Taming the Wild Horse: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures 9780231543521

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Taming the Wild Horse

Taming the Wild Horse

an annotated translation and study of the daoist horse taming pictures

Louis Komjathy

columbia university press new york

Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York

Chichester, West Sussex

cup.columbia.edu Copyright © 2017 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from the Library of Congress isbn 978-0-231-18126-6 (cloth) isbn 978-0-231-54352-1 (electronic)

Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. Printed in the United States of America “Riprap” by Gary Snyder©, from Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems (Counterpoint Press, 2009), is used with permission from Counterpoint Press. “This Is the Creature . . .” by Rainer Maria Rilke, translated by J. B. Leishman in Possibility of Being (New Directions, 1977), is used with permission from New Directions. “Love Dogs” by Rumi, translated by Coleman Barks© in The Essential Rumi (HarperCollins, 1996), is used with permission from Coleman Barks. “The Peace of Wild Things” by Wendell Berry©, from New Collected Poems (Counterpoint Press, 2012), is used with permission from Counterpoint Press. Cover illustration: First woodblock illustration of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures. From Shangsheng xiuzhen sanyao (Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection According to the Highest Vehicle; DZ 267), 1.2a.

riprap Lay down these words Before your mind like rocks. placed solid, by hands In choice of place, set Before the body of the mind in space and time: Solidity of bark, leaf, or wall riprap of things: Cobble of milky way, straying planets, These poems, people, lost ponies with Dragging saddles— and rocky sure-foot trails. The world’s like an endless four-dimensional Game of Go. ants and pebbles In the thin loam, each rock a word a creek-washed stone Granite: ingrained with torment of fire and weight Crystal and sediment linked hot all change, in thoughts, As well as things. Gary Snyder, Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems

c o n t en t s

Preface ix Acknowledgments xi List of Illustrations and Tables xvii List of Abbreviations xix

part i Introduction

1

1. In Search of the Wild Horse 3 2. Of Stallions, Steppes, and Stables 29 part ii Translations

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Horse Taming Poems

57

Commentary on the Horse Taming Poems 83

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part iii Exegesis

97

Being with Horses 99

Appendix 1. Hagiography of Gao Daokuan (1195–1277) 133 Appendix 2. Song of Pure Awakening 139 Appendix 3. Horse-Related Technical Terminology in the Horse Taming Pictures Notes 145 Character Glossary 197 Bibliography 205 Index 219

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In thirteenth-century China, a Daoist monk by the name of Gao Daokuan (1195–1277) composed a series of illustrated poems and accompanying verse commentary about “taming the wild horse.” Inspired by and modeled on the now well-known Chan (Zen) Buddhist “Ox Herding Pictures,” Gao’s work utilizes the metaphor of a “wild” or “untamed horse” for ordinary mind and habituated consciousness, which are characterized by high degrees of sensory engagement, emotional volatility, and intellectual reactivity. This trope represents an interesting attempt to corral “horse-thought,” which was a central concern of early Quanzhen (Ch’üan-chen; Complete Perfection) Daoism. The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures emphasize dedicated and sustained self-cultivation, with particular commitment to meditation, as the means to become attuned with the Dao. These compositions, in turn, provide a map of contemplative practice and contemplative experience; they represent and describe stages on the Daoist contemplative path. Engaging these illustrated materials in a variety of ways, the present study consists of three parts: two introductory chapters, an annotated translation of Gao’s Daoist Horse Taming Pictures and associated verse commentary, and then my own interpretation. The first introductory chapter covers biographical background and historical context. Particular attention is given to Gao Daokuan’s own life story, with emphasis on his Daoist

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lineage. I discuss key characteristics of late medieval Complete Perfection monasticism, including the meditation methods related to the Horse Taming Pictures as a cartography of contemplative experience. This chapter also considers the content of Gao’s text and its relationship to the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures. The second introductory chapter examines “the question of the animal.” I discuss the multivalent meaning of the “horse” in traditional Chinese culture and in Complete Perfection. This exploration involves reflections on the relationship between “symbolic animals” and “actual animals” (in this case horses), including the consequences for both human and “nonhuman” animals. In the process, I also consider competing Daoist views on “cultivation” and “wildness.” Following the annotated translation of Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures, which represents the core of the book, I provide my own scholarly exegesis with emphasis on a “contemplative reading,” one in which readers actually engage the contemplative dimensions of the text and the implications for human-animal relationships and equine being. Engagement with the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures thus becomes a form of contemplative practice. Along the way, readers will find opportunities for reflection on contemplative practice in general and Daoist meditation in particular, including transformative effects that may lead to a transpersonal way of perceiving and being.

ac k n ow l ed g m en t s

This book represents yet another beginning. It is another, albeit different, inquiry into the profundity of the Daoist tradition. It represents a return to poetry, the poetry that is an integral part of my being. It is a return to the poetry that has consoled and sustained me in a world at once beautiful and horrific, through a life at once poignant and heartbreaking. It has helped me remember what is real: friendship, joy, love, mountains, music, wildness, and, of course, poetry. In the words of the Japanese Haiku poet and wanderer Matsuo Basho¯, “No matter what we may be doing at a given moment, we must not forget that it has bearing upon our everlasting self, which is poetry.” Basho¯ found poetry in travel, writing the Nozarashi kiko¯ (Travelogue of Weather-Beaten Bones; dat. 1684), Utatsu kiko¯ (Knapsack Notebook; dat. 1688), and Oku no hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Deep North; dat. 1694), with the latter also translated as Narrow Road to the Interior. Here is the fusion of poetry, contemplation, mountains, and pilgrimage. I am grateful to the poets, perhaps a particular band of immortals, who have refused to be broken by brokenness, who have continued to remind us that aliveness and beauty are possible and real. I am grateful to the poets who have written poetry as well as the poets who have not. I take this moment to acknowledge those who have explored the hidden cantata of poetry that underlies each

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existence and experience. These are the poets of possibility, those who inspire a deepened sense of aliveness. For me, they include Vicente Aleixandre, Basho¯, e. e. cummings, Odysseus Elytis, Hanshan, Denise Levertov, W. S. Merwin, Pablo Neruda, Octavio Paz, Rainer Maria Rilke, Jalal ad-Din Rumi, Wang Wei, and Walt Whitman. Invoking Rilke’s Sonnets to Orpheus, This is the creature there has never been. They never knew it, and yet, none the less, they loved the way it moved, its suppleness, its neck, its very gaze, mild and serene. Not there, because they loved it, it behaved as though it were. They always left some space. And in that clear unpeopled space they saved it lightly reared its head, with scarce a trace of not being there. They fed it, not with corn, but only with the possibility of being. And that was able to confer such strength, its brow put forth a horn. One horn. Whitely it stole up to a maid—to be within the silver mirror and in her. (translated by J. B. Leishman)

Perhaps in their own way, Gao Daokuan’s “Horse Taming Poems” inspire contemplative inquiry and transpersonal communion. Perhaps “the creature that has never been” is a horse, wild and free, at home in its own terrain. But of course it has been and continues to be. Perhaps it is a horse “living in a clear unpeopled space,” “fed only with the possibility of being.” And even if we have never known it, perhaps we have loved it. Perhaps it is the horse that we are. A presence and stillness manifesting in powerful fluidity of movement. This book has, of course, benefited from living animals. In terms of human friends, I have been inspired by Aaron Gross, my colleague at the University of San Diego. His pioneering research on animal studies and “animals and religion” has profoundly influenced this study; our conversations and his critical comments have clarified my perspective. I am also grateful to Suzanne Cahill of the University of California, San Diego for her critical reading of and helpful suggestions for improving my translations. The manuscript was also improved by discussions with and suggestions from Wendy Doniger, Steven Heine, Bob Henderson, Jiang Sheng, Stephen Little, James Miller, and Steve Plaza. I am especially grateful to Harold Roth and the Contemplative Studies Initiative at Brown University for the opportunity to present on the Daoist Horse Taming

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Pictures. Some of the material was also presented on the panel “Maps of Transformation: Ox Herding, Horse Taming, and Stages on the Contemplative Path,” which was organized by me and held at the annual meeting of the Contemplative Studies Group of the American Academy of Religion in 2014. Employing equine-centered fieldwork, I also had the good fortune to meet horses, visit horse farms, and discuss the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures with actual experienced horse trainers. I wish to express my deep gratitude to Eliza Ardizzone, Esther Buonanno, Ted Goad, Jeff LaDue, Antonio Garcia Soares, and Jessica Starck of the Tempel Lipizzans (Old Mill Creek, Illinois). I am also grateful to all of the unnamed individuals who shared their stories about and with horses. It was amazing to “follow the openings” that emerged from writing this book. Finally, though not last, Kate Townsend, my wife and life partner, has fed me with the possibility of being. Her intuitive connection to animals and her love of wildlife and wild places, and the freedom they embody, are true inspirations. As Mary Oliver encourages us in her poem “Wild Geese,” “Whoever you are, no matter how lonely, / the world offers itself to your imagination, / calls to you like the wild geese, harsh and exciting— / over and over announcing your place / in the family of things.” Working to find my own place “in the family of things,” I have benefited from deep canine friendships, especially with Noir, Kara, Opal, Katahdin, and Takota, who have embodied humaneness in ways that few humans do. They have also taught me many unspoken lessons about cherishing, concern, empathy, leisure, patience, play, and tenderness. Thank you for teaching me to smell the flowers, to eat wild berries, to chase birds, and to run like the wind if the opportunity presents itself. I remember your eyes and the sundrenched moments of shared animality. I miss your sweetness. In the words of Rumi, One night a man was crying, Allah! Allah! His lips grew sweet with the praising, until a cynic said, “So! I have heard you calling out, but have you ever gotten any response?” The man had no answer to that. He quit praying and fell into a confused sleep. He dreamed he saw Khidr, the guide of souls, in a thick, green foliage. “Why did you stop praising?”

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“Because I’ve never heard anything back.” “This longing you express is the return message.” The grief you cry out from draws you toward union. Your pure sadness that wants help is the secret cup. Listen to the moan of a dog for its master. That whining is the connection. There are love dogs no one knows the names of. Give your life to be one of them. (translated by Coleman Barks)

In the end, perhaps I am more dog than horse, though in writing this book I have endeavored to understand the “way of the horse.” And there are love horses no one knows the names of. I have met some of them during the writing of this book: Alia, Favory VIII Bellanna (Bellanna/F VIII), Lisandro (Izzy), and Pluto Distinta (Dinty). I have also attempted to live through the lessons of bear, deer, egret, lizard, raven, and mountain goat. During various backcountry moments, they have shown me the way. May the wetlands, deserts, mountains, rivers, and forests continue to support you. May they continue to exist so that those of us who can still hear may find our place in the world, so that we may continue to have access to wild places. Perhaps then we will know Wendell Berry’s “The Peace of Wild Things”: When despair for the world grows in me and I wake in the night at the least sound in fear of what my life and my children’s lives may be, I go and lie down where the wood drake rests in his beauty on the water, and the great heron feeds. I come into the peace of wild things who do not tax their lives with forethought of grief. I come into the presence of still water. And I feel above me the day-blind stars waiting with their light. For a time I rest in the grace of the world, and am free.

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Perhaps then we will realize that “nonhuman” animals have lives of their own, lives that, like those of human beings, require freedom and wildness. Perhaps taming our own “wild horse” may allow space for actual wild beings to flourish. Then, perhaps, we may rest in the grace of the world and be free. Louis Komjathy Redbird Lodge Ravinia, Illinois

il l us t r at io n s an d ta b l e s

figu res Daoist Lineage Affiliation of Gao Daokuan 6 Illustration of the Hymn of the Three Methods 14 Illustrations of Puming’s Ox Herding Poems 17 Ten Equine-Centered Horse Taming Pictures 19 Illustrations 11–13 of the Horse Taming Pictures 27 The Return to Wildness 34 Interpretive Approaches to the Horse Taming Pictures 35 Detail of Renqi tu (Man Riding a Horse; dat. 1296), by Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322) 39 2.4 Representative Types of Horses 46 2.5 Free-Roaming Horse 54 3.1–13 Daoist Horse Taming Pictures 58

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.3

ta bles 1.1 1.2

Comparative Chart of Principal Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures Stages of Classical Daoist Apophatic Meditation 21

16

ab b r ev iat io ns

abbrev. Chn. dat. d.u. DZ HTP Jpn. JY OHP pers. comm. Skt. ZH ZW

abbreviated Chinese dated dates unknown Daozang Horse Taming Pictures Japanese Daozang jiyao Ox Herding Pictures personal communication Sanskrit Zhonghua daozang Zangwai daoshu

Taming the Wild Horse

par t i Introduction

1. In Search of the Wild Horse

The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures are a series of twelve illustrated poems, ten of which are equine-centered and two of which are non-equine-centered. They use the analogy of horse training, or “taming the wild horse,” to discuss Daoist contemplative practice, specifically the necessity of reining in sensory engagement and harnessing chaotic psychological patterns through dedicated and prolonged meditation. Here the “wild” or “untamed horse” symbolizes ordinary mind and habituated consciousness, which are characterized by high degrees of sensory engagement, emotional volatility, and intellectual reactivity. The poems and associated verse commentary were most likely written by Gao Daokuan, a Daoist monk of the Complete Perfection monastic order. In this chapter, I discuss Gao’s life story, including his Daoist lineage, and the key characteristics of Complete Perfection monasticism. I also examine the training regimen that informs and is expressed in the illustrated poems, with particular attention to meditation methods. Such considerations provide the necessary foundation for engaging the Horse Taming Pictures as a map of Daoist contemplative practice and contemplative experience, a description of stages on the Daoist contemplative path.

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TH E MA ST E R OF C OMPLE T E IL L U MIN AT IO N With respect to authorship, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures are attributed to Yuanming laoren (Venerable Complete Illumination). As Yuanming is the Daoist religious name of Gao Daokuan (1195–1277),1 the text was most likely composed by him. This identification is substantiated by the content of the associated text, as it contains major Quanzhen (Ch’üan-chen; Complete Perfection) themes, concerns, and technical terms.2 While the text is not mentioned in Gao’s hagiographies, the same is true for most of the entries in the thirteenthcentury Zhongnan shan Zuting xianzhen neizhuan (Esoteric Biographies of Immortals and Perfected of the Ancestral Hall of the Zhongnan Mountains; DZ 955; ZH 1489; abbrev. Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains).3 That is, unlike other Complete Perfection hagiographies, which list known works authored by the given adherent, the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains does not (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a). In some respects, Gao himself resembles a wild horse galloping through Daoist history; he has largely disappeared into the landscape and is now difficult to catch a glimpse of. Gao Daokuan was a third-generation member of the Complete Perfection Daoist movement and thus a Complete Perfection monk in the monastic order. As discussed in more detail below, he was a disciple of the somewhat obscure Li Chongxu (early thirteenth c.) and then of Yu Zhidao (1166–1250), both of whom were second-generation Complete Perfection adherents. According to the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains, Gao Daokuan was born in 1195 in Huairen county in Yingzhou, which is near Datong and Shouzhou in present-day Shanxi province (central China). He descended from the Hao clan, possibly a prominent Shanxi aristocratic line. He was an only child, and he received what appears to have been a traditional literati education. When Gao was around fourteen years of age, his family moved to Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi), where his father worked as an official scribe (daobi shi), which was a low-level sub-official position in the imperial bureaucracy (Hucker 1985, 6320). Both his father and mother died when Gao was in his twenties. While performing funeral and mourning rites, Gao is said to have had a mystical experience: One evening while sitting in the family hall, in the middle of the night he suddenly beheld a radiant illumination like dawn. As he looked east and west, the Gates of Heaven (tianmen) opened wide. Between red clouds and green vapors, he successively saw beautiful forests, rare trees, precious halls, and amazing terraces. After a little while, the sky closed again. From that point forward, [Master Gao] only had a heart-mind for studying the Dao (xuedao). (Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 3.29a)

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In other words, Gao apparently gained a vision of the Daoist celestial and immortal realms. In 1221, at the age of twenty-six, Gao decided to become a Daoist renunciant and monastic (chujia, lit., leave the family). Significantly, at this point in Complete Perfection history, which I have previously labeled the “expansive phase” (Komjathy 2007), Qiu Chuji (Changchun [Perpetual Spring], 1148–1227),4 the last surviving first-generation adherent, Third Patriarch, and national leader of the monastic order, and his disciples were in the process of establishing, inhabiting, and maintaining a vast network of Daoist temples and monasteries in northern China. Qiu, now seventy-three with only six years remaining in his life, was working with second-generation luminaries such as Li Zhichang (Zhenchang [Perfected Constancy]; 1193–1256), Song Defang (Piyun [Wrapped-in-Clouds]; 1183–1247), Wang Zhijin (Qiyun [Perched-in-Clouds]; 1178–1263), and Yin Zhiping (Qinghe [Clear Harmony]; 1169–1251), who would succeed Qiu as Complete Perfection Patriarch. This was also the time (1220–1223) when Qiu made his famous “westward journey” to meet the Mongol leader Chinggis Qan (Genghis Khan; ca. 1162–1227; r. 1206–1227) in the Hindu Kush (present-day Afghanistan).5 Gao Daokuan entered the Complete Perfection monastic order under an obscure Daoist master An of Penglai an (Hermitage of Penglai),6 which may have been located in or near Chang’an. Gao trained under Master An for about three years. Then, in 1224, at the age of twenty-nine, he moved to Bianliang (present-day Kaifeng, Henan), where Wang Zhe (Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]; 1113–1170), the movement’s founder, had died. There, Gao became a disciple of Li Chongxu of Danyang guan (Monastery of Danyang), a Complete Perfection Daoist temple named in honor of Ma Yu (Danyang [Elixir Yang]; 1123–1184). Li Chongxu’s identity remains obscure. He may be Li Chongdao (Qingxu [Clear Emptiness]; fl. 1170–1230), a second-generation Complete Perfection adherent with connections to Yu Zhidao. Li Chongdao was a disciple first of Ma Yu and then of Qiu Chuji, both of whom were senior first-generation disciples of the founder.7 In 1226, under the direction of the Jin emperor Aizong (1198–1234; r. 1224– 1234), the prominent Complete Perfection Daoist Yu Zhidao (Dongzhen [Cavernous Perfection]; 1166–1250) moved to Bianliang, where he became abbot of Taiyi gong (Palace of Great Unity). Like Li Chongdao, Yu Zhidao was first a disciple of Ma Yu and then of Qiu Chuji.8 Li Chongxu encouraged his disciple Gao Daokuan to train under Yu Zhidao, which Gao did until 1233. The same year, the Mongols besieged Kaifeng, eventually defeating the Jurchen forces and capturing the capital city.9 Lineage, training, and transmission are centrally important in the Daoist tradition in general and in Complete Perfection Daoism in particular.10 Specifically, Daoists tend to consider their spiritual genealogy or lines of descent

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through family metaphors, such as by referring to one’s primary teacher as “master-father” (shifu) and one’s teacher’s teacher as “master-grandfather” (shiye). Gao’s location in the early Complete Perfection monastic order is significant because he trained with two teachers, Li and Yu, who were direct disciples of Ma and Qiu. Ma Yu and Qiu Chuji were members of the so-called Seven Perfected (qizhen)—that is, senior first-generation Shandong disciples of Wang Zhe, the founder of Complete Perfection. There is a direct line of transmission, which included formal monastic ordination in Gao’s case (fig. 1.1). In addition to living in Bianliang (1224–1233), Gao resided in Longyang guan (Monastery of Dragon Radiance), located in the area above Yanjing (presentday Beijing), between 1233 and 1238. Following his semi-seclusion there, Gao traveled to Yanjing at the request of Yu Zhidao. Then, in 1240, at the age of fortyfive, Gao Daokuan moved to Chongyang gong (Palace of Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]) in Liujiang (present-day Huxian), Shaanxi. Referred to as Zuting (Ancestral Hall), this was the location of Wang Zhe’s early hermitage and then of his grave and shrine. As such, it was perhaps the key Complete Perfection devotional and pilgrimage site during this period of Daoist history. Gao lived in or near this Daoist sacred site for the remainder of his life, serving as the temple manager of Yuxian gong (Palace for Meeting Immortals) in Ganhe (1248–1252) and then as Daoist registrar for Jingzhao (1252–1261). During this time, he collaborated with and was honored by the national leaders of Complete Perfection: Li Zhichang (Zhenchang [Perfect Constancy]; 1193–1256), Zhang Zhijing (Chengming [Sincere Illumination]; 1220–1270), and Wang Zhitan (Chunhe

fi gu re 1.1. da oist lineag e affiliation o f g a o d a o k ua n

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[Pure Harmony]; 1200–1272). In addition to teaching his disciples and conducting rituals, Gao was involved in major renovations and additions to the Palace of Redoubled Yang. Gao Daokuan died in 1277, only two years before the final Mongol conquest of the whole of China and the formal establishment of their Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). According to his hagiography, “On the twenty-fourth day, he suspended his eating and sat with a dignified manner for the entire day. His conversation was just as it had been in earlier times, with him providing instructions about advancing in the Dao to his disciples. On the following day, he suddenly transformed [died] in the quiet room where he was staying. He had enjoyed eighty-three springs and autumns” (Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 3.32a).

THE WAY OF C OMPLE T E PE R F E C T ION Quanzhen began as a small ascetic and eremitic Daoist community around 1163.11 The two earliest Complete Perfection communities were based in Shaanxi and Shandong and emphasized intensive, dedicated and sustained religious training. Early Complete Perfection centered on ascetic discipline, meditative praxis, and mystical experience. The early community became the foundation for a regional and national movement, eventually developing into a national monastic order. As mentioned, the order’s establishment occurred under the direction of Qiu Chuji, the last surviving senior first-generation disciple of the founder and third Complete Perfection Patriarch, and his own senior disciples. The life and times of Gao Daokuan correspond to the “organized” and “expansive” periods of Complete Perfection history, specifically the institutionalization and development of Complete Perfection as a monastic order. This occurred from the early to late thirteenth century, corresponding to the latter part of the Song–Jin period and the early Yuan dynasty, which may have particular relevance for thinking about and with horses (see ch. 2 below). Early medieval Complete Perfection monasticism encompassed a vast network of hermitages, temples, and monasteries throughout northern China, with Shaanxi and Shandong remaining key centers. Gao resided in a variety of Daoist monasteries: the Hermitage of Penglai, possibly in Chang’an, Shaanxi; the Monastery of Elixir Yang and Palace of Great Unity, both in Bianliang, Henan; the Monastery of Dragon Radiance, near Beijing; and the Palace of Redoubled Yang, in Liujiang, Shaanxi. These dimensions of Gao’s life and his sociohistorical location invite inquiry into the defining characteristics of late medieval Complete Perfection monasticism, specifically the order’s training regimens. These inform and are expressed in Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures.

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By this time, larger Complete Perfection monasteries, at least from an idealized perspective, contained a central hall with a central altar, a meditation hall, refectory (dining hall), sleeping quarters, and so forth. The central altar was usually dedicated to the Sanqing (Three Purities), three high Daoist “gods” with various symbolic associations and theological interpretations (see Komjathy 2013b). Complete Perfection devotional and ritual activity also increasingly centered on the so-called Five Patriarchs (wuzu) and eventually the Seven Perfected (qizhen), as well as various other Daoist deities and immortals. There would have been variation with respect to worship patterns depending on the locale, residents, and local lay population. According to contemporaneous monastic manuals,12 there was a standardized and regimented schedule in which monastics gathered for three communal meals, engaged in periods of solitary and communal meditation, performed devotional and ritual activity, received formal religious instruction, and of course worked, studied, and slept. Monastic life included a hierarchically organized community and social structure consisting of abbots, temple managers, cooks, monastic residents, and “cloud-wanderers” (yunyou; traveling Daoists), as well as an elder system in which senior teachers (masters) oversaw the training of their students (disciples).13 This training involved providing person-specific spiritual direction, which is often referred to as “transmitting the Dao” (chuandao) or “oral instruction” (koujue) in the Daoist tradition. Late medieval Complete Perfection also included monks and nuns who lived in separate quarters of the same monastery. According to current research, it appears that there were few independent convents, or separate religious communities consisting exclusively of nuns.14 Complete Perfection monastic life emphasized renunciation of the Four Hindrances (sihai) of alcohol, sex, wealth, and anger.15 Institutionalizing such earlier Complete Perfection religious commitments, the late medieval monastic order centered on the three vows of celibacy (no sex), sobriety (no intoxicants), and proto-vegetarianism (no meat), obligations that continued into the late imperial and modern periods. There were also various conduct guidelines and rules that governed monastic life. That is, ethical commitments were prerequisites for entrance into the monastic community and foundational for more advanced training. In terms of scripture study, the fourth-century b.c.e. Daode jing (Tao-te ching; Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power), sixth-century c.e. Yinfu jing (Scripture on the Hidden Talisman; DZ 31; ZH 642), and eighth-century Qingjing jing (Scripture on Clarity and Stillness; DZ 620; ZH 350) were central (Komjathy 2008a, 2013a). Monastics also increasingly had access to the writings of Wang Zhe and his first-generation disciples. Within the broader parameters of Complete Perfection monastic life, the primary practice centered on dedicated and prolonged meditation, including both quietistic and alchemical types.16 Often referred to as “quiet sitting” (jingzuo),

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which has also been translated as “tranquil sitting” and “sitting-in-stillness,” the first type of meditation is an emptiness- or stillness-based practice in which one simply empties the heart-mind of emotional and intellectual activity—one simply sits in silence. It is contentless, nonconceptual, and nondualistic. The second type of meditation is referred to as internal alchemy (neidan); it involves stage-based contemplative practice utilizing complex methods aimed at complete psychosomatic transformation, or “immortality” in Daoist terms. We may reconstruct the contemplative practice for which the Horse Taming Pictures provide a contemplative map, a description of contemplative experience, by consulting relevant contemporaneous texts. Such texts inform us that aspiring Daoist adepts must train under the guidance of an elder and that this elder will provide methods appropriate to individual affinities and requirements. These include both quietistic and alchemical techniques, either in isolation or in combination.17 The Horse Taming Pictures primarily illustrate a quietistic approach; there is a general lack of alchemical terminology in most of the poems. In addition, as Gao occupied a leadership position in Shaanxi-based Complete Perfection monasticism later in his life,18 one can imagine that his illustrated poems were intended to provide instructions for his disciples and the larger monastic community.19 But what specifically was involved in late medieval Complete Perfection meditation? As mentioned, Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures seem to presuppose familiarity with Complete Perfection training regimens and with spiritual direction under a monastic elder.20 For relevant technical specifics, we must turn to other earlier and contemporaneous works. According to the possibly latetwelfth-century Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings; DZ 1233; ZH 1010; trans. Komjathy [2003] 2008, 2013a), which is attributed to the founder Wang Zhe, Complete Perfection practitioners are instructed to embrace meditation as an all-pervading existential approach. “Sitting in meditation” (dazuo) does not simply mean to sit with the body erect and the eyes closed. This is superficial sitting. To sit authentically, you must maintain a heart-mind like Mount Tai, remaining unmovable and unshakable throughout the entire day. [Maintain this practice] whether standing, walking, sitting, or lying down, whether in movement or stillness. Restrain and seal the Four Gates (simen), namely, the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. Do not allow the external world to enter in. If there is even the slightest trace of a thought about movement and stillness, this cannot be called quiet sitting. If you can practice like this, although your body resides in the world of dust, your name will already be listed in the ranks of the immortals. (3b)

Such insights are clearly rooted in intensive contemplative practice. For the foundational practice of quiet sitting, one is instructed to disengage sensory

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perception and to decrease emotional and intellectual activity to the point that one actually enters the state of meditative absorption characterized by stillness. In standard Daoist terms, this usually involves four stages or moments, namely, postural alignment (zheng), relaxation (song), stillness (jing), and concentration (ding). Associated with stabilized stillness, the latter term is often used as a translation of the Buddhist Sanskrit technical term sama¯dhi, which may be understood as meditative absorption and yogic stasis. Interestingly, discourses 7, 8, 9, and 13 (3b–5b) of this text appear in the fourteenth-century Qunxian yaoyu zuanji (Collection of Essential Sayings from Various Immortals; DZ 1257, 2.2b–4a) as a guide to Daoist meditation. In a more contemporaneous monastic manual, the late-thirteenth-century Quanzhen qinggui (Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection; DZ 1235; ZH 1067; trans. Komjathy 2013a), we find parallel instructions on foundational meditative discipline. Complete Perfection adepts become accomplished throughout various activities. They concentrate body and heart-mind by aligning the body and practicing quiet sitting. They do not give rise to impure thoughts. Keeping the spinal column erect [with the legs crossed in front of the body], the right foot is placed underneath and the hands are joined in tranquil silence. The heart-mind remains unconcerned with the external, and the eyes remain closed. Sit for one to two watches. (1b)

Apophatic meditation—contemplative practice that is contentless, nonconceptual, and nondualistic—is the means through which one may “tame the wild horse.” One must enter stillness, which is a return to one’s innate nature and thus to the Dao. While the first ten poems of the Horse Taming Pictures primarily emphasize quietistic meditation, with particular attention to the cultivation of “clarity and stillness” (qingjing),21 the last two poems and last three illustrations shift more in the direction of internal alchemy. This shift parallels the second scroll of Gao’s associated text. Like Gao’s own writings, late medieval Complete Perfection works tend to use technical alchemical language in more poetic and theoretical ways, without explicit discussion of the related techniques and practical instructions. One of the few exceptions is the possibly mid-thirteenth-century Dadan zhizhi (Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir; DZ 244; ZH 1025; trans. Komjathy 2013a), attributed to Qiu Chuji. As this work is roughly contemporaneous with Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures, it may provide insights into the associated alchemical meditation. According to the Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir, there are nine stages of neidan praxis. 1. Coupling the Dragon and Tiger and inverting the Five Phases 2. Firing times of the Celestial Cycle and inverting the Five Phases

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3. Reversion of the Three Fields and flying the gold essence behind the elbow 4. Reversion of the Three Fields and the reverted elixir of the gold yefluids 5. Five Qi meeting the Origin and refining form into greater yang 6. Union of spirit and qi and the consummation of the Three Fields 7. Five Qi meeting the Origin and refining spirit to enter the summit 8. Initiating the fire through inner observation and refining spirit to merge with the Dao 9. Casting off the husk to ascend to immortality and transcending the mundane to enter the sacred The text describes the associated methods, including activating the qi of the five yin-organs (liver/azure, heart/red, spleen/yellow, lungs/white, kidneys/black [purple]) and circulating qi through the Celestial Cycle (zhoutian) or Waterwheel (heche), which is also known as the Microcosmic Orbit. The primary purpose is to activate (create?) the Daoist subtle, energetic body and form the “embryo of immortality” (xiantai). Often referred to as the yang-spirit (yangshen) and body-beyond-the-body (shenwai shen), this is the body composed of “elixir fields” (dantian) and meridians—that is, subtle locations and channels in which vital substances are stored and through which qi circulates. While associations with alchemical meditation are relevant to the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, quietistic meditation remains the primary and foundational practice of Gao’s illustrated poems, and perhaps of Complete Perfection religious praxis more generally. In fact, Gao Daokuan’s hagiography makes reference to his own practice: “Every evening at midnight, he settled spirit by practicing quiet sitting. He would not sleep even until dawn. In terms of exercises for cultivating perfection and refined nourishing, he practiced with effort and constancy. Even when he was over eighty years old, his walking was healthy and strong. His vitality was full and robust” (Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 31b; also 30b). Quiet sitting is the foundational practice that informs and is expressed in Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures, though there are also alchemical dimensions in them. Placed in the broader context of Complete Perfection monasticism and informed by Gao’s own Daoist life, aspiring Daoist adepts are directed to engage in dedicated and sustained meditation, both solitary and communal.

