s passion about the work will help to prepare students as they develop into workers.

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION  |  3

Social workers work with many kinds of groups. Social and socialization groups, cognitive behavioral groups, so-called therapy groups (all groups should be therapeutic), task groups, educational groups, behavior modification groups, support groups, supervisory groups, and administrative groups are all important. The aim of this book is to capture the commonalities of knowledge and skill required for a worker in any of these contexts to be effective. With such a foundation, the student can then build the specialized knowledge and skill needed for work that is more specific to a particular type of group or theoretical approach. At the end of each unit a list of Further Readings reflects and illuminates the material covered in that unit. You may find these reading suggestions helpful to your own understanding and assign some of the literature to your students. Clearly, no matter the venue, there can be diversity in teaching methodology among faculty, such as the degree to which faculty use didactic methods, student records and experiences, role playing, various forms of technology, and problem solving according to the nature of the issue of the moment and the teaching venue. However, there must be agreement on the destination, that is, on the goals of learning, which is why each teaching unit in this book begins by specifying the unit’s purpose and student learning outcomes. (See Unit 2 on how to use this book, which addresses the differences in the nature of classrooms, that is, whether it a one-semester course on group work or a general or generic practice classroom.) Furthermore, a basic assumption underlying all the content in this book is that the process of thinking through problems, issues, and questions is more important than arriving at solutions and answers as ends in themselves. Therefore, the classroom, whatever its look, is a place where students together can struggle with ideas and challenge one another, not in a spirit of competition but in a spirit of cooperation and caring as colleagues in collaborative struggles with real issues that have no easy answers. The situations, issues, and problems that confront social work are rarely easy to resolve. The classroom is an obvious venue for recognizing and addressing what professional practice can do in response to what Donald Schön calls the “swamp” (1984, p. 2), which refers to the world of wickedly complex psychosocial problems requiring depth of probing rather than a light glance and easy assessment from the shoreline. This common struggle helps students gain skill and competence and contributes to group feeling, which parallels the development and sense of community in groups. The exercises for the classroom provided throughout this book are instrumental in helping students to achieve the goals of effective practice, allowing them to practice what is preached. Further, the assignments aim to contribute to each student’s growth and development as a practitioner of social work with groups in personalized and individualized ways, which take into account and give hope to advancing the common value base the group method reflects.

4  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

References Bernstein, S. (1973). Values and group work: Further explorations in group work (pp. 145– 179). Boston, MA: Milford House. Clapton, G., & Daly, M. (2007). Bridging the theory-practice gap. Groupwork, 17(3), 60–75. Coyle, G. (1930). Social process in organized groups. New York, NY: Richard Smith. Ephross, P., & Vassil, T. (1988). Groups that work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Garvin, C. (1996). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon. Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills-building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Kaiser, C. (1958). The social group work process. Social Work, 3(2), 67–75. Konopka, G. (1978). The significance of social group work based on ethical values. Social Work with Groups, 1, 123–131. Konopka, G. (1983). Social group work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kurland, R. (2007). Debunking the “blood theory” of social work with groups: Group workers are made and not born. Social Work with Groups, 30(1), 11–24. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1996). Education for the Group Worker’s Reality: The special qualities and world view of those drawn to work with groups. In A. Malekoff, R. Salmon, & D. M. Steinberg (Eds.), Making joyful noise: The art, science, and soul of group work (pp. 73–90). New York, NY: Routledge. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Newstetter, W. (1935). What is social group work? Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work, pp. 291–299. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Schön, D. (1984). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Books. Schwartz, W. (1971). On the use of groups in social work practice. In W. Schwartz & S. Zalba (Eds.), The practice of group work (pp. 3–34). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Further Readings Bamber, J. (2004). Framing educational groupwork. Groupwork, 14, 80–94. Bernstein, S. (1962). Self-determination: King or citizen in the realm of values. Social Work, 5(1), 3–8. Bernstein, S. (1993). What happened to self-determination? Social Work with Groups, 16(1/2), 3–15. Bordelon, T. (2006). A qualitative approach to developing an instrument for assessing MSW students’ group work performance. Social Work with Groups, 29(4), 75–92. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Brown, L. (1991). Groups for growth and change. New York, NY: Longman. Carey, L. (2016). Group work education: A call for renewed commitment. Social Work With Groups, 39, 48–61. Cohen, C., & Olshever, A. (2013). IASWG Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups: Development, application, and evolution. Social Work with Groups, 36, 111– 129.

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION  |  5

Cohen, C., Doel, M., Wilson, M., Quirke, D., Ring, K., & Abbas, S. (2012). Global group work. Groupwork, 22(1), 78–98. Cohen, C., Macgowan, M., Garvin, C., & Muskat, B. (Eds.). (2013). IASWG standards for social work with groups: Research, teaching, and practice [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 36(2/3). Comer, E., & Rao, S. (2016). Transforming social group work learning into competencies for interprofessional teams. Social Work with Groups, 39, 62–75. Drumm, Kris. (2006). The essential power of group work. Social Work with Groups, 29, 17–32. Dolgoff, R., & Skolnik, L. (1992). Ethical decision making, the NASW code of ethics and group work practice: Beginning explorations. Social Work with Groups, 15(4), 99–112. Forte, J. (2009). Adding the “symbolic” to interactionist practice: A theoretical elaboration of William Schwartz’ legacy to group workers. Social Work with Groups, 32, 80–95. Freedberg, S. (1989). Self-determination: Historical perspectives and effect on current practice. Social Work, 34, 33–38. Getzel, G. (1978). A value base for interactionist practice. Social Worker, 46(4), 116–120. Gitterman, A., & Shulman, L. (Eds.). (2005). Mutual aid groups, vulnerable populations and the life cycle (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Goodman, H. (Ed.). (2014). Contemporary issues for educating social workers in group work [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 37(1). Goodman, H., & Munoz, M. (2004). Developing social group work skills for contemporary agency practice. Social Work with Groups, 27, 17–34. Greif, G., & Ephross, P. (Eds.). (1997). Group work with populations at risk. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Gumpert, J., & Black, P. (2006). Ethical issues in group work: What are they? How are they managed? Social Work with Groups, 29(4), 61–74. Harrison, M., & Ward, D. (1999). Values as context: Groupwork and social action. Groupwork, 11(3), 88–103. Henry, S. (1992). Group skills in social work: A four-dimensional approach (2nd ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. International Association for Social Work with Groups. (2013). Standards for social work practice with groups (2nd ed.). Social Work With Groups, 36, 270–282. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Self-determination: Its use and misuse in group work practice and social work education. In D. Fike & B. Rittner (Eds.), Working from strengths: The essence of group work (pp. 105–121). Miami, FL: Center for Group Work Studies. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1997). When worker and member expectations collide: The dilemma of establishing group norms in conflictual situations. In A. Alissi & C. Corto Mergins (Eds.), Voices from the field: group work responds (pp. 45–53). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1998). Teaching a methods course in social work with groups. Alexandria, VA.: Council on Social Work Education, Inc. Kurland, R., Salmon, R., Bitel, M., Goodman, H., Ludwig, K., Newmann, E. W., & Sullivan, N. (2004). The survival of group work. Social Work with Groups, 27(1) 3–16. Lee, J. (1994). The concept of mutual aid. In A. Gitterman & L. Shulman (Eds.), Mutual aid groups and the life cycle (2nd ed., pp. 413–429). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

6  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Leeman, D, G., & Dubus, N. (2015).Out here in the field: Innovative approaches to group work field education, training, and supervision [Special issue]. Social Work With Groups, 38(1). Lietz, C. (2007). Strengths-based group practice: Three case studies. Social Work With Groups, 30(2), 73–88. Lindsay, J., Roy, V., Montminy, L., Turcotte, D., & Genest-Dufault, S. (2008). The emergence and the effects of therapeutic factors in groups. Social Work With Groups, 31, 255–272. Lindsay, T. (2005). Group learning on social work placements. Groupwork, 15(1), 61–89. Lowenberg, F., & Dolgoff, R. (1996). Ethical decisions for social work practice. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock. Macgowan, M. (2014). A standards-based inventory of foundation competencies in social work with groups: An empirical test in Scotland. Groupwork, 24(3), 6–25. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Malekoff, A., & Kurland, R. (Eds.). (2005). A quarter century of classics: Capturing the theory, practice, and spirit of social work with groups. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Malekoff, A., Salmon, R., & Steinberg, D. M. (Eds.). (2006). Making joyful noise: The art, science, & soul of group work. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. McNicoll, P. (Ed.). (2012). The pursuit of social justice in group work [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 35(3). Middleman, R., & Rhodes, G. (1985). Competent supervision: Making imaginative judgments. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Muskat, B., & Mesbur, E. S. (2011). Adaptations for teaching social work with groups in the age of technology. Groupwork, 21(1), 6–27. Northen, H. (1995). Clinical social work knowledge and skills (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H. (2004). Ethics and values in group work. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 76–90). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Norton, C., & Tucker, A. (2010). New heights. Groupwork, 20(2), 24–44. Phillips, H. (1957). Essentials of social group work skill. New York, NY: Association Press. Rees, P. (2009). Student perspectives on groupwork. Groupwork, 19(1), 59–81. Rose, S., & Edelson, J. (1987). Working with children and adolescents in groups. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rose, S. (1989). Working with adults in groups: Integrating cognitive behavioral and small group strategies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Simon, S., & Kilbane, T. (2014). The current state of group work education in U.S. graduate schools of social work. Social Work with Groups, 37, 243–256. Skolnik, L., & Attinson, L. (1978). Confidentiality in group work practice. Social Work with Groups, 1(1), 65–74. Steinberg, D. M. (2006). The art, science, heart, and ethics of social group work: Lessons from a great teacher. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 33–46. Steinberg, D. M., & Tully, G. (Eds.). (2011). Voices from the classroom: Students speak [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 34(3/4).

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION  |  7

Sundel, M., Glasser, P., Sarri, R., & Vinter, R. (Eds.). (1985). Individual change through small groups (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Sweifach, J. (2014). Group work education today: A content analysis of MSW group work course syllabi. Social Work with Groups, 37, 8–22. Tedan, P., Matoo, G., Mano, I., & Singh, S. (2015). Group support for transformational social work education: A study of the Black Academics Forum (BAF). Groupwork, 25(2), 89–111. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson Education. Trevithick, P. (2005). The knowledge base of groupwork and its importance within social work. Groupwork, 15(2), 80–107. Tully, G. (2015). The faculty field liaison: an essential role for advancing graduate and undergraduate group work education. Social Work with Groups, 38, 6–20. Warkentin, B. (2017). Teaching social work with groups: Integrating didactic, experiential and reflective learning. Social Work with Groups, 40, 233–243. Wilson, G., & Ryland, G. (1949). Social group work practice. Boston, MA: HoughtonMifflin. Zastrow, C. (2008). Social work with groups: A comprehensive workbook (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole.

UNIT

2

Using This Book

T

here are two ways to use this book, which is intended to help the instruction of social work with groups. Part A of this unit provides a basis for launching a one-semester course in group work, in which it is possible to use the units sequentially, moving from broad-based content into details of practice, following stage theory as the framework for study and using the examples that are appropriate to the educational setting. Part B discusses inserting content from the units into an existing practice course. In that case, material can be selected to fit with the larger social work concepts presented in a practice course, and the ways and means for doing so are presented in this unit.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes Whether the target is a semester course or the integration of group work content into an existing practice course, the goals are to help students 1. begin to get to know the instructor and the other students in the class, 2. become familiar with expectations and goals of learning social work with groups, 3. begin to appreciate the value of group membership, 4. consider the values of the small group, 5. see that fears about working with groups are universal and normal, and 6. begin to view work with groups from a strengths perspective where all does not rest on the social worker’s shoulders alone. Clearly, students who have the opportunity to learn a semester’s worth of group work content will be able to achieve these goals more fully than those who receive a smattering of group work content in a general or generic practice course. Nonetheless, it should be possible for the latter group to achieve Goals 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 while presumably achieving Goal 3 in the class in which the group work content is presented. The difference for these students is the degree to which they have a chance to digest and experience in small-group class exercises, for example, some of the major dimensions of small-group processes and group leadership.

9

10  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Part A: Developing a Group Work Course The purpose of Part A is to address the major teaching points of introducing social work students to a semester-long course on social work with groups. Thus, the content and the proposed process presume the time normally allotted to a one-semester graduatelevel course but divided into sessions. Although a class is not a social work group, there are similarities between the two. For example, the way the instructor conducts the first class sessions models for students how they might conduct their first group meetings. In setting the foundation for the course, the instructor needs to • describe course expectations; • provide an opportunity for class members to begin to gain a sense of one another and of the instructor; • discuss the importance, values, and unique qualities of the small group in today’s world; and • help class members see that they share common concerns about working with groups. Describing the Purpose of the Course In describing the course to students, consider emphasizing the following points. A course on social work with groups has two major purposes. The first is to increase students’ appreciation of, knowledge about, and skill in social work with groups and providing a sense of the history of social work group work in and outside the profession and its value base. The second is to help students feel more at ease in working with groups. Basically, this course will help students gain understanding and skill in a psychosocial approach to group work practice. Its aim is to help them capture the commonalities of knowledge and skill for working effectively with a range of different groups and then build on that foundation for whatever special knowledge and skill they need to work with particular types of groups or from particular theoretical approaches (e.g., that used in any given work setting). It is worth noting at this point that the major theories, practice principles, and skills that pertain to social work with groups also pertain to the many types of groups with which social workers practice. Other professions, such as psychology, that engage in clinical work may, and usually do, have different theoretical orientations and thus different practice principles and skill sets for working with individuals in a group format. However, if the group method is used by a social worker with social work training (i.e., encompassing the particular knowledge and value bases of the method), the body of content and its related goals identified in this book apply to working with many and widely varying types of groups. Social work groups that social work interns might be asked to work with range from many types of so-called therapy groups (so-called, because all good groups should be therapeutic in some fashion), ranging from short-term cognitive behavioral to

UNIT 2: USING THIS BOOK  |  11

long-term self-analysis; task groups, ranging from program- or project-based groups of clients in agencies; psychoeducation groups; management or oversight groups; social action groups; and self-help groups, which often work with a facilitator, among many others. These do not even begin to address the many types of structures that apply to social work with groups, such as open ended, single session, loosely structured and selfgoverning, highly structured, or curriculum based. For details about the wide variety of groups with which social workers practice, consider reading the introductions of the basic group work texts in the Further Readings list at the end of this unit and introducing a related discussion in class. It will be helpful to students as they introduce the nature of their group work assignments for you to recognize their assignments as legitimate group work assignments and acknowledge the wide variety of practice opportunities in the field. Organizing and Presenting Content The stages of group development from pregroup planning through termination or transition provide the organizing framework for class content. Students examine the characteristics and themes of each developmental stage, the issues likely to arise at each stage, and the implications of the worker’s role and interventions. A range of methods can be used, including lecture, group discussion, experiential exercises such as role playing, group brainstorming and problem solving, examination of case material and scenarios, and videotapes. Although, as noted earlier, there are similarities between a class and a group, the emphasis here is on learning from didactic material rather than examining internal class processes per se as the primary exemplar of group development. Thus, although the class may enter into some parallel processes as the class examines group work practice principles, the class is not used as a context for routinely deconstructing processes in a lab-like atmosphere. What is most important is for students to understand that stage theory, as a body of practice prescriptions, applies to all social work with groups; that is, regardless of group type, groups are understood as progressing, however bumpily, through stages of development, not the individual development of members but of the group itself as a system (Northen & Kurland, 2001; Shulman, 2012; Steinberg, 1993). Thus, whether the group is for personal growth or is administrative or educational or recreational or dedicated to social action, whether single session or long term, whether open group (come one come all) or closed (stable membership), it will inherently move from being a new group (see Unit 5) to a group in which members are more comfortable with one another and thus able and willing to speak their minds (see Units 7, 8, and 9) in a group that is nearing its end (see Unit 10). It might be thought that endings do not necessarily apply to all groups, some of which carry on seemingly forever, such as governance committees in educational institutions. However, from the perspective of social work with groups, groups end every time a worker or member leaves and is sometimes replaced by a new member; thus, it ends as that particular group and begins again as a new group with the addition of a new worker or member who comes

12  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

with a new resource or new way of thinking, being, acting, and so forth to contribute to the group’s process. Introductions The content of introductory statements in the classroom may vary, but their purpose is always the same: to help students start to gain a sense of the instructor as a person and as a teacher who has the competence to conduct this class. It is important, therefore, for you to include some statements about your belief in the helping potential of group work and about your values regarding the class atmosphere. The following are some comments that might be included in an introduction: • I think that work with groups is fun—serious work but fun. There is an orderly process in social work with groups. Groups go through stages as they develop. There is a planning stage, a beginning, a middle, and an end. In each of these stages certain issues arise, for example, status, norms, conflict. But once you know about stages of development for groups, you can anticipate these issues and be prepared to respond. • Many people believe that the ability to work with a group is in their blood, that they either have group-leading blood or they do not, and if they do not, it cannot be transfused. Don’t buy into this. Working with groups requires knowledge and skill that can be learned and can be taught. • The commonalities in work with groups with different populations in different settings of different types are greater, much greater, than the differences. We will address a variety of types of groups in a range of settings with a range of client populations in this course, and we will identify the commonalities such as central practice issues and differences like variations in group type, setting, group purposes, and so forth. • The atmosphere of this class is important. Cooperation is more highly valued than competition; you should not try to look smart or to look good but really listen and try to help one another, to share, to risk, and not be afraid to look stupid. It is through the mutual aid in this room that a great deal of your learning will take place. It is helpful if student introductions focus on the genesis of their interest in groups, their experience as group members or leaders, their special interests in groups, and any concerns they may have in work with groups. The nature of this type of introduction models the manner in which introductions should be conceptualized and organized in a small working group. That is, rather than suggest the all-too-common favorite ice cream icebreaker, introductions should be thoughtful and purposefully related to the group’s raison d’être. Thus, for example, what brings a person to the group, previous experiences with this type or another type of group, anxieties about being in this group, and individual goals (if they are

UNIT 2: USING THIS BOOK  |  13

possible to articulate at this early time or by the members) are examples of elements in a thoughtful and meaningful introduction, not a person’s favorite ice cream, which has no relevance to anything other than perhaps for two people to discover their mutual preference for chocolate. Also useful at this early stage of learning is to ask the class to consider the values of the small group and what groups offer members that is unique. For example, you might set up the exercise with the following introductory statement and request for action: We know that people have fears and anxieties about being in groups, even doubts about whether a group can be helpful to them in their situation. That said, I also know from experience and from the experience of others that groups and group membership have several valuable dimensions. Can you identify the values of participating in a group? You will have an opportunity to identify some of the fears that people have in working with and participating in groups, but for now focus on their values. Responses are likely to fall into several (predictable) areas: • Sharing: People feel less isolated and more reassured when they find their feelings are shared by others. (You mean I’m not the only one who feels that way? What a relief!) • Identification: People can readily identify with others in the same situation. (I feel just like you do.) • Peer help: People often can accept help more readily from peers than from people in positions of authority. (If it worked for you, maybe it will for me too.) • Mutual aid: People can use their own experiences to help others in the same or similar situations, resulting in increased self-esteem for the helper. (I faced a similar problem; the way I handled it was …) • Testing: People can test themselves by practicing different roles in the group, such as taking over leadership if that is an unusual role for them, being a follower when they are normally a leader, being in a position of helping someone else, or in contrast, practicing accepting help when they are normally in the position of helping. • Social exchange and acceptance: The group offers a place for social exchange, acceptance, and belonging. People are social beings who need to have a place among others. • Getting things done: The group reflects the potential of power in numbers if it successfully engages in social action when an individual working alone might not succeed.

14  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Also consider the following example that illustrates the acceptance that a group member might feel. A group of sixth-grade girls had been meeting twice a week for 5 months. Their worker asked them if they’d like to use some time to talk about sexuality. “Oh, no,” Mary responded immediately. “In school Mrs. Thomas [the teacher] keeps a book in the back of the room; anytime we wish we can look things up.” The other girls in the group nodded in agreement and indicated they felt no need to discuss sex in this group. The worker was surprised but did not pursue the subject. At the next group meeting, another girl, Joann, said to the worker, “We’ve been talking and just have one question about sex.” At that point the group became quite involved with questions about sex and the girls’ own development, and the word breast was mentioned a number of times. Anna, who had been quiet up to that point, finally spoke. “What’s a breast?” she asked. The other members and the worker responded to her question seriously, without making fun of her lack of knowledge. This example illustrates the acceptance a group can provide as a place where people can truly be themselves and not feel that they must look good or fear rejection by their peers for saying the wrong thing. Anyone who has been a member of a group in which they could be truly themselves and accepted will relate to this example and how that kind of group membership can be empowering for all its participants, just as anyone who has been in a group that felt exclusive and judgmental will see the stark differences between the two types of experiences. To summarize this discussion of the value of group work, consider reading some material about the needs of members that the groups meet and why groups are effective. For example, according to Brandler and Roman (2007), Humans are social animals concerned primarily with survival and secondarily with a need to belong with others of their kinds. Belonging actually seems to assist in meeting the primary need of survival. Early humans provided a host of evidence to testify to the necessity of group-tribe survival. Isolation is a condition humans do not choose. If forced to experience isolation for long periods of time during developmental years, individuals suffer severe social and psychological impairment. (p. 2) Identity formation, validation of self, acceptance, support, and effective communication are necessary for human survival. How to meet those needs is learned initially through the primary group (family) and continually reinforced or changed through other significant secondary groups (peer groups). The effectiveness of meeting these needs determines the quality of an individual’s life. Therefore, the group modality becomes an effective secondary societal force in developing the ability to negotiate need gratification more effectively both within the individual and between the individual and his cultural environment….

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What, then, is a group? Let us conceive for a moment of the group as an entity, a separate living being, a being with its own personality composed of many separate and unique parts, each part contributing to the whole. Like the personality of a person, it is multi-faceted. It has a total personality all its own and distinct from any other. (p. 3)

Attitudinal Reality and Practice Mindset It is helpful at this point to consider the attitudinal reality for most students and even most practitioners. Generally, people approach work with groups with fear, and it is important for students to have a chance to put their fears on the table, to bring them into the light. Doing so enables them to benefit from some of the values of the group as they see that their fears are not unique to them, they are shared by others, and they readily identify with others in the class. The I’m not the only one value that groups are noted for becomes apparent with a general sense of acceptance and relief. Further, discussing fears with a light touch helps students who may be particularly anxious to laugh a little at themselves. Consider reading the following excerpt from a student log to jump-start the conversation: But the problem is I am extremely uncomfortable in the role of worker in a group situation…I like to work with people on a one-to-one basis, behind closed doors, and without a tape recorder. Admittedly, this is a situation in which my process recording—which should follow the theme of “I said, she said, I said, she said”— occasionally goes more like, “I said, she said, I said, she said, I should have said”.... “It’s fairly obvious that at times I lack self-confidence in my abilities as a social worker, so if I screw up an interview, I don’t want a big audience. After hearing this comment, students feel freer to reveal their own trepidations beginning with the worst possible thing they envision might happen when working with a group. Addressing Student Fears and Anxieties A classroom exercise that addresses students’ fears and anxieties about working with groups offers an opportunity for them to experience several important group-work dynamics. First, it helps students (group members) to risk exposure by asking them to identify a personal aspect of themselves about which they might not be very proud. A fear or anxiety is not something people normally share with others except in intimate situations. Thus, asking students to do so, but setting parameters, because many people worry about working with groups, sets the stage for what can be called real talk, that is, authenticity rather than posturing. Personal exposure in the social work group (assuming appropriate parameters are set by the worker) directed toward the goal of authenticity is vital to group work generally and to mutual aid in particular (Steinberg, 2014). Help is not around the corner if the worker or other group members are not on the same street. Second, freedom to be authentic helps students experience the

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all-in-the-same-boat dynamic, also essential to mutual aid. That is, they come to see they are not alone regardless of the specific content of their anxiety. One student might express the fear of losing control, whereas another might express the fear of having to control; regardless, they both are anxious about some aspect of control, and years of classroom experience reveal that many students share some aspect of most of the fears and anxieties identified during this exercise. Knowing that others are also worried about working with groups is comforting. Third, bringing the fears and anxieties to light helps to demystify and disempower them. Writing a fear on the blackboard for everyone to see reduces its stature from gargantuan—the large thing in the dark closet with powers to annihilate—to human—out front, visible, and able to be tackled. Finally, everyone knows the benefits of laughter, even if it is at oneself. Laughter mitigates the power of monsters. Thus, through this classroom exercise students can identify and confront their fears in black and white, right there on the blackboard where all the fears and anxieties in this classroom of working with groups are listed. This dynamic is not dissimilar to identifying one’s issues or problems in the small group. By making what plagues us visible to ourselves and to our peers who are working on similar issues, we can then tackle the management of these issues in the company of and with the help of others who have similar concerns, which is precisely what happens in this exercise. Furthermore, through the process of confronting their fears, students come to see that most of them are not realistic, and for those that are, some kind of solution can be found that would keep the students from annihilation, which, when all is said and done, is their fundamental fear: destruction of the group in some form such as complete loss of control, complete lack of participation by group members, verbal or physical attacks, being derided as a group leader, being exposed as completely incompetent, and on and on. Introduce the exercise by making a statement to the effect that most people who are not trained in social work with groups fear this particular form of practice. However, whether the source of fear is known or general, being afraid limits a worker’s ability to be present, to engage with the content of practice that is essential to effective practice. Therefore, to identify some of the fears and anxieties that plague this classroom at this time, ask students to take a chance by exposing their anxieties about working with groups. The purpose of this exercise is not to identify fears that the students had not even thought of and thus make them more anxious. It is to bring all the anxieties of the moment to light and to go through each of them and ask what the worst that could happen is if any given source of anxiety materialized. For this, students will have to trust that each of them is in the company of others who have or have had similar fears, and they will not be exposing their concerns to a room full of people who are perfectly comfortable with group work practice so that any exposition of concern will stand out in high relief and become a target of ridicule. This kind of introduction models the development of and sets the stage for a climate of safety, essential to group work.

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Following this brief introduction, ask the students the following question: What kinds of fears and anxieties do people have in working with groups? Asking the question in this generalized manner allows them to identify their anxieties in a generic form while maintaining some distance from personal exposure. It is likely, however, as they engage in this exercise that you will hear some giggling as students relate to many of the fears identified by others. If toward the end of this exercise the students seem to have established a sense of camaraderie and a feeling of being in it together rather than being in competition, consider asking them to identify which anxieties they particularly relate to. When students participate in this exercise, you are likely to hear, often laced with humor, comments such as the following: • Nobody will come. • No, no, no—not that nobody will come but they will come once and not return! • Nobody will talk. • One person will keep talking, and I won’t know how to shut him up. • The members will get into a fight, and I won’t be able to stop it. • They won’t fight with each other but will get mad at me. • Nobody in the group will listen to me, the group will get out of control, and I’ll have to tell my supervisor about it, and she’ll think I’m totally incompetent. Fears noted by those new to group work generally fall into the following seven categories: 1. Losing control of the group 2. Excessive hostility 3. Members acting out 4. Unmanageable resistance 5. Overwhelming dependence on the worker 6. Total group disintegration 7. Being judged by agency staff as inadequate Some fears that students identify can be addressed in the moment; others will inevitably be addressed as students learn the content of practice. For example, they can hear immediately that full control of a group is not desirable, that losing some control is what should happen in group work practice for it is only through shared control over a group’s affairs that group members can identify and harness their strengths, a desirable social work practice goal regardless of the method. Also, students can be told immediately that they will develop a body of group-specific skill as they learn this content, and as they do so those skills will become inherent and enable them to address

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some of the issues and concerns they have raised. In fact, by the end of even a onesemester course, students will have greater skill than they could imagine in dealing with the kinds of group behavior that gives rise to their fears now at this time. Meanwhile, it can also help students to manage their fears if you point out that many of their fears are related to the role of authority and to their perceived notion that they must (and can) control and direct all group action. Actually, groups often rescue a worker in difficult situations, and one of the joys of working with groups is that workers do not in fact carry the weight of the group on their shoulders alone. Rather, they can have faith in the group’s desire and ability to manage its affairs, including its leadership, and join with the worker as a co-authority over what the group should do to meet members’ needs and to determine why and how to do it. Mutual aid, the process through which group members help one another and the total group, is unique to social group work practice (Steinberg, 2014) and means among other things that workers do not have to be all knowing or have all the answers. They can share their thinking and reactions with the group honestly and directly and ask members to engage in problem solving even in the kinds of situations that cause the greatest fear. The worker is never in it alone.

Unit Part A: Recap and Major Teaching Points • Although a class is not a social work group, there are similarities between the two. For example, how the instructor conducts the first class sessions models for class members how they might conduct their first group meeting. • A course on social work with groups has two major purposes. The first is to increase appreciation of, knowledge about, and skill in social work with groups including a sense of the history and value base of group work. The second is to increase students’ comfort in working with groups. • The aim of this course is to help students capture the commonalities of knowledge and skill to work effectively with a range of different groups. Afterward they can build on that foundation with any special knowledge and skills required for work with particular types of groups or from particular theoretical approaches in varied settings. • The stages of group development from pregroup planning through termination or transition provide the organizing framework for class content. • A range of pedagogical methods can be used including lecture, group discussion, experiential exercises (such as role playing), group brainstorming and problem solving, examination of case material and scenarios, and videotapes. • Although there are similarities between a class and a group, the emphasis in this course is on learning from didactic material rather than from examining internal class processes per se as the primary exemplar of group development.

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• It is important for introductory statements to help students begin to gain a sense of the instructor as a person and as a teacher who has the competence to conduct this class. It is important, therefore, to include some statements about your belief in the helping potential of group work and about your values regarding class atmosphere.

Unit Part B: Inserting Group Work Content Into a Practice Class Attitudinal Reality and Practice Mindset As noted earlier, there are six objectives for students of this unit if they are enrolled in a semester-long course. However, if you are inserting group-work content into an existing practice course, although the first goal, getting to know one another and the instructor, may seem moot, it is probably not. Unless in their original classroom introductions students included their background experiences with groups as either leaders or members, they still probably do not know one another as group workers. They also may know the instructor but not the instructor’s background and experience in group work. Therefore, all the teaching goals noted at the beginning of this unit pertain to this general practice classroom as well, even if they are likely to be achieved in an abridged form. The following are implications of the six goals as they pertain to the introduction of group-work content in the generalist or generic practice classroom. Goal 1 is begin to get to know the instructor and the other students, students may know one another and the instructor somewhat by the time they address group-work content. However, unless a background in and with groups and experience in group work were expressly requested by the instructor, it is unlikely that they know very much about one another from this perspective. Thus, at the very beginning of groupwork insertion, if that has not yet been made known, it makes sense for purposes of understanding pedagogical context (e.g., how much experience is in the room, the nature of that experience including the instructor’s, etc.) to offer a profile of your experience with groups and group work and to ask students to take a few moments to follow suit. This will help you understand the context for teaching, that is, the types of backgrounds, amount of experience, nature of experiences, current attitudes based on experience, and so on. Goal 2, become familiar with expectations and goals of learning social work with groups, can be achieved by assigning some excerpts from Unit 3 on the history and evolution of group work in social work as reading homework or by assigning readings from the Further Readings list at the end of Unit 3 (see Breton, 1994; Getzel, Kurland, & Salmon, 1987; Gitterman & Salmon, 2009; Kurland & Salmon, 1996; Shulman, 2012). Goal 3, begin to appreciate the value of group membership; Goal 4, consider the values of the small group; and Goal 5, fears about working with groups is universal and normal can all be considered and addressed together in this classroom, either through

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general conversation in which you ask students to address Goals 3 and 4 (values) first and then Goal 5 (fears) or by asking students to work in small groups. Ask half the groups to identify the value of group membership and thus the value of the small group and the other half to identify some fears and anxieties they believe people experience when thinking about working with groups. The class groups then report their results to the rest of the class, and students can add ideas not yet expressed by the reporting group. In the case of fears, this process is likely to engender some giggles as students in the audience perhaps identify yet another source of fear to add to the list, and as with the longer exercise offered in Part A, lighten the collective mood as the instructor asks the students to reflect on the worst that could happen in each case and what they think they might or could do in response to that situation. However conducted, an exercise on the value of groups and of belonging to groups is essential to create a context for understanding and appreciating the contribution of group work to social work practice, whereas an exercise that normalizes, brings to light, and disempowers students’ fears about working with groups helps them to open up to learning the what, how, and why of group work as it unfolds. As we all know, it is very difficult to listen when one is preoccupied with fear or anxiety about the subject matter. Goal 6, begin to view work with groups from a strengths perspective where all does not rest on the worker’s shoulders alone, which is perhaps the most central tenet of social work with groups, regards the worker’s use of authority and its relationship to the group members’ (clients’) ability to identify and to harness their strengths toward growth and change (see Unit 7). In the practice of social work with groups, the worker’s role becomes increasingly less central and directive over the life of a group, requiring a move to the back seat of leadership while encouraging internal strength and leadership from the members. With permission to wrest their potential leadership skills from within, group members identify the skills they might in fact have and exercise them to their advantage and to the collective advantage of the whole group by engaging in mutual aid. It is essential, therefore, for students to understand that appropriate control on their part in work with groups is conceptualized not as their needing to find it, take it, and hold on to it but rather to understand that they need to share any control with group members, meaning they need to let go of it in their practice and to appreciate and even encourage sharing it by group members. Thus, when a group member voices dissent, for example, or the group wishes to take a direction somewhat other than what might be suggested by the worker, it is essential for the group worker to conceptualize this authority-based tug of war as a good sign—a sign that the group wishes to take shared ownership of its affairs. This role of the group worker is unique to social work (Glassman, 2009; Northen & Kurland, 2001; Shulman, 2012; Steinberg, 2014). In no other helping profession does the professional (the expert) purposefully and methodically help members of a group to presume and assume shared authority of the group’s affairs. It is imperative, therefore, for students to have opportunities to conceptualize the group worker’s role in

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this way and to experience (in actuality or in their mind’s eye) the look and feel of such leadership. Once students understand that the worker’s role is to help group members take on the ownership of the group’s affairs—what it does and how it does it—they become much less worried about issues of control. They come to understand and accept that throughout the life of a group, the worker continuously and actively shares observations about what seems to be taking place as an expert in and of group processes but then leaves it to the members to address those perceptions (problem solve).

Ways and Means: At a Minimum Regardless of whether content is introduced into a semester course or inserted into an existing practice course, there is some essential group-work content (theories, principles, and skills) that students must master for basic competence in the group method. For example, stages of group development from pregroup planning through termination or transition provide the organizing framework for understanding the role of the worker. Thus, at the very least they must have an opportunity to review the handouts in Units 4, 5, 7, and 10 on group stages: Handout 4.1 (planning), Handout 5.1 (beginnings), Handout 7.1 (middles), and Handout 10.1 (endings or transitions), and if possible, to examine and discuss the implications for practice for each stage (worker’s role and nature of interventions). Further, it is crucial for students to understand that for groups to be helpful (individual and collective insight, mutual aid, problem solving, etc.) members must be encouraged to become themselves, that is, reveal and express their true selves, and when they do, conflict will be inevitable as a result of differences in opinion, attitudes, experience, and so on. Thus, it is further crucial for students to come to appreciate conflict as a symbol that heralds real talk and opportunities to use differences as fodder for mutual aid (e.g., seeing things differently, providing new ideas for action, opportunities for self-reflection, etc.). Some classroom time on conflict in a group, therefore, will go a long way in helping students become less afraid of practice with groups, as fear of conflict is one of the most ubiquitous fears, and more skilled at addressing conflict when it probably and inevitably occurs. Finally, although all practitioners do not necessarily engage with program or nonverbal activity in their work with groups, it would benefit all students to have in their repertoires an understanding of the benefits of activity (other than talking) and thus an arsenal of potential activities to enhance the ability of groups to meet their purpose. Again, as with the semester-long course, a range of methods can be used in the classroom including lecture, group discussion, experiential exercises such as role playing, group-based brainstorming and problem solving, examination of real experiences or case material and scenarios, and videotapes. Obviously, there are numerous possibilities for using or combining these methods, and the nature of the classroom will contribute to the ones that make the most pedagogical sense. That said, the variety of exercises and

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related suggestions throughout this book, based on years of classroom experience, have been carefully selected as the most helpful in advancing the content in question.

Unit Part B Recap and Major Teaching Points • Even students who have been together in a practice class may not know about one another’s experiences as group members or facilitators. Taking some time to help them get to know one another from this perspective helps to develop a pedagogical context for the instructor. • Another important piece of context can be provided by assigning some reading on the history and evolution of group work in social work followed by a review of the highlights noted by the students once they are back in the classroom. They might even read different pieces of literature and share the new knowledge with the others in the classroom, which would enable coverage of a wide variety of the literature. • For students to understand and appreciate the potential of social work with groups, they must have an opportunity to identify the values of group membership and thus the value of groups. • For students to be able to ingest and digest the content of group work practice (theories, practice principles, and group-specific skills), they must have an opportunity to identify, demystify, and disempower the common fears and anxieties associated with group work practice. • In social work with groups, the worker’s role becomes increasingly less central and less directive, moving to the back seat while promoting strength and leadership from the members. Only with permission to wrest their potential leadership skills from within can group members identify what they might be and exercise these skills to their advantage and to the collective advantage of the whole group (providing mutual aid).

What’s Next? The following units take the course from its own beginning as students examine and explore the planning and development of a group (following the group development model presented herein) through its middle (the detailed practice of group work including the emergence of roles, sharing authority, and management of inevitable conflict) into its ending and transition, when students have opportunities (as do group members) to examine what they have taken in, what they have contributed to the overall learning process, and where they now take what they have gained. Each unit begins with the competencies from the Council on Social Work Education’s (CSWE, 2015) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards that are most advanced by the unit. Next, the unit’s purpose is explained, the student learning outcomes are presented, and in most cases, exercises, examples, handouts, and

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sometimes homework for class use are included. Each unit ends with a unit recap and Further Readings. The following is an overview of each unit: Unit 4: Planning for Practice With Groups Students learn about a planning model for practice including its ability to help them plan when they begin to work with a group already in existence. This unit focuses on considerations regarding need for service, purpose of service, potential content of service, and engagement of potential or prospective or existing group members. The broad context for this content is the social environment and the agency environment or system where the group will operate). The worker’s purpose and role are considered at each step of the planning process, and two variations of the planning model are provided in diagrams in handouts as well as in the text. The unit addresses planning issues when working with a group already in progress as well as practice with groups that function according to predetermined purposes or content (curriculum-based groups). Finally, integrated into this lengthy unit, which reflects its centrality in social group work practice, is a discussion about the importance of seeking evidence as part of a comprehensive planning process toward best practice. Unit 5: Practice With the New Group: Beginnings This unit provides an overview of practice with the new (beginning stage) group. It covers the establishment of group norms, identifies common skills for working with groups in their beginning stage, and identifies the nature of beginning-stage intervention. The worker’s purpose, role, and implications for action are considered in the context of this stage of group development. Included in this unit are discussions and exercises related to a group’s first meeting, testing of the worker by members, dealing with personal questions, and principles for disclosure. A handout that illustrates the major characteristics and challenges of this stage is provided. Unit 6: Helping Students Problem Solve in Groups Students learn about two types of problem solving in groups, both of which provide direction for intervention. The first model provides direction for group-based problem solving in which the whole group must make a decision and offers case record reviews for classroom reflection and action. The second model provides direction for helping groups to help an individual member deal with a specific problem, identifies the hallmarks of this problem-solving process, and offers case record reviews for classroom reflection and action. Overviews of each model are provided in handouts along with a handout on common skills associated with each model. Also included are exercises to help students understand the application of each problem-solving model in practice. Unit 7: Practice with the Middle-Stage Group This unit provides an overview of the middle or work stage of group development, setting up for a more in-depth examination of the emergence of roles and conflict.

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Because this stage of development is so complex, Unit 7 offers an overview, and Units 8 and 9 each focus on a particular aspect of the stage. A handout of skills commonly associated with this stage of group development is provided as well as a handout illustrating the major characteristics and challenges of this stage. Unit 8: Helping Students Deal With Emerging Roles In this unit students learn that as group members become increasingly comfortable, they tend to take on roles roles with which they are comfortable as well, not roles unique to the group but likely to arise in many other groups to which they belong and some of which may get them into trouble. A framework for conceptualizing roles as positive or negative (e.g., a role that is problematic, such as the scapegoat) is offered to help students consider their intervention while also understanding the importance of promoting flexibility, thus preventing role lock. A handout on common skills associated with dealing with the emergence of roles and promoting flexibility is available, and several case record reviews and class exercises for reflection along with other related handouts are offered. Unit 9: Helping Students Manage Conflict Students are introduced to the concept of conflict as difference rather than the expression of fault. Fears of conflict and myths about conflict are addressed, and a framework is offered for conceptualizing conflict as the result of difference, for example, in needs, goals, and perspectives rather than as a reflection of fault, along with implications for practice. Case record reviews related to various types of conflict and class exercises are provided to help students apply the frameworks to practice. A handout of common skills for dealing with conflict is included. Unit 10: Practice With the Ending Group This unit provides an overview of the ending or transitional stage of group development. In addition to highlighting the major characteristics and challenges of this stage (such as regression), the unit helps students to put the behaviors and actions of the ending group into perspective to maintain a professional rather than personal stance during this often-difficult stage of development. In addition to identifying skills common to practice with groups in their ending stage, the worker’s purpose and role are elucidated, and cautions are offered to help students avoid some common pitfalls of this stage. Case record reviews help students apply the theoretical material to practice, and a handout of common skills associated with this stage of group life is offered as well as an overview of the characteristics and challenges of this final group stage. Unit 11: Teaching Students to Use a Program or Activity In this unit students learn about the purpose of using programs and activities in working with groups. A brief history of the use of programs and activities in social group work is presented, followed by a framework for conceptualizing the value of nontalking

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practice, including people’s need to be creative, opportunities for clinical observation, helping clients to externalize and express thoughts, and the value of collaboration. Case record reviews, classroom activities, and handouts help students learn about and better appreciate the potential of programs and activities as a therapeutic tool and also to apply the theoretical material to practice.

Proposed Outline for Timing Content for a 15-Week Course The material covered in this textbook evolved from a year-long course in social work with groups, with the first semester laying the groundwork for greater depth of the content, theory, and application. Giving all the content its due, therefore, easily takes up a year-long course, especially if students are engaged throughout the course in smallgroup and other class-based activities that help them to integrate the material into their own practice (different types of groups, settings, etc.). That said, the following is a proposed outline for covering this content in a one-semester course, presuming each class is about 2 hours: Class 1: Introductory Class 1 places emphasis on the background of working with or participating in small groups, introduction to course purpose, content, expectations. Class 2: Introductory Class 2 focuses on social work with groups in context (history, evolution, current state of affairs, various models, and implications), reference to current thinking, issues confronting group work practice, education, and research. Class 3: Planning Class 1 focuses on planning models, theoretical material, and practice principles; classroom exercises focus on planning principles. Class 4: Planning Class 2 focuses on application of planning principles (proactive and retroactive) to varied group types and contexts including engagement; classroom exercises focus on differential application. Class 5: Practice With the Beginning-Stage Group 1 focuses on stage and theoretical material, practice principles, and skills; classroom exercises focus on stage theory and practice principles. Class 6: Practice With the Beginning-Stage Group 2 focuses on application of principles and skills to working with the group in the first session; classroom exercises focus on application. Class 7: Problem Solving in Small Groups 1 focuses on an overview of problem solving with a model for group-based problem solving, principles, and skills; classroom exercises focus on interventions.

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Class 8: Problem Solving in Small Groups 2 focuses on individual problem solving; provides a model for practice, principles, and skills; classroom exercises focus on interventions. Class 9: Practice With the Middle-Stage Group 1 focuses on stage and theoretical material, emergence of roles, practice principles, and interventions with a focus on scapegoating situations. Class 10: Practice With the Middle-Stage Group 2 focuses on Difference and Conflict 1; conceptualization of process and of worker role, theoretical material, practice principles, and skills are included. Class 11: Practice With the Middle-Stage Group 3 focuses on Difference and Conflict 2; application of practice principles and skills for managing types of difference and conflict in the small group are included. Class 12: Practice With the Ending or Transitional Group 1 focuses on stage and theoretical material, practice principles, and skills; classroom exercises focus on stage theory and practice principles. Class 13: Use of a program or activity in working with groups focuses on theoretical material, practice principles, and skills; application of material to the upcoming ending of the class is included. Class 14: This is an open class with room for expanding on previously presented content. Class 15: This consists of a wrap-up, summary, overview, and evaluation of the course, then termination.

References Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Introduction. In S. Brandler & C. Roman [Eds.], Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed., pp. 1–14). New York, NY: Routledge. Breton, M. (1994). On the meaning of empowerment and empowerment-oriented social work practice. Social Work with Groups, 17(3), 23–37. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS. aspx Getzel, G., Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1987). teaching and learning the practice of social group work: Four curriculum tools. In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 35–50). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Gitterman, A., & Salmon, R. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of social work with groups. New York, NY: Routledge. Glassman, U. (2009). group work: A humanistic and skills-building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

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Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1996). Education for the group worker’s reality: The special qualities and world view of those drawn to work with groups. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 73–90. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Steinberg, D. M. (1993). The impact of group work education on social workers’ work with groups. New York: City University of New York. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). The mutual-aid model for social work with groups, New York: Routledge.

Further Readings Berteau, G., & Villeneuve, L. (2006). Integration of the learning process and the group development process in group supervision. Groupwork, 16(2), 43–60. Clemans, S. (2011). The purpose, benefits, and challenges of “check-in” in a group-work class. Social Work with Groups, 34(1), 121–140. Clements, J. (2008). Social work students’ perceived knowledge of and preparation for group-work practice. Social Work with Groups, 31, 329–346. Cohen, M. (2011). Using student task groups to teach group process and development. Social Work with Groups, 34, 51–60. Doel, M., & Sawdon, C. (1995). A strategy for groupwork education and training in a social work agency. Groupwork, 8, 189–204. Gallagher, C. (2016). Social work and professional development: A critical reflection about groupwork. Groupwork, 26, 49–58. Gee, R., & Towers, C. (2016). The place of groupwork practice within the lecture theatre: Promoting self-directed learning, student reflection and orbital communication via the entwined endeavours of teaching, role play and facilitation. Groupwork, 26(2), 9–32. Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills-building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Gutman, C., & Shennar-Golan, V. (2012). Instilling the soul of group work in social work education. Social Work with Groups, 35, 138–149. Goodman, H. (2006). Organizational insight and the education of advanced group work practitioners. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 91–104. Keim, J., Goodrich, K., Ishii, H., & Olguin, D. (2013). Groupwork course experiences. Groupwork, 23(2), 6–25. Kurland, R. (2007). Debunking the “blood theory” of social work with groups: Group workers are made and not born. Social Work with Groups, 30(1), 11–24. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (2006). Making joyful noise: Presenting, promoting, and portraying group work to and for the profession. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 1–16. Molina, O., & Jacinto, G. (2015). The advantages and benefits of a student mutual-aid group in developing groupwork skills. Groupwork, 25(1), 78–92. Muskat, B., & Mesbur, E. S. (2011). Adaptations for teaching social work with groups in the age of technology. Groupwork, 21(1), 6–27. O’Dee, M. (1995). Using groupwork methods in social work education. Groupwork, 8(2), 166–176.

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Schwartz, W. (1971). On the use of groups in social work practice. In W. Schwartz & S. Zalba (Eds.), The practice of group work (pp. 3–24). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Simon, S., Cohen, M., McLaughlin, D., Muskat, B., & White, M. (2015). Challenges and opportunities for applying groupwork principles to enhance online learning in social work. Groupwork, 25(2), 53–74. Steinberg, D. M. (2006). The art, science, heart, and ethics of social group work: Lessons from a great teacher. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 33–46. Sweifach, J., & Heft-LaPorte, H. (2009). Group work in foundation generalist classes: Perceptions of students about the nature and quality of their experience. Social Work with Groups, 32, 303–314. Sweifach, J., & Heft-LaPorte, H. (2008). Why did they choose group work: Exploring motivations and perceptions of current MSW students of group work. Social Work with Groups, 31, 347–362.

UNIT

Evolution of Social Work With Groups

3

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Understand the history and professional evolution of social group work that have given rise to the current value base of the method of group work, understand the place of social group work in the profession today and in education for the profession today. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Understand the wide array of services, settings, and populations related to this method of social service delivery. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Locate the history and evolution of the group work method in the profession’s obligation to engage in services that advance democratic humanistic (Glassman, 2009a) and antioppressive services. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Gain appreciation for the role of research in shaping practice. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Understand the impact of the social group work in shaping service and educational policies in the profession. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Understand the basis for applying the value base of the social group work method with varied constituencies. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Understand the role of the social group worker in assessing needs and goals of varied constituencies ranging from people who require services to the settings in which services are offered. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Broadly understand the nature and goals of social group work interventions with varied constituencies. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Locate the necessity of evaluating group services in the practice of the social group worker. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

G

roup work is a key method of practice in social work. The number of social workers with expertise in work with groups, however, is and always has been small in relation to the number of social workers whose expertise and primary interest lie in individual work. In its beginnings, group work’s roots and primary interests were different from those of the social workers who practiced casework. These two conditions—group work’s minority status in social work and differences in its point of view—were central in the historical evolution of the group work method and continue to inform group work practice today. In the 19th century, religious groups were central in the development of social agencies and in the concept of charity that informed the activities of the early casework

29

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practitioners. They conveyed a moralistic tone and attitude toward the poor with an emphasis on the personal rehabilitation of the disadvantaged. Others such as social reformers and socialists of the time believed that a change in the social order was needed, and early group workers also believed in the need for social reform and change rather than individual or moral transformations. Thus, the motivations of the early group workers and caseworkers differed. This divergence has affected the nature of the different methods of social work practice as they have evolved over the decades. In the early days group workers were men and women who believed in making positive differences in the lives of the people they worked with, and they worked with groups and organizations to achieve social change. They did not identify themselves clearly as social workers at this early time. Konopka (1983) describes group work’s beginnings in the following: Group work as a method of social work is a fairly recent concept. Originally, it was conceived of as a movement, a way of democratic action, and a part of several fields of social services. Foremost among these were informal education, youth services, camping, the labor movement, settlement houses, and community centers. (p. 2)

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The intent of this unit is to introduce students to the importance of the historical evolution of the group work method and to help them gain an appreciation of the connection between its philosophical foundations and the ways of working with groups in social work today. Because so many social workers work with groups today, it is also important for them to see the ways many of the issues that held true in group work’s origins still prevail. Thus, the objectives of this teaching unit are the following: 1. Become familiar with the history of group work 2. Understand the definition of group work that emphasizes individual and social needs, the individual group members, and the total group simultaneously 3. Become familiar with some of the issues and controversies that confront group work today

Historical Highlights of the Method Begin this unit by presenting important historical highlights of the group work method. Thorough discussions of the history of group work have been prepared by Konopka (1983), Middleman and Wood (1983, 1990), Briar (1971), Wenocur and Reisch (1989), Berman-Rossi (1994), and Garvin (1997), among others, and much of their material is contained in the following teaching points.

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Early Agency Work Around the turn of the 20th century, a lively even tumultuous period of progressive reform provided the rich soil for the growth of the group work method. The self-help and recreational organizations of the time, such as the settlement houses, YWCAs and YMCAs, Jewish centers, and youth-serving agencies, were important in the method’s conception and development. These organizations were concerned with character building, socializing immigrants and young people, establishing needed services such as kindergartens and adult education, and effecting social change toward social justice. Much of the work of these agencies was with European immigrants, and as some have suggested, to the neglect of services to African American migrants. Although social work made important contributions to the work of these organizations, their identification with the profession was ambivalent because they also drew heavily on theories and principles of informal education and recreation. Early group work valued and encouraged social participation and social change, the democratic process, and growth and learning. The major work of the groupserving agencies was with individuals considered to be normal rather than maladjusted or troubled, which is what individual work tended to focus on. In addition, a small occurrence of group work took place in hospitals, where the method was employed with the ill to address and treat their physical and mental health. Tension between these two emphases of group work—work with people in their communities by drawing on their strengths to improve their social environments and opportunities for interaction, on the one hand, and work with the ill to improve their health status, on the other—was to surface in the decades to follow and can still be found today. The Dawn of Specialization In the social work profession, specializations in the group work method began to develop in the 1920s, with a first course taught at Western Reserve University in 1923. A group work literature began to develop, spurred by such writers as Mary Follett, a political scientist, and Eduard Lindeman, a philosopher and social reformer. Most important, however, was the writing of Grace Coyle, a sociologist. Coyle’s (1930) work, Social Process in Organized Groups, developed a conceptual framework for understanding and working with groups. In this work she identified categories, such as objectives, membership, time, space, leadership, communication, decision making, and esprit de corps, which could guide the thinking about working with groups Also of crucial importance was the work of John Dewey, an educator whose writing on collective thinking and on the problem-solving process (see Unit 6) entered social work through its relevance to group work and continues to influence social work today. Finally, Wilbur Newstetter (1935), director at Western Reserve University, provided the enduring definition of group work in 1935. Before continuing your presentation of group work’s historical highlights, ask the class to focus on Newstetter’s (1935) definition. Newstetter strove to develop knowledge about the small group and its therapeutic use in furthering the so-called social

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adjustment of people who were having difficulty functioning in society. His definition of group work, presented at the 1935 National Conference of Social Work, provided a foundation for group work writers even up to today. Ask students to read Newstetter’s paper, “What Is Social Group Work?”, which marked the first attempt to define the method. This piece of literature was groundbreaking in terms of its defining influence because of its simultaneous emphasis on individual and social objectives. This dual emphasis is the unique hallmark of group work practice. In going over the Newstetter reading, you might point out the following two passages: Group work may be defined as an educational process emphasizing (1) the development and social adjustment of an individual through voluntary group association; and (2) the use of this association as a means of furthering other socially desirable ends. It is concerned therefore with both individual growth and social results. Moreover, it is the combined and consistent pursuit of both these objectives, not merely one of them, that distinguishes group work as a process (p. 291) Unless there is the combined and consistent pursuit of both objectives [individual growth and social ends], the efforts do not fall entirely within this concept of group work. The underlying social-philosophical assumption is that individualized growth and social ends are interwoven and interdependent; that individuals and their social environment are equally important. (pp. 296–297) To help students reflect on the nature and impact of Newstetter’s (1935) thinking, ask them to consider the groups they currently work or have worked with and to describe how those groups illustrate this dual emphasis. Often, students are well aware of the ways their group work efforts are geared toward the growth of individual group members. Class discussion enhances their recognition and appreciation of the social aims of their work with groups. Group Work in Social Work Group work’s allegiance to social work came to the fore as an issue in the 1930s. With their major emphasis on democracy, social change, and the social community, group workers felt they were a minority in social work. A collective consciousness about themselves as social work professionals had not developed clearly. Further, because an emphasis on working with individuals dominated the graduate curriculum and the profession’s practitioners (and because employers did not require the social work degree), group workers often did not move toward professional education. The following captures the sense of the times: Group workers were different, often were thought of as unprofessional by the caseworkers. They worked at night, even venturing into the “bad” neighborhoods, were out of the office more than behind the desk, and went camping with their group members. They were women who didn’t wear hats and men in plaid shirts without suitcoats and neckties. They were workers who enjoyed having a meal

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or a party with their people, who used activities like singing and dancing, who weren’t neutral but shared their beliefs. … They were workers whose work may have appeared chaotic and not so controlled, who encouraged the community to vote and become active in political and current affairs, for they were concerned with action and social issues. (Middleman, 1992, p. 26) The problem of acceptance by other social work practitioners was felt by many group workers. The scorn exhibited toward “those workers who play with children, ‘run dances,’ ‘go camping,’ or ‘teach arts and crafts’” is well remembered. In 1936 it was reported that the California Conference of Social Work seriously questioned whether group workers were social workers. In fact, faculty members of the School of Social Service Administration of the University of Chicago minced no words in their exclusion of any study of an activity remotely connected with recreation. The general population of the country was still dominated by the “Protestant ethic.” (Wilson, 1976, p. 25) Because they felt unwelcome in the American Association of Social Workers, the national professional organization of the time that was dominated by caseworkers, group workers began to organize. Their struggle for professional recognition led them in 1946 to establish their own professional organization, the American Association of Group Workers. The establishment of the association, however, did not signal a movement to start a separate profession. In fact, the statement of one group work leader of the time, Harleigh Trecker (1944), was representative of the predominant view of those in group work: “Group Work is a method in social work … not a profession. … Social work is the profession” (p. 4). Professional Identity Group work solidified its identification and place in social work in the 1940s. By 1946 two leading schools, the New York School of Social Work, which later became the Columbia University School of Social Work, and the University of Pittsburgh School of Social Work had established group work sequences. Many other schools followed this pattern. Two papers by Coyle (1946, 1947) were of major importance in group work’s identification with social work. Coyle’s (1946) “On Becoming a Professional” helped social group workers to move toward the development of a professional consciousness by clearly identifying group work with social work rather than with informal education, whereas “Group Work as a Method in Recreation” (Coyle, 1947a) clearly and finally separated group work from recreation. Wilson and Ryland (1949) published the first group work textbook, Social Group Work Practice. In the decade of the 1950s another important debate took place among group workers, the seeds of which were planted in group work’s beginnings and continue to resonate even today. The question was over the relative preference given to traditional group work, as practiced in community agencies with its emphasis on social participation, and prevention versus therapeutic group work, which was increasingly

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practiced in psychiatric and medical settings. During this decade, Vinter (1959) described group approaches that used concepts more familiar to casework and saw the group as a vehicle to work with those considered most needy toward achieving individual treatment goals related to a diagnosis. Thus, Vinter advocated for greater priority to be given to therapeutic group work. Group work’s commitment to social work became clear and irrevocable in 1955 when it joined other specialized social work organizations to form one social work body, the National Association of Social Workers. Reviewing this union after its first decade, Perlman (1965) sounded almost relieved when she wrote the following about group work: Group work has burst the too narrow seams of its basketball uniform and artsand-crafts smocks; increasingly it appears in the contrasting symbolic garments that bespeak the poles of its present scope—the authority-cool white coats of hospital and clinical personnel and the play-it-cool windbreaker of the streetcorner gang worker...group work is increasingly involved with the persons, places, problems and even some of the processes that not too long ago were assumed to “belong” to case work. (p. 169) Theoretical Advances A number of group work textbooks were published, and practice models were developed in the late 1950s and 1960s (see References and Further Readings), and important theoretical advances took place. Ironically, however, this occurred at the same time that certain events ultimately weakened group work teaching and practice. For example, in 1962 the National Association of Social Workers changed its structure and eliminated its organizational units based on method. As a result, group workers lost their method-specific voice in the National Association of Social Workers. At the same time, the CSWE decided to move toward an integrated method curriculum, adopting curriculum standards that required schools of social work to emphasize generic social work practice. This move was intended to enhance social work’s identity as one profession. The idea that social workers should be able to practice more than one method skillfully and that schools should teach them accordingly had an intrinsic appeal. A good many respected educators, including group workers, became advocates of this viewpoint. However, other social work educators never agreed, such as Smalley (1967), who expressed a divergent view in her book on methods: Sufficient difference has been identified for each of the methods to suggest that a two-year process concentration in one method, class and field, would ordinarily be necessary to produce even a beginning practice skill. To attempt to prepare students in a “generic social work method” for “generic social work practice” seems…to ignore the complexities and the differences of the several methods and to run counter to the way learning of skill in social work practice most surely takes

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place. …All schools have the obligation…to prepare students with an appreciation and understanding of all Methods, and a capacity for a flexible use of method, without sacrifice of depth of knowledge and skill in one. The point being made here is that what is generic to all social work method can be learned and can best be learned in a single method, mastered in some depth, rather than through exposure to or a more superficial experience in several. (pp. 294–295) Smalley’s view became the minority view, however, and did not prevail. Instead, generic teaching became the mainstream, which was a disaster for group work because knowledge about groups and teaching group work diminished.

Models of Group Work Practice Overview The limited classroom time available in a basic methods course in social group work precludes an extensive discussion of the models of group work practice, and therefore a specific teaching unit on this subject is not included in this book. However, theory about groups and group behavior certainly informs and provides the foundation for an instructor’s presentation to students. This overview provides background information and some sources on group work models you may wish to refer to. All the group work models refer to and use classic or enduring works in the various fields of research and theory from which social work draws. Comparisons and discussions of models of social group work practice have appeared with regularity in the literature (Caplan, 2009; Chatterjee & Fauble, 2008; Fatout, 1992; Garvin, 1997; Glasser & Garvin, 1977; Gopalan & Franco, 2009; Hudson, 2009; Letendre, 2009; Lynn & Nisivoccia, 2009; Magen, 2009; Malekoff, 2014; Manor, 2009; Mullender & Ward, 2009; Northen, 1976; Papell & Rothman, 1962, 1980; Roberts & Northen, 1976; Rogers, 2009; Sakamoto, 2009; Schwartz, 1977; Steinberg, 2009, 2014; Toseland & Rivas, 2017; Tosone, 2009; Tropp, 1978; Turner, 2009) This is understandable because an enduring theme in group work’s short but creative history has been the consistent concern about purposes and goals. Group work theorists and practitioners, seeking to clarify what people in the profession do and should do, have worked to provide a conceptual base for the group method. An article by Papel and Rothman (1962) was significant in these efforts. In the following, Middleman and Wood (1990) underscore the importance of the Papell and Rothman article in the way it drew on extant group work theory: The social goals model upon which Papell and Rothman elaborate draws upon the work of several early theorists, including Grace Coyle (1948), Gertrude Wilson and Gladys Ryland (1949), Helen Phillips (1957), and Clara Kaiser (1958). This model aimed to influence groups toward democratic values, social conscience, and social action toward the “common good,” to encourage socialization, and to enhance individual growth, development and learning. The remedial model, formulated primarily by Robert Vinter (1959), was grounded in social role theory,

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psychoanalytic concepts, and ego psychology, and used the group to alter and reinforce individual behavior change. The reciprocal model, conceptualized by William Schwartz (1961), was based on social systems theory and field theory, directing the worker to mediate the engagement between the individual and society as each reached toward the others for his/her mutual self-fulfillment. This model introduced the terms “contract” and “mutual aid” into the vocabulary of social group workers. (p. 5) Roberts and Northen (1976) provided another important contribution to group work theory. Eleven chapters of their edited volume were devoted to the presentation and exposition of the theoretical models of group work of the contributors. Chapter 12 by Roberts and Northern (1976a) was devoted to the status of theory and includes an analysis of the work of the contributors, their similarities and their differences. Some of the models discussed in this collection continue to influence group work’s approach to work with people, such as Glasser and Garvin (1976), Northen (1976), Schwartz (1976),* and Tropp (1978). Two more theoretical models first described in the 1960s and 1970s but not included in Roberts and Northen (1976b) are the Boston model and the behavioral approach, both of which continue to have a strong impact on group work practice. The Boston model, developed from research at Boston University’s School of Social Work, is best known from Garland, Jones, and Kolodny (1973). Earlier writers in social work and the social sciences had conducted and written about phases of group development (e.g., see Hartford, 1971) for extensive references on stages of development and her own five-phase scheme), but the creative work of Garland, Jones, and Kolodny caught the imagination of group workers. Today, their work on the five stages of development is still a key reference in much of the group work literature. Their five stages of group development are preaffiliation, power and control, intimacy, differentiation, and separation. The central theme that characterizes this group development model is the differential degree of emotional closeness that exists and is possible at each stage of a group. The emphasis on stage theory in group work is unique among social work practice methods, and researchers and practitioners alike often turn to it to understand member and group behavior. Today, most group work writers and educators use group stages to organize their writing, thinking, and teaching about group work practice. Different writers and teachers may delineate a different number of group stages, breaking them down more or less finely, but however many stages might be identified, most of the group work literature agrees that progression in stages occurs in groups and is important to consider in practice. As the units in this book and associated handouts show, a generic approach to group stage theory refers to it as essentially having three stages: *  Prominent educators have continued the legacy of William Schwartz, for example, Gitterman and Shulman (1986), Berman-Rossi’s (1994) edited volume of his collected works, and Steinberg (2014), which is devoted entirely to the concept of mutual aid that Schwartz introduced into the social group work vocabulary.