THE HORSE TAM ING PIC T U R E S The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures (abbrev. HTP) are contained in the first scroll (juan) of the two-scroll, thirteenth-century Shangsheng xiuzhen sanyao

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(Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection According to the Highest Vehicle; DZ 267; ZH 1037; abbrev. Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection),22 which is the only extant work attributed to Gao Daokuan. Somewhat polemically, the title refers to Daoism in general and Complete Perfection in particular as the “Highest Vehicle” (shangsheng), which is a cooptation of a Buddhist technical term often used in China to refer to the Lotus Sutra and Tiantai (Jpn.: Tendai; Celestial Terrace) Buddhism by extension (see, e.g., Ch’en 1972). “Cultivating perfection” (xiuzhen) is a contemporaneous Daoist designation for dedicated religious training, especially that involving inner alchemical praxis and transformation.23 While in other contexts the phrase Three Essentials refers to the internal Three Treasures (sanbao; namely, vital essence, qi, and spirit), here it refers to the heart-mind (xin), innate nature (xing), and life-destiny (ming). The heart-mind is associated with the actual heart, consciousness in a more abstract sense, and the storehouse of spirit (shen). It is considered the emotional and intellectual center of human beings. Innate nature and life-destiny are key technical terms in internal alchemy in general and Complete Perfection in particular. On an etymological level, xing 性 consists of xin 心/忄 (heart-mind) and sheng 生 (to be born); it is the heart-mind with which one was born (“original mind”). Also translated as “fate,” ming 命 may be related to ling 令 (mandate); it is an endowment from the universe made manifest as one’s body. Under a Daoist etymological reading, ming depicts the lower back ribcage and the kidneys. Innate nature is associated with the heart, spirit, and consciousness. Life-destiny is associated with the kidneys, vital essence (jing), and foundational vitality and physicality. As a paired phrase, innate nature often corresponds to original spirit (yuanshen), while life-destiny corresponds to original qi (yuanqi). The Horse Taming Pictures emphasize the relationship between the heart-mind and thought (habituation) and innate nature (realization). They use the analogy of horse training, or “taming the wild horse,”24 to discuss Daoist contemplative practice, specifically the necessity of reining in sensory engagement and harnessing chaotic psychological patterns through dedicated and prolonged meditation. As in contemporaneous Complete Perfection more generally, it appears that the cultivation of life-destiny, one’s foundational vitality, is assumed as foundational; one must conserve and stabilize vital essence and attain a state of nondissipation (wulou) before engaging in intensive meditation. Otherwise contemplative practice will be fruitless. In terms of audience, Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures probably were intended to provide contemplative guidance for his disciples and the larger monastic community. The first scroll of the Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection begins with a brief preface (1.1a), followed by the short “Sanfa song” (Hymn of the Three Methods) (1.1b). The majority of this scroll (1.2a–11a) contains what I have labeled the “Horse Taming Pictures” and “Horse Taming Poems.”25 Printed

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along with the twelve unnumbered and untitled poems and thirteen associated illustrations is what appears to be Gao’s own verse commentary.26 The Horse Taming Poems are written in irregular daoqing meter, consisting of sevenand three-character lines, while the verse commentary primarily consists of quatrains (four five-character lines). The present study consists of a complete annotated translation of the entire first scroll, with the opening material translated in this chapter and the actual Horse Taming Poems and accompanying commentary translated as a separate section.27 The second scroll contains twelve primary sections. Titled and with an associated diagram, each section includes one or two lyrics (ci) and rhymed instructions (jue). Most significantly, these contain poetic descriptions of internal alchemy, such as of the Qian-heaven A and Kun-earth B hexagrams, alchemical vessels, firing times (huohou) and refinement process, elixir formation, and so forth. Interestingly, the final sections and diagrams discuss “transcending [the mundane] and casting off [the husk]” (chaotuo; immortality) and the attainment of the state of nonaction (wuwei), here represented by an empty circle. So the second half of the Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection adds support for understanding the Horse Taming Pictures as rooted in and expressing an alchemical model, at least to a certain degree. The text ends with the “Chunjue xinxing ge” (Song of the Pure Awakening of the Heart-mind and Innate Nature; 2.15a–16a), which is translated in appendix 2 below. As Catherine Despeux (2004, 1177) has observed, this section refers to innate nature as the “white ox” (bainiu) and the heart-mind as the “shepherd” (muzhai), perhaps directing us toward the potential connection between horses and oxen (see ch. 2 below).28 The preface to Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection reads as follows: Now, hearing about the greatness and expansiveness of the utmost Dao, there is nothing that does not return to its center and innate nature.29 Substance and function,30 constancy and variation, and the principles of the universe become harmonized and united. When fire arises in the Jade Furnace,31 the Divine Duke circulates the Celestial Plate.32 Floating clouds are swept clean. Recognizing the time and direction, one joins zi and wu.33 Qian-heaven ascends and Kun-earth descends.34 Such responsiveness is the method of the sun and moon. Heaven endures and earth persists. Who is willing, in unconcerned leisure, to embrace this rare opportunity35 worth ten thousand ingots of yellow gold? Adepts who understand the Dao, wandering within ordinary confines, may find it difficult to seek daily practice among ordinary people.36 Who recognizes the essential wonder and ultimate meaning? Abandoning both remedy and illness, you recognize that this is the very moment to follow the great Way of Cultivating Perfection.37

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According to Gao, an orientation toward the Dao is the foundation of Daoist cultivation and refinement. In order to realize the Dao, aspiring Daoist adepts must dedicate themselves to alchemical transformation. They must become fully committed to the “Way of Cultivating Perfection,” to renouncing mundane concerns and transcending situational constraints. This preface is followed by the “Hymn of the Three Methods,” which includes an illustration and the following short text.38 Believing this [cultivation/instruction] to be of little value, a thief calls upon the heart-mind,39 which lets out a single great yell and assembles the three methods together.40 The two relatives41 are compelled to become established in their appropriate places. Once you take hold of the heart-mind, you may simultaneously forget the three methods.

fi gu re 1.2 . i llustratio n of th e h ymn of t h e t h r e e m e t h o d s Illuminate the three methods Your feet travel on the true ground Innate nature

Realize impermanence42 Your practice is naturally effective

Heart-mind

Life-destiny43

While the exact meaning of the “three methods” is unclear, the text emphasizes cultivation with a focus on the heart-mind, innate nature, and life-destiny. Aspiring Daoist adepts must engage in holistic and integrated training; this involves attentiveness to the physical, energetic, and spiritual dimensions of personhood. Given the emphasis on the heart-mind and innate nature in the Horse Taming Pictures, it appears that Gao is instructing one first to tend to one’s foundational vitality and well-being. Stability and nondissipation are re-

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quired for the purification of consciousness and attainment of more complete realization. That is, within the larger Daoist discussion of the “dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny” (xingming shuangxiu), it appears that here cultivation of life-destiny is the precondition for the cultivation of innate nature. As the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures represent a Daoist adaptation of the slightly earlier Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures (abbrev. OHP),44 some background on the latter is in order. To begin, “ox” translates niu, which also has been rendered as “water buffalo.”45 We are dealing with a domesticated, draft animal, a “beast of burden” in conventional terms. In addition, the socalled Ox Herding Pictures often do not contain any reference to “herding”; the standard title is Shiniu tu, which may be simply rendered as “Illustrations of the Ten Bulls” or “Ten Water Buffalo Pictures.” Only some versions of the Puming edition are titled Muniu tu (Illustrations of Herding the Ox). The Ox Herding Pictures have survived in a variety of editions. The two most famous and influential are those with poems written by Puming (Jpn.: Fumyo¯; eleventh c.) and Kuoan (Jpn.: Kakuan; twelfth c.). Of these, it appears that Puming’s version is the oldest extant one (Despeux 1981, 52; Heine 2004, 621). However, according to Kuoan’s own preface and an accompanying commentary, there were two earlier or contemporaneous versions: one by Qingju (Jpn.: Seikyo; eleventh c.), which consisted of five poems and illustrations, and the other by Zide Huihui (Jpn.: Jitoku; 1090–1159), which comprised six poems and illustrations (Suzuki [1934] 1991, 127–28; see also Despeux 1981, 55–63). In any case, the two primary extant editions are those of Puming and Kuoan, both from the Song–Jin period, the same period during which the slightly later Daoist Horse Taming Pictures were composed. Both of these Chan Buddhists remain obscure, although it appears that Kuoan was a member of the Linji (Jpn.: Rinzai) lineage (Suzuki [1934] 1991, 127; Despeux 1981, 53, 113). Their texts are contained in the Xu zangjing (Supplement to the Buddhist Canon), specifically in volume 64 as text numbers 1270 and 1269, respectively. They also exist in various independent editions, with illustrations by a variety of artists. Puming’s version has been translated into English by D. T. Suzuki in his Manual of Zen Buddhism (1934) and more recently by Red Pine ([1983] 1987). Kuoan’s version has been translated into English by D. T. Suzuki in the same work, by Paul Reps and Nyogen Senzaki in their Zen Flesh, Zen Bones ([1957] 1998), and by Philip Kapleau in his The Three Pillars of Zen ([1965] 2000), among others.46 Unfortunately, we have yet to see a comprehensive historical study, with attention to the various editions and other critical questions, such as earlier Buddhist precedents employing bovine-centered imagery and analogies, as well as art historical discussions of the various illustrations.47 For example, with respect to ox herding precedents, the Yijiao jing (Sutra on the Bequeathed Teachings), a Chinese translation traditionally attributed to the famous

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Kuchean monk-translator Kuma¯rajı¯va (344–413) but now widely assumed to be an indigenous Chinese Buddhist composition (Buswell and Lopez 2014, 1028), contains the following: “Monks, once you’re able to keep the precepts, you should prevent your five senses from indulging in the five desires. Be like the herdboy with his staff in hand who watches over his ox and keeps it from running through grain fields” (cited in Red Pine 1987, n.p.; also Despeux 1981, 64–65). Interestingly, this text was highly influential in Chan Buddhism and eventually collected in the Fozu sanjing (Three Sutras of the Buddhas and Patriarchs) (Buswell and Lopez, 2014, 1028). In any case, an important foundation for deciphering this complex history is the French publication by Catherine Despeux (1981), which includes French translations of the Puming and Kuoan editions as well as the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures (without the verse commentary) and Tibetan Elephant Taming Pictures. For present purposes, the two primary editions of the Ox Herding Pictures are noteworthy for their different depictions of the Chan Buddhist contemplative path (table 1.1).48 While both consist of ten illustrated poems, there are differences. One significant variation involves the color of the ox and its associated symbolism. In Puming’s edition, training involves gradual progress, which is represented by a progressive whitening of the ox. In Kuoan’s version, the ox remains black throughout (Suzuki [1934] 1991, 128). In addition, the sequence of events and the religious implications of the final outcome differ. In the Puming edition, the boy tames the ox and the two exist in a paradisiacal state and

table 1 .1 . co mparative ch a r t o f principal o x h erdin g p ic t u r e s Puming’s (11th c.) Version

Kuoan’s (12th c.) Version

(1) Untamed (2) Taming Begins (3) Restrained (4) Turning His Head (5) Tamed (6) Unhindered (7) Following the Currents (8) Forgetting Other (9) Alone in the Light (10) Both Extinguished

(1) Searching for the Ox (2) Seeing the Traces (3) Seeing the Ox (4) Catching the Ox (5) Herding the Ox (6) Coming Home on the Ox’s Back (7) Forgetting the Ox (8) Disappearance of Ox and Person (9) Returning to the Source (10) Entering the World

Source: Xu zangjing, vol. 64, no. 1270 (Puming), no. 1269 (Kuoan)

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then move into a mystical realm. By the penultimate picture, the ox is gone, and in the last the boy also disappears, leaving an empty circle. In the Kuoan version, the empty circle appears in the eighth picture,49 but by the end the boy, without the ox, reenters the ordinary world to apply his enlightenment in the marketplace (Heine 2004, 621–22). To use Harold Roth’s helpful distinction (2000), which is partially indebted to Walter Stace (1960) and Arthur Deikman (1982), we may consider Puming’s version as a more introvertive or unitive approach while Kuoan’s version represents a more extrovertive or applied approach. The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures are adapted from, or at least inspired by, the Puming edition of the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures, which maps the contemplative path as a ten-stage process. There are ten illustrated poems, eight of which are bovine-centered (fig. 1.3).50 As mentioned, this version depicts an introvertive and gradual approach to contemplative practice. Implicitly taking a stand (no pun intended) on the seminal Chan Buddhist debate about mirror (and mind) polishing (see, e.g., Yampolsky 1967), Puming suggests that one must engage in consistent and prolonged meditation. Specifically, one must purify consciousness by removing various defilements and vexations (Chn.: fannao; Skt.: kles´a), represented by the black color (pictures 1–5). One gradually enters a purified state of consciousness, represented by the white color (pictures 6–8), and eventually attains enlightenment, represented by the empty circle (picture

fi gu re 1.3 . i llustration s of puming ’s ox h e r d in g p o e m s

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10). This transformation takes place over ten steps or stages.51 Interestingly, although the final image is often interpreted as an empty circle, the earlier illustrations (3–5, 7–9) depict the full moon; in this respect, one also notices that the moon is absent from picture 6, the transition from black to white ox. Another interesting iconographic feature, one rarely commented on but noteworthy from a Daoist perspective, is the presence of constellations in pictures 8 and 9. Picture 8 shows four major stars of the Western constellation of Lyra, with Vega, usually appearing as a fifth star, being the brightest. In traditional Chinese astronomy, Vega is the Weaving Maiden. Mythologically speaking, on the seventh day of the seventh moon, when all of the magpies on earth fly up to heaven and form a bridge across the Milky Way, the Weaving Maiden meets the Cowherd, corresponding to the Western star of Altair in the Aquila constellation.52 This astronomical subtext adds a cosmological dimension to the scene of the two beings, the ox herder (practitioner) and the ox (consciousness / mind / capacity for enlightenment), finally merging together. Moreover, in picture 9, after the ox has disappeared, the ox herder stands alone facing the Northern Dipper, viewed “from the other shore.” From a traditional Daoist perspective, the Northern or Big Dipper represents fate (ming): one has transcended ordinary fate (karma) and realized one’s true fate (karma), namely, liberation or enlightenment. Thus, like other medieval and late imperial examples, there appears to be Buddhist and Daoist cross-pollination, perhaps Buddho-Daoist syncretism, with the empty circle perhaps representing the end of distinct religious identity (and sectarianism) (see also Komjathy 2008b, 2009, 2013a, 2015). The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures comprise ten primary equine-centered illustrations and three secondary non-equine-centered representations.53 As the wood-block illustrations reveal, they represent a “map of transformation,” in which Daoist contemplative practice and contemplative experience are understood as a stage-based process conceptualized in terms of “taming the wild horse.” The ten primary equine-centered illustrations (fig. 1.4) depict an attendant (significantly, not a rider) first catching an escaped domesticated horse (illustration 1), then training this horse (illustrations 2–4), and finally becoming companions with the horse (illustrations 5–10). The culmination of this “taming process” involves the attendant and horse sleeping harmoniously side by side.54 In all of the pictures, one notices that the horse only has a halter and lead (neither a bridle with reins nor a saddle)55 and that, especially beginning in the fifth illustration, the lead hangs freely (the horse is not and does not need to be tied up or corralled).56 The point of this training is to direct, rather than fully subjugate, the horse (thought), although, perhaps disturbingly, one must sometimes use a crop or switch at the beginning of the process (poems 1

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1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

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f i gu re 1.4. te n equine- cen tered h o rse ta m in g p ic t u r e s

and 2; illustration 2).57 Here it is noteworthy that the character bang (lit., stick), translated as “crop,” is the same one occasionally utilized to refer to the Chan Buddhist “wake-up stick” (Jpn.: kyo¯saku; keisaku). Like the more common ban (lit., board), bang 棒 contains the mu 木 (wood) radical. This stands in contrast to the character bian 鞭 (lit., whip), which contains the ge 革 (leather) radical, utilized in the Ox Herding Pictures.58 As mentioned, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures do not provide explicit instructions on Daoist contemplative practice. Rather, they assume that the reader has instruction on and commitment to meditation, specifically in a Complete Perfection monastic context and under the direction of a Daoist elder. These illustrated poems may be understood as a map of stages on the Daoist contemplative path.59 They discuss both the inner landscape of the Daoist body and the process of complete alchemical transformation. Special attention is given to contemplative psychology and to the transformative effects of dedicated and prolonged contemplative practice.

DAOI ST CONT E M PLAT IVE E XPE R IE N C E A N D CONT E MPLAT IVE PSYCH OL OGY Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures map the associated contemplative experience and transformative effects of the training. Although such contemplative

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cartographies, or outlines of stages on the contemplative path, are often associated with Buddhism,60 Daoists also gave attention to various moments or experiences related to contemplative practice, some of which may be understood as precedents for the Horse Taming Pictures. First, in terms of classical Daoism (fifth–second c. b.c.e.), the textual corpus of the inner cultivation lineages refers to both states (temporary psychological conditions) and traits (more enduring character shifts) associated with apophatic meditation (table 1.2).61 These stages include both preparatory (preliminary) and consecutive (sequential) ones, as well as related benefits and transformative effects. In this respect, it is noteworthy that here one encounters a classical Daoist map that becomes foundational in the later tradition—namely, postural alignment (zheng), stillness (jing), and concentration (ding), or meditative absorption.62 Such attentiveness to stages on the contemplative path continued in late medieval Daoism, specifically during the Tang dynasty (618–907). For example, in the eighth-century Zuowang lun (Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness; DZ 1036; ZH 992; trans. Kohn 1987, 2010),63 Sima Chengzhen (Zhenyi [Pure Unity]; 647–735), the Twelfth Patriarch of Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism, identifies “seven steps to the Dao”: 1. Reverence and trust (jingxin) 2. Interrupting karma (duanyuan) 3. Gathering the heart-mind (shouxin) 4. Detachment from affairs (jianshi) 5. Perfect observation (zhenguan) 6. Intense concentration (taiding) 7. Realizing the Dao (dedao) Paralleling classical Daoism in certain respects, these stages have the ultimate goal of mystical union with the Dao. In addition, they have a close connection to Daoist “Clarity-and-Stillness Literature” (Komjathy [2003] 2008), a family of texts that was composed around the same time as the Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness (see Kohn 1998). As the name suggests, this Daoist literature centers on the classical and foundational Daoist commitment to “clarity and stillness.” Specifically, we find a contemplative cartography utilizing an agitation (dong)/turbidity (zhuo) and stillness (jing)/clarity (qing) spectrum.64 1. Major agitation (taidong) 2. Minor agitation (shaodong) 3. Equal agitation and stillness (—) 4. Minor stillness (shaojing) 5. Major stillness (taijing)

Tranquil Equanimous Serene Unadorned

Nothing injures the celestial

Aligned Tranquil

Tranquil

Aligned

Penetrate perturbations of the will; release the fetters of the heart-mind; cast off the constraints to inner power; pass through blockages of the Way

Break through perturbations of the will; release the fetters of the heart-mind; cast off the constraints to inner power; break through blockages of the Way

Harmonize ears and eyes; limit lusts and desires; let go of wisdom and scheming; cast off cleverness and precedent

[Knowledge of preservation and loss] generates wisdom; wisdom generates alignment

Aligned

Zhuangzi ch. 23: “Gengsang Chu”

Lüshi chunqiu ch. 25.3: “Having Limits”

Lüshi chunqiu ch. 3.4: “Assessing Others”

Huang-Lao boshu “Jingfa,” ch. 6: “Assessing”

Balanced

Aligned

Clean out the lodging place; cast off desires; direct inner concentration

Guanzi ch. 13.2b: “Techniques of the Heart-Mind I”

ta bl e 1.2 . sta g e s o f c l a ssic a l d a o ist a p o p h a t ic me d ita t io n

Patterned

(continued)

Concentrate blood and breath; fill the chest and belly; eliminate lusts and desires; purify seeing and hearing; conquer perturbations of the will

Huainanzi ch. 7: “Numinous Essence”

Concentrated

Numinous Attain the One

Respond to alterations and transformations of things; be grand and deep; be unfathomable . . . return to the unhewn

Concentrated

Numinous

Perfectly numinous; then seeing and knowing are never deluded . . .

Source: Adapted from Roth 1997.

Lüshi chunqiu ch. 3.4: “Assessing Others”

Huang-Lao boshu “Jingfa,” ch. 6: “Assessing”

Empty

Take no action and yet nothing is left undone

Take no action and yet nothing is left undone

Lucid

Zhuangzi ch. 23: “Gengsang Chu”

Empty

Clear and lucid

Lüshi chunqiu ch. 25.3: “Having Limits”

ta b l e 1. 2. (continued)

Concentrated Solitary Lucid Numinous Attain the empty Way

Guanzi ch. 13.2b: “Techniques of the Heart-Mind I”

Seeing: nothing is unseen; hearing: nothing is unheard; acting: nothing is unaccomplished

Numinous

Absorbed

Huainanzi ch. 7: “Numinous Essence”

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This is a movement from habituation to realization, with the latter characterized by increasing depths of stillness and degrees of clarity. Emotional and intellectual activity decreases to the point that one disappears in meditative absorption, or attunement with the Dao. One’s innate nature (stillness) merges with the Dao (Stillness). In standard Daoist terms, this usually results in higher degrees of energetic awareness and spiritual insight. Within the early Complete Perfection movement and later monastic order, the Qingjing jing (Scripture on Clarity and Stillness; DZ 620; ZH 350), the central text of the Clarity-and-Stillness Literature, became one of the foundational scriptures (Komjathy [2003] 2008, 2007, 2013a). In it we are told, “If you can constantly banish desires, / Then the heart-mind will become still naturally. / If you can constantly settle the heart-mind, / Then spirit will become clear naturally” (1b). The text is thus key for understanding Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures. Before discussing the specific contemplative cartography of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, a few words are in order about Daoist contemplative psychology (a topic to which I return in ch. 2). As outlined by Han de Wit in his Contemplative Psychology (1991), “The term contemplative psychology refers . . . to the psychological insights and beliefs that are often implicitly present in the vision of religions, and that become concretized in the authentic religious practices of individuals” (12, emphasis in original). De Wit continues: This brings us to the main purpose of this introductory study in contemplative psychology: to make explicit and clarify the nature and position of the psychological know-how that contemplative traditions contain. . . . The clarification of the psychological aspects of contemplative traditions may also contribute to a general understanding of the value of contemplative traditions and their psychological perspectives, both from a practical and from a scientific psychological or methodological point of view. (14, emphasis in original)

For de Wit, contemplative practice utilizes and activates a special set of psychological states or conditions. It involves a specific type of knowing (“contemplative epistemology”), which includes first-person experience (31–32). However, this is not uncritical adherent discourse—that is, the discourse of apologetics and dogmatics. Rather, it is a more systematic investigation of one’s life through experiences within contemplative practice. The goal, ideally, is to become more conscious, integrated, and, from one perspective, realized. De Wit identifies this as a path to that which religious traditions identify as emancipation, enlightenment, fulfillment, liberation, salvation, and so forth (18). That is to say, contemplative practice is located within a more encompassing soteriological system.65 He identifies an existential and psychological shift that occurs through contemplative practice. Such shifts are documented in the psychological views of religious traditions. Contemplative psychology attempts to map the “higher”

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levels of human functioning. For present purposes, and simply stated, contemplative psychology refers to the particular psychology informed by and utilized within contemplative practice (see Komjathy 2015, forthcoming [b]). The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures center on the heart-mind (xin) and how in a habituated and agitated state it leads to spiritual disorientation while in a realized and stabilized state it leads to attunement with the Dao. The horse is used as a symbol for thought—specifically chaotic, uncontrolled, and overly active thought. This is comparable to a horse galloping out of control. In Daoist psychology in general and Complete Perfection psychology in particular, thought or thinking, as well as emotionality or feeling, is associated with the heart-mind. Often referred to as the “center” (zhong) and the “ruler” (zhu), the heart-mind is the emotional and intellectual center of human personhood.66 Generally speaking, the heart-mind refers to the actual organ, consciousness in a more abstract sense, and the storehouse of spirit. With respect to the latter, it is associated with innate nature. One in turn finds various Chinese technical terms related to Daoist contemplative psychology. These include qing (emotions), nian (thought), si (thought), yi (intention/thought), and so forth. While some of these are often synonymous or have context-specific meanings, here it is sufficient to recognize that each one contains the xin (heart) radical. Broadly conceived, each one relates to a particular dimension or expression of consciousness. While they have their appropriate use, more often than not they become sources of agitation. By extension, there is a psychological condition in which intellectual and emotional activity is stilled. This is the original or realized state of the heart-mind. It is contentless consciousness, an open field that encompasses each distinct expression of consciousness. In terms of Complete Perfection contemplative psychology, which was partially influenced by Buddhism, we also find more comprehensive and complex mappings. Ordinary mind and conditioned/habituated consciousness is often characterized by “delusion” (huo), “defilements” (chen), and “vexations” ( fannao), with the latter corresponding to the Buddhist Sanskrit technical term kles´a. Paralleling Puming’s Ox Herding Pictures, Gao’s poems and verse commentary use reference to a black horse and white horse to designate the states of impurity and purity, although the associated illustrations only depict an uncolored horse. In order to return to original nature, one’s innate connection with the Dao, one must purify consciousness of disruptive psychological tendencies and states, including the Three Poisons, Six Defilements, Seven Emotions, and so forth. The Three Poisons (sandu) refer to greed, anger, and ignorance. The Six Defilements (liuchen) are covetousness, anger, ignorance, arrogance, doubt, and false views. The Seven Emotions (qiqing) usually denote pleasure, anger, worry, thought, grief, fear, and fright (Komjathy 2007, 2013a). Applied in contemplative practice and explored in contemplative experience,

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deeper meditation and spiritual realization should result in a decrease in, if not a complete absence of, these. As in the emphasis on clarity and stillness, here we again find a connection with classical Daoism, wherein apparent emotionlessness (wuqing) is one characteristic of advanced practitioners and realized beings.67 This is the state of equanimity. In addition to the purification of such negative states, contemporaneous Complete Perfection and internal alchemy materials also identify beneficial and transformed ontological conditions that result from committed and prolonged contemplative practice. For example, one is said to eventually attain the state of nondissipation (wulou), which literally means “without leakage,” and freedom from outflow by extension. The phrase refers to a condition wherein the adept has sealed himself or herself off from every possible source of dissipation (lou). Derived from the Buddhist distinction between “outflowing” (Chn.: lou; Skt.: a¯srava) and “free from outflowing” (Chn.: wulou; Skt.: ana¯srava), the former refers to delusions generated by sensory engagement while the latter refers to being free from delusions and karma-producing activities. Nondissipation in turn relates to the absence of delusion, defilement, and vexation. In addition, from a contemporaneous Complete Perfection monastic perspective, “nondissipation,” and even “clarity-and-stillness” in technical terms, corresponds to the conservation of vital essence through the practice of celibacy. Similarly, there is emphasis on attaining the “fruits of the Dao” (daoguo), which relate to realized ontological conditions. These include the beneficial and transformational effects, associated results, and numinous abilities that naturally emerge during dedicated and prolonged meditative praxis. According to one expression, the fruits of the Dao consist of terrestrial immortality (dixian), flying immortality (feixian), self-dependence (Chn.: zizai; Skt.: isva¯ra), free-from-dissipation (Chn.: wulou; Skt.: ana¯srava), and nonaction (wuwei).68 Sometimes the states of freedom (ziyou) and being carefree (xiaoyao) are also included. Here I draw attention to these because there is much misunderstanding about the Daoist principle, value, and practice of wuwei (see Komjathy 2013b), including an assumed meaning absent of context and corresponding religious commitments. As mentioned above, in the second scroll of the Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, Gao Daokuan emphasizes attainment of the “state of nonaction,” which corresponds to the empty circle. References to nonaction also appear in the verse commentary on the Horse Taming Pictures (DZ 267, 1.5a, 8b, 10ab). In this context, it appears that nonaction refers to the contemporaneous Daoist state of spiritual realization, one rooted in contemplative practice and embodied in contemplative experience, in mystical being and experiencing (see Komjathy 2007, forthcoming [c]). As a contemplative cartography, the Horse Taming Pictures represent twelve stages or moments on the Daoist contemplative and mystical path.69 Unlike

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the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures, these Daoist poems and the associated illustrations are untitled. However, noting parallels and drawing on close textual analysis, I propose the following (asterisks indicate non-equine-centered images): 1. Untrained 2. Training Begins 3. Restrained 4. Training Continues 5. Trained 6. Unhindered 7. At Leisure (I) 8. At Leisure (II) 9. Resting Together 10. United in Forgetfulness 11. Abiding in Suchness* 12. Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity* The first ten illustrations are equine-centered while the final three are not. Unlike the Ox Herding Pictures, the Horse Taming Pictures contain a horse in each of the ten primary illustrations. These ten poems emphasize the movement from agitation to stillness. Rooted in and primarily expressing a quietistic model of Daoist practice,70 they suggest that emotional and intellectual activity decreases to the point that one enters a state of silence, emptiness, and forgetfulness. In stages eleven and twelve, presented in poems 11 and 12 and illustrations 11–13 (fig. 1.5), we move from a more quietistic viewpoint into a more alchemical one. Here the focus is no longer on the horse. For example, poem 11 begins with the following two lines: “With person and horse both forgotten, obscurity is indescribable; / Internally guarding complete perfection, I nourish suchness.” The associated verse commentary tells us, “The excellence of double forgetting (shuangwang) is difficult to describe; through subtle application, one becomes continuously connected” (10a). These images thus relate to Daoist internal alchemy—namely, clerical identity (11), the immortal embryo or child (12), and an elderly immortal (13). As an ordained Complete Perfection monastic, specifically one committed to meditative praxis and alchemical transformation, the practitioner has, at least ideally speaking, undergone an ontological shift. To fully embody clerical identity, one must be attuned with the Dao and become a vehicle for its transmission in the world. This presupposes self-cultivation (“taming the wild horse”), in which mundane entanglements have been abandoned and one has dissolved ordinary personhood. Through such religious training, one discovers, establishes, and/or actualizes the embryo of immortality within.

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fi gu re 1.5. i llustratio n s 11 th rough 1 3 o f t h e h o r se ta m in g pi c tu re s

Such an advanced Daoist practitioner maintains a connection with his or her original nature and manifests a numinous presence in the world. This culminates in immortality. Specifically, the twelfth poem tells us that one has completed the alchemical process, total psychosomatic transformation, by activating or creating the Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity (qingjing fashen). Adapted from the Buddhist concept of the Three Bodies, this subtle body within the physical body corresponds to the “yang-spirit” (yangshen) and “body-beyondthe-body” (shenwai shen) mentioned in other contemporaneous Complete Perfection works.71 The practitioner has become an immortal, is guaranteed postmortem existence, and may now enter the Daoist sacred realms and live in mystical union with the Dao. The thirteenth and final illustration is more hermeneutically open. It depicts an elderly immortal. The final line of the twelfth poem reads, “The origin arrived as the great beginning, a purple and gold immortal (zijin xian).” The iconography suggests that this is Laozi (Master Lao), who became identified as one of the Five Patriarchs of early Complete Perfection Daoism.72 In that context, he is sometimes referred to as Hunyuan (Primordial Origin). Thus the aspiring Complete Perfection adept becomes aligned with the source of the teachings and tradition. One returns to the origins of Daoism and then brings those origins into the present moment. However, the verse commentary suggests this state is the highest form of spiritual attainment, in which one gains access to the highest Daoist sacred realms. Specifically, the commentary apparently refers to Yuanshi tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning) and the associated

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heaven of Yuqing (Jade Clarity). Laozi is technically Daode tianzun (Celestial Worthy of the Dao and Inner Power) and associated with the heaven of Taiqing (Great Clarity).73 In any case, one has completed the alchemical process, total psychosomatic transformation, and become an immortal, a being simultaneously manifest and hidden. In the larger framework of Gao’s Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, this is represented by the empty circle (DZ 267, 2.13b–15a), also referred to as emptiness, Nonbeing, and the Void in the verse commentary. Unlike the earlier text, the thirteenth illustration does not have a corresponding poem. Perhaps this ultimate state is inexpressible and incomprehensible, beyond linguistic expression and dualistic conception. Perhaps like the “darkness within darkness” (xuan zhi you xuan), the mysteriousness beyond “mystery,” the white space of the (non)text, the absence of writing, approximates disappearance of self into the Dao.

2. Of Stallions, Steppes, and Stables

While the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures primarily address stages on the Daoist contemplative path, they do so through the use of animal imagery, through the analogy of training horses. They are about training horses on some level. When engaged on a deeper interpretive level and perhaps through contemplative inquiry, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures inspire reflection on horses, wildness, and training. In this chapter, I first discuss the relationship between wildness and cultivation, or domestication, in the Daoist tradition, giving particular attention to the inner cultivation lineages of classical Daoism, as this earliest form of Daoism established foundational views, commitments, and practices for the larger tradition, including members of the Complete Perfection movement. Next, I explore “the question of the animal,” emphasizing the distinction between the animal as other-construct, symbolic animals, and actual animals. This is followed by a consideration of symbolic horses in traditional Chinese culture and in Daoism and then by an examination of actual horses in the sociohistorical context of Gao Daokuan’s life. Along the way, I emphasize “seeing through horses”—that is, examining the relationship between contemplative practice and animals. The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures illustrate how dedicated and prolonged contemplative practice leads to various transformative effects, including with respect to animals. Here the stages on the contemplative

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path are deeply connected to relationships with horses, whether symbolic or actual. This involves engagement with the Horse Taming Pictures as a multidimensional contemplative exercise in itself, one in which the animal is central. I thus use the title of this chapter to draw attention to powerful animals, wildness, and control, here alluded to through “stallions, steppes, and stables.”

ON W ILDNE SS AND DOM E S T IC AT ION The relationship between wildness and cultivation, or domestication, in Daoist contexts is a complex topic.1 Considering historical precedents, members of the inner cultivation lineages of classical Daoism established the foundational Daoist view that human beings are innately connected to the Dao. This includes a positive view of Nature and wildness,2 with the associated human state of cosmological attunement. Daoist concern for and interest in “naturalness” or “suchness” (ziran),3 which literally means “self-so” and “being-so-of-itself” (as-is-ness) by extension, often involve both close observation of Nature and the invocation of animals, including as models for human behavior (see Komjathy 2011b, 2013b). In the context of classical Daoism, animals are usually placed in the category of the “ten thousand beings” (wanwu), with the character wu 物 including the niu 牛/牜 (ox) radical. There is also the occasional use of shou 獸, which contains the quan 犬/犭 (dog) radical, and qin 禽, which most often refers to wild birds.4 I tend to translate shou as “wild animal,” but it has also been rendered as “beast.” Beyond these more general categories, classical Daoists also took interest in particular animals, including butterflies, cicada, fish, frogs, horses, mice, quail, turtles, and so forth. This attentiveness to small beings, including insects, stands in contrast to more common cross-cultural tendencies in which so-called charismatic megafauna (large, powerful animals) are usually privileged,5 although classical Daoist texts also mention horses, oxen, wolves, and so forth. For present purposes, it is noteworthy that chapter 9 of the Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu; Book of Master Zhuang),6 associated with the Primitivist lineage,7 is titled “Mati” (Horse Hooves) and contains an explicit critique of Bole (Bo Le), a retainer of Duke Mu (r. 659–621) of the state of Qin and a famous horse trainer. Horse training was an important skill for those in ancient China with political and military responsibilities and ambitions, and Bole was also the legendary inventor of equine physiognomy (judging a horse’s qualities based on physical appearance).8 In the larger context of traditional Chinese culture, Bole became highly esteemed as a model for horse training and, by extension, for skillfulness and mastery.9 However, classical Daoists viewed Bole and similar individuals as spiritually disoriented: Horses’ hooves are made for treading frost and snow, their coats for keeping out wind and cold. To chew grass, drink from streams, lift up their feet and

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gallop, this is the true nature (zhenxing) of horses. Though they might possess great terraces and fine halls, they would have no use for them. Then along comes Bole, announcing, “I’m good at handling horses (zhima)!” He then proceeds to singe them, shave them, pare them, brand them, bind them with martingale and crupper (jizhi),10 tie them up in stable and stall (zaozhan). By this time two or three out of ten horses have died. He goes on to starve them, make them go thirsty, race them, prance them, pull them into line, force them to run side by side, in front of them the worry of bit and rein (jueshi), behind them the terror of whip and crop (biance). By this time over half the horses have died. The potter says, “I’m good at handling clay! To round it, I apply the compass; to square it, I apply the T-square.” The carpenter says, “I’m good at handling wood! To arc it, I apply the curve; to make it straight, I apply the plumb line.” But as far as innate nature is concerned, the clay and the wood surely have no wish to be subjected to compass and square, curve and plumb line. Yet generation after generation sings out in praise, saying, “Bole is good at handling horses! The potter and the carpenter are good at handling clay and wood!” And the same fault is committed by the people who handle the affairs of the world! In my opinion someone who was really good at handling the affairs of the world would not go about it like this. The people have their constant innate nature. To weave for their clothing, to till for their food—this is the inner power (de) that they share.11 They are one in it and not partisan, and it is called the emancipation of the heavens (tianfang). Therefore, in a time of utmost inner power the gait of people is slow and ambling; their gaze is steady and mild. In such an age mountains have no paths or trails, lakes no boats or bridges. The ten thousand beings live species by species, one group settled close to another. Birds (qin) and wild animals (shou) form their flocks and herds, grass and trees grow to fullest height. So it happens that you can tie a cord to the birds and wild animals and lead them about, or bend down the limb and peer into the nest of the crow and the magpie. In this age of perfect inner power people live the same as birds and wild animals, group themselves side by side with the ten thousand beings. Who then knows anything about “superior” or “inferior person”? Abiding in nonknowing (wuzhi), their inner power does not depart from them. Abiding in desirelessness (wuyu) is called unadorned simplicity (supu). Through unadorned simplicity people realize their innate nature. . . . When horses live on the plain, they eat grass and drink from streams. Content, they twine their necks together and rub; angry, they turn back to back and kick. This is all horses know how to do. But if you pile poles and yokes on them and line them up in crossbars and shafts, then they will learn to snap the crossbars, break the yoke, rip the carriage top, champ the bit

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(xian), and chew the reins (pei). Thus horses learn how to commit the worst kinds of mischief. This is the transgression of Bole. (Book of Master Zhuang, ch. 9; adapted from Watson 1968, 104–6; see also ch. 24)

Such behavior, such interactions with and exploitation of animals, indicates that individuals have lost their original and innate attunement with the Dao, which is characterized by noninterference (wuwei). That is, there is an alternative Daoist “way of the horse” (madao) in the Book of Master Zhuang, which emphasizes letting be.12 It is noteworthy that the passage invokes the key Daoist value of simplicity. The character pu 樸 / 朴 contains the mu 木 (wood) radical and has been translated as “uncarved block” (Lau 1963). It recalls both chapter 19 of the Daode jing (Tao-te ching; Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power), which advises one to “appear plain and embrace simplicity; lessen personal interest and decrease desires,” and various references to “useless trees” in the Book of Master Zhuang (chs. 1, 4, 9, 12, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29) (see Komjathy 2013b). This discussion of classical Daoist views on “horse taming” parallels a story in chapter 19 in which the training of fighting roosters by a Daoist master leads to the end of “fighting roosters.”13 For beings who have become disoriented, injured, or corrupted, Daoist instruction centers on deconditioning. We find similar views in the famous chapter 17, titled “Qiushui” (Autumn Floods), of the same text, which is associated with the Zhuangist lineage. One who understands the Dao is certain to understand the essential principles. One who understands essential principles is certain to know how to deal with circumstances. And, one who knows how to deal with circumstances will not allow things to harm oneself. When a person has perfect inner power, fire cannot burn him, water cannot drown him, cold and heat cannot afflict him, birds and wild animals cannot injure him.14 I do not say that he makes light of these things. I mean that he distinguishes between safety and danger, contents himself with fortune or misfortune, and is cautious in his comings and goings. Therefore, nothing can harm him. Hence it is said: the celestial (tian) is on the inside, the human (ren) is on the outside. Inner power resides in the celestial. Understand the actions of the heavens and humanity, base yourself upon the heavens, take your stand in inner power, and then, although you hasten or hold back, bend or stretch, you may return to the essential (fanyao) and speak of the ultimate (yuji). . . . Horses and oxen have four feet—this is what I mean by the celestial. Putting a halter on the horse’s head, piercing the ox’s nose—this is what I mean by the human. So I say: do not let what is human wipe out what is celestial; do not let what is purposeful wipe out what is fated; do not let [the desire for] gain lead you after fame. Be cautious, guard it, and do not lose it—this is what I mean by returning to the real ( fanzhen).15

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In addition to containing an explicit reference to both oxen and horses, this passage suggests that humans, when disoriented from the Dao, domesticate animals. Specifically, they subjugate animals and force them to become the means to fulfill human desires. The restriction of freedom, the domestication of wildness, is a sign of spiritual degeneration. As discussed in more detail below, such foundational Daoist perspectives on wildness and cultivation,16 including the parallel conception of wild and domesticated animals, apparently problematize some views expressed in the Horse Taming Pictures. One wonders to what extent late medieval Complete Perfection perspectives are congruent with the classical views put forth in the Book of Master Zhuang. To begin, it is important to recall that the use of “taming” and “wild horse” is my creation; the text could just as easily be referred to, perhaps less problematically, as the “Horse Training Pictures,” with the omission of “wild.”17 Nonetheless, I believe that wildness is a viable conception, especially as the text includes characterizations utilizing the characters huang, kuang, and ye (see above). I use “wild” in the conventional sense of chaotic and out of control (habituated reactivity) and in the more technical sense of undomesticated and free (i.e., self-directed and self-determined). In addition to being consistent with early Complete Perfection concerns, the notion of “taming the wild horse” inspires reflection on this fundamental tension in Daoism—that is, the relationship between cultivation/training and wildness/nature. Individuals familiar with the Daoist practice of wuwei and state of ziran will recognize this issue (see Komjathy 2013b, 2014a), including the potential practical implications. Even in the classical sources, “cultivation” is often understood as a way to return to one’s innate nature. While wildness—in the sense of freedom, serenity, and integration—is associated with innate nature, innate nature, as one’s original connection with the Dao, becomes obscured through social conditioning, familial obligations, and personal habituation. Wildness may too easily be misidentified as habituation, and vice versa. Rather than abiding in a state of wildness, most individuals are actually “feral”—that is, domesticated beings who have become “wild.”18 Like the Book of Master Zhuang’s horse examples, they have been domesticated but are now in revolt against such treatment. However, through Daoist training, especially through commitment to meditation, one may return to one’s original wildness, wildness beyond domestication and ferality (fig. 2.1).19 Arguably, this is one of the key spiritual questions in the Daoist tradition. To what extent is one living through one’s original wildness or in a state of domestication, of ferality, or of restored/reclaimed wildness? To what extent is cultivation about a “return to wildness,” and what does “wildness” mean? As a contemplative inquiry and process of spiritual discernment indebted to the Book of Master Zhuang, Daoist cultivation may be seen as a method for the domesticated to become properly wild again, a wildness contained within,

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fi gu re 2 .1. the return to wildn ess

beneath, and beyond both domestication and apparent ferality. In this way it parallels the classical and foundational Daoist emphasis on “returning to the Source” (guigen), of moving from differentiation to nondifferentiation (see Komjathy 2013b, 2014a). Perhaps both of the above passages from the Book of Master Zhuang provide some clues to understanding how Complete Perfection Daoists understood the relationship between wildness and cultivation. The “Horse Hooves” passage refers to “unadorned simplicity”; “Autumn Floods” emphasizes “returning to the real.” Both also suggest integration/reintegration into the larger cosmic order. In such a state, “it happens that you can tie a cord to the birds and wild animals and lead them about, or bend down the limb and peer into the nest of the crow and the magpie.” While this example appears to suggest domestication, the contextual meaning points in another direction. One lives in a state of cosmological and ecological attunement, wherein wild animals are no longer afraid: “In this age of perfect inner power people live the same as birds and wild animals, group themselves side by side with the ten thousand beings.” There is a possibility of companionship and communion beyond the merely human. This may be one transformative effect and experiential confirmation of committed and prolonged contemplative practice.20 In terms of our late medieval Daoist source on “horse taming,” suffice it to say that I do not believe that this particular depiction of contemplative practice is about wild horses in the true sense (that is, undomesticated horses). Rather, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures are about recapturing untethered domesticated or feral horses, specifically our own chaotic and uncontrolled psychological states. True wildness represents our own innate nature, our connection to the Dao, which is characterized by stillness and suchness. Here cultivation is a return to wildness.