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beginnings, middles, and endings, each of which is examined in terms of where the group members are at that point in time, what needs to happen to help the group move toward its purpose, and role of the worker, that is, what the group worker needs to do to make what needs to happen, happen. One of the more thought-provoking theoretical articles on stages of group development in recent years is by Schiller (1995), who proposed a different model of developmental stages by departing from the Boston model to alternative developmental stages for women’s groups. Drawing on feminist research on women’s psychological development, Schiller introduced a relational model that deemphasizes the importance of power and control. Behavioral group work has also moved into the foreground with the emergence of cognitive behavioral approaches to practice. Rooted in theories of behavior modification, cognitive behavioral approaches view thought processes as stimuli of behavior and target group members’ thinking as objectives of change. An important contributor to behavioral group work is Sheldon Rose, whose work along with that of others differs from many other psychological behaviorists in that it draws on small-group theory and the principles of mutual aid (Garvin, 1997). The cognitive behavioral approach seems to fit into the current social environment with its interest in short-term time-limited efforts and its need for results that can be clearly measured. The approach often is used in assertiveness training groups, in settings that treat addiction, and with groups that address social skills deficits. The staff of New York City’s Department of Probation, for example, has been trained by social group work faculty in the use of a cognitive behavioral program of group work to be used with probationers. The Process of Model Development Interest in feminist group work continues to grow, and writers from a number of countries have worked in this area (e.g., Butler & Wintran, 1991; Garvin & Reed, 1995; Lee, 2001; Lewis, 1992; Travers, 1995; and Zastrow (2008). Feminist ideas and the ways they can be used in group work practice is an important development, particularly in relation to sexism and racism, oppression, and gender issues in the life of the group. There is every expectation that model development in feminist group work will expand and flourish in the future. Even more recently there is a growing interest in cultural competence (multicultural or cross-cultural practice). Those in social group work have always been interested in and attended to issues of diversity, often in the context of planning groups around composition and purpose (see Unit 4 References and Further Readings), but as cultural awareness and the desire to be culturally syntonic grows throughout the field, so does the interest in group work (e.g., Abrams & Moio, 2009; Chen, Kakkad, & Balzano, 2008; Cohen, Phillips, & Hanson, 2008; DeLuciaWaack & Donigian, 2004; Feit, Wodarsky, Ramey, & Mann, 1995; Pelech, Ring, & LaRocque, 2015; and Williams, 2005).

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Clearly, model development is an ongoing process, and group work approaches continue to develop, mature, and change in response to the times we live in and the environment of our practice. Middleman and Wood (1987) commented on this process in relation to group work’s observation of and attention to staying current with practice innovations already some years ago: Much of the social goals model was incorporated with an existential/humanistic/ phenomenological twist into the developmental model advanced by Tropp (1977). The remedial model evolved into the organizational/environmental approach (Glasser & Garvin, 1977), which included concepts other than those strictly concerned with individual change. The reciprocal model became the mediating model and finally the interactional model (Schwartz, 1977). This name change reflected a shift in emphasis from the philosophical base to the worker’s role and from the worker’s role to the nature of the group process. (p. 717) Finally, curriculum-based group work, sometimes referred to as manualized practice has taken hold in many social service settings, especially those with a prescribed or at least clearly delineated body of knowledge or skills to be passed on to the client population. Youth-serving agencies that use groups often provide the group worker with a set curriculum to follow and guide the work, with the expectation that in a certain number of weeks the group will have covered that curriculum. It might be called an approach to practice and is increasingly used to guide the practice of practitioners, professional and otherwise, who are required to work with groups without formal education or training. Thus, although some might think that curriculum-based group work is all about the use of activity, it is not. A curriculum-based group can consist completely of dialogue; however, the nature of dialogue for each session is prescribed and aims to help the group move systematically toward a particular goal, presumably owning the content imparted through the curriculum. Certainly, other changes, innovations, and adaptations will take place as theorists continue to turn their attention to the development of more effective ways to serve groups, individual group members, and society as globalization continues and as technology increases the ability to reach out in many different and new ways. For example, Lang (2016), who wrote extensively about group work practice (e.g., Lang, 1979, 1981, 2010; Lang & Sulman, 1987), offered a new model for individual and group problem solving. Lang offers the paradigm of deliberative versus nondeliberative practice to capture and contrast the essential elements of a cognitive, rational, and linear approach to problem solving. On the one hand (deliberative) Lang’s approach is an affective, nonlinear, and sensory (even visceral) problemsolving method. But on the other hand, Lang contends, as do all other writers on the subject of activity and program in group work, that a nondeliberative approach can significantly enhance the capacity of individuals to problem solve. See Handout 11.8, “Nondeliberative Practices” in Unit 11 for a summary of the types of nondeliberative practices Lang identifies.

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Group Work Education Beginning in the early 1970s and continuing to the present time, the generic or integrated curriculum has held sway in schools of social work, which are required by the CSWE to prepare students for generalist practice. As a result, most students graduate with inadequate knowledge and understanding of groups and group work practice (e.g., Birnbaum & Auerbach, 1994; Birnbaum & Wayne, 2000; Clements, 2008; Hessenauer & Lind, 2013). For example, in a sobering research paper, Birnbaum and Auerbach (1994) presented data 25 years ago indicating that most graduate students never took a group work course nor had experience working with groups in the field as interns (see also Andrews, 2001; Drumm, 2006; Glassman, 2009b; Kurland & Salmon, 1996; Pandya, 2004; Steinberg, 2014; and Toseland & Rivas, 2017). Further, even when they do have such opportunities, they are unlikely to have supervision for that work. Rather, supervision continues to focus on the analysis of individual work. Ironically enough, however, most professional social workers do end up working with groups. Thus, although work with groups has increasingly become a component of social work in the field, graduate education has practically eliminated it as a specialized area of study. Specific beliefs, knowledge, and skills that are the hallmark of group work are left out and rapidly disappearing from the social work profession (Simon & Kilbane, 2014). Organizing and Advancing the Method Although in recent decades the major educational thrust of the CSWE continued to be directed toward the integration of direct practice methods, a core group of practitioners and educators has remained committed to the development of work with groups, that is, of skilled work with groups as opposed to all the unskilled (i.e., untrained or unsupervised) work that goes on in the field. Concern grew among these social workers about the diminution of group work in the curriculum and the resultant poor quality of group work in the field. Similar to the need of group workers in 1946 when they formed the American Association of Group Workers, those with strong convictions and commitment to group work’s values and uniqueness—still a minority in the social work profession—were determined to protect and promote the method. This led to two crucial events in the late 1970s. The first was the creation in 1978 of a new journal, Social Work with Groups, launched in response to the need for a publication to focus on group work practice and theory and to provide a forum for sharing, discussing, and developing ideas. Second, the following year, the Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups (AASWG), now the International Association for Social Work with Groups (IASWG) with several hundred members across 22 countries, committed to furthering group work in the profession. The initial activity of this fledgling organization was sponsorship of a symposium on group work in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1979. In testimony to the ongoing, even passionate, interest of those committed to group work, more than 400 participants from around the United States attended. Since then the association has sponsored annual symposia, bringing together social workers with special interest in group work from the United

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States, Canada, and internationally. A total of 16 chapters (and more in development) over the years have offered thousands of papers, workshops, and books intended to advance the theory and practice of social work with groups (see https://www.iaswg.org). Furthermore, in an attempt to develop standards for best social work practice with groups, the IASWG (n.d.) offers a publication in English, Spanish, and French titled Standards for Practice of Social Work With Groups. As stated on the IASWG website (https://www.iaswg.org/standards), these guidelines “present the Association’s understanding of the values, knowledge and skill bases essential for professionally sound and effective social work practice with groups. The Standards are intended to serve as a guide to professional, high quality practice with groups” (https://www.iaswg. org/assets/docs/Resources/June%202010%20Full%20Revised%20ReportStandards. pdf, p. 1, para. 1). The first edition of the standards was adopted by the AASWG in 1998 with revisions in 1999, a second edition in 2005, and the latest iteration in 2015. The Practice Committee of the AASWG conducted an online survey to gather feedback on the relevance of these guidelines as part of the committee’s periodic review and evaluation (Cohen & Olshever, 2010). For a list of professional publications that contain references to the standards see https://www.iaswg.org/standards. Presentations at the IASWG’s yearly symposia have examined group work’s past, present, and future and have served to inform and invigorate participants. Further, in an attempt to provide more informal opportunities toward the same ends but primarily geared to practitioners and students, the IASWG offers regularly scheduled international camps that focus heavily on the use of purposeful activity in practice (https://www. iaswg.org/group-work-camp). For these intensive 3-day weekends, members come together to engage in experiential learning about the ability of program activity (including nonverbal) to enhance a group’s work. With teachers and students living and working together over 3 days, these camps provide an intense learning and mutual aid experience for all participants. The fifth biennial camp located at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin (the original site) took place in the summer of 2017. In addition, a camp was held at Saint-Michel-des-Saints, Quebec, Canada, in 2016 and another in the rural Kaunas district of Lithuania in 2017. The IASWG also sponsors other programs for enhancing practice, research, and scholarship, such as its Special Projects Application Review Committee, the aim of which is “to ‘spark’ IASWG members’ innovative practice, education, training and research projects through endorsement and small grants” (IASWG, 2019c; para 1). Its Global Group Work Project, which engages “social work educators and practitioners from diverse geographic regions and cultures in sharing how social work with groups is practiced and taught” (IASWG, 2019a; para. 1) and its Group Work Training in Youth Development, the purpose of which is for “participants to have skill in applying social group work concepts, principles, and methods to their practice” (IASWG, 2019b; para. 1). The IASWG has also worked with varied national social work organizations in the United States and elsewhere to revitalize group work teaching and practice or to promote it in education and practice where it may be not yet be formalized. Finally, the

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editors and contributors of the journal Social Work With Groups and the IASWG have worked to energize and revitalize social work with groups in the field and in schools of social work. Group Work in Social Work Today Many of the issues that confront group work today are rooted in its history and evolution, as noted earlier. Even today many in the profession do not understand or appreciate group work. Rather, there is a lack of respect among many social workers for this method and the belief that group work is simply casework multiplied and that if social workers know how to work with individuals, then they also know how to work with a group. The unique values, knowledge, and skills that are the basis of group work are often unrecognized. Some also believe that group work is superficial and only individual work has true depth. The value of activities is similarly downplayed by many (see Unit 11). It is widely thought that activities are used by group workers as a way to avoid exploration of difficult content and that real insight occurs only when problems are explicitly discussed. The lack of understanding and appreciation of group work is reflected in many ways. In the profession’s national conferences and its most widely circulated journals, the voice of group work is often still but a whisper. In a keynote address on constructivism, Wood and Middleman (1997) stated that professional leaders, such as journal editors and conference chairs, have the power to determine what is acceptable and desirable in a profession. Although their statement was made more than 20 years ago, the issues mentioned in it still stand pat today. The decisions of those on program committees and editorial boards continue to demonstrate the profession’s devaluation of group work by underrepresenting it in professional conferences and journals. One need only peruse the group work track at the Annual Program Meetings of the CSWE to see the overall decline in attention to group work by this powerful regulatory body. This kind of omission led a number of social workers, academics, and practitioners, to establish their own journal, Social Work with Groups, now joined by Groupwork, and their own national organization in the late 1970s (the AASWG) to advance group work practice and theory, just as they had felt compelled to do in the 1940s. However, in the past few years the CSWE and the IASWG have renewed joint efforts to maintain and even expand the group work track at the annual CSWE meetings. Teaching generic practice in schools of social work continues to be the rule, with the result that group work has been neglected in training more than a generation of social work professionals. Furthermore, because group workers were always a small minority of faculty, generic practice courses are taught largely by people whose expertise is in work with individuals and with little to no social group work experience. Too often the emphasis in such courses is either on work with individuals or on some kind of group work practice that focuses on individual group members to the neglect of the group as a system and on the individual and the psychological environment to the neglect the social environment (see references to casework in a group throughout Unit 6). This

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neglect of group work also exists for most students in field work, where, if they do work with groups at all, their practice is supervised by professionals with little expertise in social group work practice, or amazingly enough as anecdotes reveal, they have no substantive supervision at all (i.e., supervision is reserved for individual work; see Bergart & Simon, 2004; Birnbaum & Wayne, 2000; Clements, 2008; LaPorte & Sweifach, 2011; Sweifach & Heft-LaPorte, 2008). Today the multidecade neglect of group work in education is magnified in the implications that it has for the future. The paucity of group work content in schools of social work means that the development of those who will become the future teachers and supervisors of group work is not taking place. This neglect has an additional consequence. Those students who enter schools of social work with value orientations and a worldview that predispose them toward group work often question whether they even belong in social work. Often, they feel left out and do not find in their practice courses the support for an approach to work they are comfortable with. Such an approach, characteristic of group work practice, includes an emphasis on clients’ strengths, mutual aid, shared responsibility, active use of self, and comfort with authority and conflict. Rather, the educational accent on generic practice and on the commonalities of practice too often leaves out the specific beliefs, qualities, and principles that reflect the worldviews of these students who are attracted to group work—in short, the differences that distinguish each practice method and the worldviews that attract students to specific practice approaches. In fact, it is ironic that today, just when the profession is placing great emphasis on cultural, racial, and sexual diversity and difference, we are simultaneously ignoring the diversity of the worldviews that exist in the profession itself. Thus, the quality of group work practice has suffered with many groups being led today by workers untrained in social group work practice, which is a gap in education that makes a difference in the essence of their work with groups. For example, in a study of group work practice with social workers who had substantial graduate social work education in group work and those who had minimal or no group work education or training, Steinberg (1993) was able to identify some of the differences. Those with minimal education in group work tended to see the group as a place for individual change and tended to play a central role throughout the group’s life, directing many of their interventions to individual members and assuming a great deal of control. Those with substantial group work education, on the other hand, expected members to integrally affect and effect the shape and movement of the group. They saw group purpose as a way to operationalize shared control and to promote strength-centered self-determination. They tended to direct interventions and expectations to the group as a whole (system) and to be aware of the impact of the stages of group development over time on their role and use of self. Especially important were differences regarding conflict (see Unit 9). Although people with substantial group work education expected conflict to occur as a natural result of group life and viewed it as opportunity for important work in the group (interactive skill building, self-directed insight, etc.), those with minimal education in group work

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tended to regard conflict as an intrusion into the group’s real affairs, an unwelcome interruption, a threat to the group, and a hurdle that needed to be quickly resolved so the group could move on. Finally, there are important differences in the understanding of and emphasis on mutual aid, a concept central to social work with groups. For example, those with minimal group work education tended to practice casework in a group (see references to casework in a group throughout Unit 6), whereas those with substantial group work education maximized mutual aid among group members in their practice. Later research also confirms the decline in group work education, just as the call for more practice with group-based service increases in the field (e.g., Andrews, 2001; Birnbaum & Auerbach, 1994; Drumm, 2006; Gitterman & Salmon, 2009; Kurland & Salmon, 1996; Pandya, 2004; Steinberg, 2014; and Toseland & Rivas, 2017). A move toward managed care in the 1990s became another practice issue for group work and has affected practice, especially in group work with the chronically mentally ill in after-care and day treatment settings. Although managed care encourages groups because they can be economical, it places a premium on short-term work and setting specific treatment goals, both of which are sometimes incongruent with the more traditional approaches of group work that emphasize process and facilitation of mutual aid (Goodman & Munoz, 2004; LaPorte & Sweifach, 2011; Schwartz, 2008; Strozier, 1997). Ruth Middleman, a great group work scholar and theoretician, was often heard to say that such an approach to practice prioritizes institutional c-e-n-t-s over professional s-e-n-s-e. Some of the issues discussed in this section on the status of social work with groups today may be touched on when teaching Units 4 through 11. However, there will unlikely be time in a basic group work course (much less a general practice course that contains group work content) to discuss in depth the current issues that confront the method of group work. That said, it will help students understand the challenges likely to arise in the field if you initiate a discussion about the evolution of group work in the field and its current context for practice (Birnbaum & Wayne, 2000; Kurland, et al., 2004; LaPorte & Sweifach, 2011).

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • Group work’s evolution is important for students to understand and appreciate because it underscores the unique points of view this method brought to social work practice. • Knowledge of group work’s history gives students a context for group work practice today. Many of the issues that confront group work today reflect the method’s history and evolution. • Historically, group work was concerned with character building, socializing immigrants and young people, establishing needed services (such as kindergartens and adult education), and effecting social change toward social justice.

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• Newstetter (1935) marked the first attempt to define the group work method. This article was groundbreaking in the understanding of group work having a dual emphasis on individual and social objectives, the unique hallmark of group work practice. • Although work with groups today is increasing as a component of social work in the field, graduate education has practically eliminated it as a specialized area of study. • As a result of its increasing exclusion in the late 1970s a number of academicians and practitioners formed a professional association (AASWG) dedicated specifically to advancing group work scholarship, knowledge, and practice. Today this association is international (IASWG) with hundreds of members in 22 countries and offers annual symposia and regularly scheduled group work camp experiences, the latter geared primarily to practitioners and students. • The lack of understanding and appreciation of group work has been reflected in many ways such as in the profession’s national conferences and its most widely circulated journals. However, currently there is an effort for greater inclusion and integration of group work scholarship in some conferences, such as the CSWE Annual Program Meeting, which offers a special track in group work. • Teaching generic practice in schools of social work continues to be the rule, with the result that group work has been neglected in training more than one generation of social work professionals. • Generic and generalist practice is taught today largely by people whose expertise is in work with individuals and who have little to no social group work training, resulting in a kind of group work practice that focuses on individual group members to the neglect of the total group as system, on the individual and psychological environment to the neglect of the social environment, or in curriculum-based practice, which enables practitioners with little to no training in this method to offer services to clients in groups.

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Butler, S., & Wintran, C. (l991). Feminist group work. London, UK: SAGE. Caplan, T. (2009). Needs acquisition and behavior change approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 89–91). New York, NY: Routledge. Chatterjee, P., & Fauble, M. (2008). Toward a mission-based model for social work: A foundation for practice. Social Work with Groups, 31, 5–24. Chen, E., Kakkad, D., & Balzano, J. (2008). Multicultural competence and evidence-based practice in group therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64, 1261–1278. Clements, J. (2008). Social work students’ perceived knowledge of and preparation for group-work practice. Social Work with Groups, 31, 329–346. Cohen, C., Phillips, Michael, & Hanson, Meredith (Eds.). (2008). Strength and diversity in social work with groups: Think group. New York, NY: Routledge. Cohen, C. S., & Olshever, A. (2010). Dear AASWG members, survey participants and all interested in the AASWG standards. Retrieved from https://www.iaswg.org/assets/docs/ Resources/June%202010%20Full%20Revised%20ReportStandards.pdf Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS. aspx Coyle, G. (1930). Social process in organized groups. New York, NY: Richard Smith. Coyle, G. (1947). Group experience and democratic values. New York, NY: The Woman’s Press. Coyle, G. (1948). Group work with American youth. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. DeLucia-Waack, J., & Donigian, J. (2004). The practice of multicultural group work: Visions and perspectives from the field. New York, NY: Cengage Learning. Drumm, K. (2006). The essential power of group work. Social Work with Groups, 29(2), 17–31. Feit, M., Wodarsky, J., Ramey, J., & Mann, A. (Eds.). (1995). Capturing the power of diversity. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Garland, J., Jones, H., & Kolodny, R. (l973). A model for stages of development in social work groups. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work (pp. 17–71). Boston, MA: Milford House. Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Garvin, C., & Glasser, P. (1971). The preventive and rehabilitative approach. In R. Morris (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (16th ed., pp. 1263–1273). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers. Garvin, C., & Reed, B. (l995). Sources and visions for feminist group work: Reflective processes, social justice, diversity, and correction. In N. Van Den Bergh & L. Cooper (Eds.), Feminist visions for social work. Silver Springs, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Gitterman, A., & Shulman, L. (Eds.). (1986). The legacy of William Schwartz: Group practice as shared interaction. New York, NY: Routledge. Glassman, U. (2009a). Group work: The humanistic and skills building approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Glassman, U. (2009b). Humanistic and democratic values. In A. Gitterman and R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work (pp. 39–42). New York, NY: Routledge. Glasser, P., & Garvin, C. (1977). The organizational and environmental approach. In J. Turner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (17th ed., pp. 1338–1350). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

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Glasser, P., & Garvin, C. (1977). An organizational model. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.), Theories of Social Work with Groups (pp. 75-115). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Goodman, H., & Munoz, M. (2004). Developing social group work skills for contemporary agency practice. Social Work with Groups, 27(11), 17–33. Gopalan, G., & Franco, L. M. (2009). Multiple family approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 86–89). New York, NY: Routledge. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work: Application of small group theory and research to social work practice. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Hessenauer, S., & Lind, K. (2013). Preparations for group work: Perceptions of bachelorlevel social workers. Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work, 18, 19–37. Hudson, R. (2009). Empowerment model. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 47–50). New York, NY: Routledge. International Association for Social Work With Groups. (2015). Publications on the IASWG Standards for Social Work Practice With Groups. Retrieved from https://www.iaswg.org/ standard-articles International Association for Social Work With Groups (IASWG). (2019a). Projects: Global group work project. Retrieved from https://www.iaswg.org/global-group-work-project International Association for Social Work With Groups (IASWG). (2019b). Projects: Group work training in youth development. Retrieved from https://www.iaswg.org/gw-trainingin-youth-development International Association for Social Work With Groups (IASWG). (2019c). Projects: SPARC program. Retrieved from https://www.iaswg.org/sparc-program Kaiser, C. (1958). The social group work process. Social Work, 3, 67–75. Konopka, G. (1983). Social group work: A helping process (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1996). Education for the group worker’s reality: The special qualities and world view of those drawn to work with groups. In A. Malekoff, R. Salmon, & D. M. Steinberg (Eds.), Making joyful noise: The art, science, and soul of group work (pp. 73–90). New York, NY: Routledge. Lang, N. (1979). A comparative examination of therapeutic uses of groups in social work and in adjacent human service professions: Part II: The literature from 1969–1978. Social Work with Groups, 2(3), 197–220. Lang, N. (1981). Some defining characteristics of the social work group: Unique social form. In S. Abels & P. Abels (Eds.), Proceedings of the first symposium of the Committee for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups (pp. 18–50). Hebron, CT: Practitioners Press. Lang, N. (2010). Group work practice to advance social competence: A specialized methodology for social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Lang, N. (2016). Nondeliberative forms of practice in social work: Artful, actional, analogic. Social Work with Groups, 39, 97–117. Lang, N., & Sulman, J. (Eds.). (1987) Collectivity in social work: Concept and practice. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. LaPorte, H., & Sweifach, J. (2011). MSW foundation students in the field: Reflections on the nature and quality of group work assignments and supervision. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 31, 239–249. Lee, J. (2001). The empowerment approach to social work practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

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Letendre, J. (2009). Curricular-based approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 70–72). New York, NY: Routledge. Lewis, E. (1992). Regaining promise: Feminist perspectives for social group work practice. Social Work with Groups, 15(2/3), 271–284. Lynn, M. & Nisivoccia, D. (2009). Group work approaches and methods: Activity: History, Encyclopedia of Social Work with Groups (p. 44). New York, NY: Routledge. Magen, R. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral model. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 70–72). New York, NY: Routledge. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Manor, O. (2009). Systemic approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 99–102). New York, NY: Routledge. Middleman, R. (1992). Group work and the Heimlich maneuver: Unchoking social work education. In D. Fike & B. Rittner (Eds.), Working from strengths: The essence of group work (pp. 16–35). Miami, FL: Center for Group Work Studies. Middleman, R., & Goldberg, G. (1983). Social work practice with groups. In A. Minahan (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (18th ed., pp. 714–729.). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Reviewing the past and present of group work and the challenge of the future. Social Work with Groups, 13(3), 3–19. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1987). Social work practice with groups. In A. Minahan (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Social Work (18th ed., pp. 714–729). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Mullender, A., & Ward, D. (2009). Self-directed approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 94–97). New York, NY: Routledge. Newstetter, W. (1935). What is social group work? Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work, 291–299. Northen, H. (1976). Psychosocial practice in small groups. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.), Theories of Social Work with Groups (pp. 116-152). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Papell, C., & Rothman, B. (1962). Social group work models: Possession and heritage. Journal of Education for Social Work, 2(2), 66–77. Papell, C., & Rothman, B. (1980). Relating the mainstream model of social work with groups to group psychotherapy and the structured group approach. Social Work with Groups, 3(2), 5–23. Pelech, W., Ring, K., & LaRocque, S. (Eds.). (2015). Unity in diversity: Embracing the spirit of group work. London, UK: Whiting & Birch. Perlman, H. H. (1965). Social work method: A review of the past decade. Social Work, 10(4), 166–178. Phillips, H. (1957). Essentials of social group work skill. New York, NY: Association Press. Reed, B., & Garvin, C. (1996). Feminist psychodynamic group psychotherapy: The applications of principles. New York, NY: Springer. Roberts, R., & Northen, H. (1976a). The status of theory. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.). Theories of social work with groups (pp. 368–394). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Roberts, R., & Northen, H. (Eds.). (1976b). Theories of social work with groups. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Rogers, O. (2009). Emergency crisis interventions. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 72–75). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Sakamoto, I. (2009). Anti-oppressive practice. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 67–70). New York, NY: Routledge. Schiller, L. Y. (l995). Stages of development in women’s groups: A relational model. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled Society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 117–138). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Schneider Corey, M., Corey, G., & Corey, C. (2014). Groups: Process and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Schwartz, W. (1977). The interactionist approach. In J. B. Turner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (17th ed., pp. 1328–1338). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Schwartz, W. (1976). Between client and system: The mediating functions. In Theories of social work with groups (pp. 171–197). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Schwartz, W. (2008). The interactionist approach. In T. Mizrahi & L. Davis (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work (20th ed., Vol. 4, p. 375). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Schwartz, W. (1961). The social worker in the group. The Social Welfare Forum. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Simon, S., & Kilbane, T. (2014). The current state of group work education in U.S. graduate schools of social work. Social Work with Groups, 37, 243–256. Smalley, R. (1967). Theory for social work practice. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Steinberg, D. M. (1993). Some findings from a study on the impact of group work education on social work practitioners’ work with groups. Social Work with Groups, 16(3), 23–39. Steinberg, D. M. (2009). Mutual-aid model. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 50–53). New York, NY: Routledge. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups. New York, NY: Routledge. Steinberg, D. M., & Salmon, R. (2007). Revisiting “Joyful Noise:” Gateways from singing the blues to the Hallelujah Chorus. Talking in the idiom of the other: A necessary skill for responding to the current crisis in social work practice. In G. Tully, K. Sweeney, & S. Palombo (Eds.), Groups: Gateways to growth (pp. 10–25). London, UK: Whiting & Birch. Strozier, A. (1997). Group work in social work education: What is being taught? Social Work with Groups, 20(1), 65–77. Sweifach, J., & Heft-LaPorte, H. (2008). Why did they choose group work: Exploring motivations and perceptions of current MSW students of group work. Social Work with Groups, 31, 347–361. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson Education. Tosone, C. (2009). Psychodynamic model. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 53–55). New York, NY: Routledge. Travers, A. (l995). Adversity, diversity, and empowerment: Feminist group work with women in poverty. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 139–158). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Trecker, H. (1944). Group work: Frontiers and foundations—in wartime. The Compass, 25(3), 3-8 Tropp, E. (1971). The developmental approach. In R. Morris (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (16th ed., pp. 1246–1252). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

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Tropp, E. (1978). Whatever happened to group work? Social Work with Groups, 1(1), 85-94. Turner, L. (2009). Psychoeducational approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 70–72). New York, NY: Routledge. Vinter, R. (1959). Group work: Perspectives and prospects. In Social work with groups, selected papers from the National Conference on Social Welfare (pp. 128–149). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Williams, C. (2005). Training for cultural competence: Individual and group processes. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 14(1–2), 111–143. Wilson, G. (1976). From practice to theory: A personalized history. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.), Theories of social work with groups (pp. 1–44). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Wilson, G., & Ryland, G. (1949). Social group work practice. Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Wood, G. G., & Middleman, R. (1997). Constructivism, power, and social work with groups. In J. Parry (Ed.), From prevention to wellness through group work (pp. 1–14). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Zastrow, C. (2008). Social work with groups, A comprehensive workbook (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole.

Further Readings EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY

Andrews, J. (2001). Group work’s place in social work: A historical analysis. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 28(4), 45–65. Birnbaum, M. (1990, October). Group work, the spotted owl: An endangered species in social work education. Paper presented at the annual symposium of the International Association for Social Work With Groups, D. Fike & B. Rittner, Chairpersons. Working from Strengths: The Essence of Group Work. Miami, FL. Birnbaum, M., & Auerbach, C. (1994). Group work in graduate social work education: The price of neglect. Journal of Social Work Education, 30, 325–335. Birnbaum, M., & Wayne, J. (2000). Group work in foundation generalist education: The necessity for curriculum change. Journal of Social Work Education, 36, 347–356. Birnbaum, M., Middleman, R., & Huber, R. (1989, October). Where social workers obtain their knowledge base in group work. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Social Workers. Briar, S. (1971). Social case work and social group work: Historical foundations. In Robert Morris (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (16th ed., pp. 1237–1245). New York, NY: National Association of Social Workers. Getzel, G., Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1987). Teaching and learning the practice of social group work: Four curriculum tools. In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 35–50). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Gitterman, A., & Salmon, R. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of social work with groups. New York, NY: Routledge. Hartford, M. (1964). Social group work 1930–1960: The search for a definition. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Hartford, M. (1978). Groups in human services: Some facts and fancies. Social Work with Groups, 1(1), 7–13.

50  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Kurland, R., & Salmon, R (1996). Making joyful noise: Presenting, promoting and portraying group work to and for the profession. In B. Stempler & M. Glass (Eds.), Social group work today and tomorrow (pp. 19–32). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Kurland, R., Salmon, R., Bitel, M., Goodman, H., Ludwig, K., Newmann, E., & Sullivan, N. (2004). The survival of social group work: A call to action. Social Work with Groups, 27(1), 3–16. Mayadas, N., Smith, R., & Elliott, D. (2004). Social group work in a global context. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 45–57). New York, NY: Guilford Press. McNicoll, P. (2008). A group worker response to “a mission-based model for social work.” Social Work with Groups, 31, 25–28. Middleman, R. (1992). Group work and the Heimlich maneuver: Unchoking social work education. In D. Fike & B. Rittner (Eds.), Working from strengths: The essence of group work (pp. 16–40). Miami, FL: Center for Group Work Studies. Middleman, R. (1978). Returning group process to group work. Social Work with Groups, 1(1), 15–26. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). From social group work to social work with groups. Social Work with Groups, 13(3), 3–20. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1995). Contextual groupwork: Apprehending the elusive obvious. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 5–18). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Muskat, B., & Mesbur, E, S. (2011). Adaptations for teaching social work with groups in the age of technology. Groupwork, 21(1), 6–27. Pandya, V. (2004). Contemporary group work practice. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 597–614). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Perlman, H. H. (1965). Social work method: A review of the past decade. Social Work, 10(4), 166–178. Schwartz, W. (1971). On the use of groups in social work practice. In W. Schwartz & S. Zalba, (Eds.), The practice of group work (pp. 3–24). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Shulman, L. (1996). Social work with groups: Paradigms shifts for the 1990’s. In B. Stempler & M. Glass (Eds.), Social group work: Today and tomorrow (pp. 1–18). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Wenocur, S., & Reisch, M. (1989). From charity to enterprise: The development of American social work in a market economy (pp. 225–269). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. EMERGING APPROACHES AND MODELS

Breton, M. (1991). Towards a model of social groupwork practice with marginalised populations. Groupwork, 4(1), 31–47. Breton, M. (1994). On the meaning of empowerment and empowerment-oriented social work practice. Social Work with Groups, 17(3), 23–37. Breton, M. (1995). The potential for social action in groups. Social Work with Groups, 18(2/3), 5–14. Caplan, G., & Killilea, M. (1976). Support and mutual help. New York, NY: Grune and Stratton. Chorcora, M., Jennings, E., & Lordan, N. (1994). Issues of empowerment: Anti-oppressive groupwork by disabled people in Ireland. Groupwork, 7(1), 63–78.

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Falck, H. (1995). Central characteristics of social work with groups: A sociocultural analysis. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 63–72). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Falck, H. (1989). The management of membership: Social group work contributions. Social Work with Groups, 12(3), 19–32. Fatout, M. (1992). Models for change in social work. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Forte, J. (2009). Adding the “symbolic” to interactionist practice: A theoretical elaboration of William Schwartz’ legacy to group workers. Social Work with Groups, 32, 80–95. Garvin, C. (2009). Task-centered model. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 55–59). New York, NY: Routledge. Gitterman, A. & Salmon, R. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of social work with groups. New York, NY: Routledge. Jones, M., Mordecai, M., Rutter, F., & Thomas, L. (1991). A Miskin model of groupwork with women offenders. Groupwork, 4(3), 215–230. Lee, J. (1987). Social work with oppressed populations: Jane Addams won’t you please come home? In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 1–16). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Lee, J. (1994). The empowerment approach to social work practice. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Lee, J. (2005). Mutual aid: A buffer against risk. In A. Gitterman & L. Shulman (Eds.), The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (3rd ed., pp. 573–596). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Nosko, A., & Breton, M. (1997). Applying a strengths, competence and empowerment model. Groupwork, 10(1), 55–69. Papell, C. (Ed.). (1991). Social Work with Groups. 14(3/4). Papell, C. (Ed.). (1995). Social Work with Groups. 18(1). Shulman, L., & Gitterman, A. (2005). The life model, mutual aid, oppression, and the mediating function. In A. Gitterman & L. Shulman (Eds.), mutual aid groups and the life cycle (pp. 3–28). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Solomon, B. B. (1976). Black empowerment: Social work in oppressed communities. New York NY: Columbia University Press. Ward, D., & Mullender, A. (1991). Facilitation in self-directed groupwork. Groupwork, 4(2), 141–151. Wood, G. G., & Middleman, R. (1989). The structural approach to direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. FOUNDATIONAL

Addams, J. (1910). Twenty years at Hull-House. New York, NY: MacMillan. Anderson, J. (1985). Working with groups: Little known facts that challenge well-known myths. Small Group Behavior, 16, 267–283. Bales, R. (1950). Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bennis, W., & Shepard, H. (1961). Theory of group development. In W. Bennis (Ed.), The planning of change (pp. 321–339). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Berman-Rossi, T., & Miller, I. (1994). African-Americans and the settlements during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Social Work with Groups, 16(3), 77–95. Breton, M. (1990). Learning from social group work traditions. Social Work with Groups, 13(1), 21–45. Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston, MA: Heath.

52  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Falck, H. (1988). Social work: The membership perspective. New York, NY: Sprough. Homans, G. (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt. Kammerman, S., Dolgoff, R., Getzel, G., & Nelsen, J. (1973). Knowledge for practice: Social sciences in social work. In A. Kahn (Ed.), Shaping the new social work (pp. 97– 146). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Kropotkin, P. (1903). Mutual aid: A factor of evolution. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Black Rose. Lindeman, E. (1980). Group work and democracy—a philosophical note. In A. Alissi, (Ed.), Perspectives on social group work practice (pp. 77–83). New York, NY: The Free Press. Mills, T. (1967). The sociology of small groups. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Morris, V. C. & Pai, Y. (1976). Philosophy and the American school. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Northen, H. (1987). Selection of groups as the preferred modality of practice. In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 19–34). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Schwartz, W. (1959). Group work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Schwartz, W. (1969). Private troubles and public issues: One job or two? In National Conference on Social Welfare (Ed.), Social Welfare Forum (pp. 22–43), Official proceedings of the annual conference of the National Conference on Social Welfare. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Shaw, M. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Weiner, H. (1964). Social change and group work practice. Social Work, 9, 106–112. Wilensky, H., & Lebeaux, C. (Eds.). (1958). Industrial Society and Social Welfare. New York, NY: Russell Sage. PRACTICE

Berman-Rossi, T. (1993). The tasks and skills of the social worker across stages of group development. Social Work with Groups, 16(1/2), 69–81. Burden, D., & Gottlieb, N. (1987). Women’s socialization and feminist groups. In C. Brody (Ed.), Women’s therapy groups: paradigms of feminist treatment (pp. 24–39). New York, NY: Springer. Chau, K. (1990). Social work with groups in multicultural contexts. Groupwork, 3(1), 8–21. Gitterman, A. (1989). Building mutual support in groups. Social Work with Groups, 12(2), 5–21. Gitterman, A., & Shulman, L. (Eds.). (2005). Mutual aid groups, vulnerable & resilient populations, and the life cycle (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Gitterman, A., & Salmon, R. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of social work with groups. New York, NY: Routledge. Hare, A. P. (1985). Social interaction as drama. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Konopka, G. (1960). Social group work: A social work method. Social Work, 5, 53–61. Konopka, G. (1990). Past/present issues in group work with the emotionally disabled: Part II, thirty-five years of group work in psychiatric settings. Social Work with Groups, 13(1), 13–15. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Social Work with Groups, 15(4), 3–14.

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Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1993). Not just one of the gang: Group workers and their role as an authority. In S. Wenocur (Ed.), Social work with groups: Expanding horizons (pp. 153–169). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Pinderhughes, E. (1989). Understanding race, ethnicity and power: The key to efficacy in clinical practice. New York, NY: The Free Press. Somers, M. L. (1976). Problem-solving in small groups. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.), Theories of social work with groups (pp. 331–367). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Taylor, P. (1994). The linguistic and cultural barriers to cross-national groupwork. Groupwork, 7(1), 7–22. SMALL-GROUP RESEARCH ON POPULATION AND METHOD

Aldana, A., Richards-Schuster, K., & Checkoway, B. (2016). Dialogic pedagogy for youth participatory action research: facilitation of an intergroup empowerment program. Social Work with Groups, 39, 339–358. Casstevens, W., & Cohen, M. (2011). A groupwork approach to focus group research in the context of a psychiatric clubhouse program. Groupwork, 21(1), 46–58. Chovanec, M. (2012). Examining engagement of men in a domestic abuse program from three perspectives: An exploratory multimethod study. Social Work with Groups, 35, 362–378. Chovanec, M. (2014). The power of learning and men’s stories in engaging abusive men in the change process: Qualitative study across programs. Social Work with Groups, 37, 331–347. Cowburn, M., & Lavis, V. (2013). Using a prisoner advisory group to develop diversity research in a maximum-security prison. Groupwork, 23(3), 32–44. Dennison, S. (2008). Measuring the treatment outcome of short-term school-based social skills groups. Social Work with Groups, 31, 307–328. Falconer, M. K., Haskett, M., McDaniels, L., Dirkes, T., & Siegel, E. (2008). Evaluation of support groups for child abuse prevention: Outcomes of four state evaluations. Social Work with Groups, 31, 165–182. Gallant, W., Galant, M., Gorey, K., Holosko, M., & Siegel, S. (1997). The use of music in group work with out-patient alcoholic couples: A pilot investigation. Groupwork, 10(2), 155–174. Hopmeyer, E., & Werk, A. (1993). A comparative study of four family bereavement groups. Groupwork, 6(2), 107–121. Kelly, T., Lowndes, A., & Tolson, D. (2005). Advancing stages of group development. Groupwork, 15(2), 17–38. Letendre, J., & Williams, L. R. (2014). “I hear you”: Using focus groups to give voice to adolescent girls’ experiences with violence. Social Work with Groups, 37, 114–128. Levin, K. G. (2006). Involuntary clients are different. Groupwork, 16(2), 61–84. Liu, S., Dore, M. M., & Amrani-Cohen, H. (2013). Treating the effects of interpersonal violence: A comparison of two group models. Social Work with Groups, 36, 59–72. Malone, P. (2012). The impact of peer death on adolescent girls: An efficacy study of the adolescent grief and loss group. Social Work with Groups, 35, 35–49. Marrs Fuchsel, C,. & Hysjulien, B. (2013). Exploring a domestic violence intervention curriculum for immigrant Mexican women in a group setting: A pilot study. Social Work with Groups, 36, 304–320. Martin, J., Fox, K., MacGregor, D., & Hickman, L. (2014). People with Asperger’s syndrome lead the way in how to work in a group. Groupwork, 24, 81–97.

54  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Nicholas, D., Williams, M., & MacLusky, I. (2009). Evaluating group work within a summer camp intervention for children and adolescents with asthma. Social Work with Groups, 32, 209–221. Pandya, V. (2010). An evidence base for group work with older adults living in the community. Social Work with Groups, 33, 323–349. Poole, J., Gardner, P., Flower, M., & Cooper, C. (2009). Narrative therapy, older adults, and group work: Practice, research, and recommendations. Social Work with Groups, 32, 288–302. Preston-Shoot, M. (1989). Using contracts in groupwork. Groupwork, 2(1), 36–47. Robinson, J. A. (2016). Notions of support challenged by participatory research with adults with Asperger’s syndrome. Groupwork, 26(2), 51–73. Romero, A. (Ed.). (2016). Youth-community partnerships for adolescent alcohol prevention. New York, NY: Springer. Sansfaçon, A. P., Roy, V., & Ward, D. (2014). One method, two worlds. Groupwork, 24(2), 6–25. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Steinberg, D. M. (2010). Mutual aid: A contribution to best-practice social work. Social Work with Groups, 33, 53–68. Tedan, P., Matoo, G., Mano, I., & Singh, Sr. (2015). Group support for transformational social work education: A study of the Black Academics Forum (BAF). Groupwork, 25(2), 89–111. Walmsley, J. (1990). The role of groupwork in research with people with learning difficulties. Groupwork, 3(1), 49–64. Weller, B., Huang, J., & Cherubin, S. (2015). Applying evidence-based practice in group work at an alternative high school. Social Work with Groups, 38, 122–135. Wright, R. (2016). To what extent are people with intellectual disabilities (ID) active partners in focus group research? A literature review. Groupwork, 26(1), 59–75. TEXTBOOKS

Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Garvin, C. (1996). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Kaiser, C. (1958). The social group work process. Social Work, 3(2), 67–75. Konopka, G. (1983). Social group work: A helping process (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd. ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Reynolds, B. (1951). Social work and social living. New York, NY: Citadel Press. Ridgeway, C. (1983). The dynamics of small groups. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Simon, S., & Kilbane, T. (2014). The current state of group work education in U.S. graduate schools of social work. Social Work with Groups, 37, 243–256. Smalley, R. (1967). Theory for social work practice. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson Education.

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Wilson, G., & Ryland, G. (1949). Social group work practice. Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Zastrow, C. (2008). Social work with groups: A comprehensive workbook (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole. OTHER

Gitterman, A., & S., Robert. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of social work with groups (Group work and community context, pp. 267–280). New York, NY: Routledge. Toseland, R., & McClive-Reed, K. (2009). Social group work: International and global perspectives. Social Work with Groups, 32, 5–13. Weinberg, N., Schmale, J., Uken, J., & Wessel, K. (1995). Computer-mediated support groups. Social Work with Groups, 17(4), 43–54.

4

UNIT

Planning for Practice With Groups CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit

1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use planning models to guide planning and preparation for practice, for ethical decision-making including evaluation of needs, and to guide professional judgment and behavior. Seek, include, and integrate available and relevant empirical evidence as it informs planning, 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use planning models to guide consideration of need, composition, and structure of the group, including implications of diversity and difference in shaping the group’s composition and to learn from clients and their constituencies as experts during pregroup contact and engagement. Include available empirical evidence to assist in developing knowledge and to plan composition on racial, ethnic, and cultural needs and sensitivities. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Use planning models as a guide to consider social context and agency context a group operates in with special attention to social, economic, and environmental justice; consider the degree to which a group purpose advances or challenges agency mission, policies, and norms, including the potential need to advocate within those contexts. Provide available empirical evidence to the group or system representatives if aims appear to be in conflict; actively advocate for aims that are consistent with empirical evidence and that enable group members to be informed consumers of service. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Use planning models as a guide to interview potential group members and their constituencies regarding need and a possible group purpose and to shape a group that meets the agency’s mission or to advocate for a group that may differ from agency norms but would better meet clients’ needs. Differentially and discretely apply all available related evidence on social work with groups as a guide to plan interventions in the group’s process. Conduct ongoing evaluation of the group’s process and progress by actively targeting sessional transitions to assess the utility of the problem-solving process and shape future process. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Use planning models as a guide to examine the social context of the group; to assess the potential impact of social welfare and economic policies on group work practice in situ; and to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice. Provide empirical evidence as available to the group about the system in which it operates and its larger environment to help it to achieve its purpose. Provide empirical evidence as available to the agency system about group needs and goals that can help the system and its larger environment to promote the group’s ability to do its work, including a redirection of group purpose if called for. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use planning models to guide the application of knowledge regarding human behavior and the social environment, person in environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to shape pregroup contact and engagement in a way that effectively involves diverse clients and constituencies in service. Work with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and other related personal or professional communities to collect data that will promote effective group-work planning and practice with the target population. (continued)

57

58  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit (continued) 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use planning models to guide the collection, organization, and interpretation of needs-based data including strengths and challenges from potential or prospective group members and their constituencies. Assess the quality and contextual applicability of all available evidence regarding needs for service received from individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities (personal and professional) that has the potential to promote effective group-work planning and practice. Use planning models integrated with available empirical evidence to interpret and synthesize all available information toward an appropriate group purpose, and based on that assessment, shape a group purpose that reflects the values and preferences of clients and constituencies. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use planning models to guide the choice of an appropriate group purpose, consider factors related to composition that will best balance the values of commonality and diversity in a group, and consider factors related to agency context that will contribute to successful group-work practice. To every extent possible, including assessment of relevant individual, social, and cultural factors and needs, select direct and indirect interventions in planning a new group or in planning sessions that have some basis in empirical evidence. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use planning models to consider the degree to which the content of a group meets the needs of its members and advances the group purpose, and apply the results of assessment to further practice with the group. Help the new group identify and reach a consensus on a clear and explicit purpose to use as a reference point for assessing quantity and quality of progress. Help the group on an ongoing basis to compare the relevance and utility of its process in light of its stated purpose. Identify or create and employ measures as feasible in the operating system to evaluate group process and progress on an ongoing basis, including the use of sessional endings (Birnbaum & Cicchetti, 2001, 2003). Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

P

lanning for work with a group—the thinking and preparation done by the worker prior to the first meeting—is one of the most neglected areas in group work practice. Although cursory attention to planning and preparation is a primary factor in group problems and failures, workers often limit their premeeting considerations to rather superficial issues, such as time and place and whether to serve refreshments. Furthermore, there seems to be little to no research and review of the related literature, particularly the empirical literature, which provides evidence regarding previously tried and tested services toward the practice of evidence-based group work (EBGW). However, these are necessary components of tuning in to, or becoming informed about, the target population including its identified needs, goals, circumstances, and previously tested services. Such lack of planning results in groups that fizzle out after only a few meetings of irregular attendance and that feel largely like a waste of time to group members and the worker. Further, these kinds of group problems often lead workers to engage in undeserved self-blame and to question their ability or talent for group work practice. Thus, the price is high for neglecting this aspect of practice. Workers are often unable to clearly or cogently describe the purpose of their proposed groups. Also, they are often unable to define the planning process, that is, the thinking,

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decision making, and other actions required between conceiving an idea for a group and holding the first meeting. It is essential, therefore, for teaching material to emphasize planning and engagement. It may require considerable time, as suggested by the size of this unit, but planning provides the foundation and a framework for successful practice. Furthermore, in an environment in which preformed groups already in existence when a new worker takes over or groups with mandatory membership is increasing, a planning model such as the Kurland (Kurland, 1978) model can help plan practice retrospectively as well as proactively, enabling the worker to enter the work in an organized and methodical way. The section titled Part B: Retrospective Planning on p. 69 highlights the ways the Kurland planning model can be used to enter, direct, or perhaps redirect an existing group.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The purpose of this unit is to describe a way an instructor can teach students about planning for practice with groups, including retrospective planning for groups already under way and planning as it relates to groups with predetermined purpose or content (curriculum-based groups). Reflecting the professional weight of planning in group work practice, the student learning outcomes of this teaching unit are numerous: 1. Appreciate the importance of planning in the formation of a new group 2. Understand the concept of EBGW in planning and preparing for direct practice 3. Know the areas to consider in planning a group including a review of the professional empirical and conceptual literature 4. Be able to differentially integrate all acquired knowledge into the planning process 5. Be able to formulate a new group based on the assessment of all collected data 6. Be able to appropriately recruit and engage members in group service 7. Understand the importance of collecting evidence of service effectiveness and to shape (plan) future service through the ongoing evaluation of the group’s process and progress 8. Be able to differently apply segments of the planning model to new leadership of an existing group 9. Be able to apply planning concepts to practice with groups that are expected to function according to a curriculum (manual) with the prescribed purpose and content

Part A: Using the Kurland Planning Model It is important to begin with a statement on the importance of planning. Ideas you might incorporate into this introduction can be found in Brandler and Roman (2007), Hartford (1971), Northen and Kurland (2001), Shulman (2012), Steinberg (2014), and Toseland and Rivas (2017). It is also useful to incorporate a discussion of what it

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means to be an evidence-based group worker. Macgowan (2008) identifies four stages for putting into action evidence-based practice with groups. Begin the discussion by distributing Handout 4.1, “Stages for Putting EBGW Into Action,” and noting them on the board for students to follow. Briefly, the stages are as follows: • Action Stage 1: Formulate a practice question that can be answered • Action Stage 2: Search for evidence • Action Stage 3: Examine the evidence critically • Action Stage 4: Apply the best evidence with judgment, skill, and concern for relevance and appropriateness Students may be familiar with the concept of evidence-based practice, but it is essential for them to understand its centrality to social work practice with groups. First, using all available evidence regarding the nature, relevance, and utility of interventions to guide practice is part of professional practice; it is what clearly distinguishes the professional group worker from the para- and preprofessional or volunteer group leader precisely because EBGW is neither emotionally nor intuitively based. Rather, a group is formed based on knowledge from a variety of sources differentially integrated toward best practice. Second, the act of seeking evidence of relevance helps to ensure that relevance is perceived by more stakeholders than just the group worker. Third, EBGW provides a set of practice principles and guidelines for ongoing evaluation. Gathering evidence of practice effectiveness is not just part and parcel of planning; it also pertains to ongoing practice, the question for practice being whether the current service to this group at this time is relevant. Thus, to be an evidence-based group worker means to evaluate the nature and utility of practice at all times (Macgowan, 2008; Pollio, 2002; Steinberg, 2010). For the feedback gleaned from evaluation to be productive, however, the request for information must be structured to allow a range of responses that may include suggestions to redirect practice. There are several approaches to gathering evidence of service relevance on an ongoing basis, ranging from questioning group participants to their significant others, using several possible methods from verbal interviews to written surveys to systematic in vivo observation. One has only to open a basic research text to identify any number of methods from interviews, individual or in groups; to observation, for example, an unbiased observer in sessions or using a participant-observer framework; to survey research like questionnaires or other written forms to measure satisfaction, utility, or any other dimension of interest. For example, one group-based approach to gathering evidence of relevance on an ongoing basis is the use of sessional endings (Birnbaum & Cicchetti 2001; Birnbaum, Mason, & Cicchetti, 2003), which refers to setting time aside at the end of each encounter for group members to evaluate the content and process of that meeting. The worker then uses the content of that sessional ending— group member feedback and related discussions about the current group meeting—to shape the next encounter.

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To help students understand the utility of sessional endings and how to apply them to practice, as the class moves into the next units on stages, consider assigning the following articles as homework: Birnbaum and Cicchetti (2001) and Birnbaum, Mason, and Cicchetti (2003). The three major teaching points here are, first, EBGW principles and practices belong not only to planning for a group service but should be followed to evaluate that service over time. Second, many methods are available to practice EBGW. Clearly, a group worker is in an ideal position to use at least one of them, the sessional ending, in a logical and systematic manner; students should not assume that such methods are out of reach for the everyday clinician. Finally, one thing that distinguishes the professional from the non-, pre-, or paraprofessional (or technician) is the integration of research methods into practice as the worker plans for practice and then carries it out. Maintaining a direction that clients do not perceive as relevant simply results in personal harm, and in the case of group work, creates group chaos, such as premature termination, complete dissolution, or even worse, presence with a complete lack of participation. Foundation Exercise Planning Option: Brainstorming the Process After this discussion it is useful to engage the class in an exercise to help students translate the concept of planning into real-world actions. Two foundation exercises are offered here for understanding the Kurland planning model (Kurland, 1978, 1982; Northen & Kurland, 2001) and explained in detail in Handout 4.2, “A Model of Planning for Social Work With Groups.” The handout is not shown to students before the exercise, and neither are its eight categories (areas of consideration). However, you need to be familiar with the model to effectively guide the exercises (see Figure 4.1). When the student brainstorming component of either exercise is complete, that is the time to distribute the model handout to students for their review. Figure 4.1 Eight categories of consideration in the Kurland planning model for social work with groups. 1. Needs. Wants, drives, problems, issues, or areas of concern among people in the target population that might be satisfied by group membership 2. Purpose. Ends and objectives the group will pursue collectively; hopes, expectations, and objectives each group member holds for personal gains from the group 3. Composition. Number and characteristics of the members and the workers who will participate in the group; in all cases, rationale 4. Structure. Concrete arrangements required to facilitate the conduct of the group 5. Content. Means to be used to achieve the purpose for which the group is formed; nature of group content (what it is to do) and process (how it will do it); in each case, rationale 6. Pregroup contact (engagement). Securing members whose needs have a good fit with the anticipated group purpose; outreach, engagement, and preparation for the group generally and for the group’s first meeting 7. Agency context. Organizational, systemic factors that may affect the worker’s actions and the group being formed, especially in terms of its purpose; degree to which the group is likely to receive agency support 8. Social context. Influences in the larger social and political environment that may or do affect service delivery, including the potential to form new groups and to select any given group purpose.

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Before a worker is ready to hold the first meeting of a new group, detailed questions for each of these areas need to be asked. Moreover, all eight areas need to be considered concurrently. That is, their interrelationship is not linear; rather, they are interdependent and overlap. Decisions in one area affect decisions in the others, creating a back-and-forth dance of consideration among them, ending eventually with a plan that is professionally and organizationally cohesive. Introduce this content by making a statement about the importance of planning. See the suggested summary for instructors on p. xxx. Next, divide the class into subgroups of four to six students. Ask each group to brainstorm a list of all they can think of to consider, decide on, or do between the time an idea for a new group develops and the time for a first meeting. On a board visible to all, make eight columns, one for each component. Do not use headings or titles, but keep in mind which column represents which category of the model. Then ask each subgroup to offer one item from its list and place that offering in the column for which only you know the heading. If the suggestion contains the title of a category (e.g., “We have to think about our clients’ needs”), place Need at the top of a column as its heading. In that way, the class inductively builds the planning model. This exercise should be carried out in an atmosphere of fun and high spirit. For example, you might tease the class when good-natured competitiveness develops as groups say they had the same item on their list, or you might jokingly reward a subgroup with two points for an item that is a title heading. As items are listed, have students discuss those you consider especially important (e.g., group size, confidentiality, fees, etc.). Give this exercise about 15 minutes. It is up to the instructor to decide when to end this exercise, but when items become repetitive or start to deal with minutia, or interest and enthusiasm wane, it is time to move on. At that point ask the subgroups for additional items not presented and add them to the list. Foundation Exercise Planning Option: Focus on Individual Components In an alternative or additional exercise, subgroups wrestle with discrete components of the Kurland planning model. In this case, one subgroup focuses on agency context, another focuses on need, and so on. At the end of the time allotted for the exercise, subgroups compare their results to Handout 4.2, report their results, and initiate discussion about what they found in common with the model and, if relevant, what they had not considered and why. Groups should have at least three students per group. If this is not possible, then some subgroups might take responsibility for two of the eight planning components (e.g., focus on social context and focus on agency context), and others take on just one. You might also assign one component per group and address some of the components together with the whole class after each subgroup has presented its results.

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Figure 4.2 Key points to consider in using the Kurland planning model. 1. The components of the Kurland planning model (need, group purpose, composition, structure, content, pre-group contact, agency context, and social context) are interdependent and overlap. What the worker decides about one component always affects decisions about the others. Making decisions, therefore, generally requires a back-and-forth process among the various components to develop a cohesive plan. Further, they are each considered in the greater framework of what is already known about group service with the target population, which is identified by reviewing the related research. 2. The model presents areas for worker consideration, decision making, and actions as the worker makes plans for a group; it is not meant as a checklist. 3. The model does not attempt to justify a specific decision; it intends to help the worker to see which areas have uncertainty and need further decision making for a group to get off the ground or become well organized if it is already formed. For example, has a specific approach already been tested? If so, with what results? Given that knowledge, what are the implications for developing a relevant service with the target population? 4. Not every factor is always of equal importance. In some groups some factors (such as confidentiality) assume great importance; in other groups the same factor may be of little consequence. Such differences are related to the worker’s specific work situation as well as theoretical approach to practice.

Figure 4.3 Planning class scenario examples. 1. Social workers in a senior center have become aware that a number of center members have recently lost an adult child. The workers believe that a support group might be useful. 2. Social workers in an HIV/AIDS information and treatment agency have noticed that some HIV mothers with young children have started to use the services of the agency. The workers believe that a group with a focus on parenting issues might be useful. 3. Social workers in a junior high school have noted that a number of seventh graders new to the school appear to be lonely, scared, and unable to make friends. The workers believe that a group might be useful to help them acclimate and integrate. 4. Social workers in a public mental health agency have discussed the increase in court-mandated attendance and treatment for young adults appearing before the court for offenses related to alcohol and drug abuse. The workers believe that a group might be useful for these young adults. 5. Social workers in a veterans’ clinic note in their case conferences that many of the veterans who come for individual visits share a commonality that creates barriers to receiving necessary services. The workers believe that a group might be useful in helping to address these barriers.

The exercise can be introduced to the classroom by stressing the fact that thinking and preparation prior to the first group meeting is often neglected, but thorough and thoughtful pregroup planning is essential to the success of social work with groups. As they carry out the exercise, they should keep in mind the four key points in Figure 4.2. Using the scenarios or situations in Figure 4.3 that are relevant to the students in the classroom, assign each subgroup a scenario, and ask the students to plan a group using Handout 4.3, “Focus on Individual Planning Components: Need, Purpose, Content.” This exercise provides opportunities for students to apply planning principles to different settings. Each subgroup focuses on need, purpose, and content, and as the subgroups share their results with the class, illustrate the commonalities (practice principles) of planning around these three components.

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Whichever exercise you choose, when it is completed, distribute Handout 4.2, “A Model of Planning for Social Work with Groups,” to the class for review. Do not expect for each item to be listed on the board in the first exercise option or that students are able to identify all the content areas in each planning category in the second option. What is important is for students to realize and begin to appreciate how much more goes into planning for successful groups than time, place, and refreshments. For students with opportunities to form a new group, the Kurland planning model offers a practical way to proceed from scratch, giving them conceptual material for immediate use. For those about to assume leadership of a functioning group, the model is also relevant as a guide for reviewing a group’s history, current purpose, and norms. In addition, students can refer to Handout 4.4, “A Guide to Retrospective Planning for Practice With Groups,” as they consider issues of entry into and practice with the ongoing group (see discussion and related handout). It is especially helpful to have students concentrate on the diagrams in Handout 4.5, “Applying the Kurland Planning Model When Composition Is Not Predetermined,” and Handout 4.6, “Applying the Kurland Planning Model When Composition Is Predetermined.” The diagram in Handout 4.5, when composition is not predetermined, applies to groups that are formed from scratch. In this case, the worker first considers need and moves on to the other components. The second diagram, in Handout 4.6, when composition is predetermined, applies to groups with a predetermined composition, such as mandatory groups or groups already in existence. In such instances, as noted in Part B: Retrospective Planning (p. 69), composition is considered first, then need, and then all the other components. Because the diagram in Handout 4.6 provides a framework for understanding groups already formed, the Kurland planning model is also a substantive vehicle for helping the worker understand and analyze both new and existing areas of consideration (see Part B: Retrospective Planning). Each of the exercises, including the inductive development of the model created by students, along with a full discussion of key items and the handouts, should take about one hour. Applying the Kurland Planning Model The next section of this teaching unit, which flows logically from the previous one, gives students experience in using the Kurland planning model and allows them to absorb the material in relation to various settings, helping them to own the material and apply it to their own work situations. This section begins with a class exercise with a focus on need, purpose, and content, areas that tend to give students the greatest challenges (see Handout 4.3). As the exercise illustrates when results are shared with the class, the commonalities (practice principles) of planning around need, purpose, and content are strong and consistent. A suggestion for a homework assignment is provided along with a classroom exercise with two options to help students integrate empirical evidence (in addition to all other forms of knowledge) into their planning process. Finally, an

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exercise option that focuses on outreach and engagement of clients in service is offered to help students practice interacting with potential group members. CLASS PLANNING EXERCISE WITH A FOCUS ON NEED, PURPOSE, AND CONTENT

Figure 4.4 Example of scenarios with a focus on need, purpose, and content. 1. Several members of a senior center have recently lost an adult child. Social workers there believe that a group might be useful.

2. Several HIV-positive mothers with young children have begun to use the For this exercise, services of an AIDS information and treatment agency. Workers there believe divide the class into that a group with a focus on parenting issues might be useful. subgroups of four 3. Several participants in a community-based agency that serves youths have to eight students, parents who have HIV/AIDS. Workers there believe that a group for these youngsters could be helpful. grouping students 4. Several seventh-grade children who are new to a junior high school appear who work with to be lonely, afraid, and unable to make friends. The workers believe that a similar populations group might be useful. if possible. Ask each 5. An increasing number of young adults treated in a public mental health agency are there because of court-mandated attendance for alcohol and subgroup to use drug offenses. Workers there believe that a group might be useful. Handout 4.2 to plan for the specific group they have selected or were assigned to, focusing on the components of need (what drives the idea of a group), purpose (the collective goals a group might have), and content (what group members will do together). Assign each subgroup a scenario; you can use the scenarios in Figure 4.3 or create new scenarios based on your experience or settings. Ask students to plan a group using the model. Many situations can be developed based on students’ actual field experiences, but you may want to use a few of the scenarios in Figure 4.4 to assign to the student subgroups. Often subgroup discussions are active and intense. If possible, give groups up to 45 minutes, after which they present their plans and results of their deliberations to the class for discussion. It is up to you to decide on the timing of reports and how many subgroups report or whether there is enough time for each subgroup to report a full roster of deliberations or only a portion. Because the populations and problems are different, a variety of issues emerge in the process. The student group that focuses on the senior center scenario, for example, may struggle with how to talk with potential members about their loss. The group that focuses on the court-mandated group may grapple with the difficulties of working with involuntary membership and confidentiality. The students who focus on the veterans’ group may struggle with how to talk with potential members about the issues they believe might cause interpersonal difficulty for the veterans, such as poor conflict-management skills. CLASS PLANNING EXERCISE WITH A FOCUS ON CONTEXT

In this exercise students are asked to consider four levels of context, which can create different kinds of planning complexities depending on the setting, its nature, history with groups and group work, mission, and so on. Using Handout 4.7, “Class Exercise Planning Option: Focus on Individual Planning Components: Context,” divide the class

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into four subgroups, the first to work on Context Level 1, Macro 1 and 2, because they are interdependent, and three others that each focus on one of the other levels, Context Level 2: Mezzo, Context Level 3: Micro 1, and Context Level 4: Micro 2. Each subgroup should reflect on the characteristics of the assigned level and make decisions about what they need to ask. Their task is to formulate questions that need answering, but not formulate the answers, and to identify the source for obtaining answers to plan or get a group off the ground. After giving them about 30 minutes to discuss their ideas, groups share their results with the class, helping to inform the entire class about the issues to consider in all the levels of context relevant to planning for group work practice in any given setting. Applying EBGW Principles to Planning Students also need to know how to apply the concept of EBGW to the planning process in a practical way. To that end a review of Handout 4.8. “Stages for Putting EBGW Into Action” will help them to understand what it means to formulate pertinent questions for their own planning process, such as, Which, if any, group services have been tried and tested with my target population or with a population that resembles it in some significant ways? Which professional journals are likely to identify relevant studies? What is the nature of findings in the research articles I locate, and what do they imply for my own planning with the clients I have in mind in this setting? Distribute and review with the class Handout 4.9. “Skills for Integrating Evidence Into Group Work Planning,” which identifies a set of skills based on Macgowan (2008) that will help students carry out the associated tasks of seeking all related literature, locating and assessing available sources of knowledge, and critically analyzing the merit of the knowledge for its ability to help the worker plan meaningful and relevant group service. Consider asking students to form into three subgroups, distribute Handout 4.9, and ask each group to briefly discuss (10–15 minutes) the roster of skills and report to the class the highlights of its discussion (special notations, questions, etc.). The major teaching point here is that many skills shown in Handout 4.9 can help students to engage in evidence-based practice, an approach to accountability that is increasingly requested by agencies where groups often operate and takes EBGW out of the realm of mystery and of only being applied by scientists or experts. Armed with this roster of skills, which range from problem formulation (What question should I ask of my planning or practice and why?) to the application of findings (What does the answer mean in terms of this group at this time?), students will see the importance of integrating these perspectives and tasks into their own approaches to practice, they will see that EBGW is a systematic method for practice that can be learned, and they will understand that through continued application, they can become proficient in their professional practice with groups. With this in mind, next consider reviewing again with the class the Kurland planning model with an eye to the nature and amount of data it aims to collect from all stakeholders. Students might form small subgroups to think through each of the model components and where and how to gather evidence as part

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of their planning process. Alternatively, you might assign just a few of the components to each subgroup, asking each group to report to the rest of the class on its assigned categories. Two other activities also can help students understand the role and application of evidence to group work practice. One focuses on helping them seek professional literature that relates to a specific population, problem, or practice setting. The other helps them critique an empirical article by offering a guide or framework for doing so. Class Exercise Application Option Focus on Seeking Related Literature A small-group classroom exercise in which students identify related literature (empirical, conceptual, authority based, and other) potentially useful to planning can also help students bring this aspect of planning to life and help them be less anxious about searching data bases to locate relevant professional literature. Create small working groups of three to four students each and introduce the exercise by distributing Handouts 4.10 “Skills for Seeking Evidence in Group Work Practice” and Handout 4.9, “Skills for Integrating Evidence into Group Work Planning,” and by briefly reviewing each one as context for the work. With the technological tools such as cell phones and laptops in the classroom today, it is likely that at least one student in each group will be able to access the Internet. The purpose of the exercise is to provide students with an opportunity to practice seeking sources and distinguishing among them in the professional literature related either to their work setting or population and, in particular, the ability to critique an empirical article without fear. Ask each group to focus on one of the group members’ setting and population, or if the students are not in the field, identify a setting and population for which they might form a group. Then ask the group to access general Internet databases and specific sites through, for example, Google Scholar, and to make note of any literature, especially research articles, they find related to the group they have in mind. With a 30- to 45-minute time frame, each group should be able to note the title of the article, nature of article (empirical or one of the other types), and scan the abstract to find out, for example, how the article might further the planning process. At the end of the exercise, ask each group to identify how many articles of each type they were able to find. The proportion of the varied types of articles will be very revealing in terms of how much research exists in students’ area of practice interest. Did they find research articles easily, or does there seem to be a paucity of empirical evidence in their area? Are most of the articles conceptual or perhaps descriptive (e.g., what staff does in an agency) rather than analytic? Allow each group to respond to one question rather than to all questions at once so that each group is ensured enough reporting time to the class. Homework Option: Reviewing an Empirical Article It is essential for students to know how to review an empirical article, especially one that addresses research on small groups, group dynamics, or social work practice with groups. To that end, consider assigning a piece of homework that helps them learn what it

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means to review and critique an article that reports on a piece of research. Handout 4.11 “EBGW Homework: Guide to Reviewing an Empirical Article,” presents three areas of consideration: identifying the major points of the article (finding the facts of the article), critiquing the form and flow of the article (readability), and viewpoint (significance and implications). This homework option provides students with a framework for understanding what precisely they should be gleaning from and considering in any given empirical report. Consider assigning this assignment to individual students or as an alternative. Assign a research article to the entire class and ask one third of the students to concentrate on the first part of the assignment (the article), which focuses on context, helping them understand the professional context in which the study was conducted. One third can concentrate on the second part (your critique), which focuses on study aims, organization of the article, clarity of narrative, and accessibility of language; methods; and findings. Finally, one third of the students can concentrate on the third part (your viewpoint), which asks them to critique the study for significance to social work practice, the quality of the study (e.g., comprehensiveness), and the relationship among the study’s aims, methods, and conclusions. They can then report to the class, taking turns reporting on one item from the guide so that everyone has a chance to contribute to the process, then moving to a second round. The next section addresses outreach to and engagement of potential group members.

Outreach and Engagement Once students understand the foundation principles of planning, they are ready to consider the elements of outreach and engagement in group service. Begin this discussion by distributing Handout 4.12, “Essential Characteristics of the Engagement Interview” and reviewing it with the class. Reviewing the handout helps students create a structure for contact with (a) potential members, for example, to determine the nature of need; (b) prospective members, that is, people whose needs seem to fit and who can participate in a dialogue; or (c) people who might be interested in participating in a group but whose needs may not be a good fit with the group the worker has in mind and who need support for moving in another direction. Class Exercise With a Focus on Engagement Students often strive to find an effective way to recruit group members. Therefore, it is a sound idea to spend time in class giving them the opportunity to practice. Role playing is useful here in helping students consider all the elements of successful pregroup contact. The older adult whose grown child has died is an especially good choice for this practice opportunity. The purpose of this role-play exercise is to offer students an opportunity to practice the engagement of potential members in a group (see Figure 4.5). Reviewing an interview guide (Handout 4.10) on what is to be included in a pregroup interview (the purpose of which is to compare what the worker has in mind with what potential group members might like) will help students to orient themselves to the kind of conversation that is important to have with people who are considering

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but perhaps are not yet sold on Figure 4.5 Class exercise role play: Why should I join? It won’t help. joining the group the worker has in mind. Thus, the engagement Assume the role of a potential group member and ask the rest of the class to play the social worker trying to recruit you as a group process reflected in this role play member. Play the older person whose adult child has died (from the goes one step of practice beyond scenario in Figure 4.3), and the rest of the class all attempt to interest the interview to ascertain need you in the new group. Play the role as realistically as possible, raising genuine objections to recruitment. For instance, you may say, “What and desire, to help people join good will it do talking to others as miserable as I am? We’ll just make and commit to a group that is each other even unhappier,” or “It’s too personal. I don’t want to talk about such things with strangers,” or “My life is over. It won’t help.” already well thought out precisely As the potential group member, first react negatively to students’ because pregroup initial planning invitation, who often become increasingly desperate to sell you took place. Conducting this on the group, even to the point of sounding a bit like a used-car exercise that allows time for salesman. For example, they tend to lose their sense of humanity, forgetting to ask how you are or finding out what is most difficult review, reflection, and redirection for you. If you need to, move out of the role periodically to point out as needed may take up to 30 their hard-sell tactics and ask them to use more effective techniques, such as expressing empathy, compassion, concern, and even curiosity minutes. about how things are going for you. By the end of the exercise, This concludes the section students should be able to talk with potential group members and on prospective planning, which interact more effectively with them. today is given short shrift yet If you have time, you may choose to repeat this exercise, using different scenarios and asking a student to take on the role of a plays a great part in the success of potential member. a group. The next section focuses on retrospective planning, that is, planning for practice with a group that is already in existence. The concept may not make sense at first glance, but retrospective planning sets the stage for success by helping the practitioner gain insight into the past, present, and potential future of a group that he or she is about to enter and prepare for entry in a manner that helps rather than hinders his or her integration as a new member (in this case a new worker, who is a new figure of authority).

Part B: Retrospective Planning Groups often continue to function as workers come and go. It is important for students to understand that even in such cases, many components of the Kurland (p. 59) planning model have value in preparing for practice, such as reviewing needs and goals of the members (what brought them to the group and their present goals) and how those needs and goals are being addressed by the group’s overall purpose, if there is one. Therefore, reviewing the planning categories of the Kurland planning model can help a worker develop a perspective of the group’s past, or why it was formed; its present, or where things stand now; and its future, or if changes are in order such as a change in purpose. Entering a group whose members know one another and where norms are probably already established has many challenges not only for new members generally but for the worker in particular because of his or her position of authority. For example, the group may have become attached to the prior worker, and now the newcomer must prove his or her worth. Or the group may have had difficulties with the prior worker,

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also posing challenges for the new worker, who, for the moment anyway, is an object of transference and thus perceived as negative until proven otherwise. In either case, the new worker must not only prove his or her worth to the group but has the daunting task of understanding the group in the context of its past, present, and future. After you introduce the concept of retrospective planning, distribute and Figure 4.6 Categories for planning retrospectively for practice with groups. review with students Handout 4.4., “A Guide to Retrospective Planning for Needs: commonalities and differences in needs, wants, Practice With Groups” as an addendum drives, problems, issues, or areas of concern among people in the group from the time it was formed until the to the Kurland planning model when time the worker enters the group initiating practice with an existing group. Purpose: commonalities and differences in goals the Figure 4.6 contains highlights in each group is pursuing collectively, including objectives of each category that apply to retrospective group member from the time the group was formed to the time the worker enters the group planning, but Handout 4.4 provides Composition: changes and reasons for change in the numerous examples of questions and number and characteristics of members and workers considerations in each category as well. participating in the group since its beginning Once students understand the value Structure: concrete arrangements over management of the group (such as meeting time, fees, etc.), with special of using the Kurland planning model to attention to challenges, such as differences of opinion help them plan new groups from scratch, among members or among agency staff regarding time, Handout 4.4 will help them understand space, fees, and so on how to differentially apply a planning Content: means routinely used to achieve the purpose for which the group meets, with special attention to the process to work with a group already in degree to which the content seems to fit with or advances motion. group members’ current goals In the best of all possible worlds, Pregroup contact (engagement): methods used to prepare current members for and to engage with the reflecting on the questions and issues group, including the degree to which their needs and in Handout 4.4 helps to ensure that goals were reviewed to assess goodness of fit everyone involved with the group Agency context: how the current group is viewed by (worker, agency, members, significant administration and staff, the nature of support or lack of support for the group’s capacity to meet members’ needs others, etc.) share a common view of and achieve its overall purpose, and systemic challenges the group’s purpose, and through that faced by the group common ground, collaborate to help Social context: the degree to which external influences in the community (social, economic, political, etc.) may move the group forward. Although affect the group’s ability to meet members’ needs and the group is in existence, every time a to achieve its overall purpose (e.g., reduction in funding, person enters the group a new group is social interest, etc.). created, with complexities even beyond those involved, from incorporating a new person to dealing with new developmental challenges. For example, the group may have met several times, but now because of a new member, it must swing between the beginning dynamics of members getting to know one another and its current developmental level (such as, group members normally voice their opinions freely, but is it still safe to do so with this new person in the room?). Or the worker might have to deal with a lack of purpose of the group because the group is based only on content (what members do together, talk about). A

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new worker who would like to ascertain an explicit group purpose to assess the quality of the process and progress of the group might cause group members to feel that what they are used to doing together is being impeded by this new authority figure. To meet the challenges of this scenario, that is, to be prepared with as much knowledge as possible about the group’s history, norms, goals, structure, and so on, and consider carefully each category of planning but from a slightly different perspective can help a worker enter the venue armed with understanding, insight, and realistic expectations that provide a context for his or her entry into the group. A framework for asking about the needs, goals, and structure of an existing group can also help the worker and group to bond as a new system, giving everyone the opportunity to find a common starting point. In short, the chance to review, compare, and contrast the past with the present helps to effect a smoother transition than simply one in which a new authority figure enters the circle.

Part C: Planning for Curriculum-Based Practice Although one might not automatically consider planning an important component of groups that function according to predetermined purpose or content, it is, in fact, just as integral to this type of practice because planning concepts help a worker analyze the nature and the degree of wiggle room for turning membership voices toward some degree of mutual aid. Two types of curriculum-directed (sometimes referred to as manualized curriculum) groups are bandied about in the literature. Curriculum-driven groups tend to be quite didactic, much more so than their curriculum-based counterparts. Both tend to have psychoeducational aims, however, focusing on the delivery of prescribed content. One might ask, then, what’s to plan? In fact, quite a lot of thought can and should be given to the planning stage for these groups. An essential task of practice is finding points when it is possible to initiate dialogue among members so that the process does not become simply a class lecture rather than a group. Clearly, in terms of group work, curriculum-based groups (CBGs) are way ahead of their counterparts in their ability to accommodate inter-member interaction toward the goal of mutual aid. Curriculum-driven groups (CDGs) tend to focus almost solely on imparting information with time for questions and answers but virtually no attention or intention on promoting inter-membership discussion about that information. Both types of groups follow some time-based and content-oriented manual, that is, predetermined purpose and content, but CBGs allow more discretion in blending process and content than do CDGs. The degree to which workers do that, of course, depends on their ability to understand why, how, and when to do so; the rest of this discussion focuses on teaching students to think about just that. The central principles of practice for CBG work are similar to those that apply to any practice from a manual. That is, information considered of value must be imparted. Thus, certain content must be covered related to the group’s purpose in each meeting; meetings are not just a series of free-flowing expressions of mutual support. However,

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the presumption with CBG work, as opposed to CDG work, is that the worker has in fact some degree of discretion to identify choice moments for helping group members integrate content by talking about it rather than simply receiving it passively from the worker through such things as lectures, handouts, or PowerPoint presentations. On the other hand, the experiences of members in a CDG are not expected to actively contribute to group process. Rather, the practitioner is and remains the central asset in charge of delivering presumably relevant and useful information to recipient attendees. Application of Mainstream Theories and Practice Principles In addition to having their purposes or content areas predetermined, as identified in the manual, CBGs have several similarities with short-term groups (Steinberg, 2014) and are often quite time limited and require more structure than long-term or openended groups (Steinberg, 2014). Thus, an important task of planning is to ensure synchronicity between purpose and time frame. It is also important for students to understand that structure in this context is not synonymous with imposition of authoritarian leadership. Rather, it refers to the worker’s use of authority to achieve the following ends: 1. Set the stage for practice that begins with a specific mind-set and includes pregroup planning especially regarding clarity and consensus of group purpose and a written contract that focuses on process as well as the work 2. Promote group members’ voices and mutual aid whenever possible 3. Mediate between the group and the system in which it operates if there seems to be a poor fit among members’ needs, goals, and capacities and organizational expectations Clearly, these are important tasks of planning regardless of group type. The mere fact that one is working with a curriculum, however, suggests a certain rigidity of expectations by the system, meaning that paying close attention to goodness of fit between needs and goals as perceived by all stakeholders is imperative if the group experience is to have any impact other than being a place to put clients for a period of time. The following issues are especially key, therefore, in planning for curriculum-based practice: worker mind-set, group purpose, group contract, and promoting mutual aid. WORKER MIND-SET

First, a worker mind-set in CBG practice recognizes the importance of voice, the right of people to participate in their destiny, and thus the need to balance process with content if process is to reflect social work in action (see Units 1 and 3). Group process (function) and content (task) are always closely intertwined (Shulman, 2012), and students need to understand the impact of each on the other. For instance, what is it about the content of the moment that is causing members to look uneasy or to be silent or to chat away in subgroups? Something about the moment (content) must be affecting

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the process, and eventually, the reverse might be true. Process, such as disagreement with direction, whether permitted or not, affects or changes, for example, the content. Thus, a central question for CBG practice, as with short-term practice (Steinberg, 2014), is this: Should the worker intervene to explore the nature and meaning of the process, or should the worker simply ask the group to move on, which means moving to the next piece of scheduled content? Furthermore, in either case, one must ask about the implications. What happens to important content if the group slows down to examine its process? Or in contrast, how does moving on affect the desire and ability of group members to take in the next piece of content? How much time does the curriculum allow for inter-member interaction? Finally, what are the implications for the group and for the system in which it operates if the group wishes to change direction or the entire curriculum is not met? It is essential for students to understand that any choice has implications, and a class exercise that asks them to anticipate choice points, or strategic moments when they might take one direction or another, can help them anticipate some advantages and disadvantages of either choice. Consider asking subgroups to imagine a scenario in which group members have become completely silent. Give them 20 minutes to anticipate some (a) advantages, disadvantages, and implications of ignoring the silence and simply moving on with content and (b) advantages, disadvantages, and implications of interrupting the flow of content to explore the meaning of the silence with the group. A central question for practice in this case is, Which direction will best help the group move forward without sacrificing essential curriculum content? It is neither an obvious nor easy choice, but the art and skill (Malekoff, Salmon, & Steinberg 2006) of CBG practice here is recognizing that content and process affect each other and thinking strategically ahead of time, hence, the need for a pregroup planning process that includes reviewing the curriculum and the time for integrating group voices where they might pack the greatest punch. If considering both directions seems too much in terms of time allowed for each group, have some groups consider the first set of options and other groups consider the second, and then compare results for discussion. GROUP PURPOSE

Experience and anecdotal evidence indicate that all too often organizational expectations of group services far outweigh the time given to practice, which then transforms what might be a curriculum-based experience (balancing the delivery of informational content with some space for inter-member process) into one that is curriculum driven (essentially didactic). Thus, understanding why, when, and how to address the group’s purpose (see Unit 4) so that it is realistic, or entails a review with the group, tweaking the manual, or systemic advocacy for changing expectations, is crucial for students who expect to practice this type of social work. They have opportunities to do it with pregroup planning exercises in this unit and with an exercise offered later in this unit that asks students to imagine advocating on behalf of a group to change its purpose from one that seems neither relevant nor useful to its members to one that has the group’s consensus.

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Given time constraints, it can be useful to present the members of a CBG with a proposed contract in outline form that identifies basic norms for any group, such as respect, listening to others, and 100% tolerance for the expression of all ideas and feelings in ways that are not offensive. The worker can then engage the CBG group in a discussion about applicability and invite suggestions for different or additional norms that are group specific. It is important for students to understand that proposing a basic contract and asking for a review, discussion, and modifications is not an imposition. Rather, it recognizes the parameters in which the group must operate and attempts to create choice points for actions or interventions that best help the group to achieve its purpose. In this case the question is whether to take a great deal of time to build a contract from the ground up when the worker knows the generic values already or to move the process along by helping members examine, discuss, and perhaps modify what is proposed. With the former direction, group members can reflect on desirable group values and norms and to develop a contract they feel they truly own. There is no doubt that such a process requires time, however. With the latter choice, the group does not take the time any group might need to struggle with creating a contract from scratch but rather reviews the outline of a basic contract and changes it in a way that reflects the group’s needs and characteristics, making good use of time without losing members’ voices completely. To help students practice this task, a useful classroom exercise is to assign subgroups a particular population such as an adolescent group, high-functioning older adults, or young people with mental illness with the aim of providing as much a variety of client groups as possible. Giving the exercise about 20 minutes, ask each subgroup to create a proposed contract with at least five norms for its client group along with one or two examples of how each norm might be reflected or expressed by that group. When time is up, ask each subgroup to share its proposed contract and examples. Students will see that the core norms of the contracts are the same, reflecting the basic norms of good group citizenship, so that if one were to propose a basic contract for review to any group, it would likely look pretty similar with some of the same norms along with additions for specific compositional characteristics. Thus, presenting a potential basic contract to a group could save valuable time for other activities, such as discussing the group purpose to achieve consensual understanding and agreement. PROMOTING MUTUAL AID

Choice points can be also used purposefully and strategically to help group members identify and harness their strengths, and in so doing, enable them to contribute to the experience as well as take from it, a concept that is integral to social work practice (Bernstein, 1973; Glassman, 2009; Hartford, 1971; Konopka, 1978; McNicoll, 2012; Northen, 2004; Northen & Kurland, 2001; Steinberg, 2014). Generally, identifying and harnessing strengths evolve naturally from the group process as members interact. In the case of CBG practice, however, moments when members’ voices pack the greatest punch need to be recognized and seized because there are not all that many given the

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mandate in the manual to impart a certain definitive amount of information. In tuning in to members’ needs and goals, therefore, as well as to those of the setting (mission, policies, and expectations), the worker has to anticipate points in the curriculum when members’ voices can be the most beneficial to the group. For example, has any member met a specific challenge successfully, or can anyone suggest a strategy for meeting a specific challenge in the future? As noted in the literature (e.g., Northen & Kurland, 2001; Steinberg, 2014) the use of professional authority in social work practice with groups is best directed toward education to help members develop a structure for functioning that advances individual and collective growth. For this to take place, however, the worker must make room for members to affect the structure and function of the group. When members are given the right to do so they can use their voices to that end. Students need to understand, therefore, that every opportunity (choice point) for giving members of the CBG a say over the group’s affairs within the parameters set by the curriculum must be identified, preferably ahead of time, as in pregroup planning, and seized. The question for practice in this case is where in the curriculum might group members’ situations or experiences be helpful to co-members, a question that brings the discussion full circle back to pregroup planning as well as practice. In reviewing the curriculum as a component of planning, the worker must ask where the points are when it would be most beneficial for group members to hear from peers. At which points would peer feedback be most helpful? At which points would asking members to help one another help them to feel empowered? Thus, just because the worker may have an answer to a question or have sound advice at the ready, one way of helping members of a CBG to integrate the content of that curriculum is to anticipate moments when asking them to help one another will create a strengths-centered process even within the constraints of curriculum-based work. The Mediating Role in CBG Practice Finally, worker as mediator takes on real significance in practice with CBGs. As scholars and theoreticians have noted (Kaiser, 1958; Newstetter, 1935; Papell & Rothman, 1980; Phillips, 1957; Roberts & Northen, 1976; Schwartz, 1977; Wilson & Ryland, 1949), and most particularly William Schwartz (Berman-Rossi, 1994), the direct-service social worker is in a position to mediate between organizations and the people they purport to serve. Composed of human beings, organizations sometimes do not get it right, resulting in a poor fit between organizational expectations and client needs as perceived by the clients. For example, a curriculum might offer much more information than members can reasonably ingest in the time allotted, especially if they are allowed to interact to any degree. Thus, the question for practice here is how to make sure the group experience is useful, how to make it relevant and meaningful for the consumer? Ultimately, it is the obligation of the practitioner, who has direct contact with both parties, to help each party understand the goals of the other and to work things out so that real needs of real people are really met (Schwartz, 1961).

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As with identifying choice points to integrate process with content, the task of mediating is not an easy one, and furthermore, it is a political activity requiring skills of diplomacy. With that in mind, consider engaging students in a classroom exercise to help them practice this role. For example, they have heard the needs and goals perceived by the clients (pick any scenario from this unit or from Unit 5). They also have a mandate to deliver the content of a specific curriculum to those clients, leaving them to feel that the goodness of fit between the two is poor. What now? The following are the choice points, with a few possible directions: 1. The worker can ignore what has been expressed by group members (actual, potential, or prospective) and simply carry out the content-based mandate of the organization. This direction transforms curriculum-based practice into curriculum-driven practice with all its implications. 2. The worker can ignore the mandate to provide certain curriculum-based content to clients and form (or engage) a group in a manner they believe is more commensurate with the group’s needs and goals. Clearly, this direction reflects unethical behavior as a professional practitioner and as an employee. 3. The worker can attempt to help members, or clients if the group is not yet formed, to develop (or personally develop on their behalf) a proposal to management asking for change that would either make the curriculum more realistic or allow the group to veer from it altogether to meet certain needs. A skill from Middleman and Wood (1990) particularly relevant to the role of mediator in this context is talking in the idiom of the other; consider giving students an opportunity to practice this skill in a classroom exercise. This skill refers to the fact that sometimes people speak in a jargon associated with their role or use metaphors or symbols that hold special meaning. For example, someone might say that the agency demand for weekly physical check-ins threw a client a real curve ball, or when they are asked to report on their week in group meetings they feel a sense of performance anxiety, or when they rose to an occasion they hit a home run. Regardless of actual context, sometimes using the language, symbols, or metaphors of the other creates better hearing (see Handout 4.13, “Skills for Practice with Curriculum-Based Groups”). If time permits or you know that many students will work in such a context, consider a classroom exercise that provides an opportunity to practice this mediating role generally and use this skill in particular. The task would be to develop a proposal for change to the group either in the curriculum or in the time allowed. The scenario would consist of a meeting with agency management using language that describes the incentives for the agency to make the change. For example, management is usually interested in cost efficiency, thus, explaining the potential of the proposal to avoid recidivism might be the kind of idiom that administrators would hear. Because the proposal is perceived as useful by its community, management would also be interested in meeting the changing needs of constituents, in which case bringing a proposal that identifies new needs and strategies for meeting those needs might meet with some success.

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Summary Planning for practice with groups is essential, although today the field does not always allow workers enough time to prepare and focuses too often on groups that make c-en-t-s rather than groups that make s-e-n-s-e, as Ruth Middleman was heard to say. Nonetheless, planning a group that meets its members’ needs requires a great deal of data collection from representatives of the system where it operates (e.g., management, colleagues, and referral sources); from potential group members and quite possibly significant others in and outside the organization, such as family members or friends; and from historical sources of information, like services provided to similar populations or targeting similar needs or similar settings. The data the worker collects before practice contain a useful needs assessment that will help to ensure the group is meaningful and relevant to the group members, its consumers. Furthermore, whether the group is initially developed at the time of planning or has already met, perhaps with a previous worker, or has the constraint of operating according to a manual, attention to planning concepts as identified in the Kurland (p. 59) planning model can help the worker set the stage for a successful, meaningful, substantive, and relevant experience.

Sample Lecture on Planning for Social Work Practice With Groups After the class has had time to examine and explore the implications of retrospective planning, pull together the material on pregroup planning, presenting a summary of the content in a brief lecture. Use your own experience and predilections, making use of the articles in the reference list at the end of this unit. To offer you a clear sense of what is needed and useful for students, feel free to embellish, enlarge, or change this content to suit your own teaching style. Use it in full or in part depending on your circumstances to convey the importance of taking as much time needed to review and use the planning model for group work practice that promotes success. Sample Lecture The choice to spend all this time on planning has been purposeful because it is all too frequently neglected altogether or done summarily. Yet it is the single most important reason for the failure of many social work groups. The components we have discussed (need, purpose, composition, structure, content, pregroup contact, agency context, and social context) also provide a framework for understanding practice with groups already in existence as well as curriculum-based groups. Many questions relate to needs that the group is trying to meet; the nature of the group’s purpose, its composition and implications for content and process; and its structure such as the length of the meeting and whether it is or should be open or closed. Two points should be emphasized here. First, to plan a group does not mean to impose on people. As planning is carried out and service initiated, your initial ideas about any planning component may change, especially as you become better acquainted

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with potential or existing members or come across new related literature, perhaps suggesting a redirection of group purpose. Thus, the role of that empirical evidence is to allow you to practice in this ever-changing world according to emerging evidence about population, problem, or practice setting rather than by trial and error or from practice wisdom accumulated over time but perhaps no longer relevant. Most important, you must be flexible and open to changing formulations. There is always more information and knowledge out there. but that does not negate the importance of developing specific ideas and making some decisions during your planning process. Having a baseline of consideration for planning allows you to tweak if necessary, whereas having no planning foundation simply causes floundering without method. Second, you need to appreciate the interrelatedness of the planning model’s components. Inevitably, decisions in one area affect decisions in the others. For example, refinement of needs may suggest a slight redirection of potential purpose. Furthermore, some components take on great meaning for some groups and not for others. For example, fees may apply in one setting but not another. Or the nature of composition will undoubtedly propose the nature of content. You will see, with practice, that different decisions can be critical for different groups and that some areas of consideration hold little practical meaning for some groups but much meaning for others. In short, planning is all about relevance, which means accountability, evaluation, and effectiveness. These concepts are not new to social work, of course. We know that for any help to occur, it must be perceived as meaningful by people we call clients. Thus, evidence of that relevance and its impact on service must be constantly sought not only during practice from planning to termination but understood as practice. It comes to you from a feedback loop that has at one pole the perception of relevance by group members, and at the other, responsive action by you or your work setting. In its purest form, whether or not your practice is effective comes from what consumers, your group members, have to say, from, “Yes, this process has meaning for me and is helping me,” which moves practice in one direction, to “No, this process does not have meaning for me and is not helping me,” which should move your practice in another direction. The concept of evidence as important in group work practice is not new. In the early 20th century, for example, as social work attempted to identify itself as a profession, schools of social work began to teach practice as a process rooted in science (Wilson, 1976) and rooted in knowledge (Coyle, 1948) rather than emotion or intuition. Since then, as the field has sought its place as a formal profession, there has been growing interest in the role and value of relying on scientific evidence in planning, shaping, and evaluating our work (e.g., Macgowan, 2008; Pollio, 2002, 2006; Rose, 2009). Today, it is generally agreed that relevance is at the base of good practice. The only real debate left in the profession is perhaps the definition of evidence. For example, does knowledge from practice wisdom qualify as evidence? Or does the only real evidence come from empirical research? And even further, must that research be quantitative, or does qualitative research also count? What does this mean for group work practice? As Macgowan (2008) notes, “The process” [of evidence-based practice] is not “the mindless application of rules and

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guidelines … but rather … the worker’s thoughtful consideration of the research evidence: worker, values, ethics, knowledge, skills, and experience; and client and group situation” (p. 11). It is, in other words, a package deal composed of several components, all of which must be considered in shaping practice. As we turn to examine a planning model for social work practice with groups, you will see the many places where knowing what has been already tried and tested is helpful. To begin with, here are the eight components of the planning model in greater detail, to be discretely considered and differentially applied, as Macgowan (2008) suggests, along with available research, professional values and ethics, and the particulars of your practice setting. CONTEXT (SOCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL)

Context is everything in social work, with the larger sociopolitical and organizational environments affecting service delivery. Both contexts need consideration, therefore, in terms of political climate (which can affect policies, norms, funding, etc.) and organizational climate (e.g., regulatory mandates, mission, history of groups and groupbased services, resources personal and otherwise) NEEDS

A common error of workers is to formulate a need for service in their own heads and then impose it on potential members without ever determining clients’ felt needs. A needs assessment cannot be done in a vacuum, however. It requires client involvement, and clearly it requires some knowledge of related research to understand what is known or not yet known about your population, your setting, or the problems that might be targeted for group service. Consider, for example, a student placed in a housing project who learns that a number of families are being asked to leave because their teenage children are in trouble with the police. To prevent difficulty in the future, she decides to form a group of mothers of latency-age children who are having trouble in school. It sounds like a good idea, but despite a great deal of effort on her part, no one comes to meetings. Had she asked the mothers how they viewed such a group, she would have learned about their fear of being identified by the housing authority as parents of troublesome kids. She would also have learned that their fear of getting evicted from the project is far greater than their desire for help, even though they do want help in this area. Had the student been aware of these fears, she would have been able to present the group differently. Further, perusing the related literature might have informed her about other services to this population. How do you go about assessing need? Above all else, you talk to people. You hang out, talk with potential members about their wants, concerns, struggles. You talk with people in the community, however defined, and with relevant others, such as staff, teachers, nurses, and parents. In short, you do all you can to tune in to their lives and environments. You also imaginatively consider looking at what services have been tried and tested and which have not been tried. You look for themes, things people say over and over, for startling information. Then, you formulate some ideas and talk to people

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again, potential clients, people in the community, workers, relevant others, including perhaps management, to test your ideas. Do they click? Finally, as you examine and assess all the available knowledge related to your target population, you determine goodness of fit between what you learn and what you think might be a useful and meaningful group service. You cannot begin to formulate a group purpose without first knowing about needs as identified or articulated from these various perspectives. In the case of a curriculum-based group, this process includes a review of the curriculum for goodness of fit with what you learn from and about the clients intended for that group. PURPOSE AND CONTENT

The next component to consider is group purpose. Many workers have problems formulating a clear group purpose and confuse purpose—the why of a group—and content—what the group does. Consider the fuzziness of purpose in the following excerpt from a student assignment. Looking back at her first-year group experience, she wrote: My supervisor somehow knew that I knew how to cook, and my assignment was to form a cooking group, drawing the participants from a pre-existing teen organization. After the third session the group fell apart. I suppose I was never exactly sure what the purpose of the group was supposed to be. My supervisor kept stressing how I was supposed to use the group as a vehicle for expression to verbalize conflicts that came up and issues that occurred in the girls’ daily experiences. I never quite knew how to use the group for this purpose. It was clear to me the girls saw it as nothing more than a cooking group, which was what it was supposed to be . . . or wasn’t it? This excerpt also illustrates another common error regarding purpose: the all-toofrequent hidden agenda. Practitioners frequently form a group with a stated purpose that is in reality secondary to the worker’s real or hidden purpose. The worker’s hidden purpose usually goes something like, “The purpose of the group is to allow clients’ honest expression of feelings about what really is of concern in their inner lives.” That is not what is presented to clients, however. They are more likely to hear, “The purpose of the group is for you to come together to discuss current events.” However, when disparity exists between a stated and hidden group purpose, the social worker violates the values of respect for the client and informed consumerism. For a worker to state and for members to understand one purpose and then pursue another is highly manipulative and often results in clients’ being labeled as resistant or not ready. In this example, group members believe they are there to discuss current events, but the worker is likely to push them toward an expression of feelings, attitudes, and values as they relate to those events. There is an ethics principle involved here: If you cannot say it to clients, you have no right to do it. Another common error is for the purpose to be stated stating the purpose in such general terms that it is virtually meaningless. For example, to say that a group is a rap group really indicates little about purpose, the why of it. It merely indicates that the group will engage in talking. Similarly, words like therapy, socialization, and support are general terms that do not really indicate a meaningful group purpose that can serve as a

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concrete reference point to assess group process and progress. A group’s purpose must be stated specifically enough so that (a) each member can repeat it without seeing it in writing because it is stated that simply, and (b) the group can use it as a reference point for determining progress, asking, “Are we moving toward this goal?” Finally, another common error is to confuse purpose and content. When asked about the purpose of their group, practitioners often respond by describing content, what it does, or process, how it does what it does. For example, they might say, “The purpose of the group is to help members talk about so and so.” But to talk about reflects content, that is, what the group does or will do. Content is the means used to achieve a group purpose, an end goal. To identify a group purpose, the worker needs to ask to what end this group will carry out its work, its content. That is its purpose. Thus, clarity of purpose exists when the following conditions are met: 1. The purpose of the group can be stated clearly and concisely by clients and worker. 2. The stated purpose is the same for clients and worker, even if expressed in different words. 3. The purpose is specific enough to provide direction and implications for what the group should do (its content). 4. The purpose is specific enough for clients and worker to know when it has been achieved. COMPOSITION

To describe a group merely as heterogeneous or homogenous is neither useful nor accurate. Groups cannot be described simply in one word. Instead, the worker should identify the dimensions that make a group either homogeneous or heterogeneous and identify the important areas of commonality and difference. The issues for practice are essentially twofold: the degree to which commonalities are important variables in helping members come together and work together, such as age, situations, experiences, and perhaps cultural backgrounds or circumstances, and the degree to which differences are important in helping to keep the group stimulated and stimulating, such as interaction style or experiences. The trick is to compose a group in which there is enough commonality to help members relate to one another (e.g., shared needs and goals) but also enough difference in any number of areas to provide contrast and stimulation. This latter dimension will help group members consider new ways of looking at old problems. STRUCTURE

Concrete arrangements always need to be made for group service. Meetings will be how long and how frequent? Will there be fees? What are the needs regarding confidentiality, and by implication, the potential for mandated reporting?

82  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION PREGROUP CONTACT (ENGAGEMENT)

Workers often believe that being direct with potential group members, saying difficult or unpleasant things, will scare them off or insult them. Quite the contrary. Clearly, workers should choose their words carefully, but they should also avoid being roundabout. In truth, when a worker is direct in stating his or her perception of a potential member’s needs and identifies ways service could be helpful, clients usually feel great relief. “Finally,” they think, “here is a worker who understands my needs and experiences and is proposing a group that can really address my needs.” Pregroup planning only began to appear in the literature as a serious practice issue in the 1980s. Today, it is embraced by many group work authors, and their discussion has been conceptually strong and vigorous. However, despite this encouraging fact pregroup planning in the field continues to be neglected. Why so? First, social workers place great emphasis on client self-determination. Some might view planning as manipulative, hence, as a negation of this important social work principle. Quite the opposite is true, however. Pregroup planning does not diminish the opportunity for self-determination. In fact, it enhances it, because increased clarity about the group that results from careful planning increases clients’ ability to make a clear and informed decision about participation. Is the group right for that person? Could it be useful to be with others who share common concerns and goals? When the worker identifies ways mutual aid could benefit clients so they make an informed decision, the possibility of manipulation is removed, and the opportunity for client self-determination, which we might call antioppressive practice, is increased. Second, social work’s traditional emphasis on action and on doing may be in play. Often, social workers equate helping with busyness; that is, the amount of help is in direct proportion to how visibly busy a worker is. Numbers become important—how many meetings, how many people? Quantity counts and quality becomes secondary. The sentiment seems to be, “As long as 10 were at the meeting and they talked a lot, it was good, and I did something.” Planning is a rather outwardly passive activity; thus, in their haste to get busy and do something, workers often cut short the process or leave it out altogether. In fact, once they know the complexities of planning, they come to see that it is a very active and valuable process. Third, in addition to more successful groups (and thus better service for clients), thorough and thoughtful pregroup planning has two benefits not immediately obvious. First, it increases a worker’s self-confidence, because workers who know what they are doing and why feel more sure of themselves. They do a better job. If they do their homework, they are able to really listen to clients, to really respond, and to be flexible. Second, planning helps workers, almost forces them in fact, to obtain a much better idea of individual members (their environments, contexts, backgrounds, communities, cultures, attitudes, points of view, and concerns) than if they begin a group without ever having communicated in any depth with members or know which types of services have already been tried and tested with similar clients. Through planning, workers become

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immersed in a process that leads to an in-depth understanding of the group, which is crucial to good group work practice. Sample Lecture Summary The most important thing you get from this material is knowing the degree to which attention to planning, whether proactive or retroactive and whether superimposed onto groups that must function according to a curriculum, can help you help a group to be successful. Although agency work today is often fraught with caseloads that are too large and paperwork requirements that take more hours than available, time for planning is worth fighting for. Lack of attention to need and purpose especially but also to all the components of planning is the single greatest cause of group failure, leading to bored members who then do not participate even in a mandatory group, or to members’ leaving prematurely because perhaps they do not see an explicit enough connection between their needs and the group’s actions. In either case you, the worker, and your agency have set up you and your group for failure.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • Cursory attention to planning and preparation is probably the single most important reason for the failure of many groups, too often consisting of brief attention to only temporal issues like time and place. However, lack of attention to planning can lead to lack of clarity on the group’s purpose, bored group members, and even premature termination. or if attendance is mandatory, presence in form only, not in commitment or action. • Even if group purpose or content is predetermined by a curriculum, addressing the components of planning vis-à-vis the projected group can help the worker to better understand the juxtaposition between clients’ needs and the material contained in the curriculum and to better prepare for social work practice by locating wiggle room in that curriculum to promote the mutual-aid process. • Understanding and applying the principles of EBGW to planning allows the practitioner to use all available evidence regarding the nature, relevance, and utility of potential interventions and clearly distinguishes the professional from the para- or preprofessional or nonprofessional technician. It also keeps practice, and thus the practitioner, honest by providing a framework for determining an appropriate course of action. • The concepts of relevance, accountability, evaluation, and effectiveness (thus, reliance on evidence) are not new ideas in social group work. Any helping process must be perceived as relevant by those being helped, at least if the help offered is to reflect the value base of professional social work. Thus, evidence of that relevance and its personal impact must be constantly sought not only during group work practice but understood as group work practice.

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• In the early 20th century, schools of social work began to teach practice as a process rooted in scientifically based knowledge rather than emotion or intuition. Since that time there has been a growing interest in the role and professional value of relying on evidence in planning, shaping, and evaluating practice. • Before working with a new group or entering an existing group, all eight components of the Kurland planning model should be considered, with attention to all sources of knowledge. • Work with groups from an evidence base consists of a systematic process with components that can be learned and applied in a practical way. • Planning material requires considerable teaching time but provides the foundation and a framework for understanding groups in context and in successful practice. • Providing students with opportunities to practice planning, including a search for related research literature, and to practice recruitment and engagement skills in the classroom helps bring to life the activities required to plan groups in their varied work settings, including any commonalities or differences across their settings, target populations, and so on. • Based on the premise that groups are always become new with the addition or removal of even one participant (a member or the worker), a framework to ask about such factors as needs, goals, and structure of an existing group can also help the worker and group to bond as a new system. • Handout 4.4, “A Guide to Retrospective Planning for Practice With Groups,” builds on the Kurland planning model to help workers review the past, present, and potential of an existing group, effecting a more informed and smoother transition with a new worker than one that consists simply of a new authority figure entering the circle. • Several skills are at the practitioner’s disposal to engage in EBGW. One set focuses on seeking evidence to develop and shape service. Another focuses on the integration of applicable evidence. The third set, taken from the large group-specific set of skills by Middleman and Wood (1990), pertains to collaborating with group members in applying evidence to actual practice.

References Berman-Rossi, T. (Ed). (l994). Social work: The collected writings of William Schwartz. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock. Bernstein, S. (1973). Values and group work. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Further explorations in group work (pp. 145–179). Boston, MA: Milford House. Birnbaum, M., & Cicchetti, A. (2001). The power of purposeful sessional endings in each group encounter. Social Work with Groups, 23(3), 37–52. Birnbaum, M.,, Mason, S., & Cicchetti, A. (2003). Impact of purposeful sessional endings on both the group and the practitioner. Social Work with Groups, 25(4), 3–19.

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Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS. aspx Coyle, G. (1948). Group work with American youth. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills-building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Kaiser, C. (1958). The social group work process. Social Work, 3(2), 67–75. Konopka, G. (1978). The significance of social group work based on ethical values. Social Work with Groups, 1(2), 123–131. Kurland, R. (1982). Group formation: A guide to the development of successful groups. New York, NY: United Neighborhood Centers of America. Kurland, R. (1978). Planning: The neglected component of group development. Social Work with Groups, 1(2) 173–178. Macgowan, M. (2008). A guide to evidence-based group work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Malekoff, A., Salmon, R., & Steinberg, D. M. (2006). Making joyful noise: The art, science, & soul of group work. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. McNicoll, P. (Ed.). (2012). Pursuit of social justice in group work [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 35(3). McTaggart, R. (1995). Action research: A short modern history. Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Deakin University. Middleman, R., &Wood, G. G (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Newstetter, W. (1935). What is social group work? Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work, pp. 291–299. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Northen, H. (2004). Ethics and values in group work. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 76–90). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Papell, C., & Rothman, B. (1980). Relating the mainstream model of social work with groups to group psychotherapy and the structured group approach. Social Work with Groups, 3(2), 5–23. Phillips, H. (1957). Essentials of social group work skill. New York, NY: Association Press. Pollio, D. (2002). The evidence-based group worker. Social Work with Groups, 25(4), 57–70. Pollio, D. (2006). The art of evidence-based practice. Research on Social Work Practice, 16, 224–232. Roberts, R., & Northen, H. (Eds.). (1976). Theories of social work with groups. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Rose, S. (2009). A review of effectiveness of group work with children of divorce. Social Work with Groups, 32, 222–229. Schwartz, W. (l961). The social worker in the group. The Social Welfare Forum. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Schwartz, W. (1977). The interactionist approach. Encyclopedia of social work (17th ed., pp. 1328–1338). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers.

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Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Steinberg, D., M. (2010). Mutual aid: A contribution to best-practice social work. Social Work with Groups, 33, 53–68. Steinberg, D., M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson. Wilson, G. (1976). From practice to theory: A personalized history. In R. Roberts & H. Northen (Eds.), Theories of social work with groups (pp. 1–44). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Wilson, G., & Ryland, G. (1949). Social group work practice. Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Further Readings Abu-Samah, A. (1996). Using groups in research to empower the people. Groupwork, 9, 221–252. Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1989). Participatory action research and action science compared: A commentary. American Behavioral Scientist, 32, 612–623. Bales, R. (1950). Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bertcher, H. J., & Maple, F. (1985). Elements and issues in group composition. In M. Sundel, P. Glasser, R. Sarri, & R. Vinter (Eds.), Individual change through small groups (2nd ed., pp. 180–202). New York, NY: The Free Press. Botta, A., Cadet, T., & Maramaldi, P. (2015). Reflections on a quantitative, group-based mindfulness study with social work students. Social Work with Groups, 38, 93–105. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Brower, A., Arndt, R., & Ketterhagen, A. (2004). Very good solutions really do exist for group work research design problems. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.). Handbook of social work with groups (2nd ed., pp. 435–446). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Brown, L. (1991). Groups for Growth and Change. New York, NY: Longman. Caplan, T., & Thomas, H. (1998). Don’t worry, it’s just a stage he’s going through: A reappraisal of the stage theory of group work as applied to an open model treatment group for men who abuse women. Groupwork, 10, 231–250. Caplan, T., & Thomas, H. (2004). If we are all in the same canoe, why are we using different paddles? The effective use of common themes in diverse group situations. Social Work with Groups, 27, 53–74. Cohen, C., & Olshever, A. (2013). IASWG standards for social work practice with groups: Development, application, and evolution. Social Work with Groups, 36(2/3), 111–129. Cournoyer, B. (2004). The evidence-based social work (EBSW) skills book. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. DiStefano, L. G., Hobman, M., & Barker, M. (2013). The group topic evaluation scale: Preliminary validity, reliability, and use in psychoeducational groups. Social Work with Groups, 36(4), 292–303. Doel, M., & Orchard, K. 2006. Groupwork researchers as “temporary insiders.” Groupwork, 16(3), 46–70.

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Elliot, E. (2003). Moving in the space between researcher and practitioner. Child & Youth Care Forum, 32, 299–303. Finn, J., Jacobson, M., & Campana, J. (2004). Participatory research, popular education, and popular theater: Contributions to group work. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.). Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 326–343). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Fouché, C., & Lunt, N. (2009). Using groups to advance social work practice-based research. Social Work with Groups, 32(1/2), 47–63. Galinsky, M., Terzian, M., & Fraser, M. (2007). The art of groupwork practice with manualized curricula. Groupwork, 17(2), 74–92. Galinsky, M., Terzian, M., & Fraser, M. (2007). The art of groupwork practice with manualized curricula. Social Work with Groups 29(1), 11–26. Gambrill, E. (2006). Evidence-based practice and policy: Choices ahead. Research on Social Work Practice, 16, 338–357. Gant, L. (2004). Evaluation of group work. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.). Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 461–476). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Goodman, H. (2006). Organizational insight and the education of advanced group work practitioners. In A. Malekoff, R. Salmon, & D. M. Steinberg (Eds.), Making joyful noise: The art, science, and soul of group work (pp. 91–104). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Gordon, K. (1992). Evaluation for the improvement of groupwork practice. Groupwork, 5(1), 34–49. Healy, K. (2001). Participatory action research and social work. International Social Work, 44(1), 93–105. Henry, S. (1991). Group skills in social work: A four-dimensional approach (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Home, A. (1996). Enhancing research usefulness with adapted focus groups. Groupwork, 9(2), 128–138. Home, A., & Biggs, T. (2005). Evidence-based practice in the real world. Groupwork, 15(2), 39–50. Jacobson, M., & Rugeley, C. (2007). Community-based participatory research: Group work for social justice and community change. Social Work with Groups, 30(4), 21–40. Johnson, P., Beckerman, A., & Auerbach, C. (1997). Researching our own practice: Single system design for groupwork. Groupwork, 13(1), 57–72. Kelly, T., Lowndes, A., & Tolson, D. (2005). Advancing stages of group development. Groupwork, 15(2), 17–38. Kennis, S., McTaggart, R., & Nixon, R. (2013). The action research planner: Doing critical participatory action research. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (2006). Purpose: A misunderstood and misused keystone of group work practice. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 105–120. Letendre, J. (2007). Take your time and give it more: Supports and constraints to success in curricular school-based groups. Social Work with Groups 30(3), 65–84. Letendre, J. (2009). Curricular-based approach. In A. Gitterman & R. Salmon (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work with groups (pp. 70–72). New York, NY: Routledge. Letendre, J., & Mogro-Wilson, C. (2016). Practice wisdom meets evidence-based practice: Building capacity in agencies. Social Work with Groups, 39, 326–338. Lewis, C. (2006). “What works” in groupwork? Towards an ethical framework for measuring effectiveness. Groupwork, 16(3), 71–89.

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Macgowan, M. (2014). A standards-based inventory of foundation competencies in social work with groups: An empirical test in Scotland. Groupwork, 24(3), 6–25. Magen, R. (2004). Measurement issues. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.). Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 447–460). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Malekoff, A. (2007). A flexible organizing framework for group work with adolescents. Social Work with Groups, 30(3), 85–102. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Marsiglia, F. F. (2003). Culturally grounded approaches to social justice through social work with groups. In N. Sullivan, E. Mesbur, N. Lang, D. Goodman, & L. Mitchell (Eds.), Social work with groups: Social justice through personal, community, and societal change (pp. 79–90). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. McDermott, F. (2005). Researching groupwork. Groupwork, 15(1), 90–108. Mistry, T., & Brown, A. (1991). Black/White co‑working in groups. Groupwork, 4(2), 101–118. Northen, H. (1987). Selection of groups as the preferred modality of practice. In J. Lassner, Powell, K., & Finnegan, E. (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 19–33). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. O’Neal, G. S. (1999). Parent education groups: Using cultural literature during engagement phase. Groupwork, 11(2), 38–48. Papell, C., & Rothman, B. (1962). Social group work models: Possession and heritage. Journal of Education for Social Work, 2(2), 66–77. Pollio, D., & Macgowan, M. (Eds.). (2010). Evidence-based group work in community settings [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 33(2/3). Preston-Shoot, M. (1989). Using contracts in groupwork. Groupwork, 2(1), 36–47. Shulz, A., Israel, B., & Lantz, P. (2004). Assessing and strengthening characteristics of effective groups in community-based participatory research partnerships. In C. Garvin, L. Gutiérrez, & M. Galinsky (Eds.). Handbook of social work with groups (pp. 309–325). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Smith, M. (1995). Developing critical conversations about practice. Groupwork, 8(1), 34–48. Cohen, C., Macgowan, M., Garvin, C., & Muskat, B.(2013). IASWG Standards for social work with groups: Research, teaching, and practice [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 36(2/3). Spence, M. F., & Prevatt-Goldstein, B. (1995). Managing the tension between being task centred and being anti-oppressive. Groupwork, 8(2), 205–216. Steinberg, D. M. (1993). A study of the impact of group work education on social work practitioners’ work with groups. New York: City University of New York. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Sweifach, J., & Heft-LaPorte, H. (2007). A model for group work practice with ultraOrthodox Jewish victims of domestic violence. Social Work with Groups, 30(3), 29–46. Swift, P. (1996). Focusing on groups in social policy research. Groupwork, 9(2), 154–168. Taylor, G. (1996). Ethical issues in practice: Participatory social research and groups. Groupwork, 9(2), 110–127. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson. Walton, P. (1996). Focus groups and familiar social work skills: Their contribution to practitioner research. Groupwork, 9(2), 139–153.

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HANDOUT 4.1

Stages for Putting EBGW Into Action Formulate a practice question that can be answered (Macgowan, 2008, see pp. 21–31). Not only must the question be able to be answered (measurably in some way), but the process of answering it must be relevant to the needs of the group system. That is, the question must be impartial and intended to be really a question, not a solution in disguise. This means that the answer, if it suggests that practice should change in some way, will be accepted or at least addressed seriously. Questions of all types are appropriate in seeking practice effectiveness ranging from those related to the experience of membership (individual or collective and either content or process based) to desirable individual changes (e.g., needs and goals) to leadership (e.g., its nature, role, and style). Having a clear, relevant, and feasible group purpose, for example, provides one mechanism by which a measurable question might be formulated, such as, Has this group’s purpose, as identified and agreed on by its members, been achieved? Macgowan refers to the three-cornered keystone of this question design (problem formulation) process as MAP (member relevant, answerable, and practical): the degree to which the question is relevant to practice with this group at this time, answerable, and practical (2008, p. 31).

Search for Evidence As Macgowan (2008; see pp. 31–77) notes, this search must be effective (specifically target the question formulated) and efficient (able to get evidence as quickly as possible). He also notes there is an enormous and growing body of literature on many aspects of practice. It is essential, therefore, for one to know where to look for answers, and the first rule of thumb in this regard is to first seek sources of knowledge with the most rigor (high-quality research) and to move down the ladder, to sources less rigorous, such as authority-based knowledge

Examine the Evidence Critically Macgowan (2008; see pp. 78–167) proposes three areas for attention in our ability to critically examine evidence: rigor, impact, and applicability. He identifies rigor as “research merit” (p. 79), that is, its effectiveness in achieving the desired outcome. Research may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on its aims. Impact is defined as the nature and degree of significance to practice: Do the findings have actual clinical significance (as opposed to mere statistical significance)? Can one use the findings to assess the nature of practice? Are they clear and powerful enough to perhaps change practice from Approach X to Approach Y? Finally, applicability is defined as the degree to which the research findings are relevant and appropriate for the clinical situation in question. For example, do they support a change in practice with a group composed of these particular individuals at this time? Are the findings appropriate to the age range of the target population or culturally sensitive, and thus relevant, to this group?

Apply the Best Evidence With Judgment, Skill, and Concern for Relevance and Appropriateness This section in Macgowan (2008; see pp. 168–184) includes the application of evidence as well as an evaluation of its effectiveness, thus, the use of a particular intervention, pure or altered as the case may be, along with the use of a systematic method for evaluating its impact. According to Macgowan, sometimes the evidence one finds has direct relevance to the current group scenario being studied, whereas in other cases one must consider adapting it in some way. Thus, an intervention might seem perfect as is but in actuality might need to be altered to satisfy some crucial variable, such as the nature of the population, for example, or setting or even temporal considerations.

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HANDOUT 4.2

A Model of Planning for Social Work With Groups The following is from Kurland (1978). Planning for social work with groups, that is, the social worker’s thinking and preparation prior to the first group meeting, is an important and often neglected area of practice. Thorough and thoughtful pregroup planning is essential to the success of social work with groups. The following model of planning for social work with groups is meant to direct and guide the thinking of the social work practitioner planning to serve clients in a group. The model contains eight components of planning a worker needs to consider: social context, agency context, need, purpose, composition, structure, content, and pregroup contact. The definition of each component and its factors are explained in the pages that follow. The interrelationships among the components of the model are presented, one for groups in which membership is not predetermined, the other for groups in which membership is predetermined. In using the model, it is important for the worker to keep in mind four key points. First, a worker needs to think concurrently about the eight components as planning for a group proceeds. The eight components of the model are interdependent and overlapping. Decisions made about one component will affect decisions about the others. Second, the model is meant to serve as a guide to the thinking of the worker in planning for a group. It presents areas for worker consideration, decision making, and action as plans for a group are made. It is not meant as a checklist. In fact, it is unlikely that the worker will ever be able to resolve completely the many decisions to be made about each component of the model. Third, the model presents areas for worker consideration. It does not attempt to present material to justify making one decision or another regarding the factors included. It is hoped that use of the model will help the worker to see which areas are uncertain in planning for a particular group. If, for instance, use of the model highlighted the fact that group size was a key factor in planning for a specific group, the worker would then need to refer to the social work literature that addresses the factor of group size. Fourth, the model needs to be used with flexibility by the worker. In different groups, different factors contained in the model will assume different degrees of priority and importance. Not every factor will be of equal importance. In some groups, some factors will assume great importance, and in others the same factors will be of little consequence. Such differences are related to the particular situation confronting the worker and are also closely related to the worker’s own theoretical approach to practice. The worker’s own judgment and practice approach mean that use of the model needs to be individualized.

Eight Categories of Consideration Social Context The influences in the larger social and political environment that affect the delivery of service to clients: • Political environment and its impact on clients and attitudes toward service • Laws, regulations, and policies that have an impact on the nature of service • Cultural attitudes toward group participation • Community where the agency exists • Profession’s responses to the changing needs of clients and its evolving techniques.

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HANDOUT 4.2 (continued)

Agency Context Conditions existing in the agency or host setting that may have an impact on worker actions and on the group that is being formed: • Purpose of agency or host setting • Agency’s/host setting’s philosophy and attitudes toward work with groups • History of agency’s or host’s setting experiences in work with groups • General needs, problems, or conditions of target population as perceived by the agency or host setting • Specific needs, problems, or conditions of potential group members as perceived by the agency or host setting • Tentative conception of group purpose as perceived by the agency or host setting • Arrangements and preparation for intra-agency coordination and collaboration (horizontal and vertical) • Resources the agency or host setting will commit to the group (e.g., staff, time, funds, space, program aids) • Relationship of the agency or host setting to the community

Need Need is defined as individual and social wants, drives, problems, issues, and areas of concern that can be expected to exist universally for people in the target population as they function socially and, more specifically, that exist among those in the particular target population who are potential members of the group being planned: • General needs, problems, or conditions as perceived by clients or potential members, workers, or other relevant people • Specific needs as perceived by potential members, workers, or other relevant people • Social and cultural factors (values, economic conditions, attitudes) in the environment of potential group members • Developmental needs of potential group members • Ability to meet needs, problems, or conditions through the group modality • Commonalities and differences regarding the perception of need by members, workers, the agency or host setting, or other relevant people

Purpose The purpose is the ends the group is formed to achieve. It encompasses the ends and objectives the group will pursue collectively (i.e., the group purpose) and the hopes, expectations, and objectives each group member holds for personal gains from participating in the group (i.e., individual goals): • Goals, aims, objectives of potential group members as perceived by themselves, by workers • Goals, aims, objectives of workers as perceived by themselves, by potential group members • Tentative conception of group purpose as perceived by potential members, by workers • Function of the group as perceived by the worker (e.g., counseling, development, activity, social action)

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HANDOUT 4.2 (continued)

• Commonalities and differences regarding the perceptions of purpose and goals by members, workers, agency or host setting • Evaluation method for ongoing feedback from members will be encouraged and achievement of purpose will be appraised

Composition The number and characteristics of members and workers who will participate in the group: • Number of group members • Open or closed group, if open, process of adding new members • Number of workers and their characteristics (e.g., sex, ethnicity, theoretical approach to work with groups, level of skill, personal style, values, and beliefs) • Descriptive characteristics of members, degree of homogeneity or heterogeneity regarding age, grade in school, sex, racial or ethnic background, language, educational background, occupational background, religious background, cultural background, socioeconomic level, previous group experience • Behavioral characteristics of members, degree of homogeneity or heterogeneity regarding interactional style, stage of psychosocial development, needs, interests, capacity to use the group experience and relate to and communicate with others, motivation and capacity to achieve the purpose of the group and their own goals and objectives • Significant commonalities and differences among members in regard to descriptive and behavioral characteristics

Structure Concrete arrangements the worker makes to facilitate the actual conduct of the group: • Temporal arrangements: duration of each meeting, duration of the total work, frequency of meetings, time of meetings • Physical arrangements: meeting place, size of meeting room, physical arrangements in the meeting room, how members will get to meetings • Nature of fees • Arrangements regarding confidentiality • Arrangements regarding interagency coordination and collaboration

Content The means that will be used to achieve the purpose of the group encompasses what is done in the group, how it is done, and why it is done: • Tentative conception of content of group meetings (e.g., use of discussion, didactic material, other program media) • Ability of content to facilitate interaction among group members • Method of planning group content • Supplies and equipment needed • Content of and preparation for the first group meeting

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HANDOUT 4.2 (continued)

Pregroup Contact Securing appropriate members for the group that is being planned and their preparation for participation in the group: • Recruitment of and outreach to potential group members • Intake • Screening (determination of the client’s suitability for the group) • Assessment or diagnosis of individual and environment of members’ strengths, problems, concerns, common life situations • Orientation to the group and preparation of the members for the first group meeting • Person who will prepare the members for the first group meeting • Person who will make pregroup contact • Timing of pregroup contact in relation to first group meeting • Place of pregroup contact • Contact with referral sources, relevant others

Reference Kurland, R. (1978). Planning: The neglected component of group development. Social Work with Groups, 1(2) 173-178.