THE QU E S T ION OF T HE A N IMA L Engaging the complexity and multidimensionality of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures may take one in a variety of directions. On the most basic level, these

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illustrated poems use horse training as an analogy for contemplative practice and its corresponding transformative effects. This is where my own inquiry began: considering Gao Daokuan’s text as a religious work associated with the late medieval Complete Perfection monastic order. It involved approaches derived from and applicable to the fields of Chinese studies, contemplative studies, Daoist studies, and religious studies. However, the process unfolded as a contemplative exercise in itself. It moved from straightforward historicism, textual interpretation, and literary translation to praxis-orientated reflection and “the question of the animal.”21 In this analysis, “seeing through horses” meant engaging horses as symbol and as actuality. Such explorations and discoveries involved and required various interpretive approaches (fig. 2.2). In the previous chapter, I emphasized historical contextualization, hinted at some cultural connections, and began to explore contemplative elements, and I return to other aspects of these below. However, the Horse Taming Pictures

fi gu re 2 .2 . i nterpretive approach es t o t h e h o r se ta m in g pi c tu re s

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might also be considered through the lens of animal studies, specifically questions concerning animals and religion. This involves “seeing through,” rather than “looking past,” the animal. It requires a close reading of and through the animal. We are encountering horses in some respect. Animal studies is an emerging interdisciplinary field dedicated to research and education on “animals.”22 It views animals not simply in the sense of living beings—the study of which might be the purview of biology, ecology, zoology, and so forth—but also investigates how animals have been represented, including their social function as a dominant, perhaps the dominant, “nonhuman” other.23 That is, the interdisciplinary nature of animal studies requires consideration of historical and cultural dimensions of animality. In his important book The Question of the Animal and Religion, Aaron Gross makes a helpful tripartite distinction; he identifies three “species” of animals—actual animals, the animal, and symbolic animals (2014, 10). “Actual animals” are individual living beings (biological animals), although Gross suggests attending to their appearance as much in the world as in human cultural materials, such as texts, oral traditions, art, and so forth. “In any case, these actual animals stand in contrast to . . . the category of ‘the animal,’ which configures animals as the root other of the human” (10). In other words, “the animal” is an other-construct with sociopolitical functions. To this we should also add “animal-others,” the intersubjective encounter that occurs between different animals. The third species, “symbolic animals,” are animals invoked overwhelmingly or primarily because of some specific meaning they designate for humans. “This threefold preliminary schema helps us see the complexity of these three types of interrelated animals, but these beings who populate the landscapes of disciplined reflection on the phenomena of religion are not so easily domesticated.”24 In his study, Gross is primarily interested in the first two categories; however, I want to focus on actual animals and symbolic animals, including their relationship.25 Developing this theoretical approach, I suggest that we also find “substitute animals”; these are symbolic animals but ones that more closely resemble simulacra (copies without originals) than the animals that they apparently represent (see Baudrillard 1994; also Baker [1993] 2001). This exercise is beset by various challenges, as symbolic representations and animal encounters often form a symbiotic relationship. Human interactions with actual animals are often mediated by cultural constructs and, in the case of domesticated animals, by other forms of human confinement (e.g., zoos). For present purposes, the symbolic use of animals, such as “the horse,” is particularly relevant. In his book Picturing the Beast: Animals, Identity, and Representation (1993), Steve Baker suggests that we need to give attention to the specific animals selected, their associated characteristics, and how they

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are represented.26 Such representations include their symbolic use to establish personal and social human identity as well as their sociopolitical functions. However, while acknowledging the contributions of fields such as art history, in terms of iconography, and anthropology, in terms of cultural exchange, Baker goes farther, suggesting that the representations of animals are intricately tied to the identities of animals, specifically with respect to their perception and treatment by humans.27 Following this line of inquiry, one also thinks of the relationship between metaphor and “reality,” including the ways that metaphor conditions perception and is constitutive of the world (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; see also Berger and Luckmann 1966 and Geertz 1973). For Baker, “In the end it should not simply be a matter of our studying what animals already signify in the culture but rather, through a benevolent manipulation, of exploring what animals might yet be made to signify” ([1993] 2000, xxxvi, emphasis in original). Moreover, “Culture shapes our reading of animals just as much as animals shape our reading of culture” (4). The symbolic employment of animals should be critically examined, and more conscious representations may result in powerful effects for all of the animals involved. Animal liberation, in cognitive, symbolic and living expressions, may be a key to human flourishing. However, there is also the possibility of overcoming such anthropocentric perspectives, and one may, through contemplative practice, come to see animals as they are in their own lives and being. One may recognize the freedom of animals as something more than human. Their “significance” in terms of human understanding may be irrelevant, even if provisionally required.28 It is thus important to consider the representations of particular animals. This includes investigation of the qualities and characteristics of specific animals. There are also culture-specific and tradition-specific associations. These are often rooted in particular animal-human interactions. The various dimensions of human encounters with animals, whether symbolic or actual, have consequences both for actual human-animal relationships and for living animals. From my perspective, it is thus important to consider the degree to which “symbolic animals” have any connection to “actual animals.” If one has no direct experience with the types of animals in question, and especially if those animals are extinct, how would one know if the associated attributes and representations are, in fact, “actual”? Perhaps from a cultural studies and social constructivist perspective this is irrelevant, but the relationship between representation, social function, and embodied consequence deserves consideration. There are ethical, ecological, political, and perhaps even soteriological and theological implications. We need to consider the consequences of symbolic representations for actual animals and the ways in which encounters with actual animals influence such representations. In the present context, I am also interested in the degree

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to which each informs the other, for it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate representation and memory from encounter and lived actuality. “Horses” in traditional Chinese culture and the Daoist tradition are infused with deep significance. Such representations relate to the place of horses in premodern Chinese society. And yet, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures seem to point toward the possibility of mutual encounter, of animalistic immediacy, of an encounter with being and presence. This encounter involves overcoming social conditioning and personal habituation; it involves the recognition of animals, individual living animals, as beings beyond ideas. We should explore the ethics and politics of categorization and representation, including our own capacity to alter these representations and thus change existential and ecological conditions.

THINK ING ABOU T /W IT H H OR S E S The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures utilize a distinctive conception of horses; in them we encounter “the horse” as symbolic animal. The Daoist conception is both rooted in and transcends those of traditional Chinese culture. For this reason, it is important to consider the meaning of horses in premodern Chinese society. “The horse” was one of the most potent symbols, especially as expressed and encountered in art. Introducing an exhibition of horse-centered Chinese art held at New York’s China Institute Gallery in 1997, Robert Harrist writes, The history of horse painting during the Tang dynasty [618–907; when the horse painting genre became fully developed] also reflects an essential fact about the enduring popularity of this genre in later centuries: however deeply horses were admired for their inherent strength, beauty, and intelligence, and however potent their lingering mythic associations,29 what made them a major subject in Chinese painting was their usefulness to human beings. The paintings in the current exhibition reflect the relationship between horses and groups of people for whom these animals were essential military, political, economic, or symbolic resources. These are the emperor and the government operating in his name; non-Chinese peoples beyond China’s borders, usually referred to as “barbarians” in Chinese texts; and Confucian scholarofficials, or others who appropriated their values and cultural practices in art and literature. Although the boundaries separating them are fluid, the great majority of Chinese horse paintings ultimately derive their meanings from the bonds between horses and these three groups. (Harrist 1997a, 17)

One of the most common and influential representations involves the association of the horse with men, specifically members of the social elite such

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as emperors, aristocrats, and officials. Depictions of the horse, whether in art or literature, involve Chinese cultural values of power and virtue.30 The horse is associated with a given individual’s character, or at least his social status and personal condition.31 Paralleling the traditional Chinese use of clothing to represent women (Steele and Major 1999; Cahill 2002), the horse reveals the qualities of men, often with connotations of male virility. In the case of Chinese painting, there are numerous examples of human-horse relationships, especially depictions of officials with their steeds, whether mounted or unmounted (fig. 2.3). One also finds paintings of horses alone. In many cases, given the cultural context, it is assumed that viewer will recognize the associations; this identification is, of course, aided by accompanying titles. For example, there is the

figure 2.3. detail of renqi tu (man riding a horse; dat. 1296), by zhao mengfu (1254–1322) Gugong bowuyuan (Palace Museum; Beijing). Photograph by Liu Zhigang. Used with permission from Gugong bowuyuan

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famous Zhaoyebai (Night-Shining White) by Han Gan (fl. ca. 740–756), which depicts one of the favorite horses of Emperor Xuanzong (685–762; r. 712–756).32 Interestingly, during the Song–Jin period (tenth–thirteenth c.), in which Gao composed the Horse Taming Pictures, there were paintings wherein horses appear as emaciated and dispirited (see, e.g., Harrist 1997a, 42–43, 108–9). No doubt at least partially rooted in observation of the actual horses in various states of social neglect and starvation, these symbolic horses become a form of sociopolitical critique: They represent a society characterized by (Han) imperial weakness, governmental corruption, social desperation, and personal hardship. To gaze at the condition of such horses is to see the state of society in general and officialdom in particular. As the people as a whole were dependent on the imperial bureaucracy to support their well-being and overall social harmony, the condition of horses, whether symbolic or actual, provided a powerful statement about the condition of the world. The Daoist Horse Taming Pictures are partially tied to this standard Chinese symbolism. Like other cultured and educated Daoists, Gao Daokuan was no doubt familiar with such representations and probably intentionally drew on them in selecting the horse. The choice of the horse to represent the Daoist religious path draws some of its power from traditional Chinese equine symbolism. Paralleling the secondary meaning of “abstention from grains” (bigu) as a Daoist Primitivist critique of agriculture (see Komjathy 2013b), the Horse Taming Pictures may contain a sociopolitical dimension. On one level, “taming the wild horse” involves abandoning officialdom and harnessing sexual desire, with the horse representing habituation (see below). Pursuing officialdom, as a desire for social recognition and success, was understood to result in spiritual disorientation. By becoming entangled in sociopolitical concerns, one risked losing one’s connection with the Dao. This is the horse as symbolic of political power and cultural prestige. Similarly, the harnessing of sexual desire, as psychological states and physical activities involving the dissipation of vital essence (jing), was understood to disrupt one’s foundational energetic integrity. Celibacy was a core Complete Perfection monastic commitment, and the conservation of vital essence was required for alchemical training and transformation. By engaging in sexual activity, one risked losing one’s potential, the very substance required, for immortality. This is the horse as a symbol of sexual potency and male virility.33 Both fame (ming) and sex (se) were identified as “hindrances” and “poisons” in early Complete Perfection Daoism (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a). Such symbolic equine training ensured that aspiring Daoists would overcome the perils and pitfalls of social conditioning. On another level, I would suggest that the symbolic use of the horse might have an additional sociopolitical dimension. It is possible that at least some Daoists saw themselves as horses in traditional Chinese culture, an identification

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that would contrast with the Chan Buddhist use of the ox.34 If Chan Buddhists saw themselves as “beasts of burden,” toiling in the fields for the benefit of Buddhism and the larger Chinese society, working selflessly and relentlessly for the enlightenment of all beings, perhaps these medieval Daoists saw themselves as equestrian animals, as regal and dignified mounts. They were, or they should be, the horses, a powerful presence at the foundation of Chinese society.35 Daoists should be a key emblem, cultural orientation, and actual animating force for the larger society. Thus, the presence of the horse, here representing innate nature, within Daoists reveals that the power and virtue of Chinese society depend on Daoism. If this interpretation is viable, even if it is solely a Daoist selfperception, it has sociopolitical implications: The Chinese court, aristocrats, and the larger population should provide support for Daoist adherents and their communities. Such patronage would ensure a harmonious and stable society. Beyond these potential engagements with the larger Chinese society, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures also contain a uniquely Daoist representation of the horse. Recalling the earlier discussion of classical and foundational Daoist views of wildness and cultivation, we encountered symbolic horses in classical Daoist texts, specifically in the Book of Master Zhuang. There we are told, “Horses and oxen have four feet—this is what I mean by the celestial. Putting a halter on the horse’s head, piercing the ox’s nose—this is what I mean by the human” (ch. 17). Like unharnessed and unstabled animals more generally, horses represent wildness, an innate and original connection with the Dao. Horses, living their own lives and in their own being, are a manifestation of “suchness” (ziran), of being-in-itself. This view of horses arguably represents a clear correlation between actual horses and symbolic horses. On the one hand, horses might be encountered outside of human social contexts, and such human-horse interactions have the potential to teach humans something about their own identity and place in the world. On the other hand, the symbolic horse represents real horses; for members of the inner cultivation lineages of classical Daoism, such horses signify wildness and freedom. This is a vision of stallions on steppes and beyond stables. Going farther, classical Daoist perspectives suggest that there are horses beyond language and conception; there are horses beyond human instrumentalism and relevance. For example, chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang, titled “Qiwu lun” (On Making Things Equal), explains, “To use a horse to show that a horse is not a horse is not as good as using a non-horse to show that a horse is not a horse. Heaven and earth are one attribute; the ten thousand things are one horse.”36 Actual horses exist beyond symbolic horses and human conceptions. “Horse” points beyond the name and the concept to actual horses, to living beings in their own immediacy. Readers familiar with the Chan Buddhist tradition may think of the famous “finger pointing at the moon.” Tracing a spiritual genealogy

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from the Book of Master Zhuang and classical Daoism through Chan Buddhism (see Komjathy 2015), we arrive at Eihei Do¯gen (1200–1253), the founder of the So¯to¯ lineage of Zen Buddhism (Chn.: Caodong Chan) in Japan. In the “Sansui kyo¯” (Mountains and Waters Sutra), which is contained in his textual collection titled Sho¯bo¯genzo¯ (Treasury of the True Dharma-Eye), Do¯gen comments, “An ancient buddha said, ‘Mountains are mountains, waters are waters.’ These words do not mean mountains are mountains; they mean mountains are mountains” (Tanahashi [1985] 1995, 107). As a potential key to the Horse Taming Pictures, contemplative practice and its transformative effects may lead from conventional conceptualization, through deconditioning, to a more immediate form of experiencing. This involves a cognitive movement from “horses” (concept mistaken as thing), through not-“horses” (recognition of the limitation of concepts and language), to horses (living beings encountered as such). From this perspective, horses do not exist for humans; it may be that such perceptions and ways of relating reveal a lack of cultivation and spiritual disorientation. Members of the early Complete Perfection community and movement utilized “horses” and “monkeys” as symbolic referents. These symbolic animals became part of early Complete Perfection anthropology (discourse on the human) and zoology (discourse on animals); they became one way that these Daoists described their psychological and contemplative experiences. The most common and influential phrases are “horse-thought” (mayi; yima) and “monkey-mind” (yuanxin; xinyuan).37 Nourish the original beginning. The monkey-mind and horse-thought must be corralled and tied up. With the Six Thieves completely exhausted, Do not seek or be concerned about anything. Vague and indistinct, The place of darkness and silence. Deep and clear, Innate nature settles and life-destiny resides. (Minghe yuyin [DZ 1100], 5.7a) When the qi of the Dao (daoqi) is subtle and fine, you may practice and attain immortality. Gaining awareness and forgetting language, you exit and enter its pure flowing. Among the great Void and the wondrous Source, you obtain the fish while forgetting the fish trap.38 Securely corral the horse of the will, and urgently settle the monkey of the mind. When you guard ignorance, the myriad beings become complete; when you guard the Dao, a thousand blessings naturally descend. (Zhenxian zhizhi yulu [DZ 1256], 1.19b–20a)

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The first passage derives from a poem attributed to Sun Buer (Qingjing [Clear Stillness]; 1119–1183), the only female member of the Seven Perfected, while the second passage comes from a discourse record (yulu) associated with Hao Datong (Guangning [Expansive Serenity]; Taigu [Grand Antiquity]; 1140– 1213), another member of the Seven Perfected.39 These animal-related technical terms appear throughout the poetry and writings of the first-generation adherents. Habituated thought is viewed as analogous to a horse galloping out of control, while the ordinary mind is viewed as analogous to monkey jumping to and fro.40 From this Daoist anthropological perspective, which is rooted in earlier Chinese and Daoist psychology, the heart-mind (xin), often referred to as the “ruler,” is the center of personhood. Here xin refers to both the actual physical heart and “mind” in more abstract sense, thus my translation of “heart-mind.” It is associated with innate nature, spirit (shen), and the seat of consciousness. From a Daoist perspective, the original condition of the heart-mind and its associated faculties is characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing). Meditation is the associated spiritual discipline. For present purposes, as a development of early and foundational Complete Perfection views, the horse is connected to thought and innate nature. In its conditioned or habituated state, it is characterized by agitation; in its original or realized state, it is characterized by stillness. The informing soteriology is mystical union with the Dao, specifically through the realization that one’s own innate nature (stillness) is the Dao (Stillness). In terms of traditional Chinese cosmology (yin-yang interaction in particular), the horse as contemplative icon—and horse taming as a contemplative map—has an additional level of meaning. Given its general qualities (e.g., strong movement), the horse appears to be close to pure yang. As mentioned, with respect to the terrestrial branches, the horse is associated with wu, which has a yang and Fire (major yang) correspondence. Temporally speaking, wu corresponds to the double-hour of 11:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m., the apex of yang (containing the seed of yin) and the summer solstice. However, the horse also has the capacity for deep stillness. Similarly, the symbolic horse of the Horse Taming Pictures represents agitation/movement and stillness/rest. In its original or realized condition, it expresses stillness in movement (yin within yang), and movement within stillness (yang within yin). While the relationship and meaning of yin-yang in the context of Daoist training in general and internal alchemy in particular are complex (see Komjathy 2013b), the cosmological yin-yang associations of the horse seem to represent spiritual integration. In terms of the alchemical associations and psychosomatic transformation, there is a movement from yin as agitation/turbidity/habituation/mortality to yang as stillness/clarity/ realization/immortality. In the case of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, the purpose of Complete Perfection training in general and contemplative practice in particular involves

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transforming the horse of agitated thought (the wild horse) into the horse of innate nature (the tamed horse). As mentioned above, the former is “wild” in the sense of chaotic and unpredictable while the latter is trained in the sense of calm and settled. This process of deconditioning may involve a return to true wildness, the stillness, connection, and integration beyond agitation, disorientation, and fragmentation. Delving deeper into the representation of the horse in Gao Daokuan’s text, we encounter a vibrant and strong-willed animal. The horse appears as a stallion, a large, powerful, mature, and spirited being.41 In terms of iconography, it is noteworthy that the horse is bareback in every illustration; the only visible accoutrements are a halter and lead.42 Although a saddle and bridle are mentioned in line three of the second poem, none of the equinecentered representations contains saddles, harnesses, or other equestrian equipment. In fact, poem 2 tells us that “the horse lacks saddle and bridle.”43 This places emphasis on the absence of unnecessary and excessive forms of control. Only the most minimal training aids are used, although, perhaps disturbingly, a crop or switch is involved at the beginning of the process (poems 1 and 2; illustration 2). I would, in turn, suggest that we are beholding a vibrant and vital horse but one unharnessed for human use. The horse encountered in the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures is neither a racehorse nor a workhorse, neither a warhorse nor a studhorse. It is simply a horse. Also noteworthy is the gradual settling of the horse. Initially, the horse revolts against the attendant (illustrations 1 and 2), being positioned to the latter’s right/front. But as the horse is led and trained by the attendant (illustrations 3 and 4), positioned to the latter’s left/behind from this point until the ninth illustration,44 the horse becomes more docile, first with lowered head (illustration 5), then standing at ease (illustration 6), and finally beginning to lie down (illustrations 7–8). The process culminates with the horse lying down with eyes open (illustration 9) and then sleeping (illustration 10). Significantly, the horse is positioned in the center of the latter two illustrations, parallel to the attendant. In addition, illustration 9 could be seen to depict the attendant in the “parinirva¯na posture” while illustration 10 may show something akin to the “corpse pose.”45 The fourth illustration may be a source of confusion. Although it appears that the horse is rearing up in rebellion, the accompanying poem states that the horse is actually dancing with the attendant. Thus, the symbolic animal, the symbolic horse, of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures is highly trainable. He only needs a slight amount of training to settle down and eventually be completely trustworthy and at ease. Such is the horse of innate nature, a vital presence that has become calmed and that is now prepared for any required activity. Such is the horse of innate nature residing at leisure, attuned with the Dao.

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S E E ING T HROU GH H O R S E S Here I want to shift our awareness from looking past the animal to seeing through the animal. By “seeing through,” I mean engaging representations of animals on their various symbolic levels, including their import. This is the symbolic animal as a potential glimpse into actual animals, human perceptions of those animals, and our own identities. What happens when we take seriously “the question of the animal”? In the case of the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures, Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, and other cognate diagrams of stages on the contemplative path, this involves not simply recognizing the presence of symbolic animals but also making further inquiries into larger connections and deeper meanings. The complex interpretive questions derived from and applicable to animal studies, especially in concert with contemplative studies and religious studies,46 is an important consideration, one so far unrecognized and unaddressed. While these illustrated texts have been engaged as analogies for contemplative practice and contemplative experience, the animals inhabiting such literary and cognitive landscapes have been largely ignored. This is even more the case with respect to the associated animals inhabiting actual, physical landscapes. We may thus inquire into the consequences for human-animal relationships and actual animals. From my perspective, the Horse Taming Pictures envision a transformational effect of contemplative practice with respect to animals, albeit perhaps only obliquely or unknowingly expressed. Symbolic horses point toward actual horses; on some level, they re-present living animals. Thus far we have looked at symbolic representations of “the horse” in traditional Chinese society, in the larger Daoist tradition, and in Complete Perfection Daoism, as well as in the Horse Taming Pictures specifically. Symbolic horses and actual horses are intricately related. Symbolic horses point toward actual horses: the former approximates human perceptions and engagements with the latter while the latter informs and becomes remembered in the former. Experiences with actual horses inform human representations, and such representations condition those experiences. So where do actual horses fit into our current inquiry? In endeavoring to see through the horse, to behold horses as such,47 we must reexamine their position in traditional Chinese society. This includes considering the actual types of horses and individual horses encountered (fig. 2.4).48 As we have seen, the horse was venerated in a variety of ways, as evidenced in artistic and literary representations. Painters and poets recognized and commemorated specific horses,49 identifying their associated qualities and relationships to particular human beings. Such representations mirrored the place of actual

fi gu re 2 .4. represen tative types o f ho r se s The New Standard Dictionary of the English Language (Funk & Wagnalls, 1913). Public domain

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horses in the larger culture. During the Song–Jin period and the subsequent Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), horses were present as imperial and official mounts as well as war animals. They were present on streets and roads and in stables, and they were utilized for various equestrian purposes. Both the Jurchens and Mongols, the two “non-Han” foreign peoples associated with the Jin and Yuan dynasties, were expert horse riders.50 Their skills far exceeded those of the indigenous Han population, and this was a major contributing factor in their military and political success (Franke and Twitchett 1994; Twitchett and Smith 2009). The breeding and acquisition of superior horses also played an important role in late medieval Chinese society; many imperial herds were kept in the northern frontier, and imperial families vied to acquire the best animals. However, the northern horse-based peoples and societies often kept such animals for themselves (Franke and Twitchett 1994; Twitchett and Smith 2009; see also Harrist 1997a). Thus, actual horses had polyvalent context-specific meanings, including barbarian threat, military prowess, and imperial standing. Actual horses as encountered by humans heralded a variety of possible occurrences: from imperial ceremonies through official affairs to military activities. In this context, horses were often present as emblems of war in the form of multiethnic cavalries and accompanying troops. In light of these insights, one also wonders about contemporaneous Chinese horse training practices as well as associated equipment. Such considerations are largely under-researched and beyond the present study. A fuller treatment of such horse-related questions is a book for someone else to write. However, given what we do know, how do the depictions of horse training in our illustrated poems correspond to actual horse training? Are Gao’s representations rooted in and informed by contemporaneous methods? If so, from an experiential perspective, how sound are they in terms of training actual horses, and does this have any relevance for understanding Daoist cultivation? As mentioned, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures show a horse with halter and lead. Seeing through this horse, and thus through human-animal interactions, one wonders about the various accoutrements, including the associated customs. This might include questions about equine and equestrian paraphernalia in relation to stages of training.51 Perhaps more importantly, one wonders to what extent Gao Daokuan had direct experiences with horses, and how such experiences might have informed his work. This is, of course, conjectural, but it is pertinent to the present line of inquiry. Gao apparently came from a prominent clan as well as a line of minor officials (see ch. 1 and appendix 1). Specifically, his father served as an official scribe. In addition, Gao lived in various urban centers throughout his life, including Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi; ca. 1209–1224), Bianliang (present-day Kaifeng, Henan; 1224–1233, 1238–1240), and Yanjing (present-day

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Beijing; 1233–1238). He also lived in or around Liujiang (present-day Huxian, Shaanxi; 1240–1277), where he served as the Daoist registrar for the area. Considered as a whole, these years represent an extremely turbulent time period. It saw the Jurchens controlling northern China and the indigenous Han Song dynasty located in the south, the initial incursions of the Mongols and victories over the Jurchens, and the eventual conquest of the whole of China by the Mongols (1279). In fact, Gao’s hagiography explains, “During the Da’an reign period [1209–1212], major military activity began, with [troops] gathering and filling the thoroughfares” (Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 3.29a; also 3.30a). These years correspond to the Mongol invasion of Jurchen territory, which eventually resulted in the relocation of Jin dynasty capital from Beijing to Kaifeng (1215) and then to its total defeat (1234) (Franke and Twitchett 1994; Twitchett and Smith 2009). As mentioned, both the Jurchens (ancestors of the later Manchus) and the Mongols were northern peoples with horse-centered cultures and skills. Without going into the various place-specific historical events, it is relatively unproblematic to imagine the large number of horses surrounding Gao throughout his life, including those utilized in military campaigns, official visits, and personal travel. While it is impossible to determine if Gao had any actual experience with horse training or if he directly witnessed such activities, the symbolic horses of his text were no doubt informed by observations of living horses. These claims are supported by the explicit reference to “stables” (jiu) with respect to Gao’s supervision of the renovation of the Palace of Redoubled Yang in Liujiang, Shaanxi.52 Along these lines, it is also fascinating that the fifth illustration, the key transition to the horse becoming trained, depicts a horse with his head lowered. According to Monty Roberts, a major representative of “natural horsemanship” and originator of the “join-up” method, a lowered head on the part of a horse indicates acceptance and receptivity toward companionship. It is the final signal before “join-up”: “ ‘I’m looking for her to drop her head, to run her nose a couple of inches from the ground.’ . . . Join-up is always the most thrilling part of the process. Not because I ever doubt it will happen, but simply because it proves the possibility of communication between human and horse. A flight animal giving her trust to a fight animal, human and horse spanning the gap between them, always strikes me as miraculous” (2009, 169; also 213–14, 230–49). Significantly, as is the case for poem 5 of the Horse Taming Pictures, Roberts also describes various experiences of horses following him around without a halter/lead or bridle/reins. Roberts, as a “horse whisperer,” points toward various subtle, physical and vocal signs as the secret language of Equus, the language of horses.53 The Horse Taming Pictures might in turn inspire reflection on personal experiences with horses as well as opportunities for direct encounters with horses.

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“Seeing through horses” might inspire one to visit and observe actual horses and perhaps to develop lived and enduring relationships. In other words, the horse depicted (and perhaps remembered) in Gao’s composition might direct one to consider not only historical horses but also contemporary horses. In the process, one could visit horse farms, meet individual horses, and converse with living horse trainers. Such experiences would involve various forms of interaction, both human and transhuman. My own engagement with the Horse Taming Pictures as a contemplative exercise inspired just that. Anyone who has encountered a healthy horse immediately recognizes horses’ inspiration and fascination for humans.54 They have an inherent beauty, elegance, grace, power, and mystery. There is a rare and unique presence and awareness. While reflection on living horses might take one in a variety of directions, including equine behavior and psychology, it also might take one out into the world, to encounter horses in their own lives and contexts.55 From a human perspective, one noteworthy dimension of horses is that they are highly trainable; there are certain equine qualities and tendencies that result in receptivity to human direction and cooperation. I witnessed just such a reciprocal collaboration and harmonized choreography at the Tempel Lipazzans (TL) in Old Mill Creek, Illinois. In the training exercises, infused with aesthetics, artistry, and performance, I observed a shared intentionality and unified awareness. The TL trainers also answered a variety of questions and supported some of my interpretations, but from a lived, enacted, and participatory equestrian perspective.56 For example, I witnessed a training exercise during which a long lead and long whip was employed to direct a horse. The horse was not struck, but rather touched, with the whip as a slight aid. This provided insight into both training paraphernalia and practical use. I also showed the Horse Taming Pictures to the TL trainers and asked for their observations and comments before I asked specific questions. They had similar views concerning the “dancing horse,” the hanging lead, and the sleeping horse. There were many more insights, but a few must suffice. The trainers emphasized the importance of listening to each horse according his or her unique qualities and temperament. They also discussed the more advanced levels of collaboration, during which both horse and human worked to overcome their limitations, to actualize their full athletic potential. Some in turn mentioned various profound, often unspoken experiences, including nonverbal communication, spontaneous healing, transpersonal intuition, and something like energetic unification. As I have suggested that the Horse Taming Pictures are a work of “contemplative literature” (see Komjathy 2015), there are various ways to engage the text in terms of and as contemplative practice. This includes as a map of stages on the contemplative path, as an exercise in contemplative reading, and as a contemplative exercise itself. For individuals interested in the actual practice

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of meditation, the Horse Taming Pictures offer an opportunity for practice informed by study and study informed by practice. In this respect, it may be that dedicated and prolonged contemplative practice transforms our perception of animals. The Horse Taming Pictures also point toward actual horses. Encounters with and observation of animals, specifically horses, become a contemplative exercise, an act of beholding. Perhaps one watches a horse running through a meadow: one recognizes the possibility of powerful fluidity of movement. Perhaps one encounters a horse standing silently in a field: one recognizes a deep stillness manifesting as encompassing attentiveness and awareness. Horses may teach us about the qualities of contemplative ways of life more broadly. There is a sensitivity, at once familiar and mysterious. There is movement within stillness and stillness within movement. Equine observation may teach one about human possibility, equine being, and shared animality. It is a way of being in the world. This is not to mention the various experiences of dedicated “horse trainers,” of humans who spend their lives working and living with horses. Thus, Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures and now my own translation led me to an encounter with both “symbolic animals” and “actual animals.” They inspired me to “think through” and “see through” horses (see also Hall and Ames 1987 and Clooney 1996). In some ways, they also inspired me to “live with” horses, which included more intimate forms of relating, observing, and listening.57 The inquiry moved from contemplative inquiry through symbolic encounter to actual experiencing. Throughout the process, I have attempted to engage “the horse” through the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures. The animal has become and remains central. It has framed the contemplative inquiry, and the contemplative inquiry has led into and out of the animal. If the pictures are informed by contemplative practice and map contemplative experience, perhaps they must be engaged as a form of contemplative inquiry. This inquiry involves reading and reflection as a contemplative exercise. In contemplating the horse, we delve into our own perceptions, conceptions, and experiences. Perhaps the contemplative inquiry reveals the power and limitations of representations, and the latter’s relationship with embodied, lived experience. We meet the horse as symbol and actuality, a horse that inhabits consciousness and world. This encounter may involve a rediscovery of the wild, the animal that we are (see, e.g., Derrida 2008; Abram 2011; Kahn and Hasback 2013).

T HE WAY OF HORS E S “The question of the animal,” “the question of the horse,” involves not only engagement with symbolic and actual horses. It also may initiate inquiry into human-animal relationships and the consequence for actual animals. “Seeing

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through horses” involves historical and cultural questions about actual horses and associated human interactions. In the present context, this included investigation into our author’s own life world and then into encounters with living horses in a contemporary context. Going farther, the Horse Taming Pictures, like the above-mentioned classical Daoist materials, point toward an alternative Daoist “way of the horse” (madao).58 As touched on in chapter 1, these illustrated poems suggest that dedicated and prolonged contemplative practice leads to transformative effects. On the most basic level, these relate to human anthropology and psychology, but there are also soteriological and theological dimensions. The latter include, perhaps surprisingly, a different way of relating to animals and perhaps a different mode of being, a mode beyond dualistic consciousness and separate identity.59 To begin, while it appears that the attendant is training the horse in the Horse Taming Pictures, the symbolic horse has also become the reader’s teacher. By observing and participating in the horse training process, aspiring Daoists learn about stages on the contemplative path. The symbolic horse might re-present actual horses and, in turn, inspire encounters with living horses. Such encounters might transmit lessons about being fully human, specifically about one’s innate connection to the sacred. As mentioned above, such a condition is referred to as ziran, being-in-itself, a state shared by all beings in attunement with the Dao. A transmission, an energetic exchange, occurs through each existence and in relationship to every other existence. From the viewpoint of the Horse Taming Pictures, this might include proximity to and companionship with horses in which the latter’s being and presence reveal important lessons about human spiritual realization. That is, the Horse Taming Pictures may ultimately require observation of and interactions with living horses, including a human receptivity to alternative and subtle communication. As we have seen, Gao’s Horse Taming Pictures culminate in the attendant and horse sleeping next to each other, in illustrations 9 and 10, the last two of the equine-centered images. As I interpret them, the final three, non-horse-based illustrations depict clerical identity (11), the immortal embryo or child (12), and an elderly immortal (13) (see ch. 1). Poem 10 explains, “The horse has perished, and the solitary person departs with relaxed steps.” On a symbolic level, the agitation of ordinary thought has ceased, and there is no longer a dualistic conception of “innate nature.” One’s being simply is innate nature, one’s original connection with the Dao. However, in terms of the animal, does the horse really have to die? A conventional, anthropocentric reading might interpret this “death of the animal” as a requirement for the “birth of the human”; that is, the horse has disappeared, while the attendant endures. In contrast, from a contemplative perspective, it is not simply the horse who has died; the attendant has also disappeared. This reading is supported by the postures depicted.

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Moreover, according to the eleventh poem, “With person and horse both forgotten, obscurity is indescribable; / Internally guarding complete perfection, I nourish suchness (ziran).” The poet envisions immortality as a nondualistic, transpersonal condition. The human has disappeared into the animal, and the animal has disappeared into the human.60 Both have disappeared into the Dao. Developing this line of inquiry further, the text culminates with the depiction of immortality. It is not only a “mystical disappearance” or “union” model.61 Individual identity remains, but it is an individual identity in which the Daoist contemplative is simultaneously one and One, simultaneously self and Dao. In such a state of realization, one recognizes shared innate nature, the larger field of being in which all life participates and endeavors to flourish. Beyond personal postmortem existence, the Horse Taming Pictures suggest that the process of deconditioning leads to identification, communion, and interpenetration. As one shares the same underlying being and connection as horses, one becomes a horse on some level. One may live with horses without control or confinement; one may sleep with horses in a state of harmony and ease; and ultimately one may find that one is a horse.62 Living through this equine being, the contemplative senses the world as a horse. This interpretation is strengthened by the illustrations 9 and 10, which depict the attendant in the parinirva¯na posture and the horse sleeping, respectively. As mentioned, the former symbolizes enlightenment without residue, a “condition” beyond karmic and samsaric existence. In terms of the “way of the horse,” these illustrations suggest that one transformative effect of contemplative practice is a different type of relationship with other animals. In other words, the text seems to suggest that realized spiritual states such as enlightenment and immortality result in and are expressed as identification, communion, and companionship with animals. Such a form of relating may be observed as confirmation of the efficacy of advanced religious training, with animals communicating this through their response to one’s presence. There is mutual recognition and trust. This insight takes one beyond the tendency to emphasize egocentric and anthropocentric psychosomatic benefits (see Komjathy 2015). Considering actual equine behavior, horses often sleep standing up; they will only sleep in a recumbent (prone) posture if another horse is present.63 In terms of these illustrated poems, the attendant—and the realized Daoist practitioner—must become a horse on some level; otherwise, the horse would not lie down. While it is impossible to know if Gao Daokuan was aware of this fact, and thus if the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures consciously document it, “seeing through the horse” and following the “way of the horse” reveal a deeper connection and relationship, one in which there is shared animality, shared sacrality. A “communion of animals” occurs: One lives in harmony with other animals, and other animals accept one’s being and presence. One gains insight into and empathic

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understanding of the lives of animals, including their suffering and joy. Then, perhaps, “animal identification” results in enduring concerns, commitments, and relationships. Such experiences might inspire other undertakings as expressions of contemplative practice and spiritual realization: from concern for animal welfare through conservationist and ecological ethics to actual activism on behalf of animals.64 Such a vision of the transformative effects of dedicated and prolonged contemplative practice represents a radical and subversive challenge to modern narcissistic tendencies (see, e.g., Žižek 2001; Huntington 2015; Komjathy 2015). There is an actual transformation that destabilizes consensus reality and dominant existential modes, including patterns of exploitation and violence. In terms of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, this extends to animals. The Horse Taming Pictures provide two additional insights, pointing in two additional directions. Each of these might be rooted in and express a conservationist and ecological ethics. In terms of human-animal relationships, humans need horses and other animals as reminders of their fundamental nature (Louv 2008; Bradshaw 2009; Kahn and Hasbach 2013; Braitman 2014). Without animals, wild animals in particular and in all of their variety, human beings lose opportunities for connection and exchange; without “nonhuman” animals, human beings only live in their own social constructs and insular mythologies. They lose their connection to their innate wildness and animality, their relationship to something larger than themselves. Horses are needed for human flourishing. In terms of social justice, this might lead to a form of social engagement rooted in a sense of empathy and fellowship, in a commitment to animal welfare, freedom, and liberation. Beyond this apparently anthropocentric, egoistic, dualistic, and instrumentalist engagement with horses (horses existing for humans on some level), the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures reveal a world inhabited by horses. There are symbolic horses, and there are actual horses. There are living horses beyond symbol and concept, beyond history and myth. There are wild stallions living on steppes and beyond stables. There are horses beyond the human. Such horses participate in the larger matrix of being. They have their own lives. They inhabit a landscape of mutual participation in the wild. They deserve a place in the world where they may flourish, where they may simply exist. Such horses simply are and deserve to be (fig. 2.5).65

fi gu re 2.5. free- roamin g h orse Bob Henderson (photographer) and Wild Horses of Alberta Society (WHOAS). Used with permission

par t ii Translations

Horse Taming Poems

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一 四蹄奔途性不迴， 萬中難選把韁垂。 下手纔始閑處放， 形騋盲黑落深隤。 這馬好難擒捉住， 牢絡首，絆相隨。 意狂常與三十棒， 自然伏手得明白。

1 With four hooves galloping down the path, innate nature does not return;1 Among the myriad things,2 it is difficult to take hold of the fallen lead.3 Set to work right away to make an enclosure4 that may hold him; Blind in the darkness,5 the appearance of the horse is nowhere to be found.6 Such a horse is extremely difficult to catch and enclose; Secure the halter to his head, and the rest will follow. If thought is wild,7 continually tame it with thirty switches;8 Naturally it will submit, and understanding will be attained.9

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二 絡首加鞭不放閑， 牧童攙則意雙關。 裸體背上無鞍轡， 莫做尋常一眼看。 彷徨馳騁雄哮性， 專心固，勿凶頑。 這馬且休良才用， 樂然微得喜容顏。

2 Halter the horse and increase the crop without laxity;10 The shepherd11 trains12 him so that thought is doubly barred.13 Naked on his back, the horse lacks saddle and bridle;14 There is no way to direct or encourage even a single glance. Struggling to gallop,15 his panting is strong and spirited; Be resolute in heart-mind;16 do not allow him to become wayward. The horse becomes more settled and outstanding in application; Joyful, his modest attainment manifests as a pleasant countenance.

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三 放去收來不問他， 誠心擺手晚謳歌。 野草寒泉獨為伴， 須目揚眉待怎麼。 須臾不保良馬性， 偷閑歇，勿張羅。 牽首迴身歸家放， 黑馬銀頭性不訛。

3 Loosen the lead and gather him in without coaxing; Be sincere in beckoning him by singing in the evening.17 Wild grass and cold springwater are the means to ensure friendship;18 Obedient gaze and raised eyebrows—such is his behavior. Even without attendance for a moment, the horse’s nature excels; Resting at leisure,19 there is no need to make a snare.20 Led by his head to turn around, the horse returns home;21 A black horse with silver mane, his nature is not corrupted.22

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四 牧童歌舞緊相隨， 閑歇身心暫得居。 欲待遠歌高處樂， 又防不保牽盈迴。 漸得此獸安自性， 休貪戲，馬心賊。 背意裸斷蹄中鎖， 前功總廢泪雙垂。

4 The shepherd sings and dances23 with the tethered horse following in step;24 Contented in body and mind, he rests for a time in the surrounding locale. Wishing to conform to the far off song, he takes joy in a lofty place; Guarded but not enclosed, one leads him along to fully return. Gradually one catches his wildness25 and naturally his nature becomes calm; Pacify his lust for play26 [by taming] the rebellion in his heart.27 With obstinacy purified and interrupted, his hooves become restrained;28 His previous behaviors are abandoned, and tears [of joy] fall from his eyes.29

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五 撇去荒郊不用看， 閑觀綠水與青山。 悶來獨往巖中歇， 一坐紅輪兩三竽。 牧童纔知君子性， 清陰下，水潺潺。 縱橫自在無人問， 樂然喜笑滿容顏。

5 Having abandoned wildness,30 there is no need to keep watch; At leisure, he observes31 the emerald waters and azure mountains. Arriving somberly and leaving alone, he resides among cliffs; There is a single red wheel containing two or three pipe organs.32 The shepherd now knows the innate nature of the superior person;33 Beneath the pure shadows, water bubbles up and flows. Free from argumentation,34 no one comes to make inquiries;35 Completely joyful, exuberant laughter fills his whole countenance.

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六 垂韁曾救主人公， 性善安閑道不空。 歌舞萬章無盡美， 古來堪做本家風。 直然養得純和性， 童又喜，任縱橫。 信步閑遊方外景， 綠巖獨對與青松。

6 With the hanging lead already caught, the host becomes the master; With innate nature skillfully and calmly enclosed, the path is not empty. Singing and dancing among the myriad sights, it is unbelievably beautiful; Following the ancients, one establishes the influence of one’s original family.36 Directly nourish the attainment, and innate nature becomes pure and harmonious; Untainted and happy, one simply accepts the various positions. With sincere steps and unconstrained wandering, there are views beyond the known;37 Alone among the verdant peaks, one joins the company of the azure pines.38

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七 牧童自在樂巖前， 客看詩書不記年。 性空勿須擒意馬， 忘機絕却把心猿。 這會下手拿住性， 睡無憂，省無牽。 運動八純消息理， 順常時用返經權。

7 The shepherd abides in freedom,39 joyful in front of elevated peaks; Leisurely reading poetry and prose, he no longer cares about the years. With innate nature empty and beyond demands, he captures the horse of thought;40 Forgetting affairs in solitary withdrawal, he grasps the monkey of the heart-mind.41 Through this gathering, he sets to work on taking hold of innate nature; He sleeps without worries, and keeps watch without control.42 Circulating and moving through the Eight Purities,43 he rests in Principle;44 According with constancy in the present moment, he responds with aptitude.45

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八 清風斜日就天涯， 好對山童共飲茶。 溪畔放驕無我固， 閑花野草是吾家。 端的有些真誠心， 逍遙處，樂煙霞。 人生百歲渾如夢， 隨緣度日布和麻。

8 A clear wind and the slanting sun at the bank of the heavens— Mountain recluses enjoy conversing with each other while drinking tea. At the stream bank, the spirited horse is untethered, free from obstinacy;46 At leisure among flowers and wild grasses, this is my home.47 There really are those with true and sincere heart-minds; I dwell carefree,48 and delight in the misty vapors.49 The human life span is a hundred years, its whole like a dream;50 According with fate,51 I pass the day in cotton and hemp.52

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九 心似槁木若寒灰， 不做功夫自舞吹。 駿驥收來巖下臥， 好向峰前避世居。 樂然有箇無動性， 高處坐，樂輝輝。 斬斷葛藤休引夢， 清宵何處不明白。

9 The heart-mind resembles withered wood and cold ashes;53 Without engaging in effort, he spontaneously sings and dances. The swift and strong54 horse returns to sleep beneath the cliffs; Joyously facing the elevated peaks, he dwells beyond the world.55 Happily, one has realized innate nature beyond agitation; Sitting in an elevated position, one enjoys the shimmering brilliance. Cutting down vines and rattan,56 one has withdrawn from the extended dream;57 One rests in the clear empyrean beyond comprehension.58

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十 忘言一性總包含， 密隱潛形臥小庵。 馬死孤身閑步去， 縱橫歌舞假癡戇。 迅步有似閑人性， 常守一，勿言三。 不夜輝光無遮障， 爐煨書卷罷清談。

10 Forgetting language in unified nature, everything is encompassed;59 Secretly hidden in retired form, he sleeps at peace in a small hut.60 The horse has perished and the solitary person departs with relaxed steps;61 Singing and dancing beyond strife, he puts on the air of idiocy.62 With attentive movement, he seems to have a recluse’s innate nature; Constantly guarding the One,63 he refrains from speaking of the three.64 In a shining radiance without darkness, he lives beyond shadow and veil; Watching books and scrolls disappear in ashes,65 he concludes Pure Conversation.66

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十一 雙忘人馬杳無言， 內守全真養自然。 大道不須生善巧， 飢餐渴飲因時眠。 得一忘心專守一， 眾妙門，玄又玄。 煉就玉胎分造化， 壺中別有一重天。

11 With person and horse both forgotten,67 obscurity is indescribable;68 Internally guarding complete perfection, I nourish suchness.69 The great Dao has no need to produce skillfulness or cleverness;70 Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and sleep when tired.71 Attaining unity and forgetting the heart-mind, I simply guard the One; The gateway to myriad wonders; mysterious again more mysterious.72 Refinement culminates in the jade embryo beyond the transformative process;73 In the center of the pot,74 there is yet another kind of heaven.

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十二 法身清淨徹三天， 名強都忘總莫言。 寶塔無形常現在， 金龍帝跨永延年。 性滅心忘無箇事， 光裸裸，赫蟾津。 始生不知說之子， 元來始初紫金仙。

12 The Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity75 penetrates the Three Heavens;76 It refers to complete forgetfulness, something beyond description. The precious pagoda is formless,77 constantly manifesting in the present; The Thearch mounts a golden dragon,78 existing in extended longevity. With innate nature gone and the heart-mind forgotten, there are no more concerns; In the radiant purity, the shimmering toad drinks deeply.79 In the beginning, one was born unknowing whose child one was;80 The origin arrived as the great beginning,81 a purple and gold immortal.82

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Commentary on the Horse Taming Poems

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1 [2b] With four hooves galloping down the path, innate nature does not return; The shepherd just now loses control of attentiveness to the thief of the horsemind.1 Free from any restriction of movement, when the heart-mind abandons awareness2 it is difficult to pursue. Among the myriad things, it is difficult to take hold of the fallen lead. The emotional nature of this horse is chaotic; he neighs and pants, running to and fro. The shepherd chases and pursues him, but it is difficult to guard3 the thief of the horse-mind. Set to work right away to make an enclosure that may hold him; Dragging and pulling to head south of the village,4 one cannot guard against the panic of this horse. As soon as he thinks of running east and west, one must divide provisions into two or three tenths.5 Blind in the darkness, the appearance of the horse is nowhere to be found. Hampered by living in the wilds, the shepherd attentively keeps watch. The horse shakes his neck, neighing incessantly; the shepherd [longs to] capture the horse and place him in an enclosure. Such a horse is extremely difficult to catch and to enclose; One must harness his neck and restrict his activity, tying him up without stopping to look. Blame yourself that the mind is still unguarded; the horse roars and again runs away.6 Securely halter his head, and the rest will follow. A wild mind moves like a strong headwind; it turns its back on its original home. As soon as it leaves, there is nowhere to search; where would it be at the ends of the earth? If thought is wild, continually tame it with thirty switches; Stop making use of outstanding abilities;7 it is difficult to rely on thinking about the horse-mind.8 As soon as one thinks about following the wind, there is nowhere that one can find it. Naturally it will submit, and understanding will be attained. The panicked horse is obstinate and difficult to teach; he bites at the master who seeks to tether him.9 Tame him with thirty switches; brought under control, he will be naturally10 real.11

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2 [3a] Halter the horse and increase the crop without laxity; Firmly take hold of the halter, and urgently increase the crop on his back. Catching and placing him in an enclosure, the shepherd may guard him effortlessly (ziran). The shepherd trains him so that thought is doubly barred. Capture him and apply the crop; corral12 the mind by using intention to lead. The shepherd finds it difficult to guard thought; the excelling heart-mind13 is not naturally so (ziran). Naked on his back, the horse lacks saddle and bridle; Pull him with aptitude to behave and be fed; lead him to accept the purple silk lead. Refusing the trough and biting the master, a wild mind14 is completely discordant. There is no way to direct or encourage even a single glance. This is not an authentic animal; do not allow an excellent horse to look around. When children carelessly release animals, one meets with the difficulty of dual families.15 Struggling to gallop, his panting is strong and spirited; The horse has a strong and vital nature; he hurriedly runs far away, as though in flight. It would be good to employ thirty switches, bringing him under control16 through understanding. [3b] Be resolute in heart-mind; do not allow him to become wayward. Entice the horse with herbs17 so that capture is more likely; firmly imagine an enclosure for the untrained. The shepherd encourages the mind to slow down, abandoning confusion and the difficulty of dual families. The horse becomes more settled and outstanding in application; Constantly tie up18 the horse and refrain from feeding him; increase the crop each day so that he may be ridden.19 After hunger is overcome three times, his strong nature will diminish slightly. Joyful, his modest attainment manifests as a pleasant countenance. The celestial nature of this horse has been degraded;20 it perpetually walks for a thousand miles in his mind. The shepherd craves to look after his play; slipping out of his hand, the horse is even more difficult to find.

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3 [4a] Loosen the lead and gather him in without coaxing; Abandoned outside in the wilds, the shepherd looks around with even greater concern. Opposing captivity, the horse neighs and departs; one must take hold of him and lead him to his original home. Be sincere in beckoning him by singing in the evening. Urgently searching, one must bind him21 with doubled efforts; the shepherd urges him to come to the roadside. Without advancing one step, guard the solitary mind; through standard instruction, the nature of this excelling horse is no longer wild. Wild grass and cold springwater are the means to ensure friendship; Wild grass alone enables companionship; cold springwater allows closer relationship. This excelling horse stands on the riverbank; the shepherd delights in innate nature’s perfection (zhen). Obedient gaze and raised eyebrows—such is his behavior. In leisure22 beyond external things,23 enjoy being carefree;24 distinguish incompatible tendencies,25 but do not hinder his high-spiritedness. Broaden penetration and realize26 emptiness in solitary independence (zizai); beyond any confusion, a single gourd remains. Even without attendance for a moment, the horse’s nature excels; Day by day the horse of thought travels; the shepherd corrals him each time. Take hold27 of him so that he ceases running away; capture28 and settle him until he is naturally calm.29 Resting at leisure, there is no need to make a snare. The shepherd sings songs and laughs without cease; astride alone in leisure, he wanders beyond things. Among flowing waters and empty mountains, he becomes a companion of clouds;30 he returns to pure insight and delights in carelessness.31 Led by his head to turn around, the horse returns home; He returns home alone at night while singing songs; with a long sigh, how many lights and shadows. He loses his grip while returning beneath a forest spring; carefree among external things, he bears various slips and falls. A black horse with silver mane, his nature is not corrupted. The heavens birth an excelling and good nature; do not waste the mind of the shepherd. Leisurely rely on the withered-pine meditation;32 remain carefree and intone in independence.

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4 [4b] The shepherd sings and dances with the tethered horse following in step; Pull33 him away to bathe in the cold pool; his form becomes radiant as he gets rid of physical grime. The shepherd sings songs, dancing as he departs; the excelling horse becomes tethered and follows in concert. Contented in body and mind, he rests for a time in the surrounding locale. For the excelling horse, take hold of the hanging lead; his talent repays the master’s kindness. He may be truly compared to the Five Luminosities;34 transcendent, he stands alone from the multitude. Wishing to conform to the far off song, he takes joy in a lofty place; The bare35 horse travels past the western edge of the Jiang River; the shepherd resides on the upper bank. Lay hold36 of him to stop his passing; is there any doubt about what may cause death? Guarded but not enclosed, one leads him along to fully return. The black horse37 traverses throughout the realm;38 the white ox39 is enclosed each day. The shepherd visits the Purple Palace;40 a pure wind scatters through the [star-] covered heavens.41 Gradually one catches his wildness and naturally his nature becomes calm; The innate nature of the white horse is completely excelling; the shepherd has no need of anxiety. A pure wind moves beneath the luminous moon;42 one sits alone43 and checks the elixir center.44 [5a] Pacify his lust for play [by taming] the rebellion in his heart. Bind him in the center of Nonbeing and guard [that which is] not empty;45 release him and restrain him to arrive at the inexhaustible. How can a pure thoroughbred hinder the aspiration of the superior person?46 It is only because his fine mane receives the Five Luminosities. With obstinacy purified and interrupted, his hooves become restrained; In leisure from the arrival of external things, one dances among spring winds; maintaining nonaction, one becomes united through self-inquiry. The jade ravine does not hinder the passing of flowing water;47 the shepherd just now seeks the kinship of the three.48 His previous behaviors are abandoned, and tears [of joy] fall from his eyes. Lock up the pillar of original fate;49 time and time again do not open the enclosure. When hunger reaches the point of charred leanness,50 release him because there is no need for observation.

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5 [5b] Having abandoned wildness, there is no need to keep watch; The white horse is tethered in the Numinous Terrace;51 the shepherd abides in deep joy. Guiding him to this place, the master has no need to keep watch; casting off physical form,52 he departs from the realm of dust.53 At leisure, he observes the emerald waters and azure mountains. The horse eats grass beneath the torrents; the shepherd encloses him in a place to drink.54 Arriving in the evening, he returns to his former abode; he points in the distance where the moon rests at heaven’s border. Arriving somberly and leaving alone, he rests among cliffs; In a wistful moment, he punctuates an alchemical text; leisurely arriving, he dances to a song. He laughs continuously as an eastern wind blows; the shepherd realizes suchness (ziru). There is a single red wheel containing two or three pipe organs. For the white horse with azure mane the path (dao) is not empty; mount him upon arrival and search for the kinship of the three.55 With determination, you will take hold of the spark56 and the structure of the origin of Kun-earth;57 collect and direct it to enter the palace of Qian-heaven58 inside the precious network. The shepherd now knows the innate nature of the superior person; The moon’s radiance is locked in the cloudy ravine; the shepherd naturally sings and dances. Direct the arrival and welcome its release; across the level earth, a single thunderclap. Beneath the pure shadows, water bubbles up and flows. The shepherd sits among the majestic [surroundings]; the horse stands beneath the pines. Woodcutters make inquiries,59 but the shepherd never knows. Free from argumentation, no one comes to make inquiries; The excelling horse drinks inside the forest; the shepherd sings beneath the cliffs. Carefree without anxieties or obstructions, the mind is withered and innate nature resembles dead ashes.60 Completely joyful, exuberant laughter fills his whole countenance. The excelling horse wants to depart riding the wind; lightly pull him to the front. Independent, he lies beneath the cliffs; the shepherd sleeps with the moon for a pillow.

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6 [6a] With hanging lead already caught, the host becomes the master; The innate nature of this horse is like silk; the shepherd guards suchness. In its original state (benlai), there is not a single thing; without even formlessness, there is natural completion (ziyuan).61 With innate nature skillfully and calmly enclosed, the path is not empty. The horse of thought is originally empty; his vigorous name is present throughout east and west. Lead him to arrive so that any discipline may end; the luminous moon joins with the pure wind. Singing and dancing among the myriad sights, it is unbelievably beautiful; The shepherd sings and dances as a gathering wind flows; in leisure among the enclosure, he has joy free from worry. He reaches to the sky’s horizon62 without personal concern; gathering and arrived, he is suspended between the base and head of the moon. Following the ancients, one establishes the influence of one’s original family. Among the snowy mountain range, a high wind circulates; the cold floating moon naturally coalesces. Among verdant cliffs, an immortal cassia flourishes; in the distance, a wild crane cries.63 Directly nourish the attainment, and innate nature becomes pure and harmonious; Carefree in solitary joy, one becomes a guest of the sky’s horizon; in pure leisure beyond the clouds, there is nothing to oppress. He sings tones and rhymes in the purity of [peaks] reaching to the heavens; his dancing sleeves64 transcend the confines of the heavens and earth. Untainted and happy, one simply accepts the various positions. He constantly laughs in the moment, dancing in the spring wind; he departs from Being and enters Nonbeing, unimpeded by “emptiness.” A pure wind in the cavern is truly nourishing; like coalesced jade at the sky’s edge, such is his great, complete illumination.65 With sincere steps and unconstrained wandering, there are views beyond the known; The white horse joins with the shepherd; awakened, awareness becomes limitless. Perfect emptiness is the principle of mysterious subtlety;66 sudden realization (dunjue) is the illumination of suchness. Alone among the verdant peaks, one joins the company of the azure pines. The shepherd embodies suchness; the moon’s radiance encases the blue sky. A thatched hall is a pure and solitary place; every sentence contains a rhyme, subtle and mysterious.

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7 [7a] The shepherd abides in freedom, joyful in front of elevated peaks; Plucking herbs, the attentive shepherd sings; carrying scriptures, the white horse is at leisure. Whether coming from the west or leaving for the east, with traces67 extinguished, there is no obstruction. Leisurely reading poetry and prose, he no longer cares about the years. In the joy of subtle rhymes and pure songs, he leisurely intones about the gateway to all wonders.68 With three strikes, everything is accomplished and completed; pines and bamboo are unified in a single gourd.69 With innate nature empty and beyond demands, he captures the horse of thought; Guarding the stabilization of the monkey of the heart-mind (xinyuan), the shepherd is calm and naturally does not wander. The elixir is complete, and one knows the transformative process;70 abiding beyond things, what is there to cultivate? Forgetting affairs in solitary withdrawal, he grasps the monkey of the heart-mind. Grand and expansive, the moon is luminous in front; take care to make a single blow. Perfect disposition is an unchanging state; it is just the completion of the Valley Spirit.71 Through this gathering, he sets to work on taking hold of innate nature; Innate nature abides in a state of calm leisure; the way of joy (ledao)72 is even more enduring.73 Inside the tripod, a kingfisher-green contract coalesces; it hangs in front of the cassia branches. He sleeps without worries, and keeps watch without control. Joyfully playing in the Center, he embraces the search for the kinship of the three. Through seven reversions,74 he completes the elixir form (danti);75 such is the accomplishment of the nine reversions beyond causation. Circulating and moving through the Eight Purities, he rests in Principle; Split open Primordial Chaos;76 break apart Qian-heaven and Kun-earth. Distinguish Being from Nonbeing and family influences (jiafeng) from original endowment (benfen). According with constancy in the present moment, he responds with aptitude. This has not been recorded in texts for a long time—the Paired Passes77 must remain unopened. In clarity, bright illumination becomes penetrating; without a dream, one realizes Handan.78

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8 [7b] A clear wind and the slanting sun at the bank of the heavens— The crane dances, knowing the elixir instructions; the shepherd sings, infused with subtle awareness. With mutual agreement, no additional discussion is needed; the luminous moon illuminates the Toad Palace (changong).79 Mountain recluses enjoy conversing with each other while drinking tea. While drinking Zhaozhou tea in solitude,80 a shake of the sleeves produces misty vapors. Externally, there are no companions; within the ocean’s confines, troubles [move] like hemp. At the stream bank, the spirited horse is untethered, free from obstinacy; With a strike of the drum, merriment ensues; outside, a wild crane arrives. The shepherd abides in pure leisure; the moment resembles yet another Penglai.81 At leisure among flowers and wild grasses, this is my home. Awakening from Lü’s Yellow Millet [Dream],82 one reclines in a land of wild flowers. In serenity, one wanders as though in dreams; the sun and moon are constant inside the gourd. There really are those with true and sincere heart-minds; The excelling horse is the innate nature of original Nonbeing;83 the shepherd embodies self-perfection (ziyuan). In original suchness (benlai) [from the beginning], not a single thing exists; where does serenity not exist? [8a] I dwell carefree, and delight in the misty vapors. Azure water and green mountains, there is an immortal inside Yanxia dong (Cavern of Misty Vapors).84 Let loose the moon on the sky’s horizon; beneath the mountain torrent, there is only a single pure sky.85 The human life span is a hundred years, its whole like a dream; With a wave of the sleeves, one ascends the azure peaks; in leisurely movement, one takes hold of suchness. Select and collect the single substance [each thing]; release the cosmos contained in a single gourd. According with fate, I pass the day in cotton and hemp. A clear wind beneath the luminous moon; a pure wind without cease. Among blue pools, a pure cold utterance; this is truly the expression of a person in seclusion.

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9 [8b] His heart-mind resembles withered wood and cold ashes; The innate nature of the shepherd is clear and secluded; beneath the mountain torrent, the waters flow and move. Leisurely observing the outside scenery, just as before, mountains are mountains.86 Without engaging in effort, he spontaneously sings and dances. Recognized, a thousand kinds of beings; released, each one is Nonbeing. With dancing sleeves, one departs into the beyond; in solitary transcendence, there is a single revolution. The swift and strong horse returns to sleep beneath the cliffs; Disruptive desires are like a monkey; the shepherd reverses them to become a domesticated ox.87 When captured and guided, both become settled; in constant joy, happiness is without end. Joyously facing the elevated peaks, he dwells beyond the world. Among the appearances of the Three Realms88 and ten directions, a pure wind moves as though following one’s hand. Recognized and released, everything is completed; after awakening, attend to the single thread. Happily, he has realized innate nature beyond agitation; Take hold of Being inside Nonbeing; move the handle that is the gateway to all wonders.89 When you open the vision of the Mysterious Female,90 mundane and sacred are a single moment. Sitting in an elevated position, he enjoys the shimmering brilliance. Pick up the world of the ten directions; let go of delighting in celestial perfection. From ancient times to today, this has not changed; inside the gourd, a new sun and moon. Cutting down vines and rattan, he has withdrawn from the extended dream; The white horse rests beneath the cliffs; the shepherd sleeps in deep slumber.91 Both human and horse are free from agitation; a luminous moon joins with the azure mountains. He rests in the clear empyrean beyond comprehension. Through the method of three gulps and four wailings, shepherd and horse are both without traces. Nonaction is truly the great way; original suchness (yuanlai) is our original family influence.

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10 [9a] Forgetting language in unified nature, everything is encompassed; Forgetting language, nothing emerges in the mind; when the mind produces, one becomes attached to life. After one enters the state of double forgetting, one resides beyond thinghood and cannot become encaged.92 Secretly hidden in retired form, he sleeps at peace in a small hut. Through the secret method of the Numinous Terrace, the eight leaves and seven petals [unfurl]. Inside a thatched hut without form, one sits alone93 and finds the cinnabar sand (dansha). The horse has perished and the solitary person departs with relaxed steps; The horse dies and innate nature is free of anxiety;94 in solitary freedom, one wanders for ten thousand li. Such is the unified numen (yiling) free from obstructions; this is something that cannot be restrained. Singing and dancing beyond strife, he puts on the air of idiocy. Extended, one indeed resides beyond grief; whatever is encountered (zongheng), one remains free (ziyou). Singing and dancing, one rides the wind and departs;95 the luminous moon illuminates the Southern Tower (nanlou).96 With attentive movement, he seems to have a recluse’s innate nature; Perfection beyond illumination is true innate nature (shixing); empty innate nature (kongxing) is the Dharma Body (fashen).97 After awakening, not a single thing exists; in nonexistent innate nature (wuxing), each thing is naturally perfect. [9b] Constantly guarding the One, he refrains from speaking of the three. Constantly guard the emptiness beyond emptiness;98 freedom from thinghood (wuwu) is one’s original family influence. Casting off form is a state of complete forgetfulness; concealed, one resides in the great Void (taixu). In a shining radiance without darkness, he lives beyond shadow and veil; Suspend the mirror of Xuan Yuan;99 a cold radiance pierces the blue space. A pure wind rises beneath the cliffs; a single layer of variegated clouds follows. Watching books and scrolls disappear in ashes, he concludes Pure Conversation. My mind is like the autumn moon; blue pools glisten with its shining purity. Freedom from thinghood is beyond comparison; instructing myself, what can I say?

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11 [10a] With person and horse both forgotten, obscurity is indescribable; The excellence of double forgetting is difficult to describe; through subtle application, one becomes continuously connected. Abandoning learning is the root of nonaction (wuwei);100 nonaction is our original suchness. Internally guarding complete perfection, I nourish suchness. Internally guarding the precepts of gold perfection (jinzhen), practice leaving behind the four births (sisheng).101 In original suchness, not a single thing exists; standing alone, one attains great independence (zizai). The great Dao has no need to produce skillfulness or cleverness; The great Dao is without emotions;102 “good” and “bad” emerge from cleverness. Through recognition, everything ceases; the great Way of the Mysterious Gate103 becomes pervasive. Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and sleep when tired. When hunger arrives, one should eat food; when at leisure, one should sleep in a relaxed manner. In original suchness, nothing restrains or binds; where is there not suchness? Attaining unity and forgetting the heart-mind, I simply guard the One; Guard attaining unity and forgetting the heart-mind; in the state of no-mind (wuxin), innate nature is strong and enduring. In darkened obscurity [silence], circulate the Celestial Cycle;104 facing south, observe the Northern Dipper.105 The gateway to myriad wonders; mysterious again more mysterious. Keep the wondrous gate closed so that nothing emerges; recognize that when skillfully opened it measures eighty thousand li. Sever ties to the ten thousand vines and stop following dreams; realize the mysterious mystery, the purity beyond even mysteriousness.106 Refinement culminates in the jade embryo beyond the transformative process; Through refinement become a guest of the jade embryo; inside each one there is a subtle being (jiren). Penetrate the heavens and pervade the earth; gathered and collected, one gains a single taste of perfection.107 In the center of the pot, there is yet another kind of heaven. Above, one no longer sees the heavens; below, one does not perceive the earth. The wonder of the empty Void is difficult to describe; the transformations of the Dao (daohua) are immeasurable and boundless.