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HANDOUT 4.3

Focus on Individual Planning Components: Need, Purpose, Content Planning: Subgroup Focus on Need Individual and social wants, drives, problems, issues, or areas of concern can be expected to universally exist for people in the target population as they function socially and more specifically exist among people in the potential group. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies six factors to consider related to need. The following is one example: general needs, problems, or conditions as perceived by clients or potential members, workers, and other relevant people. Can you identify the other five?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Purpose The ends around which the group is formed encompass the ends and objectives the group will pursue collectively and the hopes, expectations, and objectives of each member who participates. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies six factors related to group purpose. One example is: goals, aims, objectives of potential group members as perceived by themselves and by the workers. Can you identify the other five?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Content The means that will be used to achieve the purpose of the group encompasses what is done in the group, how it is done, and why it is done that way. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies six factors to consider related to content. An example is: content of first group meeting. Can you identify the other five?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Composition The number and characteristics of members and workers who will participate in the group is the composition. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies 32 factors related to composition. Some are descriptive or behavioral with regard to members or workers; some are stand-alone factors. An example is optimal number of members to include. Can you identify the other 31?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Structure The worker makes concrete arrangements to facilitate the actual conduct of the group. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies 11 factors to consider related to structure. Some belong to a subcategory called temporal arrangements. Some belong to a subcategory called physical arrangements. Some are stand-alone factors. An example is: duration of each meeting. Can you identify the other 10?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Pregroup Contact Securing members whose needs are a good fit with the group being planned and preparing them for the group are part of planning. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies 12 factors related to contact with potential or prospective members. Here is an example: recruitment of and outreach to potential group members. Can you identify the other 11?

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HANDOUT 4.3 (continued)

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Agency Context Conditions of the agency or host setting may have an impact on worker action and on the group being formed. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies nine factors related to the agency where the group will operate. An example is: purpose of the agency (setting) where the group will operate. Can you identify the other eight?

Planning: Subgroup Focus on Social Context Influences from the larger social and political environment affect the delivery of services. The Kurland pregroup planning model identifies five factors related to the social climate in which the host organization functions. Here is an example: political environment and its impact on clients and attitudes toward service. Can you identify the other four?

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HANDOUT 4.4

A Guide to Retrospective Planning for Practice With Groups Needs: commonalities and differences in needs, wants, drives, problems, issues, or areas of concern among people in the group from the time it was formed until the time the worker enters the group.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: How do group members understand their needs? R How does the agency (management, program designers and managers, clinicians, etc.) where it operates understand group members’ needs? Is there synchronicity or significant difference? After preliminary exploration of all relevant perceptions (including those of group members), what is your perception regarding their needs? Finally, given your perception, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and beginning stage of your relationship with it? Purpose: commonalities and differences in goals that the group is pursuing collectively, including objectives for of each group member from the time the group was formed to the time the worker enters the group.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: How does the agency (management, program R designers or managers, clinicians, etc.) in which the group operates understand the purpose of the group? Is there even a stated purpose beyond content (i.e., what members are to do together but no stated goal or a reason for the group’s existence)? Is there synchronicity or significant difference among perspectives? After a preliminary exploration of all relevant perspectives regarding group purpose including those of members or lack thereof, how do you see an appropriate group purpose for this group at this time? Finally, given your ideas about group purpose, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it? Composition: nature of member characteristics, descriptive and behavioral, that affect the way the group functions, including changes and reasons for change in the number and characteristics of members and the workers participating in the group since its beginning.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: Has the group changed in membership since R its formation? If so, how? If not, why not? What is the impact of its compositional characteristics on the way it functions, and what are the implications of these characteristics on the group’s forward motion? Has the composition of the group changed over time? If so, how are new members added to the group? Does the content seem realistic given the group’s current composition? Does it make sense for the group’s composition to remain the same, or do you see reasons for change (e.g., group is too small or too large)? In either case, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it? Structure: concrete arrangements surround the conduct of the group such as meeting time, fees, and such, with special attention to challenges that the group faces at this time (differences of opinion among members or among agency staff regarding time, space, fees, etc.).  etrospective planning questions or considerations: What is the current structure? Is the group open R or closed? Does it have a particular life line (such as meeting for 14 weeks), or is it open ended (goes on and on)? Does that structure work well for the group? Does it work well for the host setting and significant others such as colleagues and members’ other service providers? Are there differences in perceptions regarding the value or utility of the existing structure? Might another structure, either complete or in part, make sense for this group at this time? If warranted, is change even possible? In any case, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it?

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HANDOUT 4.4 (continued)

Content: the means routinely used to achieve the purpose for which the group meets, with particular attention to the degree to which content seems to fit with and advance group members’ current goals.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: What do group members actually do together R when they meet? Do they talk the entire meeting time? Does that make sense given their needs, desires, and capacities? Do they engage in activities? If so, what is the purpose of their activity? Do members enjoy or value the content of the group as it stands? How does the agency see the value of the content as it stands? Might a modification in content create a more beneficial group experience for members? If so, why? If not, why not? If so, would making a change in the direction you choose be realistic? Would it be welcome? In any case, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it? Pregroup Contact (Engagement): methods used to prepare and engage current members of the group, including the degree to which their needs and goals were reviewed with them to assess goodness of fit.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: How do group members understand their R membership in this group? How were they recruited or engaged for this particular group, and how long ago? Have they been members from the very start? Do they believe that the purpose of the group (if there is an explicit one) has remained the same since the beginning or changed over time? If so, in what ways? Do members enjoy being in the group? Were they mandated to join this group, and if so, how do they feel about this requirement? How do they see the relationship between their needs and goals and the purpose of the group (or if no stated purpose, their being in the group)? Finally, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it? Agency Context: how the group is viewed by organizational staff and administration, the nature of support (or lack thereof) for its capacity to meet members’ needs and to achieve its overall purpose, and systemic challenges faced by the group.  etrospective planning questions or considerations: How does the agency view the group? What is R the agency’s history with groups? In what ways has the agency used group services in the past? Does the agency value group services? Does the agency require or mandate group services for particular segments of its client population? What kind of freedom do you have for creating or changing existing groups in this setting? What are the parameters for working with groups in this setting? How do group members view the setting where it operates? Are they affiliated with the setting by choice, necessity, or mandate? In any case, what is the impact of the nature of their affiliation on the way they respond to being in this group? Finally, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it? Social Context: degree to which external influences in the community (social, economic, political, etc.) may affect the group’s ability to meet members’ needs and achieve its overall purpose (e.g., reduction in funding, social interest, etc.).  etrospective planning questions or considerations: What is the nature of the broader environment R in which the agency host functions? Do the agency’s mission, policies, and procedures live collaboratively with the broader context, or is there friction between the mission or purpose of the group’s host setting and the larger environment? For example, is the single-room-occupancy residence where the group operates in the middle of a neighborhood that the group would prefer to be elsewhere? Whatever the nature of that relationship, what is the impact of that relationship on the group (its self-image, purpose, function, etc.)? Finally, what are the implications for your entrance into the group and the beginning stage of your relationship with it?

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HANDOUT 4.5

Applying the Kurland Planning Model When Composition Is Not Predetermined SOCIAL CONTEXT

NEED PURPOSE

AGENCY

CONTEXT COMPOSITION

STRUCTURE

PREGROUP CONTACT

CONTENT

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HANDOUT 4.6

Applying the Kurland Planning Model When Composition Is Predetermined SOCIAL CONTEXT

COMPOSITION NEED

AGENCY

PURPOSE

STRUCTURE

CONTEXT

PREGROUP CONTACT

CONTENT

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HANDOUT 4.7

Class Exercise Planning Application Option, Focus on Individual Planning Components: Context Context Level 1: Macro 1, Macro 2 • Macro 1 refers to the agency and includes consideration of resources required to make a group happen and potential obstacles or challenges (mission, policies, staff roles and expectations, history of group work practice) • Macro 2 refers to the broad environment in which the host setting operates (i.e., sociopolitical, economic climate) and any implications that it may have with regard to resources for your setting (e.g., current social views, values).

Context Level 2: Mezzo Mezzo refers to the structure of a group, such as size of membership, whether it should be open or closed, short term or long term (or open ended) given the agency mission and policies, whether fees must be charged, confidentiality issues, meeting space, and so on.

Context Level 3: Micro 1 Micro 1 refers to composition-descriptive characteristics, the questions focusing on decisions about nature of membership (such as age, gender), and whether similarities or differences regarding background (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious), cognitive capacity (e.g., ability to understand), language skills (affecting their ability to understand and communicate), socioeconomic or educational level, and previous group experience. All these factors need to be examined considering the group that the worker has in mind and should be considered along with the implications of any given decision in any of the areas (i.e., the pros and cons of any decision).

Context Level 4: Micro 2 Micro 2 refers to composition-behavioral characteristics, the questions focusing on the degree to which similarities or differences matter regarding interaction style, stage of biopsychosocial development, needs and interests of prospective members and their capacity to use the group to meet their needs and work toward goals, and level of experience, and finally, the manner in which they seem to relate to/ communicate with others, especially their peers.

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HANDOUT 4.8

Stages for Putting EBGW Into Action Formulate a practice question that can be answered (Macgowan, 2008, see pp. 21–31). Not only must the question be able to be answered (and be measurable in some way), but the process of answering it must be relevant to the needs of the group system. That is, the question must be impartial and intended to be really a question and not a solution in disguise. This means that the answer, if it suggests that practice should change in some way, will be accepted or at least addressed seriously. Questions of all types are appropriate in seeking practice effectiveness, ranging from those related to the experience of membership, individual or collective and either content or process based; to desirable individual change such as needs and goals; to leadership, its nature, role, and style. Having a clear, relevant, and feasible group purpose, for example, provides one mechanism for formulating a measurable question: Has this group’s purpose, as identified and agreed on by its members, been achieved? Macgowan (2008) refers to the three-cornered keystone of this question design (problem formulation) process as “MAP” (member-relevant, answerable, and practical): the degree to which the question is relevant to practice with this group at this time and is answerable and practical (2008, p. 21).

Search for Evidence As Macgowan (2008, see pp. 31–77) notes, this search must be effective by specifically targeting the question and efficient in obtaining evidence as quickly as possible. As he also notes, there is an enormous and growing body of literature on many aspects of practice. It is essential, therefore, to know where to look for answers, and the first rule of thumb in this regard is to first seek sources of knowledge with the most rigor (high-quality research) and to move down to sources less rigorous, such as authority-based knowledge.

Examine the Evidence Critically Macgowan (2008, see pp. 78–167) proposes three areas for attention in our ability to critically examine evidence: rigor, impact, and applicability. He describes rigor as “research merit” (p. 79), that is, its effectiveness in achieving the desired outcome. Research may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on its aims. Impact is defined as the nature and degree of significance to practice: Do the findings have actual clinical significance as opposed to mere statistical significance? Can one use the findings to assess the nature of practice? Are they clear and powerful enough to perhaps change practice from Approach X to Approach Y? Finally, applicability is defined as the degree to which the research findings are relevant and appropriate for the clinical situation in question. For example, do they support a change in practice with a group composed of these particular individuals at this time? Are the findings appropriate for the age range of the target population or culturally sensitive, and thus relevant, to this group?

Apply the Best Evidence with Judgment, Skill, and Concern for Relevance and Appropriateness This includes the application of evidence and evaluation of its effectiveness, meaning using a particular intervention, pure or altered, and a systematic method for evaluating its impact. According to Macgowan (2008, pp. 168–184), sometimes the evidence has direct relevance to the group scenario being studied, whereas in other cases one must consider adapting it in some way. Thus, an intervention might seem perfect as is but in actuality might need to be altered to satisfy some crucial variable, such as the nature of the population or setting, or even temporal considerations.

Reference Macgowan, M. (2008). A guide to evidence-based group work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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HANDOUT 4.9

Skills for Integrating Evidence Into Group Work Planning The following is based on Macgowan (2008). Do the following when formulating a practice question relevant to practice with this group at this time: 1. Develop an initial conceptualization (group, individual, leadership, other). To initially conceptualize a practice question is to identify something about practice with this group at this time that one wishes to know more about. 2. Seek input into shaping the practice question by testing your perceptions with significant others, such as existing or potential or prospective group members and related others, either personal or professional, to make sure the final practice question is perceived by all as relevant and useful. Dimensions include nature of the question (e.g., group directed, individual based, leadership, goals and purpose), relevance (how answering the question as defined is relevant at this time), utility (how answering the question as defined is useful at this time), and feasibility (whether suggested changes, if any, would be realistic). 3. Articulate the question. To articulate the practice question for study is to put into words the question one wishes to answer. This written expression guides the search for evidence conceptually and practically. 4. Confirm the relevance of the question for practice. Confirmation refers to the agreement by all stakeholders that the practice question for study is relevant and worthwhile and that implications for practice that might be derived from the answer would be realistic. or that changes in practice suggested by the evidence would be possible.

Reviewing the Evidence 1. Assess utility of findings. To assess utility of findings, determine the degree to which each type of finding might shape practice and place them as a whole in a hierarchy of value, that is, which type of evidence (findings) have more power than others to shape practice and why. 2. Interact with sources of evidence. To interact with sources of evidence is to take in and engage in a critical analysis of the information gleaned, whatever its form (written, oral, etc.). The critical questions are as follows: (a) What is the strength and direction of the evidence contained in the source? (b) Does the evidence confirm practice as it now stands? (c) If not, what kind of change does it suggest? 3. Assess applicability of research. To assess applicability of research is to determine the degree to which findings (the evidence reviewed) apply in whole or in part to current group practice. Does the evidence indicate why a change in practice would be of value, and does it offer guidelines for implementing change?

Apply the pool of knowledge to current practice 1. Implement the findings in current practice. To implement the findings of evidence reviewed is to confirm or modify current practice in accordance with findings that are held high in the hierarchy of evidence. 2. Measure the intervention. To measure the intervention is to use either an existing measurement tool or to create a tool that will measure the impact of the practice change. Such a measurement might consist of using a written instrument (e.g., self-administered questionnaire to group members) or verbal interaction (e.g., oral interviews).

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HANDOUT 4.9 (continued)

3. Evaluate intervention. To evaluate the intervention is to determine whether the change in practice based on evidence adopted to guide that practice is worthwhile (i.e., relevant, useful, and otherwise valued by consumers and other stakeholders). This is carried out by analyzing the results of the measurement protocol and determining the clinical significance of the results. 4. Disseminate the results. To disseminate the results of the impact of any new practice is to share the consequences of any change in approach to practice with all related stakeholders, including consumers (group members), related intra-agency constituents (management, program directors, etc.), and the broader community of interest (through publication).

Reference Macgowan, M. (2008). A guide to evidence-based group work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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HANDOUT 4.10

Essential Characteristics of the Engagement Interview The goal of a pregroup interview is the preparation of potential members for the group. To that end, the interview will offer the following: • Introductions of the worker and of the group. This includes the nature of membership (who you have in mind, not the actual persons but the type of person at the setting in which the group is to operate) and structure (your ideas, tentative at this point, about what the group you have in mind might look like). In short, it introduces you and the general/overall nature of the group you have in mind. • A statement of purpose about the interview itself. This part of the encounter answers the question of why you and this other person (or persons, if the interview is a group interview) are here together at this moment. The purpose of the interview is, in fact, to explore how potential group members for the group you have in mind feel about the possibility of joining that group. To that end, you offer the information as suggested here. • A tentative statement of group purpose. You must help potential group members understand the why of the group you have in mind as you see it and elicit their reactions to your idea. In this conversation you also tune in to what potential members might believe would be helpful, in terms of your idea and perhaps some different ideas. This might be loosely conceptualized as the needs assessment portion of the interview, because you are listening to the reactions of potential members to your ideas and assessing the synchronicity between your ideas and theirs. Having this conversation also prevents moving forward with a hidden agenda (stating the purpose in one way but having a hidden purpose that you adhere to that remains unstated). • Examples of how members of the group will help one another. It is one thing to suggest that group membership can be helpful; it is quite another to give people concrete examples of how that might occur. This means that homework regarding possible needs must be undertaken so that examples can be related, specifically and concretely, to the potential members’ experiences. • A clear understanding of the group’s dominant norms and expectations. It is essential that some mention be made of expectations regarding the proposed group’s function, including content (what members might do), process (how they will be expected to interact, such as agents of mutual aid), and norms (what will be normal in the group you have in mind, such as real talk and shared authority over the group’s affairs).

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HANDOUT 4.11

EBGW Homework: Guide to Reviewing an Empirical Article To understand the meaning and impact of research, it is essential to be able to critique an article that reports on a study of interest. For this assignment, provide the following.

The Article 1. Title of the journal, title of the article, volume information, and page range for the article 2. Authors’ names and credentials. Credentials help to locate the authors professionally (context of interest) and geographically 3. Statement of the problem addressed in the study being reported, likely to be a few sentences, and include the nature of the gap in knowledge (what was not yet known, or the impetus for the study) and the nature of the study 4. Major findings and conclusions reached by the study as presented in the article

Your Critique Answer the following questions: 1. Does the article contain a purpose statement at the beginning? This type of statement would address the purpose of the article, not the purpose of the study (e.g., “The purpose of this article is to report the findings of the study on…”) 2. Is the article organized clearly? That is, does the narrative flow in a manner that makes sense and keeps the reader connected to the content and purpose of the research report? 3. Does the article contain minimal to no jargon? The greater the jargon, the more likely is is that the authors are addressing a narrow constituency, and the less likely it is that someone outside the inner circle will be able to make meaning of the report. 4. Does the article end with a summary that sets in some relief the major significance or implications of the study for social work practice (at any level including direct service, program, policy planning, development, education)? This would also include references to the need for further research. 5. Are the study’s methods described adequately? If not, what is missing? 6. Does the article identify in any manner any limitations to the study?

Your Viewpoint 1. Are the study and the findings significant to social work? How so and how, specifically, are they significant? The question here is, generally, who cares? 2. Did the authors reference or include all you consider to be relevant literature in setting forth a context for the report (generally in the form of a literature review)? If not, what do you think was left out? 3. Do you think that the authors’ conclusions are in keeping (e.g., theoretical, contextual, cultural synchronicity) with the nature, depth, and breadth of the study reported in the article? If not, why not?

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HANDOUT 4.12

Essential Characteristics of the Engagement Interview The goal of a pregroup interview is the preparation of potential members for the group. To that end, the interview will offer the following: • Introductions of the worker and of the group generally. This includes the nature of membership (those you have in mind, not the actual people but the type of person at the setting where the group is to operate) and structure (your ideas, tentative at this point, about what the group you have in mind might look like). In short, it introduces you and the general and overall nature of the group you have in mind. • A statement of purpose about the interview itself. This part of the encounter answers the question of why you and this other person (or people, if the interview is a group interview) are here together at this moment. The purpose of the interview is to explore how potential group members for the group you have in mind feel about the possibility of joining that group. To that end you offer the information as suggested here. • A tentative statement of group purpose. You must help potential group members understand the why of the group you have in mind as you see it and elicit their reactions to your idea. This conversation allows you to tune in to what potential members might believe would be helpful for your idea and perhaps offer some different ideas. This might be loosely conceptualized as the needs assessment portion of the interview because you are listening to the reactions of potential members to your ideas and assessing the synchronicity between your ideas and theirs. Having this conversation also prevents moving forward with a hidden agenda (which means stating the purpose in such a way as to leave your true purpose hidden). • Examples of how members of the group will help one another. It is one thing to suggest that group membership can be helpful; it is quite another to give people concrete examples of how that might occur. This means that homework regarding possible needs must be undertaken so that examples can be related, specifically and concretely, to the potential members’ experiences. • A clear and concrete understanding of the group’s dominant norms and expectations. Finally, it is essential to make some mention of expectations regarding the proposed group’s function, including content (what members might do and process and how they will be expected to interact, such as agents of mutual aid), and norms (what will be normal in the group, such as real talk and shared authority over the group’s affairs).

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HANDOUT 4.13

Skills for Practice With Curriculum-Based Groups 1. Because a curriculum-based group (CBG) requires more structure than some other types of groups and requires a balance of imparting information with helping group members integrate that information, central to CBG practice is selecting communication patterns purposefully (making a judgment about a communication format consistent with group needs and setting it in motion). How will group members communicate? Will they raise their hands? Speak in turn? Will group members be called on to speak, or will they volunteer? How much time will be devoted to discussion? Is there a risk that discussion of an item may cause the group to not meet its curriculum objectives for that meeting? If so, then what? 2. The skill of verbalizing norms, letting the group know what actions are acceptable or not in relation to desired standards of behavior, works in concert with attention to communication because with this skill the worker helps the group members know how they should interact, which is slightly different from communication, which focuses on delivering and receiving messages. To verbalize norms asks the group to pay attention to how they do it, how they relate to one another. 3. Finally, another closely related skill is referring to purpose, stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time, which is used normally in the beginning of the group as with all groups but also throughout the group’s life to help tie curriculum components together. 4. Voicing group achievements, verbally summarizing with appreciation any indications of progress or growth the worker has noticed, is also central in CBG practice because it is so easy to focus on what still needs to be done. This is more immediately present in this type of group because the end goal, which is completing the curriculum, always looms large. In CBG practice, therefore, noticing and appreciating every little achievement goes a very long way. 5. Related to this skill but focusing on the individuality of each member rather than on the strength of the group as a whole is building on strengths, that is, pointing out and focusing on all a member knows and can do. Again, this is particularly salient to CBG practice because the high degree of structure, which tends to compel attention to content over process (“Let’s move on now”), can easily overshadow the skills and strengths that group members bring to the encounter. 6. Although inviting full participation, meaning asking members to speak by looking at them or verbally asking for their comments, is a hallmark of social work with groups, it is also particularly relevant to CBG practice because it promotes members’ self-image as being valuable contributors to the process and progress. 7. Closely related to this skill is scanning, taking in the whole group with one’s eyes, which helps the worker invite full participation and notice unexpressed feelings and nonverbal messages. 8. Also related and of special relevance is the skill of turning issues back to the group, asking participants to use their experience and thinking to deal with group matters instead of always turning to the worker’s supposedly superior knowledge and experience. This skill in particular points the way toward shared authority whenever possible, including unknown territory, which might be thought of as the worker’s purview but in fact might be known to other participants as well if given a chance to explore it. 9. Because it can be easy for everyone in the CBG to get lost in the content (material to be covered, generally of a concrete nature and of primary import to the host system), skills that require reaching

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HANDOUT 4.13 (continued)

out to members to assess their relationship to the group’s purpose are also central. For example, reaching for a feeling link, asking members to connect with a feeling that has been expressed, helps the worker assess the emotional reaction to the content, which in turns helps to determine whether moving on is all right or the group needs to stop and consider the content further. 10. Reaching for information, that is, asking a member for facts, opinions, impressions, or judgments that increase knowledge of a situation or event, helps group members to see themselves as valuable contributors to the process despite its high degree of structure that tends to keep them as recipients. 11. Reaching for an information link, or asking others to connect with a statement or question from someone, helps to promote mutual aid by asking members to engage in member-member rather than member-worker interaction. 12. Reaching for consensus, or checking to see if members agree with how things are going, is particularly salient in a group in which that normally does not have all that much time for members to express themselves as fully and freely as they might as in, say, a long-term group. The degree to which they agree or not with how the group is being conducted and the degree of room for their contributions is highly relevant to how they feel about participating, which in turn will affect their ability and desire to take in the content the group was formed around in the first place. 13. Finally, skills that are especially important in CBG practice but attend to group process from another angle are checking out inferences (asking if a certain thought, hunch, or interpretation is valid), which is especially salient if the group is going to move at a relatively fast clip, ensuring that the worker is not the only one to move ahead; giving feedback (repeating the essence of what members say and asking if the meaning received was what was intended), which also helps the worker assess whether everyone is on the same page; and finally, giving information (offering facts, opinions, or ideas to increase the group’s knowledge or understanding), which also advances the group as a whole with all members on board. This skill should be used judiciously, however, and in concert with the skill of building strengths (which encourages members to contribute their sense of things) so that it does not become a scenario of the worker giving and group members taking (that is, turning into a curriculumdriven group). 14. Finally, a skill that can help the worker advance and enhance the success of these skills by using semantics (jargon, metaphors, etc.) that are familiar to the group members is referred to as talking in the idiom of the other, which means responding to a disguised or veiled message using the same context or symbols or metaphors.

UNIT

Practice With the New Group: Beginnings

5

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use group development theories to guide intervention with the new group, actively prescribe and set norms and standards for ethical intermember behavior, reach for group consensus in shaping and determining group purpose, reach for divergent opinions. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use introductory content to help group members identify common ground and differences, prepare group members for the likelihood of emerging differences as the group matures, actively and explicitly promote diversity of all types as enriching group process. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Engage new group members in the creation and development of group norms, goals, and acceptable behaviors; select interventions that create a democratic humanistic (Glassman, 2009) climate in the group; in the case of difference conceptualize and conduct the professional role as one of mediation between individuals in the group and the agency where the group is to operate; help the group to shape its destiny within the bounds of its setting or if outside of those bounds, help the group voice its needs. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Differentially and discretely apply all available related evidence on social work with groups generally and as it relates to the group’s purpose more specifically as a guide for intervening in group process, conduct ongoing evaluation of group process and progress by actively targeting sessional endings for such purposes, use sessionalending content to shape future processes. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Provide information for group members on an ongoing basis that can help the group to achieve its purpose, including organizational and broader policies that may have an impact on its goals; help new group members to understand the potential impact of social welfare and economic policies on shaping its group purpose; help the new group to address policies that may impede its ability to achieve its purpose and to advocate for policies that will advance its purpose. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage with all systems that are significant to help the new group take shape, including organizational constraints and to advocate for the new group’s needs, such as organizational respect and support. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use beginning processes such as introductory material and other beginning content to confirm the capacity of the group system to meet members’ individual and collective needs, to help the group assess individual strengths and potential challenges to its capacity for problem solving and mutual aid, and to synthesize that information toward identifying its capacity for work that reflects the group’s values and preferences and those of its significant constituencies. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use stage development theory to select appropriate interventions in the new group, including immediate and direct interventions in the group, and if required to help the group achieve its purpose, direct and indirect interventions in other significantly related systems, such as families, additional reference groups, the agency where the group operates, and the broader community. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use stage development theories to assess the degree to which the group’s process meets the needs of its members and advances the group’s purpose; use the results of the assessment to guide the direction of practice. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

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s groups mature, they go through a series of stages of development. Knowing about these stages is important for workers because it informs their understanding of member behavior and has important implications for worker intervention. The emphasis on group developmental stages in social work with groups began with the work of Garland, Jones, and Kolodny (1976), who conceptualized five group stages: preaffiliation, power and control, intimacy, differentiation, and separation. Since then major writers in the group work method have ascribed to the concept of group stages. Their conceptualization may vary depending on how narrowly or broadly they describe each stage, but they generally agree on the content of a group’s progression and on the implications of such a progression for practice. Generally, the various descriptions of group development are presented linearly, as in most stage theories of development, but in reality, stages are not discrete, and groups often simultaneously demonstrate characteristics of more than one stage. Similarly, a worker can expect to see back-and-forth movement among the stages, for example, believing a group has moved into its middle stage of development only to be surprised by evidence of the beginning stage at the next meeting. This generally happens when a group encounters something to tackle that is new, swinging back to behaviors and characteristics of the newly formed group and requiring more directive action by the worker. Despite such lack of discretion and possible back-and-forth motion, groups still generally and overwhelming progress through a series of definable and predictable stages important for a worker to know about, to understand, and to use as guidance for intervening. How long any one stage will last in a group may vary, however. For instance, in some groups beginnings may be short lived, whereas in others group members may depend on the worker for a considerable time. It really all depends on the norms and expectations of the context for practice, the composition of the group, and its purpose. Several developmental theories have in common the conceptualization that groups move in a manner that can be called developmental (e.g., Garland, Jones, & Kolodny, 1976; Northen & Kurland, 2001; Schiller, l995, Shulman, 2012; see also Unit 2). However, their progression has come to be commonly understood as moving from planning to beginnings to middles and finally, to endings or transition. Using these four developmental stages as an organizing framework helps students look at the general and common characteristics and themes of each developmental stage, the issues that are likely to arise in each, and the implications for practice, which differ according to stage.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The purpose of this unit is to describe a way an instructor can teach students about the beginning stage of group development and the related worker’s role and functions. The student learning outcomes for students of this teaching unit are the following:

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1. Become familiar with the characteristics and needs of groups in the beginning stage of group development 2. Understand the role of the worker in the beginning stage of group development including the use of professional authority 3. Develop practice skills for use with groups in the beginning stage 4. Be able to skillfully and purposefully intervene with groups in the beginning stage

Overview: Practice With the Beginning-Stage Group Although practice is always guided by an understanding of stage development, understanding the characteristics of a group’s beginning stage is extremely important because it provides the foundation for what follows. For example, people often enter a new group with a great deal of ambivalence; on the one hand, they are excited and hope that this new group will offer them a positive and rewarding experience, but on the other hand, they feel fear and dread that the group will in fact do just the opposite as negative group experiences are not uncommon. From a personal point of view, they are also concerned they will not measure up to either their own or others’ expectations. All of this must be addressed during the group’s beginning stage: members must be oriented to the group, norms of behavior must become explicit and established, a common purpose must begin to be defined, and commonalities among the group members must be recognized and stressed, helping to give the new group a sense of being in it together, which lessens overall anxiety. Clearly, the role of the worker in the beginning is central, and the worker needs to actively provide structure, direction, and guidance to members who are ambivalent and somewhat fearful. Students find this difficult, tending to be reluctant in providing the degree of structure and direction that the group needs. In fact, many students are uncomfortable in the role of authority, wanting the group to belong to its members and not wanting to impose. They tend to see the provision of direction and structure as intrusive and synonymous with overly controlling leadership; as a result, their tendency is toward passivity rather than toward active facilitation that groups require in the beginning stage. Class Exercise: Considering the New Group Ask students to consider a first meeting of a new group and to describe the ways group members might feel, their possible attitudes and related behaviors. As they participate in this exercise, ask them to consider the variety of populations with which they might be working, taking into account race, ethnicity, culture, age, cognitive capacities, and socioemotional developmental status. For instance, how might a group of older adults feel and act as they prepare to come to the first meeting of a new group? How might this be contrasted with the ways teenagers might feel and act?

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As students reply to these questions, list their responses on the board in two columns, one headed “Feelings” and the other “Behavior.” Placing responses on the board in such a way enables them to see the commonalities of feelings but that those feelings may engender differences in behavior according to the descriptive characteristics and backgrounds of group members. Then, give them the following situation: Suppose you were meeting with a new group of parents who did not know one another. You arrive at the meeting room 10 minutes before the first meeting is set to begin. A few group members are already in the room. What do you think you see? What do you think you hear? Students generally respond with a variety of observations. For example, they may note that members sit around doing nothing, spread out and unconnected from others in the room, or that some are reading agency brochures, and one or two people are standing at the window gazing out. Generally, students describe the members as waiting silently for the group to begin when the worker gathers them into some kind of order. Other students may note that group members talk politely and formally with one another, probably talking about acceptable and non-risky subjects like the weather, the terrible transportation system, high salaries of sports stars, and so on. Depending on student responses, feel free to provide examples and observation from personal experience, such as the woman who sits right next to the door in an upright, tense position with her coat buttoned to her neck ready to make a potential quick getaway, the teenager who arrives only to immediately announce from the doorway that she may have to leave the meeting early because she has to pick up her brother (a readymade escape clause), or the 10-year-old who needs to leave the room for frequent drinks of water (anxiety leads to the bathroom). Therefore, given what needs to happen, what does the worker have to do in this early stage of group development? He or she will ask students to identify the behaviors that will help to provide needed structure, direction, and guidance. Some negative examples of the beginning process help students see the importance of understanding, being sensitive, and responding to beginning needs and the powerful impact of the worker’s role on the new group. Use examples from your own experience including worker actions you have observed in groups, like staff, faculty, or management meetings; team meetings; motivational sessions; and so on. Most students seem to relate readily to the following situations: • Without even introducing herself, the worker says something like, “Why don’t we start by getting to know each other a bit?” Then, turning to the person on her left, she smilingly commands, “Why don’t you begin by telling us something about yourself?” Members seem immediately uncomfortable, apparently struggling with what to say, how much to say, and what not to say when it is their turn. • Without sharing any of her own thoughts about the group, the worker immediately asks general open-ended questions, such as, “What do you see as the

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purpose of this group?” “What made you come to this group?” “What do you hope to get from this group?” Members find these very difficult to answer and, as a result, seem to feel inept and as if they have already somehow failed. • A worker gets into a tussle with a member who has her coat on. He says, “Mary, don’t you want to take your coat off? It’s so hot in this room!” When Mary responds that she is fine, the worker continues, “Oh, no, Mary. It is so warm in here! Please take your coat off. You’ll be much more comfortable.” Once several examples are offered, ask students what these examples indicate, initiating a discussion of how difficult it is for people to enter a new situation with their related feelings of approach/avoidance. In effect, the new group members are saying, literally or symbolically, that if they do not like what takes place in this first meeting they are quite ready to flee. To bring the point home, ask students to reflect on their own behavior and feelings when faced with a new and uncomfortable situation. It is important for them to accept these behaviors as part and parcel of a new situation and feel neither judgmental nor threatened. The personal self might have either of these feelings, but the professional self understands the behavior in context. Drawing responses from the students helps them arrive at an inductive understanding of what needs to happen at this point in the life of the group, which is that members need to be helped to feel comfortable, feel welcome, and believe they could succeed in this group. Similar to students in a first class session, new group members need to get a beginning sense of the group’s overall purpose (why they in particular are in this group together at this time); how the group will operate (norms, expectations, etc.), what the worker is like (personality and perception of role); and who the other group members are (why they are together here at this time). These examples provide teaching material that allows the class to then look at what the worker needs to do in beginnings. A request like “Tell us about yourself” will make people flounder when they already feel nervous. As in any first session or meeting, the worker needs to provide a structure for introductions by suggesting areas to include that are non-risky but relate to the group’s purpose as the worker or agency sees it, not by asking for people’s favorite ice cream flavor or any other ridiculous, irrelevant so-called icebreakers. Further, if the worker makes the first introduction, this begins to provide at least a bit of familiarity between members and the worker. At this point in the life of the group, members look to the worker for direction, structure, and help at a difficult time. The worker’s introductory content will differ from that of the members, but it provides guidance on tone, degree of personal disclosure, length of introduction, and so on. Similarly, open-ended questions such as, “What do you see as the purpose of this group?” only make people feel uncomfortable when they already feel vulnerable. They do not necessarily know or may as yet be unable to articulate how they see the group’s purpose. Thus, they need direction from the worker, for example, ideas about the group’s purpose including the background on why this group came about. This helps to orient them and offers a sense of common ground. In sharing some of views regarding

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the group’s possibilities and purpose, the worker enables new members to begin to articulate some of their views of the group, its purpose, and the ways they think this group might address their needs. Getting this conversation started, however, requires the worker to be active, provide context, and offer suggestions for the nature of content. Finally, an intervention such as insisting that group members remove their coats also increases the general anxiety and discomfort that already exists in this new group. It insensitively violates members’ need to keep their distance, to which they are entitled at the beginning. When meeting for the first time, group members must keep some distance, remain uncommitted, and to give themselves an out, either mentally, emotionally, or even physically. Once the members who wish to keep their coats on become more comfortable in the group, the coats will come off quite naturally. Thus, taking an active role in providing direction and guidance to a new group is essential. Getting into a power tussle with members who keep their coats on simply accentuates the already high level of anxiety. Usually the discussion in the beginning stage of group development is active and animated. Class members can draw on their own life experiences in a range of beginning situations to inform their understanding of what this stage is like for group members. They easily relate to being anxious at the start of a new experience, especially working with groups, which is often frightening to the neophyte who has yet to understand the worker’s role. You can help the class summarize and integrate the discussion on practice with the beginning group by distributing Handout 5.1, “Stages of Group Development: Beginnings,” and reviewing it together. Given the extensive discussion that has just taken place in the classroom, the material on the handout is logical to them and represents many of the ideas they have expressed. As the class reviews the handout, highlight important areas that may not have been considered, such as emphasizing commonalities. Common ground forms the foundation for cohesion as the group evolves and might be pointed out by the worker when, for example, members introduce themselves. It is important to make clear to students that commonalities can occur around small details of everyday life, such as likes and dislikes (food, movies, clothing, etc.), interests (sports, cooking, reading, etc.) or in descriptive characteristics (oldest or youngest child in a family, grade in school, marital status, etc.). However, commonalities also can be on the major issues or difficulties that brought the members to the group, whether it was loss or illness or addiction or loneliness or other areas of need. Therefore, although introductions should center on the group’s purpose as a way of solidifying the idea that these people are in this group together at this time because of a specific need in common, introductions can certainly include small details as well. Establishing Norms in the Beginning Group Another area that may not have been discussed fully during the previous exercises is norms and how they are established in beginning groups. Group norms represent

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standards of behavior that members accept for the group. What is important to emphasize about norms in the new group is how central and active the worker is in modeling behaviors that are acceptable, thus, implying what is unacceptable as well. How the worker listens to group members, for instance, or the ways respect for each member’s contribution is communicated or the care taken to involve members all set the tone for group members’ expected behavior toward one another. Norms are sometimes established implicitly. A group member behaves a certain way, for example, and ultimately others follow suit, establishing a norm around that behavior. Other times, however, norms can be established explicitly, such as during the contracting process, when the worker and group talk about how the group will function: The group is expected to be a system of mutual aid, all voices will have a right to be heard whether they are in agreement or in dissent, everyone is responsible for the quality of the group process, and so forth. It is important for this contracting conversation (“We all agree that . . .”) to include references to the ways the group will evaluate its process and progress. Generally, the group’s purpose serves as a framework for helping members gauge their own progress toward stated goals. The worker can also include a formal evaluation in the group’s contract, such as the use of sessional endings (Birnbaum & Cicchetti, 2001; Birnbaum, Mason, & Cicchetti, 2003) to help the group to do that. In this way, evaluation of the group takes place every single session, not just at the very end, helping its process remain meaningful and relevant. Common Skills for Practice With Groups in the Beginning Stage After reviewing Handout 5.1 and the related discussion, turn to the second objective of this unit, which is helping students develop practice skills for use with groups in the beginning stage. To accomplish this objective, it is useful to define, describe, and demonstrate selected skills and then offer an exercise that helps students practice and begin to own the skills. Begin by defining skill as a specific action or intervention based on knowledge and professional understanding intended to accomplish a purpose. Skills are more than and different from techniques. Techniques help us know how to intervene, perhaps, but skill, which comes from a professionally informed mind-set, refers to when and why to intervene in specific ways. In short, skills are actions that are professionally informed and purposeful. To students who often do not know how or why to intervene, the introduction of material on skills is welcomed enthusiastically and with a sense of relief. Often, they view a worker’s role and actions as an impenetrable mystery that leaves the student feeling ignorant, unprepared, and left out. Discovering that skills exist, that they are definable behaviors, and that they can be mastered and then used in practice provides a ray of hope for them to become competent workers. Middleman and Wood (1990) eloquently described the range of skills used by practitioners and pay special attention to skills for working with groups. Selected from their material, the following are a few skills workers are most likely to need and use in the beginning stage of a group. Distribute Handout 5.2, “Common Skills for Practice

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With Beginning Groups,” and ask students to read each skill aloud. After each skill is read aloud, ask students to offer an example of that skill using known experiences, such as in the classroom. How might that particular skill look in this context?

Beginning-Stage Intervention Next, provide an opportunity for students to practice the skills to help them begin to truly belong to students as part of their helping repertoire. This exercise gives each student a chance to practice. Divide the class into subgroups of seven or eight and present to them a situation concerning life at school with which they are quite familiar. Because you want them to focus on the skills rather than on the content, be sure to choose a school-based situation they have experiences with and opinions on rather than a situation involving clients (which might make them fearful of taking a risk). Read this scenario aloud: Students have been expressing concerns about the curriculum: too many required courses, not enough electives, not enough courses with culture-specific content, some content and even professors seem outdated, students don’t have enough say about the choice of professors, and so on. Student government has decided to form a curriculum committee to explore any specific changes students wish to recommend to administration. A sign-up sheet is posted for students who wish to be on the committee. Twenty students sign up, and eight are elected by a vote of all students. The one with the most votes is designated as the committee chair. This is the first meeting of that committee. Distribute to each subgroup short descriptions of the characters they are to play as noted on Handout 5.3, “Character Scenarios for Practicing Skills With the Beginning Group.” Also let them know that these assignments will be rotated so that each student has an opportunity to practice and observe the skills on which this class is focusing. Allow students to role-play briefly without identifying their role to others. Then stop the action and ask each subgroup to briefly discuss among its members the chair’s attempts to implement the skills the class is focusing on that day. Students in the chair role should be encouraged to comment on their own efforts to use the skills, then subgroup members can follow suit. Students then pass their slips of paper to the right, giving each of them a new role. Repeat the procedure every 5 minutes or so, giving students a chance to play a range of characters; in this way, most of them will have a chance to employ the skills in the role of chair as well. Conversations after each rotation can be held off until two or three rotations have taken place or carried out very briefly after each one depending on time available. You may want to eavesdrop on the groups and lead a general discussion with the entire class at the end of this exercise. Students usually begin this exercise with humor and lightheartedness. The quick rotation of roles adds to a lively, bustling ambience in which no student is on the spot for too long as chair, and it encourages students to be supportive of each other’s efforts

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to be skillful. This practice experience with the skills from Middleman and Wood (1990) is also exciting for students because it begins to dispel the perceived mystery that surrounds the concept of skill. Exercise Role Play: The First Meeting (a Client Group) To continue to help students recognize skills as skills and to skillfully and purposefully intervene with groups in the beginning stage, it is useful to set up a role play in class of the first meeting of one of the groups that students previously planned and discussed in the planning class (see Unit 4). Begin by introducing them to the essential third element in the drama of successful social work with groups, which is context (the agency where the group will operate). Schwartz (1971) defined a client group as “a collection of people who need each other in order to work on certain common tasks in an agency hospitable to those tasks” (p. 7). This description of a client group, simple yet profound, adds the agency’s stake in the work of the group as an important variable of practice. Students must understand that they are not working in a vacuum; rather, they represent the system in which they practice. Agencies have societal tasks, functions, and purposes, and workers have a responsibility to help carry these out. Thus, social workers are not independent practitioners who can do whatever they wish; rather, the functions of the agencies they work for inherently influence the kinds of groups they form. Thus, the role of the worker is to try to bring together the agency’s tasks with the needs of the group members through purposeful group intervention. Refer to Figure 4.4 in Unit 4, and let the class know that for the role play you have selected the hypothetical group of 8- to 12-year-olds in a community-based agency that serves youths. The group is composed of children who have a parent with AIDS. After distributing Handout 5.4, “The First Meeting and Roles” describing the characters for the role play, engage the class in a discussion of the characters and of what the students think might occur in this group’s first meeting. Discussion usually centers on three areas: (a) testing the worker is likely to occur, (b) the worker shares personal information, and (c) the group’s purpose, which is to help members cope with their parents’ illness, is brought up. Vignette 1: Testing the Worker Narrated by an instructor, the following vignette is from a classroom of graduate students and provides an example of a typical discussion of testing in the beginning stage that might evolve as students consider the characteristics of the group members just presented. I asked the class, “How would you handle it if Lester (see Handout 5.4) arrived with iPhone earbuds in his ear?” Joan suggested, “I’d want to be democratic…. I’d ask the other members if it bothered them.” “Right, good idea,” added Mitch, “ask the group.” Taking on the voice of a theoretical group member, I said, “We don’t mind; it doesn’t bother us.” Class members smiled in recognition of that

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likely response. “Why might you get that response?” I asked. “No one wants to confront Lester,” John said. “No one wants to risk being unpopular,” Lew said. “Or to go against one’s peer,” added Susana. “So, how would you handle it?” I asked again. “I’d tell him he must remove it,” Melody said. “Yeah, but what if he doesn’t… then what?” added Jana. “I’d insist,” Melody responded. “And what if he still didn’t?” I asked. “It sounds as if we’re into a power struggle, something adolescents are especially familiar with,” I said. “I think that’s a mistake. If you get into a power struggle, Lester will most likely feel that he cannot afford to lose that struggle in front of his peers, and you are then in an untenable position as leader.” Melody asked, “So what should we do? How should we respond?” This kind of interchange provides useful teaching opportunities. All groups test the leader in the group’s beginning stage in ways that are appropriate for the group members’ ages. It is important for workers not to be fearful of using the authority of their role, and they should be firm, consistent, and fair. In this example, the worker needs to ask Lester to remove his earbuds, not just because but because in this group everyone needs to be able to listen to one another. In other words, the worker needs to share with the group the reasons for the demands as they connect to the group’s purpose rather than simply arbitrarily exercising authority. In doing that, the worker begins to establish group norms. Vignette 2: Sharing Personal Information All new groups are also likely to ask the worker personal questions. Preparation for the role play also provides an opportunity for the class to look at how they might respond to such questions. This second vignette, narrated by the classroom instructor, illustrates this concern. What if in the beginning of the group one of the members asks me whether I have AIDS. What should I say?” Maria asked. I assured the class that Maria’s question was an apt one; if they didn’t ask you that in the first meeting, they’d get around to it later or at least be wondering about it. “Any thoughts on how you would respond?” I asked the class. “Think it through out loud.” Josh said, “If I said No, that I didn’t have AIDS, they’d think I wouldn’t know what it was like.” “But you can’t lie and say you have it when you don’t,” Manny said. “But what if you do have HIV?” Joann asked, “Do you tell them?” “You have to be honest,” Ana said. “Yeah, but I don’t have to share my personal business with the group if I consider it too private,” Paul responded. The main teaching point here is that students tend to become intensely involved in the discussion of how to respond to personal questions because it touches on a common concern that is felt by all who lead groups. There usually is much uncertainty and therefore discomfort about sharing personal information. How much should one say? How much should the workers introduce about themselves personally even when the members do not ask? How should the worker respond to the inevitable intrusive

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question? Although there are no absolute responses to these questions, no definitive right or wrong ways to approach the situation, there are still some important principles that inform a worker’s decision about sharing personal information. To help students reflect on their own practice, distribute Handout 5.5, “Principles for Disclosure in Work With Groups.” Discussing the Group’s Purpose The third area of preparatory work for the role play revolves around ways to engage the group members in discussing the group’s purpose. It is important for students to think in advance and prepare what they will say to the group concerning their vision for the group, their hopes for what might be achieved, and their reasons for the agency’s interest in bringing these people together at this time in this way. (Refer to earlier discussions in class about the need for the worker to provide direction in such early discussion of purpose.)

The First Meeting Role Play (Client Group) After the preparatory discussion, set up the class for the role play. You want everyone to participate actively in a role and not put some class members on the spot by having their participation observed and critiqued by the others. Rather, divide the class into subgroups of six, and ask each subgroup to decide who will play each role, including the worker. Let them know that you may rotate role assignments, and instruct them to not consider their own gender, age, or race in taking roles. Also let them know that anyone in the group can say “stop” during the role play and ask for some discussion of what is taking place, including those who play the worker if they feel unsure. These guidelines ease the pressure on the student in the worker role. As the students engage in the role play, circulate among the subgroups to listen, ask questions, redirect, and make suggestions as appropriate. You might even stop the action periodically to initiate a brief discussion with the total class of common issues observed. At the end of the role play, which usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes, bring students together for discussion, beginning by asking those who played the worker to comment on their experience: What was difficult, what surprised them, what did they think they did particularly well and poorly? Giving them an opportunity to critique their performances first creates an environment of support and diminishes the competitiveness that can surface when students begin by immediately criticizing their peers. Rather, the self-criticism of the students in the worker role creates an empathetic climate.

Summary Bring this unit to a close by sharing your impressions of the students’ work in the role play. You might point out what they did well, such as listening to one another, using the skills, and attempting to understand members’ needs in beginning stages and supporting one another’s efforts, taking risks, encouraging participation, and providing direction

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and structure. You might then also point out what they did not do very well. Usually, because the class members are so intent on accomplishing their own agendas, they tend to impose their plans on the group rather than use the comments they hear from the others. For example, often they do not help other members see their commonalities, their discussion of purpose is frequently superficial and perfunctory, and they seem even relieved to be done so they can move on to real issues, even though discussing and agreeing on group purpose is the most real issue a group will ever tackle. Finally, students often have difficulty drawing out the ideas, feelings, and concerns of group members. It is important to reassure the class members that the areas of difficulty are not easy ones, and their struggles are acceptable and expected at this stage of learning. They should recognize and appreciate all they have come to comprehend about beginnings and the worker’s role in that stage of development. The understanding, insight, and skill they have achieved in this unit are valued. Perhaps most important for students to learn from this unit is the importance of paying attention to the fact that groups proceed through stages of development, each of which offers implications for practice. Knowing the developmental stages and their general characteristics informs the worker’s understanding of member behavior and corresponding practice behaviors. Major writers ascribe to the concept of group stages, and although their conceptualization may vary, they generally agree on the content of a group’s progression and on the implications of progression for practice. Although groups often simultaneously demonstrate characteristics of more than one stage, they still generally and overwhelming progress through a series of definable and predictable stages that are important for a worker to know about, understand, and use as guidance for intervening.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • As groups mature, they go through a series of stages of development. Knowing about these stages is important for workers because it informs their understanding of member behavior and has important implications for worker intervention. • In reality, stages are not discrete, and groups often simultaneously demonstrate characteristics of more than one stage with back-and-forth movement between the stages especially when a group encounters something to tackle that is new (such as a new decision to make, new conflict, etc.) • Understanding the characteristics of a group’s beginning stage is extremely important because it provides the foundation for what follows. People often enter a new group with a great deal of ambivalence; on one hand they are excited and hope this new group will offer them a positive and rewarding experience but, on the other hand, they feel fear and dread that the group will in fact do just the opposite because negative group experiences are not uncommon. • In the beginning the worker needs to actively provide structure, direction, and guidance to members who are ambivalent and somewhat fearful. Students find this

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difficult, tending to be reluctant to provide the degree of structure and direction the group needs. In fact, many students are uncomfortable in the role of authority; they want the group to belong to its members and do not want to impose. • In new groups open-ended questions make people feel uncomfortable. For example, they do not yet know how to articulate their view of the group’s purpose. Rather, they need some direction from the worker, that is, ideas about the group’s purpose including background on why this group came about. This helps to orient them and offers a sense of common ground. • Taking an active role in providing direction and guidance to a new group is essential. However, getting into a power tussle with members who keep their coats on, for example, simply accentuates anxiety and discomfort and violates the appropriate need that members have to keep their distance from this new experience until they feel safe to enter it more fully. • Commonalities should be emphasized in the new group. Common ground forms the foundation for cohesion as the group evolves. Commonalities might be pointed out by the worker, for example, as members introduce themselves. • Introductions should center around the group’s purpose as a way of solidifying the idea that these people are in this group together at this time because they have a specific need in common. They can certainly include small details as well, but it is best to avoid irrelevant icebreakers. • Group norms represent standards of behavior that members accept for the group. In the new group the worker is central and active in modeling behaviors that are acceptable or not. How workers listen to group members, for instance, or how they communicate respect or take care to involve members all set the tone for members’ behavior toward one another. • Workers are responsible for carrying out agency tasks, functions, and purposes. They are not independent practitioners who can do whatever they wish. Rather, the functions of the system in which the group operates influence the kinds of groups they form and lead. The worker’s role is to try to bring together the agency’s tasks with the needs of the group members through purposeful group intervention.

References Birnbaum, M., & Cicchetti, A. (2001). The power of purposeful sessional endings in each group encounter. Social Work with Groups, 23(3), 37–52. Birnbaum, M., Mason, S., & Cicchetti, A. (2003). Impact of purposeful sessional endings on both the group and the practitioner. Social Work with Groups, 25(4), 3–19. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS.aspx Garland, J., Jones, H., & Kolodny, R. (1976). A model for stages of development in social work groups. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Further explorations in group work (pp. 55–74). Boston, MA: Charles River Books.

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Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Schiller, L. Y. (l995). Stages of development in women’s groups: A relational model. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 117–138). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Schwartz, W. (1971). On the use of groups in social work practice. In W. Schwartz & S. Zalba (Eds.), The practice of group work (pp. 3–34). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Further Readings Berman-Rossi, Toby. (1993). The tasks and skills of the social worker across stages of group development. Social Work with Groups, 16(1/2), 69–82. Birnbaum, M., & Cicchetti, A. (2005). A model for working with the group life cycle in each group session across the life span of the group. Groupwork, 15(3), 23–43. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Brown, L. (1991). Groups for growth and change. New York, NY: Longman. Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Henry, S. (1992). Group skills in social work: A four-dimensional approach (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K. (2001). Facilitating group beginnings, I: A practice model. Groupwork, 13(1), 6–30. Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K. (2001). Facilitating group beginnings, II: From basic to working engagement. Groupwork, 13(1), 30–56. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Stempler, B. (1992). There are so many of them and only one of me: Developing and utilizing natural strengths in learning to lead mutual aid groups. In D. Fike & B. Rittner (Eds.), Working from strengths: The essence of group work (pp. 162–181). Miami, FL: Center for Group Work Studies. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson. Zastrow, C. (2008). Social work with groups: A comprehensive workbook (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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HANDOUT 5.1

Stages of Group Development: Beginnings Where the Members Are Anxiety about the unknown Trust versus distrust Approach and avoidance: • Approach: –– want relationship with worker and other members –– want to accomplish purpose –– want to reveal themselves

What Needs to Happen Orientation • of worker to the group • of members to –– the situation –– the worker –– the other members –– plans for the group –– time, place, frequency, content of meetings A group must form and how the group will work are established

–– desire closeness

• norms

–– want acceptance

• values

•

Avoidance: –– fear of the unknown –– fear of not being accepted –– fear of not succeeding –– fear of being hurt –– fear of being vulnerable –– fear of getting involved –– fear that things won’t be confidential

Wary Exploring

• patterns of communication The purpose of the group needs to be made explicit—discussed, agreed on, and accepted. Even if the purpose was discussed with each member individually, it needs repeating with the whole group so that it becomes a reference point (which will be important later on). Commonalities need to be established and seen, and a basis for cohesiveness established.

Role of the Worker Help what needs to happen, happen Members look to worker for direction, structure, approval, help at a difficult time Worker must be more active now; group members are more dependent on worker at this point Help each member enter the group, allay anxiety, help members communicate and explore yet keep some distance Need to acknowledge anxious feelings everyone has, express confidence in group’s potential to accomplish its purpose Discuss purpose, help members look at it, find agreement Make the connections among the members, help members see what they have in common Help establish group norms; to a great degree it is through what the worker does verbally and nonverbally at this point that norms are established.

Not committing themselves Giving themselves a chance to draw back Keeping their distance Reprinted with permission from Kurland, R., and Salmon, R. (1998). Teaching a methods course in social work with groups. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education.

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HANDOUT 5.2

Common Skills for Practice With Beginning Groups The following is from Middleman and Wood (1990).

Scanning Taking in the whole group with one’s eyes is important in the new group to make sure everyone is or remains on a common page and that participants’ facial expressions match their verbal expressions. This helps ensure that authenticity rather than social desirability rules the process.

Selecting Communication Patterns Purposefully This means making a judgment about a communication format that is consistent with the group’s needs and setting that format in motion. This is important in the new group to help make sure that communication methods are commensurate with group members’ capacities, are identified and agreed on by everyone, and are established.

Verbalizing Norms Letting the group know what actions are acceptable and unacceptable in establishing standards of expected behavior is important to help the new group set in motion desirable norms rather than allow undesirable norms to emerge; once in motion undesirable norms are very difficult to undo.

Referring to Purpose Stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time helps the new group members to acknowledge and feel their common ground.

Reaching for Information Asking a member for facts, opinions, impressions, or judgments that increase knowledge of a situation or event is an important way of including group members in the conversation, especially to reach for strengths, such as information, knowledge, or experiences that can be helpful to others.

Building on Strengths Pointing out and focusing on all that a member knows and can do is an important way of helping new group members begin to see themselves as contributors to the helping process and not just recipients.

Reaching for a Feeling Link Asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed helps the members of a new group relate to one another emotionally.

Inviting Full Participation Asking members to speak by looking at them or verbally seeking their comments sets the stage for seeing the value of every voice in the group.

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HANDOUT 5.3

Character Scenarios for Practicing Skills With the Beginning Group Each student takes on one of the following roles. Give students a slip of paper with their role on it so no one else knows what the students’ roles are. If there are more students than roles, prepare slips of paper that tell the students to just be themselves. Role: You have been elected to chair this committee. Role: The meeting was called for 3:00 p.m. You live some distance away and drive to school. You are worried about hitting rush hour traffic on the way home and want the meeting to end by 4:15 pm at the latest. You keep looking at your watch. Role: You talk a lot and believe it is especially unfair that there are so few electives in the school’s curriculum, particularly in the area of cultural diversity. Role: You think that research and policy are a waste of time. Role: You are a harmonizer who does not like conflict. When disagreements or differences of opinion arise, you try to smooth them over and be a peacemaker. Role: You say very little. You usually have a hard time expressing your opinion in a group, but you wanted to be on this committee because you think it is important to have a choice of professors and not just be slotted into class sections without any say. Role: Just be yourself. Role: You are an observer of the use of beginning-stage skills by the chair of the committee; note it down when you believe you see the chair using one of the skills.

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HANDOUT 5.4

The First Meeting and Roles Give each student a slip of paper with his or her role on it so that no one else knows the nature of that role. Role: Lester. African American, age 12; loud, outspoken, bossy, doesn’t have many friends; one sister, age 10, also in group; he takes care of and is close to her; mother has AIDS but functions well; she has told the children but minimizes it (tells them don’t worry); father does not live at home; Lester sees him sporadically. Role: Diane. African American, age 10 (Lester’s sister); quiet, does very well in school, reads a lot; doesn’t talk much but worries about her mother and how things will be if her mother gets real sick. Role: Roberta. White, age 12; smart, talkative, articulate; father died of AIDS when she was 8, now mother has just been diagnosed HIV positive; only child, took her mother’s diagnosis quite badly because she remembers father’s death; worries what will happen if her mother dies too but hasn’t talked about this much except to one staff member at the community center. Role: Anna. Dominican, age 10; father has AIDS and is quite ill; mother tries to protect Anna and doesn’t talk about it with her; three brothers (ages 21 to 25), who also protect her; she knows her father has AIDS but doesn’t understand much about what that means. Role: Michael. African American, age 12; only child and a loner with one good friend about to move far away and is upset about the impending loss; does not see his father; mother has AIDS and made arrangements for Michael to live with her sister when she dies; Michael knows but does not like his aunt, whom he views as strict; he also doesn’t like his cousins (her children) and does not want to live with them.

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HANDOUT 5.5

Principles for Disclosure in Work With Groups The worker’s response to questions of a personal nature should be guided by an assessment of how his or her response will affect or effect the life of the group. Giving too much personal information may detract from the group’s purpose by focusing attention on the worker rather than on the group’s task and process. The group’s needs (not the workers’ need to explain themselves by revealing personal information) must take precedence. Workers need to ask themselves these two questions: 1. Will it help the group to advance its purpose? 2. If so, how? If not, then don’t do it.

Boundaries Workers should feel free to share what they believe will be useful to the group within the boundaries of their sense of privacy and personal comfort, just as is the case with sharing personal information by students in class. There are no hard and fast rules. Workers have the right to decline responding to a personal question if they are not comfortable. In doing so they provide a model for group members who have the same right not to respond in the group. The point for practice here is that an explanation should accompany the decline to answer so that the declination makes sense to and is understood by the group in the context rather than as a rebuke.

Style of Response What is often most important when workers are asked intrusive questions is not what they choose to share but how they respond. The acceptance of the questions, regardless of the actual response, is of greatest importance to the group members who are trying to determine through those questions the kind of person the worker is and the type of authority figure he or she represents. The point for practice here is that the response should be direct but gentle so the person who asked the question does not feel ridiculed or rejected. The focus of the interaction is on the graciousness of the response.

6

UNIT

Helping Students Problem Solve in Groups CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit

1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use problem-solving models to guide practice with groups, for ethical decision making including evaluation of needs and to guide professional judgment and behavior. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use problem-solving models to guide consideration of individual backgrounds, cultures, and current circumstances in helping groups to engage in decision making and problem solving including the implications of diversity and difference in shaping potential solutions. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Use problem-solving models as a guide to consider group needs in conjunction with the mission of the system in which it operates with particular attention to the nature and intensity of problems identified in and by the group and whether and how they can be addressed and resolved in that system including the degree to which a potential solution would challenge the mission, policies, and norms of that system; adopt the role of mediator between the group and the system as needed. 4. Engage In Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Use problem-solving models as a guide to help groups engage in decision making and problem solving and to engage in an ongoing evaluation of problem-solving processes and resolutions; help the group to change direction if evaluation suggests that difference would advance the group’s purpose. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Use problem-solving models as a guide to examine the impact of agency policies on a group’s capacity to problem solve and to carry out proposed solutions and to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that would allow the group to identify avenues for meaningful and feasible problem-solving processes and practices in that system. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Apply knowledge regarding human behavior and the social environment, person in environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to inform the process and results of problem solving with special attention to the impact of diversity in the identification and resolution of problems. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Consider strengths as well as needs of group members and their significant others when helping groups to identify the nature and roots of problems and potential resolutions; pay special attention to cultural and other potential implications when considering resolutions. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use planning models to guide the choice of behavior when helping the group identify the root and nature of a problem; helping group members explore the implications of a problem; and helping the group or individual, as the case may be, consider any given potential resolution. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use problemsolving models to help the group consider the degree to which its problem-solving process is successful at resolving an identified problem and the short-term and long-term impacts of the selected resolution on the group as a system and on its various constituents. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

129

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P

roblem solving is a process that is central to social group work practice. It is used throughout the life of a group to address issues about how the group will be conducted as well as issues of problematic behavior of group members. Effective group practice demands workers to fully understand and appreciate how to help a group engage in a problem-solving process. Problem solving in group work has two aspects, the first of which is group-based problem solving (GPS), that is, helping the group address an issue that is overtly affecting the entire group. It can loom large (e.g., from redefining the group’s purpose) or little (e.g., where to find an additional chair). The second aspect is individual problem solving (IPS), which refers to helping a group help one of its members address a particular situation. Using groups to help individuals deal with personal issues is one of the things that groups do best if the process remains a mutual aid process, meaning it does not become casework in a group (Kurland & Salmon, 1992) or, as Hartford (1971) refers to it, the aggregate therapy of individuals.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The student learning outcomes for students of this teaching unit are the following: 1. Become familiar with the problem-solving process of John Dewey (1910), which governs the practice principles of GPS and IPS 2. Understand what the problem-solving process looks like when used in a group for solving group problems and for helping a group member deal with an individual issue 3. Become familiar with the common mistakes made by workers in using either of the problem-solving processes (group-based or individual) in a group 4. Be able to skillfully apply group-based problem-solving processes in a group 5. Be able to skillfully apply individual problem-solving processes in a group

Problem Solving in Group Work The term problem solving is widely used by social work practitioners but is often misapplied and poorly understood. In fact, many practitioners do not know the genesis of the term nor the steps involved in either the group-based or individual-based process. The problem-solving process used in social group work comes from the work of Dewey (1910), a progressive American educator, who identified a series of steps as a model for reaching a decision and taking action. According to Northen and Kurland (2001), Problem-solving is a process that is central to social work practice with groups. It is used to address questions and difficulties, both group and individual, that arise at any time during the life of a group. . . . Although the word problem tends to have negative connotation, the problem-solving process is not meant for use solely in negative situations. Rather, the word issue, synonymous with problem, might better describe the target of the process. The problem-solving process can be used to address any issue that arises for the group or for an individual member. In fact,

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use of the problem-solving process is an opportunity for the group to become stronger as members work together to address issues of concern to all. (p. 191). The beginning of this unit, therefore, stresses the centrality of the problem-solving process in group work practice and how it is used throughout the group’s life to address a range of issues. The primary aim of this discussion is for students to see what problem solving actually looks like in a group. Begin by letting the class know its origins in the work of Dewey (1910) and consider suggesting a different connotation for the term problem because it often has a negative connotation for many. In fact, as in the field of research, it is important to assume a broad view of its meaning, seeing the word as synonymous with the word issue. Thus, the process the class is about to examine is one the students Figure 6.1 Comparing GPS and EBGW Methods. will use frequently, in fact, each time an Group Problem-Solving Method EBGW Method issue of any kind arises in the ongoing activities and interchanges of the group A problem or issue is defined. Formulate a practice question that can be that require some kind and degree of answered. Questions of decision making.

all types are appropriate.

GPS

The nature of that problem is systematically explored (i.e., made explicit or evident) by interaction including explanation, clarification, reflection, evaluation, determination.

Search for evidence. Seek sources of knowledge that have the most rigor.

To help the exploration of problem solving in groups generally, distribute Handout 6.1, “Dewey’s Problem-Solving Process Transposed to Group Work,” summarizing the five steps in Dewey’s All potential solutions to the Examine the evidence problem as identified are critically. (1910) method presented in his language. explored from all possible angles, Then take each step in the handout and at all possible levels, from micro read them one by one. After each step to macro, to explore and assess alternative resolutions. has been read, help students understand the applicability to group work by Resolutions or solutions are Apply the best evidence converting Dewey’s language and writing selected for testing and evaluated with judgment, skill, and the converted language from Kurland for relevance, and an effective concern for relevance solution is adopted. and appropriateness. and Salmon (1992) on the board. Notice the emphasis in the rephrasing Note. EBGW=evidence-based group work. that more clearly reflects the importance of the exploration of issues as a central part of problem solving in group work. Further, all moments in which students can be helped to apply principles of evidence-based practice to their work with groups are obvious teaching opportunities. This is a good time, then, to note for students the similarity between the steps of problem solving and EBGW, which is discussed in some detail in Unit 4. This is why applying principles of evidence-based social work practice has such a goodness of fit with professional social work practice with groups. Specifically point out these similarities for the students and the EBGW method component that is associated with each problem-solving step summarized in Figure 6.1.

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After reviewing the problem-solving process and noting the similarities with EBGW, ask the class to look at a sequence of three student records involving group problem solving and analyze and evaluate the quality of the problem solving in each of the records. Each case record was written by the student leader of the client group. GPS Case Record Review: 1 As you distribute Handout 6.2, “Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 1,” to the class, ask a volunteer to read it aloud while everyone follows along. Having someone read the record aloud rather than asking everyone to read it silently by themselves brings the record to life, gives it immediacy, and makes it more real for the class. After the text is read, pose the following case review questions to the class: 1. What is the problem or issue that this group is attempting to address? 2. What is the problem with the problem-solving process in this record? Because students tend to want to jump in and deal with the personal issues that are presented by the group members rather than examine the quality of the problem-solving process, it is important to ask these two questions separately. This allows you, the instructor, to maintain focus on the problem-solving process in the group. The following is an example of the question-and-answer process regarding Case Record 1 as written by the instructor: “What is the problem or issue that this group is attempting to address,” I asked. “How the group is going to handle eating in the group,” Angelina responded. “Right,” I said. “Now, what is the problem with the problem-solving process in this record?” Gerald said, “Nobody seems willing to talk about the problem, to impose on the others.” “That may be true,” I responded. “But that is not what we are looking at here. We’re focusing on what the problem is with the problemsolving process.” Zachary then said, “The leaders are doing a lot of the talking.” Again I said, “That may be true, but remember, we’re focusing on what the problem is with the problem-solving process. Look at the steps we’ve listed on the board.” The class was silent. Pointing to the board and to Step 1, I asked, “Do you think the worker had a sense that there was problem or issue in the group?” There was a chorus of agreement from the class. Pointing to Step 2, I continued, “Was the problem or issue identified?” Some class members said yes, others said no and still others said nothing. “Some think it was,” I said. “Identify exactly where in the record the issue was identified.” Max read the following from the record: “Jenny said it looked like there was a group concern here—some people are bothered by the eating but feel uncomfortable speaking up about it.” Jackie immediately said, “Yes, but is the problem how to handle eating in the group, or is the real problem that the members aren’t assertive and won’t speak up?” “Ah!” I said. “That’s not so clear here! The problem really isn’t clearly identified.” Pointing to Step 3 on the board, I continued, “Is the problem or issue explored?”

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With the aim of helping the students really see a group-based problem-solving process in action, continue to look at each step of the process, one by one, and the way it is or is not reflected in the case record. GPS CASE RECORD 1: TEACHING POINT

Finish the review of Case Record 1 with the following: The teaching point most important in reviewing Case Record 1 is the way the workers jump prematurely to solutions (e.g., start out with refreshments, take an eating break, eat only certain kinds of foods) without ever exploring the actual nature of the group’s problem or issue (Step 3). In a good-humored way, you might label this record for students as the all solutions, no problem brand of problem solving. GPS Case Record Review: 2 Repeat the preceding process with Case Record 2. Begin by distributing Handout 6.3, “Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 2,” and ask for a volunteer to read it aloud while everyone else follows along. As with Case Record 1, initiate a discussion of Case Record 2 by posing the following class review questions: 1. What is the problem or issue that this group is attempting to address? 2. What is the problem with the problem-solving process in this record? Students often identify the issue in this case record as one of time management. Again, refer them to each step, one by one, that you listed on the board, asking whether they see any evidence of each step’s having been covered in the record. At this point students are now more adept at seeing the problem-solving steps in this record. They realize that a vague sense of an issue is present in the first two meetings and that the worker identifies the problem or issue on February 15, when he says, “I would like to bring something up with the group. Some people have mentioned to me that there isn’t always enough time for them to talk. Sometimes many people have pressing concerns, and we only have an hour and a half.” Then, however, in the very same intervention, he skips the exploration step and instead, moves immediately to asking for possible solutions by saying, “I wonder if the group has ideas to deal with this problem.” Thus, without even exploring the reasons that time management may be difficult, the group, in response to the worker’s cue, offers a variety of possible solutions to that particular problem, for example, the person who needs it most should talk, the group should take turns and go around, the workers should pick the speaker, each person should say a little, the group should start with the person who’s most upset, and so on. Finish the review of Case Record 2 with the following teaching point, contrasting it with the teaching point for Case Record 1. GPS CASE RECORD 2: TEACHING POINT

The teaching point most important in reviewing Case Record 2 is the focus on solutions without exploration, although in this second case there is movement toward a clearer

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identification of the issue that is bothering the group. Thus, if the first record might be labeled as all solutions, no problem, Case Record 2 might be labeled mostly solution, a touch of problem. GPS Case Record Review: 3 Now, move to the third and final case record in this learning sequence, and distribute Handout 6.4, “Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 3,” to the class, asking for a volunteer reader. With this final case record in the group-based problem-solving learning process, the same two questions are asked: 1. What is the problem or issue this group is attempting to address? 2. What is the problem with the problem-solving process in this record? At this point, students rather quickly identify the group issue as how the boys handle anger with one another. This is indeed the group’s problem at this time. It is useful to point out, therefore, that this problem-solving process can be used to address issues about group conduct in terms of the whole group, as was true in the first two records, and individual behavior in the group, as is the case in this scenario. Refer to each step of the problem-solving process listed on the board as you help students identify the problem with the process in this case record. They are usually able to name two places where the problem is clear: (a) toward the end of February 21 when Ken, the social work student, says to the group, “When you guys get mad at each other or at the activity, what you very often do is take it out on each other,” and (b) at the end of February 28 when Robert, the psychology intern who is co-leading, says, “What happens, guys, is that it all goes in a circle. Darrell gets angry and bothers George; George gets angry and bothers Clyde; Clyde gets angry and bothers Mr. Fuller; Mr. Fuller gets angry and bothers Darrell, and on and on.” That group members can really understand the problem is indicated when Darrell laughs and says, “I know what you mean.” GPS CASE RECORD 3: TEACHING POINT

The teaching point most important in reviewing Case Record 3 is the absence of attention to solutions. It seems that the workers’ expectation is that if group members recognize the problem (as they seem to have done), they will be able to solve it by changing their behavior on their own. That is a tall order for even the most mature adults, let alone children. If problem solving was to be effective, the workers needed to engage the group in discussing and testing solutions in the group. Thus, if Case Record 1 can be labeled all solutions, no problem; and Case Record 2, mostly solution, a touch of problem, then Case Record 3 might be labeled all problem, no solution. If workers do not help group members engage in the behavior that seems to be required to solve the problem, the question is, why have a social worker present at all? Note that unlike the first two case records, the problem or issue in the third scenario actually is explored. Over the weeks the workers probe the issue by asking questions, making observations, and asking group members to think about what is going on. In examining this case record, some students, especially those who may not have worked

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with children, think that the workers are talking too much and receiving inadequate verbal responses from the group. In fact, the members of the group are very responsive to the workers, who, by articulating what they see, help the youths recognize and understand what is going on among them. Major Learning Points of GPS After going through the three case records with the class, provide some coherence on the major content of the learning sequence by emphasizing the following points: • As shown in the first two records, workers often jump to solutions prematurely. This pattern occurs much more frequently than the worker behavior exhibited in the third record, in which there is thorough exploration but no real attention to solutions. • Workers tend to be more comfortable addressing solutions, perhaps because they feel a sense of accomplishment that comes in reaching completion. Exploration of an issue involves uncertainty as well as fear on the part of the worker that conflict may erupt (different views, feelings, expectations, etc.). Thus, focusing on solutions is more specific and less scary.

Figure 6.2 GPS: Suggested homework. Students are encouraged to review on their own some of their process recordings and identify times when they moved to solutions prematurely. If they do not have process recordings available, they should consider writing a summary of a group session in which they believe the group engaged in some conflict over group behavior (norms, expectations, etc.). At the very least, it might be possible to recollect a process in a previous group encounter when conflict occurred, and no satisfactory exploration of the issues took place—for example, the group simply moved on. In short, this includes any opportunity for students to examine their own tendencies to jump to solutions, which is most often the case, but also to forego an offer of potential solutions, such as when students are baffled and believe they are the only ones offering potential solutions. The question for practice is this: What might the worker have said or done better to help the group explore an issue in depth?

• Inadequate exploration results in premature solutions that will be ineffective. Because such solutions are not rooted in an understanding of the real issue or issues at hand, they do not work. Effective solutions evolve and become possible only if group members gain an adequate understanding of the issues through exploration.

• Exploration of an issue involves asking the members to remain engaged with the issue (i.e., what it looks like, what they think leads to its occurrence, the reasons the issue or problem exists) and resist the temptation to move too quickly to solutions (i.e., to fix things or make it all better and move on). As one student aptly exclaimed, “So what you’re really saying, then, is that we need to stay in the mess.” That is exactly correct. Promote fearlessness in helping group members explore all possible problem definitions when things do not seem to be going as they should. A structured attempt to solve a problem for the group’s benefit, for example, with active help from the worker, and being in the mess together to figure things out can only make the group stronger (Salmon & Steinberg, 2007). If you are in a teaching context that includes a process recording and perhaps homework, consider assigning the homework in Figure 6.2 consisting of a review and

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analysis of a process recording. As the assignment indicates, if students do not have a process recording of their group work, they can consider writing a summary of a group session and review their behavior as group members attempt to resolve a problem.

Individual Problem Solving in Groups (IPS) This component of IPS in a group builds on the previous one of GPS. Relying on the same process model from Dewey (1910), Kurland and Salmon (1992) extend the model to include two steps that assist with the group’s task of helping an individual member address a problem outside the group, probably a situation that caused formation of the group in the first place (relationship problems, problems at work, etc.). Remind students that problems, group and individual based, come in all shapes and sizes and exist in groups from the very beginning. There is no doubt, however, that they take on increasing depth and meaning as a group matures and as issues generally move from simple to complex. Still, in the individual context as well, the term problem holds no particular negative value; it just represents something in the group’s universe that needs attention, some form of decision making. The three case records presented in this unit ask students to address the following questions: What problem do you think the group is trying to address? What is the problem with the group’s problem-solving process (e.g., all solution with no problem identification)? This IPS component of problem solving offers students a theoretical and practical understanding of the difference between problem solving that reflects either what has been coined as casework in a group (Kurland & Salmon, 1992) or the aggregate therapy of individuals (Hartford, 1971), both of which consider the group as a backdrop to practice rather than an integral participant based on members’ strengths. However, only when members’ strengths are identified, and mutual aid is sought and maintained, does IPS truly reflect group work (Steinberg, 2014). In fact, aside from dealing with conflict, practitioners struggle most with how to help every group member engage with and maintain interest and participation in a process that addresses the specific problems of one group member. In response, this learning sequence provides a theoretical underpinning and practical tools for helping students do just that with individual problem solving (Kurland & Salmon, 1992), asking them to review and contrast two sets of case records and offering a role play for the classroom to help bring the process to life. Hallmarks of IPS in Groups Begin by distributing Handout 6.5, “Hallmarks of IPS With Groups,” asking students to read each definition and allow them to reflect on and discuss each one. Once they have reflected on each hallmark—which combined produces in students a mind-set that is curious, group oriented, empathic, and aimed at real problem solving rather than cursory attention to surface issue—distribute Handout 6.6, “A Model for IPS in Groups,” which helps students transform this mind-set into actual practice.

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A Model for IPS in Groups Just like the retrospective planning model (Unit 4) builds on the proactive planning model, a model for IPS is adapted from and builds on the model for GPS with three extra steps that illustrate the individual orientation of this process. As students review the model, write each step on the board, noting the similarities and differences or modifications in the two processes. Students are quick to see the value of the additional steps, but two case records will also help to concretely illustrate the differences between a process that is empathy based and one that is not, along with an illustration of how a worker might actually engage a group in the process, even if that requires the group to return to an earlier process that was not so well done. Once students have had time to consider the application to individual situations of this extended problem-solving model, and before they examine two case records, it is useful for them to reflect on the following two concepts integral to helping the process make sense to practice and to actually take place. Write each one on the board, and read the brief definition for each one, encouraging students to think through their meaning generally and their application to practice. The first of the two concepts essential to individual problem solving in groups (Steinberg, 1996, 2014) is time as a pluralistic dimension. Time belongs to everyone all the time. That is, one person does not logically have time while others do not. That is illogical. Rather, all time belongs to all people all the time. It just might be used differently. This concept comes from organizational theory. See Steinberg (2014) for a discussion of its impact on group work. The second concept is filled time, or the feel of time. Time spent either feels productive or it does not. The task for practice is to make it feel useful (productive) for every group member at all times; hence, group members are requested to personally use the time it takes for one person to describe his or her situation to seek commonality, personal relevance, experience, empathy, and insight into problem definitions and solutions. This concept comes from economic theory. See Steinberg (2014) for a full discussion of its impact on problem solving in social work practice with groups.

Individual Problem Solving in Groups Case Reviews Next, ask the class to look at a sequence of two case records involving individual problem-solving scenarios in a group. As with the GPS case records reviewed earlier, the task of students is to analyze and evaluate the quality of the problem-solving process of each case considering its individual orientation with special attention to the degree to which each additional step is integrated. IPS Case Review 1: Part One Once again, ask a student to read the record aloud to bring the scenario to life. Distribute Handout 6.7, “Individual Problem-Solving Case 1: Part One,” and ask students to take on the roles of various members (Jim, Jerry, Pam, Ron, and Will) while

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another takes the role of narrator. This approach will allow students to really feel the tone of the group as they take on and express the roles for the class; simply convert a little of the language to make it directive rather than descriptive. After the reading is over, refer students to the problem-solving steps outlined on the board, and ask them to identify what is wrong with the problem-solving process. It is hoped that they will note the complete lack of empathy that dominates the discussion, that the process is very intellectual and advice driven, with group members acting as assistant workers, making Jim very defensive and leaving everyone very frustrated. There is no need to belabor the point; students get a sense of the group’s climate pretty quickly. Remember to encourage them to stick with the analysis of the problemsolving process, not Jim’s situation, which they usually find intriguing. IPS Case Review 1: Part Two Move on to Handout 6.8, “Individual Problem-Solving Case 1: Part Two,” describing the group’s return to Jim’s issue at the following group session. Ask one or two students to read the record aloud or consider converting the record into a role-play with students taking on either the role of the narrator, worker, or group members. Once the record has been read, ask students what they think is the major difference in process (style, tone, quality, affect, etc.) between this group process and the process in Jim’s first case record. They should note the following: • The worker sets the stage for authenticity in discussion by being honest about the previous week’s process—that it left everyone frustrated—and asks for permission to revisit Jim’s problem. • As Jim once again recounts his situation, the worker reaches for more information from him, asking him to move beyond the superficial and to offer details, situationally and the feelings that his situation engenders. • The nature of the worker’s interventions (e.g., reaching for clarification) sets the stage for group members to follow suit, also asking Jim questions to better understand his situation and strengthening the whole-group investment in the process of trying to help and the feeling links that are produced by the exploration Point out that this aspect of the problem-solving process helps the group find common ground and through that common ground become empathetic rather than sitting on their so-called high horse, acting as assistant therapists. Also note for students the climate change from being advice driven to one in which members recall their own situations with some similarity. If they did not address their situations very successfully, they have another opportunity, through this exchange, to plan for any next such situation. If they did manage them successfully, they will have ideas to contribute to the pool of potential resolutions for Jim’s benefit. Either way, the playing field is leveled in the group; they are in it together. No one group member is on any hot seat while the others badger the person with a virtual sledgehammer in the form of a slew of you should bits of advice or worse yet, “In your shoes I would—,” perhaps well-intentioned but often not truly applicable.

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Furthermore, no one group member is sitting back bored awaiting his or her turn because the investment that they are each and all asked to make in helping Jim with his problem requires all their attention to the details of his situation and to their own experiences, keeping them active during the entire process and filling the time for everyone. Also note for students that if the record were to continue, it would benefit everyone in the group for the worker to ask each group member what he or she took for personal use from the process. This review portion of the process is what keeps individual problem solving relevant to each person in the group. Note for students that in Case Record 1: Part Two, Steps 2, 3, and 4 (written on the board) do take place: The problem is clearly identified by everyone (Step 2), the problem is explored (Step 3), the worker asks group members to identify with Jim through their own experiences (Step 4), and possible resolutions are suggested using those experiences to develop a pool of possibilities (Step 5). IPS Case Review 2 Finally, distribute Handout 6.9, “Individual Problem Solving: Case 2,” and ask students to read this case scenario, either as is or converting the language to turn it into a role play. Have students refer to the eight steps of IPS either written on the board or in Handout 6.6 as they analyze this group’s process. They will probably see fairly quickly that even though all the issues that Sara raises pertain to the other members, the focus begins with and remains on Sara. Her co-members can certainly relate to fear of failure, feeling inadequate, wondering about being ready for work, and how to explain absences from the workforce, for example. Yet, the focus remains on Sara, creating a casework in a group (Kurland & Salmon, 1992) scenario rather than group work. At the end of this exercise, tell the students that the task of practice is to set in motion a process that engages all the members of a group and keeps them engaged in a process that focuses in particular on one person’s situation without becoming assistant therapists. This helps them make personal meaning of the process even as they attempt to help another person, creating a forum for mutual aid (Steinberg, 2014). If there is time, ask students to conduct a role play that moves Sara’s group forward, such as revisiting the session and redirecting the action as in Case Review 1: Part Two. After going through these records with the class and if there is time, summarize the highlights of individual problem solving by emphasizing the following major learning points: • When a lack of empathy dominates individual problem solving, that is, when the process is very intellectual and advice driven, the individual who has presented his or her situation to the group will only feel very defensive, leaving everyone very frustrated. • For individual problem solving to be meaningful to everyone in the group, regardless of who is actually presenting a situation for the group’s consideration, members must be engaged into the process by constantly reflecting on the

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similarities between their own circumstances (situational or affective, current or prior) and those identified by the presenting member. • When group members’ strengths are engaged in helping the members whose situation is under consideration, the process can be conceptualized as group work rather than casework in a group (Kurland & Salmon, 1992). • It is the task of the worker to set the stage for the nature and tone of the individual problem-solving process by actively reaching for detailed information, requesting full participation, and seeking expressions of commonality and empathy. • Asking for explanations and clarifications about the individual problem in question models for the group members how to be an active and attentive listener.

Common Skills for Problem Solving in Groups All possible skills may apply and be brought to bear at any given point in a problemsolving process, whether it is group based or individual. However, some apply particularly as the worker attempts to help group members make the efforts, or the work, required to identify the nature and roots of the problem or issue at hand, to explore its various facets, and in particular to identify potential solutions whether desirable or not. Distribute Handout 6.10, “Common Skills for Problem Solving in Groups,” and ask students to review and reflect on the nature of the skills and name which skills on the handout represent their efforts in the earlier case record reviews.

Summary This unit is one of the most important for students. The understanding of the problemsolving process they gain, whether group based or individual based, is reflected throughout the rest of the course. Students adopt and use the language of the unit, and when they look at their practice, they will frequently say out loud, “Uh-oh, I jumped to solutions. I needed to stay with the problem longer.” The quality of their practice deepens as a result of their understanding and belief in the importance of exploration, and the concept of problem solving becomes a foundation for the work to follow.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points The following is a summary of this unit and its primary teaching points. • Problem solving is a constant activity in groups, and helping groups to problem solve major and minor issues is an ongoing task of practice. • The EBGW method is very similar to that of problem solving in social work practice with groups. A problem is defined, the nature of that problem is systematically explored (i.e., made explicit), all potential solutions to the problem as identified are explored, resolutions or solutions are selected for testing (application) and evaluated for relevance, and an effective solution is adopted.

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• The two types of problem-solving processes are GPS, which refers to any kind of issue (not necessarily negative) that requires the group to make a decision, and IPS, which refers to an issue brought to the group by an individual member for its consideration and assistance. • Using groups to help individuals deal with personal issues is one of the things that groups do best if the process is based on mutual aid, which means that everyone in the group participates in helping to find solutions and that the helping process is carried out in a climate of empathy rather than intellectual advice from the group to the individual seeking help. • When engaging in problem solving, new workers tend to jump prematurely into finding solutions on the one hand, or engaging in premature problem definition, on the other. In the former case, this may be because social work is solution oriented and in the latter, it can be frightening or messy to explore the unknown, or the roots of a problem. • Models exist to help groups to engage in meaningful problem solving, group based and individual oriented, providing step-by-step guidance for intervention.

References Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015EPAS.aspx Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston, MA: Heath. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Groupwork, 6(1), (1993), 5–16. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Social Work with Groups, 15(4), 3–14. Middleman, R., &Wood, G. G (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Salmon, R., & Steinberg, D. M. (2007). Staying in the mess: Teaching students and practitioners to work effectively in the swamp of important problems. Social Work with Groups, 30(4), 79–94. Steinberg, D. M. (1996). She’s doing all the talking, so what’s in it for me? (The use of time in groups). Social Work with Groups, 19(2), 5–16. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Further Readings Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

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HANDOUT 6.1

Dewey’s Problem-Solving Process Transposed to Group Work Dewey’s Step 1:

There occurs an indeterminate situation, a situation in which there is some rupture, great or small, to the smooth on-flowing of life’s affairs

Kurland and Salmon’s Step 1:

Something is up, the worker has a sense that there is a problem or issue.

Dewey’s Step 2:

There then occurs a refinement of the difficulty into more specific problematic form; steps are taken by the individual (group) to diagnose the situation, to see more precisely what the problem is.

Kurland and Salmon’s Step 2:

The problem or issue is identified.

Dewey’s Step 3:

The individual (group) sets out in search of every conceivable potential solution to the problem; the imagination is permitted to run free; any guess, any hunch, any intuition is admissible.

Kurland and Salmon’s Step 3:

The problem or issue is explored.

Dewey’s Step 4:

Project these possible solutions in the mind to consider the consequences each would likely lead to. We think through what would happen if we adopted one or another plan of action.

Kurland and Salmon’s Step 4:

Possible (re)solutions are identified.

Dewey’s Step 5:

Testing. In actual experience or in imagination, do the conjectured consequences actually occur? Test each solution individually, act on each proposal as if it were the answer. Act out the solutions to experience the consequences to which they lead. Then evaluate and judge, reach a conclusion.

Kurland and Salmon’s Step 5:

Decide on a (re)solution, try it out, and evaluate.

Reference Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston, MA: Heath.

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HANDOUT 6.2

Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 1 The following case record was written by the social work student, Susan, whose comments are italicized. Setting: Day treatment center for the chronically mentally ill Members: May, Theresa, Diane, Robert, Mike, Ellie, Inez, Mary, Earl, Olivia (all young adults) Leaders: Jenny (student supervisor) and Susan (social work student) The group began with Earl pointing out to Olivia that she always eats in the group even though the agency has a rule that you’re not supposed to eat in the group meetings. Olivia said it was very hard to stop eating, that she gets nervous and needs to eat. I said that there is a rule of no eating, but it’s not often enforced. Jenny (supervisor) asked how everybody feels about eating in the group. May laughed and said she has to eat. Diane said she didn’t care, but if she did, she wouldn’t ask somebody to not eat because of her. I wondered how come. She said she didn’t like to bother anybody. Inez said eating in the group definitely bothers her because when people eat they’re so busy chewing they don’t say anything. But, she added, she wouldn’t ask somebody not to eat because of her either; she didn’t want to impose on the others. Robert said he’s on a diet and watching someone else eat is hard for him, but it wouldn’t be fair for him to tell other people what to do. I wondered how other members felt about what Inez, Diane, and Robert were saying. Mary said she wouldn’t ask anyone to not eat. Earl said he didn’t understand why anyone needed to eat while the group was going on. Jenny (supervisor) said it looked like there was a group concern here—some people are bothered by the eating but feel uncomfortable speaking up about it. Inez reiterated she didn’t like to impose on others. Jenny (supervisor) suggested the eaters in a way were imposing on the others. (Silence.) I suggested that those who didn’t like it when people ate in the group had a right to speak up if they were bothered. Inez, Mary, Diane, and Robert shook their heads no and waved their hands as if dismissing the trend of the conversation. Jenny (supervisor) suggested there might be ways to limit the eating in the group so that it wouldn’t be bothersome. She suggested maybe the group should start out with refreshments. No one responded. I said perhaps we should take a food break about halfway through the meeting. Inez said no, that it would interrupt what was going on in the group. Many other members agreed with her. I said if we took a break, we’d all be eating together. Olivia said she needs to eat while the meeting’s going on. Jenny (supervisor) said, maybe what we should do is make it a rule that no one can eat things that smell a lot or that are crunchy and make a lot of noise when you chew them. No one responded. Group members agreed to not prohibit eating or enforce the rule of no eating in the group. Jenny (supervisor) said she hoped group members would try to state their opinion or speak up when or if something is bothering them, and that this was the place to do it.

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HANDOUT 6.3

Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 2 The following case record was written by the social work student, Bruce. Setting: Community mental health clinic Members: Karen, Linda, Liz, Judy, Pat (adults) Worker: Bruce (social work student) February 1

February 8

Karen: My daughter had this really terrible experience with my ex-husband, and I’m not sure how to deal with it. I’m so upset … [She continues at length] … and I’m really overwhelmed.

Linda:  I saw my ex-boyfriend at school today, and it was really painful. (Five minutes later, she is quiet.)

Bruce: Let’s hear some responses or sharing about what you’ve been saying from the other people. Linda: Well, I know what your daughter went through. My father used to really beat me up, but I couldn’t talk to my mother about it like you and your daughter and—. Karen:  It was really hard talking to my daughter. (She talks on anxiously.) Bruce: Karen, let’s finish hearing what Linda has to say. Perhaps you can get an idea of how your daughter felt by listening. Karen looks embarrassed, but quietly listens. Linda: I really could talk with my mother and … [After a lengthy monologue, she stops.] After a silence Karen picks it up. She says a few sentences. Bruce: Let’s hear from some of the people who haven’t spoken yet.

Judy: Yeah, when I ran into my ex-husband it was hard. (She gets quiet, deferring to Linda). Bruce:  Judy, could you say more about it? Judy: Well, I was really upset. It felt so awkward. Bruce:  It is a hard situation. Judy:  Yes, you don’t know what to do. It brings up a lot of memories. (Silence) Karen:  Yeah, the memories are painful. Bruce:  It seems as though Judy had more to say. Let’s have her finish. Judy:  It was really painful to see him. (Silence) Bruce:  Has anyone else had similar experiences? Karen:  I had it every time my husband came to pick up the kids. Bruce:  Yes, that must be difficult. Pat, can you share something with us?

Nobody responds. Bruce:  Liz, could you identify anything that was said? Liz begins to speak.

Pat begins to speak.

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HANDOUT 6.4

Group-Based Problem Solving: Case Record 3 The following case record was written by the social work student, Ken, whose comments are in italic. Setting: Mental health clinic Members: Darrell, Clyde, George, Keith (10- to 12-year-old boys) Leaders: Ken (social work student) and Robert (psychology intern) February 21 The domino game began with all members and both workers participating. Midway through the first game, Darrell realized he was losing the game and became visibly upset, pounding his feet on the floor and yelling loudly. George, who was sitting opposite Darrell, was stacking his dominoes one on top of the other. Darrell looked at this, took a deep breath, and blew down George’s dominoes. George got very angry. I observed tension in his face, but he did not say anything. A few minutes passed, and George turned to Clyde and took off Clyde’s hat. After the interaction among Darrell, George, and Clyde, the game ended, and it was time to clean up. All members cleared cooperatively. Ten minutes remained until the end of the meeting. I asked all the members to come back to the table and be seated. They all complied. Robert then stated, “You know, something was going on between all of you during the domino game today.” Darrell and George responded with laughter. I asked George if he knew what had happened. George stopped laughing, and a serious look came over his face. After several moments of silence, George stated, “I got mad.” I asked George if he remembered when he got mad, and he stated, “Darrell blew down my dominoes.” Robert stated, “Yes, and Darrell was mad too when he did that.” As time was running out, I said, “When you guys get mad at each other or at the activity, what you very often do is take it out on each other. Sometimes you’re real mean to one another. Let’s all think about that and we’ll discuss this again next week.”

The session ended, and the boys proceeded calmly to the elevators. February 28 All four boys were present and on time for the group meeting. Everyone took seats around the table where snacks were served. After several minutes, Robert asked, “Do you guys remember what we were talking about at the end of our last session?” There was no response, and George, Darrell, and Keith started playing with their milk containers. After several minutes of just silently observing, I stated, “I’ve noticed that when you guys have something difficult to talk about, you start doing other things like playing with the milk container.” George perked up in his seat and responded, “Last week we talked about getting mad.” Robert responded, “That’s right, George; we talked about getting mad and how sometimes when you guys are angry, you take it out on each other.” Darrell, not looking at either Robert or myself, asked, “What do you mean?” I said, “Well, last week when we were playing dominoes, you got angry and I think you were angry with yourself. But instead of saying that you were angry or trying to improve your game, you reached out and made George angry, and then George reached out and made Clyde angry.” Darrell was silent for a few moments, and then Robert added, “What happens, guys, is that it all goes in a circle. Darrell gets angry and bothers George; George gets angry and bothers Clyde; Clyde gets angry and bothers Mr. Fuller (teaching assistant); Mr. Fuller gets angry and bothers Darrel, and on and on.” Darrell laughed and said, “I know what you mean.”

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HANDOUT 6.4 (continued)

March 6 All four group members were present. After 15 minutes of discussion, the group chose card playing as an activity. They established a set of rules and dealt out chips and cards for the game of 21. Keith and I were winning most of the hands. At one point, Darrell was dealt a series of cards that totaled more than 21. He leaned back in his chair and then fell forward, pounding his fist on the table. The force of his punch caused George’s chips to fall on the floor. George looked visibly upset but did not speak. Robert stated, “Darrell, I think you just made George angry.” There was no response. I asked George how he was feeling. There was no response. Several silent minutes went by while the game continued. In the middle of a hand, George stated, “I don’t want to play anymore.” George then sat silently for several minutes as the game proceeded.

I looked at George and stated, “You look pretty angry.” George did not respond but reached out to knock over Keith’s chips. I then said loudly, “George, it’s happening again; you got angry with Darrell, and now you’re going to make Keith angry.” George withdrew his hands from the chips and sat silently. In a little while, Robert said to Darrell and George, “I can understand that you guys get annoyed and frustrated with the game sometimes, but I can’t understand why you take it out on each other, especially when you like each other so much.” Nobody said anything until Darrell and George glanced at each other across the table and both broke out into smiles. I looked at them and asked, “Do you guys know what you just did?” They both looked up and asked, “What? What did we do?” I replied, “You just apologized to each other.” Darrell looked at George, then laughed, and they slapped each other’s hands.

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HANDOUT 6.5

Hallmarks of IPS With Groups Thinking Group Keep sight of the fact that at all times multiple people and thus multiple resources are present for any and all work to take place. It is in effect a mind-set: Even if the group’s focus is on one member’s situation, there are many resources for problem definition and resolution. It is not the worker’s role to help each group member solve his or her problem; that is the role of the group members. Therefore, they need to become and remain engaged in the process. The following are related skills for promoting participation and empathy: • Thinking group: Group concepts taking precedence over individual or personality concepts and dynamics like a glass the worker looks through to see what is going o • Inviting full participation: Asking members to speak by looking at them or verbally asking for their comments • Reaching for a feeling link: Asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed • Reaching for an information link: Asking others to connect with a statement or question from someone in the group

Dual Focus In the equestrian world, this is called hard eye or soft eye (hard eye being on the immediate path of travel and soft eye being on the surroundings; thus, both the smaller and larger pictures.). The worker must pay attention to the individual in the group who is describing or explaining his or her situation to ensure there is enough time and space to address it and not just offer a broad-brush description with no details, and that other members are listening, asking clarifying questions, and trying to fully understand the problem and feel empathy rather than judgment. The following are related skills for keeping one eye on the individual and one eye on the group: • Scanning: taking in the whole group with one’s eyes • Selecting communication patterns purposefully: making a judgment about a communication format that is consistent with the group’s needs and setting that format in motion • Amplifying subtle messages: calling attention to unnoticed communicative behavior—words, tone of voice, facial expressions—by verbalizing it to others in the group rather than to the person whose behavior is being commented on • Checking out inferences: asking whether a certain thought, hunch, or interpretation is valid for the members in a particular situation

Desire, Seek, and Catalyze Mutual Aid In social work with groups members are the dominant set of resources, and their strengths are required for helping. Thus, the worker needs to engage all members in the discussion of an individual’s situation, making it a mind-set (desire to be inclusive, see and use members as resources, etc.) and a skill set (engaging members in discussion, asking for more participation, deeper insight, etc.). The following are related skills for helping the group initiate and maintain mutual aid: • Reaching for a feeling link: asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed • Reaching for information: asking a member for facts, opinions, impressions, or judgments that increase knowledge of a situation or event

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HANDOUT 6.5 (continued)

• Reaching for an information link: asking others to connect with a statement or question that someone has expressed • Redirecting messages: asking an individual whose message is intended for another to direct his statement or feeling to that person, whether that person is present or not • Inviting full participation: asking members to speak by looking at them or verbally seeking their comments • Turning issues back to the group: asking group participants to use their own experience and thinking to deal with speculations, problems, and plans instead of avoiding working on these matters regardless of the worker’s supposedly superior knowledge and experience • Reaching for consensus: ascertaining whether members are in agreement with how things are going • Reaching for difference: helping members see things from various angles so that a range of viewpoints and possibilities is entertained • Referring to purpose: stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time • Building on strengths: pointing out and focusing on all that a member knows and can do

Visibility of Common Ground This refers to the palpable sensation by group members that even when they have differences (inevitable in all circumstances) those differences exist in the commonalities that bind the members (group purpose) and are stronger than the sum of their differences. It can be difficult for people to maintain sight of their common ground, however, when they are either in conflict or focusing most particularly on the situation of one member. Maintaining visibility of common ground, therefore, requires explicitly pointing out commonalities by the worker and group members if they are capable. Here are some related skills for helping the group find and maintain sight of common ground. • Scanning: taking in the whole group with one’s eyes • Fostering cohesiveness: promoting mutuality, a common stake in the group’s purpose and achievements using we, our, and us more than I, you, or yours • Reaching for a feeling link: asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed • Reaching for an information link: asking others to connect with a statement or question that someone has expressed • Reaching for consensus: ascertaining whether members are in agreement with how things are going • Referring to purpose: stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time

Whole-Group Participation This is just what it says: participation in every activity of the group by every member at all times, whether speaking to describe a situation or listening to others speak with one ear on what’s being said by the other and one ear on the ways it relates to one’s own situation. Listening, therefore, is considered a very active part of participating in group work, not a passive activity. The distinction is that (a) the active listener can restate what was just said and (b) is prepared to identify how what was said relates to the listener personally. It also means that every single member of the group is a potential contributor to defining the nature of the problem being recounted and to help find an appropriate solution. Asking

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HANDOUT 6.5 (continued)

group members to be wholly invested in every part of every activity in these two ways helps to prevent casework in a group (Kurland & Salmon, 1992) or the aggregate therapy of individuals (Hartford, 1971). Related skills for promoting whole-group participation include the following. • Thinking group: giving group concepts precedence over individual or personality concepts and dynamics, like a glass the worker looks through to see what is going on • Scanning: taking in the whole group with one’s eyes • Voicing group achievements: verbally summarizing with appreciation any indications of progress or growth the worker has noticed • Reaching for a feeling link: asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed • Reaching for an information link: asking others to connect with a statement or question that someone has expressed • Inviting full participation: asking members to speak by looking at them or verbally seeking their comments • Turning issues back to the group: asking group participants to use their own experience and thinking to deal with speculations, problems, and plans instead of avoiding working on these matters regardless of the worker’s supposedly superior knowledge and experience • Reaching for consensus: ascertaining whether members are in agreement with how things are going • Proposing superordinate goals: suggesting goals the various parties can subscribe to and that can encompass and even take precedence over partisan interests: What binds us is greater than our disagreements

Meaningful Mess Problem solving—identifying the true nature of a problem, exploring possible solutions, and electing one potential resolution—is not an easy task. It requires work in the form of thinking, analyzing, entertaining other people’s ideas that might be vastly different, becoming and remaining open to possible definitions that may feel insulting if not presented sensitively (a common occurrence in therapeutic groups), and thinking through the many ideas that have the greatest relevance and application potential to truly resolve a personal problem. In short, it requires a great deal of reflection and conversation to be truly meaningful (i.e., have a semblance of long-term impact), and there is no doubt that in-depth exploration and analysis of this kind is messy. In other words, group members are likely to present ideas that are perhaps only partly formed, disagree with other ideas, know what they mean but are unable to express it clearly along with other aspects of complex conversation. It is the worker’s task to help them sort through this mess. It also means that they may talk over one another, listen less well than one might wish, and push the conversation in so many directions that it takes all the worker’s focus and efforts to help the group stay on task, which is done by asking the group to return to task, not by taking it over. Related skills for helping the group stick with a meaningful mess are the following: • Fostering cohesiveness: promoting mutuality, a common stake in the group’s purpose and achievements using we, our, and us more than I, you, or yours • Selecting communication patterns purposefully: making a judgment about a communication format that is consistent with the group’s needs and setting that format in motion • Praising group achievements: verbally summarizing with appreciation any indications of progress or growth the worker has noticed

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HANDOUT 6.5 (continued)

• Preserving group history and continuity: reminding the group of previous experiences in the group by deliberately linking the current session to previous ones • Referring to purpose: stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time • Building on strengths: pointing out and focusing on all a member knows and can do • Confronting situations: involving relevant members in an open exchange of information and affect about a problem or issue as each person perceives it • Checking out inferences: asking if a certain thought, hunch, or interpretation is valid for the members in a particular situation • Giving information: offering facts, opinions, or ideas that may increase the group’s knowledge and understanding of a situation or event

Climate Dominated by Empathy When group members reflect on similarities, in feeling if not in actuality, between an individual situation and their own circumstances or previous experiences, the reduction of distance between them causes empathy to occur. It is all too easy to be judgmental when one does not identify with a feeling in any way, but once one begins to identify (e.g., I felt helpless that way once), the platform for empathy is created. In fact, it is this very lack of empathy that often leads groups to engage in such demoralizing scenarios as the hot-seat approach to problem solving, which is when the so-called presenting group member must account for his or her circumstances by responding to harsh judgment by co-members. Here are some related skills for helping the group maintain a climate of empathy: • Fostering cohesiveness: promoting mutuality, a common stake in the group’s purpose and achievements using we, our, and us more than I, you, or yours • Voicing group achievements: verbally summarizing with appreciation any indications of progress or growth the worker has noticed • Reaching for a feeling link: asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed • Referring to purpose: stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time • Confronting situations: involving relevant members in an open exchange of information and affect about a problem or issue as each person perceives it • Converting arguments into comparisons: replacing arguments with comparisons by reframing the different sides as differences of opinion about the way to accomplish an end and presenting options for rational consideration by everyone • Proposing superordinate goals: suggesting goals the various parties, even in conflict, can subscribe to and that can encompass and even take precedence over partisan interests: What binds us is greater than our disagreements.

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HANDOUT 6.6

A Model for IPS in Groups The following is based on Kurland and Salmon (1992). Step 1: A group member raises a problem or issue of concern, i.e., something is up, the worker has a sense that there is a problem or issue. Step 2: The problem is clearly identified by the individual and the group, i.e., the problem or issue is identified. The goals of this step are collective clarity, understanding, and insight. Step 3: The problem is explored, the individual problem or issue identified by the group member is explored. The goals of this step are collective relevance and empathy. Step 4: The worker asks group members to recount situations that they have experienced and dilemmas that they have faced relevant to the problem raised by the individual member. (This additional step from the GPS model seeks common ground toward helping all group members to relate to the individual seeking help). Asking group members to share similar stories (or even different stories but ones that evoke similar feelings) is crucial to keeping the entire group engaged and invested in the process. Step 5: Possible (re)solutions to the individual’s problem are identified, drawing on the experiences recounted by other group members as they describe their courses of action and what did or did not work. (This additional step from the GPS model seeks mutual aid). Asking group members to explore their own histories and experiences encourages them to re-examine their own choices (what they did well or might have done better) and to use their own situations to help the individual seeking help (by which process they also help themselves). Step 6: The worker and group members help the individual who raised the problem for help to decide on a course of action or solution and possible ways to implement it. Step 7: The worker asks all members what they have taken out of the discussion that has transpired. (This additional step from GPS model seeks personal relevance and application for all group members). The goals here are to (a) help all group members take from the process by revisiting their own jobs well done or not so well done (in either case reflection on past actions is helpful) and (b) make explicit the ways the group engaged in mutual aid (i.e., how it was helpful to the listening members as well as the presenter; how everyone got something out of it either personally or from the good feelings that come from being helpful or both). Step 8: At one or more future meetings the group as a whole follows up with the individual about the problem and how things are going (additional step from the GPS model seeking real-world individual value of the problem-solving process). The goal here is to maintain continuity of process, to maintain visibility of all members and their progress throughout the life of the group, and to provide opportunities to revisit decisions that might require further problem solving or in the best-case scenario, to celebrate successful resolution.

Reference Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Social Work With Groups, 15(4), 3–14.

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HANDOUT 6.7

Individual Problem Solving, Case 1: Part One Jim is a member of a group on coping skills in a day program for the mentally ill. A lonely and reclusive 29-year-old man, Jim has trouble making friends. He has been diagnosed as paranoid schizophrenic but lives in his own apartment. Jim frequently annoys the group by talking about masturbation and walking around with his pants unzipped, making inane comments that interrupt the group, and pretending to fall asleep and lying across three chairs during the meeting. At the 10th meeting Jim asks the worker, What do you think, Debbie? Hypothetically speaking, suppose you had a friend and don’t have any other friends. But every time he comes over he smokes pot or does a couple of lines of coke in your living room. I mean, he is a good listener and is your only friend, but you don’t do drugs or anything. What would you do? Before the worker can respond, members quickly jump in with advice: Jerry says he’d just tell the guy to get out of his house; Allen says drugs are dangerous, this guy’s no good! Pam says she wouldn’t want anyone doing drugs in her house; Ron says the guy must not be a real friend, and Will says a friend wouldn’t take advantage of you or get you in trouble. Finally, Jim says defensively, “You know, I don’t really care if he does drugs in my house.” He seems dissatisfied with the discussion that has taken place. Others seem frustrated as well. As the meeting ends, Pam asks Jim, “Why did you waste our time if there’s no problem?” Jim, the group, and worker all emerge feeling highly dissatisfied.

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HANDOUT 6.8

Individual Problem Solving, Case 1: Part Two As a result of her dissatisfaction with the discussion of the previous week, Debbie (the worker) raises the issue of Jim’s friend again with the group. Debbie asks whether group members remember when Jim spoke of his friend who did drugs at his house. They all do. She acknowledges that the discussion was frustrating for everyone. The group members all agree. She asks for permission to discuss the issue again, hoping they can help Jim by trying to engage in a more satisfying discussion. The group agrees. Jim recounts his situation again to the group. This time, the worker’s questions and comments help him to be more specific. When she observes that this issue seems important to him, Jim tells the group, I don’t have any other friends and having this one friend is very important to me. I’ve known this guy all my life; we went to high school together. He’s a college graduate with a good job and his own apartment. This guy is somebody. The group begins to understand and empathize. The tone of their questions and comments change from belligerent to supportive. In turn, Jim’s responses become less defensive, more honest. He can now hear their comments better. Even his physical posture changes; he sits upright, facing the group. Allen asks Jim if he’s worried about the police. Yes, Jim responds. “But I don’t want to end the friendship. I don’t want to get caught either with my friend doing drugs.” Pam asks Jim if he ever talked to his friend about being caught. He said, “I told him it bothers me …. He stopped for a while, but then he started doing it again.” The worker then asks group members to recall personal situations related to what Jim is struggling with now. Ron recounts a time a year ago when he told a friend who wanted him to use cocaine that he wouldn’t do it. Others talk of similar situations in which they’ve tried to convince friends or relatives to do something or when others tried to convince them, friends they’ve valued and lost, people who’ve gotten them in trouble. Everyone listens attentively to one another until the session ends. At the next meeting the group returns to Jim’s situation and helps him develop a plan to talk with his friend. Drawing on their experiences, some offer suggestions of what he might say, words he might use. The group even engages in role play, Jim playing his friend and various members playing Jim.

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HANDOUT 6.9

Individual Problem Solving: Case 2 In a prevocational skills group in a day treatment program, Sara explains that she’s nervous about going back to work. She tells the group that she has gained weight and that her clothes do not fit; she’s worried that she won’t be able to get a job because of the bad economy, and she doesn’t know what to say about the gap in her employment history. “What am I going to say I did for 2 years—that I was hospitalized under psychiatric care and doing nothing?” she asks. On the other hand, she also says she’d like to have some money and that she feels useless staying home, especially when her sister pressures her to go to work. Group members jump in to offer advice. Doris says maybe Sara isn’t ready to go back to work yet. Robert advises her to go on a diet. John tells her not to listen to her sister. Chris and Lisa suggest she go for it and have an interview. Frank tells her to lie on her application and say she was working in her sister’s office. Sara rejects these suggestions. “I couldn’t lie on my application. I just couldn’t do that!” she says. “And if I went on an interview and didn’t get the job, I couldn’t handle it! I’d be sick for weeks.” Finally, she says in frustration, “I don’t want to talk about this anymore. Let’s talk about something else.” The group then moves on to discuss difficulties that Frank is having with his girlfriend.

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HANDOUT 6.10

Common Skills for Problem Solving in Groups The following skills are from Middleman and Wood (1990).

Fostering Cohesiveness Promoting mutuality, a common stake in the group’s purpose and achievements is important for group members to continue to feel their commonality in times of difference.

Selecting Communication Patterns Purposefully This means making a judgment about a communication format that is consistent with the group’s needs and to set that format in motion helping to make sure that all voices are expressed and heard with respect.

Amplifying Subtle Messages Calling attention to unnoticed communicative behavior—words, tone of voice, facial expressions—by saying it to others in the group rather than to the person whose behavior is being commented on is important to make sure that all feelings, no matter how subtly expressed, are brought to bear on the discussion.

Softening Overpowering Messages Replacing the essence of a highly affective message, that is, shouts, punches, and glares, reduces the strength of the affect is and the message can be heard, which helps to tone down overly aggressive expressions.

Reaching for a Feeling Link Asking others to connect with a feeling that has been expressed is important in helping group members identify the commonalities and also their differences in feelings.

Reaching for Information Asking a group ember for facts, opinions, impressions, or judgments that increase knowledge of a situation or event helps harness the strengths of group members during times of difference.

Reaching for an Information Link Asking others to connect with a statement or question that someone has expressed is important in helping group members identify what they can agree and disagree on.

Inviting Full Participation Asking group members to speak by looking at them or verbally asking for their comments helps make sure that all group members who have something to say about the differences being expressed have an opportunity to do so.

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HANDOUT 6.10 (continued)

Turning Issues Back to the Group Ask group participants to use their own experience and thinking to deal with speculations, problems, and plans instead of avoiding working on these matters; do not take the central role in mediating or arbitrating a conflict but rather use professional authority to help group members work things out.

Reaching for Consensus Checking to check to see if group members are in agreement with how things are going helps to make sure that no feelings or attitudes or opinions are lost in the conversational shuffle.

Reaching for Difference Helping members to see things from various angles so that a range of viewpoints and possibilities is entertained is important in helping group members entertain new ways of thinking, being, or doing.

Confronting Situations Involving relevant members in an open exchange of information and affect about a problem or issue as each person perceives it makes sure that when differences do exist they are aired as potential sources of help.

Reference Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

UNIT

Practice With the Middle-Stage Group

7

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use group development theories to guide intervention with the middle-stage group, actively prescribe and set norms and standards for ethical intermember behavior, reach for group consensus in maintaining or reshaping group purpose as required, reach for divergent opinions to include all voices in the group. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use identified group skills for helping groups address conflict and difference; help group members to express, appreciate, and make constructive meaning of their differences; actively and explicitly promote diversity of all types as having the potential to enrich group process. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Promote internal leadership in the maintenance of contracted group norms, goals, and acceptable behaviors; select interventions that create a democratic humanistic (Glassman, 2009) climate in the group; in cases of differences between group needs as expressed and agency policies or norms, conceptualize and conduct the professional social work role as one of mediation between the group and the agency; help the group to shape its destiny within the bounds of its setting or if outside those bounds, help the group express its needs in the context. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Differentially and discretely apply all available related evidence on social work with groups generally and as it relates to the group’s purpose more specifically as a guide for intervening in group process; conduct ongoing evaluation of group process and progress by actively targeting sessional endings for such purposes using sessionalending content to shape future process. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Provide information for group members on an ongoing basis that can help the group achieve its purpose, including organizational and broader policies that may have an impact on its goals; help group members to understand the potential impact of social welfare and economic policies on meeting its purpose; help the group to harness its internal strengths and leadership potential to address policies that may impede its ability to achieve its purpose. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage with all systems that are significant to helping the middle-stage group conduct its affairs including organizational constraints; advocate for the group’s needs, such as support for group and individual problem solving. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use group-development theories to assess the nature of a productive relationship between the group and its constituents as it attempts to conduct its business; assess the nature and strength of supports that exist in the broader community for group members to work toward and achieve their goals. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use group-development theories to select appropriate interventions in the middle-stage group, including immediate and direct interventions in the group, and if required, direct and indirect interventions in other significant related systems, such as families, additional reference groups, the agency in which the group operates, and the broader community; help group members to engage and enlist the support of its various constituents to move their work forward, such as resolving relational or situational problems external to the group. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use stagedevelopment theories to assess the degree to which the group’s process meets the needs of its members and advances the group’s purpose; use the results of assessment to guide the direction of practice. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

157

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W

hen members have been oriented to the group, some behavior norms have been established, a common initial purpose has been defined, and some commonalities have been recognized, a group can be said to enter its middle stage. The middle stage of a group is complex, and its specific behavioral characteristics will vary from group to group depending on composition, context, and group purpose. Also, as the group moves toward its middle stage or middles, the worker’s role changes from being less central and directive to one that focuses on and maximizes the leadership from within the group and the group’s potential for mutual aid (Steinberg, 2014).

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The purpose of this unit is to provide a brief orientation to this stage of group development and generally describe the characteristics of the middle stage. Two of its central features, roles and conflict, are addressed specifically in the units that follow. This unit has the following student learning outcomes: 1. Become familiar with the characteristics, member needs, and worker role in the middle stage of group development 2. Become familiar with practice skills used with groups in the middle stage

Overview Work With the Middle-Stage Group As in Unit 5 on the beginning stage, introduce this unit by distributing Handout 7.1, “Stages of Group Development: Middles,” and review it with the class by discussing the salient features of the stage and emphasizing the following. By this stage of group development, members are more themselves, more natural, and less worried about the impression they make on others. They play a more active role in the group and engage in mutual aid (Steinberg, 2014). The worker’s role is less central, concerned now with encouraging and improving member participation and inter-member communication. The worker is active in sharing observations about what seems to be taking place in the group but then leaving it to the members to address those perceptions. The worker’s observations sometimes entail confronting the group or an individual group member. The purpose of the group continues to be defined and redefined in relation to individual members’ needs. However, the discussion of purpose now has greater depth and realism and is qualitatively different from its conversation in beginnings. Members now have a clearer sense of the possibilities of this group and of what they might gain from their participation. Their investment in the group grows and cohesion, or members’ attraction to one another and to the group as a whole, develops. Group members also now have a greater sense of one another. Different characteristics and behaviors have emerged. As a result, they come to expect others to act in particular ways, taking on and assigning one another specific roles. Some members become more powerful and influential and have greater status than others. Subgroups

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often form. Finally, differences assume increasing importance as members become more and more willing to express honest opinions and points of view regardless of popularity or potential for controversy, making conflict expectable and frequent. Another area of worker activity in this middle stage, therefore, relates to helping members address conflict constructively. It is quite often the case that at this stage in their learning, students who work with groups in the field often begin to view the total group as an entity that excludes individual group members. To help them maintain a dual vision on the total group and individual group members, it is useful for them to develop a thumbnail sketch of each member of the groups with which they are working. They might jot down all that they know concerning each member—descriptive and behavioral characteristics, relationships in the group, ways the worker believes the member can benefit from the group, especially now knowing each member better. Point out to the class that Handout 7.1 is set up in the same format as Handout 5.1 for beginnings (see Unit 5) and Handout 10.1 for endings in Unit 10. If they wish to view the progression over time along any one dimension (i.e., where the members are, what needs to happen, or the role of the worker), they can read down a column of the handout from beginning to middle to end. Using these handouts in such a way provides students with specificity and completeness in each of the three stages.

Common Skills for Practice With Groups in the Middle Stage As with the content on the beginning stage of group development in Unit 5, identify for the students some skills that workers are most likely to need and use in the middle stage of development (Middleman & Wood, 1990). Distribute Handout 7.2, “Common Skills for Practice with Middle-Stage Groups” for students to review. At this point, students are familiar with the fact that there are group-specific skills and may have found other material from Middleman and Wood (1990) useful in their field practice. Thus, there is no need to spend significant class time introducing these middle-stage skills, nor is it necessary to engage the class in an exercise as part of this unit. Rather, consider briefly describing these skills and then demonstrating one or two of them that seem to be more difficult for students to grasp and use, asking students to consider the skills and to offer examples either from their field experience or from the classroom setting. For instance, amplifying subtle messages is a skill that students seem to find difficult to understand. Figure 7.1 is an example of a classroom vignette on amplifying subtle messages, narrated by the instructor. After the demonstration and discussion of skills, let the class know that member roles and group conflict are two areas central to the middle stage of group development and that they will be addressed in the following class sessions.

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Figure 7.1 Skill of amplifying subtle messages. I scanned the room and said to the class, “Joan looks as if she is ready for a break—right now!” After a brief pause, I asked, “So, which skill did I just use?” Denise said with emphasis, “Amplifying subtle messages!” Flora interjected quickly and with feeling, “I tried using that skill in my group, and I don’t like it. It puts the person on the spot and makes them defensive.” “Tell us how you used the skill,” I asked. “Well,” answered Flora, “one time in my group there was a member who was yawning a lot, and I said to him, ‘Harry, you keep yawning.’ He got annoyed and became very defensive, so I backed off.” “But that’s not how you use that skill!” Ishmael said immediately. “You said it directly to the person, but you need to say it to the group.” I agreed with Ishmael and pointed out that saying to the group rather than commenting directly to Harry is the opposite of putting him on the spot—this is a skill you use when you have a sense that members want to say and are saying something through their nonverbal behavior. The point is not to put the person on the spot but to help him or her be heard. Mentioning a person’s behavior to the group invites the group to recognize and encourage the individual to contribute. Noticing Denise’s facial expression, which suggested that she wanted to interject, I turned to the class and observed, “It looks as if Denise is bursting with something she wants to say.” There were smiles and laughs, and John said, “Yeah, Denise, let’s hear it.” Denise smiled and said, “I use that skill all the time,” and proceeded to elaborate.

Summary When group members have defined a common initial purpose for being together and recognize their commonalities, a group can be said to enter its middle stage. This stage is complex, with varied behavioral characteristics according to the group, but generally members will feel more comfortable being themselves, expressing their differences, and confronting one another, all of which may lead to conflict. As the group moves toward its middle stage, the worker’s role changes to one that is less central and directive to one that focuses on and maximizes the leadership from within the group and the group’s potential for mutual aid.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • With a group in its middle stage, the worker’s role becomes less central and directive, moving to the back seat of leadership while encouraging internal strength and leadership from the members. • Two of the central features of a group’s middle stage are the emergence of roles, as group members begin to take on specific roles with the group, which are often those they take on in other groups as well, and conflict, which tends to emerge as members become more comfortable expressing their differences. • In a group’s middle stage the worker focuses on helping group members take ownership of the group’s affairs, what it does and how it does it. The worker actively shares his or her observations about what she or he sees taking place but leaves it to the members to address those perceptions. • In a group’s middle stage its purpose continues to be defined and redefined in relation to individual members’ needs. However, members now understand more clearly what they might gain from their participation.

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• Group members’ investment in the group grows in the group’s middle stage, and as a result, the group increases in cohesion as well. • Group members’ characteristics emerge as they become more comfortable in the group and often take on and assign specific roles to others. • Differences assume increasing importance as members become more willing to express honest opinions regardless of popularity, making conflict expected and frequent. Helping groups to deal with conflict constructively is a major role of the worker in a group’s middle stage. • It is important for the worker to maintain a dual vision during the middle stage of the group, which means not allowing an individual member to become lost in the group process while simultaneously helping the group function as a system.

References Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for working with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Further Readings Bernstein, S. (1973). Conflict and group work. In. S. Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work (pp. 72–106). Boston, MA: Milford House. Birnbaum, M., & Cicchetti, A. (2005). A model for working with the group life cycle in each group session across the life span of the group. Groupwork, 15(3), 23–43. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (1995). Uncovering latent content in groups. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 19–32). Binghamton, NY: Haworth. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Brown, L. (1991). Groups for growth and change. New York, NY: Longman. Colman, A. (1995). Up from scapegoating: Awakening consciousness in groups. Wilmette, IL: Chiron. Compton, B., & Galaway, B. (1994). Social work processes (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cowger, C. (1979). Conflict and conflict management in working with groups, Social Work with Groups, 2(4), 309–320. Douglas, T. (1995). Scapegoats: Transferring blame. London, UK: Routledge. Galinsky, M., & Schopler, J. (1985). Patterns of entry and exit in opened group Social Work with Groups, 8(2), 67–80. Galinsky, M., & Schopler, J. (1989). Developmental patterns in open-ended groups. Social Work with Groups, 12(2), 99–114.

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Garland, J., Jones, H., & Kolodny, R. (1973). A model for stages of development in social work groups. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work (pp. 17–71). Boston, MA: Milford House. Garland, J., & Kolodny, R. (1973). Characteristics and resolutions of scapegoating. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Further explorations in group work (pp. 55–74). Boston, MA: Milford House. Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Gitterman, A. (1989) Building mutual support in groups. Social Work with Groups, 12(2), 5–21. Goodman, H. (1997). Social group work in community corrections. Social Work with Groups, 20(1), 51–64. Hartford, M. (1971). Groups in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Henry, S. (1992). Group skills in social work: A four-dimensional approach (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Hirayama, H., & Hirayama, K. (1997). Bullying and scapegoating in groups: Process and interventions. In J. Parry (Ed.), From prevention to wellness through group work (pp. 89– 100). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Groupwork, 6(1), (1993), 5–16. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Group work vs. casework in a group: Principles and implications for teaching and practice. Social Work with Groups, 15(4), 3–14. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). Self-determination: Its use and misuse in group work practice and social work education. In D. Fike & B. Rittner (Eds.), Working from strengths: The essence of group work (pp. 105–121). Miami, FL: Center for Group Work Studies. Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1993). Not just one of the gang: Group workers and their role as an authority. Social Work with Groups, 16(1/2), 153–167. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Nosko, A., & Wallace, R. (1997). Female/male co-leadership in groups. Social Work with Groups, 20(2), 3–16. Reid, K. (1997). Conflict management in group treatment: Get out of my face, you S.O.B.! In Joan Parry (Ed.), From prevention to wellness through group work (pp. 61–78). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Schiller, L. Y. (1995). Stages of development in women’s groups: A relational model. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.), Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 117–138). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Schopler, J., & Galinsky, M. (1984). Meeting practice needs: Conceptualizing the openended group. Social Work with Groups, 7(2), 3–22. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Shulman, L. (1967). Scapegoats, group workers, and pre-emptive intervention. Social Work, 12(2), 37–43. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson. .