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12 [10b] The Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity penetrates the Three Heavens; I arrived from clarity and purity (qingjing); in the end, I will depart for clarity and purity. In clarity, I penetrate beyond the Nine Heavens108—a single numen without an abiding place. It refers to complete forgetfulness, something beyond description. Who can take up the stringless qin zither109 and, with a subtle handstroke, spark a clear tone? Suddenly thunder and lightning in spring—its shadow and echo reverberate through the Nine Empyreans (jiuxiao).110 The precious pagoda is formless, constantly manifesting in the present; In the east, the earth produces a strange excrescence; in the west, a golden flower (jinhua)111 forms. Through nonaction, one becomes a true simpleton; then one may build a seven-storied pagoda. The Thearch mounts a golden dragon, existing in extended longevity. With a single strike, one opens the Mysterious Gate;112 one joins and penetrates the pivot of the various Perfected. Xuan Yuan [Huangdi] has an audience with [Lord] Gold-Tower;113 the great numen mounts a crane taking flight. With innate nature gone and the heart-mind forgotten, there are no more concerns; With innate nature gone, the mind and innate nature are finished; expansive, one has completed Primordial Chaos.114 Through nonaction, one becomes the child of lions; how can one not guard one’s endowment? [11a] In the radiant purity, the shimmering toad drinks deeply. In the radiant purity, the shimmering toad drinks deeply; with crimson continuous and constant, the marrow of the cinnabar phoenix (danfeng). With perfection deep and far, a mirror reflects the outside; with illumination dazzling and bright, an immortal of Zimo (Purple Mill).115 In the beginning, one was born unknowing whose child one was; The nonbeing of Nonbeing (wuwu) produces a single qi; this qi was the beginning of Taichu (Grand Inception).116 I do not know whose child it is;117 returning to original nature is celestial perfection. The origin arrived as the great beginning, a purple and gold immortal. This is the heaven of Yuqing (Jade Purity) and Original Beginning;118 its myriad manifestations embody suchness. Great and expansive, it is a mirror of complete illumination; one is an immortal of Zimo in the Daluo (Grand Network) [heaven].119

par t iii Exegesis

Being with Horses

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PREREQU ISIT E S FOR HOR S E T R A IN IN G The Horse Taming Pictures are a series of twelve illustrated poems that depict Daoist practice and stages on the contemplative path through the analogy of horse training. The text consists of twelve poems with thirteen accompanying illustrations, the first ten of which are equine-centered and the last three of which are non-equine-centered. Illustrations 1–10 depict a sequence of training through which the horse gradually settles down and eventually becomes at ease. Illustrations eleven through thirteen portray various dimensions of Daoist religious commitment and alchemical transformation, including clerical identity (11), immortal potentiality (12), and immortality (13). Along the way, we find that dedicated and prolonged Daoist meditation leads to specific transformative effects. These are the results of intensive training. The Horse Taming Pictures utilize a distinctive conception of the horse. On the primary level, the horse represents agitated thought, conditioned nature, and habituated ways of being. Like a horse galloping out of control, thought is hurried, impulsive, and unpredictable. In such a state of agitation and confusion, horse-thought runs toward unknown destinations, often with injurious consequences. This is the horse as chaotic psychological conditions and spiritual disorientation. Horse-thought races from one disruptive state to another: from rumination through sexual desire and concern for reputation to anger and intoxication. Such an animal cannot settle down. One may become lost in the Three Poisons of greed, anger, and ignorance and in the Four Hindrances of alcohol, sex, wealth, and anger. One may lose oneself in sensory engagement and psychological reactivity, including excessive emotionality characterized by anger, hatred, worry, grief, and fear. This may result in harmful behavior patterns, such as stealing, committing sexual misconduct, lying, defamation, and holding false views. Such conditions ultimately express and reveal spiritual disorientation, a misalignment with the Dao. However, one may discover the horse of innate nature beneath the horse of agitated thought. On the secondary level, the horse represents stillness, original nature, and realized ways of being. This is one’s original or innate nature, the heart-mind with which one was born. Like a horse at ease in its surroundings, innate nature is present, content, and stable. In such a state of clarity and stillness, horse-nature remains calm and at ease, graceful and responsive to any situation that emerges. He is yang within yin and yin within yang, movement within stillness and stillness within movement. The sacred presence of the Dao manifests through one’s being. This is a state of psychosomatic vitality, energetic sensitivity, and spiritual integrity. The capacity for spiritual realization and mystical attunement gradually becomes actualized. Here the shepherd or attendant (mutong) represents

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both the heart-mind and the Daoist practitioner. He trains the horse of agitated thought to settle down so that the horse of innate nature manifests. Then innate nature, as original spirit, emerges and eventually merges with the heart-mind. Through further training, the attendant eventually attains the state of no-mind (wuxin) and no-self (wushen). The personal identity of the practitioner eventually disappears into the Dao. There is no more horse and no more attendant; there is no longer self or other. This is the transpersonal state and mystical experiencing that the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures depict as the culmination of dedicated and prolonged Daoist training. To return from agitated thought to innate nature, from emotional and intellectual reactivity to original connection and integration, one must “tame the wild horse.” One must practice intensive and prolonged meditation. One must remain committed to self-cultivation and alchemical refinement. This involves a movement from extreme agitation through increasing calm to stabilized stillness. It requires sustained dedication and gradual progress. Through the cultivation of clarity and stillness, by entering meditative absorption, one may come to live through the Dao. In the beginning, the horse appears foreign and other, an unknown and perhaps frightening animal. One does not know his true identity and characteristics. Perhaps one believes that the animal is dangerous, that he must be avoided or harnessed or captured. Perhaps one believes that he must be controlled or subjugated. One does not realize shared animality and spiritual companionship. One does not realize that one is interacting with the animal that is oneself. Like all beings, the horse seeks freedom and fulfillment. He too searches for a place to be truly what he is. The encounter with the horse becomes its own contemplative exercise. It is an inquiry into being and presence, the possibility of integration and aliveness.

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S TAGE 1: U NT R AI N E D The first illustration depicts a “wild” or out-of-control horse.1 The attendant has found the horse, but the horse is rebellious and strong willed. The attendant grabs hold of the lead, but the horse revolts. He drags the attendant down the path. The first poem tells us that the horse is galloping out of control. His chaotic behavior prevents the return of innate nature, his original stillness and contentment. Lost within the wider world, the horse has escaped, though the lead remains intact. The attendant is admonished to seek out and find the horse, to gain some control and provide greater direction. Still, the horse is nowhere to be found. Exerting greater effort, the practitioner must catch the horse and hold on tightly to the lead. If the horse is wild, if thought is chaotic, the attendant must increase the level of discipline, here referred to as “thirty switches.” Then horse-thought will become more compliant and may be more thoroughly trained. On the contemplative path, one often begins in a state of psychological chaos, of emotional and intellectual upheaval. This is the state of major turbidity and agitation. One does not understand the necessity of disciplined cultivation, of actual religious training. One is bewildered by psychological turmoil. This is comparable to a sky covered by thick clouds, which one misidentifies as the sky itself. It also resembles a lotus in a muddy pond, in which one misidentifies the mud for the lotus because it is hidden in cloudy water. Thoughts resemble a horse galloping out of control, and awareness follows, is obscured by, such thoughts as though they are consciousness itself. Still, we may begin to recognize the disruptive effects of such tumult. There is deep dissatisfaction. We may even notice the injurious consequences to self and other; we may recognize experiences of suffering, whether personal or interpersonal. One realizes that one must gain control over one’s own mind and discipline oneself. We have the capacity to take hold of the lead and to apply the crop. This involves disengaging sensory perception and investigating one’s own psychological reactivity, especially in the form of vexations and defilements of consciousness. One aspires to purify oneself of such characteristics as covetousness, anger, ignorance, arrogance, doubt, and false views. We may commit ourselves to spiritual cultivation; we may recognize the necessity of meditation for returning to innate nature, the stillness at the ground of our being. Contemplative practice is the path to realization. In this stage, one recognizes that one lacks cultivation, that one is in need of training. One becomes determined to seek the resolution of internal chaos and delusion; perhaps one also begins to long for something beyond the mundane, the Source and underlying reality of all existence. This

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stage is the beginning of a commitment to formal training, which may include the search for spiritual direction under a teacher and in a community. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse runs away. Perhaps he is afraid or in revolt. He does not want to be controlled or captured or trained. He avoids human contact and relationship. We begin looking for the animal, and after we find him we seek to capture him. One mistakenly believes that animals exist for humans, that the horse exists to be owned. We seek to control the animal, believing that he is different from ourselves. Thus the animal resists and seeks to escape, to remain free.

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S TAGE 2: T RAINING BE GIN S The second illustration depicts the attendant holding the lead tightly with his left hand, while the horse rears up on his hind legs. The attendant tries to control the horse. He holds a crop or stick in his right hand, apparently preparing to discipline the horse. The second poem tells us that the attendant must exert greater control over the horse, “increasing the crop without laxity.” The practitioner is admonished to train the horse with strong determination, increasing effort and intense discipline. This involves the “double barring” (shuangguan) of thought, a redoubled effort in training. The phrase both anticipates the “double forgetting” (shuangwang) mentioned in poem 11 and the “twofold mystery” (chongxuan) of the Dao mentioned in chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. The poem emphasizes that the horse lacks a saddle: the purpose of training is not to ride or subjugate thought; rather, it is to settle the horse down, a process that may require some intensity of effort. However, in this stage the horse remains riled up. He will not allow himself to be guided. He still wants to run away. His agitation is so strong that he is out of breath. Nonetheless, the attendant must remain dedicated. The practitioner must persevere and continue to provide direction. Gradually, the horse settles down and becomes amenable to more thorough training. An inner peace and joy begin to emerge. Although only an initial taste of attainment, the shift is visible in the qualities and comportment of the horse. On the contemplative path, one has become committed to dedicated and consistent meditation. In this early stage, one struggles to disengage from sensory perception, emotional reactivity, and intellectual rumination. It is challenging not to think about thinking, not to make meditation into a series of intellectual constructs. It is difficult not to become discouraged or overwhelmed by interior chaos. Nonetheless, one must exert greater effort. This recalls the emphasis on “firing times” (huohou) in internal alchemy, according to which “fire” often refers to intent and effort. Here one must “increase the fire,” maintaining steadfast dedication regardless of the difficulty. One must meditate even when meditation seems futile or ineffective. One must continue to purify consciousness by emptying its contents, specifically by reining in distracting thoughts and ideas. Here we are given initial hints of a method to transform ordinary mind and habituated nature, namely, “double barring.” Continue to seal the mind from excessive thinking. By corralling wild and reckless thought patterns, one may return to innate nature. However, any attempt to subjugate thought, to “saddle the horse,” is pointless. Ordinary mind cannot rectify ordinary mind. The process does not involve conscientious or forceful control of thought; such is simply suppression. Rather, one must sit in silence and simply

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disengage discursive thinking. One must allow the rationale mind to subside naturally. In this stage, one simply must remain vigilant and committed to the training process. This stage of practice is the beginning of formal training, an initial endeavor to overcome habituation. One starts to settle down, gaining a glimpse into deeper calmness and joy. There is some “modest attainment.” In terms of engaging the animal, the horse rears up in revolt, resisting further training. He does not want to be controlled, whether by halter or by crop. The horse struggles to get free. Being pulled by the attendant only creates greater resistance. However, perhaps the horse begins to sense that the attendant has a beneficial intent and sincere motivations. Perhaps he begins to feel that harmonious companionship is possible. We coax and encourage, without malicious intent or harm. We are gradual in our approach and leadings. Thus the animal begins to calm down and become receptive to a deepening relationship.

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S TAGE 3: RE ST RAIN E D The third illustration depicts the attendant standing with his hands at his sides, holding the lead in his left hand. He no longer carries, let alone uses, the crop or stick. The attendant walks down the path, leading the horse by slackened lead. The horse calmly follows behind with his head held high. The third poem tells us that the attendant loosens the lead and directs the horse without coaxing him. While the attendant still holds the lead, it is slackened. The horse cannot yet be trusted without a lead, but he has settled down to the point that he calmly follows the attendant. With sincerity, the attendant calls to the horse “by singing in the evening.” This might be interpreted as nightly meditation. The reference to singing may suggest that one provides enticements to thought so that the latter becomes absorbed by consciousness. This could involve concentration methods, such as focusing on the breath or a particular object. The practitioner may engage in meditation with support, that is, techniques dependent on visual or mental aids. By offering wild grass and cold springwater, indications of a secluded and natural location, the attendant feeds the horse with his preferred forms of nourishment. The horse begins to accept companionship more thoroughly. The acceptance and benefit of the training are indicated by the horse’s changed behavior. He has increased attentiveness and presence. He exists in a state of wonder and receptivity. This section of the poem may point toward the multiple meanings of yi, which include thought, intention, and awareness. In other words, it appears that thought has become more concentrated as intention, that intention directs thought, and that pure awareness manifests through intention. In any case, even without diligent and vigilant training, the underlying nature of the horse flourishes. This is innate nature beneath discursive thought. Both the attendant and the horse may relax. There is no need for harnesses, corrals, or stables. With gentle direction, “the horse returns home.” Although conventionally associated with vexations and defilements, reference to a “black horse with silver mane” may suggest a more encompassing mystery, obscurity, and anonymity, but one in which a flash of brilliance resides. Fundamentally, the horse of innate nature is vital and pure. On the contemplative path, one’s practice progresses. Through dedication and perseverance, specifically by emptying and stilling thought, one has advanced to the point where strong effort and control are no longer needed. Now we simply maintain a sincere aspiration to continue our cultivation and refinement. This involves recalling discursive thought and intellectual engagement from their never-ending distractions. We continue to return to stillnessbased meditation. Remaining attentive to the training process, one realizes that thought is still active, is still untamed, but it is less chaotic and unstable. This

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is the state of minor turbidity and agitation. That both the attendant and horse are still moving indicate a still unsettled psychological state and contemplative experience. Activity and agitation remain. This is comparable to a sky covered by variegated clouds: clouds are present, but the underlying blue begins to become visible. It also resembles a lotus in a muddy pond, in which one begins to see the lotus stem emerging from the mud in the gradually clearing water. Through seclusion and the nourishing silence, one may develop greater psychosomatic integration. Thought becomes less active, more appropriate in its activity and expression. Innate nature becomes stronger, and one no longer needs to be concerned about the ways in which mundane thoughts obscure consciousness. One does not need to try to contain thought, as discursive thinking is gradually decreasing. In this stage, one begins to “decrease the fire,” to lessen the degree of effort. This stage of practice reveals the efficacy of practice as a diminishment of intellectual activity; one gains an initial glimpse into the clarity and stillness of original nature. Innate nature retains and manifests its connection to the Dao; one begins the process of complete alignment with the sacred. Here innate nature and original spirit become more prominent. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse has settled down. He walks behind the attendant. As one begins to understand the horse’s nature, providing him with wild grass and cold springwater, he becomes more trusting, more open to a deeper form of companionship. Responding to the loosening of the lead, the horse no longer resists or struggles to be free. He senses the possibility of harmonious relational experiencing.

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STAGE 4: T R AINING C O N T IN U E S The fourth illustration depicts the attendant and the horse dancing with each other. Although at first glance it may appear that the horse is rearing up in revolt or that there is mutual antagonism, the accompanying poem refers to dancing. With the lead hanging freely for the first time, there is a dance of companionship. The fourth poem tells us that the attendant and horse are dancing with each other. The attendant leads, while the horse follows. The lead remains intact, although it hangs freely. There is a holistic and integrated contentment, and the practitioner begins to relax in the surrounding landscape. The ambiguity of the poem leaves open the possibility that this psychosomatic state characterizes the attendant (practitioner / heart-mind) and/or the horse (thought / innate nature). Following the guidance of the attendant, or perhaps something even larger (“the far off song”), the horse resides in a distant and secluded place. The attendant now guards the horse, but the horse requires neither control nor enclosure. The adept simply provides subtle direction, and the horse becomes fully settled and contented. The attendant gradually calms his erratic behavior, the chaos of reactive thought, and then innate nature becomes calm. Here it is noteworthy that the poem uses the character shou (animal), which I have translated as “wildness”; this seems to suggest a tension between the horse-as-horse and the horse-as-animal, with the latter suggesting instability and unpredictability. The attendant in turn must “pacify his lust for play”: the practitioner tames the attraction to unnecessary concerns and idle pursuits. The poem speaks of the “rebellion in his heart,” which more literally means “thief of the horse-mind.” Given the various associations of “the horse” here, as well as the Complete Perfection emphasis on the senses and their associated desires and emotions as “thieves,” it appears that the thief is an internal disruptive force within the horse, not of the horse. The horse begins to become more content and compliant, and his movements become more consistent and contained. Earlier bad behaviors are transformed, and tears of joy fall from his eyes. On the contemplative path, one continues to maintain the process of stilling and emptying the heart-mind, of purifying consciousness of any and all content. In particular, this includes distracting thoughts, defilements, and vexations. Such are the obscurations of consciousness, the hindrances to spiritual clarity and realization. One’s aspirations and being are now directed toward something larger; one listens to that which is both within and beyond personal identity. We discover greater contentment and joy in solitude, seclusion, and aloneness, including the moments of formal meditation. Thought no longer rebels or undermines our practice. We are able to maintain correct orientation,

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in whatever situation, as the present moment unfolds. Thought is “guarded, but not enclosed”; dedicated observation and consistent progress continue, but without the requirement of complete detachment from the world. It may be that in the earlier stages, one must fully seclude oneself, cutting off every form of engagement. It may be that one must make an enclosure for oneself for some period of time before finding a more harmonious balance between meditative seclusion and being-in-the-world. This recalls the early Complete Perfection practice of meditative enclosure (huandu), which involved a solitary meditation retreat in a hermitage or locked room for one hundred days. In any case, one gradually develops greater psychosomatic harmony; one’s heart-mind begins to settle down. The earlier instability and unpredictability of thought and emotionality become transformed, and one gains deeper glimpses into the serenity of original nature. As the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power explains, “Appear plain and embrace simplicity; lessen personal interest and decrease desires.” In this stage, decreasing desire eventually leads to clarity and stillness and then to stabilized stillness, concentration, and meditative absorption. This stage of practice reveals that there are additional degrees of purification, which correspond to the removal of further strata of habituation. Deconditioning must continue. Having purified ourselves of agitation, contention, and the like, with intellectual rumination and emotional reactivity subsiding, thought patterns are more harmonious and beneficial. We have now investigated and transformed harmful tendencies in thought, speech, and action; we have abandoned the inessential, everything that prevents us from being who we are and realizing the Dao. This often involves emotional releases, as the body and somatic emotionality unwind. We are “loosening the tangles” and “untying the knots.” Gradually, true joy will emerge. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse now dances with the attendant. Responding to the release of the lead, to freedom of movement, the horse no longer revolts. He finds joy and harmony in the deepening companionship. Having overcome habituated reactivity, expressed in erratic behavior and unpredictability, the horse begins to settle down in his surroundings. His own nature starts to manifest, a “joy” observable in his eyes.

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STAGE 5: T R AIN E D The fifth illustration depicts the attendant sitting leisurely on what appears to be a tree stump. He sits with his knees bent and his legs slightly extended. His hands are open, facing outward in a difficult-to-determine manual gesture. In addition to being the first seated posture, the gesture perhaps is meant to suggest noninterference and open receptivity, or wuwei in Daoist technical terms. The horse stands at his side with lowered head, perhaps indicating subservience or, more appropriately, reverence. It is a sign that companionship, with its accompanying trust and mutuality, is developing. The lead again hangs freely, a feature that began in the previous illustration and continues through the tenth (the final equine-centered picture). Having reached the midway point of the equine-centered portion of the text, the fifth poem tells us that the horse has been trained to such an extent that “wildness” has disappeared. Here the character translated as “wildness” is huang, which contains the cao (grass) radical and often indicates a wild area beyond human settlements. This may suggest a return from remoteness to nearness, from margins to center, from outside to inside. The poem further explains that the attendant no longer needs to keep watch; the horse is fully present and comfortable. The attendant no longer engages the horse. In seclusion and at leisure, the horse takes pleasure in the surrounding beauty, in the pure waters and verdant mountains. He comes and goes naturally among elevated peaks. From this point forward, the content of the poems shifts from the condition of the horse (thought / innate nature) to that of the attendant (practitioner / heartmind). The horse’s lowered head in the illustration may indicate a decease in cognitive activity, with discursive thought still present in various fluctuations. Thought has “joined up” with innate nature and the heart-mind. The meaning of the fourth line, which refers to a “red wheel with pipe organs,” is difficult to determine. It may indicate that the sound of carriages or music occasionally penetrate the landscape. At this point, “The shepherd now knows the innate nature of the superior person.” Content among the various sights and sounds, living in a natural setting, one observes and enjoys the shifts of sunlight and the flow of water. The attendant has abandoned argumentation and distinctions between self and other. Literally meaning horizontal and vertical (i.e., distinctions), zongheng is used throughout the poems to indicate disputation, philosophical positions, and intellectual rumination. It is a psychological condition in which thoughts and emotions extend in every direction in the form of agitation and contention. This tendency has been silenced. Specifically, the necessity of inquiry and doubt, let alone explicit guidance, has come to an end. The attendant

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is no longer concerned with reputation, personal ideas, or doctrinal distinctions. He is at home in the landscape, hidden among mountains and waters. He in turn becomes completely joyful, a joy expressed in laughter. On the contemplative path, one has moved past major and even minor turbidity and agitation; clarity and stillness are deepening and stabilizing. This is the state of equal turbidity/agitation and clarity/stillness. Cognitive upheaval and erratic thinking, as well as the resulting behavioral and relational chaos, have become settled. One no longer needs to maintain vigilant attentiveness in terms of thinking. We reside in a place of seclusion and stillness, simply observing whatever appears. This is comparable to a sky containing few clouds: the clouds come and go within the more encompassing blueness. It also resembles a lotus in a muddy pond, in which the lotus stem becomes more perceivable and one begins to catch a glimpse of the emerging flower. Interestingly, the poem uses an important Daoist technical term for a specific form of Daoist meditation; this is guan, which refers to open, nondiscriminating awareness. It is the same character used to translate the Buddhist technical term vipassana¯/vipas´yana¯. From a contemplative perspective, there are at least two ways to interpret this line: one maintains nonattachment to any appearances (one simply observes), and/or one has become so attuned with the landscape that one enjoys its natural features. As “waters and mountains” are often used in Daoist cultivation, and specifically in inner observation (neiguan), to refer to the inner landscape of the human body, this may point toward a practice in which one observes the flow of qi (“water”) throughout the various subtle somatic locations (“mountains”). Whether thought is present or not, one remains in seclusion, perhaps listening to a hidden sonata. In internal alchemy, such miraculous occurrences are sometimes referred to as “stringless music.” In this stage, innate nature becomes more manifest, and one has gained a higher level of self-cultivation, that of a “superior person” (junzi). This stage of practice reveals that horse-thought has been fully trained; it largely rests in silence, only becoming active when necessary or required. Inside this cognitive stillness, “water bubbles up and flows.” We begin to feel an energetic presence in the lower elixir field (dantian), which then circulates throughout the body. We are unconcerned with personal opinions, doctrinal attachments, or individuals fond of contention. Self-cultivation, our own training and progress, is primary. So “no one comes to make inquiries.” Either they cannot find us because of a lack of spiritual affinities or we have become invisible, hidden in the landscape and in broad daylight. Alternatively, one is too deep in seclusion, in meditative practice, to be found. In a state of true joy, one laughs lost in the mountains: the actual mountains, the mountains of the inner landscape, and the mountains as the stillness and seclusion of meditation. Free, independent, and carefree,

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such joy pervades one’s entire being, clearly visible in one’s complexion and facial expression. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse is at ease in his companionship with the attendant. He even appears to support the latter’s sitting, the discovery of one’s place in the larger landscape. There is also a new respect and reverence. Fully trained, there is no more need for “training.” The horse simply lives and flourishes within the surrounding beauty. The local, natural place is now home.

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S TAGE 6: U NHINDER E D The sixth illustration depicts the attendant sitting in meditation. Resting on what appears to be a meditation blanket, he sits in a recognizable and standard meditation posture, perhaps the full lotus or modified “Burmese” posture. Unmoving for the first time, the horse stands in the foreground or at the attendant’s side, keeping watch over him. In some sense, the two have now exchanged positions. The horse stands in an upright posture with his head aligned. The lead is still present, but from this illustration through the eighth, and possibly the tenth, one side of the lead is longer than the other. This may suggest greater laxity. The sixth poem tells us that the attendant has already caught the horse and developed the ability to direct him by using the lead. While the skill remains, it is no longer needed. Previously the attendant played the role of “host” (i.e., attending carefully to the needs of his guest); now he is a “master” (i.e., responding effortlessly to any situation). Having awakened innate nature in such a way as to be constantly present and manifest, one finds that “the path is not empty.” Even if the practitioner doubts the sincerity of others and the presence of authentic practice in the world, he at least knows that one person (himself) is following the path. This is enough. Alternatively, practice reveals subtle connection and support, a hidden network of fellow practitioners connected to each other as a historical and energetic continuum. Through contemplative practice and deepening experience, the practitioner knows that he is on the way to the Way. The attendant continues to take joy in the surrounding landscape, finding beauty in its natural contours and presences. He establishes a connection to the underlying watercourse of tradition, finding a transmission that transcends space and time. The poem speaks of the “influence of one’s original family” (benjia feng), which refers to the Daoist tradition and an innate connection to the Dao. It may have a similar sense as yuanfen (predestined affinities) and even xiangu (immortal bones). The attendant becomes an embodied transmission, a spiritual vessel, of tradition. By abiding in this state, by remaining dedicated to self-cultivation and not regressing, innate nature remains pure and harmonious. Clear and joyful, the adept develops greater serenity and equanimity. He no longer engages in debate or argumentation, which are signs of internal agitation and attachment to view. The practitioner continues to make progress “with sincere steps and unconstrained wandering.” The phrase recalls chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang, which is titled “Carefree Wandering,” with “being carefree” eventually identified as one of the “fruits of the Dao” (daoguo). These are beneficial and transformative results of Daoist training. Specifically, “There are views beyond the known.” The practitioner gains glimpses into the

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underlying subtle nature of reality, the larger matrix of being. This may involve the opening of subtle or mystical spaces in the body, spaces that seem to be immaterial or nonspatial. In the present context, it may also suggest experiences with immortals and/or visions of the Daoist gods and sacred realms. Secluded among the lush cliffs, the practitioner “joins the company of azure pines.” As pines are associated with longevity and immortality, this line indicates that he has attained extended longevity, resembling various inhabitants of the place. On the contemplative path, one no longer needs to be concerned with discursive thought or the associated training methods. Thought is still present, but inactive; discursive thought remains a dominant dimension of consciousness, but there are no particular thoughts. One has attained “higher levels” of practice-realization, to the point of being solely focused on one’s own selfcultivation. No longer engaged with the evaluations of others, free from concern over other-orientations, one has become completely independent. We enter and continue to reside in the silence at the ground of our being. Along the way, we begin to recognize that we are following a particular path. This is the path to spiritual realization, the way to the Way. It is a rare and at times difficult undertaking. At this stage, one becomes infused with a deeper sense of joy and freedom, delighting in the beauty that is present in the world and encountered in such moments. One also understands that such a path is both temporal and atemporal. It involves a connection to community and tradition, that which preceded and culminates in oneself. It also involves a connection to the hidden, underlying network of realized beings that transcends space and time. Perhaps this is the recognition of immortality as the simultaneity of time. We continue to maintain our practice, realizing that the current state of serenity and equanimity is nourishing and extraordinary. In this stage, innate nature is present and vibrant. Dwelling in purified consciousness, we are free from attachment to view. This is the stage of practice wherein we realize the state of noncontention (wuzheng). One maintains a sincere commitment to practice and eventually attains the condition of being carefree. There are no more hindrances or constraints. Like the great Peng bird mentioned in chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang, one flies above the mundane world, free of ordinary concerns and obstructions. Here we gain “views beyond the known.” We listen to the subtle communication underlying appearances; we find a hidden landscape unseen by a mind clouded by language and concepts. We live in a state of carefree wandering. In meditative seclusion, whether practicing formal meditation or not, one always resides in the mountains. One dwells in an inner stillness that mirrors the outer peaks. “One joins the company of azure pines.” One has found a place in the surrounding landscape: the elevated pines open their ranks and provide a welcoming place for rest. Like pines, we have become evergreen.

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In terms of engaging the animal, the horse stands alert but unmoving. As a vital physical presence, his bearing is aligned and unencumbered. He willingly and joyfully resides at the attendant’s side, perhaps even serving as a guardian and tutelary animal. Given the stability of relationship and harmony of companionship, the horse now waits for the attendant. If movement is required, they will move in concert. They reside in close proximity in a shared place.

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STAGE 7: AT LE IS U R E (I) The seventh illustration depicts the attendant back in the posture of the fifth illustration. He again sits on what appears to be a tree stump, his knees bent and legs extended. This time he plays a flute, although the corresponding poem does not mention instruments or music. The horse stands by the attendant’s side. Although the horse’s lowered head appears similar to the fifth illustration, the subsequent images (8–10) clearly indicate that this stage involves the horse gradually lying down. This is also supported by the reference to sleeping in line six of the accompanying poem. The seventh poem tells us that the attendant abides in a state of freedom and independence (zizai; lit., self-abiding). He sits in his own essential aloneness, taking joy among the elevated peaks. The repeated references to the beauty of place may refer to both an actual, secluded physical setting and a transformed inner landscape. At leisure, he reads poetry, forgetting about mundane concerns and his own existence. On a contemplative level, this line points toward ourselves as readers: we are reading Gao Daokuan’s poetry, perhaps in leisure. Time, especially personal lifespan, is irrelevant at this stage. Abiding in the emptiness of original nature, the attendant has tamed horse-thought: ordinary and undisciplined thinking, erratic and unpredictable, no longer gallops out of control. Abiding in the forgetfulness of meditative enclosure, he has caught the monkey-mind: ordinary and habituated mind, chaotic and disruptive, no longer jumps to and fro. Both have settled down. By merging these two in silence, the attendant works to live through innate nature, original spirit housed in the heart-mind. “He sleeps without worries, and keeps watch without control.” This line alludes to the famous depiction of the Daoist sage (shengren) in chapter 15 of the Book of Master Zhuang, which explains that realized practitioners “sleep without dreams and wake without cares.” The adept abides in a contentless and nonconceptual state of consciousness, in which mundane concerns are no longer present. This even extends into dream states—that is, forms of consciousness over which one apparently has no control. Meditation begins to become an all-pervading existential approach, a more constant way of experiencing. The attendant engages in observation without effort and practice without discipline. It is meditation beyond formal sitting or mere technique. His being expands in every direction; his awareness extends to every place. Ultimately, he rests in Principle (li), the underlying patterns and structure of the universe. He accords with each manifestation of the transformative process. He returns to an internal patterning attuned with the larger cosmic matrix. The last line is somewhat obscure. As I read it, Daoist adepts become so rooted in their own practice that they no longer need external textual or spiritual direction. They

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are self-directed, following the unfolding contours of their own cultivation, with the ultimate aspiration of transpersonal, mystical union with the Dao. There is greater freedom and spontaneity, a natural responsiveness to whatever arises. On the contemplative path, one is completely free and independent. One resides in a state of leisure, secluded from the cares of the mundane world. This is the state of minor clarity and stillness. Joy increases as one contemplates and enjoys the surrounding mountains. At times, one reads, reflects on, and applies Daoist literature, specifically the creative inspiration and insights of poetry. As an exercise in contemplative reading, we engage the Horse Taming Pictures as a contemplative exercise; this is study informed by practice and practice informed by study. Occasionally, we flip through mountain poems and essays on retirement and cultivation. Here one thinks of Wang Zhe’s (1113–1170) guidance concerning reading and study as found in his Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings: “The way to study texts is not to strive after literary merit and thereby confuse your eyes. Instead, you must extract the meaning as it harmonizes with the heart-mind. Abandon texts after you have extracted their meaning and grasped their principle. Abandon principle after you have realized the fundamental ground. After you realize the fundamental ground, attend to it until it completely enters the heart-mind” (DZ 1233, 1b–2a). We become nourished by the expressions of aliveness, the possibility of being, preserved in poetry. We forget the years, no longer concerned about time and circumstances. We disappear in contemplative time, an experiential space beyond ordinary time. There is a growing realization that innate nature is empty and incorruptible. This is comparable to an empty sky, but one in which the horizon or boundaries are still visible. It also resembles a lotus in a muddy pond, in which one clearly perceives the flower above the mud and through the clear water. No matter what has occurred or what will transpire, we are well. We continue to listen to the deeper dimensions of existence. This is a shared reality beyond appearances, obscuration, and individuation. It is transpersonal. In such a state, thought has become stilled. Horse-thought begins to go to sleep. We practice quiet sitting, guarding the One and sitting-in-forgetfulness. There is detachment from mundane affairs. We meditate in solitude, a solitariness untainted by ordinary defilements or vexations. The ordinary mind and habituated nature are becoming transformed into original mind and awakened nature. By uniting thought and the heart-mind into a single consciousness, we simply maintain a connection to our innate nature, which is the Dao. This state/nonstate even extends into our dreaming: one sleeps calmly and wakes rejuvenated. Regardless, one always maintains simple observation and open receptivity. In this stage, one does not react or become agitated, no matter what occurs. One remains at leisure. This stage of practice involves letting go of any residual attachments and reactivity. Distancing ourselves from self-concern, we come to pervade the entire cosmos,

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to understand the entirety of reality. It is a hidden unity manifesting through the transformative process that is the universe, a process that includes each and every aspect of existence. We become attuned to such patterns of transformation; we naturally follow the oscillations of yin-yang and the Five Phases. Each and every transformation occurs both within and beyond ourselves. Returning to the original constancy of the heart-mind, we are stable and present in each moment. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse remains present. His level of comfort and contentment increases to the point that he settles down further. He is beginning to recognize the attendant as a fellow being, a being with shared animality. Both animals begin to participate in a larger context, one in which innate nature is perhaps both equine and nonequine, neither equine nor nonequine. The horse begins the process of lying down.

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S TAGE 8: AT LE ISU RE (II) The eighth illustration depicts the attendant back in the posture of the sixth illustration. He practices seated meditation. Resting on what appears to be a meditation blanket, he again sits in a recognizable and standard meditation posture, perhaps the full lotus or modified “Burmese” posture. The horse is positioned at his side. The horse begins to lie down more completely: He is prone on his front legs, while his hind legs are slightly bent but still extended. The eighth poem tells us that the attendant observes a clear wind and setting sun on the horizon, perhaps indicating freedom of movement, beneficial influences, and the time coming to a close. He has arrived at the waning stages of training. Such natural occurrences appear to resonate with “mountain recluses drinking tea together.” As the poems seem to focus solely on attendant and horse, it appears that each has now become a hermit. They share tea and conversation, a common Daoist pastime with respect to “discoursing on the Dao” (lundao). This might be taken as the attainment of a new language, a way of communicating between animals. The horse rests near a stream. Free of agitation and rebellion, he remains untethered. The lead is still no longer needed. The practitioner resides at leisure among the beauty of the natural setting. Interestingly, for the first time Gao uses a first-person pronoun in reference to “my home.” The practitioner understands that attendant and horse, including their various experiences, are his or her own being. Such Daoist adepts recognize that authenticity and sincerity reside in their own commitment to selfcultivation and transformation. Here the practitioner enters the state of “being carefree” (xiaoyao), referred to previously in poem 6. In addition to being an allusion to chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang, this Daoist technical term eventually came to designate one of the “fruits of the Dao,” that is, beneficial effects of spiritual practice. This involves taking joy in the “misty vapors”: the practitioner appreciates the nourishment of silence and seclusion. Here one also thinks of the famous “Joy of Fish” story in the Book of Master Zhuang, in which Zhuang Zhou merges with piscine and aquatic being. Dedicated practitioners realize that ordinary human life resembles a dream. Perhaps one even thinks of the famous Yellow Millet Dream of Lü Dongbin, in which this future immortal woke up from the dream of fame and reputation and became fully committed to Daoist practice-realization. The practitioner then accepts whatever comes, content in living a life of simplicity. One has enough, regardless of external circumstances. On the contemplative path, one sits and observes the clear winds and the sun setting over the horizon. As qi is associated with wind, one allows qi to move freely throughout the body. As the eyes are associated with the sun and moon,

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one lowers the eyelids so that only a minimal amount of light enters during meditation. As the head is associated with heaven, perhaps the qi moves upward along the spine and the energy of mental activity decreases. “Emptying the heart and filling the belly,” the cognitive presence of the mind sinks from the head and heart, eventually becoming an energetic fullness in the lower elixir field. Alternatively, we recognize that we are moving into the later stages of training. There is a harmony between internal and external landscapes, and we find joy and friendship with those with similar aspirations. “Mountain recluses drink tea with each other.” The fading remnants of discursive thought are on the periphery of consciousness. We no longer concern ourselves with “tethering horse-thought” because it has settled down and become pliant. One resides at leisure among flowers and wild grasses. One recognizes that there are living presences in one’s practice, both physical and subtle. We begin to feel a deep sense of calm abiding, of being at home. We realize that there are authentic practitioners in the world with true sincerity and similar aspirations. They too are oriented toward the Dao and spiritual realization. In this stage, one attains the state of “being carefree”; one is completely free of mundane concerns and at ease in any situation. This stage of practice involves a deeper form of leisure. We delight in the misty vapors. We are nourished by wild places, but we also remember the seclusion and intensive training that results in complete psychosomatic transformation. There are companions and models from tradition. One understands the impermanence and opportunity embodied in a human life. Ordinary pursuits, motivations, and values are a fading dream from which we have awoken. We accept whatever occurs as “fate.” It could not be different. Trusting in the Dao, one welcomes each moment as blessing and grace. Material possessions and circumstances are irrelevant to true cultivation. One passes the day in deep contentment, a joyous simplicity and simple joy. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse remains at the attendant’s side. He has entered such a state of comfort and relaxation that he begins to lie down more fully. Recognizing the attendant as a fellow recluse, and sharing in the delights of reclusion, the horse has moved from activity through erect alertness to gradual recline. He has begun to accept the attendant as a horse.