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HANDOUT 7.1

Stages of Group Development: Middles Where the Members Are In the beginning (of this stage) members are still: • exploring and testing the situation • seeing where they fit • sizing up one another • struggling for power • competing for leadership • finding their roles • determining their status By the end (of this stage) they: • have found their place in the group • have found others they like (subgroups may form) • feel more accepted and understood • better accept and understand other members • see themselves and the other members as distinct individuals • recognize similarities and differences and see differences as useful • acknowledge one another’s uniqueness • see their own particular contribution • feel some affection for and desire to • share with other members • see that their goals can be met within the group. Members: • seek to understand the perceptions that the worker and other members have of the group • begin to understand the meaning of the group for them • begin to clarify their own goals and • what they want to achieve in the group

What Needs to Happen Group culture, style, way of doing things, norms of group behavior need to develop, be recognized, understood, and accepted by the members. Norms that define the way conflict (differences) will be expressed, managed, and resolved; norms that encourage experimentation, flexibility, responsibility for supporting and stimulating each other. Patterns of social interaction and communication need to develop. Structure of interpersonal relationships emerges—status, ranking, leadership, roles. A realistic purpose needs to be re-clarified and redefined. Each person’s needs and goals must be understood in relation to the group purpose.

Role of the Worker To help what needs to happen, happen. To support the patterns, to play a less and less central role and to maximize group leadership and functioning. To evaluate what is going on: • where the group is at • how it is moving • what are the stresses and strains To assess each individual member—attitudes, relationships, behavior, motivation, goals, how each person is doing in the group. To help group encourage the development of positive group norms. To recognize the commonalities:

There needs to be continued clarification of the goals that individuals seek for themselves as these are similar to and different from those of others in the group.

• how one member’s goals are similar to those of others

Harmony needs to be achieved between the way each member perceives the group and the way the worker does.

• how one individual’s concern can be related to the concerns of others

Members need to test the worker and other members and come to trust that they can express their feelings and bring problems into the group without being rejected or punished. Members need to come to respect the similarities and differences among them.

To recognize the differences— among the members, between the worker and the members

• how different goals can be accommodated in the group

To help members get to know each other, see how they can help each other, help identify common interests, concerns, and feelings.

(continued)

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HANDOUT 7.1 (continued)

Where the Members Are

What Needs to Happen

Role of the Worker

Members test the worker. Seek proof that the worker cares about and accepts them, how worker will use authority, whether worker will protect them

Stabilization of membership needs to occur. People need to get involved, committed to the group, its purpose, other members, the worker.

To permit testing of him/ herself, of rules. But to maintain limits, not let people hurt (demolish) each other.

Members begin to understand and accept the worker’s role, become less dependent on the worker and develop more reliance on each other, begin to see worker as a unique person.

Cohesiveness needs to develop.

To promote flexibility in roles so that members can experience and try out and modify ways of contributing to the group, relating to others. May need to confront the members directly if they are tending to stereotype others.

As they become more sure and comfortable, members: • begin to express themselves more • share more of themselves, their experiences, their feelings, their opinions. • are willing to risk more exposure of themselves and their ideas. Discussion becomes less scattered and more focused. Members are able to do more sustained work on problems, to help each other more. As they experience success, they are more and more willing to bring in problems, to look at themselves.

The group needs to be seen as a place where members can really work on problems, exchange, argue, confront, try out, really share.

To work toward improving communication in the group. To point out when people aren’t hearing or listening to each other, that it is OK to get angry. To encourage members to support or question the comments and behavior of others and to bring things to the group.

They begin to attach prestige to efforts to express themselves and work on problems.

To step in and regulate conflict if it gets too threatening. (Conflict and disagreement are to be expected at this stage.)

As members communicate more freely they recognize even more where they are similar and different.

To confront members re irrational thinking, unacceptable behavior.

The group becomes more and more important to the members. They see this group experience as unique.

May need to work with members individually to encourage them to express themselves in the group or to increase their understanding of something that happened in the group or if there was much conflict and person wants to drop out (run away, avoid a difficult situation).

Reprinted with permission from Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1998). Teaching a methods course in social work with groups. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education.

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HANDOUT 7.2

Common Skills for Practice With Middle-Stage Groups The following is from Middleman and Wood (1990).

Reaching for Consensus Ascertaining whether members are in agreement with how things are going is important to keep track of the process and progress as work becomes deeper and perhaps more complex and intense.

Reaching for Difference Helping members to see things from various angles so that a range of viewpoints and possibilities is entertained is important to help members think about new ways of thinking, being, or doing.

Confronting Situations Involving relevant members in an open exchange of information and affect about a problem or issue as each person perceives it is required to bring issues and possible conflict into the light for examination, exploration, and meaning making.

Reaching for Feelings Inviting members to describe the emotions they are experiencing helps keep group members in touch with their feelings and those of others in the group.

Amplifying Subtle Messages Calling attention to unnoticed communicative behavior—words, tone of voice, facial expressions—by verbalizing it to others in the group rather than to the person whose behavior is being commented on, thus, helping expressions that may otherwise go unnoticed become part and parcel of the group dialogue.

Reporting Own Feelings Describing one’s in-the-moment emotional experience when such self-disclosure is likely to be useful in shedding light on others’ feelings or the situation is important in helping group members to stay in touch with their feelings and to express those feelings to the group by modeling one’s own feelings when doing so will advance the work of the moment.

Reaching for Information Asking members for facts, opinions, impressions or judgments that increase knowledge of a situation or event (helping group members understand that what they think and know are potentially valuable contributions to the group’ s work.

Giving Feedback Repeating the essence of what members have said and asking if the meaning received was in fact the intended meaning checks in with group members to make sure that what was said was what was intended.

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HANDOUT 7.2 (continued)

Checking Out Inferences Asking if a certain thought, hunch, or interpretation is valid for the members in a particular situation helps make sure that the conversation remains clear and cogent to everyone in the group at all times.

Giving Information Offering facts, opinions, or ideas that may increase the group’s knowledge and understanding of a situation or event is important when the worker is in the best position to either educate group members about a specific issue or to give information to the group that members may not have and that will help advance the group’s work.

Reference Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

8

UNIT

Helping Students Deal With Emerging Roles CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit

1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use group-development theories to guide intervention at the emergence of roles that impede the group’s work or that create the potential for role lock; actively and directly prescribe and set norms and standards for ethical inter-member behavior. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use group-development theories to help guide the group’s exploration of emerging roles and their impact on group process and progress; actively and directly explain the advantages of role flexibility and disadvantages of role lock. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. During the examination of roles and the problem-solving process in managing roles, engage members in the maintenance of desirable group norms and acceptable behaviors; select interventions that extend the group’s democratic-humanistic (Glassman, 2009) climate; conceptualize and conduct professional role as one of mediation between various perspectives in the group without taking sides. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Differentially and discretely apply all available related evidence on group roles as a guide for intervening in the group process; conduct an ongoing evaluation of the group process and progress by actively targeting sessional endings for such purposes; use sessional-ending content to shape future process. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Provide information that can help the group brainstorm about problematic roles and prevent role lock as they either advance or impede the group’s ability to achieve its purpose in the system that it operates. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage with all systems that are significant to helping the middle-stage group address problematic roles, including the use of knowledge that might have an impact on a group member’s ability to recognize the adoption of a problematic role; meet with group members individually and with significant others if such meetings might help the individual address role problems in the group. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Assess the nature and intensity of roles undertaken in the group by individual members; help group members to assess the impact and implications of selected roles; help group members identify similarities and differences in the roles they undertake in other groups to which they belong and the impact of those similarities or differences on the group’s capacity to conduct its work. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Select purposeful interventions to develop and maintain role flexibility among group members, help group members recognize the potential for transferring principles of flexibility from the group to other groups they belong to, engage members of various constituents as appropriate to help group members refrain from role lock inside and outside of the group. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage in ongoing assessment of group roles including verbal evaluation by group members of the group process as it attempts to prevent or undo role lock and especially as it relates to roles that create conflict of any kind, either intrapsychic or interpersonal. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

167

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M

ember roles often demand a great deal of attention by the worker and members in the group’s middle stage. Members become more comfortable and familiar with the group, they interact and get to know one another, and it is not uncommon for them to either place themselves or to be placed by the others in particular roles. They also begin to develop expectations for their own behavior and that of their co-members. As roles develop during this evolution, they may be constructive for the individual member and the total group, or they may be personally or interpersonally destructive (Northen & Kurland, 2001). A role is a socially expected behavior pattern usually determined by an individual’s status in the group and becomes differentiated in the middle stage in particular because expectations become clearer about what is to be done and by whom. All members generally have many roles in their lives; in the group, however, the roles members play develop and play out in interaction with the other members and with the worker. Generally, roles can be characterized as constructive, in that they help advance the work of the group, or destructive, meaning they hinder the group’s work.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The purpose of this unit is to describe a range of teaching methods that emphasize the reciprocal nature of roles in a group and the ways students can intervene to address the existence of problematic group roles. The learning outcomes for students are the following: 1. Understand that member roles can contribute to or detract from the group’s purpose and that roles that meet the emotional needs of one particular member may be unhelpful to the total group 2. Understand the principle of reciprocity of roles, that the individual in a role and the total group play a part in creating and maintaining member roles in the group 3. Appreciate the importance of promoting flexibility in roles so that members can experience and try out many ways of contributing to the group and relating to others 4. Know when and how to intervene when a member has assumed or been placed in a role that is a problem for the group

Roles in Groups Initiate a discussion that considers member roles with humor by distributing Handout 8.1, “Roles That People Adopt in Groups,” from Berger (1977).Although Berger’s book is outdated, his conceptualization of the roles that people take on in groups is still apt even today. If you have other lists of roles that may be more applicable to the present day, feel free to use them instead. Given the cultural changes over the past 40 or so years, you might also identify other roles that would not even have existed in the late 1970s, such as tech addict or tech wizard. In fact, a number of websites on the Internet are devoted specifically to identifying group roles, some generally and some focusing

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on either positive or negative roles (e.g., Emmet, 2013; “Functional Roles of Group Members,” n.d.; Porteus, n.d.; “Roles in Groups,” n.d.; University of Minnesota, n.d.; University of Queensland Australia, 2019). Berger’s list is also dated in the sense that it contains some isms not tolerated in today’s social climate. However, the teaching points here are to help students understand there are myriad roles in groups, to recognize them as they occur, and to understand the general principles of intervention. It does not matter so much which list is used to accomplish these goals. The positive side of this somewhat outdated list is that it is extremely visual and humorous. Nonetheless, several are available, so feel free to use another list for the class exercise. The points regarding the worker’s own role in intervening will be the same. Roles as Positive or Negative Berger’s (1977) list is an amusing characterization of a wide range of possible roles, and as students review the list, they should keep in mind the groups they have worked with as well as groups they have been members of, such as teams, boards, committees, other informal or recreational groups. Usually they respond with laughter and signs of recognition as they read the list and identify roles they Figure 8.1 Categories of group roles as positive or negative. have encountered. Ask them to 1. Roles that contribute positively to the group’s ability to achieve describe for the class the behavior its purpose, for example, the information seeker, the initiator, and of the person who aptly fits the the elaborator role that prompted their reaction. 2. Roles that contribute positively to the group’s socioemotional needs, such as the encourager, the harmonizer, and the welcomer At this point it is helpful to 3. Roles that detract from the group’s achievement of its purpose, identify for the class and write for example, the monopolizer, the help-rejecting complainer, and on the board a heading for each the intellectualizer of the four categories of roles in 4. Roles that negatively affect the group’s socioemotional needs, Figure 8.1 (e.g., “Positive Roles including the bully, the scapegoat, and the gossip Toward Achieving Purpose” for the first category), and ask students to name roles, either from their own experience in or with a group or from Berger’s (1977) list that exemplify one of the four categories. As they do so, list the roles they identify under the appropriate heading. As you move along you may wish to add to their lists some of the roles that students may not have mentioned but that occur frequently in social work groups. As the class looks at the roles listed on the board, emphasize the importance of promoting flexibility and trying to prevent a member from becoming locked into a particular role. Often in groups, patterns of behavior become stabilized in such a way that group members come to expect a particular person to behave in a particular way with regularity. A good example of this is the person who becomes the group clown. In the beginning stage of the group, the clown is welcome because this role brings about laughter and helps to release tension from anxiety over the new group experience. What happens, however, when the group moves along, and the individual continues to clown

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around, or the clown wishes to become serious? In the first case, the clown prevents the group from being serious about its work, and in the second, the clown is encouraged by the group to continue in the role with which the group is now familiar and comfortable. In either case, a group member who is unable to change a given role (role lock) prevents what needs to happen, so the worker needs to help the members not stereotype one another. To further illustrate the importance of flexibility in roles as well as the different interventions of a worker according to the stage of development, it is useful to focus on the monopolizer. Consider the classroom vignette in Figure 8.2, narrated by the instructor. Figure 8.2 Class process example: Managing role flexibility and preventing role lock. I asked the class, “How would you handle it if in the first session of a group, you had a monopolizer who jumped in to answer every question you asked and who went on and on nonstop in his or her responses? What are some of the things you would do?” Paulette said immediately, “I wouldn’t call on that person.” Jasmine added, “I wouldn’t look at the person. I’d avoid eye contact.” Luis said, “I’d ask if someone else in the group has anything to say.” Josselyn added, “I’d interrupt that person, try to politely cut him off.” “OK, all of those are good suggestions,” I said. “How would you characterize the interventions you’ve suggested? What are you trying to do?” Margaret said, “I want the monopolizer to stop talking so much, but I don’t want to embarrass him.” I said, “Yes, what you’re really trying to do is indirectly give the monopolizer the message that his behavior is inappropriate. By not calling on him, by looking away, by inviting others to speak up, you hope the monopolizer realizes that he needs not to talk so much. Sometimes this helps to change the behavior. But now suppose the group goes on, it’s now the seventh session, and the same member is still monopolizing. Only now when he speaks, other group members roll their eyes and shift in their seats and clearly are quite irritated. Now what would you do?” The class was silent. Eventually, James said, “I tried everything I knew to do and nothing worked. I don’t know what else to do except more of the same. Maybe eventually he’d get the message.” Rosalind said, “I’d figure out something else to try. Maybe I’d ask him to meet with me individually after the group.” “But if you do that, you’re taking a problem-solving opportunity away from the group,” I answered. The class could see that but had no suggestions for how to intervene successfully.

Problematic Roles: A Closer Look at the Scapegoat The remainder of this unit focuses on how to use the problem-solving process to intervene in the middle stage of a group when dysfunctional role behavior is apparent, using the scapegoat as an example. It is important to emphasize to the class, however, that everything discussed with regard to intervening with the scapegoat role is applicable to a role in the middle stage. Begin by describing and defining the dynamics of scapegoating. The genesis of the term scapegoat is biblical, dating from an ancient Hebrew ritual of atonement when the chief priest of a village would symbolically lay the sins of the people on the back of a goat and then cast the goat into the wilderness, thereby cleansing and ridding the people of their sins.

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For small-group work purposes, Shulman’s (2012) definition of a scapegoat is particularly helpful. In his words, a scapegoat is a member of a group who is attacked, verbally or physically, by other members who project onto the member their own negative feelings about themselves. The scapegoat role is often interactive in nature with the scapegoat fulfilling a functional role in the group. (p. 425) It is especially important to emphasize for students that in a small group, the person who is scapegoated represents and becomes a symbol of the qualities, tendencies, or characteristics that other members do not like in themselves. SCAPEGOAT PORTRAIT: AMY

Consider illustrating the look and feel of a group scapegoat for students by reading Handout 8.2, “Portrait of a Scapegoat: Amy.” Amy is a 10-year-old girl in a group for young girls who are concerned with future careers. The portrait of Amy provides an opportunity to emphasize to the class that in a small face-to-face group the scapegoat is always doing something to affect the behavior of the others toward that person. This is different from the scapegoating and systematic oppression of an entire people that can occur in the larger society in which those being scapegoated (e.g., racial, religious, or ethnic groups) have the role imposed on them and have not volunteered for it as Amy does by behaving in a certain manner. Therefore, when working with a group that has a scapegoat, it is important for the worker to look for and identify the behavior of the scapegoat that is eliciting the actions of the others. Once again, the role does not occur in a vacuum. On the other hand, the scapegoat’s evocative, and thus provocative, behavior does not diminish the fact that the behavior of the other members can be quite cruel and attacking, which is often distressing for workers, who are not immune to the strong emotions that cruel behavior stirs up in them as well. As Garland and Kolodny (1973) describe it, the group worker confronted with scapegoating in the midst of interaction often finds himself caught up in a welter of primitive feelings, punitive and pitying, and assailed by morbid reflections on the unfairness of fate which leaves one weak and others strong. (p. 55) This distress is particularly keen for new workers, who do not yet understand that all parties in the group are playing a role: the scapegoat on one side of the divide and the rest of the group on the other. In fact, every single member is unhappy in the scapegoat scenario, although that emotion is expressed differently. SCAPEGOAT PORTRAIT: GLADYS

To stimulate the examination of worker intervention with a problematic role in a group’s middle stage, present the class with another example: Gladys, a 13-year-old

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in an after-school group, who is a scapegoat. Distribute Handout 8.3, “Portrait of a Scapegoat: Gladys” to the class, and ask students to take on the roles of the group members by reading their parts aloud while you read the narrative parts. Afterward, read the scenario in Figure 8.3 to the class. Figure 8.3a Class process example: Portrait of a scapegoat: Gladys—Focus on Intervention Now, it’s the middle of January. The group has grown and has been meeting regularly. Gladys comes to you (the worker) and tells you that starting next week she won’t be coming to the group any more. You ask her, “How come?” She says, “Because this group never does anything good.” You’ve noticed that Gladys has been scapegoated by the group, including the new members. They make fun of her dress and her comments. No one wants to sit next to her during the meetings. She is the last, and grudgingly, chosen for teams. You’ve also noticed that Gladys makes only a halfhearted attempt at group games and then passively responds when members become annoyed with her lack of effort. Also, you recall one time in particular when Gladys brought a bag of potato chips to the group meeting and ate them all without offering any to the other members even though it was clear that they wanted some.

After reading the scenario to the class, engage students in a role play, asking the class to collectively play the part of the worker while you, the instructor, take on the role of Gladys. Ask students if they can see what Gladys does to make the group members scapegoat her. Can they see how infuriating and provocative her behavior is to her peers and to the worker? Students are generally able to recognize both of Gladys’ actions. Stay with the example of Gladys to teach students how to intervene using the vignette in Figure 8.4, which reflects a hypothetical situation. Read it aloud, telling the students that they now represent the worker. The preceding is a realistic classroom scenario. In this situation, students frequently react to Gladys with sympathy and concern, but they drown her in myriad questions, offer false reassurance, and look for a way to quickly fix the problem (e.g., the group will do more arts and crafts). Students tend to look for an immediate solution (see Unit 6 on problem solving), which to them in this situation means keeping Gladys in the group. They seldom use the information they have been given to make clear and explicit statements that incorporate what they have observed about what has been taking place in the group. They also seem to be fearful of hurting Gladys if they tell her directly that they realize she has been having a difficult time in the group and that she plays a part in causing the difficulty. In the discussion that follows the role play, a great deal of the emphasis is placed on the importance of using observations and making direct statements. Experience with this exercise suggests that many students believe that as social workers they are not supposed to make statements lest they impose their views on the client and are only supposed to ask questions. It is important to disabuse them of this notion and to emphasize that it is essential for them to make statements based on their informed observations. In fact, the worker’s informed observations are crucial to the group. In a lighthearted manner, suggest these rules of thumb for intervening with groups: 1. Don’t ask a question when you know the answer. 2. Don’t ask a question when what you really want to do is make a statement.

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Figure 8.3b Class process example: Portrait of a scapegoat: Gladys—Focus on intervention, continued Now you are the worker. I am Gladys. I’ve come to you and told you that starting next week I’m not coming back to this group. You ask me, how come? And I say, because this group never does anything good. Remember, I am Gladys. You are the worker. Talk to me. Invite students to activate the worker role; after a moment or two of silence, students usually jump in. “I’d tell Gladys I feel badly that she wants to leave,” Mei Chan says. “I’m Gladys. Talk to me as Gladys,” I remind them. “Oh, OK, Gladys. I feel sorry that you want to leave. I hope you’ll change your mind,” Mei Chan says. “I already asked my mother and she said that starting next week I didn’t have to come to the group anymore.” I say in my role as Gladys. “Don’t you like the group?” Frank asks. “No,” I respond. “The group doesn’t do anything good.” “What kinds of things do you like to do?” Frank asks. “I like arts and crafts, and all the group does is sports,” I say. “Would you stay if we did arts and crafts sometimes?” asks Frank. I answer, “The other kids aren’t going to want to do arts and crafts. They only like sports.” Frank seems deflated. Sonia gives it a try, “Gladys, I’m sure the girls would miss you if you left.” “No, they wouldn’t,” I quickly answer. “They wouldn’t care. They’d be glad if I left.” Sonia smiles ruefully. “Why do you think they’d be glad?” asks Eric. “Because nobody likes me,” I say. “Why do you think that?” Eric continues. “I don’t know,” I shrug. “They’re just mean.” “Do you think you do anything to make them not like you?” Eric asks. “No, I’m nice to them,” I respond. “They’re just mean.” Eric seems stymied. “Gladys, have other kids ever been mean to you?” asks Lizette. “Yes, I was in a group last year at the center and the kids in that group were also nasty,” I answer. “What happened in that group?” Lizette continues. “I just stopped going,” I say. Lizette and others in the class seem to not know how to pick up on this. I point out to the class that Lizette seems to be on the right track, that when a person is scapegoated in one group, chances are that she or he is having difficulty in other groups and situations. “But I didn’t know what to say then,” Lizette adds. “You had an awful lot of background information and observations about what was going on in the group, but none of you used that information or those observations,” I say to the class. “If you had been direct and said to Gladys that you realized that she was having a hard time in the group, I think Gladys would have been quite interested in hearing your observations. After all, she knows that she’s struggling.” “Yes, but I don’t want to hurt Gladys. If I said that I’m afraid I’d make her feel worse,” Mei Chan says. “But you wouldn’t be telling her anything she doesn’t already know,” Eric says. “In fact, being direct with her, letting her know that you know she’s having a hard time might well come as a relief to Gladys,” I add, “especially if you indicate to her that you think that there’s hope for the situation and express the belief that it can be helped by talking about it in and with the group.” I then ask the class what they would need to do before they’d be ready to raise the situation in and with the group.

SCAPEGOAT INTERVENTION ROLE-PLAY SETUP

With the aim of having the class engage in a group role play about the scapegoating that has been occurring, it helps to prepare the class and set the stage by emphasizing the points noted in Handout 8.4, “The Nature of Roles and Interventions in Small Groups.” Students are fearful that when or if the situation is raised directly with the group, the members will become uncontrollable verbally and will be hurtful toward the scapegoated member. They need to be helped to see that they have more control over such an eventuality than they may think. If some of the group members react with destructiveness, the worker has the authority and ability to stop the action and to let the group know that although an honest expression of feelings is acceptable, an expression that is purposely meant to be hurtful is not. To limit destructive behavior does not mean that the worker is taking a side.

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Students are also generally fearful of using confrontation. They see it as synonymous with demolishing a Example 1 person. Instead, they need to be helped After a staff meeting in which the psychologist’s plan for to understand that confrontation is a new service was turned down, she asked me if I ever designed not to demolish someone but thought about how long it takes a spider to spin a web rather to help a person or a group stop and how fast it can be wiped out of the corner with a dust rag (presentation of the idiom by a group member). I said and think about what is taking place. To that it sounded very demoralizing. She looked at me with cause that to happen the worker presents a sad expression on her face and nodded. I said that spider webs were very vulnerable, and she said that spiders were to the group his or her observations very vulnerable too. I nodded (responding in the idiom about what is going on. In fact, in of the other). Then I said that sometimes people were Gladys’ situation, even if she had not vulnerable, giving her a chance to be more direct if she was ready (checking to see if the idiom is still necessary come to the worker outside the group, to the dialogue). Apparently, she was ready to leave the the worker could take the initiative and idiom and speak more self-referentially because she said she should never have allowed herself to get so invested bring up what has been observed in the in that project (group member is able to leave the idiom group. Workers are always free to make to continue the dialogue in a self-referential manner). observations to the group about things (Middleman & Wood, 1990, p. 67) they see taking place. In confronting the Example 2 group or one of its members, the worker Joe, who often provided comic relief to the group, entered can be direct and supportive at the same the room in a great flurry and seemingly quite agitated. He joined in with the other members to arrange the chairs in time. The phrase “confrontation with a circle as usual, but there was for sure a bit of banging as an arm around the shoulder” (Northen he moved the chairs around. Finally, after everyone settled & Kurland, 2001, p. 220) captures the in, Jesus said to Joe, “What the hell, Joe! You are usually in such a good mood! What’s going on? “This place is like idea that being direct with empathy can a circus!” Joe stated loudly. “I can’t get anyone to give me help an individual or group hear and face a safety net around here. Here I am, out there all alone, no one giving a damn if I fall flat on my face!” (presentation the reality of what may be a difficult and of the idiom by a group member). Note. From Middleman painful situation. and Wood (1990). Because roles are reciprocal, in this type of situation, solutions are as well. After a thorough exploration of what is happening according to the various perspectives of group members, the worker needs to actively engage the group in looking at possible solutions, actions that each side will take to try to change the situation. It is important here to caution students that miracles are unlikely and that to expect instant and effective change as a result of a single discussion is unrealistic. However, the good news is that the group can return to the problem-solving process on the issue of scapegoating as often as needed.

Figure 8.4 Examples of the skill of talking in the idiom of the other.

SCAPEGOAT INTERVENTION ROLE PLAY

Following the discussion of the teaching points, involve the class in role play based on the case record of Gladys. The purpose of the role-play to provide an opportunity for students to practice their skills at intervening in this group dynamic.

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You have two options. One, you can create several subgroup role-plays simultaneously involving all class members. Two, you can carry out one role play with some of the students while the others sit just outside the role-play circle and observe. The first option has the advantage of actively involving all students, whereas the second allows you to more easily stop the action periodically to make comments, offer suggestions, or lead the total class in a discussion of key points. If you choose the latter scenario, you can assign the roles or ask for volunteers. Also consider having students shift roles at various intervals. In either case, a role play after an extensive discussion guided by the points noted Handout 8.5, “Intervening in a Scapegoat Scenario,” helps the content of this unit to come alive for the students. At the end of the role play, it is important to remind the class that the scapegoat role has been used as an example of all problematic group roles. In fact, the principles regarding reciprocity of role and intervention apply equally to the ways a worker addresses the behavior involved in any difficult role, whether it is a so-called monopolizer or help-rejecting complainer or gossip, that either impedes the group’s work or leads to role locking of any one individual. Classroom experience suggests that students are often reluctant to make observations to the group about what they see taking place. Sharing observations should be a continuous process, however, and a crucial intervention throughout the life of a group. It is important, therefore, for students to accept the importance of making observations to the group on an ongoing basis for its examination. It is equally important for workers to share their reasons for making the observation, that is, what they see that has led to the observation.

Common Skills for Dealing with Group Roles Distribute Handout 8.6, “Common Skills for Dealing With Group Roles,” and ask students to imagine some group situations in which they might use one of these skills to intervene with a group role, particularly a problematic role. Remind them, however, that even positive roles can end up in role lock, the inability of people to move out of a role even if they should wish to do so. For example, even someone in a role that might seem innocuous at first or even welcome, such as that of the clown, and provides relief or distraction to the group may wish one day to not be funny. If role lock has set in, however, not providing comic relief to the group will be seen by members as withholding something they feel entitled to from that person. One of the skills described in Handout 8.6, talking in the idiom of the other, can be extremely useful in some situations when members tends to speak in idioms (such as being thrown a curveball or always feeling like one has to perform) to express themselves. Often these idioms emerge as group members take on roles with which they are comfortable, using the jargon of that role as a way of communicating. For example, the group clown might talk about being on a tightrope or describe the group as a circus, the prima donna might talk about getting the show on the road or life as a stage, or the fragile baby may talk about the porcelain-like fragility of people, and so

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on. The possibilities are endless; the point is that it can be helpful to a group member who is speaking in a particular jargon (idiom) for the worker to join in that idiom to communicate until the group member is ready to leave it for more straightforward language. Because this skill is often difficult for students to grasp, however, they benefit from a few minutes of direct focus on its application. To that end, begin the discussion by reading the examples in Figure 8.4 as narrated by the worker. In these examples the social worker not only talks in the idiom of the other but also reaches for feelings in the other person’s idiom. Then, while still in the other person’s idiom, the worker checks to see if the idiom remains necessary. In both examples the group members are using a particular idiom to test the waters regarding the group’s ability to be empathic and helpful.

Summary Roles in groups emerge as members become more comfortable being themselves, revealing their real feelings and attitudes. Often these are roles they have adopted in other groups. Whether the role is seen as positive or negative by the group, it is an important task of practice to maintain flexibility so that members do not become locked in a single role without the ability to discard that role at some point should they wish to. The scapegoat is a particularly problematic role for groups and should be conceptualized as a pas de deux between the member being scapegoated and the other group members. Like all other roles, it does not exist in a vacuum, but is reciprocal; that is, one cannot assume a role unless another party agrees or colludes in some way in its maintenance. The work on roles brings together two basic themes that are a foundation of group work practice: stages of group development and the problem-solving process. Knowledge and understanding of the group’s developmental stage has important implications for the way the worker should involve the group in a problem-solving process concerning member roles and the ways these two important group concepts come together will continue to be evident in the subsequent discussion of addressing difference and conflict in a group.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • Often, behavior welcomed by the group and even the worker in the beginning can become a problem if it persists into the middle stage in such a manner that it interferes with the group’s work. In the beginning, for instance, the entire group may be relieved to have someone talking even if the person is monopolistic. In fact, that person may even receive positive feedback; as the group progresses with others wishing to speak up, however, the monopolizer’s behavior will start to get in the way and become viewed as negative. A similar dynamic is true of a variety of roles. • The stage of group development profoundly influences the choice of interventions. In the beginning stage the worker may use a range of indirect techniques. Recall that the worker is more active in the beginning and would not, therefore, ask members to

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risk commenting directly on a peer’s behavior. In the middle stage, however, indirect methods are unlikely to be effective, and because the group has matured somewhat, it is fair to ask members to comment on the behaviors of others in the group. • Roles are reciprocal. There is a reciprocal relationship between members’ role behavior and the part the group plays in expecting and perhaps fostering the behavior or even in placing them in that particular role. It is important for students to understand the interactive nature of the individual needs and group needs in the creation and maintenance of role behavior. In short, roles are neither created nor maintained in a vacuum and are not, therefore, simply an individual style. • The attention of the worker often moves toward the person in the problematic role so that the part that others play in placing or keeping that role in play in this reciprocal arrangement, even if implicit, is frequently neglected. Someone does a great deal of talking only because others are allowing it. The question for practice is, therefore, what’s in it for them to maintain the individual in that role at this time? • Use of the problem-solving process (see Unit 6) is central to addressing problematic role behavior in a group’s middle stage. Exploration and identification of the problem at hand, that is, a role that is preventing the group from meeting one of its legitimate needs, is in order. Even identifying the steps of the process for the group and asking it to tackle the issue of the moment can help members realize not only the impact of the role on the group’s process but help them to also recognize the ways they are colluding to keep the role in play.

References Berger, M. (1977). Working with people called patients. New York, NY: Brunner-Mazel. Emmet, J. (2013). Roles people play when in a group setting. Retrieved from https://www. victas.uca.org.au/exploringfaith/Documents/Discernment_Group_Dynamics.pdf Functional roles of group members. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/ toolbox/examples/stowers03/group%20roles%20handout.pdf Garland, J., & Kolodny, R. (1973). Characteristics and resolutions of scapegoating. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Further explorations in group work (pp. 55–74). Boston, MA: Milford House. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for Direct Practice in Social Work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Porteus. A. (n.d.). Roles people play in groups. Retrieved from https://web.stanford.edu/group/ resed/resed/staffresources/RM/training/grouproles.html Roles in groups. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.brianwilliamson.id.au/cit/level1/ experiential/RolesInGroups.pdf Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. University of Minnesota. (n.d.). 14.2: Group member roles. Retrieved from open.lib.umn. edu/communication/chapter/14-2-group-member-roles/

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University of Queensland Australia. (2019). Roles in groups. Retrieved from www.uq.edu.au/ student-services/learning/roles-groups

Further Readings Doel, M. (2005). Difficult behavior in groups. Social Work with Groups, 28(1), 3–22.

UNIT 8: HELPING STUDENTS DEAL WITH EMERGING ROLES  |  179

HANDOUT 8.1

Roles That People Adopt in Groups The following list is taken from Berger (1977). Can you add others, perhaps some that are more modernday reflections of our culture? For example, would tech addict, which did not exist in 1977, apply today? Are there others? Jester

Referee-umpire

Catalyst

Don Juan

Cockteaser

The idiot

Injustice collector

The abused type

Expert

Crisis creator

Storyteller

Whiner

Clock-watcher

Leader of opposition

Nit picker

Self-righteous critic

Missionary

Planner

Provocateur

Fragile baby

General

Intellectual

Virtuously honest sadist

The judge

Overprotective mama

Guilt provoker

Egghead

Manipulator

Doctor’s assistant

Martyr

Ombudsman-guardian

Negativistic clique creator

Charmer

Sophisticate

Help-rejecting complainer

Flirt

Troublemaker

Magician

Victim

Iconoclast

Cockroach

Seducer

Vindicator

Prima donna

Saint

Frail tyrant

Teacher’s pet

Innocent

Prosecutor

Scapegoat

Ostrich

Guardhouse lawyer

Rejection collector

Fair

One Pollyanna

Fashion plate

Castrator

Advice seeker

Runt of the litter

The baiter

Strong silent type

Competitor

Kill-joy

Compulsive helper

Can’t say no

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HANDOUT 8.2

Portrait of a Scapegoat: Amy The following is from a student who wrote this as a skill-building assignment.

Background I first noticed that Amy was setting herself up for criticism from her peers during a session on November 13. The group had been divided into three subgroups of three. The game that day called for each group to make up a commercial to sell each individual’s best quality. The purpose of the game was to help the girls begin to think about what kinds of things they had special talents or skills in or a liking for (e.g., cooking, math, sense of humor). The following is a note at the end of my process recording for that day.

Scapegoating Scenario Amy seemed unable to gauge the appropriateness of some of her behavior. That is, although it was understood that no one was Barbra Streisand, no one took their individual act too seriously, Amy, on the other hand, in a very serious manner sang a complete song in the worst voice imaginable, like as if she were standing alone in her bedroom in the middle of a day-dream. During the other sessions, I had noticed that Amy’s affect seemed heightened and exaggerated. She would act very excitedly, especially when she was actually included in a given activity by the group members. She would literally assault the group members, not viciously, but rather as an overly affectionate relative whose bear hug ruptures your spleen and who, when you mention that their right Hush Puppies shoe has mashed your five left toes, graciously springs backward only to jar the coffee table, thereby spilling over the crystal bowl that held 529 M&M’s. Often Amy behaved in such a manner she became the brunt of jokes in the group. She said and did things for a laugh, but the text of those comments and actions was truly lacking a sense of humor. Sense in this case refers to the perception of, or feel for, what is humorous; Amy lacked the sense in sense of humor. Her humor elicited from the group the kind of response that closet comediennes have decided to avoid and that active jokesters hope to avoid. Amy acted out a fantasy insecurity that most people don’t want to be exposed to at any level. Furthermore, Amy’s attempts to gain attention were so obsequious and self-debasing that we all felt completely uncomfortable. Amy’s unfortunate knack was her ability to remind everybody just how silly and sad we can all be when we’re trying too hard to gain acceptance from others.

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HANDOUT 8.3

Portrait of a Scapegoat: Gladys The following portrait was written by a student as part of a skill-building assignment. Gladys is 13 years old, about 5 feet 10 inches tall, slightly overweight, well groomed, wears glasses, and is generally attractive. Her present school performance level is classified as promotion in doubt. Gladys’ statements about herself are usually in contradiction to the truth, with sarcastic exaggerations of her faults or imperfections as she sees them.At the first group meeting, Gladys’ introductory statements and her manner of laughing with those who are laughing at her set the stage for her to be the scapegoat. October 30 “I’m kinda fat…. Oh! I said that already; I must be senile too.” As Gladys was talking, she stopped to watch Yolanda smirking at her. She continued, as she tried to talk daintily and pronounce her words precisely to the amusement of Joanne and Yolanda.Gladys’ actions do not match her size and stature. Her movements are inappropriate, which gives an outward appearance of awkwardness and imbalance. For example, rather than sit in a regular-size chair, Gladys chose a child-size chair for group sessions.Gladys’ hairstyle is more appropriate for a 9- to 10-year-old. She wears several barrettes at a time with her hair in numerous braids.Despite her mature physical appearance, Gladys is very passive and backs down from any confrontation with her peers. The fact that someone as large as she is can be intimidated by smaller members in the group acts as a vehicle for members to play with Gladys while actually ridiculing her. After Joanne and Yolanda introduced themselves and expressed their likes and dislikes, Joanne instructed Gladys to speak next. She said, “My name is Gladys, I’m not too tall.”Yolanda interrupted by laughing out loud. “You had your turn to speak already, Yolanda,” I said. Gladys continued, “I have black hair, I wear glasses, I’m kinda fat.” Yolanda and Joanne laughed in unison. Yolanda said, “Kinda fat? You’re real fat!”Gladys joined in with the laughter. Gladys continued to tell us where she goes to school, theclass she’s in, her teacher’s name, what the teacherlooks like, and so forth. Yolanda rudely interjected, “What size shoes you wear?” Gladys answered nine.Yolanda yelled, “You got big feet!”As Yolanda continued to laugh, Gladys laughed too and said, “I can’t help it if I have big feet.”Joanne and Yolanda kept on laughing. “Why do you both find Gladys so comical? What’s so funny?” I asked. The room became quiet for just a minute. “So Gladys is laughing too,” said Yolanda. “But you’re not laughing with her, you’re laughing at her. There is a difference,” I said. After giving up on playing pool, Gladys took notice of the ping-pong table as Yolanda continued to play pool by herself. November 13 I asked Gladys if she knew how to play ping-pong.She said she didn’t know how. I explained the game to her and suggested that we could help her to learn to play by practicing hitting the ball back and forth. Gladys started saying, “I’m not going to be any good at this.” I told her, “You won’t really know until you try.” When she missed the ball she would sarcastically say, “Boy, dummy, that was really a great shot! Did you see that fantastic shot I just made? I bet you can’t play as bad as me Mrs. Gray.” I said, “To be good at anything usually takes practice, Gladys. Give it a chance.” Even though I kept telling Gladys, “Keep your eye on the ball…. If at first you don’t succeed…. Take your time,” Gladys seemed to delight in failure. She didn’t really try to successfully hit the ball. I found myself getting somewhat angry at her self-defeating attitude. After a while I got tired trying to convince her that she could learn to play. As Yolanda joined in the game of ping-pong, she started to make fun of Gladys every time she missed the ball. “I’m so stupid, I can’t even hit this little ball,” said Gladys. “You are stupid. If you don’t hit it better we’re not going to let you play,” said Yolanda.I pointed out to them that everyone is not good at doing everything, and that

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HANDOUT 8.3 (continued)

sometimes new things take a little time to master. We continued to play for a few minutes more. I then suggested that we stop playing while the game was still fun. Yolanda said, “She makes me sick! Just because she can’t play we have to stop.” I said, “If you get as angry as you did, it’s not a game anymore.” There was a pause. “Why did you get so angry, Yolanda?” I asked. “’Cause she can’t even hit the ball with her big stupid self,” she answered. Gladys said, “I told you I didn’t know how to play.” Yolanda sucked her teeth and rolled her eyes at Gladys. “Do you know what you did that made Yolanda angry, Gladys?” I asked. ‘Yeah, she’s mad because I don’t know how to play; that’s why, but that’s too bad!”Gladys said and looked intently at Yolanda, trying to evoke a response. There was complete silence as the hostility grew. I said, “Gladys, I think that it’s more what you don’t do that makes Yolanda angry at you. You gave up before you even had a chance to learn.” There was a pause. Gladys didn’t answer. “It seemed to me that you had already decided that you couldn’t learn how to play, therefore you didn’t,” I said. Gladys very calmly replied, “I’m just not very good at sports.” I told her, “I feel you can be good at anything you want to be good at. Yolanda said as she waved her hand, “Forget her!”

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HANDOUT 8.4

The Nature of Roles and Interventions in Small Groups Roles can be classified as positive or negative. Clearly, most people can take on several types of roles situationally, depending on the dynamics of the moment. Generally, group roles can manifest themselves and affect small-group processes in four ways.

Positive Roles Toward Group Purpose Some roles contribute positively to the group’s ability to achieve its purpose. Examples from Berger’s (1977) roster are information seeker, initiator, and elaborator (see Handout 8.1). These roles aim to help members focus on the work and engage with related skills.

Positive Roles Toward Socioemotional Needs Another type of positive role aims to meet social or emotional needs, individually and sometimes collectively. The assumption is that meeting such needs will help the group cohere and provide a feeling of general goodwill. Examples noted by Berger (1977) in Handout 8.1 include those that support (e.g., encourager), aim to keep the peace (e.g., harmonizer), and aim to develop or maintain a humanistic climate (e.g., the welcomer). Whether the harmonizer, who aims for peace over authenticity and, thus, potential conflict, might be less than positive is good food for reflection. As with all things social work, context dictates perspective.

Negative Roles Related to Group Purpose Some roles disturb the quality of work and states of feeling. Examples of roles that derail working toward purpose from Berger’s (1977) roster in Handout 8.1 are monopolizer, help-rejecting complainer, and intellectualizer. For example, the monopolizer leaves no room for others, transforming the process from group work to casework with an audience, whereas the intellectualizer does generally the opposite by maintaining such a distance from feelings that the process becomes superficial with no inclusion of affect, almost as if the group had been formed for others and not those who are actually in the group.

Negative Roles That Affect the Group’s Socioemotional Needs This type of role is very destructive with its aim of making members feel bad. Examples of this type of role, as taken from Berger (1977; Handout 8.1), are bully, scapegoat, and gossip. The impact of a bully or gossip is self-evident. The impact of a scapegoat on a group is perhaps less obvious, but it is a deadly dynamic for a small group. It creates cruelty and division, often causing the practitioner to take sides. For example, the practitioner might become annoyed with the person being scapegoated and take sides with the others in the group also annoyed. On the other hand, the practitioner might feel sorry for (or perhaps identify with) the member being scapegoated and “side” with that individual, even if that person has been provocative in some way.

Intervening in Group Roles Key 1 Draw on casual, easy, indirect, and subtle interventions at the first sign that a role may be on its way to settling in (e.g., “It is kind of Mary to offer to bring in food next week. She has gone to the trouble two weeks now, I wonder if we could ask someone else to take a turn?”).The worker is attempting to redirect

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HANDOUT 8.4 (continued)

the dynamics without any confrontation and notice that the intervention is toward the whole group, not to the individual in question (Mary), keeping it whole-group oriented.

Key 2 If early interventions do not seem to carry weight, more direct interventions are in order but also directed to the group rather than a particular individual (e.g., “I notice that Don is doing a lot of the talking here. Where is everyone, anyway?”). Remember, roles are reciprocal. Thus, the intervention needs to be directed to the dance between the two parties. In this case, it asks the group to take responsibility for the fact that only Don is active, and the rest of the group, after all, is allowing it.

Key 3 Do not ask a question when you know the answer. This simply sets up people for having to guess; it is a kind of mind game that wastes time and is generally disrespectful. If you already have an answer or a conclusion of some kind, simply find a way to offer it to the group that allows them to discuss your conclusion and perhaps express alternative perspectives.

Key 4 Do not ask a question when you really want to make a statement. You already know where you wish the conversation to go; simply initiate it in that direction. For example, if you have an observation to make about a particular action, make the observation. Make it simply, briefly, and without a great deal of extra verbiage. Interventions that include enormous amounts of more and more clarifications or justifications become onerous, convoluted, and lose everyone in diluting the point.

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HANDOUT 8.5

Intervening in a Scapegoat Scenario Roles are always reciprocal; the situation in which roles are expressed always has two sides. On one side are group members who find a particular member’s behavior unbearable and whose actions toward that member might be cruel as they place that person in the scapegoat role. On the other is the individual member, who, through a particular behavior, provokes the group to cruelty and is then the recipient of abuse. It is crucial for the worker not take a side but rather be seen by all the group members as able to be fair to both sides simultaneously. Thus, remaining neutral but empathic to everyone is a crucial mindset for practice in this situation. The scapegoated group member is always distressed about what is taking place and in all likelihood is being subjected to the same treatment elsewhere in life. Certainly, the individual feels bad about what is happening in the group and probably wants to change things but in self-defense may say that it does not matter. It is important for the worker to not accept such statements at face value but rather challenge those statements because all people feel pain on rejection. What the scapegoat needs is support from the worker to address what is taking place. It will not be easy, but the worker can provide support in a few ways, such as sitting next to the person during the discussion and limiting other members if their criticism becomes overzealous. Such actions do not reflect taking a side; they reflect the recognition that what is about to be said in the group is likely to be very painful, most of all to the scapegoat. The worker needs to beware of two dangers here. On one hand, there is the inclination toward a premature (preemptive) intervention, meaning the tendency to be overprotective of the scapegoat in the face of the other members’ cruel behavior. On the other hand, there may be a propensity to identify with the feelings of the group toward the scapegoat, because the worker is certainly not immune to the feelings that the scapegoat’s behavior provokes. The worker needs to remain neutral, however, which means in this case being empathetic to both sides to initiate an effective intervention despite any personal reactions. In the group session in which the situation is discussed, the worker needs to help each side express its point of view about what is going on in the group. The scapegoated member needs to hear from the group what he or she does that they do not like, and the other members need to hear from the person being scapegoated how much pain is being experienced. When each side begins to develop empathy for the other, the destructive equilibrium that supported the scapegoating will begin to be disturbed, and change can then follow. Change in the situation will occur if the group engages in the problem-solving process. However, when the sides begin to really communicate, there is a strong likelihood that the worker will want to rush to solutions out of the desire to bring closure to a difficult situation (e.g., OK, Gladys will try harder at sports and share her potato chips, and the group will not call her names, and she will participate in some arts and crafts activities). The worker needs to guard against a move toward a premature or quick fix. A full exploration and discussion of the situation are necessary here; it is the worker’s task to help the group do that.

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HANDOUT 8.6

Common Skills for Dealing With Group Roles The following is taken from Middleman and Wood (1990).

Verbalizing Norms Letting the group know what actions are acceptable and unacceptable in relation to establishing standards of expected behavioris especially important in helping members behave in ways that are acceptable and move the group’s work forward when trying to counter negative roles or prevent role lock.

Amplifying Subtle Messages Calling attention to unnoticed communicative behavior—words, tone of voice, facial expressions—by verbalizing it to others in the group rather than to the person whose behavior is being commented on helps members to reflect on the nonverbal or subtle messages they are giving to the group especially when the group is struggling with a role that is impeding its work.

Softening Overpowering Messages Verbalizing the essence of a highly affective message (shouts, punches, glares) so that the strength of the affect is reduced, and the message can be heard tones down overly aggressive communications especially if adopting and expressing a role is affecting the group’s work.

Reaching for Difference Helping members to see things from various angles so that a range of viewpoints and possibilities is entertainedis important in helping group members see that role flexibility may be key to freedom of individual expression and constructive group processes.

Referring to Purpose Stating the reasons that clients and worker have come together in this way at this time is especially important when dealing with conflict that may occur during a scapegoating discussion when feelings expressed may be intense and the group begins to feel fragmented with the scapegoat on one side and the rest of the members on the other.

Building on Strengths Pointing out and focusing on all that a member knows and can do is important in helping group members feel and be confident in resolving conflicts that may come about from the adoption of roles that prevent the group from conducting its work or that create a role lock for an individual member.

Confronting Situations Involving relevant members in an open exchange of information and affect about a problem or issue as each person perceives it helps group members tackle the challenges of talking openly about their feelings if conflict arises from the adoption of roles that prevent the group from conducting its work or that create a role lock for an individual member.

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HANDOUT 8.6 (continued)

Reporting One’s Own Feelings Describing one’s in-the-moment emotional experience when such self-disclosure is likely to be useful in shedding light on others’ feelings or the situation modelsthat in times of conflict around roles a way of expressing oneself that is respectful yet authentic when doing so will help the group move forward.

Giving Feedback Repeating the essence of what members have said and asking if the meaning received was, in fact, the intended meaning checks in with group members to make sure that clarity dominates the conversation at all times.

Giving Information Offering facts, opinions, or ideas that may increase the group’s knowledge and understanding of a situation or event helps the group address the work of the moment by giving information that the worker is in the only or best position to offer.

Talking in the Idiom of the Other Responding to another person’s disguised or veiled message using the same context or symbols; treating them as if they were real and overt; using language, symbols, or metaphors that are expressed by the other and therefore may better express the message because it is offered in the same language as that originally used by the initiator of the dialogue.

Reference Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

9

UNIT

Helping Students Manage Conflict CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit

1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Conceptualize conflict as a result of difference, not individual fault; use a framework of problem solving to help members explore roots and implications of their differences; actively prescribe and set norms and standards for ethical intermember communication; reach for understanding and empathy to maintain a humanistic climate (Glassman, 2009); set a 100% tolerance policy with regard to the expression of difference. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Introduce the new group to the likely emergence of differences as the group matures, identify and present the potential for difference and conflict as useful in the group’s work, help group members to accept diversity and difference as enriching to the group’s achievement of purpose, actively and explicitly embrace diversity, help the group to reach for difference when useful to its work and to embrace diversity as it appears, help the group explore the impact of diversity and differences on its capacity for mutual aid, including the impact of the agreement to disagree. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Actively advocate with the group the right of individual members to have differences of all types without being “at fault,” select interventions that illustrate the capacity of difference and diversity to enhance the work of the group, conceptualize and conduct the professional role as one of mediation among expressed differences in the group, use the problem-solving process to help group members explore their differences in a manner that is respectful of all views, especially the minority view. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Differentially and discreetly apply all available related evidence on social work with groups generally and as it relates to managing conflict, more specifically as a guide for intervening in group process; conduct ongoing evaluation of group process and progress by actively targeting sessional transitions for assessing the utility and impact of the problem-solving process and for shaping future process. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Provide information for group members on an ongoing basis that can help the group to carry out a full and thorough problem-solving process as it explores its differences, including the social and organizational policies that may have an impact on shaping situations, ideas, attitudes, feelings, and perspectives. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage with all systems that may help the group to arrive at either a resolution of their differences or an understanding of the consequences if resolution is not possible. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Help group members to assess the impact of their significant systems on the development and current status of their views regarding difference, diversity, and conflict; help group members identify and assess the individual strengths they bring to bear on the problem-solving process, including problem identification and resolution. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Select direct and indirect interventions in times of group conflict over differences and diversity with other significant related systems, such as families, additional reference groups, system in which the group operates, and the broader community that can help the group to problem solve or resolve its differences. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage the group in evaluating the nature and success of its problem-solving process, in addressing difference and diversity, and in resolving conflict including its potential to further function as a mutual-aid system. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

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onflict and difference can arise throughout the life of a group. In the beginning stage of a group (see Unit 5), the worker strives to help group members focus on their commonalities rather than their differences to establish a supportive foundation and at the same time is aware of the potential for or likelihood of emerging difference. In the middle stage of a group, however, the expression of conflict or difference is critical, because first, it heralds the arrival of greater authenticity among group members who are less afraid to voice their real opinions or feelings, and second, it provides stimulation a group needs to examine members’ varied experiences, situations, and points of view. Thus, in the group’s middle stage, the worker strives to help members examine issues of conflict or difference as they arise, even welcoming the expression of difference as a sign that the group is moving beyond the often slightly superficial tone of the new or beginning group. Thus, this unit examines conflict and difference as they are likely to be articulated by members in a group’s middle stage. Conflict is defined here as the expression of disagreement among group members when there is a difference in any one of the following realms: ideas, opinions, beliefs, values, experiences, feelings, backgrounds, characteristics, approaches and worldviews, or behavior. As noted previously, expressions of difference are likely to take place as members become increasingly sure of themselves and comfortable in the group. As the group matures from its beginning stage, members become more willing to express themselves, their experiences, their feelings, their opinions, and more willing to risk exposure of their ideas. They feel more comfortable in the group, and the expression of difference does not seem as threatening as it was in the group’s beginnings. In short, group members become more honest and more forthright as they worry less about establishing their place in the group, which is why the expression of difference is heralded as a sign of maturation, not a sign that something is wrong.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The purpose of this unit is to describe a range of teaching methods to help students view conflict as an inevitable, essential, and even enriching aspect of group life. The student learning outcomes for students are the following: 1. Understand the connection between difference and conflict 2. Understand different ways that conflict can be resolved, emphasizing consensus as a goal 3. Understand that resolving differences (minor and major) frequently is the work of the group and may be even the most important work a group will do 4. Appreciate that the worker’s role is to help the group resolve conflict rather than to try to avoid it

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5. Be able to help a group explore differences and address conflict that arises from differences, especially by using the problem-solving process 6. Be able to use skills that are effective in addressing conflict

Conflict Fears and Myths Students often fear the expression of conflict in the group. They do not see conflict as a natural part of the relationships within the group. Instead, they view it as negative and threatening, an interruption, something to be disposed of, and handled with dispatch so that the group can return to its work. The fact is, as noted earlier, that resolving differences of all kinds is often the work of a group at any given time. However, those new to group work worry that conflict will get out of control and destroy the group. They are afraid they will not able to handle conflict when it comes to the fore, and they will be regarded as inadequate; as a result they often attempt to avoid it, suppress it, or take responsibility to solve it by themselves. Because of their fears about conflict, when differences do arise in a group, students often ignore the first few steps of the problem-solving process, which consists of problem identification and exploration (see Unit 6). As you initiate a discussion of group conflict with the class, emphasize its importance, conveying the idea that fear of conflict is in fact common among workers. Frame the eruption of conflict as positive rather than negative, highlighting the fact that conflict is a real opportunity for group members to examine the diversity of the group and invigorate and revitalize the group, leading to greater cohesion and growth and to new ways of looking at things for the individual members. Once again, emphasize that addressing and resolving conflict and difference frequently is often the most important work a group will do. Before engaging the class in analyzing specific conflict situations, make the following points: • Confrontation often occurs when there is conflict over an issue with which the group is grappling or about the behavior of an individual member. Students are especially fearful of confrontation because they tend to view it as a destructive, attack-oriented technique synonymous with demolishment. Remind them that confrontation should always be gentle, with an “arm around the shoulder” (Northen & Kurland, 2001, p. 220) and that if and when they confront someone in this manner, it will help group members to follow suit. • The intent of confrontation is not to attack or demolish. As an intervention, confrontation aims to help the group face its differences and behavior directly. Confrontation interrupts a process that seems to be moving the group beyond the acceptable norms and asks members to stop and look at what is taking place.

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• Key to dealing with conflict is respect for difference. To encourage such respect among group members, the worker needs to convey the following essential beliefs: –– Differences among group members can be positive because they can contribute to the richness of the group by stimulating members’ thinking and feelings. –– Differences need to be respected and appreciated by group members. –– Examining differences rather than sweeping them under the rug is important; if they are not examined they are likely to resurface in various other forms of conflict. –– Disagreeing is not synonymous with disliking a person. –– The group can resolve differences, and conflict does not need to tear the group apart. • According to Follett, conflict can be resolved in three ways (as cited in Bernstein, 1973). One way is through domination, in which one side is victorious over the others, as in a voting and a majority-rules approach. Domination is not an effective way of resolving difference, because there are always losers. Another way is through compromise, which refers to each side giving up a little to obtain agreement. Compromise is more effective than domination, but no side is truly satisfied with the outcome. The third and most effective way of resolving conflict is through integration. In this way, a new solution is reached and respected that includes the views of all sides. This is a more time-consuming and demanding method of resolving conflict in that it requires problem-solving dialogue, but the end result is true and effective conflict resolution (as cited in Bernstein, 1973).

Types of Difference Leading to Conflict After presenting and briefly discussing the previous points, consider asking students to examine a series of examples in which there is conflict or the expression of difference that might lead to overt conflict if not addressed. Form subgroups of four to six students, and tell them you will be presenting conflictual group situations that arise from four kinds of difference: 1. Difference of opinion among the group members 2. Difference of opinion between the worker and the group members 3. Descriptive difference between the worker and the group members 4. Descriptive difference among the group members Each situation in the series to be used by the class poses a dilemma for the worker; students are asked in each subgroup to address how the situation might be handled. They might choose role playing to try out the alternative interventions that evolve from their small-group discussion.

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Differences of Opinion Among Group Members In the first example, conflict erupts as a result of a difference of opinion among group members. In this group at a community mental health clinic, a group of parents whose children were referred because of their behavior at school has been meeting for several weeks with quite regular attendance. Students take on the role of the worker with this group. Read the case record in Handout 9.1, “Differences of Opinion Between Mrs. P. and Mrs. M.” Distribute the handout for students to see, and review the example as they engage in the exercise at the end, which is to respond to the question, what would you do? After an initial moment of alarmed silence at the prospect of losing a member, subgroups generally enter into animated discussion. Allow about 15 minutes for this. Usually, they discuss a range of alternative interventions, and to gain a sense of their thinking, consider moving from group to group, simply listening to their reactions and responses and then bringing the total class together to discuss, compare, and contrast how they would handle the situation and why. In the total class discussion, substantive material related to three main areas usually emerges. First, interventions are related to the stage of the group’s development. Although at first they are panicked by a situation in which a group member has threatened to leave, students usually realize that Mrs. P. is unlikely to carry out her threat. They appreciate that she is probably invested in the group as illustrated by the fact that the group has met for a substantial period of time, attendance has been regular, and the group is now most likely in its middle stage (see Unit 7). This means that the worker can expect a response from other group members and does not have to jump in immediately to urge Mrs. P. to stay. Such encouragement can be expected to come from group members and in fact may be more effective if it does. Students’ concerns that the group will disintegrate as a result of the conflict are unfounded because of the group’s stage of development. In the middle stage, members are more willing to share their experiences, opinions, and feelings. The group has become cohesive, that is, it is at a place where members can really discuss and work on problems, exchange, argue, confront, try out, and share. The value for members in having such a place means that they will not allow this conflict to cause the group to fall apart because they are invested in the group’s future. It also means the worker need not overreact; rather, the worker can have faith in the group’s desire to get involved in responding to whatever threatens its hard-earned equilibrium. Second, the problem-solving process with its commitment to meaningful exploration (see Unit 6), is highly relevant here. In the immediacy of this crisis, students may want to revert to a quick fix and thus prematurely solve the problem. For example, they may suggest that the worker should urge Mrs. P. to remain or encourage the other group members to urge Mrs. P. to stay. In short, under the stress of the situation they often forget altogether the steps in the problem-solving process and move to solutions because they are afraid of the time and the process it would take to explore what is taking place at that moment.

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However, precisely because the group is in the middle stage, such an exploration is highly possible. At this point group members can communicate with one another and are willing to support and question their peers. It is helpful here to emphasize that the role of the worker in this example is to help group members explore what is going on rather than attempt to solve the problem themselves or even to ask members to immediately find a solution. Third, differences in the group in participatory styles and opinions provide an important opportunity for members to reflect on their attitudes and feelings and to compare and contrast them with those of others. This can be and should be discussed directly and openly. Thus, the worker needs to help the group acknowledge and examine the issues of the process (that is, Mrs. M.’s monopolization and domination, the role of the others in permitting it, and Mrs. P.’s threat to leave) and content (that is, the members’ different views with regard to handling their children’s behavior). The conflict and the differences here are group issues, not merely disagreements between Mrs. M. and Mrs. P. alone and therefore must be addressed by the whole group. This crisis provides an opportunity for the group to enhance its cohesiveness and to consider content, that is, the views of parenting that gave rise to the need for being in a group such as this in the first place. Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members It is useful to next examine differences of opinion between the group’s worker and its other members. A situation in which clients express a point of view that the worker finds unacceptable is particularly challenging to students; they are often very unsure about how to respond professionally. In the second example (see in Figure 9.1), a group of young mothers present a disciplinary method the worker is completely uncomfortable with and does not feel that she can remain silent. It is also a good example of groupthink, which refers to moments when group members arrive at one single-minded conclusion. The dilemma is how to effectively help the group explore the single-minded point of view. Distribute Handout 9.2, “Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members—Potato Grater.” The aim for the classroom, therefore, is to help students help group members explore the issue and their thinking and feelings about it. This example in which group members seem to agree on a point of view that the worker finds difficult to accept is one that students can find extremely difficult to address. Some may be so appalled at the clients’ views that they are silent, which unfortunately only implies an acceptance of the clients’ statements. Others may want to immediately jump in and use the authority of their position to reject or challenge the clients’ views. On the other hand, to quickly disagree with or immediately challenge clients’ statements may result in their withdrawing into silence or lead to a superficial agreement along with a concomitant feeling (unstated) that this worker does not really understand them or their needs or situations and, even further, that what one really believes really cannot be expressed.

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Figure 9.1 Class process example: Responding to the potato grater groupthink. “Suppose you were the worker in this group,” I told the class. “What would you do?” With a tinge of anger, Carolyn said, “This woman is abusive. I’d be required to report her.” “Oh, no, that’s not abuse,” Mary said. “Nothing would happen if you reported her anyway,” Gary said, “and it would be better for you to work with her than to report her.” Juan then entered the conversation, “Work with her! I couldn’t work with her when she’s so cruel to her kid!” At this point, I stopped the discussion because I wanted the class to focus on the worker’s role in handling viewpoints that might be different from his or her own rather than on whether the situation would be defined legally as child abuse (see note). “Wait a minute,” I said. This was a group I actually worked with and had come to know the mothers well. I knew the mother who said she used the potato grater. Although, personally, I thought this was a harsh way of disciplining her child, I also knew that she was not an abusive mother. Reporting her never entered my mind. “I’d tell the group that I disagree with such harsh punishment and that I don’t think it works,” Adrian said. “Well, it worked for me,” Lucienne said. “When I was growing up, my mother didn’t use a potato grater, but she would make me and my brother kneel down on uncooked rice when we had done something really bad. That kind of punishment is widely used in my culture. It has been used for generations throughout the Caribbean.” “But it’s so cruel,” Don said. “Maybe we think it’s cruel, but these mothers don’t, and for them, control and being firm is done so their kids don’t get in trouble,” Vic said. “But I don’t agree that it’s the best way to discipline kids in our society,” Louise said, adding, “And if I were the worker with this group, I’d want to challenge them, at least make them look at the effectiveness of that kind of discipline,” she added. Note. The question for practice here is how to handle a situation such as this when group members are expressing a view with which you, the worker, disagree.

Read Handout 9.2 with the class and ask subgroups to review the case and then share and compare their thinking about what to do next. Figure 9.1 is an example of a classroom discussion regarding this case record as narrated by the instructor. Clearly, professional social workers are mandated reporters who are legally bound to report signs of abuse or suspected abuse and must take this role seriously (see Krase, 2013). Thus, some discussion of that role and the implications of the role in maintaining authentic communication and helpfulness in light of a scenario like the potato grater groupthink may be in order, although the assumption here is that such discussions also take place in other practice classes. The point of this class exercise is to draw attention to the worker’s role in and with the group in terms of addressing differences with members. It is not to highlight the need for legal action. No doubt, in all instances such as this scenario, there is the need to be clear about roles, responsibilities, and professional and legal obligations. That said, the role of mandated reporter will in some cases have an impact on the ability of the group worker to reach for authentic expression from group members, as in this scenario. At the very least, then, this means that careful consideration and deliberation are necessary in planning for such potential situations, conversations with the operating system need to take place at that time as well, and conversations with group members during the contracting phase of practice also need to take place. Frankly, there is no easy answer to this issue if social workers are to remain in positions to help and not simply reflect or become yet another police force.

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Following this kind of exploratory class discussion, present the following points to help students synthesize the material in terms of their developing approach to practice: • Rather than immediately rejecting the thinking and feelings of the group members (perhaps a first impulse), especially if the student finds the clients’ views distasteful, the worker needs to encourage group members to say more and not less about their thinking and about what has contributed to it; in a nutshell, they have to talk more about where their attitudes and feelings are coming from. • In essence, the worker needs to take the time to understand the clients’ point of view, requiring the same kind of exploration (in a spirit of goodwill) that is required of any problem-solving process. • In the potato grater case example there is a vast difference of opinion that needs to be examined and understood, both by the worker and the members. • If members feel they are heard by the worker because the worker has asked to hear more and not less, and if they feel that this process has been carried out with empathy rather than judgment, the worker is in a much better position to challenge their views by asking them to stop and think about the views they are expressing (Is it the only way? Might there be another? Must they continue the tradition, and if so, why? What might be gained with another option? What might they lose with another option?). • Knowing that the worker understands and has taken time to learn about their views leaves group members much more open to being challenged (“confrontation with an arm around the shoulder”; Northen & Kurland, 2001, p. 220). • Greater understanding of a client’s point of view may bring greater acceptance of that viewpoint. The worker needs to be open to that possibility. Often, clients’ views are shaped by values and experiences rooted in culture, race, ethnicity, or class and may be different from those of the worker. • It is essential for the worker to be sensitive to and appreciate clients’ backgrounds and seek to understand how these variables shape beliefs and actions. • Solomon (1976) comments on this when she describes characteristics of the nonracist practitioner: The practitioner should possess the ability to perceive in any behavior . . . alternative explanations for that behavior, particularly those alternatives which the self might most strongly reject as false...It is tempting and easy to seize that generalization which best fits our own predilections without adequate appraisal of the alternatives; as a consequence, practitioners far too often select and utilize an extremely limited and stereotypic set of generalizations about black clients and their problems. (pp. 301–302)

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• Today, we refer to refraining from such generalization and stereotyping as cultural sensitivity or cultural humility. • After exploring the clients’ thinking and feelings, a worker may continue to disagree with the view being expressed and if so, express disagreement directly. However, it is most important for this disagreement to be done in a way that does not close off discussion; that is, it should be nonjudgmental and may even invite more in-depth exploration of the issue at hand. • The worker’s actual words, tone of voice, and body posture can be used to invite this kind of exploration. • Phrases such as “It seems to me” or “You may disagree, but I think” or “Let me present a different point of view” will help members express their own views even if they differ from those of the worker. • The worker’s aim is not to impose a particular point of view; that would be unethical and impossible. Rather, the art and skill of practice here is the ability to express a view in such a way to neither impose it on nor alienate the other but rather encourage a deep and full exploration of its implications. Thus, the expression of a different view, if done skillfully, can help clients explore their own views. • To thoughtfully challenge and invite self-reflection and exploration is an important task of the group worker and does not intrude on the right to self-determination. • Although social workers are mandated reporters, they also desire authenticity in their interactions with clients. Reaching for authentic expression by the client (group member) with empathy must be balanced with an understanding by everyone involved that some exploration of the need for professional intervention may be required. To further emphasize these points, it is helpful to present yet another example in Handout 9.3, “Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members: SRO Bathrooms,” that illustrates a difference of opinion between a worker and group members. Ask students to discuss this vignette in small subgroups again and then identify the issues and describe what they would do if they were the worker. After a brief small-group discussion invite the whole class to consider the situation presented in the example. At first, the students may view the situations described in both examples reflecting difference of opinion between worker and members as very different: the membership differs markedly by age and situation and presenting problems, and the two group types and purposes are not related either. However, as the discussion unfolds students can be helped to see that in fact the practice issues are the same. For example, in the SRO example, the worker differs with the point of view being expressed by the group members, and so here too, she needs first to listen to the tenants to understand their points of view and what has contributed to them. Many of them are probably so

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relieved to have housing and may be extremely fearful to voice a complaint lest they jeopardize their status. The worker needs to understand their situation and appreciate their fears before she can begin to challenge their beliefs and express a viewpoint that is different from theirs. To be silent and not disagree at all will convey a sense that nothing can be done about the situation. As in the potato grater example, the worker in the SRO bathrooms example wants to intervene in a way that asks the group members to take a good look at the beliefs they are expressing. What is important for students to grasp here is that the points presented earlier regarding practice tasks are equally applicable to both examples and, in fact, to any situation in which there is difference of opinion between worker and members. Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members The third type of difference to address with the class is descriptive difference between the worker and the group members. Begin by distributing Handout 9.4, “Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Ralph,” in which the older adult members of a literature discussion group in a senior center question whether the student, a man in his late 20s, can understand and be of help to them. The very first comment in the record crystallizes for many students the kind of confrontation by a group member that they most dread: a statement that questions the worker’s ability to be helpful because of the presence of a significant descriptive difference between the worker and the members of the group. Students often fear that group members will call attention to descriptive differences, whether based on race, age, marital or parental status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, health condition, or other factors that members or the worker may see as significant. In this record, the age difference is the point of conflict. In using the record, ask different members of the class to take the parts of the group members and read the dialogue aloud while you take the part of the worker. After the record is read aloud, ask students how they think the worker did. Although their tendency to analyze a record is often overly critical, they are likely to agree that in this case the worker handled the confrontation well. At times he became a bit defensive, but it seems as if he caught himself in that tendency and ultimately backed off. Although it is not easy to be told by members as directly as this worker was that he cannot understand, he still invited an exploration of the issue, even when some members of the group wanted to sweep it under the rug. The important teaching point here is that the worker did not shy away from examining the difference; rather, he facilitated it. This example is a good introduction to the next example for the class to examine, provided in Handout 9.5, “Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Race.” Not surprisingly, this kind of difference is difficult to address, even as a learning process. To enable the class to grapple with differences in race between the worker and members, ask them to discuss Handout 9.5 in small subgroups, suggesting they might want to use role playing in the small groups to try out various responses.

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After the subgroups meet for 10 to 15 minutes, bring the class together to present their responses. Based on the content covered so far you can expect for students to be clear about the fact that the worker needs to raise directly with the group her concern that members may be avoiding mention of race in their descriptions of the school examples because she is White. However, specific responses from students may vary. For example, the worker might ask the groups directly whether that is the case, for example, “I wonder whether the teachers you are describing are White and whether you are not mentioning that because I am White?” Or a worker might make a statement that suggests that this is indeed the case: “I sense that you are talking about White teachers and that you are not saying that because I am White.” In any case, this example provides an opportunity to reiterate and reinforce the fact that racial differences between the worker and members can be talked about openly. It also enables you to engage the class in considering the timing of such an intervention. For example, in this vignette, the worker’s sense or question about whether race was a factor in the incidents described by the mothers was very real, arising quite naturally for her from the content of what members were saying. She did not bring up racial difference in a way that was artificial or unnecessary or out of a false sense of obligation. Rather, the need to raise the question of racial difference arose from the content of the group’s discussion, and its avoidance would have undermined the work of the group. Descriptive Difference Among Members Finally, the class should address descriptive differences among the members of a group, building on the work already carried out regarding conflict and difference. Begin by distributing Handout 9.6, “Descriptive Differences Among Members: Some Girls Don’t Talk.” After the students review the handout, you might ask what they think contributed to this student’s fears? They generally are able to identify with the student’s fear that raising such differences could result in some members becoming explosive and ultimately destroy the group. Or they might believe that the student was afraid that any racial or cultural differences would be unresolvable or that the student was perhaps uncomfortable with her own racial attitudes and feared that an open discussion of racial and cultural differences would result in her being seen as racist by the group members. Refer students to Handout 9.5 and the discussion of racial difference between the worker and group members, pointing out specifically that just as this kind of difference between worker and members can and needs to be discussed, it should also be addressed openly. In fact, a good rule of thumb is that when workers sense that racial tensions may exist among group members, they need to point them out. The same principles apply here as in dealing with any kind of difference or conflict: The group needs to be helped to define the problem, to explore it in an atmosphere of goodwill, and attempt to understand and resolve it in a way that fosters individual and interpersonal growth in the group. At this point, students are usually quick to grasp the similarities and to realize

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that discussion of racial and cultural differences among group members must not be taboo. Offer students an opportunity to suggest ways that this student might have opened up the issue of the difference in participation between the Latina and African American members of her group. The specifics of suggested interventions are sure to vary, but the important teaching point is that the worker could have and needed to share directly with the group her perception that participation appeared to vary in the group by race and culture. All she needed to do was to make the observation; she did not need to carry on a lengthy dialogue or even ask a question, but just making the observation would open the door for group members to consider the issue, ideally resulting in a discussion that could help them to see one another’s point of view and resulting style of interaction. After the class discussions on descriptive differences, provide students with some principles of practice when dealing with this kind of difference: • Effective workers are comfortable with themselves and not defensive about their descriptive characteristics and the experiences and situations that flow from such characteristics. • Workers have a responsibility to learn as much as possible about the experiences and situations of group members, to try to understand their experiences and situations as fully as possible even if they have not lived them personally. This is true before the group begins (homework in anticipation of member characteristics based on generalities regarding culture, norms, etc.) and from the members during the group’s life to get to know the members in the context of their culture and other characteristics. • It is not productive for workers to pretend to be what they are not—either ingénues, who pleadingly entreat the group to help them out and teach them about themselves because they know nothing, or in contrast, a hipster, who comes across as one of the group, speaks the members’ lingo, and knows it all. In either case, the assumption is unfair; it damages the worker’s ability to be effective and diminishes what the worker might have to offer by being different in some way. • All social work practitioners are likely to work at some point with groups whose members have significant descriptive differences. Racial difference may be particularly difficult to discuss freely, but other areas, such as sexual orientation or identity, for example, may also be difficult. • The practice principles that apply here are not unique in any way. They are uniformly true whether the difference is approached with ease or with trepidation. Racial differences can be talked about. They are not taboo. They are not set apart or in a different category from other differences. Consideration of racial difference and conflict can be and often needs to be put on the table for consideration, often before a group can move into purpose-based work territory that has real depth and meaning.

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Common Skills for Managing Conflict and Difference Middleman and Wood (1990) discusses five specific skills for coping with conflict. Distribute Handout 9.7, “Common Skills for Addressing Conflict and Difference.” Review the handout with students. Knowing there are specific skills to help them deal with conflict when it occurs will help students begin to feel more secure in their effort to address conflict and difference in their work. Consider asking students to draw on their own experiences, personal and professional, to identify group situations in which these skills would apply or could have helped the group in question to advance its work. The primary intent here is to help students be able to imagine putting these skills into purposeful practice in situations of conflict.

Summary Above all, the goal of this unit is for students to come away with an understanding that direct discussion of conflict and difference in the group is crucial. Differences can be conceptualized as one of four types, and exploring each can improve understanding, expand perspectives, and enrich group life. By doing so, the group results in stronger relationships among members as well as between the worker and members. As with all other problems or issues confronting the group, when differences lead to conflict, the problem-solving process (see Unit 6) can help groups identify the nature of a conflict and explore its roots, impact, and implications toward empathy and greater mutual understanding. In contrast, avoiding such discussions interferes with the group’s work and makes it impossible for the group to achieve its purpose by leaving the elephant in the room, which inevitably gets in the way of progress by haunting the group in myriad unexpected ways.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • Conflict and difference arise throughout the life of a group, and although it arises in the new group as well, the likelihood of emerging difference is greatest as a group moves into its middle stage, when members are more comfortable revealing their true feelings and attitudes. • Diversity and difference provide stimulation that a group needs to examine members’ varied experiences, situations, and points of view. The worker’s task is to help members examine issues of conflict and difference as they arise, even welcoming the expression of difference as a sign that the group is moving beyond the often slightly superficial tone of the new, beginning group. • Students and new or untrained workers often fear the expression of conflict in the group, viewing it as a negative intrusion in the group’s real work. In fact, examining and resolving differences of all kinds is often the work of a group at any given time and can enhance growth and change. Addressing a group’s differences is a

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whole-group responsibility; the responsibility of the worker is to help group members do so in a climate of respect and a search for understanding and insight. • Because of their fears about conflict when differences do arise in a group, students often ignore the first few steps of the problem-solving process (problem identification and exploration; see Unit 6) that consist of exploring the issues, in this case, expressed differences in needs or goals or desires or perspectives, and thus jump prematurely to solve the problem—as in, get it out of the way. • We want group members to make meaning of their differences, and helping them to do that is a process, not a status. In fact, helping people to make meaning is normally a continuous, long-term, even never-ending process. Thus, the primary goal of practice is to help members develop a progressively sophisticated ability to explore all types of process and content for personal relevance and utility, that is, to become better and better at it. In times of conflict, the worker’s task is to actively help the group members keep sight of what binds them together as they explore their differences without minimizing those differences.

References Bernstein, S. (1973). Conflict and group work. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work (pp. 72–106). Boston, MA: Milford House. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS. aspx Glassman, U. (2009). Group work: A humanistic and skills building approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Krase, K. (2013, spring). Making the tough call: Social workers as mandated reporters, part I. The New Social Worker. Retrieved from http://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ practice/Making_the_Tough_Call%3A_Social_Workers_as_Mandated_Reporters%2C_ Part_I/. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Further Readings Brower, A., Garvin, C., Hobson, J., Reed, B., & Reed, H. (1987). Exploring the effects of leader gender and race on group behavior. In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 129–148). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Brown, A., & Mistry, T. (1994). Group work with mixed membership groups: Issues of race and gender. Social Work with Groups, 17(3), 5–21. Davis, L. (1995). The crisis of diversity. In M. Feit, J. Ramey, J. Wodarski, & A. Mann (Eds.), Capturing the power of diversity (pp. 47–58). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Gitterman, A., & Schaeffer, A. (1972). The White professional and the Black client. Social Casework, 53, 280–291.

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Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with Adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Norman, A. (1991). The use of the group and group work techniques in resolving interethnic conflict. Social Work with Groups, 14(3/4), 75–186. Otis, M., & Loeffler, D. (2005). Changing youths’ attitudes toward difference: A community-based model that works. Social Work with Groups, 28(1), 41–64. Prescott, D. (2005). Chronic conflict parents and group therapy as a means of intervention: A preliminary proposal. Social Work with Groups, 28(1), 81–96. Rodenborg, N., & Huynh, N. (200). On overcoming segregation: Social work and intergroup dialogue. Social Work with Groups, 29(1), 27–44. Schopler, J., Galinsky, M., Davis, L., & Despard, M. (1996). The RAP model: Assessing a framework for leading multiracial groups. Social Work with Groups, 19(3/4), 21–29. Malekoff, A. [Ed.]. (1990). Ethnicity and biculturalism: Emerging perspectives of social group work [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 13(4). Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Van Den Bergh, N. (1990). Managing biculturalism at the workplace: A group approach. Social Work with Groups, 13(4), 71–84.

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HANDOUT 9.1

Differences of Opinion Between Mrs. P. and Mrs. M. Case Scenario Mrs. M. has been very vocal and often monopolizes the group discussion, telling other members what they should do when their children misbehave. She is critical of and judgmental about the other members’ actions as parents. Furthermore, Mrs. M. maintains that she really does not belong in this group because her son is just a bad apple, and she has done the best she can with him, but nothing is going to work. At this meeting Mrs. P., who up to now has actively listened but has said little in the group, recounts an incident with her son. She caught him stealing money from her purse. She said, “I sat him down and started to talk with him about what he had done.” At that point Mrs. M. interrupts, “Sat him down?! That’s stupid!” she says, “You should have just smacked him.” Visibly upset and with her voice quivering Mrs. P. stands up and says, “I’ve had it with her,” pointing to Mrs. M. “She thinks she knows everything, and I’m sick of it! If she stays in this group, I’m leaving.”

Practice Directive 1. What would you do? 2. What exactly would you say at this point in the process and why? 3. What are the practice issues?

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HANDOUT 9.2

Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members—Potato Grater Case Scenario A group of single mothers is discussing the difficulties of setting limits and disciplining their children. One of the mothers says that when her son is bad she makes him kneel down with his knees on a hardwood floor and stay there for an hour. If he is especially bad, she says, she makes him kneel with potato grater under his knees. “That’s what my mother did with me when I was a child, and it worked,” she says. “Nowadays you really have to show your kids who’s boss.” All the other group members nod in agreement. “You’ve got to be firm,” one adds. “Show that you’re in control,” says another.

Practice Directive 1. What would you do? 2. What exactly would you say at this point in the process and why? 3. What are the practice issues?

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HANDOUT 9.3

Difference of Opinion Between Worker and Members—SRO Bathrooms Case Scenario Social work staff of a single-room occupancy (SRO) residence that houses single adults who had been previously homeless determines that a priority for the building, which had been open for 8 months, is to try to create a sense of community among the tenants. To do so, monthly meetings, each led by a social worker, are held on each floor. At the first meeting of the tenants on the second floor, the tenants complain about strangers who do not live in the building but who are using their floor’s bathrooms and kitchen. “Do you ever ask them who they are?” the worker asks, “or report them to the guard downstairs?” “Oh, no!” is the immediate and unanimous response. “The best thing to do is to do and say nothing. Who knows who the people are? You could really get in trouble by challenging them or reporting them. Who knows what they might do to you then!” All the tenants agree that the only thing to do is nothing, to keep quiet and put up with it.

Practice Directive 1. What would you do? 2. What exactly would you say at this point in the process and why? 3. What are the practice issues?

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HANDOUT 9.4

Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Ralph Case Scenario, 10th Group Session Ralph: There’s no way a young person like yourself could really understand or help somebody my age, not that there’s anything wrong with that. I mean, how could you? Hilde: Oh no, I don’t think that’s true at all. Richard is very helpful. [Others agree.] Worker: Hold on a second. This is actually something I’ve often thought about. How do you think I’m unable to help you, Ralph? Ralph: Well, it’s like this. It’s not that I don’t think you’re doing a great job here, because you really run the group very well. It’s just that I’m 86 years old. I have physical problems that I never dreamed of when I was your age, and there’s no reason I should have thought about that kind of thing. And why should you? I’m the sum of 56 years more life than you are. Now that certainly doesn’t mean I know more or I’m any better. It just means I’ve had that many more experiences. Ella: But I don’t see it that way. I think that anyone who wants to can understand another person. You don’t have to walk through fire to talk to someone who has. Hilde: I have so many dear friends who are younger people. They keep me young with their ideas and their energy. Worker: But do you feel like they can relate to you? Can they understand you as an older person? Hilde: Why should they be able to? Why should they want to?

Ralph: That’s just it. There’s no reason they should want to. It’s not that we are uninteresting people, but when you’re young the world is your oyster. You have ideas and goals that are etched in stone. You’re ready to tackle the world, and that’s how it should be; but when you are our age, you’re not so sure about things anymore. You realize you don’t have all the answers you thought you did. Worker: But you see, I do want to understand you, and I believe I can. Not everything about you, maybe not even that much, but something. I think there’s a common ground, where we can talk to each other, have a give and take. You’re 86, I’m 29. But we are both men trying to find something meaningful and satisfying in life. Hilde: I think that’s right, a common ground. I like that very much. Ralph: Yes, that may be very true. Worker:

[laughing] It may be, but I don’t think you believe it.

Ralph: Well, no. I mean to some extent, but it’s like this: When I’m sitting in the doctor’s office or even just walking along the street and I see someone my own age or in somewhat similar dismal health, we exchange a knowing glance, and in that look there is an understanding that you just can’t talk about. [Silence] Gretta: I think what Ralph is saying is true, but you can go too far with it. Worker: What do you mean, too far?

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HANDOUT 9.4 (continued)

Gretta: I mean when you start to let it bring you down. I believe there are valuable things you can get out of a relationship with any intelligent person.

Worker: Wait a second. I’m guilty without a trial. I would say your doctor showed a real lack of empathy, but she is just one person.

Mollie: Intelligence isn’t the only criterion. There’s also sensitivity and the ability to empathize.

Ralph: No, that’s really the way it is. There are certain things a younger person just can’t understand and hasn’t had to deal with them, and rightfully so.

Gretta: I include that as part of intelligence. Worker: Wait a minute. Let’s stick with this issue of whether a younger person can be helpful to an older person other than helping him or her cross the street. Ralph, I definitely relate to what you’re saying about a certain connection to people you’re in the same boat with. But what kind of connection do you think you and I can make?

Worker: I believe that’s true to a certain extent, but couldn’t your eye doctor have waited a minute, thought about what you said and not just feed you aphorisms about when the going gets tough, the tough get going?

Ralph: Well, that’s a good question. Let me think about that one.

Mollie: Charles Dickens was certainly a young man who wrote quite perceptively about older people.

Hilde: I would rather be with a younger person and forget about my age than sit around and sigh with someone my own age. Worker: But can anybody ever really forget about their age?

11th Session Hilde: You know, Ralph, last week I was thinking about what you said about young people and I had an experience I want to tell you about. (She speaks of how she went to see her ophthalmologist, a 33-year-old woman. Hilde has often said how much she likes this person. It happened that at this appointment the usually stoic Hilde was talking about how her failing vision was so depressing to her. The doctor then chastised her for such talk and gave an annoyingly superficial pep talk. Hilde was dismayed by the doctor’s lack of understanding and says that Ralph was right, younger people can’t really understand the older people.)

Ella: Yes, she could have. I’ve known some young people who were very understanding.

Ralph: Yes, he wrote about them. But it was all conjecture. You see, it just had to be. Worker: Of course, that’s true, but you see, I don’t believe you have to have cancer to help someone who does or be a thief to work with criminals. If I can help you be more comfortable with yourself or to see something about yourself that you’re not aware of or to stimulate discussions that have some meaning or interest for you, then I think I’m helping. Ralph: Well yes, I would agree with that. I just think that there are limits to how far you can empathize. Worker: Um-hmm. Mollie: I think not. Hilde: But you needn’t dwell on it! Ella: Well, look it’s there whether you think about it or not. Worker: I want to ask the group the question I just asked of Ralph: What kind of connection can you as an older person have with me, a young man?

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HANDOUT 9.4 (continued)

Mollie: In what sense do you mean the word connection?

Ralph: I was once a good-looking young man myself, you know.

Worker: Good question. I mean, in what way do you think the age difference between you and me comes into play in our relationship?

Gretta: Now you’re a good-looking old man.

Ada: Everyone is a different person with different experiences. I don’t think anyone here is the same, and we can all learn from one another.

Ralph: Youth is so sure of itself, so unteetering in its attitudes.

[Silence] Worker: Ralph, I feel like very little of this is getting through to you. Ralph: Hmm . . . I can’t quite put my finger on it. Maybe I’m just resentful of your youth. Worker: Hmm!

[Laughter]

Worker: You know, Ralph, you have some of the same myths about youth that I had about aging. I certainly don’t feel that sure of myself or as unteetering. Ralph: Well, you should! Worker: Why? Ralph: That’s one of the joys of being young! Nica: When I was a young girl, I didn’t know anything, but I was so happy. [She goes on to tell a story of young love and how she and her husband lived in poverty in Paris.]

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HANDOUT 9.5

Descriptive Differences Between Worker and Members: Race Case Scenario You are co-leading a group of single mothers. All the group members, as well as your coleader, are Black. You are the only White person in the room. At the fourth meeting of the group, the mothers are talking about incidents their children have encountered at school. Many of them talk about situations in which they believe their children were treated unfairly by school personnel. Race is never mentioned. However, you get the sense that the parents are talking about White school personnel, and they are leaving race out of their descriptions because of your presence.

Practice Directive 1. What would you do? 2. What exactly would you say at this point in the process and why? 3. What are the practice issues?

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HANDOUT 9.6

Descriptive Differences Among Members: Some Girls Don’t Talk Case Scenario Working with 10th grade girls in a pregnancy prevention group in a local high school, a student reported that in her meetings some group members talk a great deal, and others say almost nothing. “How can I get the quiet ones to talk more and the monopolizers to talk less?” she asked in class. “I’ve tried calling on the quiet ones, but all I get back is one-word answers, so that doesn’t work.” Questions from class members uncovered the fact that all the silent members in the group were Latina, and those who were verbally active in the group were African American. With help from other students and the instructor, the student then acknowledged that • there seemed to be tensions between the African American and Latina group members, • there was a sense of uneasiness in the group, • racial as well as cultural differences might be contributing to the variation in the participation of the group members, and • the student, who is White, was afraid to raise this directly in the group.

Practice Directive 1. What would you do? 2. What exactly would you say the next time you meet with this group, and why? 3. What are the practice issues?

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HANDOUT 9.7

Common Skills for Addressing Conflict and Difference The following is from Middleman and Wood (1990).

Confronting Situations Make a civil presentation of descriptive information, work through differences, and arrive at a solution. Do not shout or argue; rather, confront a situation, as in “We have a problem.”

Validating Angry Feelings Recognize and validate anger, which responds best to statements that acknowledge the anger and indicate it is justified.

Focusing on Facts In confronting the situation or information that evokes the anger, reduce that anger so that collective problem solving can take place with a focus on the facts rather than the anger.

Converting Arguments Into Comparisons Replace arguments with comparisons by reframing the different sides as differences of opinion about the way to accomplish an end, and present options for rational consideration by everyone.

Proposing Superordinate Goals Bring forth the goals the various parties, even in conflict, can agree on, which can encompass and even take precedence over partisan interests: What binds us is greater than what we disagree on.

UNIT

Practice With the Ending Group

10

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Help group members to disengage from the group and from the worker to transition successfully to life after the group, help members identify the gains made from group membership as well as future goals, help group members connect with future and further resources as necessary. 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Use ending content to help group members recognize the ways their diversity enriched their personal learning and personal and interpersonal growth, resulted in new skill sets, and contributed to their ability to accomplish their goals. 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Actively advocate for resources for group members who may need further or special resources when the group ends. 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Differentially and discretely apply all available related evidence on helping group members to end and make the transition successfully to life after the group, actively use the ending stage of the group to help members evaluate personal and interpersonal growth and change as a result of group membership. 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Provide information for group members that can help them make a successful transition from the group to other resources; and help the system in which the group operates to accommodate, within its mission, the ongoing needs, desires, and requirements of group members as clients. 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage with all systems that may help group members to continue to identify and meet their goals for growth and change. 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Help group members assess the impact of their significant systems on their ability to make a successful transition from the group to other useful resource systems. 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Select direct and/ or indirect intervention systems that can help group members to make a successful transition from the group to other groups or other forms of service or treatment that may be useful after the group ends. 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Engage group members in evaluating the nature of and success in meeting their stated individual goals and the group’s overall purpose as well as future goals and mechanisms for meeting them. Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

S

tudents often find the ending stage of group development particularly difficult to manage successfully. As students, they are often forced to bring their groups to premature closure because of the vagaries of their schedules. Even when the timing is appropriate, however, a group’s final stage is often filled with emotion for everyone, members and worker alike. Often the ending comes just when members and the worker have developed a sense of comfort and ease with one another, and they are all 213

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able to be truly themselves. Further, increased knowledge about the members and their needs may now cause the student to become intent on accomplishing too much in the time the group has left.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes This unit describes how an instructor can teach students about the ending stage of group development and the worker’s role and functions in that stage. The learning outcomes for students of this teaching unit are the following: 1. Become familiar with the characteristics, member needs, and worker role in the ending or transition stage of group development 2. Develop practice skills for use with groups in the ending or transition stage 3. Be able to skillfully and purposefully intervene with groups in the ending or transition stage

Work With the Ending or Transitional Stage of a Group Begin this unit by asking the class to think about the members of the groups with which they are working and to identify their group members’ feelings about the group’s impending ending. As they do so, list them on the board. Often students will concentrate on the negative reactions that members have toward ending, so it is important to remind them that members certainly have positive reactions as well; and the list then becomes extensive. Pointing to the items on the board, next ask students which reactions apply to them as well. The response often is swift, as they quickly and easily acknowledge that many of the feelings of the group members also hold true for them. Group endings do indeed raise many feelings common to members and the worker, often making this stage of group development emotionally complex. Behavior is shaped by the many reactions about the group’s termination, and given the likely behavior of members and tasks that need to be accomplished in this stage, the worker’s role undergoes change to meet the new conditions, reverting to a more active stance, as in the group’s beginning. Now, the worker needs to become more active again to help members bring successful closure to this experience and to provide a positive frame of reference for approaching new groups and other situations. Distribute Handout 10.1, “Stages of Group Development: Endings,” and point out that this handout uses the same format as the ones for the beginning (Unit 5) and middle stages (Unit 7). If they wish to view progress over time along any one dimension, for example, where members are or what needs to happen or the worker’s role, they can read down the column from beginning to middle to end. It is useful to emphasize the following as you review the handout.

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Endings with groups are particularly complicated because they occur on three levels: (a) the relationship between the group members and the worker is coming to an end, (b) the relationship among the group members is ending, and (c) the group as an entity is concluding and will cease to exist. The worker needs to be cognizant simultaneously of the multiple meanings of endings on all three levels. Often, workers find that the expression of feelings on the part of members about the group’s ending seems to be unnatural and lack depth even when the members seem to be using the right words and expressing the right feelings. Frequently, such lip service to feelings occurs because the worker has forced the issue of endings in such a way that group members are unable to respond with genuine feeling. The worker, for instance, may say to the group, “We have five meetings left. How do you feel about that?” The members’ responses to such a question are likely to come in the form of one-word answers such as “bad,” “OK,” or “good,” or in the form of empty phrases, such as “It’s too bad that we’re almost done” or “It doesn’t bother me.”

Preparing the Group for Ending or Transition The worker needs to call early attention to the imminence of endings so that the process will be able to unfold in an unforced and natural manner as an important and intrinsic part of group life. Feelings on the part of members, positive and negative, are best expressed spontaneously and over time, thus providing the worker and the group with opportunities to explore and consider their feelings. Members’ articulations of feelings about endings are important, and so are those of the worker. The most effective way of inviting expressions of feelings is by encouraging the group to reminisce—to remember, relive, and talk about the group’s common experiences, meaningful content and events, to make observations about one another and the progress and changes in the group over time. During this kind of discussion, real feeling is expressed, and this kind of reminiscence helps the group members put closure on this group experience. Evaluation of the group experience is a corollary to reminiscence. The participation of group members and the worker in an evaluation of the total group experience helps to bring continuity and closure to that experience. It allows members to transfer their learning from this group to other situations. In addition, a discussion of each member’s participation in the group allows each person to identify areas of progress as well as areas for future growth. The evaluative process—group and individual—provides a frame of reference that members can use as they move on to new situations (Birnbaum & Cicchetti, 2005; Macgowan, 2008; Steinberg, 2010, 2014)

From Ending to Transition Although this unit focuses on practice principles and skills for helping groups to end and for helping group members to address the ending, it is also important for students to understand this stage as a transition. It may be trite to say, but it is true that every ending is the beginning of something else, thus, a transition from one experience or

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circumstance to another. With that in mind ask students to note how much content in Handout 10.1 actually does address the need for group members to disengage from this group experience successfully, which often is one of the few times if ever people experience a positive ending, and the work with other systems of importance in their lives for further and future growth and change. The hope of all groups is that skills and strengths newly gained from membership will transfer from the group that is ending to all the other groups the members belong to. Thus, if group members have learned with the help of co-members to become more assertive, the goal of practice is not simply that this becomes part and parcel of membership in this group but that the new skill will be helpful in other situations as well. Endings must, therefore, include references to whatever group members take with them as they make the transition from this particular group to other groups, large and small, formal and informal, and familial or communal. With this in mind, members are able to see the continuity of the potential for growth and a productive life that emerges from this experience, making them able in spirit if not in actuality to take this experience with them into the rest of their lives. This concept of taking what has been learned into the outer world applies especially to groups that have been highly valued by its members and who feel particularly sad about the group’s ending because it is something that they can continue to hold on to as they venture into new territories.

Expected Member Behaviors in the Ending Stage The worker’s or clients’ tendency to try to cram extensive new material in at the last moment is dangerous. Perhaps the familiarity members and workers now have with the group contributes to this tendency. Or perhaps the difficulty in saying good-bye and a longing to continue what has been important to the members, the worker, or both leads to such behavior. Regardless, it is best to use the last meetings of the group to consolidate the learning that has taken place and to actively eschew the desire to impart some final pearls of wisdom. As students review and discuss member tendencies in this stage and the implications for practice, it is useful to emphasize three kinds of behavior in particular: • Denial: Knowing the importance of endings, students may have been careful and thoughtful in introducing the idea of termination even at the group’s beginning and then periodically throughout the group’s life reminding the group that it is a finite entity. In the beginning, for example, they may have let members know the duration of the group and then periodically reminded the group about the remaining time. Nevertheless, when the ending is imminent, and the worker once again reminds the group of that, it is not unusual to be met with statements such as, “This group’s going to be ending? You never told us that” or “You didn’t tell us you were leaving.” In short, members’ reactions to losing the group and the worker may consist of denying the group’s ending or claiming that the worker never said anything about ending.

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• Regression: Facing loss, members may return to previous behavior in earlier stages, especially if the group has been very positive, causing members to want it to continue and leaving them sad that it will not. Even further, they may be hopeful in some subconscious way that if they act out their earlier less groupsavvy behaviors the group will have to continue. For example, members may seem unable to cope with tasks already mastered and relationships already established, giggle, speak out of turn, and otherwise act as they might have in the beginning stage. It is important to understand all this as a plea to continue and for the worker to remain with them. In essence, the members are saying, “We still need this group and we still need you.” • Flight: As the group nears its end attendance may become sporadic; some members may even stop attending altogether. Perhaps it is difficult for them to deal with their feelings and reactions in the face of loss; ending is imminent, and they see no point in continuing. It is as if they were saying, “I might as well leave this group and you, the worker, before the group and you leave me.” In the face of premature flight, it is important to actively reach out and urge members to keep returning to meetings for a helpful and appropriate ending. It is important that the worker not allow members to trickle off and the group to end by default. The goal is for flight to be expressed constructively, that is, for members to use this experience to begin to establish connections with other groups and different relationships. Figure 10.1 Class process example: Unless the worker is aware of the nature of these behaviors (i.e., that they emanate from feelings about ending), many of these behaviors are exasperating and even personal, causing questions and much angst about accomplishment, if any, because the group members seem to have forgotten what was said, reverted to earlier behavior patterns, or not care. But such behavior is totally expected and very much connected to the group’s ending. Students should be alerted to the possibility that unusual or exasperating behavior is connected to endings and is not a reflection of a job poorly done. In fact, they need to remember that at this stage any behavior that elicits strong feelings on their part may have to do with endings. It is easy for students to forget this. To illustrate failure to recognize the salience of endings, Figure 10.1 presents an incident that occurred in a group work class. There were only three more classes left in a year-long course on group work. In the class, ending had been discussed weeks before, and on this day students were examining some of their actual practice interventions.

Dealing with endings and transitions.

During the discussion, Luis, a student, commented, “You know, in this class we never really talked about co-leadership.” I agreed. Joan added, “And we never talked about —.” Again, I agreed. The floodgates opened. The areas we had not covered were shouted from all parts of the room by different class members. I felt increasingly horrible. The areas class members said had not covered were accurate. “What had we been doing all year?” I asked myself as I sank deeper into my chair and the onslaught continued. At that point Margie stopped the comments. “Hey, wait a minute!” She said. “I think what’s going on here has to do with termination.” Bells went off in my head. Here I was, the expert on endings, and as this was happening to me, not once had I made the connection with the ending of our class. Margie’s realization of that connection was important to me as well as to the class members.

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Although workers should not attribute all the unusual or exasperating behavior that occurs to endings, they need to remember that the group’s coming to an end may be an important factor in the behavior and thoughts and feelings being expressed. Two case records help students look particularly at the role of the worker in this ending or transition stage. The groups are very different, but they both illustrate the same practice principles. The first record is of a group of girls, ages 10 and 11, in a community-based after-school program. Case Record: Good-Bye and Good Riddance Distribute Handout 10.2, “Case Record: Good-Bye and Good Riddance,” and read it aloud, asking students to follow along. The most useful point of reference for the class discussion after reading this case record is the worker’s interventions. Clearly, the meeting ends very destructively for the worker and the girls. Why so? What brings that about? Students are likely to think that the girls were giving the worker a hard time. They also are likely to empathize with the worker, especially when the girls run out of the room, imagining that the worker must feel devastated and like a failure. Some students might think the worker is angry. The question for practice, however, is why this meeting came to such a destructive end. Some likely responses from students include the worker’s trouble in expressing herself; she was trying but perhaps sounded too programmed. What else might she have done? What were these girls really asking the worker? What did they want from her? This is where attention to latent content comes into play, where students need to try to read between the lines. In reality, the group members did not want the worker to leave. They also wanted to know if she really liked them and keep asking her that in different ways. Unfortunately, the worker does not answer them either explicitly or straightforwardly. Toward the end of the record, she does say that she cares; however, she uses so many words (a whole paragraph) that her feelings get lost, making them sound somewhat programmed and intellectual and thus artificial rather than affective. In fact, the girls are basically screaming in their own way for the worker to tell them that she really likes them and to express that to them unreservedly and with emotion, which she never does. Case Record: Do You Think Old Blind People Are Different? The next case scenario for the class to review is of a group of blind older adults who participate in a day program. This record describes the first meeting of the group following a lengthy public transportation strike during which group members were unable to travel to the program. Distribute Handout 10.3, “Do You Think Old Blind People Are Different?” and ask students to play the parts of the members and the worker. A review of this case record with the class reemphasizes many of the points brought out by the previous scenario. If students consider the two scenarios in tandem, aside from the fact that they both concern endings, there are many commonalities. Some of the points likely to be raised by students are that the members of this group also love their student and do not want her to leave either. Additionally, this worker also forces

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the issue and does not sound genuine. The members are really asking if she likes them, just as the girls asked in the previous scenario; and as with the previous worker, this worker does not really express her feelings either. In short, here is a group of blind older adults asking the worker the very same question asked by a group of 10-year-olds. The question was worded differently, but in each case quite loudly; and in each case the response is inadequate because it is distant, evasive, clouded by lengthy narrative, and not expressed with genuine feeling. Ask students to think of and express to the class some other ways the worker might have responded in this group. In essence, both case records provide the opportunity to emphasize that clear expression of feelings on the part of the worker encourages group members to express their own feelings about the group, one another, and the worker, and ultimately about ending and moving on. Such expressions then enable the group to engage in reminiscence and evaluation, an essential component of this stage as they move away from this experience to other ones.

Ending-Stage Practice Cautions As you wrap up the discussion of endings, offer the students the following cautions. • False promises: The worker should not make false promises about continuing the relationship with the group or with individual group members. To say such things as “I will visit” or “I will write” or “I’m sure I will see you again” is a strong temptation and a way for workers to avoid the difficulty and discomfort of saying good-bye. • The big bash syndrome: Caution students about the big bash syndrome, which refers to using the final session for a big party or group trip or some sort of major event. Such events do not allow the group to end meaningfully. In fact, a big bash is often a way for group members as well as the worker to avoid saying good-bye. This does not mean that the ending should not be marked with some sort of celebration, but the very last meeting should be an opportunity for the group to finish its task, which is to express the value of the experience and identify aloud what has been learned, what was difficult, and what would be useful as they make their transition and move on. Schwartz (in Berman-Rossi, 1994) discusses the tendency for worker and members to avoid endings through what he calls the farewell party syndrome: The farewell party syndrome is a condition that has to be examined carefully; it is generally a collaboration between worker and members, for the feeling is shared and the evasions of the opportunity to finish with work—to use the last moments as part of the contract, rather than something different, anticlimactic. For the worker, the inability to resolve his function—“The client is dead, long live the client”—makes it difficult for him to end with feeling, even as he looks forward to the next beginning, with new people (as cited in Berman-Rossi, 1994, pp. 184–185).

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Dealing With the Less Than Satisfying Group Finally, sometimes a worker has not liked working with a group in particular or with a group whose purpose was not achieved and, as a result, does not feel a great sense of accomplishment. It is important for workers to not make false statements about their feelings if they are more negative than positive or about the lack of group achievement if that is the case. Such false statements will be easily recognized as such by the members. Instead, it is essential for workers to think in advance about what they can and want to say to the group. What can be said in such cases? There will always be something, some part of the overall experience that was useful and positive and that can and should be recognized and acknowledged. The content of workers’ statements can be directed toward what they believe the members have learned from this group experience and the ways that learning can be carried forward. They can also find something about their involvement with the group that was more positive than negative, for example, what they learned about working with groups. It bears restating here that considerable thought must be given in advance to what can be said so that the ending or transition leaves group members if not completely satisfied with the experience at least not devastated at the idea of perhaps yet another failure.

Common Skills for Work With Ending-Stage Groups The material on beginnings (Unit 5) and middles (Unit 7) identified and discussed skills that were of particular use in those stages of group development, which were taken from Middleman and Wood (1990). The skills that are useful in one stage of development often continue to be important as the group evolves. Remind the class of the skills already described that seem particularly important in the ending stage as well, such as those from Unit 5 that refer to purpose, building on strengths, reaching for a feeling link, and inviting full participation, and those from Unit 7, reaching consensus, reaching for difference, confronting situations, reaching for feelings, amplifying subtle messages, reporting feelings. In addition, the skills in Handout 10.4, “Common Skills for Groups in the Ending or Transition Stage,” are particularly salient in this stage as they draw on whole-group dynamics (i.e., the group as a system). The two skills that run counter to this theme are reaching for difference and building on strengths, although they clearly connect very concretely to this stage of development. Difference can help group members see other points of view, especially when some might be negative like those in the preceding case records such as “We hate this group” or “We don’t care,” and skills that reach for difference can help provide some balance and other ways of seeing the ending of a group experience. Finally, building on strengths, the gains that each member makes, is clearly essential in helping group members conceptualize the end of a group as a transition to other experiences with the

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potential for positive results rather than seeing the end of the group as an existential finality with no greater context. As students have been using the material and practice skills from Middleman and Wood (1990), it is not necessary at this point to spend significant time on exercises on using these skills. You might briefly review the skills for this stage of group development, asking students to offer examples from their own personal or professional experiences as they review and reflect on the handout.

Summary Group endings raise many feelings common to members and workers, often making this stage of group development emotionally complex. Behavior is shaped by the many reactions about the group’s termination, and the worker’s role undergoes change to meet the new conditions, reverting to a more active stance as in the group’s beginning. The worker becomes more active again to help members bring successful closure to this experience and to provide a positive frame of reference for approaching new groups and other situations. Endings occur on three levels: (a) the relationship between the group members and the worker, (b) the relationship among the group members, and (b) the group as an entity that is concluding and will cease to exist. An early practice task is to call attention to the imminence of endings, so that the process will unfold in a natural manner as an important and intrinsic part of group life. Reminiscence and evaluation of the experience are essential tasks in the ending or transition stage, helping to bring continuity on one hand and closure on the other along with the transfer of gains from this experience to other groups to which members belong.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • In the face of the group’s ending and the worker’s imminent departure, behavior in the ending group consists of regression and flight, with hostility expressed to the worker as a way of saying, “We don’t care. We’ll leave you before you leave us.” • If destructive or regressive behavior becomes increasingly out of control, the worker needs to limit and stop the behavior. One way is to interrupt the behavior by pointing it out to the group and stating clearly and with feeling that this group has been a wonderful one. • It is essential that workers clearly express their own feelings to let group members know with feeling and simplicity how much they have liked and enjoyed the group. It is often the worker’s genuine expression of feeling that helps members express their own feelings and to construct an ending that is positive rather than negative, that it is sad to end, perhaps, but with good feelings. • Reminiscence and evaluation are key components of the ending-stage group. The former brings a sense of continuity and growth to each member (e.g., how we were,

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how far we’ve come, the gains we have made), whereas the latter helps everyone identify new skills and strengths gained from membership in the group and what might be repeated or perhaps improved on in the next experience. • False promises about continued contact are unethical because it is often not possible to keep such promises and further, it preempts clients’ potential for developing new relationships. People often have destructive endings; a positive ending provides a counter experience, and workers should be comfortable with this stage of practice as well so that false promises are not made to avoid saying good-bye. • Celebrating a group’s accomplishment and noting its end is appropriate and can take many forms. The one form it should not take, however, is some kind of big bash or major event at the last session that precludes the ability of group members to evaluate the group’s impact and to say good-bye with meaning and not as a quick afterthought, for example, when descending from an amusement-park roller coaster. • Not all groups are equally satisfying to practice. It is essential, however, that the worker find something positive to say at the end of every group, regardless of how well it has met its purpose. With thoughtful preparation, there will always be something workers can say, even if it is only to identify what they have learned from the experience and can take to the next one. In that case, although the experience might have been less than positive, a thank-you to this group is still definitely in order.

References Berman-Rossi, T. (1994). Social work: The collected writings of William Schwartz. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock. Birnbaum, M., & Cicchetti, A. (2005). A model for working with the group life cycle in each group session across the life span of the group. Groupwork, 15(3), 23–43. Council on Social Work Education. (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS. aspx Macgowan, M. (2008). A guide to evidence-based group work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Steinberg, D. M. (2010). Mutual aid: A contribution to best-practice social work. Social Work with Groups, 33, 53–68. Steinberg, D. M. (2014). A mutual-aid model for social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge

Further Readings Berman-Rossi, T. (1993). The tasks and skills of the social worker across stages of group development. Social Work with Groups, 16(1/2), 69–82. Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Brown, L. (1991). Groups for growth and change. New York, NY: Longman. Garland, J., Jones, H., & Kolodny, R. (1973). A model for stages of development in social work groups. In S. Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work (pp. 17–71). Boston, MA: Milford House. Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Greenfield, W., & Rothman, B. (1987). Termination or transformation? Evolving beyond termination in groups. In J. Lassner, K. Powell, & E. Finnegan (Eds.), Social group work: Competence and values in practice (pp. 51–65). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Henry, S. (1992). Group skills in social work: A four-dimensional approach (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Schiller, L. Y. (1995). Stages of development in women’s groups: A relational model. In R. Kurland & R. Salmon (Eds.) Group work practice in a troubled society: Problems and opportunities (pp. 117–138). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Toseland, R., & Rivas, R. (2017). An introduction to group work practice global edition. London, UK: Pearson.

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HANDOUT 10.1

Stages of Group Development: The Ending Stage Where the Members Are Members begin to talk more about their successful efforts to try new things or change their patterns of behavior outside the group. Communication is free and easy. Members begin to move apart - find satisfaction in relationships outside the group (simultaneously they may break ties between members in the group and cohesiveness within the group may weaken), find new activities. Members talk about some of the changes that have taken place in themselves and in the group. They review experiences, reminisce, evaluate, show desire to repeat earlier experiences (to show they can do better now).

What Needs to Happen Ending needs to be discussed. Gains that have been made need to be stabilized. Members need to be helped to leave the relationship with the worker, with each other, with the group. This group experience, if it made a significant impact on the members, needs to become a frame of reference for the members in approaching new groups and other situations. Service to the group needs to be discontinued.

Role of the Worker To help what needs to happen, happen. To prepare members for termination. To assess desirability and readiness for termination. Can members continue to improve outside the group? To assess progress toward achievement of goals. To help members stabilize the gains they’ve made. To inform members of reality of termination (need for ending should be discussed well in advance). To anticipate responses of individuals to ending. To set goals for period of time that remains before the end.

Most members view termination with ambivalence and anxiety. It is an acknowledgment of improvement, yet they fear loss of support of worker and group.

To plan timing and content to make maximum use of remaining sessions.

Group experience may have been so good and so gratifying that people may want to continue.

To help evaluation of the group experience.

To help members express their ambivalence about ending.

May need to support a member who has not made as much progress as he/she hoped or as other members made. To share observations of progress and confidence in ability of members to get along without worker and group.

Reprinted with permission from Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1998). Teaching a methods course in social work with groups. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education.

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HANDOUT 10.2

Case Record: Good-Bye and Good Riddance During the week preceding this meeting, I had not been at the community center because it was my spring vacation. However, the program continued, and all the other counselors were at the center because they were required to be in attendance. Because it was spring vacation for the public schools as well, the center had planned several trips, all of which my group was able to be part of as they were not club activities but center activities. All children from the junior program who had signed up for the trips went together as a large group. Counselors were arbitrarily assigned to accompany the children on these activities. Thus, each child did not necessarily have his or her own counselor accompanying the child on the chosen trip. However, all counselors were at the center for most of the week, and some had planned extra activities for their groups. When I spoke to the girls on the phone the evening before our meeting, I strongly sensed their anger and therefore had some idea of their feelings. As I was waiting at the door to greet the girls, Patty and Sylvia brushed right past me and walked into the clubroom. Patty said, “The only reason I came was to tell you that I’m not going to come to this crummy old place anymore!” “Yeah,” said Sylvia. “We’re not going to stay with you anymore. We’re going to another group.” Patty yelled, “And it’s going to be far away from here!” “Wow, you two girls sure are angry,” I said. “After we talked on the phone I think I kind of know what this is about. But maybe you could help me and make it a little clearer for me.” “Help you?” cried Patty. “Why should we help you?! You don’t care anything about us! All you ever do is go on your vacations.” “Yes, I was on my spring vacation last week, as I told you I would be,” I said. At that point Lori walked in and looked at me with great disdain and said, “Oh, you’re here.” Sylvia said to Lori, “We were telling her that we’re not coming anymore because she’s never here.” “Yeah,” said Lori to me. “Brenda was here last week, and Frances was here, and Ella was here, everyone was here but you. We were the only group that didn’t have a counselor last week. We were the only group that couldn’t do nothing.” I reminded them that I had come to the center on Monday but it must feel to them as if I hadn’t been in at all because the other counselors were here all week. “They’re always here more than you are,” said Patty. “All the other groups meet twice a week, but we only get to meet on Fridays. The center won’t let us do anything that everyone else gets to do.” “Yeah,” said Lori. “This dumb old place won’t let us do anything. I bet if you wanted to you could meet with us another day, but you just don’t want to.” “You said it,” said Patty. “You know why that is? Because she’s too busy taking her vacations.” Sylvia said, “Maybe we could go and ask Brenda if we could be in her group. She won’t say no. She likes kids.” “Yeah,” said Lori. “She’s not like our counselor.” “You know, you girls are right about something,” I said. “The other groups meet twice a week, and we only meet once. And I think that you think that means that I only like you half as much, and that I don’t care about you as much as the other counselors care about their groups.” “Well, you don’t,” said Patty. “If I were in a burning building you would just leave me there. And I would die, and you wouldn’t even care.”

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HANDOUT 10.2 (continued)

“Do you girls feel the same way that Patty does?” I asked. “Why should we tell you how we feel? Before we could tell you, you’ll say the meeting’s over,” said Lori. “Do any of you think I’ve done that before?” I asked. “Why can’t we meet twice a week like all the other girls?” asked Sylvia. “Yeah, why can’t we meet twice a week like them? I bet it’s just because you don’t want to,” said Patty. “You know, we’ve talked about this before,” I said, “and I guess I didn’t realize how strongly you felt about it. It seems now that you girls think we’re doing this to punish you, or because we don’t care as much about you as the other children.” “Well, why else can’t we meet as much as everyone else?” said Sylvia. “You know, I remember that I told you that Alan and I decided that we would follow the decision that the first group had made and meet only on Fridays. But I think that you’re telling me something very important now. You’re saying that you really do need to meet more than one time a week, and that maybe it would be a very good idea for you to meet twice a week in the fall. Do you think we can work together to see if we can make that happen?” Patty said, “That isn’t the real reason that we couldn’t meet on Tuesdays. You just think we’re stupid! Well, we think you’re stupid!” “I’m telling you the truth, Patty, and I think that you know deep down that I don’t think the group is stupid, but I think that it’s very hard for you girls to remember that now, because when we get angry at people, it’s pretty tough to think about other things besides that we’re angry at them,” I said. “We’re not mad at you,” said Lori. “We just think you stink. How come we had to get a student?” Lori made a twisted face. “All the other groups get regular people. They can come all the time, but you have to always be in school.” I told them that I cared about the group very much, but it was true that I was here less time than the other counselors. I said that the time that we do spend together, though, was very important to me and very special. And I kind of had the feeling that they felt that way, too. “That’s not true. You’re lying!” said Patty. “If we were so special you would stay for the summer.” “It sounds to me that maybe you’re feeling some of the sadness that I am feeling about our group ending soon,” I said.” It’s very hard to have things that we care about end. Sometimes we try very hard not to let them end, because it hurts a lot.” “It doesn’t hurt me,” said Lori. “You can just leave right now for all I care.” “Well, it makes me sad that our group is ending,” I said. “And I certainly don’t want to leave now. I know how angry you girls are, but I hope that you won’t leave now either. But after three more times, the group will have to end.” “Well, so we don’t care,” said Sylvia. “Yeah, we don’t care,” said Betty. “Let’s go to Brenda’s room.” At that, they all ran out of the club room and into Brenda’s room.

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HANDOUT 10.3

Case Record: Do You Think Old Blind People Are Different? The problem came to my attention on April 11. The Passover and Easter holidays were over, and the transit strike was finally settled. The group was meeting for the first time in 3 weeks, and members were very happy to be together again. During the strike, I had maintained contact with the members by phone. Because time was going by, and I knew we had only 5 weeks left together, I felt pressured to discuss termination with the group. Louise: It’s good to be back. I really missed coming here.

Sonia: I didn’t know you were a student. Why didn’t you tell us?

Sonia: Me, too. I get very lonesome not coming here. The Guild for the Blind is the most important thing in my life.

Worker: I did tell you, Sonia, but sometimes people forget things they don’t want to hear.

Greg: I missed this group the most, and I especially missed you, Alison.

Ellen: Of course you knew, Sonia. The students were all introduced to us the first day at the community meeting.

Louise: I did, too, and I really appreciated your calling. It made my day. You know when you can’t get out by yourself and you don’t have too many people calling you, you’re really glad when someone cares. Worker: I’m glad you’re all back. I missed you too and I know it’s hard when a major activity like the center is cut out of your lives. Greg: I’m such a creature of habit. Any change throws me off. Worker: Change is hard for everybody Greg. And speaking of change, I want to discuss something with the group that is hard for me. In 5 weeks I will be leaving the center, and even though this may seem to be a bad time to bring it up because we are just coming back, I think it’s real important for us to talk about my leaving. Greg: What do you mean you’re leaving? Why? Tom: Because she’s a student. It happens every year.

Tom: Don’t listen to Sonia, Alison. It’s all right. We all knew you were leaving. We just didn’t realize it was so soon. Louise: I never knew. Worker: I know it comes as a surprise because we have all been apart for a while and now at our first meeting back, you are zapped first thing with my leaving. Louise, you are relatively new to the center, so you may not have known the policies about students. In that case, I’m sorry for not mentioning it to you when you first joined the group. Tom: Every year it’s the same thing. By the time we finally get to know the students, they leave. But that’s life. There’s nothing we can do about it, so what’s the point of talking about it. Worker: That’s true, we can’t change the policy, but we can certainly talk about how we feel about it. For example, even though students leave every year, I would like to know how you feel about my leaving this year.

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HANDOUT 10.3 (continued)

Ellen: We have all discussed you, and everybody agrees that this year’s students were the best we ever had. Greg: Especially you and Abigail. We love you. Tom: I’d like to ask you a question. How did you like working with us this year? Ellen: Do you think old blind people are different from old sighted people? Worker: That’s an interesting question. I guess you want to know how I feel about you. Tom: No, not about us. Just in general the people at the center. Worker: You know we have talked a lot in this group about the differences and similarities between older blind people and older sighted people. I think maybe it might be good for the group to kind of summarize our past meetings and to answer that question yourselves. Ellen: Why won’t you answer the question? Louise: Maybe you don’t like us because we’re blind. Tom: I’ll answer the question. I think blind old people are a lot ruder than sighted old people. The people here at the guild constantly interrupt because they can’t see who’s speaking and don’t pick up nonverbal cues. Greg: That’s ridiculous, Tom. People who interrupt are just impolite. It has nothing to do with blindness or age.

Tom: [Raising his voice] Stupid! Of course, it does. Worker: Hold on a minute, Tom. What’s going on here? Louise doesn’t think I like you anymore because you’re blind. Tom, you are screaming and getting excited at Greg for just expressing a difference in opinion. I have a feeling that this is all linked to my leaving. You know, Tom, I think you may be angry at me and are just taking it out on Greg right now. Tom: Don’t be silly. Don’t start psychoanalyzing me again. Ellen: Alison, what is your opinion of us? Do you think we’re different? Ken: What did you think when you first met us? Worker: First of all, let me say that I will really miss all of you very much. As far as what I thought of you at the beginning, I was a little nervous because I had never known or been around blind people before, but I very quickly got over that feeling. I now think of you as individuals as opposed to being blind people. But I’m just wondering if these questions have to do with my leaving, whether you feel safer now to ask me or maybe you’re even wondering whether I would leave if you weren’t blind. Tom: Uh-oh, there she goes again.

UNIT

Teaching Students to Use Program or Activity

11

CSWE Competencies Most Advanced in This Unit 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior. Use planning models to guide the planning and preparation of program and activities in practice with groups for ethical decision making including evaluation of needs and capacities; to guide professional judgment and behavior in developing a program and activity at each stage of group development in concert with group members’ capacities and the characteristics of the group in that stage of development 2. Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice. Consider needs and capacities of group members in the context of cultural and other related factors such as age, racial and ethnic background and implications, education, literacy and communication levels to plan and prepare a program or activity with the group 3. Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice. Consider social and agency context in planning and preparing programs or activities with the group along with the potential impact of social, economic, and environmental factors in the capacity of group members to engage in any given part of a program or activity 4. Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice. Seek an empirical basis for the use of a program or activities in practice, make attempts to collect and disseminate in the organization and in the professional literature the results of any program or activity 5. Engage in Policy Practice. Consider the policies of the organization in which the group operates to judge the applicability and appropriateness of any projected program or activity with the group, considering the goodness of fit with those policies 6. Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Apply knowledge regarding human behavior and the social environment, person in environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to shape the use of a program or activity; engage diverse expert constituents to consult in the planning, preparing, and conducting the program or activities 7. Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use the planning model to guide the collection, organization, and interpretation of needs-based and strengths-based data related to group members as a basis for shaping the use of the program or activities 8. Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Use the knowledge gleaned about group members (individual, cultural, etc.) to conduct a part of the program or activity with the group in synchronicity with their needs, desires, and goals, balancing their capacity with the desire to offer a challenge toward growth or change 9. Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities. Explain the purpose of any given piece of program or activity beforehand to provide group members with a frame of reference for evaluating its utility; engage group members in whole-group dialogue to evaluate the program or activity when it is completed, including in that dialogue a discussion of the relationship of the program or activity to the group’s overall purpose; make attempts to engage in evidence-based practice by systematically collecting data that assess the relevance and utility of any given selection Note. Based on Council on Social Work Education (2015).

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T

he use of activities was an integral part of group work practice from its very beginnings; however, it has been controversial in the social work profession. Many practitioners accorded status and prestige to discussion and discussion groups while denigrating activities as mere recreation and not real social work. However, a resurgence of a program or activity in group work has come about today as social workers have become increasingly convinced of the many values that the actual doing of things can have for members of groups. The aim of a basic course on group work practice cannot be to turn out program and activity specialists. Rather, the intent in this unit is to open the eyes of students to the vast potential of activities for expanding the quality of group work practice.