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STAGE 9: RE ST ING T O GE T H E R The ninth illustration depicts the attendant and horse lying down next to each other, with the attendant in the background and the horse in the foreground. While the previous images had the horse positioned on either side of the attendant, here they are exactly aligned. The attendant lies on his right side on what appears to be a leopard blanket, a symbol of high spiritual attainment. His eyes seem to be closed. The posture recalls both the standard Daoist sleeping position and the parinirva¯na posture of the Buddha. The former is most often associated with the famous Daoist immortal Chen Tuan (Xiyi [Infinitesimal Subtlety]; d. 989), though I have seen similar representations of Qiu Chuji (Changchun [Perpetual Spring]; 1148–1227) at Shenxian dong (Grotto of Spirit Immortals) in Laizhou, Shandong, and of Lü Dongbin (Chunyang [Pure Yang]; b. 798?) at Changchun guan (Monastery of Changchun [Eternal Spring]) in Wuhan, Hubei. In taking the posture of both realized immortals and buddhas, the attendant sleeps as a Daoist to attain enlightenment without residue. The horse is positioned in a similar posture with his eyes apparently open. He is still awake. The ninth poem tells us that the attendant has entered a contemplative state in which “his heart-mind resembles withered wood and cold ashes.” This is an allusion to chapter 2, titled “On Making Things Equal,” of the Book of Master Zhuang. The passage describes the meditative absorption and mystical attainment of a high-level Daoist adept. Here the body is unmoving, with its vital signs apparently absent, while consciousness, comparable to a burning fire, has been reduced to embers. The attendant has entered a deep state of concentration and stabilized stillness (ding). There is no more effort, especially with respect to training the horse. A spontaneous joy manifests in song and dance. Now the horse, still vital and capable of powerful movement, sleeps in the natural and secluded locale. Taking pleasure in the surrounding mountains, symbolic of seclusion and silence, the horse is free from the saddles and corrals of the world. He abides in a place where he is free and at peace. In this stage the attendant realizes the purity of innate nature; it is an interior clarity and stillness beyond turbidity and agitation. Line 6 creates some compositional incongruity: it mentions “sitting in an elevated position,” yet the accompanying illustration depicts a prone posture. The former may be understood as representing a condition within the latter. That is, while sleeping, the attendant abides in a state of seclusion and equanimity. Such representations, in which one’s yangspirit (yangshen) sits above the world while the practitioner sleeps or meditates, are common in illustrations of both internal alchemy and sleeping exercises (shuigong). This also points toward the discussion of sleeping and dreaming

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in poems 7 and 8. Here the attendant “cuts down vines and rattan.” Recalling the description of ordinary thought as “underbrush” or “brambles of the heartmind” in chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang, the attendant has created an open space, one suitable for both a hermitage and the corresponding eremitic withdrawal. Line 7 makes reference to mundane existence and concerns as the “extended dream,” a theme that we saw in poem 8 as well. Then the attendant rests in an elevated clarity and purity, one beyond ordinary understanding, beyond language and concepts. On the contemplative path, one enters a state of complete meditative absorption and mystical attainment. This is the state of major clarity and stillness. The body is unmoving, with its vital signs becoming imperceptible to the point of “withered wood.” The heart-mind is empty, with the fire of discursive thought decreasing to the point of “dead ashes.” This is comparable to a vast sky without borders or boundaries. It also resembles a the fully opened lotus flower resting on the still surface of a pond, above the mud and clear water. One no longer exerts any effort, especially in terms of disciplining thought or training the mind. A spontaneous joy emerges. Although still vital and capable of employment, thought has become completely silenced. Horse-thought is now asleep. One abides in a state of deep clarity and stillness. This is symbolized by mountains: the mountains as silent locale, as stable presence, as stillness, as self. As mountains also designate various somatic locations in internal alchemy, including the spine, head, and lower elixir field, this line may suggest a greater energetic presence throughout the body. The interior mountains of the adept’s body have opened up and are now accessible. Here we dwell beyond the mundane and trivial. We maintain an orientation toward the Dao, a cultivation of the essential. Having cleared away the various brambles and entanglements of the mind, the attachments and obscurations of consciousness, one has realized the fullness of innate nature, one’s original connection to the Dao. Here we may recall the classical and foundational Daoist principles from chapters 4 and 56 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power: “Blunt the sharpness; / Untie the knots; / Harmonize the brightness; / Unite with the dust.” Also translated as “loosen the tangles,” jiefen directs us to investigate and transform every apparent obstruction and difficulty. In this stage, one simply rests in one’s being, in a life permeated by the sacred. This stage of practice involves a deeper form of seclusion, one in which innate nature is untainted by social conditioning, familial obligation, or personal habituation. One is completely free of obfuscating influences; one is completely confident in one’s choices. Here we see through everything: the roots and branches, the seeds and fruition, are clear. We rest in the clear empyrean, the pure, blue sky of the mind and the heavens as an expansive canopy. In this contentless condition, perception, language, and cognition have decreased

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to such an extent that they no longer seem to exist. We abide in meditative absorption and stabilized stillness. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse lies down and begins to sleep. He has become so content and at ease that he no longer seeks to flee, stands at attention, or prepares to move. He rests next to the attendant. As horses will only sleep lying down when other horses are present, the horse accepts the attendant as having a shared equine being, an innate nature that is both within and beyond the equine. At this late stage of “training,” the horse, like the attendant, has become enlightened. He has realized his own original nature and his connection to the larger landscape and to each and every being that inhabits it. There is mutual contentment.

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STAGE 10: U NIT E D IN FOR G E T F U L N E S S The tenth and final equine-centered illustration depicts the attendant and the horse again lying next to each other. Like the previous image, they are aligned. The attendant lies on his back on a bed, or perhaps on a stone slab. He is in what appears to be a posture akin to the “corpse pose”—that is, a position indicating completion or death. The horse also lies on his back in a supine posture with his hooves up in the air. Both attendant and horse appear to be sleeping with their eyes closed, although the accompanying poem speaks of death. The tenth poem tells us that language has been forgotten in the unity of innate nature, the underlying matrix that connects all beings. The attendant has become expansive, containing everything in existence. He resides in a secret and hidden place, a solitary enclosure that mirrors his own state of seclusion. According to the second line, “he sleeps at peace in a small hut.” As mentioned, “meditative enclosure” (huandu) was a primary Complete Perfection practice, one that involved both extended physical isolation and intensive meditation periods. The emphasis on a hermitage also recalls the first section, titled “Living in Hermitages,” of the Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings, a text attributed to the founder Wang Zhe: “All renunciants (chujia) must retreat to a hermitage” (DZ 1233, 1a). As this is a late stage of practice, this poem assumes both monastic commitment and formal seclusion as spiritual foundations. Thus, the hut in question is the attendant’s permanent place of residence, the primary location of practice-realization. It is also the hermitage of stillness within the heart-mind. The reference to “sleep” in line 2 is complexified by line 3, which tells us, “The horse has perished [lit., died] and the solitary person departs with relaxed steps.” It thus appears that the sleep state is actually a death state. One way to resolve this tension involves the recognition that both conditions involve the apparent dissolution of self, the disappearance of subjectivity. In any case, it seems that the horse has died, and the attendant is beginning his final departure from the world. He also sings and dances in spontaneous joy, this time “putting on the air of idiocy.” This recalls the wild eccentricity of many early Complete Perfection adherents, including the founder and his senior disciples. Here the attendant expresses awareness and attentiveness in every activity; such qualities pervade his actual movement patterns. He has thoroughly become a recluse: The stillness of his innate nature matches the silence of his hermitage. He constantly practices “guarding the One” (shouyi), a Daoist technical term for meditation. Having abandoned argumentation and disputation long ago (poems 5 and 6), now he will not even discuss “the three.” This Daoist technical term refers to yin-yang interaction and, by extension, to the phenomenal world. In a timeless and unending illumination, the Daoist practitioner has

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realized complete spiritual clarity and insight. There are no more shadows or veils in his or her consciousness. Such practitioners then dispense with books, whether through actual or metaphorical burning. This is the end of Qingtan (Pure Conversation). With close connections to the early medieval Xuanxue (Profound Learning) movement, Qingtian was characterized by metaphysical concerns and “spiritual conversations.” Such philosophical rumination has become irrelevant. On the contemplative path, one enters into a deeper state of forgetting, perhaps at times even into the state of forgetfulness. This is a place beyond language and concepts. While in earlier moments, we have distanced ourselves from mundane concerns and entanglements, including external influences, here we confront the deeper dimensions of consciousness, eventually disengaging these faculties and arriving at pure consciousness. Everything becomes penetrated; no obscuration remains. One resides at peace in a hermitage, whether physical or psychological. This is a place of seclusion and retirement; this is a place of distance and stillness. Thought is now completely stilled, to the point where it seems to be totally asleep or even dead. One begins the final transition away from the mundane world toward immortal being. Within such seclusion, one is completely relaxed. There is no longer any “progress” to be made: one simply continues on the path with “relaxed steps.” True joy, a joy beyond object-based fulfillment or external orientations, pervades one’s being. Such a state is perhaps so uncommon that ordinary people take us to be insane. How could the lives and behavior of ascetics, contemplatives, and mystics not appear “crazy” to the masses? We are living through a different orientation, in contact with something larger. Attentiveness and awareness pervade everything that one does, even manifesting in one’s physical movements. There is an interior silence that recalls distant hermitages and elevated peaks. To encounter the innate nature of such a practitioner is to encounter the essence and culmination of seclusion. One constantly guards the One, maintaining a single-pointed focus on the unity that encompasses each and every being. We realize the Dao as every one and as One. Distinctions disappear. In this stage, we have completely disengaged from the phenomenal world and mundane concerns, to the point that we do not comment on any expression. This stage of practice involves increasing degrees of forgetfulness, a state in which one abides in primordial nondifferentiation and unity. While both attendant and horse still exist, they are asleep and beginning to disappear completely. One in turn practices essential speech, perhaps observing natural and voluntary silence for extended periods of time. Here there is a radiance without darkness, a life without obscuration. The veils and shadows of consciousness have been completely removed, and spiritual illumination is all that remains. One no longer needs the guidance of books, at least as receptacles of personal opinions and solidified thought.

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One has discovered the culmination of practice and the resultant experiences through one’s own practice. There has never been any other practice; there has only ever been this practice. Such cultivation is moment-to-moment awareness without aid and without past or future. Here we may burn maps as kindling for a mountain fire. This is the end of metaphysical speculation and “spiritual conversations.” There is only the presence of practice-realization. There is only abiding in the clarity and stillness of innate nature, the all-pervading numinous presence of the Dao. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse has settled down to the point that he is asleep on his back. Or perhaps he is dead. The horse no longer exists as a separate animal. But is the horse dead, or is it the human that has died in shared and united animality? Perhaps each has disappeared into the other so that the attendant has now become the horse. Having taken the horse into our being, we no longer make such dualistic distinctions. We encounter the horse that we are and move in the world accordingly. Perhaps in this sleep, this dream of the horse, this death of the human, we finally understand the horse’s drive toward freedom and wildness. Perhaps then we can imagine a world without harnesses or stables, a world free of cages and pens. Perhaps here we dream of a world where horses run unhindered in their own flourishing aliveness and powerful fluidity. Perhaps we finally understand the world of equine being.

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STAGE 11: ABIDING IN SU C H N E S S The eleventh illustration, the first non-equine-centered image, depicts what I take to be a Daoist priest. Unlike the previous illustrations, in which the attendant’s hair appears disheveled, relatively short, or perhaps even in a child’s hairstyle of multiple topknots, here we encounter a figure in long Daoist robes with long hair, which appears to be tied in a single topknot with accompanying kerchief. One potential interpretation is that the previous illustrations (1–10) relate to a postulate or novitiate stage; one must “tame the wild horse” before becoming a full Daoist ordinand. This recalls the actual levels in certain Daoist ordination systems. Similarly, the ten primary equine-centered images might be understood as a clarification of vocation, through which some renunciants find that they are called to be priests. This is clerical identity understood as embodied and communal: One becomes an elder of the community and provides spiritual direction for others. Such an individual has the ability to communicate and mediate with the Daoist sacred realms. The eleventh poem tells us that both the person and the horse have been forgotten. The poem speaks of a “double forgetting” (shuangwang). On the primary level, this refers to the disappearance of horse and attendant; both are forgotten. On another level, it indicates a contemplative practice in which even forgetting is forgotten; such is the state of forgetfulness. This involves complete deconditioning. The emphasis on forgetting recalls the seminal passage on “sitting-in-forgetfulness” (zuowang), which appears in chapter 6 of the Book of Master Zhuang and is closely associated with “fasting the heart-mind” (xinzhai) mentioned in chapter 4 of the same text. It also points toward other double, redoubled, or twofold dimensions of Daoist cultivation, including the “twofold decreasing” (chongsun; ch. 48) required to realize the “twofold mystery” (chongxuan; ch. 1) of the Dao mentioned in the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. Here “obscurity is indescribable,” which again is an allusion to classical and foundational Daoist views of the Dao. The practitioner engages in internal guarding (neishou), specifically focused on attaining and abiding in the state of “complete perfection.” This is complete psychosomatic transformation, or immortality. Here we are informed that the primary focus is “suchness” (ziran), or being-in-itself. The adept has abandoned any pretense or remnants of “skillfulness” or “cleverness,” qualities that the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power (ch. 19) identifies as deficient and requiring purification. The adept has abandoned any awareness of personal identity, including concern for recognition. According with the Dao’s suchness, with the larger cosmic matrix, “Eat when hungry, drink when thirty, and sleep when tired.” In other words, the practitioner has become internally harmonized and externally attuned. These

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principles recall the instructions given by Wang Zhe in his “Guidance for the Jade Flower Society”: “Fellow adepts, if you long for perfect cultivation, simply eat when hungry and sleep when tired” (Quanzhen ji [DZ 1153], 10.21a). Tending to one’s foundational vitality is both the commencement and culmination of Daoist training. Through the practice of “guarding the One,” the practitioner enters the state of contemplative forgetfulness and mystical union. This is “the gateway to myriad wonders; mysterious and again more mysterious.” This line, line 6, is an inversion of the final two lines of chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. Here the practitioner realizes the twofold mystery of the Dao. Approaching the completion of the alchemical process, the embryo of immortality begins to form. This line anticipates the subsequent illustration. Then “in the center of the pot,” in the lower elixir field, the adept discovers “there is yet another kind of heaven.” “Paradise” or “heaven” exists within the practitioner’s very own body. On the contemplative path, one has forgotten both discursive thought and separate personhood. One has entered a transpersonal state, disappearing into the obscurity and mystery of the Dao, a condition beyond language and concepts. Here is Daoist quietistic meditation as contentless, nonconceptual, and nondualistic. One practices internal guarding to attain the state of complete perfection. We continue to deepen the stillness and forgetfulness of meditation, which will culminate in complete psychosomatic transformation. This means forgetting physicality, disengaging sense perception, decreasing intellectual and emotional activity, and dissolving individual identity. We abide in suchness, the larger reality and all-pervading numinous presence of the Dao. Suchness involves yet another level of refinement, wherein qualities such as “skillfulness” and “cleverness” have been abandoned and purified. Pervaded by the Dao, one has no need of such human characteristics. This is spiritual attainment without recognition or concern for “mastery.” We return to our original and natural connection to the Dao, a state of attunement in which the body may be trusted. Harmonized with the larger cosmos, the seasonal cycles, and our own energetic condition, we simply eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and sleep when tired. Appearing plain and embracing simplicity, we live beyond “oughts” and “shoulds.” One maintains the practice of guarding the One, of remaining in a state of mystical pervasion; unity beyond unification and forgetfulness beyond forgetting are all that remain. We live in the twofold mystery of the Dao. In this stage, there is no longer self or other; dualistic distinctions and ways of being have disappeared. Abiding in suchness means realizing one’s original connection to the Dao and all things. As the refinement process progresses and deepens, we begin to feel an energetic and numinous presence in the body, specifically in the navel region. This is the “jade embryo beyond the transformative process.” It is indestructible and flawless like fine jade. It is a being capable of

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birth and maturation like an embryo. While dwelling within the larger cosmic matrix, the immortal embryo, the elixir, remains uncorrupted and unhindered by the trials and tribulations of ordinary existence, especially the suffering that results from attachment to the impermanent. One understands and accepts change as the only constant; this results in internal stability among external instability. Within our own bodies, our bodies as alchemical crucibles in which the elixir of immortality is refined, we discover a mysterious and hidden sacred realm. This is a portal into both self and universe as a single, unified field. Rare and indescribable, it is a freedom and joy beyond the known. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse has disappeared. It seems that the animal is no longer present, that he has ceased to exist. But the same is true of personhood. There are no longer “animals” or “humans” or perhaps even the “Dao.” In this transpersonal state, the so-called human contains the so-called animal; in fact, one transcends such other-constructs altogether. The horse lives in the clerical (non)identity of the Daoist priest. Pervaded by the Dao, such priests carry the memory of the horse, the lives of horses, within their own beings. They move through the world as human and horse, neither human nor horse.

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STAGE 12: DHAR MA BO D Y O F C LARIT Y AND PU R IT Y The twelfth illustration depicts what I interpret to be the immortal embryo (xiantai), also known as the Child (ying’er). As referenced in the previous poem, this is the “jade embryo,” the formative moment in the culmination of the alchemical process. The image shows a young, bare-chested boy without hair sitting cross-legged. One noticeable iconographic feature is the “third eye” in the center of his forehead. Referred to with a variety of Daoist technical terms, including Yintang (Seal Hall) or Mingtang (Hall of Light), this point is associated with spiritual illumination and realization. In certain systems, it is one of the Nine Palaces (jiugong), mystical, nonspatial cranial locations. The child symbolizes both a return to primordial simplicity and increasing energetic presence and stability in the body, especially in the lower elixir field, the navel region. The emergence of the immortal embryo is a sign of successful training; paralleling the development of embryo to fetus to child, there is a gestation or incubation process at this stage of practice. One must continue to nourish it to become a being capable of independence. At the same time, it is associated with original spirit (yuanshen), a form of consciousness or divine being that may transcend physical death. The twelfth and final poem tells us that the practitioner has activated or actualized the Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity (qingjing fashen). This is a Daoist adaptation of the Buddhist notion of the “three bodies” (Skt.: trika¯ya; Chn.: sanshen) with the Dharma Body corresponding to the Dharmaka¯ya, that is, the manifestation of a buddha in its essential nature (cosmic). In internal alchemy contexts, it is also referred to as the “body-beyond-the-body” (shenwai shen), “immortal embryo” (xiantai), and “yang-spirit” (yangshen). This is the culmination of inner alchemical training, namely, complete psychosomatic transformation. According to the poem, this “body” extends to the Three Heavens (santian), which are the three highest Daoist sacred realms and associated with the Sanqing (Three Purities). They include Yuqing (Jade Clarity; highest), associated with Yuanshi tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning); Shangqing (Highest Clarity; middle), associated with Lingbao tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure); and Taiqing (Great Clarity; lowest), associated with Daode tianzun (Celestial Worthy of the Dao and Inner Power; Laojun [Lord Lao]). From an inner alchemical perspective, these are also associated with the three elixir fields (head, heart, and navel region) and the internal Three Treasures (sanbao): spirit, qi, and vital essence. The practitioner has activated the various subtle centers, refined the body’s subtle substances, and gained access to the highest Daoist sacred realms. At this moment the Daoist adept has entered complete forgetfulness, a state beyond description. The poem

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speaks of the formlessness and constant manifestation of the “precious pagoda.” As elixir fields are sometimes referred to as “gourds,” “pots,” “pavilions,” and so forth, this seems to suggest that the mystical body is active and manifest. Here “the Thearch (di) mounts a golden dragon,” a phrase suggesting immortality. Interestingly, a Thearch (i.e., divine sovereign) is a celestial being, usually a high god with powers over the universe. In the present context, the description suggests that the practitioner has completed the process of self-divinization. At this final stage, the heart-mind and innate nature no longer exist, for these are dualistic concepts and states. The practitioner has realized the (non)condition to which they refer. Spiritual illumination and divine radiance (guangming; shenguang) extend everywhere and pervade everything. Like moonlight on a clear autumn evening, enlightenment saturates the world. The adept returns to the original beginning, a state/nonstate of primordial nondifferentiation. Such practitioners have reversed the process of cosmic emanation. This involves a return to the Dao as Source. This is immortality. The twelfth poem is followed by another illustration, but this time without an accompanying poem. I would thus suggest that we are meant to take the final image as the culmination of stage twelve. It both illustrates the final line of poem 12 and suggests that the present state of realization, the culmination of Daoist training, is beyond description. The thirteenth and final image appears to depict a Daoist elder. Dressed in long, flowing Daoist robes, the figure is an old man with lengthy hair, beard, and eyebrows. His large ears suggest extended longevity. On the most basic level, this illustration suggests both status as a venerable elder and the attainment of immortality. At the same time, given the iconography and reference to the “purple and gold immortal” (zijin xian), an additional layer of meaning is viable: the figure in question is Laozi (Master Lao). If this reading is convincing, and if this image is meant to represent the completion of Daoist practice-realization, then it points in a number of directions. First, as Daoists generally consider Laozi to be the key source point of their tradition, one has connected with its foundations and entered into its bones and marrow. One embodies and transmits its essential teachings— namely, self-cultivation and transformation culminating in mystical union with the Dao. Second, as Laozi was often identified by Complete Perfection Daoists as the first of the Five Patriarchs, one has realized not only the essence of Daoism but also the commencement of Complete Perfection. One embodies and transmits the Daoist tradition in various forms, specifically as the numinous presence of the Dao manifesting through the world. On the contemplative path, successful completion of the alchemical process results in the emergence, the formation, of the Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity. This is the yang-spirit activated through intensive and prolonged alchemical training. Characterized by independence and freedom from materiality, the yang-spirit now extends into the highest reaches of the cosmos, into

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the highest Daoist sacred realms of the Three Heavens. Here we also realize the interpenetration of macrocosm and microcosm: the Three Heavens are our own elixir fields. Just as the former are inhabited by the primordial cosmic ethers of the Three Purities, the latter contain the Three Treasures of spirit, qi, and vital essence. Here we abide in a state of complete forgetfulness, a state even beyond “forgetfulness.” It is beyond language. We live in the formlessness and immediacy of the subtle body, the body cultivated and developed through internal alchemy. At this point one comes to resemble a celestial being; it seems as though we will ascend and inhabit an immortal realm beyond the mundane. Prior to physical death, we gain signs of successful training, including expansions of consciousness, subtle communications, and perhaps otherworldly journeys. Following physical death, one will ascend into the Daoist sacred realms. This state of forgetfulness, of stillness and emptiness, extends even to the earlier, provisional experiences of the heart-mind. We have realized the emptiness of “heart-mind” and “innate nature,” which were simply early signposts pointing the way. We have entered the state of no-mind (wuxin), which is formless (wuxing) and undifferentiated (wuji). Our psychology is so transformed that separate personhood has dissolved. There is only the numinous presence of the Dao permeating all of existence. We abide in an all-pervading divine radiance. Finally enlightened, we have become a moon illuminating the cosmos as it is; we have become the cosmos illuminated by the moon. In this stage, one has attained pure and complete forgetfulness, the absence of even residual expressions of personal identity. This stage of practice involves the emergence of the yang-spirit as a new being, one only faintly glimpsed through “innate nature.” It is beyond space and time, beyond thinghood and own-being. It is immanent and transcendent, singular and plural. Here we reside in a state of Oneness, the Silence that encompasses everything. We have become immortal, completely pervaded by the Dao’s numinous presence. We have become embodiments of the Dao in the world. This is the transmission of spirit-to-spirit, of own-most being to own-most being in shared, energetic exchange and participation. In terms of engaging the animal, the horse has disappeared long ago. But perhaps we remember its presence as a wild being in a distant and secluded landscape. Recalling our earlier companionship, our delight in shared animality, perhaps we speak at times for the horse, as the horse. Having merged with the Dao, we are simultaneously one and many. We disappear and manifest in many different forms. This is the world and each individual being as an expression of the sacred. In such a unified state, animals feel at home and come to dwell. Perhaps they even become our teachers and our friends. We accept each other as we are, understanding and supporting conditions of aliveness and flourishing. The wild horse returns in this moment of awakening. The wild horse resides in this form of being.

Appendix 1 hagiogr aphy o f g ao d ao k ua n ( 1 1 9 5 – 1 2 7 7 )

PE R FE C T E D YU ANM IN G (C OM PLE T E ILLU MIN AT IO N ) [29a] The master had the surname Gao, taboo name Daokuan (Way-Extending), and style name Yuzhi (Abundantly So). He came from the Hao clan of Huairen county in Yingzhou.1 He was born on the nineteenth day of the seventh month of the yimao year in the Mingchang reign period [1195].2 When young, he was not the same as the other children who were his playmates. He often read books, even discerning the larger meaning of the classics and histories. His nature and manner were refined and delicate. He always thought about leaving behind mundane concerns. Because he was living with his parents, he refrained from following his [spiritual] aspirations. During the Da’an reign period [1209–1212],3 major military activity began, with [troops] gathering and filling the thoroughfares. The [Gao] family left their village and moved to Chang’an,4 hiding themselves among the official scribes (daobi shi).5 After his father and mother died, [Master Gao] began performing the mourning and funeral rituals. One evening while sitting in the family hall, in

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the middle of the night he suddenly beheld a radiant illumination like dawn. As he looked east and west, the Gates of Heaven (tianmen) opened wide. Between red clouds and green vapors, he successively saw beautiful forests, rare trees, precious halls, and amazing terraces. After a little while, the sky closed again. From that point forward, [Master Gao] only had a heart-mind for studying the Dao (xuedao). In the xinsi year of the Xingding reign period [1221],6 [29b] he heard that a certain Complete Perfection Lord An7 of Penglai an (Hermitage of Penglai)8 on Zhangtai (Displayed Terrace) Street had the Dao. So he renounced family life, abandoned mundane entanglements, and underwent the [initiation] ritual to become a disciple (dizi).9 Lord An cherished [Master Gao’s] courage and decisiveness. He taught him that abandoning strength (cuiqiang) and blunting sharpness (cuorui) as well as decreasing desires (guayu) and governing the heart-mind (zhixin) are the foundations of self-cultivation (xiushen).10 Master [Gao] had confidence in these mysterious instructions. In tattered robes11 and with coarse food,12 he tasted the Dao and contemplated perfection, eventually becoming quiet and calm. When the reign title changed to Zhengda [1224],13 he traveled to Bianliang,14 where he became a disciple of Li Chongxu15 of Danyang guan (Monastery of Danyang [Elixir Yang]),16 who counseled him on the highest way (shangdao).17 [Li] Chongxu supported and encouraged his efforts so that he might develop religious merit (fude). Master [Gao] himself served as a cook and water-carrier for several years without interruption, and Li Chongxu transmitted the essentials of the way (daoyao) to him. In the bingxu year [1226], the emperor sent an emissary with a soaring phoenix decree to summon Lord Yu Dongzhen.18 He [Yu] then directed Li Chongxu to select some refined and dignified Daoists (daoren) to assist them and serve as attendants. Li Chongxu summoned Master [Gao], saying, “The master [you] will assist and join me in this meeting, which has a true connection and obscure principle.19 [Master] Dongzhen and I are companions of the boundless (fangwai). In the past, we received authentic empowerment (yinke) from the two masters [Ma] Danyang and [Qiu] Changchun,20 the eminent founding ancestors (zongjiang)21 of the Gate of Perfection and Mystery (zhenxuan men). [30a] Now we have received these directions and invitations, and we can fulfill them together. On another day, my way will become complete in your training (erye). You must maintain reverence for it!” Master [Gao] received these teachings and began practicing. [Yu] Dongzhen then arrived at Bian[liang]. He began providing guidance and instructions at Taiyi gong (Palace of Great Unity). Master [Gao] sat beneath his [teaching] mat: In the morning he prostrated himself and in the evening he

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requested [instruction].22 In this way, he made progress in studying the Dao and inner power as well as innate nature and life-destiny (xingming). In the guisi year [1233],23 Master [Gao] traveled north from Bianjing [Bianliang] to the district above Yandu [Yanjing].24 He looked for a place to stay at the virtuous and flourishing site of Longyang guan (Monastery of Dragon Radiance),25 where he could rest and relax as if in final retirement. In spring of the wuxu year [1238], Yu Dongzhen summoned him to return to Yanjing, and [Master Gao] followed his extensive instructions as though [following] white clouds. In winter of the gengzi year [1240], he again entered the pass [Shaanxi] and returned to the Ancestral Hall (zuting) in the Zhongnan mountains.26 At that time, they were looking for an auspicious site to relocate the grave for the Patriarch master [Wang Zhe]. Master [Gao] looked at many places and assisted the process of identifying a beneficial location. In the wushen year [1248], Yu Dongzhen gave [Master Gao] the Daoist religious name (hao) of Master Yuanming (Complete Illumination), temporarily assigned him to the imperially recognized Chongyang gong (Palace of Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]), and directed him to oversee the affairs of Yuxian gong (Palace for Meeting Immortals) in Ganhe.27 In addition, he addressed him, saying, [30b] “Many disciples know about the methods for making progress by ‘withered sitting’ (kuzuo)28 and interrupted thought (xisi).29 However, they do not know that adepts of highest realization (shangda) are distinguished by complete pervasion (yuantong) and stabilized wisdom (dinghui).30 They embody and apply (tiyong)31 cultivation, understanding movement and stillness. If opposed, they maintain serenity—practicing nonaction (wei wuwei) and conducting affairs through nonconcern (shi wushi).32 They unite with the dust (tongchen) and harmonize with brightness (heguang).33 Such is the subtle decree of Master Lao.34 Now, when mysterious transformation (xuanhua) flourishes, you should revere this: Take responding to fate and upholding the teachings as well as taking care of beings and supporting life as the foundations for ascending to Perfection and realizing the Dao. Then you will certainly be able to bear the burden of being a part of our tradition (jiaomen). Even if you encounter complex situations, you will be careful but fearless. Everything will seem like common jade in comparison to your fulfillment.” Master [Gao] prostrated himself and said, “The wondrous decree of immortals and Perfected truly has not been heard by the common and ordinary. Today I have encountered the teachings, and I will try to carry out these instructions. Accordingly, I will be restrained in governing myself and expansive in managing everything else. By not distinguishing between inside and outside or the Dao and everything else, nothing will not attain a joyous heart-mind. Recognition

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involves praise and assistance—I take you to be someone who understands others.” In spring of the renzi year [1252], the Patriarch (zhangjiao), Lord Li Zhenchang35 went to the Ancestral Hall [Palace of Redoubled Yang] to pay his respects (sixiang). [31a] He directed Master [Gao] to serve as the Daoist registrar (daolu)36 in Jingzhao.37 For ten years, [Master Gao] tended to these affairs without interruption. In the xinyou year of the Zhongtong reign period [1261],38 Lord Zhang, the Perfected Chengming,39 arrived at the imperial capital. He petitioned the throne to declare that Xingyuan and other areas in Shaanxi province be placed under the jurisdiction of Daoism (daojiao), with particular attention to the situation of the imperially recognized Palace of Redoubled Yang. In the summer of the wuchen year of the Zhiyuan reign period [1268],40 the emperor’s nephew, the Prince of Yongchang, bestowed a golden cap and brocade robe [on Master Gao]. In the xinwei year [1271], when Lord Wang, Perfected Chunzhen (Pure Perfection),41 inherited the teachings, he bestowed [on Master Gao] the name Zhichang baode yuanming zunshi (Venerable Master Complete Illumination, Knowing Constancy and Embracing Virtue). Soon thereafter, the Prince of Yongchang gave him the additional name of Dongguan puji yuanming zhenren (Perfected Complete Illumination, Profound Observation and Universal Assistance). In spring of the guiyou year [1273], the emperor’s son, the Prince of Anxi, held court six times. Master [Gao] immediately responded, and the prince issued a decree that repeated the bestowal of cap and robe. In the summer of the yihai year [1275], Master [Gao] was summoned to perform the great jiao-offering rite of the Golden Register (jinlu) and Network Heaven (luotian) for a temple restoration.42 From the first day until the feast ended,43 auspicious clouds spiraled and mingled, and there was a numinous response, luminous and manifest. This was written on a stele composed by Mister Shang, who held the position of Vice Grand Councilor (canzheng).44 It commemorated the casting dragons (toulong) rite.45 At that time, the Palace [emperor] again conferred cap and robe, which was a sign of esteem and great kindness. In autumn and the seventh month of the bingzi year [1276], the Prince of Anxi wrote an imperial letter that bestowed and transferred control of western Shu [Sichuan] to Daoism. Master [Gao] played a prominent role in the tradition for over twenty years with particular esteem and virtuous transformation.46 [During this time], there was not even a single criminal issue [in the monastic order]. While residing at the Ancestral Hall, he added the upper temple of Nanchang (Southern

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Glory)47 and the great altar of the Five Patriarchs.48 He also increased the size of the kitchen, library, granary, and stable.49 The total number of additions and renovations were extensive. Even though he gained a ceremonial interview, which was certainly a beneficial meeting through ritual, it did not result in him taking on the air or appearance of pride and contempt. Even when there were many religious affairs (jiaoshi), he would respond to each thing as it occurred. In all cases, he followed the underlying principle. Every evening at midnight, he settled spirit by practicing quiet sitting (jingzuo). He would not sleep even until dawn. In terms of exercises (gong)50 for cultivating perfection (xiuzhen) and refined nourishing (lianyang), he practiced with effort and constancy. Even when he was over eighty years old, his walking was healthy and strong. His vitality (jingshen)51 was full and robust. Whether princes and dukes above or the multitudes below, [32a] there was no one who did not honor him through special ceremonies. Thus he received the quiet respect of members of our tradition, and the Daoist community (daozhong) was at peace. The four directions secretly benefited from his honors, which were not few. In the first ten-day period of first month of spring of the dingchou year [1277], [Master Gao] suddenly contracted a mysterious illness. While his attendants were trying to persuade him to take medicine, Master [Gao] addressed them: “Death and life resemble dawn and dusk—this is the constant principle of all things. How can herbs and minerals possibly extend our allotted time?” On the twenty-fourth day, he suspended his eating and sat with a dignified manner (weizuo) for the entire day. His conversation was just as it had been in earlier times, with him providing instructions about advancing in the Dao (jindao) to his disciples. On the following day, he suddenly transformed [died] in the quiet room (jingshi) where he was staying. He had enjoyed eighty-three springs and autumns. After five days, he was buried in the temple’s Xiantui yuan (Garden of Immortal Husks). The number of people, both Daoist and ordinary, who paid their respects at his grave exceeded ten thousand. The tranquility of his life and his strength of the Dao (daoli) are self-evident.

Appendix 2 s o n g o f pur e awak e n i n g

I cultivate the heart-mind that is free of obstruction— The numinous illumination of awakened nature constantly manifests. The heart-mind opens in radiant emptiness, filling the ten directions; Innate nature realizes spirit pervasion,1 infusing the phenomenal world. With the awakened heart-mind enclosed,2 And with innate nature spontaneously liberated, My heart-mind is that of a perfected immortal returning to its ground. To become realized, quickly set out to investigate innate nature; In sudden awareness, one can return to one’s original endowment.3 With innate nature in isolation, And the radiance of the heart-mind expanding, Innate nature arrives from beginning to end, an omen both inside and outside. From ancient times to the present, stability4 of the heart-mind has been the current of our established tradition5— Innate nature resembles dead ashes while one delights in solitary sitting.6 With the heart-mind like withered wood,7 And with innate nature extending everywhere, The heart-mind [realizes] form and emptiness,8 severing ties to concern for either.

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Our elders9 emphasized the breakthrough wherein innate nature is solitary and pure; At peace in body and heart-mind, one must expel every trace of self-interest. By guarding10 your heart-mind, With innate nature able to be relied upon, The heart-mind forgets every distraction so that something rare arises. Innate nature is empty of karmic influences,11 obscure without residual traces;12 The heart-mind effortlessly becomes infused and harmonious, free from backsliding.13 With innate nature still and genuine, And with the heart-mind clear and lofty, Innate nature is simple and joyful, free of any concern for personal profit.14 The heart-mind is compassionate and humble, without greed or anger;15 Innate nature is honest and vast, like a person with few imperfections. With the heart-mind resembling a fire, And with innate nature like its kindling, The heart-mind joins infant with child. Innate nature matches Taishan16 in its motionlessness; The heart-mind, resembling the sun and moon, is a luminous tower. Innate nature is the white ox; The heart-mind is the shepherd; Innate nature conquers the Three Death-Bringers17 who attempt to bring about ruin. The heart-mind is the king, the ruler of all other lords;18 The heart-mind is a sharp sword, the principal regulator of the emotions. The heart-mind is the golden elixir; Innate nature is the medicinal ocean; In the Palace of Li-fire,19 the Maiden20 gathers [the state of] no-mind.21 From the Storehouse of Kan-water,22 the cart of innate nature circulates through the Celestial Cycle;23 Taking hold of the raven and the tortoise,24 the heart-mind is naturally reverent. Within the crescent moon of the heart-mind, Innate nature is at once bright and dark; The pearl sand coalesces in the cauldron as the heart-mind stores the precious substance. On the road to Caoxi,25 there is the innate nature of Handan;26 Gathering the treasures in the vessel, lead and mercury unite.27 With the heart-mind completely perfect,28 And with innate nature [joined with] the great Dao,

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The heart-mind and innate nature are completely purified, as one observes independence.30 Longing to realize the Dharma Body,31 one becomes an immortal of Daluo;32 Resting in the Original Beginning,33 the heart-mind and innate nature are secure.34

Appendix 3 horse-r el at ed t ec hn ic al t e r m i n o l o g y in t he ho r s e tam in g p i c t u r e s

an 鞍: saddle. Contains the ge 革 (leather) radical. ba 把: grasp/hold. Contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. bang 棒: stick/hit. Contains the mu 木 (wood) radical. bian 鞭: whip. Contains the ge 革 (leather) radical. cao 草: grass. Contains the cao 艸/艹 (grass) radical. cheng 騁: hasten. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. chi 馳: gallop. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. huang 荒: wild. Contains the cao 艸/艹 (grass) radical. ji 羈: bridle/halter. Consists of ge 革 (leather) and ma 馬 (horse) beneath the wang 网/罒 (net) radical. ji 驥: thoroughbred. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. jia 家: family/home. Consists of shi 豕 (pig) beneath the mian 宀 (roof) radical. jiang 韁: bridle/reins. Contains the ge 革 (leather) radical. In the Horse Taming Pictures, it may refer to a lead attached to a halter rather than a bridle (headgear usually consisting of attached bit and reins). jiao 驕: proud. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. jun 駿: spirited. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. lai 騋: horse. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. Most often refers to a mare.

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lao 牢: corral/enclosure/pen. Consists of niu 牛 (ox) beneath the mian 宀 (roof) radical. luo 絡: halter. Contains the mi 糸 (silk) radical. ma 馬: horse. Generic term for horse. men 門: door/gate. mu 牧: shepherd/pasture. Contains the niu 牛/牜 (ox) radical. niu 牛: ox. Also translated as “water buffalo.” pei 轡: reins. Consists of si 絲 (silk) and che 車 (cart/carriage/chariot) above kou 口 (mouth). qi 騎: ride. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. qian 牽: lead/pull. Contains the niu 牛/牜 (ox) radical. qin 擒: catch/capture. Consists of the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical and qin 禽 (bird). shou 獸: animal. Contains the quan 犬/犭 (dog) radical. suo 鎖: lock. Contains the jin 金 (metal) radical. ti 蹄: hoof. Contains the zu 足 (foot) radical. wu 物: being/thing. Contains the niu 牛/牜(ox) radical. xian 銜: bit. Contains the jin 金 (metal) radical and xing 行 (walk). xian 閑: leisure/retirement. Consists of mu 木 (tree) beneath the men 門 (gate) radical. May also refer to “enclosure” in certain contexts. xun 馴: domesticate/tame/train. Contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. zhuo 捉: catch/capture. Contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical.

n o t es

1. in search of th e wild h o r se 1. On lineage names in early Complete Perfection Daoism, see Goossaert 1997 and Komjathy 2007, 2013a. By this period in Complete Perfection history, the first character of about 95 percent of monk names consisted of one of three characters: dao (way), de (virtue), or zhi (aspiration). For nuns, hui (wisdom), miao (wondrous), and shou (guarding) were most common. As a monastic standardization, this naming-system convention is unrelated to specific master-disciple genealogies. 2. In fact, poem 11 explicitly refers to quanzhen: “With person and horse both forgotten, obscurity is indescribable; / Internally guarding complete perfection, I nourish suchness (ziran).” For the context-specific meaning of quanzhen as “complete perfection,” see Komjathy 2007. 3. Gao’s primary hagiography appears as the final entry (DZ 955, 3.28b–32a) of the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains by Li Daoqian (Hefu [Harmonious Beginning]; 1219–1296), the most famous early Complete Perfection historiographer. The reference to the Zhongnan mountains points toward the central importance of Zuting (Ancestral Hall; Liujiang [Huxian], Shaanxi), the location of Wang Zhe’s hermitage and his eventual burial site, in early Complete Perfection as well as what I have referred to as its “Shaanxi lineage” (Komjathy 2007, 2013a). The hagiographical

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entry on Gao is translated in appendix 1. Daoist textual collections are cited according to my Title Index to Daoist Collections (Komjathy 2002), with catalogue numbers for the received Daozang (Daoist Canon; abbrev. DZ; dat. 1445/1607) paralleling those of Kristofer Schipper et al. Numbers for the Zhonghua daozang (Chinese Daoist Canon; abbrev. ZH; dat. 2003) follow the newly established, standardized index of Komjathy 2014d. 4. I provide Daoists’ primary names as well as their major religious name in parentheses. In this period of Complete Perfection history, both of these indicate formal affiliation and are usually ordination names. 5. Readers interested in the history, defining characteristics, and major views and practices of Complete Perfection may consult my Cultivating Perfection: Mysticism and Self-transformation in Early Quanzhen Daoism (2007) and The Way of Complete Perfection: A Quanzhen Daoist Anthology (2013a). The former includes an annotated catalogue of early Complete Perfection literature; the latter consists of annotated translations from a large selection of Complete Perfection writings, including many of the texts discussed herein. 6. There are a variety of technical designations for Daoist monasteries. An (lit., hut) may refer to a personal hermitage, small eremitic community, or small monastery. Guan (lit., observatory) usually refers to a formal monastery. Gong (lit., palace) is an imperially recognized temple. 7. Li Chongdao’s hagiography appears in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 2.9b–10b. 8. According to Gao Daokuan’s hagiography, Yu and Li recognized each other as having a distinctive connection through their lineage affiliation and training with Ma and Qiu (Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 29b), which adds support for identifying Li Chongxu as Li Chongdao. Yu Zhidao’s own hagiography appears in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains (DZ 955), 3.13a–20b. 9. See Franke and Twitchett 1994 and Twitchett and Smith 2009. I highlight these historical details here because, as discussed in the next chapter, both the Jurchens and Mongols, as northern peoples, had horse-centered cultures, including widespread use of horses for prestige, travel, and military purposes. 10. For comprehensive introductions to Daoism, which also discuss adherence, affiliation, and identity, see my The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction (2013b) and Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed (2014a). 11. The date of the establishment of Complete Perfection is open to debate. The year 1163 corresponds to Wang Zhe’s relocation to and residence within the eremitic community of Liujiang (present-day Huxian, Shaanxi) and thus represents the beginning of an emergent proto-Quanzhen community. On a spiritual level, one could also point to 1161, the year of Wang’s key mystical experience. On an institutional level, 1167 was when Wang moved to the eastern Shandong peninsula and began to gather

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his most influential formal disciples. It was also in this year that Wang built his Quanzhen an (Hermitage of Complete Perfection), from which the name of the movement derives, in Ninghai (present-day Muping, Shandong). See Komjathy 2007. 12. The two major extant late medieval Complete Perfection monastic manuals are the probably late-thirteenth-century Quanzhen qinggui (Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection; DZ 1235; ZH 1067) and probably early-fourteenth-century Quanzhen zuobo jiefa (Practical Methods for the Sinking Bowl-Clepsydra from Complete Perfection; DZ 1229; ZH 1068). They have been translated in my The Way of Complete Perfection (2013a). That publication also includes a translation of a key late imperial monastic manual, the Chuzhen jie (Precepts of Initial Perfection; JY 292; ZW 404). For a discussion of medieval Complete Perfection “clepsydra meditation” (zuobo), see Komjathy 2014b. That publication also includes a preliminary discussion of Complete Perfection views of time. 13. By the late thirteenth century there were some four thousand Complete Perfection sacred sites and twenty thousand monks and nuns (Goossaert 2001, 114–18). Of the twenty thousand members of the Complete Perfection clergy, it is probable that between six and seven thousand, about one-third, were nuns (ibid., 118; see also Despeux 1990, 111–38, and Despeux and Kohn 2003, 151–74). 14. The place of female Daoists in late medieval Complete Perfection is a complex and understudied topic. For an initial and foundational inquiry, see Komjathy 2014e. 15. For technical glossaries of Complete Perfection Daoism, see Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 16. There are five major types of Daoist meditation, with each emerging during a specific period of Daoist history and often associated with particular Daoist movements. They include apophatic or quietistic meditation, ingestion (fuqi), visualization (cunxiang), inner observation (neiguan), and internal alchemy (neidan). “Apophatic meditation” approximates a variety of Daoist technical terms, including shouyi (guarding the One), xinzhai (fasting the heart-mind), and zuowang (sitting-in-forgetfulness). See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. In a late medieval Complete Perfection context, neidan was fully developed and, in certain expressions, included the other four types of Daoist meditation. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 17. Assuming that the Horse Taming Pictures are a map of stages on the contemplative path, the text does not specify if there are particular methods or durations of practice associated with each stage, or even if this is a helpful framework for understanding contemplative practice. 18. In this respect, it is noteworthy that Gao’s hagiography appears as the final entry of the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains, which is the primary hagiography of Daoists associated with the Palace of Redoubled Yang in Liujiang, Shaanxi. Under one interpretation, this may indicate the conclusion of a distinct Shaanxi lineage of Complete Perfection and the full integration of the former into a more-encompassing nationwide Complete Perfection monastic order. Significantly,

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Gao’s death date (1277) is only two years prior to the formal establishment of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The sociopolitical situation of Complete Perfection during this period is complex, fluctuating from imperial patronage and privilege to proscription and suppression. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 19. Given the fairly large numbers of nuns in the Complete Perfection monastic order at this time, Gao may have had some female disciples. The issue of gender in Daoism and Complete Perfection in particular is complex. For present purposes, while there are some androcentric, phallocentric, and patriarchal dimensions of Complete Perfection (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a, 2014e), it appears that Gao’s instructions are inclusive. However, this reading is perhaps challenged by the pictures’ equine imagery (i.e., stallion) and its culture-specific associations (e.g., male virility). On women in Daoism more generally, see Despeux and Kohn 2003 and Komjathy 2013b. 20. Some hints are also provided in Gao’s hagiography contained in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains. See appendix 1. 21. According to the Nei riyong jing (Scripture on Daily Internal Practice; DZ 645; ZH 787), an anonymous work that probably dates to the middle to late thirteenth century and that is of Complete Perfection provenance, “The Numinous Tower of the heart emptied of all things: This is called clarity. Not allowing even a single thought to arise: This is called stillness” (1a). 22. The present study includes translations of the preface and the “Hymn of the Three Methods” (1.1ab) in this introductory chapter; the “Song of Pure Awakening” (2.15a–16a) in appendix 2; and the Horse Taming Poems (1.2a–11a) in part 2. That is, I have translated the entire first scroll and the final part of the second scroll. I have not translated the majority of the second scroll, which consists of diagrams and explanations of internal alchemy, though I have occasionally utilized this material to help elucidate the Horse Taming Poems. My translations have occasionally benefited from the earlier French translation of Catherine Despeux (1981). 23. For example, there is the highly influential fourteenth-century Xiuzhen shishu (Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection; DZ 263; ZH 883). See Boltz 1987 and Schipper and Verellen 2004. There is also the influential nineteenth-century Xiuzhen tu (Diagram of Cultivating Perfection). See Komjathy 2008. 24. Following various public presentations on these materials and my decision to choose Taming the Wild Horse as this book’s title, I discovered that this analogy is also utilized in contemporary Tibetan Buddhism (see, e.g., Dooling 1978 and Mipham 2003, 2012). A profitable comparative study could be conducted on equine-centered contemplative maps in Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, and perhaps other traditions. For example, Wendy Doniger (University of Chicago) has written extensively on horses in Hinduism (e.g., Doniger 2014). 25. These poems and illustrations are untitled; it is I who have provided them with the title of “Horse Taming Pictures.” As discussed in chapter 2, the categories of “cultivation,” “taming,” “wildness,” and the like are problematic and deserve critical re-

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flection. In terms of Chinese language, one might title these illustrated poems as the Fuma tu, although Xunma tu would be more conventional. Fu 伏 contains the ren 人/亻 (human) radical, while xun 馴 contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. Along these lines, one also thinks of the characters mu (shepherd) and zhi (govern/regulate/heal). I would prefer the first title because fu (to prostrate; to hide) is utilized in contemporaneous internal alchemy works to refer to alchemical sublimation and refinement, as in the terms fulian and zhifu. Interestingly, fulian is sometimes used in Chinese medicine to refer to the transformation of a potentially toxic substance into a medicinal one. In any case, from an animal studies perspective, each term might be problematic, as they suggest some degree of control and perhaps subjugation. I am grateful to Jiang Sheng (Sichuan University) for a conversation that inspired this line of reflection. 26. I also assume that the accompanying illustrations were either executed or commissioned by Gao himself, as I have not been able to find any evidence to the contrary. I am thus treating the poems and illustrations as mutually informing. As an alternative interpretive exercise, one could read them as distinct. 27. The translation of the Horse Taming Poems is a complex literary endeavor. In addition to the inherent challenges of Chinese and Daoist poetry, including often obscure meaning and syntactic openness, the present text is particularly difficult. In terms of voice, the poems often oscillate between references to the horse and shepherd/attendant; here the third-person voice is primary (he/they). At other times, the poems refer to the Daoist practitioner; this is a particular dilemma because the translation could use “one,” “you,” or a more imperative or obligatory mode (must/should) (e.g., “cultivate this and become realized”). At still other times, Gao adopts a first-person voice (I) or even points beyond personal identity altogether. With respect to the latter, how does one best express a subjectless or transpersonal “perspective”? Each mode is, of course, appropriate and perhaps necessary because one can imagine Gao Daokuan providing spiritual direction to his disciples and the larger Complete Perfection community. Nonetheless, I have attempted to translate the poems in a more “consistent” manner, even if one often wishes that multiple, alternative translations could be published. 28. An earlier Complete Perfection reference to the “white ox” as associated with vital essence appears in section 6b of the Jinguan yusuo jue (Instructions on the Gold Pass and Jade Lock; DZ 1156; ZH 1015), which is attributed to Wang Zhe. See Komjathy 2007. 29. Here “center and innate nature” translate xinxing. The first character may refer to both “center” and the “heart-mind,” with the latter often identified as the center of human personhood and psychosomatic experience. Alternatively, one could take xinxing as a composite term for psychology (mind), somewhat parallel to the use of jingshen for “vitality.” 30. “Substance and function” (tiyong) are cosmological and often metaphysical concepts. Here the former refers to the underlying form while the latter designates recurring patterns of activity.

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31. The meaning of Jade Furnace (yulu) is somewhat obscure. Based on context and the fire association, it may refer to the heart region, the middle elixir field (dantian), or to the navel region, the lower elixir field. The former would suggest an increase in awareness; the latter, a sensation of warmth due to the accumulation of qi. 32. The Divine Duke (shengong) may be an alternate name for the Metal Duke (jingong), which usually refers to the heart and spirit. Celestial Plate (tianpan) recalls the ancient Chinese view of the sky as the Canopy Heaven (gaitian). In Chinese astrological terms, certain versions of diviner boards (shi; e.g., Han Cosmic Board) consist of a Celestial Plate placed on top of a Terrestrial Plate. In the present context, it appears that the Daoist adept is being instructed to direct awareness and intention to purify the mind of defilements and distractions (floating clouds). In internal cultivation, “heaven” (tian) usually refers to the head region, the upper elixir field. 33. Zi and wu are the first and seventh of the twelve terrestrial branches (dizhi). In internal alchemy, they have the following correspondences: zi = Water/kidneys/midnight/winter solstice/perineum, wu = Fire/heart/noon/summer solstice/crown point. Thus, “joining zi and wu” would indicate complete psychosomatic integration and/or uninterrupted practice. On a more esoteric level, ziwu also refers to the Microcosmic Orbit and a particular hand position (shouyin; Skt. mudra¯) used in Daoist meditation. With respect to the Microcosmic Orbit, the body is sometimes mapped according to the twelve terrestrial branches, beginning with the perineum as zi and moving up the spine. The spine also has associations with the Big Dipper and the so-called Three Carts. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. In terms of the hand position, the inside base of the ring finger corresponds to zi, while the tip of the middle finger corresponds to wu (see Komjathy 2013b). 34. Qian-heaven and Kun-earth are two of the eight trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams: [2 / A] and [9 / b]. They represent pure yang and pure yin, respectively. In internal alchemy, they correspond to the head and navel/perineum/feet, respectively. The ascent/descent dimension usually refers to the upward movement of spirit and downward movement of qi, associated with clarity and stillness, respectively. Alternatively, it may indicate qi moving through the Microcosmic Orbit. 35. Guangyin (lit., light and shade) often means “time.” 36. On the meaning of “daily practice” or “daily application” (riyong) in early Complete Perfection Daoism, see Komjathy 2013a. A distinction is usually made between “external daily practice” and “internal daily practice,” which correspond to ethics and meditation, respectively. 37. Xiuzhen zhi dao. 38. The illustration appears to depict Zhenwu (Perfect Warrior), also known as Xuanwu (Mysterious Warrior), or at least a “spirit general” (shenjun). The present iconography suggests the former’s “martial expression,” which includes a sword and contrasts with his “literary expression.” In any case, the martial characteristics suggest exorcistic associations and thus protective qualities. Here the image may also indicate

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discernment and wisdom, which are qualities associated with the sword. For example, according to Gao’s “Song of Pure Awakening,” “The heart-mind is the king, the ruler of all other lords; / The heart-mind is a sharp sword, the principal regulator of the emotions” (see appendix 2). The use of swords in Daoist practice and representations is not uncommon (see, e.g., Little 2000); for example, a sword is often included in depictions of the famous Daoist immortal Lü Dongbin (Chunyang [Pure Yang]; b. 798?), who is also included in the so-called Five Patriarchs of Complete Perfection. However, given that the text alludes to a “thief,” the image may have a negative association instead. 39. It is difficult to determine the correct translation for this line. The present rendering suggests that a “thief” (zei) is attempting to disrupt the stillness and stability of the heart-mind, which must take precautions by practicing the appropriate methods. In Complete Perfection Daoism, “thief,” following earlier Daoist precedents, often refers to the Six Thieves (liuzei)—that is, various forms of sensory engagement and dissipation. Alternatively, the “thief” in question could be the heart-mind, but this seems to contradict the overall message of the text. 40. Apparently practices related to the cultivation of the heart-mind, innate nature, and life-destiny. Innate nature usually corresponds to the heart/spirit/consciousness and life-destiny to the kidneys / vital essence / physicality. In Gao’s formulation, it appears that the heart-mind is the primary means to unite these, to accomplish complete psychosomatic integration. 41. Liangjia (lit., two families) most likely refers to innate nature and life-destiny. 42. “Impermanence” translates wuchang, which is the Chinese rendering of the Buddhist technical term anicca. This is one of the three characteristics of existence according to Buddhism, with the other two being suffering (Pali: dukkha; Skt.: duhkha) and no-self (Pali: anatta¯; Skt.: ana¯tman). 43. These characters are followed by an additional illustration titled “Diagram of Wuji (nondifferentiation) and Taiji (differentiation/yin-yang).” The former is represented as an empty circle while the latter is represented as an empty/white circle with a smaller black circle in its center. The Wuji element resembles a parallel illustration, the twelfth item, in the second scroll of the Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, titled “Great Way of Nonaction” (2.13b–15a). 44. Although there have been some popular claims about Daoist precursors to the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures, as far as current research goes the Ox Herding Pictures represent the earliest illustrated, animal-based manual. 45. “Ox” conventionally refers to castrated adult male cattle. However, it might also designate cows (adult females) and bulls (intact males). I leave it to the reader, and Chan Buddhists, to reflect on potential interpretive consequences. 46. In addition to Zen Buddhist commentaries, there are also various other modern engagements with and adaptations of the Ox Herding Pictures, including by John Cage (1912–1992), the American avant-garde music composer. Important research on

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this topic is being conducted by Marwood Larson-Harris of Roanoke College. Particularly noteworthy in the present context is the increasing numbers of interreligious engagements, such as Christian contemplative commentaries. For example, William Meninger (b. ca. 1925), one of the founders of Centering Prayer, is in the process of writing a Catholic contemplative version (pers. comm.). 47. For some fragmentary but important information on historical and textual precedents, see Despeux 1981, 64–69; Red Pine (1983) 1987; Sørensen 1991; and Jang 1992. Although requiring additional research, the work of Despeux, Jang, and Sørensen contains some information on the meaning of “the ox” in Buddhist contexts. 48. See also Despeux 1981, 53, and Heine 2004, 621. A convenient resource on the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures and cognates is available through Terebess Asia Online (http://terebess.hu/english/oxindex.html). In addition to information on various editions, the website contains a selection of contemporary commentaries, including by Ruben Habito (b. 1947), Hsu Yun (Xuyun; 1840?–1959), Osho (Rajneesh; 1931– 1990), Bernadette Roberts (b. 1931), Sheng Yen (Shengyan; 1930–2009), and Chogyam Trungpa (1939–1987). 49. Note that Heine (2004, 622) misidentifies this as the seventh stage. 50. The source of the illustrations is unclear. The primary extant edition contains a preface (dat. 1585 or 1609) by the Chinese Buddhist leader and anti-Jesuit Zhu Hong (Shuko¯; 1535–1615). This leaves open the question of date and provenance for the illustrations, with the terminus ante quem being the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century (Suzuki [1934] 1991, 129; Despeux 1981, 52–54; Red Pine 1987, n.p.). On Zhu Hong, see Yü 1981. 51. In this respect, one also thinks of other denary (ten-based) systems in Buddhism, including the Ten Perfections (Skt.: pa¯ramita¯), which consist of generosity, morality, patience, diligence, concentration, wisdom, skillful means, determination, spiritual power, and gnosis. 52. The Cowherd / Weaving Maiden symbolism also appears in the famous latenineteenth-century Neijing tu (Diagram of Internal Pathways). See Komjathy 2008, 2009. 53. In the next section, I provide working titles for each picture/poem. 54. As discussed below, the tenth poem mentions the death of the horse. Here one might reflect on experiences of sleeping and dying with animals. In my own life, I have had the privilege and felt the poignancy of having such experiences with two canine companions, Kara and Katahdin. 55. Technically speaking, a halter is a simple piece of headgear; it usually includes an attached lead rope. A halter and lead are used to direct and/or tie up an animal. It may be contrasted with the use of a bridle. A bridle is another type of headgear that consists of buckled straps with attached bit and reins and is also used to control horses. In conventional horse training, haltering is usually the first stage, which is followed by bridling, saddling, and then riding. See, e.g., Ensminger 1998 and Miller and Lamb

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2005. Each involves increasing degrees of control, and thus subjugation. Along these lines, it is possible to interpret the images in alternative ways. However, as I have argued elsewhere (Komjathy 2011a, 2011b), and as I explore in chapter 2, Daoists often express and perhaps embody subversive views of animals. For example, in terms of the present discussion, chapter 19 of the Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu; Book of Master Zhuang) describes a certain Daoist Jixingzi (Master Regulated Bird-Cry) training fighting roosters in such a way that it leads to the end of “fighting roosters.” Apparently Daoist animal training often results in liberation and freedom. 56. I return to the fifth illustration in terms of equine behavior in chapter 2. Interestingly, as a key signal in modern “natural horsemanship,” a lowered head on the part of a horse indicates acceptance and receptivity toward companionship (see Roberts [1997] 2009). 57. Only the first and second poems and illustrations seem to advocate discipline. There is thus a tension between control and release, effort and relaxation. Although I am reading the Horse Taming Pictures in terms of sequential training, there may be an implicit critique of the fruitlessness of control, especially in the form of subjugation, inside the advocacy of training. 58. This character appears in the opening line of the second poem of our text. However, the accompanying illustration depicts an item more like a stick than a conventional whip. 59. While one may imagine contemplative practice as “following the path,” and while much contemplative literature describes this in terms of pilgrimage and travel, interestingly the attendant stops moving in illustration 5 and the horse ceases moving in poem 9. 60. For example, one thinks of the possibly first-century c.e. Vimuttimagga (Path of Freedom), by the Sri Lankan Therava¯da monk Upatissa; the fifth-century Visuddhimagga (Path to Purification), by the Indian Therava¯da monk Buddhaghos.a; and the Lamrim Chenmo (Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment), by Tibetan Buddhist monk Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). See Komjathy 2015. 61. Roth 1997, 1999, 2015. Referred to inaccurately as “philosophical Daoism” in outdated discussions of Daoism, classical Daoism refers to the earliest Daoist religious community, specifically the inner cultivation lineages of the Warring States period (480–222 b.c.e.) and Early Han dynasty (202 b.c.e.–9 c.e.). These were loosely affiliated master-disciple communities dedicated to apophatic meditation with the goal of mystical union with the Dao. Here I utilize my revisionist interpretive framework based on the Seven Periods and Four Divisions. See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. The latter introductions include overviews of the various Daoist movements and their defining characteristics. 62. Employing Daniel Brown’s (1986) six-stage map, which was largely developed by analyzing ancient Hindu and Buddhist textual sources, Roth has also placed these materials in comparative perspective. These six stages include (1) preliminary ethical

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practice; (2) preliminary body/mind training; (3) concentration with support; (4) concentration without support; (5) insight practice; and (6) advanced insight practice. While Roth does not find support for (1), the textual corpus of classical Daoism adds support for this cross-cultural mapping, or at least the latter may be applied to classical Daoist apophatic meditation (Roth 1999, 136). 63. The title derives from the famous passage on sitting-in-forgetfulness (zuowang) in chapter 6 of the Book of Master Zhuang. As alluded to in the Discourse on Sittingin-Forgetfulness, “As a method, we refer to it as ‘blunting the sharpness and untying the knots’ [Daode jing, chs. 4 and 56]. If you maintain constancy of cultivation, you will complete innate nature through practice. Smash up limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect, and experience detachment and forgetfulness. Unmoving in silence, you imperceptibly and subtly enter illumination” (section 6). 64. An example of such a contemplative map, referred to as five meditative stages or “moments” (wushi), appears in the Cunshen lianqi ming [DZ 834], 1b–2a. See also DZ 1032, 33.13ab and DZ 1036, 17b. The Cunshen lianqi ming uses duo (much), rather than tai (great). 65. As a comparative category and as herein employed, “soteriology” refers to actualization, liberation, perfection, realization, salvation, or however a given individual or community defines the ultimate purpose of human existence. In the larger Daoist tradition, the primary soteriologies are union with the Dao and immortality, which are sometimes synonymous and may or may not have parallel conceptions. 66. Under a Daoist interpretation, zhong 中 depicts the center of the torso (□) intersected by the Chong (Thrusting) Channel ( | ). The latter moves through the core of the torso, connecting the crown point (heaven) and perineum (earth). Here it should also be mentioned that Daoist psychology tends to be psychosomatic. For example, in terms of traditional Chinese cosmology centering on the Five Phases (wuxing), yi-thought is associated with the spleen. Similarly, sometimes qing-emotions are associated with the kidneys, and especially instability of vital essence. 67. Specifically, this recalls the classical and foundational Daoist psychological view expressed in chapter 5 of the Book of Master Zhuang, wherein Zhuangzi discusses the state of emotionlessness (wuqing). Through the practice of apophatic meditation, Daoist adepts transform emotional reactivity and habituation to such an extent that ordinary people perceive them as lacking emotionality. There is a realized condition—largely unrecognizable to, or a source of discomfort for, the uncultivated—in which one simply expresses appropriate responsiveness. 68. See Komjathy 2007. As I have suggested elsewhere (Komjathy 2013b, forthcoming [c]), while sometimes accurately translated as a negation (not) of the associated affirmation (e.g., “to act”), the frequent use of wu (without) as a Daoist technical term is better understood as “non-.” It is apophatic language that points toward a state of being beyond the ordinary, most often the transformative effects of contemplative practice. It is extraordinary. With respect to the Horse Taming Pictures, some major states and

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attainments include wulou (nondissipation), wuming (namelessness), wuqing (desirelessness), wuwei (nonaction), wuxing (formlessness), wuyu (desirelessness), wuzheng (noncontention), and wuzhi (nonknowing). See also Roth 2015. Some of these terms also appear in Daoist scriptures that became influential in Complete Perfection Daoism, including the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, Scripture on the Hidden Talisman, and Scripture on Clarity and Stillness. See Komjathy (2003) 2008. 69. The number twelve is based on counting the poems. Alternatively, one might identify thirteen based on the number of illustrations. I interpret the twelfth and thirteenth illustrations as being associated with poem 12, with the thirteenth indicating the final culmination of Complete Perfection religious training. 70. On models of Daoist practice and attainment, see Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. 71. A Buddhist technical term, the Three Bodies (Skt.: trika¯ya; Chn.: sanshen) refers to the threefold body or nature of a buddha: the Dharmaka¯ya, Sambhogaka¯ya, and Nirma¯naka¯ya (i.e., the Dharma Body, Bliss Body, and Transformation Body). These correspond to (1) the body of a buddha in its essential nature (cosmic); (2) the body of a buddha received for his own use and enjoyment (divine); and (3) the body of a buddha by which he can appear in any form (physical). An earlier Complete Perfection reference to the Dharma Body appears in the Instructions on the Gold Pass and Jade Lock: “The heart-mind, innate nature, and intention manifest as the Three Bodies. These are the Dharma Body of Clarity and Stillness, the Bliss Body of Enlightened Fullness, and the Transformation Body of Sama¯dhi. These three each have a spirit of manifest traces (xianji zhi shen)” (DZ 1156, 12ab; trans. Komjathy 2007; see also Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir [DZ 244], 2.8b; trans. Komjathy 2013a). That is, in a Daoist inner alchemical context, the Dharma Body of Clarity and Stillness is synonymous with the body-beyond-the-body (shenwai shen), original nature (benxing), and yangspirit (yangshen). 72. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. Interestingly, Laozi’s common iconography and totem animal is the ox. According to the standard legend, Laozi decided to leave China due to the sociopolitical chaos and corruption at the time. While traveling West, he arrived at Hangu Pass (near present-day Lingbao, Henan), where he meant Yin Xi, the Guardian of the Pass. Yin Xi recognized Laozi as a Daoist sage and requested that he transmit his teachings. Laozi consequently wrote the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. See Kohn 1998 and Komjathy 2013b. Given that this legend became foundational for the later huahu (conversion of the barbarians) theory, in which Laozi traveled to India and became the historical Buddha, a Daoist polemical reading is also possible: Chan/Zen Buddhists are attempting to control Daoism (the ox) and basing their practice on the Daoist tradition. 73. Another interpretation is also possible. Perhaps Laozi has been included as an emblem or totem and is not directly connected to “stages on the contemplative path.” In this case, his placement “seals” the authenticity of the text, specifically its connection to the Daoist tradition in general and Complete Perfection in particular.

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2 . of stallio n s, steppes, a n d sta b l e s 1. The concept of “wildness” is complex and multifaceted. See, e.g., Nash (1967) 2014; Turner (1983) 1992; Snyder 1990; Foreman and Wolke 1992; Meyer 2006; and Kahn and Hasback 2013. In traditional Chinese contexts, “wild” is often used to translate huang, kuang, or ye, all of which appear in the Horse Taming Pictures. Huang 荒 contains the cao 艸/艹 (grass) radical, while kuang 狂 includes the quan 犬/犭 (dog) radical. The notion that wild grasses reveal “wildness” is problematized by the classical Daoist discussion of “brambles.” See line 7 of poem 9 in the Horse Taming Poems. With respect to horses, the question of wildness is extremely thorny because of the history of symbiotic human contact, although the same is true for the history of symbiotic horse contact as well. See, e.g., Clutton-Brock 1992; Budiansky 1997; Mills and McDonnell 2005; Olsen et al. 2006; and Anthony 2007. On a biological and taxonomic level, “wild horses” often are not wild, i.e., undomesticated and free of human intervention. Almost every modern horse is domesticated or feral; these horses technically fall into the taxonomic category of Equus ferus caballus, while wild horses are part of Equus ferus. Apparently the only extant taxonomically wild horse is the endangered Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalski), also known as the Dzungarian horse or Mongolian wild horse, which was reintroduced (via zoo animals) to Mongolia in the later part of the twentieth century (Boyd and Houpt 1994; also Hendricks 1995). From modern conservationist and “land management” perspectives, there are thus various issues with the protection of free-roaming horses, including debates about whether such animals are “native” or “invasive species.” From certain perspectives, given that horses originally existed in North America and then disappeared 8,000–10,000 years ago, some conservationists suggest that they are simply a “reintroduced species” (Bob Henderson, pers. comm.). In any case, it is possible to read the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures in terms of human relationships with any horse but specifically with domesticated horses. 2. By “Nature,” which sometimes translates ziran (tzu-jan; suchness), I mean the larger matrix of being—specifically the world (shijie; tianxia), the cosmos (tiandi; yuzhou), and the recurring cosmological patterns (yinyang; wuxing). The latter involves the solar and lunar cycles, including the seasonal nodes (jieqi). From a Daoist cosmological and theological perspective, which includes a panenhenic (Nature as sacred) dimension, the universe as transformative process is the Dao on some level. See Komjathy 2013b; also Girardot, Miller, and Liu 2001. Interested readers may also consult the various publications of James Miller, one of the leading authorities on Daoism and ecology, including his forthcoming China’s Green Religion. 3. Here one also thinks of the Chinese terms shanlin (mountains and forests) and shanshui (mountains and waters), which usually refer to natural landscapes and the associated seclusion.

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4. There is, however, the famous Chinese and Daoist Daoyin (Guided Stretching) and Yangsheng (Nourishing Life) set called Wuqin xi (Five Animal Frolics), which includes health and longevity exercises in which one takes the posture of tiger, deer, bear, monkey, and bird. See Komjathy 2013b. 5. See, e.g., Ducarme, Luque, and Courchamp 2013; also Baker (1993) 2001; Stolzenburg 2009; and Gross and Vallely 2012. Charismatic megafauna are often used in modern conservationist contexts to invoke human sympathies and as quasi-indicator species for larger ecological and ethical issues. The symbolic use of oxen in the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures (see ch. 1) and elephants in the Tibetan Buddhist Elephant Taming Pictures are examples of interest in large, powerful animals from religious traditions. However, as discussed in detail below, “the question of the animal” in such illustrated texts has yet to be addressed. Here one might also profitably consider what is actually involved in the taming of elephants. See, e.g., the disturbing discussion in Bradshaw 2009, 2013. See also Malamud 1998; Nance 2013; and Gruen 2014. 6. In the present context, I am examining the conception of “horses” in the larger Daoist tradition. While one might express reservations concerning the connection between classical Daoism and late medieval Daoism, Complete Perfection in particular, the former established foundational Daoist values, principles, views, practices, and so forth. See Komjathy 2013b. In addition, some early Complete Perfection adherents read and reflected on the Book of Master Zhuang. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 7. Although traditionally attributed to Zhuang Zhou (Chuang Chou; “Master Zhuang”), the received Book of Master Zhuang contains teachings from various elders of the inner cultivation lineages of classical Daoism. It is a multivocal anthology with a variety of textual and historical layers dating from the fourth to the second centuries b.c.e. In addition to the so-called Inner Chapters (1–7) associated with Zhuang Zhou, revisionist scholars of the text, such as A. C. Graham, Liu Xiaogan, Victor Mair, and Harold Roth, identify various lineages or “schools” contained in the received thirtythree-chapter redaction. These include the following: (1) Primitivists (chs. 8–10; parts of 11, 12, and 14); (2) Individualists (chs. 28–31); (3) Syncretists (chs. 12–16, 33); (4) Zhuangists (chs. 17–22); and (5) Anthologists (chs. 23–27, 32). For a summary, see Komjathy 2013b. 8. For example, the Xiangma jing (Classic on Horse Physiognomy), which survives as a Mawangdui manuscript, is sometimes attributed to Bole. See, e.g., Harrist 1997b. A profitable comparative study of this work and Xenophon’s (ca. 430–354 b.c.e.) Peri hippike¯s (On Horsemanship), which is also referred to as De equis alendis (Art of Horsemanship), could be conducted. 9. There are various “skill passages” in the Book of Master Zhuang, almost all of which place emphasis on effortlessness, naturalness, and attunement with the Dao (i.e., Daoist values and commitments). Two highly influential ones are those centering on the monkey trainer (ch. 2) and Cook Ding (ch. 3). See the discussion in n40 below.