Unit Purpose and Student Learning Outcomes The learning outcomes of this teaching unit are the following: 1. Understand the history of program and the use of activities in group work 2. Appreciate the value and importance of a program or activity 3. Understand the purposeful use of a program or activity with different age groups and according to the needs of groups at different stages of development 4. Become more open to the possibility of using a program or activity in a group

A Brief History of Programs or Activities in Social Work With Groups Consider offering a brief history of the place of a program or activity in group work’s development as a method in social work and some of the current issues on the use of activity in work with groups. Interestingly, the historical debates on the place of activities in the practice of group work reflect group work’s early ambivalence about whether it saw itself as a method in the social work profession or as part of the recreation and progressive education movements (Unit 3). That noted, several scholars who focused particularly on the theoretical development of social group work as the profession attempted to identify and solidify itself as a profession (Unit 3) did write about the role of a program or activity in social work with groups (e.g., Coyle, 1948; Lang, 2010; Middleman, 1982; Middleman& Wood, 1990; Northen & Kurland, 2001; Phillips, 1957; Shulman, 1971; Trecker, 1972; Vinter, 1985; Wilson & Ryland, 1949). For example, Coyle (1949) wrote about the artistic qualities of “program making” (p. 169), and in the same year Wilson and Ryland (1949) wrote about the ability of an activity or program to strengthen relationships in a group and the overall group’s cohesion. The most comprehensive descriptions to date of the place of activity in social group work were developed by Middleman (1968) in her landmark volume, The NonVerbal Method in Working with Groups, referenced still today for its detailed discussion of how to apply nonverbal methods in practice, and by Lang (2010, 2016), who

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developed a model that identifies and explains the use of activities using the paradigm of deliberative (deductive, or think then do) versus nondeliberative (inductive; or do, then think) practice (see Handout 11.8, Nondeliberative Practices). The point here is that a program or activity has long been part and parcel of the professional worldview of social group work, embracing the potential of all forms of communication, verbal and nonverbal alike and affective even intuitive as well as cognitive, to help people meet their needs and move toward their goals. The following are the important teaching points to make to the class: 1. In the beginning of group work, a program or activity was an integral part of group work practice. For example, in settlement houses, youth-serving organizations (e.g., Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Boys & Girls Clubs), and religious organizations (e.g., YMCA and the YWCA, Jewish Centers), programs were used with groups to educate immigrants, provide opportunities for recreation and the use of leisure time, and foster democracy and Christian values or Jewish identity. Unabashedly, the content of the group, or what the group actually did, was emphasized. 2. Controversy about the use of activity in group work practice began in the 1930s,when the place of group work itself in social work was debated (Unit 3). Group work and recreation or informal education were seen erroneously by many as synonymous, and group work’s stress on content rather than people had an adverse effect on acceptance of the method. Activities and the emphasis on doing had less status than talking, which was the domain of problem-centered casework that dominated social work methodology. Thus, a desire to become part of social work along with the fear that group work’s use of activities placed it outside social work led group workers to begin to deemphasize activity. Problems continue today because of this early thinking, which presumed a false dichotomy of talking and doing. 3. As group work moved more clearly, albeit slowly, toward a firm identity in social work, the connection among activities, individual group members, and interaction among group members began to be appreciated and accented. In fact, in an address at the National Conference of Social Work, Coyle (1946) stressed that the dichotomy of activity and relationships among group members was a false one. Consider reading her statement to the class: Social group work arose out of an increasing awareness that in the recreation-education activities which went on in groups there were obviously two dimensions—activity, including games, discussions, hikes, or artistic enterprise, on the one hand, and, on the other, the interplay of personalities that creates the group process. To concentrate on one without recognizing and dealing with the other is like playing the piano with one hand only. Program and relationships are inextricably intertwined. Social

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group work method developed as we began to see that the understanding and the use of the human relations involved were as important as the understanding and use of various types of program. (pp. 202–203). 4. Another milestone in the exposition of program as content was the publication of Social Group Work Practice by Wilson and Ryland (1949). This timely volume included an extensive analysis of the use of program in group work and emphasized the values inherent in play and games. The book was the first to explain the importance and values of nonverbal content. It did not, however, discuss how social group workers could relate the content to the particular purposes of social work, that is, what the worker did and why. The discussion of the relationship between group work theory and the use of program content in group work practice followed in the writing of the next two decades (Konopka, 1963; Middleman, 1968; Shulman, 1971; Trecker, 1955; Vinter, 1985). 5. Increasingly, the intrinsic connection between the use of program and the purpose of social work was recognized and appreciated, at least officially by social work’s national organizations and by group workers themselves if not by all social work practitioners, many of whom continued to regard the use of activities with disdain. For example, in its statement on the characteristics of the social group work method, the CSWE (1959) wrote: The group worker is concerned simultaneously with program content, and with the ways in which persons relate to each other. Achievement, however, cannot be measured in content and process themselves, but in relation to the social work goal, enhancement of members’ social functioning, as far as this can be observed in changes in thinking and behavior. (p. 39) Thus, group work’s uniqueness was seen as related to the knowledge that its practitioners had about the skillful and purposeful use of program and activities to meet human needs. 6. Group work’s unique use of programs and activities began to vanish, however; to define more sharply social work’s identity as one profession, in the 1960s the CSWE moved toward curriculum standards that required schools of social work to emphasize generic social work practice (CSWE, 2018). As a result, most social work practice courses allotted little time to the specific beliefs, knowledge, and skills that were the hallmark of group work. The use of program and activities became generally ignored altogether, and the professional education of an entire generation of social workers failed to include any training in this area of practice. 7. An opposite trend also began in the 1960s: the emergence of the expressive therapies such as art, music, and dance, which gave activities a newfound cachet for many in social work, who seemed to accept the therapeutic focus of these newer disciplines. At the same time, social workers began increasingly to use play therapy in their one-on-one work with children. However, the differences in

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the populations, purposes, and methods that characterized social group work’s broad use of activity from those of the various expressive therapies were generally unrecognized and unappreciated. 8. Amazingly enough, given the neglect of this area in social work education, the use of program or activities in actual group work practice has refused to succumb. Perhaps because of the tremendous value that activities can have, social workers who work with groups today continue to discover their importance, sometimes on their own. Evidence of this can be found in the substantial number of articles on the use of activities and program in Social Work with Groups since its inception in 1978 and the many presentations on activity at the yearly symposia of the IASWG since its inception in 1979. In fact, in 2016 an entire special issue of Social Work with Groups was devoted to nondeliberative theory (Lang, 2016), a model of practice that enables problem solving (Unit 6) to move beyond being strictly cognitive, rational, deductively linear, and verbal.

Value of Program or Activity Next, consider discussing with the class the value of program or activity for group members. The intent of this discussion is to help students appreciate the many ways program can benefit individual group members and the group as a whole. A good way to begin is to emphasize four values along with examples to illustrate each. The Need to Be Creative All people have a need to be creative, to have the power and ability to create something with imagination, expressiveness, and originality. Participation in activities can help fulfill that need. For example, a social work student whose internship was at an in-patient psychiatric facility expressed interest in forming a singing group. “Why a singing group?” her group work instructor asked. The student said that she had a personal interest in singing and had done singing professionally before coming to social work school. “But why a singing group with the patients?” the instructor persisted. “For one thing,” the student responded, “I never see the patients having any fun. A singing group would be fun.” The instructor concurred, asking “Any other reasons for a singing group?” “Well,” the student said, “the patients here are never given any choices. In a singing group, if nothing else, at least they could have some choices about what they wanted to sing.” The instructor and the members of the class smiled in agreement. The student went on to form a singing group, despite much questioning on the part of her field supervisor and hospital administrators, who challenged the validity of the need for a social worker to lead such a group. This attitude was illustrated by her supervisor, who told the student, “Don’t bother to write a process recording on the singing group. Just give me process on your therapy group.”

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The singing group, which was voluntary, turned out to be a huge success. Patients on the unit, who had to be reminded about other group meetings, needed no reminders or coaxing to attend the singing group. In fact, often they would approach the student and hopefully ask, “Today’s the singing group, right?” Among patients who had had few successes and long histories of multiple hospitalizations, it turned out that every member of the singing group had been a member of a high school singing group of some sort. For them, the singing group represented and called on strengths they possessed. Opportunities for Clinical Observation Second, activities provide rich and powerful opportunities for the worker’s direct observation of group dynamics. The behavior of specific individuals, as well as interaction among group members, is immediately visible to workers who see it in action as it occurs. The advantage of seeing what members actually do as opposed to what they report is invaluable because it is of immediate use to the workers, who can apply their observations directly with individual group members or with the total group. For example, a social worker in a community center decided to form a men’s cooking group when she realized that several single or widowed men at the center were spending a large portion of their fixed incomes on restaurant meals because they did not know how to cook or do simple kitchen tasks. The group developed a cooking and a social focus. Over the course of each weekly encounter the men would shop, prepare a meal, eat together, clean up, and plan the next week’s meal. Mr. Broglio was a member of the group whom the worker also saw individually because he was isolated with no friends in the community. He said that he tried to make friends but that others were not nice to him; he was always rebuffed and did not understand why. Once she observed how Mr. Broglio interacted with the others in the cooking group, the worker saw the problem. In his interactions Mr. Broglio would become almost tyrannical, putting other people down as he dictated what to do and how. “Don’t stir it that way! You’re doing it all wrong!” he would shout as he literally tore the mixing bowl out of a co-member’s hands. At other times, he would talk over others as he tried to get his way in planning menus. Mr. Broglio’s behavior in the group surprised the worker because it was never apparent in their individual sessions but observing his behavior in the group allowed the worker to raise these issues in talking with him about his efforts to make friends, and she had examples to illustrate her perspective. From Thoughts and Feelings to Words For many people who find it difficult to articulate their thoughts and feelings, the use of a program or activity is very helpful because they can express their ideas directly in the activity or perhaps use an activity as a concrete way to express ideas that may be abstract. Activities can be also used to help group members express themselves regarding particularly emotional issues. With many people the insistence that they express themselves verbally can, in fact, exacerbate their feelings of inadequacy and lack of articulateness. For example, an elementary school social worker who was working with

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fifth-grade girls who had behavioral and academic difficulties found that the girls had trouble sustaining discussions. They often responded to questions with shrugs or oneword answers. To help them express their ideas and feelings, she decided to engage them in an activity to help them to do just that. She divided the group into two subgroups, and using magazines she had brought in, asked each subgroup to use them to create a collage. One subgroup’s assignment was making a collage on what is good about being in the fifth grade and the other was on what is bad about being in the fifth grade. The girls set to work and seemed to enjoy the task. Much discussion took place among them about what pictures to include, and the group spent the entire meeting working on the collages. At the next meeting, the worker asked each subgroup to explain the images they had included in their collage and why, and the group members responded quite easily. In this case the pictures helped them to express their ideas verbally, serving as a jumpingoff point into verbal explanations. Had the worker simply asked the girls to discuss what is good and bad about being in the fifth grade, they would have had great difficulty doing so with their shrugs and one-word answers. As it turned out, many of the same pictures ended up in the good and bad collages, illustrating the girls’ ambivalence on their increasing independence, and in the end, the collage activity helped them express that ambivalence. Collaboration Finally, activities and projects require people to work together, often over an extended period of time, toward the accomplishment of a substantial and multifaceted task. Collaborative projects demand cooperation along with mutual aid. If the quality of the product that results from group members’ efforts is high, they can emerge from their work with a sense of real accomplishment and mastery, improved self-esteem, and the satisfaction of having participated usefully in something larger than themselves. Although a feeling of individual accomplishment certainly is also experienced in these efforts, the sense of mutuality and community achieved is also powerful and pervasive. For example, after meeting for 6 months, a photography group composed of members of a senior center decided to create an exhibit at the center that captured their work over the year. The social worker who worked with them agreed, thinking that creating such an exhibit could provide an excellent opportunity to involve group members in a range of individual and collective efforts as the group came to an end. The group began by reviewing all their photographs since the group’s beginning, which provided opportunities to reminisce about all that had taken place in the group over time. Next, the group took two trips to see photograph exhibits in their town, noting specifically arrangements and captioning. They then worked in pairs to develop captions for their own exhibit, allowing those who did not write particularly well to contribute their ideas. Some then went to a local lumber store to purchase material for the display and built the actual display panels to be used. Then, the entire group worked on the arrangement of the titles, pictures, and captions. Finally, the group selected

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one member to emcee the exhibit’s opening at the center, and everyone in the group made suggestions about things they wanted to be sure she included in her remarks. The quality of the exhibit garnered group members a great deal of recognition from others, but perhaps more important yet, they took pride in their creation and derived from it a sense of mastery and accomplishment. Consider ending this part of the unit by distributing Handout 11.1, “Varied Purposes of Activities.” In a quite comprehensive yet succinct manner it effectively summarizes the purposes of programs and activities. Read over the handout with students, or ask them to take turns reading aloud for the class.

Classroom Activity 1 Next, to illustrate the purposeful use of activities, consider engaging the class itself in an activity. An activity that helps students think about the possibilities of integrating a program or activity into their own work is as follows: Divide the class into four subgroups, telling each subgroup they are social workers who are working with a group in which an activity would make sense. The subgroups are assigned hypothetical groups composed of different populations confronting different issues in a particular stage of group development. Do not feel bound by these suggestions, however. You may wish to develop situations that reflect the life and work experience of your particular class members. The aim of this activity is to help students see how programs can be used to address a range of group needs. After dividing the class into subgroups, give each group one of the four hypothetical exercise scenarios in Handouts11.2, “Parents of Disabled Adults”; 11.3, “Single-Room Residency Occupants”; 11.4, “High School Seniors Group”; and 11.5, “Social Work Practice Supervision.” Each group should plan a program relevant to its assigned scenario, taking into consideration the substantive concerns and stage of development identified in the scenario. They should begin by envisioning a specific need of the members (the Practice Directive) for each scenario and design an activity whose purpose is to help meet that need. As noted on the handouts, the activity does not have to be all encompassing; for example, it does not have to resolve all the issues related to this group’s membership, but it might tackle just one, either explicitly stated or implied by the scenario, which encourages members to develop personal or group characteristics that would be a step toward their ability to achieve the group’s larger purpose. Handout 11.1, “Varied Purposes of Activities,” will be especially useful to them in carrying out this exercise. Each subgroup will need 30 to 60 minutes to accomplish this task. Discussion in each group may start slowly, but it is likely to build as students become more involved and begin to see the complexities in developing a program that is purposeful and timely and as they begin to recognize the potential benefits of activities. Once the groups have completed their program plan, each subgroup presents its suggestions to the class. Their suggestions will likely range greatly from games and exercises to reading, art, drawing, and writing to role plays and improvisational drama

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depending on their particular case scenario (age and capacity of members, context, identified needs, etc.). As presentations occur ask the class to critique each proposal, keeping the focus on these questions: 1. What is the purpose of the proposed activity (not what but why)? 2. Does the suggested activity make sense given the characteristics of the group members and the group’s stage of development? Handout 11.1 is helpful when considering the first question, and Vinter (1985) is especially useful in addressing the second question. Vinter (1985) identifies the following dimensions of activities that relate significantly to the needs and abilities of a group based on its developmental stage (distribute Handout 11.6 “Program Activities: Analysis of Effects on Participant Behavior”): 1. Prescriptiveness: degree and range of rules or other guides for conduct 2. Institutionalized controls: who enforces the rules or controls the behavior of participants (e.g., an umpire, the group leader, the team captain, or the player) 3. Provision for physical movement: extent to which participants are required or permitted to move about in an activity setting 4. Competence required for performance: minimum level of skill required to participate in the activity, not the competence required to excel or win (skills may be physical, cognitive, emotional, and social) 5. Provision for participant interactivity: degree and type of interaction among participants that is required or provoked (verbal or nonverbal, cooperative or competitive, degree of intimacy or personal disclosure or emotional distance) 6. Reward structure: types of rewards available (intrinsic, offered by leader, offered by other members) and abundance or scarcity of rewards or punishments and how they are distributed. As each group presents its proposal for an activity, encourage the class to look continuously at these dimensions and their relationship to the activity’s purpose and the group’s developmental stage. Involving the class in this task encourages students to appreciate the value of programs and activities and to respect the thought that needs to go into their planning and implementation.

Classroom Activity 2 In the final section of this unit, students should take part in an activity that involves the entire class, so the students can really experience—see and feel—the potential impact of activity. The following is a suggestion using the work of Marc Kaminsky, a social worker with expertise in the group work method and an accomplished writer and poet. Kaminsky

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(1974) uses programs extensively in his work with older adults. Begin by having the class read the excerpt from Kaminsky in Handout 11.7, which presents the conceptual foundation and uses of a particular type of program—the creation of a collaborative poem. In affecting fashion, the excerpt provides an example of this creative process and lends itself to a dramatic reading. Distribute Handout 11.7 to several students you select, asking them to read a designated role, then have those students arrange their chairs in a row in the front of the class, and ask them to read the script and their parts to the rest of the class. When the reading is over, ask the class to discuss the excerpt, focusing particularly on their feelings about the process and the work of the group involved in that process. Students will usually report that they felt intensely involved because the content and the structure of the reading touched their emotional core. As they analyze the process they come to understand that the experience provided them with the opportunity to take part in an effective activity and to see the potential for using this kind of activity with other groups. Building on this reading and on the students’ reactions, ask students to engage in an activity that is directly related to their experience with this class, reflecting on the class over the semester and expressing their thoughts aloud using single words or phrases that capture for them the essence of their experience. As they do so, write down what they say on a board (physical or virtual). Also, carefully select a student to catch the comments and write them down. The comments contributed by the students usually combine class content and process. Some offer key words and phrases that have become themes in the class, others describe more seriously things they have learned, and still others are their personal reactions to the class experience. What the student has written down becomes a sort of collaborative poem, read aloud by that student who wrote down bits of the narrative from each of the other students. Often, it is a blend of humor, thoughtfulness, and heartfelt reaction. Later, the group poem can be typed and distributed to all students who emerge from the program experience with a tangible memento of their effort and of the class. This unit employs a range of teaching methods, from lecture to small-group problem solving to participation in a class activity. The combination helps students understand and appreciate the importance of a program or activity, to see its use and value as a group facilitator and a group member, and to view their own use of activities with groups with positive anticipation, understanding that this approach to group work does not require a particular or special type of expertise other than solid preparation and theoretical rationale, and a purpose clearly correlated to group needs and capacities.

Unit Recap and Major Teaching Points • The use of an activity was an integral part of group work practice from its very beginning. Its use, however, has been controversial in the social work profession.

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• A resurgence of a program or activity in group work has come about today as social workers have become increasingly convinced of the many values that actual doing can have for people. • The aim of a basic course on group work practice is to open the eyes of students to the vast potential of activities for expanding the quality of group work practice. • All people have a need to be creative, to have the power and ability to create something with imagination, expressiveness, and originality. Participation in activities can help fulfill that need. • Activities provide rich and powerful opportunities for direct observation by the worker. The behavior of particular individuals as well as interaction among group members is immediately visible to the worker, who sees it as it occurs. The advantage of seeing what members actually do as opposed to what they report is invaluable. • For people who find it difficult to articulate their thoughts and feelings, the use of program or activity can help them express their ideas directly in the activity or perhaps use an activity as a concrete way to express ideas that may be abstract. Activities can also help group members express themselves regarding particularly emotional issues. With many people, insisting that they express themselves verbally can, in fact, exacerbate their feelings of inadequacy and inarticulateness. • Activities and projects require people to work together toward the accomplishment of a substantial and multifaceted task, demanding cooperation and mutual aid. If the quality of the product is high, group members can emerge with a sense of real accomplishment and mastery, improved self-esteem, and the satisfaction of having participated usefully in something larger than themselves.

References Brandler, S., & Roman, C. (2007). Group work: Skills and strategies for effective interventions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). (2018). CSWE: A short history. Retrieved from https://cswe.org/About-CSWE/CSWE-A-Brief-History Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). (2015). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-andPolicies/2015-EPAS.aspx Coyle, G. (1948). Group work with American youth. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Coyle, G. (1946). Toward Professional Standards, New York: American Association of Group Workers. Kaminsky, M. (1974). What’s inside you it shines out of you. New York, NY: Horizon Press. Konopka, G. (1983). Social group work: A helping process (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Lang, N. (2010). Group work practice to advance social competence. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Lang, N. (2016). Nondeliberative forms of practice in social work: Artful, actional, analogic. Social Work with Groups, 39, 97–117.

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Middleman, R. (1968). The non-verbal method in working with groups: The use of activity in teaching, counseling & therapy. New York, NY: Association Press. Middleman, R., & Wood, G. G. (1990). Skills for direct practice in social work with groups. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Phillips, H. (1957). Essentials of social group work skill. New York, NY: Association Press. Shulman, L. (1971). “Program” in group work: Another look. In W. Schwartz & S. Zalba (Eds.), The practice of group work (pp. 221–240). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Trecker, H. (1955). Group work: Foundations and frontiers. New York, NY: Whiteside and William Morrow. Trecker, H. (1972). Social group work. New York, NY: Association Press. Vinter, R. (1985). Program activities: An analysis of their effects on participant behavior. In M. Sundel, P. Glasser, R. Sarri, & R. Vinter (Eds.), Individual change through small groups (2nd ed., pp. 226–236). New York, NY: The Free Press. Vinter, R. (1985). The essential components of social group work practice. In M. Sundel, P. Glasser, R. Sarri, & R. Vinter (Eds.), Individual change through small groups (2nd ed., pp. 11–34). New York, NY: The Free Press. Wilson, G., & Ryland, G. (1949). Social group work practice. Boston, MA: HoughtonMifflin.

Further Readings Argyle, E., & Bolton, G. (2004). The use of art within a groupwork setting. Groupwork, 14(1), 46–62. Canfield, J., & Wells, H. C. (1994). 100 ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Coholid, D., Fraser, M., Robinson, B., & Lougheed, S. (2012). Promoting resilience within child protection: The suitability of arts-based and experiential group programs for children in care. Social Work with Groups, 35, 345–361. Fluegelman, A. (Ed.). (1981). More new games. New York, NY: Doubleday. Jones, D. (2012). The professional advancement of recreation therapy through groupwork and service-learning. Groupwork, 22(2), 20–33. Kaminsky, M. (Ed.). (1984). The uses of reminiscence: New ways of working with older adults [Special Issue]. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 7(1/2). Kelly, B. (2017). A historical overview of art and music-based activities in social work with groups: Nondeliberative practice and engaging young people’s strengths. Social Work with Groups, 40, 187–201. Kelly, B., & Wodda, A. (2016). Composing an aesthetics of performance pedagogy. Groupwork, 26(2), 35–50. Lazar, A. (2014). Setting the stage: Role playing in the group work classroom. Social Work with Groups, 37, 230–242. Lynn, M., & Nisivoccia, D. (1995). Activity-oriented group work with the mentally ill: Enhancing Socialization. Social Work with Groups, 18 (2/3), 95–106. Malekoff, A. (2014). Group work with adolescents: Principles and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. McFerran-Skewes, K. (2004). Using Songs with groups of teenagers: How does it work? Social Work with Groups, 27, 143–158.

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Middleman, R. (1980). The use of program: Review and update. Social Work with Groups, 3(3), 5–23. Olson-McBride, L., & Page, T. (2012). Song to self: Promoting a therapeutic dialogue with high-risk youths through poetry and popular music. Social Work with Groups, 35, 124–137. Pollio, D. (1995). Hoops group: Group work with young “street” men. Social Work with Groups, 17(2/3), 107–122. Potocky, M. (1993). An art therapy group for clients with chronic schizophrenia. Social Work with Groups, 16(3), 73–82. Rebman, H. (2006). Warning—there’s a lot of yelling in knitting: The impact of parallel process on empowerment in a group setting. Social Work with Groups, 29(4), 5–24. Rosenwald, M., Smith, M., Bagnoli, M., Riccelli, D., Ryan, S., Salcedo, L., & Seeland, D. (2013). Relighting the campfire: Rediscovering activity-based group work. Social Work with Groups, 36, 321–331. Schnekenburger, E. (1995). Waking the heart up: A writing group’s story. Social Work with Groups, 18(4), 19–40. Shulman, L. (2012). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Malekoff, A. (Ed.). (2016). Nondeliberative forms of practice: Activities and creative arts in social work with groups [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 39(2/3). Spolin, V. (1986). Theater games for the classroom: A teacher’s handbook. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Subramanian, K., Hernandez, S., & Martinez, A. (1995). Psychoeducational groupwork for low-income Latino mothers with HIV infection. Social Work with Groups, 18(2/3) 53–64. Sullivan, N., Sulman, J., & Nosko, A. (Eds.). (2016). Nondeliberative forms of practice: Activities and creative arts in social work with groups [Special issue]. Social Work with Groups, 39(2/3). Sundel, M., Glasser, P., Sarry, R., & Vinter, R. (Eds.). Individual change through small groups (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press. Stevenson, S. (2006). Group work gets physical: Self-defense class and social work. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 195–216. Tilly, N., & Caye, J. (2004). Using writing and poetry to achieve focus and depth in a group of women parenting sexually abused children. Social Work with Groups, 27(2/3), 129–142. Waite, L. (1993). Drama therapy in small groups with the developmentally disabled. Social Work with Groups, 16(4), 95–108. Wright, W. (2006). Keep it in the ring: Using boxing in social group work with high-risk and offender youths to reduce violence. Social Work with Groups, 29(2/3), 149–174.

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HANDOUT 11.1

Varied Purposes of Activities The purposes of activities from Brandler and Roman (2007) are the following: • Reach out to clients who are uncomfortable or unable to express themselves verbally. For example, multifamily group members learn a great deal about themselves through a programmatic technique called family sculpting in which people unable to verbalize feelings about each other place their family members in poses they believe illustrate the various relationships. • Teach specific coping skills. For example, a cooking- or shopping-for-one group might be an important part of a program for widowers. In addition toproviding opportunities to share feelings in a period of bereavement, this group also learns specific skills needed for survival in a changed environment. • Help clients feel competent, worthwhile, and, through mastery, spiritually, emotionally, and intellectually rejuvenated. For example, a newspaper writing group in a nursing home allows patients to express themselves, to be creative, and to feel capable of making a contribution to the larger nursing home community. • Sufficiently distance threatening subject matter to address it and solve problems concerning it. For example, a popular group for psychiatric in-patient residents uses soap opera programs as engagement material. The patients talk about the television characters with an openness that would be impossible if they were asked to speak about themselves. The discussion, which begins with the fantasy, progresses to real-life situations and the patients’ actual issues, providing them with a socialization experience, developing problem-solving skills, and, it is hoped, leading to insights for their own functioning. • Help clients learn to share and work cooperatively toward common goals. Many groups with specific concrete goals fail to reach them because group members find it difficult to share tasks and work together in a constructive manner. These difficulties are often found in employee groups, social action groups, and volunteer groups. Training exercises, group puzzle assignments, and other activities can help mobilize a tenants’ rights group, for example, to accomplish a unified effort to a common end. • Engage clients selectively in an area that is particularly problematic or in which painful material creates resistance. Adolescents who struggle with sexual identity, for example, may find this difficult to discuss, or a coed basketball game may bring boys and girls together in a game that involves physical closeness but with clear rules for conduct. For adolescents less able to tolerate the physical intimacy of a game like coed basketball, perhaps another sport such as baseball may be appropriate. The recreational element can lessen the discomfort and provide an arena for discussion later. • Help clients express socially unacceptable or conflictual feelings in a socially accepted manner. For example, a puppetry group allows abused children to act out frightened, violent, and angry feelings. Left unexpressed, some of these feelings are likely to manifest themselves in problematic antisocial behavior or even in severe depression. • Help clients develop higher levels of frustration tolerance. With emotionally disturbed youngsters, waiting for their turn, concentrating on a task, and being competitive yet in control are essential skills. A simple game of Pick Up Sticks, for example, can help them master these skills. Each child takes a turn at dropping a stack of colored sticks on a table and then attempts to pick up each stick one at a time from the pile without disturbing the others. The player to collect the most sticks

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HANDOUT 11.1 (continued)

without moving the other sticks wins. For more sophisticated groups, sticks with certain colors may be given point values. For young children or those with great difficulty in tolerating frustration, the game can be modified to allow two or three mistakes before passing the sticks on to the next player. • Provide opportunities for group members to experience new roles and unexplored parts of themselves. Psychodrama activities, for example, have been used successfully in many groups to stimulate discussion and help individuals achieve new levels of insight, and role playing enhances multifamily and parenting groups in which walking in someone else’s shoes provides a valuable new perspective that may improve communication. • Act as a prelude to help clients successfully move toward verbal communication. Physical exercise programs can reduce tension, release energy, and relax group members who may be agitated and unable to focus. Dancing or listening to music also may be therapeutic and help to calm clients, including psychiatric patients and hyperactive children, paving the way for more introspective work. Similarly, activities may be used to reinforce or reward a productive discussion. A game and snack period might follow a gradually lengthened discussion period. The game may also be used as a way to practice the skills expressed verbally. For example, the group may talk about conflict and then work conflict out in a competitive game. • Aid in diagnosis, interpretation, and treatment. By seeing clients engaged in group activities, the worker can assess patterns of functioning, some of which may reveal behavior in other social settings.

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HANDOUT 11.2

Exercise Scenario: Parents of Disabled Adults You are working with a group of parents of developmentally disabled adult children who live at home. The parents are particularly concerned about what will happen to their children as everyone ages.This is the second meeting; the first was spent with the parents introducing themselves, describing the child who lives with them, and generally identifying some of the concerns that they have.

Considerations • Stated or likely substantive concerns of group members • Stage of group development • Specific needs

Practice Directive Design an activity with a purpose that would help to meet one of the needs identified either explicitly or implicitly anticipated from this scenario. The activity does not have to be all encompassing (e.g., helping group members plan their children’s future) but might aim to encourage members to develop personal or group characteristics (e.g., identifying their children’s individual strengths and limits), which would be a step toward their ability to achieve their larger purpose.

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HANDOUT 11.3

Class Exercise: Single-Room Residency Occupants You are working with a group of formerly homeless men, mentally ill and chemically addicted, who live in a single-room occupancy hotel. They all participate in a work program at a cooperating agency and are striving for self-sufficiency. Although they are all currently clean and sober, drug use at the hotel where they live is widespread, making them all afraid that they will not be able to stay clean as a result of the stress of continuous exposure to drugs around them. The group is in its middle stage.

Considerations • Substantive concerns of group members • Stage of group development • Specific needs

Practice Directive Design an activity with a purpose that would help meet one of the needs identified either explicitly or implicitly anticipated from this scenario. The activity does not have to be all encompassing (e.g., helping group members avoid drug use) but might aim to encourage them to develop personal or group characteristics (e.g., enhancing self-esteem or increased interaction) that would be a step toward their ability to achieve their larger purpose

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HANDOUT 11.4

Exercise Scenario: High School Seniors Group You work with a group of high school seniors, all of whom are people of color, headed the next year for out-of-town colleges, where they are likely to be one of only a few people of color on a campus. The group has spent a great deal of time in discussions and activities examining their varied concerns and anticipated dilemmas. This group has met for seven sessions and has three sessions remaining.

Considerations • Substantive concerns of group members • Stage of group development • Specific needs

Practice Directive Design an activity with a purpose that would help meet one of the needs identified either explicitly or implicitly anticipated from the above scenario.The activity does not have to be all encompassing (e.g., change the campus) but might aim to encourage members to develop personal or group characteristics (e.g., self-representation or making new friends or managing overt or covert prejudice) that would be a step toward their ability to achieve their larger purpose.

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HANDOUT 11.5

Exercise Scenario: Social Work Practice Supervision You are facilitating a group of social workers at a state psychiatric hospital, who meet for supervision and who are also members of interdisciplinary teams. During meetings a number of the social workers have expressed annoyance and frustration because they feel that the other team members (psychiatrists, nurses, and psychologists, primarily) do not take them or their ideas seriously. This is an ongoing group in its middle stage.

Considerations • Substantive concerns of group members • Stage of group development • Specific needs

Practice Directive Design an activity with a purpose that would help meet one of the needs identified explicitly or implicitly anticipated from this scenario. The activity does not have to be all encompassing (e.g., helping group members take a list of grievances to the administration) but might aim to encourage them to develop personal or group characteristics (e.g., identifying specific issues or commonalities the team could build on) that would be a step toward their ability to achieve their larger purpose.

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HANDOUT 11.6

Program Activities: An Analysis of Their Effects on Participant Behavior The following is adapted from Vinter (1985). Dimensions of group activities that relate significantly to the needs and abilities of a group based on its developmental stage are as follow: • Prescriptiveness: degree and range of rules or other guides for conduct • Institutionalized controls: who enforces the rules or controls the behavior of participants (e.g., an umpire, the group leader, the team captain, or the person who plays) • Provision for physical movement: extent to which participants are required or permitted to move about in an activity setting • Competence required for performance: minimum level of skill required to participate in the activity, not the competence required to excel or win (skills may be physical, cognitive, emotional, or social) • Provision for participant interactivity: degree and type of interaction among participants that is required or provoked (verbal or nonverbal, cooperative or competitive, degree of intimacy or personal disclosure or emotional distance) • Reward structure: types of rewards available (intrinsic, offered by leader, offered by other members), abundance or scarcity of rewards or punishments and how they are distributed

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HANDOUT 11.7

Excerpt: What’s Inside You It Shines Out of You Adapted from Kaminsky (1974, pp. 16–20).

Instructor Six women joined me in the classroom. Hilda was one of them. I remember that her friend, the teacher, was among them. There was also an extremely old and elegant woman named Mary; a tall Austrian woman, a great lady with a long black dress and a string of pearls; an anxious American-born woman, who kept asking me to explain things to her; and a woman whose name and face I forget. Together with them in a room that neither dwarfed nor pumped up human proportions, I relaxed. I felt back in the world, among people who were familiar to me, engaged in an activity which is so much a part of what I am. I felt a burst of energy and enjoyed the thought of what was about to take place: the creation of a poem by a group of old people. I said, “Today we’re going to make up a poem together.” They were startled—and interested. They also didn’t believe it. How, they wanted to know, were we going to accomplish this miracle?

Student 1 If my older colleague had recipes for vegetable soup, I had recipes for poems. Many recipes: They had come, initially, from Kenneth Koch’s great cookbook on the subject, Wishes, Lies and Dreams: Teaching Children to Write Poetry. After I had worked a while with Koch’s recipes for collaborative poems, I had begun to make up poem-recipes of my own; and then I had sought ways to help people learn to make poems without the use of anything so fixed as a recipe. Koch’s recipes for poems are brilliant and simple devices for releasing the poetry in people. They provide the security of a prefabricated structure. They remove people’s anxiety about poetry by

turning the making of poems into a fun-game: each player need only provide a single line, and that one line can completely rely upon the lines which Koch has already laid down. Moreover, the line need not even be written. It may be dictated to the person conducting the workshop. Responsibility for creative autonomy is kept to a minimum. This is not necessarily a bad thing. Responsibility in any area of our lives can only be assumed gradually. Koch’s basic workshop methods tends to create confidence, to free people for more difficult and hazardous work. The formulas which he devised can be depended upon to produce good and interesting results. That is their virtue. But they must be used tactfully. There is a fine line between supporting a novice and infantilizing him, and one must be sensitive and cautious not to cross it. If slavishly imitated, the advantages of Koch’s poem-formulas become serious limitations. They end up stifling the person who attempts to administer them, and they hinder the growth of persons who, after a steady diet of collaborative poems produced by formula, are ready for a declaration of creative independence.

Instructor Once one has learned to work with formulapoems skillfully, they become fine tools in the poet’s bag of tricks. When the old women asked me how we would make up a poem together, I said, “By talking to each other. A poem is really a way of talking to another person, it’s like having a good talk, you can only have a good talk if you feel that the other person can really understand you, then you feel free to say what’s on your mind, and you suddenly find you have a lot to talk about.”

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HANDOUT 11.7 (continued)

Student 2 “Well”, asked the teacher, “what should we talk about?”

Instructor How about dreams? I said. They’re usually pretty interesting.

Student 3 The great lady with the string of pearls wasn’t crazy about the idea. She thought dreams were pure nonsense, and she had no desire to discuss pure nonsense.

Student 4 The anxious woman asked if dreams really did have a meaning. Yes. Well, then, what did they mean?

Instructor I asked her if she could remember any dream of her own that had been meaningful to her. No, she couldn’t remember.

Student 5 Then Mary said: I dreamed that my husband all dressed up in his gentle voice came back to me and told me, “Take care of yourself.”

Instructor I and the group were stunned. My pen, which had been waiting in ambush for a good line, seized it verbatim. I copied Mary’s words onto the yellow scratch pad that had been lying in front of me, and I read them back to the group.

nights she lay awake till three or four in the morning.

Student 2 What do you do when you can’t sleep? the teacher asked.

Student 5 I read the New York Times. From cover to cover.

Instructor The other women accorded Mary a marked degree of respect and sympathy. They all addressed themselves to her, drew her out, and listened to her with greater interest than they listened to anyone else in the room. She was the oldest among them, 85, a woman of obvious strength and dignity. I was impressed by her, and deeply moved. I later found out that she was the president of the club.I said that what I found beautiful in Mary’s line was that her husband was “all dressed up in his gentle voice.” It seemed to me such a distinguished and lovely way to be dressed. I then asked if anyone else had a dream that she remembered.

Student 4 The one who had asked me to explain the meanings of dreams said that she still couldn’t remember anything in particular, but something did in fact, come back. “I dream all the time of water, always in my dream there’s water—muddy water, pools—but there’s always water.” She then asked me what water meant.

Instructor

Student 6

I said it might mean many things, that there wasn’t a simple “key” to interpreting dreams.

Hilda said that it was a good dream, and Mary must have had a good husband.

Student 4

Student 5

Still, she wanted to know the meaning of water in dreams.

Mary said that he was, and that the dream had eased her. She spoke of her insomnia: most

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HANDOUT 11.7 (continued)

Instructor

Instructor

I said that water was often a symbol of life, and spoke briefly of several things that came to mind—flowing and standing water in Blake and Coleridge, rites of purification, baptism, transition from one place of the soul to another, “death by water.” She seemed satisfied. Water meant life, and I seemed to know a thing or two about this and that, so my word could be trusted.

These, of course, are the only words in the collaborative poem that approach being pure nonsense. What was clear was that she feared her actual dreams and wished to dream beautiful ones. She had admitted earlier that she thought too much delving into these things could make you crazy. So naturally, I had not pushed her, and I received her lines as they were intended to be taken—as a gift of beauty. It was a lot, considering her initial resistance, for her to have contributed a line at all. And I welcomed her contribution—even if it was a fake one.

Student 6 Hilda, who had followed all the turns of the conversation intently, now spoke up. She said that dreams were like prophecy: they could tell you what would happen in the future or what was happening now in some far-off place. Mary’s dream had clearly touched off her remembering a dream of profound significance for her: I dreamed that when I was alone in this country my parents appeared before me, and my father blessed me; and I knew it was their last time, I knew they were perished, it was just before Shavuos, 1942.

Instructor

Whether by accident or not, the pattern of a distinct and strongly-felt dream following an obtuse one continued. The one whose name and face I no longer remember said:

Student 7 I dreamed when I was sleeping at a window near the fire-escape a hand came and choked me, and in the morning I saw the watch was there and I knew no one had come.

I took down her words. The moment someone started speaking of a dream, I started writing; and I left off taking dictation when the talk turned aside from the subject of the poem. After Hilda said something more about her parents, who perished in a Nazi concentration camp, I read the three lines I had gathered thus far.

Student 6

Student 3

Instructor

The great lady was willing to concede there was something to all this fiddle-faddle; and she was certainly not going to be left out. But she made it clear that she wanted to offer a corrective to the questionable niceness of the other lines. She reared herself up and delivered her “beautiful lines” in a rebuking tone: “I dream about the beautiful things—the colors of nature, and music, and I see Haifa and Israel and the mountains of Switzerland.”

The dead had appeared in Hilda’s and Mary’s dreams, to give news of death and a gift for survival. Then the hand of death itself had come into the poem, and choked the speaker. The woman’s death had approached, forced her into waking up to her mortality, and left her intact. This dream, she told us, had occurred when she was fifteen, and she had remembered it vividly all her life. She spoke of her relief when in the daylight she saw that “the watch,” time itself, was still there for her; and death, the thief who steals all our watches, had not come for her after all.

Hilda asked the woman how she had felt after this nightmare, and she answered,

Student 7 Glad to be alive.

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HANDOUT 11.7 (continued)

Student 2 The teacher, who had thus far not spoken of a dream, ended the discussion and the poem on a lighter note: Whenever I dream of my folks, I know I have to call the rest of the family. The group laughed—and we broke up because it was noon and time for the group worker’s vegetable soup. (The collaborative poem follows and is read in its entirety.) Dreams

I dreamed that when I was alone in this country my parents appeared before me, and my father blessed me; and I knew it was their last time; I knew they were perished, it was just before Shavuous, 1942. I dream about the beautiful things—the colors of nature, and music—and I see Haifa and Israel and the mountains of Switzerland.

Student 1: I dreamed that my husband, all dressed up in his gentle voice, came back to me and told me “Take care of yourself.”

I dreamed when I was sleeping at a window near the fire escape a hand came and choked me, and in the morning I saw the watch and I knew no one had come.

I dreamed all the time of water, always in my dream there is water—muddy water, pools— but there is always water.

Whenever I dream of my folks, I know I have to call the rest of my family.

Index

Figures are indicated by “f” following the page number. A Absences, 217 Acceptance and belonging, 13–15, 196 Accomplishments celebrating, 222 ending stage of groups and, 214, 217, 220 lack of, 220 programs and activities, 235–236, 239 solutions providing sense of, 135 as value of group work, 13 Accountability, 66, 78, 83 Activities in group work. See Programs or activities in group work Addiction treatment, 37 Age differences between worker and members, 198, 207–209 Agency context, 61f, 70f, 79 American Association of Group Workers, 33, 39, 44 Antioppressive practice, 82 Anxiety. See Fear and anxiety Art as expressive therapy, 232–233 Articulation of thoughts and feelings, 234–235, 239 Assertiveness training groups, 37 Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups (AASWG), 39–41, 44. See also International Association for Social Work with Groups Attendance, 217. See also Mandatory group membership Auerbach, C., 39 Authenticity, 15–16, 21, 190, 195, 197 Authority in beginning stage of groups, 69–70 in CBGs, 72, 75 conflict and, 21 difference of opinions and, 194 fear of role, 15, 18, 111, 120–121 group ownership of, 20–21 testing, 117–118 Avoidance behaviors, 112–113, 199, 219 B Beginning stage of groups, 23, 109–127 beginning-stage interventions, 116–119 common skills for practice with, 115–116 conflict in, 190 CSWE competencies and, 109–128 developmental stages of, 110

establishing norms for, 114–115 further readings on, 122 handouts, 123–127 monopolizer role and, 170f, 176 new group considerations (class exercise), 111–114 overview, 111–116 programs and activities for, 231 purpose of group, 119 role play at first meeting, 117–119 sharing personal information, 118–119 student learning outcomes for, 110–111 teaching points on, 120–121 testing workers, 117–118 timing content for, 25 Behavioral approach to group work, 36–37 Belonging and acceptance, 13–15, 196 Berger, M., 168–169, 179 Berman-Rossi, T., 30 Best practice standards, 40 Big bash syndrome, 219, 222 Birnbaum, M., 39, 61 Boston model of group work, 36 Boundaries, 118–119, 127 Brandler, S., 14, 59, 242 Briar, S., 30 Busyness, 82 C CBGs. See Curriculum-based groups CDGs (curriculum-driven groups), 71–72 Cicchetti, S., 61 Classroom exercises. See also Role plays beginning stage of groups, 111–119 ending stage of groups, 218–219 group problem solving, 132–136 individual problem solving in groups, 137–140 planning for practice with groups and, 61–67, 65f, 74, 76 programs or activities in group work, 236–238 purpose of, 3 roles in groups, 170–175 student fears and anxieties about, 15–18 value of groups, 19–20 Clinical observation, 234, 239 Clown role, 169–170 Cognitive behavioral approach to group work, 37 Commonalities among group members, 114, 121, 138 Competencies. See Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards

253

254  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION Composition of groups, 61f, 64, 70f, 81, 98–99 Compromise, 192 Conflict, defined, 190 Conflict management, 24, 189–212 common skills for practice with, 201 CSWE competencies and, 189 difference leading to, 192–200, 195f as essential group-work content, 21 fears and myths, 191–192 further readings on, 202–203 group work education and, 42–43 handouts, 204–212 middle stage of groups and, 159, 161 student learning outcomes for, 190–191 teaching points on, 201–202 Confrontation, 174, 191, 198 Context of groups beginning stage of groups and, 117 handouts on, 90, 98–100 planning for practice with groups and, 61f, 70f, 79 Contracts for groups, 74 Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), 34, 39, 41, 44, 232. See also Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards Coyle, Grace, 31, 33, 35, 230, 231–232 Creativity, 233–234, 239 Cultural competence and awareness, 37 Cultural sensitivity, 1, 197 Cultural values, 195–197 Curriculum-based groups (CBGs) handouts, 107–108 mainstream theories and practice principles for, 72–75 mediating role in, 75–76 overview, 38, 71–72 Curriculum-driven groups (CDGs), 71–72 D Dance as expressive therapy, 232–233 Databases, 67 Deductive practice, 231 Defensiveness, 139, 160f, 198, 200 Deliberative practice, 231 Denial of group ending, 216 Descriptive differences, 192, 198–200, 207–211 Developmental stages of groups. See Stages of group development Dewey, John, 31, 130–131, 136, 142 Differentiation stage of group development, 36, 110 Disagreements. See Conflict management Disclosure, 118–119, 127 Diversity and difference in practice beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189, 191–192 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157

planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Domination, 192 Do-then-think practice, 231 Dual vision of group and individual members, 159, 161 E EBGW. See Evidence-based group work Education in group work. See also Teaching points course development. See Semester-long course in group work CSWE on, 34, 39, 232 current issues for, 41–43 generic/integrated social work practice, 34–35, 39, 41–42, 44, 232 Group Work Training in Youth Development (IASWG), 40 history of, 32–33 insertion of group work content into practice class, 19–22 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (CSWE) beginning stage of groups, 109–128 conflict management, 189 emerging roles, 167 ending stage of groups, 213 evolution of social work with groups, 29 middle stage of groups, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 57–58 problem solving in groups, 129 programs or activities in group work, 229 Effectiveness, planning for, 59, 60, 78, 83 Empathy, 139, 141, 174, 196, 197 Empirical articles, 67–68 Empowerment, 1, 14, 85 Ending stage of groups, 24, 213–228 avoiding, 219 common skills for practice with, 220–221 CSWE competencies and, 213 from ending to transition, 215–216 expected member behaviors in, 216–219, 217f further readings on, 222–223 handouts, 224–228 practice cautions for, 219 premature, 61, 77 preparing group for, 215 satisfaction levels, 220 student learning outcomes for, 214–215 teaching points on, 221–222 timing content for, 26 Engagement. See also Pregroup contact beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157

INDEX  |  255

planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Ethical and professional behavior for beginning stage of groups, 109 for conflict management, 189, 197 for ending stage of groups, 213, 222 evolution of groups and, 29 hidden agendas and, 80 for middle stage of groups, 157 for planning for practice with groups and, 58 for problem solving, 129 for programs or activities in group work, 229 for roles in groups, 167 Evaluation of practice. See also Evidence-based group work beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213, 215, 219, 221–222 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 58, 78, 83 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 sessional endings, 60–61, 115 Evidence-based group work (EBGW) class exercise on planning for, 67 feedback and evaluation on, 60 GPS, compared, 131f handouts, 89, 101–105 homework on empirical article review, 67–68, 105 planning process and, 58, 66–67 stages for, 60, 89 Evolution of social work with groups, 29–56 CSWE competencies and, 29 early agency work, 31 further readings on, 49–55 group work in social work, 32–33, 41–43 historical highlights, 30–35 models of group work practice, 35–43. See also Models of group work practice overview, 29–30 professional identity, 33–34 specialization, 31–32 student learning outcomes for, 30 teaching points on, 43–44 theoretical advances, 34–35 Exercises. See Classroom exercises Expression of thoughts and feelings, 234–235, 239 Expressive therapies, 232–233 F Failure of groups, 61, 77, 83 False promises, 219, 222 False statements, 220

Farewell party syndrome, 219, 222 Fear and anxiety addressing in class, 15–20 of authority role, 15, 18, 111, 120–121 categories of, 17 of conflict, 191–192, 201–202 of joining existing groups, 111–114 of lack of ability, 198 Feminism, 37 Filled time, 137 Flexibility, 78, 169–170, 170f, 176 Follett, Mary, 31, 192 G Garland, J., 36, 110, 171 Garvin, C., 30, 36 Generic/integrated social work practice, 34–35, 39, 41–42, 44, 232 Glasser, P., 36 Global Group Work Project (IASWG), 40 Google Scholar, 67 Group work, defined, 31–32 Group Work Training in Youth Development (IASWG), 40 Group-based problem solving (GPS), 131–136 case reviews, 132–135, 143–146 EBGW method compared, 131f homework, 135f learning points for, 135–136 Groups. See also specific stages of groups composition of, 61f, 64, 70f, 81, 98–99 conflict management in, 189–212. See also Conflict management contracts for, 74 defined, 2, 15 development of. See Stages of group development disclosure in, 118–119, 127 dynamics of, 15, 234 education for working with. See Education in group work evolution of social work with, 29–56. See also Evolution of social work with groups failure of, 61, 77, 83 mandatory membership in, 59, 64, 76, 83 new members of, 69–70 new workers for. See Retrospective planning for practice with groups norms in. See Norms planning for practice with, 57–108. See also Planning for practice with groups pregroup contact and, 61f, 68–69, 69f, 70f, 82–83, 106 premature ending of, 61, 77 problem solving in, 129–156. See also Problem solving in groups programs or activities for, 229–241. See also Programs or activities in group work purpose of. See Purpose and content of groups roles in, 167–187. See also Roles in groups

256  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION skills for practice with. See Skills for practice structure of, 61f, 70f, 81 types of, 3, 10–11 value of, 13–14, 19–20, 233–236 Groupthink, 194–195, 195f, 205 Groupwork (journal), 41 H Handouts beginning stage of groups, 123–127 conflict management, 204–212 emerging roles, 179–187 ending stage of groups, 224–228 middle stage of groups, 163–166 planning for practice with groups and, 89–108 problem solving in groups, 142–156 programs or activities in group work, 242–252 Harm, 61 Hartford, M., 2, 59, 130 Hidden agenda, 80 History of social work, 29–35, 230–233 Homework empirical article review, 67–68 group-based problem solving, 135b Human rights and social justice beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 I IASWG (International Association for Social Work with Groups), 39–41, 44, 233 Idiom of the other, 76, 174f, 175–176 Individual problem solving (IPS) in groups, 136–140 case reviews, 137–140, 152–154 hallmarks of, 136, 147–151 model for, 137, 151 Inductive practice, 231 Informed consumerism, 80 Insertion of group work content into practice class, 19–22 Instructors, introductory statements of, 12–15 Integration for conflict resolution, 192 Interaction model of group work, 38 International Association for Social Work with Groups (IASWG), 39–41, 44, 233 Interruptions, 43, 191 Intervention beginning stage of groups and, 109, 114, 115, 116–119 conflict management and, 189, 191 ending stage of groups and, 213

evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 58 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Interview guide, 68–69, 69f, 106 Intimacy stage of group development, 36, 110 Introductions in new groups, 112–113, 121 Introductory statements in classrooms, 12–15 IPS. See Individual problem solving in groups Issues vs. problems, 130–131 J Jargon, 76, 174f, 175–176 Jones, H., 36, 110 Journals, 32–33, 41, 44, 233 K Kaiser, Clara, 35 Kaminsky, Mark, 237–238, 249 Kolodny, R., 36, 110, 171 Konopka, G., 30 Kurland, Roselle contributions to group work profession, 1 planning model of, 59–68. See also Kurland planning model on problem solving in group work, 130–131, 136, 142, 151 Kurland planning model, 59–68 application of, 64–66 brainstorming the process, foundation exercise, 61–62 categories of consideration in, 61f, 70f, 79–83, 90–95 class planning exercises, 65–66 class scenario examples, 63f, 65f EBGW principles, application of, 66–67 empirical article review, homework exercise, 67–68 evidence-based group work, 59–61 focus on components, foundation exercise, 62–64 handouts for, 89–106 introductory statement on importance of planning, 59 points to consider when using, 63f related literature, class exercise, 67 for retrospective planning, 59, 64, 69 sample lecture on, 77–83 L Lang, N., 38, 230–231 Last meetings, 216, 219. See also Ending stage of groups Latent content, 218 Leadership, 41. See also Authority Learning goals. See Student learning outcomes

INDEX  |  257

Lecture on planning for practice with groups, 77–83 Lindeman, Eduard, 31 Literature review exercises, 67–68 M Macgowan, M., 60, 66, 78–79, 89, 101–102 Managed care, 43 Mandated reporting, 195, 197 Mandatory group membership, 59, 64, 76, 83 Manualized practice, 38. See also Curriculum-based groups Mason, A., 61 Meaning making process, 202 Mediating model of group work, 38 Mediating role of workers, 75–76 Member differences in groups, 192–200 Metaphors, 76 Middle stage of groups, 23–24, 157–166 common skills for practice with, 159, 160f conflict in, 190, 193–194 CSWE competencies and, 157 emerging roles in, 168 further readings on, 161–162 handouts, 163–166 overview, 158–159 problem solving problematic roles in, 170–175, 172–173f, 177 student learning outcomes for, 158 teaching points on, 160–161 timing content for, 26 Middleman, Ruth on activities in group work, 230 on conflict management, 201, 212 on ending stage of groups, 220–221 on group roles, 186–187 on history of group work, 30 on idiom of the other, 76 on middle stage of groups, 165–166 on planning for group work, 77 on problem solving in groups, 155–156 on professional leaders’ influence, 41 on professional skills, 115, 117, 124 on social goals model, 35–36, 38 Mind-set of worker, 72–73 Models of group work practice, 35–43 current issues and, 41–43 group work education, 39 methods, organizing and advancing, 39–41 process of development, 37–38 Monopolizer role, 170f, 176 Music as expressive therapy, 232–233 Mutual aid behavioral group work and, 37 collaborative projects and, 235 curriculum-based groups and, 71, 74–75 defined, 18 group norms and, 115 for individual problem solving, 130, 141

in middle stage of groups, 158 personal exposure and, 15–16 understanding of, 43 as value of group work, 13 N National Association of Social Workers, 34 National Conference of Social Work, 32, 231 Needs assessments beginning stage of groups and, 109, 112 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 58, 61f, 70f, 77, 79–80 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229, 237 roles in groups and, 167 New groups. See Beginning stage of groups New workers for existing groups. See Retrospective planning for practice with groups Newstetter, Wilbur, 31–32, 44 Nondeliberative practice, 231, 233 The Non-Verbal Method in Working with Groups (Middleman), 230 Nonverbal methods. See Programs or activities in group work Norms beginning stage of groups and, 111, 114–115, 121 conflict management and, 191 group contracts for, 74 middle stage of groups and, 158–159 retrospective planning and, 69–71 Northen, H., 36, 59, 130–131 O Observation clinical, 234, 239 group roles and, 172 in Kurland Planning Model, 60 Open-ended questions, 113, 121 Opinions, differences of, 192–198, 204–206 Organizational theory, 137 Outreach, 68–69, 69f P Papel, C., 35 Peer help, 13 Perlman, H. H., 34 Personal harm, 61 Personal information, sharing, 118–119, 127 Phillips, Helen, 35 Planning for practice with groups, 23, 57–108 CSWE competencies and, 57–58 curriculum-based practice planning, 71–76 engagement focus, class exercise, 68–69

258  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION further readings on, 86–88 handouts, 89–108 Kurland planning model, 59–68. See also Kurland planning model outreach and engagement, 68–69 overview, 58–59 retrospective planning, 69–71, 70f role play, class exercise, 69f sample lecture, 77–83 student learning outcomes for, 59 teaching points on, 83–84 timing content for, 25 Play therapy, 232–233 Poetry, 237–238, 249–252 Policy practice beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Power and control stage of group development, 36, 110 Power struggles, 113, 114, 117–118, 121 Practice cautions, 219 Practice skills. See Skills for practice Practice-informed research beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Preaffiliation stage of group development, 36, 110 Preformed groups, 59. See also Retrospective planning for practice with groups Pregroup contact interviews, 68–69, 69f, 106 planning for practice with groups and, 61f, 70f, 82–83 Premature ending of groups, 61, 77 Prevention group work, 33–34 Problem solving in groups, 23, 129–156 common skills for practice with, 140, 155–156 conflict management and, 191–193, 201, 202 CSWE competencies and, 129 defined, 130–131 further readings on, 141 group-based problem solving (GPS), 131–136, 131f, 135f handouts, 142–156 individual problem solving (IPS), 136–140 model for, 38

nondeliberative practice for, 233 for problematic roles, 170–175, 170f, 172–173f, 177 problem-solving process, 130–131 student learning outcomes for, 130 teaching points on, 140–141 timing content for, 25–26 Problems vs. issues, 130–131 Productive time use, 137 Professional behavior. See Ethical and professional behavior Professional conferences and journals, 32–33, 39, 41, 44, 231, 233 Professional identity, 33–34 Programs or activities in group work, 24–25, 229–241 classroom activities for, 236–238 clinical observation opportunities, 234 collaboration for, 235–236 common skills for practice with, 140 controversy of, 32–33, 41 creativity and, 233–234 CSWE competencies and, 229 further readings on, 240–241 handouts, 242–252 history of, 230–233 purposes of, 242–243 student learning outcomes for, 230 teaching points on, 238–239 thoughts and feelings, articulation of, 234–235 timing content for, 26 value of, 233–236 Prospective planning, 59–69. See also Kurland planning model Purpose and content of groups beginning stage of groups and, 111, 113–114, 119, 121 ending stage of groups and, 220, 222 middle stage of groups and, 160 planning for practice with groups and, 61f, 70f, 80–81, 83 program or activity use, 242–243 Q Quick fixes, 172, 193 R Race as descriptive difference, 198–200, 210–211 Racism, 196–197 Real talk. See Authenticity Reciprocal model of group work, 36, 38 Reciprocal roles, 174, 176, 177 Recreation. See Programs or activities in group work Recruitment of group participants. See Pregroup contact Regression, 217, 221 Reisch, M., 30 Relational model of group work, 37 Remedial model of group work, 35–36, 38

INDEX  |  259

Reminiscence, 215, 219, 221–222 Research-informed practice beginning stage of groups and, 109 conflict management and, 189 ending stage of groups and, 213 evolution of groups and, 29 middle stage of groups and, 157 planning for practice with groups and, 57 problem solving and, 129 programs or activities in group work and, 229 roles in groups and, 167 Respect, 192, 202 Retrospective planning for practice with groups categories for planning, 70f handouts on, 96–97 Kurland planning model for, 59, 64, 69 overview, 69–71 Rivas, R., 59 Roberts, R., 36 Role lock, 170f, 176 Role of worker agency tasks, functions, and purposes, 117, 119, 121 in beginning stage of groups, 69–70, 112–113 in ending stage of groups, 214, 221 fear of, 15, 18, 111, 120–121 as mandated reporter, 195, 197 as mediator, 75–76 in middle stage of groups, 158–159, 160 Role plays on first meetings for new groups, 117–119 on recruitment of group members, 68–69, 69f on scapegoat role, 173–175 on skills for new groups, 116 Roles in groups, 24, 167–187. See also specific roles common skills for practice with, 175–176 CSWE competencies and, 167 further readings on, 178 handouts, 179–187 idiom of the other, 174f list of roles people adopt, 179 middle stage of groups and, 158, 160 as positive or negative, 169–170, 169–170f, 183–184 problematic roles, 170–171, 172–174f role flexibility and role lock, 170f scapegoat, 170–175, 172–173f student learning outcomes for, 168 teaching points on, 176–177 testing different roles, 13 Roman, C., 14, 59, 242 Rose, Sheldon, 37 Rothman, B., 35 Ryland, Gladys, 33, 35, 230, 232 S Salmon, Robert, 1, 131, 136, 142, 151 Sample lecture on planning for practice with groups, 77–83

Satisfaction with group, 220, 222 Scapegoat role, 170–175, 172–173f, 176, 180–182, 185 Schiller, L. Y., 37 Schön, Donald, 3 Schwartz, William, 2, 36, 75, 117, 219 Self-determination, 82, 197 Self-reflection, 197 Semester-long course in group work attitudinal reality and practice mindset, 15–18 development of course, 10–15 fears and anxieties, addressing, 15–18 introductory statements, 12–15 organizing and presenting content, 11–12 outline for, 25–26 purpose of course, 10–11 recap and teaching points for, 18–19 timing content for, 25–26 value of group work, student responses to, 13–15 Separation stage of group development, 36, 110 Service relevance, 60–61 Sessional endings, 60–61, 115 Short-term groups, 72 Shulman, L., 59, 171 Silence within groups, 73, 194 Skills for practice with beginning stage of groups, 115–116, 124–126 with conflict management, 197, 200, 201, 212 with ending stage of groups, 219, 220–221 with group roles, 175–176, 186–187 with middle stage of groups, 159, 160f, 165–166 skill, defined, 115 Smalley, R., 34–35 Social context, 61f, 70f, 79, 98–99 Social exchange, 13 Social goals model of group work, 35–36, 38 Social Group Work Practice (Wilson & Ryland), 232 Social Process in Organized Groups (Coyle), 31 Social skills deficits, 37 Social Work With Groups (journal), 39, 41, 233 Solomon, B. B., 196 Special Projects Application Review Committee (IASWG), 40 Specialization, 31–32 Stage theory, 11, 36–37 Stages of group development. See also specific stages beginning stage of groups and, 110, 120, 123 ending stage of groups and, 214–215, 224 group roles and, 176–177 middle stage of groups and, 158–159, 163 as organizing framework, 11, 21 overview, 36–37 programs and activities based on, 237, 248 worker role and, 21 Standards for Practice of Social Work With Groups (IASWG), 40

260  |  TEACHING GROUP WORK CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION Steinberg, D. M., 42, 59, 137 Stereotypes, 170, 196–197 Strengths perspective, 20 Structure of groups, 61f, 70f, 81 Student learning outcomes beginning stage of groups, 110–111 conflict management, 190–191 emerging roles, 168 ending stage of groups, 214–215 evolution of social work with groups, 30 introducing students to group work, 9 middle stage of groups, 158 planning for practice with groups and, 59 problem solving in groups, 130 programs or activities in group work, 230 Subgroups, 158–159 Subtle messages, 159, 160f Supervision of group work, 39 Survival, 14 T Teaching points beginning stage of groups, 120–121 conflict management, 201–202 emerging roles, 176–177 ending stage of groups, 221–222 evolution of social work with groups, 43–44 introducing students to group work, 18–19 middle stage of groups, 160–161 planning for practice with groups and, 77–83 problem solving in groups, 140–141 programs or activities in group work, 238–239 Technology, literature review and, 67 Termination stage of groups. See Ending stage of groups Theoretical advances, 34–35 Therapeutic group work, 33–34 Think-then-do practice, 231 Thumbnail sketches of group members, 159 Toseland, R., 59 Transitional stage of groups. See Ending stage of groups Trecker, Harleigh, 33 Tropp, E., 36, 38

V Value of group work, 13–15, 19–20, 233–236 Vinter, Robert, 34, 35–36, 237, 248 W Wenocur, S., 30 Wilson, Gertrude, 33, 35, 230, 232 Women’s groups, 37 Wood, G. G. on conflict management, 201, 212 on ending stage of groups, 220–221 on group roles, 186–187 on history of group work, 30 on idiom of the other, 76 on middle stage of groups, 165–166 on problem solving in groups, 155–156 on professional leaders’ influence, 41 on professional skills, 115, 117, 124 on social goals model, 35–36, 38 Workers age differences with group members, 198, 207–209 agency tasks, functions, and purposes, 117, 119, 121 in beginning stage of groups, 23, 69–70, 109–127. See also Beginning stage of groups conflict management and, 24, 189–212. See also Conflict management in ending stage of groups, 24, 213–228. See also Ending stage of groups fear of, 15, 18, 111, 120–121 as mandated reporter, 195, 197 as mediator, 75–76 member differences with, 194–199, 207–209 in middle stage of groups, 23–24, 157–166. See also Middle stage of groups mind-set of, 72–73 new workers for existing groups. See Retrospective planning for practice with groups planning for practice with groups, 23, 57–108. See also Planning for practice with groups problem solving in groups and, 23, 129–156. See also Problem solving in groups Worksheets. See Handouts

Teaching Group Work Content in Social Work Education By Dominique Moyse Steinberg

B

uilding on the foundation laid in Teaching a Methods Course in Social Work With Groups by Roselle Kurland and Robert Salmon (CSWE Press, 1998), this book provides a guide to teaching social work with groups. Group work is used increasingly in the field even as its education declines, leaving many instructors required to teach the subject without sufficient training. This book fills the gap by providing a framework for teaching essential method content over one semester as well as integrating central content into an existing practice class. This edition adds to the earlier work of Kurland and Salmon by elaborating on existing content with additional concepts, examples, and work materials, plus adding new content on emerging models, planning, evidence, and conflict. Each chapter begins with references to the CSWE Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards competencies addressed, and chapter-based bibliographies make the recommended further reading easily accessible.

About the Author Dr. Steinberg lives in Vermont and New York City, where she has taught practice, research, and professional writing for nearly 40 years at the New York University, Silberman, and Smith College Schools of Social Work. At Smith she also supervised numerous graduating thesis projects. Steinberg’s latest teaching appointment was for Simmons College School of Social Work in Boston, for which she taught social work research in their emerging online program and acted as sequence leader. Steinberg has many years of direct practice with children, older adults, and families in New York City and is the founder and principal of customeldercare.com, dedicated to quality of life for older adults in care and their caregivers.

Cover designed by Kathleen Dyson

1701 Duke Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314 www.cswe.org