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10. A martingale is a strap, or set of straps, attached at one end to the noseband (standing martingale) or reins (running martingale) of a horse and at the other end to the girth. It is used to prevent the horse from raising his head too high. A crupper is a strap buckled to the back of a saddle and looped under the horse’s tail to prevent the saddle or harness from slipping forward. As discussed below, the history of Chinese horse training, including the associated equipment and paraphernalia, awaits further study. Some insights may be gleaned from depictions in Chinese art. See, e.g., Harrist 1997a. 11. De (inner power), which is also translated as “potency,” “integrity,” and “virtue,” is a classical and foundational Daoist value and concern. Etymologically speaking, de 德 consists of chi 彳 (step) and zhi 直 (direct, straight, upright, correct) over xin 心 (heart-mind). De indicates an aligned heart-mind that is expressed as embodied activity, activity that reveals one’s degree of self-cultivation and exerts a transformational influence on others. From a Daoist perspective, de is the Dao manifested in human beings as numinous presence and as embodied activity in the world, especially as a beneficial and transformational influence that might be categorized as “good.” See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. 12. Chapter 11 of the Book of Master Zhuang is titled “Zaiyou,” which may be translated as “Letting Be and Leaving Alone.” In this respect, one also thinks of chapter 1, which is titled “Xiaoyao you” (Carefree Wandering). Along with “nonaction,” “being carefree” became identified as one of the “fruits of the Dao” (daoguo) in the later Daoist tradition. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a, 2013b. 13. Interestingly, this “engaged practice” parallels other sections of the text that describe committed inner cultivation. See, e.g., chapters 6 and 7. Here one thinks of Harold Roth’s distinction between the “introvertive” and “extrovertive” dimensions of classical Daoist praxis (Roth 1999, 2000, 2015; also Komjathy 2015). Inner cultivation becomes expressed as distinctively and recognizably Daoist ways of embodied being-in-the-world. 14. There are a variety of other passages in the classical Daoist textual corpus that make similar claims with respect to wild animals. The apparent invincibility, or freedom from harm, may be interpreted in terms of invisibility, transpersonal identity, and/or mystical union with the Dao. That is, in this state of energetic connection and integration, one may either remain unnoticed or become accepted. Acceptance opens up the possibility of human/animal companionship. See the discussion further on in this chapter. 15. Book of Master Zhuang, chapter 17; adapted from Watson 1968, 182–83. Interestingly, the Book of Master Zhuang also compares spirit (shen) to a horse (ch. 6) and mentions the process of a human becoming a horse (ch. 7). There may thus be a “shamanic” dimension in classical Daoism and the larger tradition. Other important classical Daoist references to horses appear in chapter 46 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power and chapter 18 of the Huainanzi (Book of the Huainan Masters; dat.

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139 b.c.e.). The former tells us, “When the world is with the Dao, / Swift horses are used for their manure. / When the world is without the Dao, / War horses are bred in the suburbs.” The Book of the Huainan Masters contains the famous “maybe story,” preserved in the oral tradition as the proverb “The Old Man Loses His Horse,” and emphasizes the inability to determine benefit and detriment. The Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power passage suggests that horses are put out to pasture and become part of the local ecosystem. The focus on manure as fertilizer also recalls chapter 22 of the Book of Master Zhuang, wherein we are told that the Dao is in piss and shit. This is the Dao as transformative process and symbiotic decomposition. Perhaps the contemplation of excrement is a key to spiritual realization. 16. This question also emerges in Daoist discussions of “desire,” which appears to be a biological given and thus, from a Daoist perspective, to be an expression of the Dao. In some sense this is the case, but Daoist anthropology suggests that “desirelessness” is one’s true biology. In this state, one simply accepts what is, and basic desires are fulfilled effortlessly. Contentment is a key characteristic. 17. In terms of animal studies, either characterization (“horse taming” or “horse training”) reveals certain tensions. In both cases, humans control and perhaps attempt to subjugate horses. In conventional terms, both activities often involve “breaking” horses, although more recent training approaches challenge earlier methods. See, e.g., Roberts (1997) 2009; Ensminger 1998; Miller and Lamb 2004; Tellington-Jones 2006; McGreevy and Boakes 2007; and Hamilton 2011. Here one might also reflect on animal training and captivity, “life behind fences,” more generally. For example, writing on elephant captivity, specifically in circuses and zoos, Bradshaw documents the various forms of abuse, violence, and brutality required for “training elephants”: “The normal restraint of elephants derives from a mixture of a pacific nature and spiritual obliteration” (2013, 122). Quoting the former zookeeper Ray Ryan: “The only way to get elephants who are so powerful to do what a human wants with just a flick of their [sic] hand, is to beat the soul out of them. I saw it in Peach [an elephant at the San Diego Wild Animal Park], when I beat her, I saw her soul leave” (ibid.). Along these lines, one also recalls Rainer Maria Rilke’s famous poem titled “The Panther” as well as Aldo Leopold’s discussion of “thinking like a mountain,” wherein he describes watching the “fierce green fire dying” in the eyes of a shot wolf. 18. Here is yet another opportunity for reflection: Should we become feral? Or is the condition of ferality a sign of degeneration and disorientation? Observation of free-roaming (“wild”) horses seems to suggest that it is possible to “return to the wild.” 19. From a Daoist perspective, every state of domestication or ferality contains wildness within it, just as every state of conditioning and habituation contains innate nature and the potential for spiritual realization. However, there are potential ecological and conservationist consequences to such views. Anyone who has spent time in wild places (e.g., old growth forests) and intact ecosystems knows that there is something radically different there. Animals, humans or otherwise, may need actual wild

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places for psychological well-being and existential flourishing. See, e.g., Snyder 1990; Meyer 2006; Louv 2008; and Kahn and Hasback 2013. 20. For example, various Catholic Christian hagiographies highlight the ability of certain saints to communicate with animals (see, e.g., Bell 1992; Waddell 1995). This ability is also mentioned in the Yoga Su¯tras (Yoga Aphorisms; III.17) and in the Rasskaz strannika (Tale of a Pilgrim; chs. 2 and 4), texts associated with Hindu classical Yoga and Eastern Orthodox prayer, respectively. See Komjathy 2015. 21. The interplay between contextualization and contemplative inquiry, which has informed my research and publications from the beginning, is actually more complex. It is study informing practice, and practice informing study. Thus, contemplative engagement with the Horse Taming Pictures was part of my initial approach. For some explicit discussions, see Komjathy 2011c, 2016. 22. See, e.g., DeMello 2012; Gross and Vallely 2012; Weil 2012; McCance 2013; and Gross 2014. A key principle in animal studies derives from Claude Lévi-Strauss’s (1908– 2009) Totemism (1963), wherein he comments that animals are “good to think” (Gross 2013, 11). In addition, as I discuss below, actual experiences with “animal-others” are often profound and transformational. For example, various scholars have been influenced by the “impact of the animal gaze,” including Martin Buber’s (1878–1965) and Jacques Derrida’s (1930–2004) encounters with their house cats (ibid., 123–24, 231–32). 23. There are various controversial claims and dimensions of animal studies. The use of “animal” as a sociopolitical category—and its relationship to ethnic stereotypes, gender constructions, and patterns of oppression—is extremely complex and beyond the confines of this study. Requiring engagement with critical race theory and gender theory, such concerns reveal a close connection between the treatment of animals and social injustice (see, e.g., Patterson 2002). From this perspective, which might involve a commitment to animal welfare and/or liberation, the experience of “humans” is bound to that of/with “animals.” It is customary in animal studies to deconstruct the “human-animal binary” in various ways, often through the use of the problematic categories of “human animal” and “nonhuman animal.” See, e.g., Gross 2014. Along these lines, it is possible to develop a nonanthropocentric concern for animals (decentered subjectivity), and this may be one effect and/or expression of contemplative practice. 24. Gross 2014, 11. Significantly, drawing upon Carol Adams’s ([1990] 2010, 2003) investigation of women and “meat,” Gross notes that animals are often “absent referents” or “absent presences.” That is, outside of associated disciplines, animals are rarely discussed in academic research in explicit and critical ways, even though references to animals abound (Gross 2014, 60–94). 25. Here it is important to recognize the abstract nature of the category of “animals” and of specific animals. For present purposes, “horses” are not actual animals; rather, actual horses, both as individuals and members of a group (herd, species, etc.), are horses living their own lives and perhaps encountered by other beings, including human beings. There are horses beyond “horses.”

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26. Baker is specifically interested in contemporary popular culture, which leads him to suggest that the choice and representation of specific animals involves the “arbitrariness of animal symbolism” ([1993] 2001, 62). While deserving broader critical reflection, the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures, specifically in the context of traditional Chinese culture and Daoism, reveal that the selection of the horse is neither arbitrary nor indeterminate. As discussed below, the characteristics of the horse as both actual and symbolic animal are highly significant, and this significance is not unrelated to the identity and characteristics of horses, especially as perceived by human beings. 27. Much has been written on the symbolic use of animals. Interested readers may consult the bibliography. 28. That is, given the current sociopolitical and ecological situation, the survival and flourishing of “nonhuman” animals may depend on humans. The reverse is also true. 29. For example, emphasizing the “tremendous importance” of horses for Tang rulers with respect to military tactics, diplomatic policy, and aristocratic privilege, Edward Schafer comments: “Still, this patrician animal owed his unique status to more than his usefulness to the lords of the land. He was invested with sanctity by ancient tradition, endowed with prodigious qualities, and visibly stamped with the marks of his divine origin. A revered myth proclaimed him a relative of the dragon, akin to the mysterious powers of water. Indeed, all wonderful horses, such as the steed of the pious [Buddhist monk-pilgrim] Hsüan-tsang [Xuanzang; ca. 602–664] which, in later legend, carried the sacred scriptures from India, were avatars of dragons, and in antiquity the tallest horse owned by the Chinese were called simply ‘dragons’ ” (1963, 59). 30. See Harrist 1997a. As far as current research goes, there are few appearances of horses in “Daoist art.” See Little 2000 and Huang 2012. 31. In this respect, one also thinks of the various animal associations in the twelve terrestrial branches (dizhi). As used in Chinese astrology, the horse appears as the seventh branch (wu), which roughly corresponds to Libra and is said to have such qualities as intelligence, independence, confidence, vitality, and occasional unpredictability. 32. See Cahill 1986 and Harrist 1997a, 78–79. In addition to Zhaoyebai (NightShining White), other famous Tang dynasty imperial steeds include the “six chargers of Emperor Taizong”: Baitiwu (White-Hoof Black), Qingzhui (Azure Dappled), Quanmaogua (Curly Haired Piebald), Saluzi (Wind-Dew Purple), Shifachi (Variegated-Stripped Crimson), and Telebiao (Special-Reined Charger) (Harrist 1997a, 18–20; Howard et al. 2003, 171). There have been many historically significant, literarily prominent, and internationally known horses such as Barbaro (2003–2007; racehorse), Bucephalus (ca. 355–326 b.c.e.; warhorse), Mister Ed (1961–1966; Bamboo Harvester [1949–1970]; television personality), Morengo (ca. 1793–1831; warhorse), Seabiscuit (1933–1947; racehorse), Secretariat (1970–1989; racehorse), Shadowfax (fictional horse), Silver (fictional horse), Trigger (Golden Cloud [1934–1965]; television personality), and most recently American Pharoah (b. 2012; racehorse). There have,

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moreover, been influential equine and equestrian movies, including Black Beauty (1921), National Velvet (1944), Seabiscuit (2003), The Black Stallion (1979), The Horse Whisperer (1998), The Man from Snowy River (1982), and so forth. Here one may also consider the varied animal inhabitants of children’s stories and thus of children’s imaginations. The natural connections and mutual fascination between children and animals deserve further consideration. I am grateful to Wendy Doniger (University of Chicago) for a conversation that inspired this line of reflection. 33. Along these lines, one thinks of the classical Daoist principle and practice of “guarding the feminine” (shouci) (Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, ch. 28). Although the contextual meaning suggests “guarding yin” (flexibility, receptivity, stillness, etc.) (see Komjathy 2013b), one might apply this Daoist perspective along gender lines to the Horse Taming Pictures: “Get your ‘masculinity’ in check.” 34. More research is required on the meaning of “the ox” in Buddhist history, especially with respect to contemplative practice and experience. See chapter 1 above. 35. These points are partially informed by the history of Buddhism in China, including its transformation from a foreign, and thus a “barbarian” and “inferior,” tradition into a Chinese religion through the process of Sinification. The social position of Buddhism thus stands in contrast to that of the indigenous Han religion of Daoism. However, given the fact that Buddhism eventually became identified as one of the so-called Three Teachings (sanjiao), which included Confucianism and Daoism, one must investigate the period-specific position of each tradition as well as their interactions. See, e.g., Kieschnick 2003; Sharf 2005; Mollier 2009; and Robson 2009. 36. See also chapters 13 and 25 of the Book of Master Zhuang. Additionally, there is the influential Daoist saying from chapter 2: “Names are the guest of reality” (see Komjathy forthcoming [c]). For parallel views in Complete Perfection, see Komjathy 2013b. 37. The history of these terms beyond Complete Perfection awaits further study. However, with respect to our current topic, it is noteworthy that the Chongyang zhenren shou Danyang ershisi jue (Twenty-four Instructions Transmitted from Perfected Chongyang to Danyang; DZ 1158; ZH 1014) contains the following definition: “The [ordinary] heart-mind is the monkey; thought (yi) is the horse” (DZ 1158, 1b). In terms of animal studies, the problem may not be horses and monkeys as such but rather humans behaving as though they are horses and monkeys. This statement is, of course, somewhat problematic given the fact that humans are primates, specifically members of the great ape (Hominidae) family. See, for example, de Waal’s discussion of “fellow feeling” in The Age of Empathy (2009). 38. An allusion to chapter 26 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “The fish trap exists because of the fish; once you’ve gotten the fish, you can forget the trap. The rabbit snare exists because of the rabbit; once you’ve gotten the rabbit, you can forget the snare. Words exist because of meaning; once you’ve gotten the meaning, you can forget the words. Where can I find a person who has forgotten words so I can have a

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word with him?” (adapted from Watson 1968, 302). This (symbolic) capture of animals stands in contrast to the “Joy of Fish” story and other “animal liberation” tendencies in the text. See Komjathy 2011b. 39. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. The translations derive from 2013a. 40. Chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang contains a story about a Daoist “monkey trainer.” This story could be read as providing insights into contemplative practice, at least in terms its initial stages and the spiritual direction of aspiring adepts (see Roth 2015). A modern manual using monkey-based imagery appears in Belyea and Tainer 1991. Although the primary author, Charles Belyea (Liu Ming; 1947–2015), was a selfidentified Daoist priest toward the middle of his career, he was subsequently discredited, notwithstanding some of the ongoing hagiographical accounts of his devotees. Thus, Dragon’s Play is better understood as a hybrid spiritualist work than one connected to Daoism as such. Readers might, for example, note the use of “orthodox yogic Taoism” (a.k.a. Da Yuan Circle of Yogic Daoism; Orthodox Daoism in America). The “Daoist identity” of the author is perhaps best represented in the photograph on the back of the book, in which the pre–Liu Ming Belyea (cf. pre-Osho Rajneesh) appears with his face half hidden in shadow. 41. A stallion is technically a noncastrated male horse four years old and older. For present purposes, the use of “stallion” contrasts with “gelding,” a castrated male horse of any age, and “mare,” a female horse four years old or older. A stallion is an “intact” animal. 42. Generally speaking, equine tack includes saddles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, and so forth. There are also primary/natural equestrian aids (e.g., legs, hands, seat, and voice) and secondary/artificial equestrian aids (e.g., bridle and reins, spurs, whips, and crops). Again, the contemporaneous Chinese accoutrements require more research. 43. In terms of actual horses, and animal welfare, the absence of a bridle (headgear with attached bit and reins) is noteworthy. For example, recent research has suggested that bit control may lead to a variety of equine pathophysiologies (Cook 1999). 44. Interestingly, in terms of yin-yang associations, the right side often corresponds with yang and the left side with yin, with the accompanying correspondences of activity/aggression and rest/passivity. 45. Poem 10 actually says that the horse has died. I address this topic at the end of the chapter. In terms of these body positions, the “parinirva¯na posture” is the position in which the Buddha died; as “enlightenment without residue,” it involves the end of physical embodiment, that is, freedom from karmic and samsaric remnants. Depictions of this posture appear in traditional Chinese material culture, including in Daoism. For example, this is the standard iconography of Chen Tuan (Xiyi [Infinitesimal Subtlety]; d. 989), a famous Daoist immortal associated with “sleeping exercises” (shuigong) (see Takehiro 1990). I also encountered a statue of a “sleeping Qiu Chuji” in this position at Shenxian dong (Grotto of Spirit Immortals) in Laizhou, Shandong, and a “sleeping Lü Dongbin” in this position at Changchun guan (Monastery

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of Changchun [Perpetual Spring]) in Wuhan, Hubei. As I have suggested elsewhere (Komjathy 2013b; forthcoming [a]), it is possible to understand the Daoist assumption of such postures as a process of identification with the associated immortals. This practice parallels similar “identification practices” in other traditions (see Komjathy 2015). The so-called corpse pose (Skt.: s´ava¯sana) is more common in Hindu Yoga practice. I have not been able to locate any Chinese examples. I am grateful to Suzanne Cahill (University of California, San Diego) for a conversation that inspired this line of reflection. 46. Contemplative studies is an emerging interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to research and education on contemplative practice and contemplative experience (see Komjathy 2015, forthcoming [b]). See also the Contemplative Studies Website hosted by the University of San Diego. 47. Although extreme relativism and social constructivism have become the norm in much of academic discourse, Daoists generally believe that more immediate ways of experiencing are possible. This includes the possibility that there is a shared, collective form of interbeing, in which the human-animal binary is either overcome or does not exist (see, e.g., Ingold 2000). Here one might consider the famous “Joy of Fish” story in chapter 17 of the Book of Master Zhuang (see Komjathy 2011b, forthcoming [c]). 48. I have not been able to determine the exact, context-specific type of horse. Historically speaking, there have been a variety of horse breeds in China, all of which appear to originate in the Mongolian type (Hendricks 1995, 123). For some additional insights into the history of the horse in traditional Chinese society, see Creel 1965; Needham et al. 1965, 1971; and Xiang 2013. Given the rapid industrialization and modernization of China, it is perhaps difficult to imagine the centrality of the horse in earlier historical moments. Nonetheless, today China is still home to 9–11 million of the world’s 58 million horses, perhaps only second behind the United States. The largest numbers of horses in modern China reside in Sichuan, Guizhou, Xinjiang, Yunnan, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, and Tibet (van Moorsel 2010, 8)—that is, in areas with larger tracts of land, with sparser populations, and often associated with ethnic minorities. 49. As discussed above, this included the recording of the actual names of specific horses in historical chronicles. 50. Interestingly, in The Man Who Listens to Horses ([1997] 2009, 228–29), Monty Roberts singles out the Mongols of this period as practitioners of conventional horse training (“breaking”), of cruel and abusive forms of equine engagement and equestrian methods. 51. As mentioned in chapter 1, conventional horse training usually moves from bridling through saddling to riding. In a modern context, and specifically with respect to dressage, the latter is sometimes discussed in terms of “scales of training” or the “training pyramid.” One program organizes training into six stages: (1) rhythm; (2) relaxation; (3) connection; (4) impulsion; (5) straightness; and (6) collection. Each involves

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“physical development through progressive conditioning” and “increasing thoroughness and obedience” (GNEF 1997). 52. Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains (DZ 955), 31b. From a comparative perspective, it is interesting that Catholic Carthusian monks played a key role in horse breeding and training in Spain (see Loch 1986 and Bennett 1998). 53. Roberts also draws attention to the fact that horses are “prey” or “flight animals” while humans are primarily “predator” or “fight animals.” See also Budiansky 1997. In terms of contemplative studies, one might consider the corresponding qualities— namely, concentration versus hyperawareness. This might be further connected to the so-called fight-or-flight response (see Komjathy 2015). Given the heightened importance of scent for the horses (and other animals), one also wonders about the influence of vegetarianism on interspecies (e.g., horse-human) interactions. I am grateful to Kate Townsend of the Daoist Foundation for a conversation that inspired these reflections. 54. Unfortunately, I am well aware of the reality of animal abuse, cruelty, and violence, including such human patterns in relation to domestic animals in general and horses in particular. However, my equine and equestrian ethnographic research revealed the opposite: individuals who love, respect, and care for horses as their authentic vocation and life’s work. 55. On equine psychology, see, e.g., Williams 1976; Budiansky 1997; Mills and Nankervis 1999; and McGreevy 2004. In terms of “scholar-practitioners” in the academy (Komjathy 2016), there are a number of individuals who have deep experience with horses and horse training and who have actually written on related topics. They include Wendy Doniger (University of Chicago), Lindsey Harlan (Connecticut College), and Jill Raitt (University of Missouri). See, e.g., Doniger 2014. I am grateful to Wendy Doniger for a conversation that resulted in this line of inquiry. In fact, my initial contact with Doniger was inspired by the following comment in her introduction to Other Peoples’ Myths: “I speak as a woman, a mother, a Jew, a horsewoman, a mythologist” (1995, 4). Perhaps paralleling direct experience with meditation in contemplative studies (see Komjathy 2015, forthcoming [b]), this background may result in unique perspectives and contributions to equine and equestrian scholarship. 56. As one can imagine, this equine and equestrian ethnographic approach could lead to a wide range of site visits and field observations, in an almost endless variety of expressions of human-horse interactions. For example, one could also visit racetracks, ranches, stables, wild horse sanctuaries, and so forth. 57. The project also resulted in a variety of recollections of my varied and influential experiences with animals, both wild and domestic. In terms of horses, I recalled childhood and adolescent moments of horseback riding lessons and adventures. I also reflected more deeply on a powerful experience on Vashon Island, Washington, involving an encounter between our dog Katahdin and a horse in a nearby pasture. The latter experience has framed many of my public lectures on the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures.

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58. In the contemporary period, much has been published about horse training, especially alternative methods (“natural horsemanship”) and the spiritual dimensions. The latter might be labeled “equine spirituality,” “equestrian spirituality,” or “spirituality of horses.” This includes various publications that address the process of working with horses as a contemplative practice and contemplative experience. See, e.g., Benedik and Wirth 2000; Miller and Lamb 2004; Rosenberg 2006; Kohanov 2007; Hamilton 2011; and Nagel 2015. 59. For some insights into such mystical modes of being and experiencing, see Komjathy 2007, 2013b, 2015, forthcoming (c). 60. Like various attempts to describe “human-animal” relationships, this statement is inherently problematic. It assumes a distinction between “human” and “animal” and gives the false impression that the human is different from the animal. It might thus be better to refer to such interactions as “interspecies” or, more radically, “intersubjective” encounters. 61. As mentioned, if this were intended, Gao conceivably could have ended the poems with an empty circle / full moon, as such an illustration appears in two other places in his Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection. See chapter 1 above. 62. In this interpretation, identification with horses, in which one sees oneself as a horse and the horse as oneself, may be understood as an expression of Daoist microcosmic/macrocosmic views. See, e.g., Kohn 1989; Schipper 1993; and Komjathy 2008, 2009. Along similar lines, one wonders about the applicability of the Horse Taming Pictures to actual horse training. That is, one may reverse the present approach from understanding contemplative practice through horse training to understanding horse training through this cartography of contemplative stages. 63. Mills and Nankervis 1999; McGreevy 2004. I am grateful to Aaron Gross (University of San Diego) for a conversation that led to this direction of understanding. 64. Here one thinks of ethical/ecological vegetarianism as a religious commitment. In the case of Daoism, see Komjathy 2011a, 2013b. 65. The present photograph of “Maximus” (ca. 2000–ca. 2013), a mature herd stallion of the wild horses of Alberta, was taken in 2008. According to the photographer, Bob Henderson, at the time, Maximus had a herd of thirteen mares, yearlings, and foal with him. In this photo he had come up over the edge of the ridge and was snorting and stomping his hoofs to warn Bob off. This is typical behavior of a wild horse stallion. His herd was just below the ridge line, and as soon as they were gone and safe in the trees he took off after them. One of the things that Bob admires about the wild horses is the fact that the stallion would sacrifice himself to protect his herd. Maximus became WHOAS’s “poster boy” because he so exudes the wildness and also shows the Spanish genetics of the Alberta wild horses (Bob Henderson, pers. comm.). He also reminds one that horses are “herd animals” and that there appears to be a transpersonal awareness and field energetics, qualities especially relevant for the Horse Taming Pictures. As mentioned, from a biological and taxonomic perspective, the “wild horses” of Alberta, also referred to as “wildies,” are technically not wild, but feral or semiferal.

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They are part of Equus ferus caballus, not Equus ferus. Like other North American mustang populations, they descend from earlier feral animals and herds via Spanish Conquistador horses introduced around 1519. See, e.g., Hendricks 1995. These views of “wildness” are challenged by certain Daoist perspectives discussed herein.

h orse taming poems 1. Innate nature (xing 性) refers to one’s original and foundational connection to the Dao. The character consists of xin 心/忄 (heart-mind) and sheng 生 (to be born). It is the heart-mind with which one was born, free of social conditioning, familial obligations, and personal habituation. Innate nature is associated with the heart, spirit (shen), and consciousness. It is generally thought to be cultivated through stillness practice (jinggong)—that is, meditation. 2. Wan (lit., ten thousand), usually appearing as wanwu (ten thousand things), is the classical Daoist term for everything. 3. Here and in the following translations “lead” translates jiang 韁, which more often refers to a bridle. A bridle is a type of equine headgear, consisting of buckled straps with attached bit and reins, used to control horses. The accompanying illustrations depict a halter with lead rather than a bridle. That is, the attendant only uses the most minimal training aid. 4. Here “enclosure” translates xian 閑, which in this sense is also rendered as “to enclose.” The character consists of mu 木 (tree) inside the men 門 (gate) radical, perhaps suggesting a forest surrounded by a fence. The character also appears in the poems and verse commentary to refer to “leisure” and “retirement,” possibly indicating a gate (hermitage) surrounded by a forest. In other words, Gao Daokuan is playing with the multiple meanings of and complex relationship between enclosure and seclusion. 5. Catherine Despeux (1981, 77) translates the entire fourth line as follows: “Mais ce haut cheval noir s’élance vers un abîme profond.” That is, she takes manghei (lit., blind black) to refer to the color of the horse. This is viable given that “black horse” appears in poem 3 and the commentary to poem 4, while “white horse” appears in the commentary to poems 5, 6, 7, and 9. However, the supposed color of the horse, in contrast to some versions of the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures, is less emphasized in the Horse Taming Poems. I read manghei as indicating the condition of the shepherd’s perception or consciousness. 6. Unlike the remainder of the text, wherein ma appears, this line utilizes the character lai to refer to the horse. This character usually refers to a mare, which may have interpretive significance along gender lines. However, from my perspective, it is used synonymously with ma and more generically for “horse.” 7. In the present context, “thought” translates yi 意, which consists of yin 音 (sound) over xin 心 (heart-mind). Although in more technical terms the character sometimes refers to awareness or intention, here it appears to be used in the generic

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sense of thought and thinking—that is, intellectual activity. Specifically, it refers to discursive thought, discrimination, content-based reflection, and so forth. 8. “Switches” translates bang 棒, which contains the mu 木 (wood) radical. In Chan Buddhism, this term is sometimes used to refer to the “wake-up stick” (Jpn.: kyo¯saku; keisaku), although ban is more common. It is unclear if the number thirty has significance here. 9. “Naturally” translates ziran (tzu-jan; lit., self-so). Also rendered as “naturalness,” “spontaneity,” “suchness,” and even “being-so-of-itself,” ziran is a classical and foundational Daoist value and concern. It specifically refers to the state of being attuned with the Dao, which is often expressed as effortless activity (wuwei). See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. 10. “Halter” translates luo 絡 (lit., net), which contains the mi 糸 (silk) radical. “Crop” translates bian 鞭 (lit., whip), which contains the ge 革 (leather) radical. I interpret bian as basically synonymous with the previous bang, though it may indicate less intense training. While bian usually refers to a whip in the conventional sense, the accompanying illustration depicts an item more like a stick. 11. “Shepherd” translates mutong 牧童, with mu containing the niu 牛/牜(ox) radical. I considered rendering this phrase as “attendant.” The former translation is more literal, while the latter seems more in keeping with the general view of the Horse Taming Pictures. See part 3 for further discussion. 12. “Train” translates chan 攙 (lit., assist/support), which contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. 13. “Doubly barred” translates shuangguan (lit., paired passes). Interestingly, this suggests redoubled effort and anticipates the later reference to “double forgetting” (shuangwang) in poem 11. One might further connect this to other Daoist “doubled” or “twofold” practices. For example, according to chapter 48 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, “In the pursuit of learning, one increases each day. / In the practice of the Dao, one decreases each day. / Decreasing and again decreasing (sun zhi you sun), / One eventually arrives at nonaction.” From a practice-based perspective, this “twofold decreasing” (chongsun) leads to the realization of the “twofold mystery” (chongxuan) of the Dao mentioned in chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. 14. “Saddle” translates an 鞍, which contains the ge 革 (leather) radical. “Bridle” renders pei 轡, which consists of si 絲 (silk) and che 車 (cart/carriage/chariot) above kou 口 (mouth). This character may also be translated as “reins.” Technically speaking, bridle refers to headgear, consisting of buckled straps with attached bit and reins, used to control a horse. A bridle may be contrasted with a halter, which is technically headgear used to tie up or direct an animal, often with a lead (attached rope). The accompanying illustrations could support both readings, and greater familiarity with contemporaneous Chinese horse training might clarify the actual methods. In any case, the emphasis on the absence of a saddle and bridle indicates that this is not the ultimate purpose of “horse training” here. Rather than complete subjugation, it is

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about gentle guiding and directing. However, as mentioned in chapter 1, bridling and saddling are often the second and third major stage of actual horse training, preceded by haltering and followed by riding. See also chapter 2 above. 15. “Gallop” translates chicheng 馳騁, with both characters containing the ma 馬 (horse) radical. 16. Xin refers to the physical heart, mind in a more abstract sense, and the storehouse of spirit, with the latter also associated with innate nature. I have translated xin as “heart-mind” in order to indicate the informing psychosomatic psychology. Considered the center of human personhood, the heart-mind is associated with intellectual and emotional activity in general. 17. “Beckon” translates bai 擺 (lit., place), which contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. 18. The character ban, here rendered as “friendship,” is often used in the Daoist phrase “companions of the Way” (daoban), which also appears as daoyou. This line’s reference to “wild grass and cold springwater” also recalls chapter 9 of the Book of Master Zhuang (see ch. 2 above). 19. Here “leisure” translates xian 閑, which in this sense is also rendered as “retirement” and “seclusion.” As mentioned above, the character consists of mu 木 (tree) beneath the men 門 (gate) radical, perhaps suggesting a hermitage surrounded by trees. 20. “Snare” renders luo 羅 (lit., net/catch), which contains wang 网/罒 (net) and mi 糸 (silk). This line recalls the famous passage in chapter 26 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “The fish trap exists because of the fish; once you’ve gotten the fish, you can forget the trap. The rabbit snare exists because of the rabbit; once you’ve gotten the rabbit, you can forget the snare. Words exist because of meaning; once you’ve gotten the meaning, you can forget the words. Where can I find a person who has forgotten words so I can have a word with him?” (adapted from Watson 1968, 302). The text in turn urges one to imagine a world free of cages, corrals, hooks, lures, nets, pens, snares, and traps (chs. 1, 3, 10, 18, 20, and 23). See chapter 2 herein; also Komjathy 2011b. 21. “Turning His Head” is the title of the fourth Ox Herding Picture in the Puming edition. 22. In this instance, the Horse Taming Pictures parallel Puming’s Ox Herding Pictures by using the color black to indicate defilements and vexations. However, unlike the standard illustrations of the latter, here the illustration does not depict a black horse. This is because “his nature is not corrupted”—that is, ultimately the horse is always white (pure). One’s innate nature is always connected to the Dao. While it is possible to express reservations concerning the various associations of “whiteness” and “blackness,” we should temper such readings by recognizing the positive connotations of darkness in Daoism. For example, in chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, the Dao is described as “mysterious even more mysterious.” The character here translated as “mystery” is xuan, which also means darkness. Thus, the Dao might be

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understood as “darkness within darkness.” As I have suggested elsewhere, the Daoist tradition contains both “light mysticism” and “dark mysticism,” with the former based on light/sight and the latter based on darkness/listening. These correspond to kataphatic and apophatic discourse, respectively. See Komjathy 2013b, forthcoming (c). 23. Thus, the accompanying illustration depicts the horse dancing rather than rearing up in rebellion. 24. “Tethered” renders jin 緊 (lit., tight), which contains the mi 糸 (silk) radical. 25. “Wildness” translates shou 獸, which is the standard character for “animal” and often rendered as “beast.” The character contains the quan 犬/犭 (dog) radical. 26. As in the case of laughter, the place of play in Daoism is complex and understudied. There can be little debate that play and playfulness are highlighted as positive attributes in the Book of Master Zhuang. For example, the famous “Joy of Fish” story in chapter 17 tells us that fish, in a state of suchness (ziran), enjoy playing among sunlight and shadows; this provides a model for an ideal Daoist way of being. One could, in turn, connect this to the state of “being carefree” (xiaoyao). This involves spontaneous responsiveness and true joy, happiness beyond object-oriented concerns and forms of fulfillment. Such characteristics are often identified as qualities of immortals. However, here the poem suggests that “play,” in the sense of trivial pursuits and mundane concerns, must be overcome; one must focus on cultivating what is essential. 27. Literally, “thief of the horse-mind.” I have chosen to translate this as describing the condition of the horse, rather than as an innate quality, because the poems frequently distinguish the heart-mind and innate nature from thought. 28. “Restrained” translates suo 鎖 (lit., lock), which contains the jin 金 (metal) radical. 29. I interpret this line to suggest that the training process results in emotional release. See part 3. 30. Here “wildness” translates huangjiao. While the “wildness” in the previous poem refers to the horse as animal, here it more likely describes the surrounding locale, specifically a remote and overgrown area. 31. “Observe” translates guan 觀, which consists of guan 雚 (egret) and jian 見 (to see). It is a key Daoist technical term related to a particular type of meditation, inner observation (neiguan), and awareness or attentiveness by extension. See Komjathy 2013b, 2015. 32. The meaning of this line is obscure. Catherine Despeux (1981, 85) translates it as follows: “A peine est-il assis que le disque rouge est monté très haut (dans le ciel).” That is, she takes the “red wheel” to refer to the sun, and the “reed pipes” to refer to a height measurement. She also points to a parallel phrase in the seventh poem of the Kuoan edition of the Ox Herding Pictures (123n79): “Though the red sun is high up in the sky, he is still quietly dreaming” (Suzuki [1934] 1991, 132). However, the accompanying verse commentary of the Horse Taming Pictures appears to suggest an internal practice and experience. The line perhaps alludes to Gao’s own visionary mystical experience (see ch. 1 and appendix 1).

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33. “Superior person” translates junzi (lit., son of a lord), which has also been rendered as “gentleman.” A Confucian ideal associated with literati culture, it refers to someone who is committed to and has attained a high degree of self-cultivation, specifically ethical and cultural refinement. In the present case, a junzi embodies Daoist values and states of realization, becoming a manifestation of the Dao in the world. 34. Here “argumentation” renders zongheng (lit., vertical and horizontal), which appears in poem 6 as “various positions.” Read more literally, it is a spatial description of consciousness, one in which perception and thought extend in various directions. Zongheng in turn refers to philosophical argumentation and intellectual rumination—that is, rigid attachment to and contention over views. 35. To my ear, this line echoes a famous poem by Tao Qian (Yuanming [Deep Illumination]; 365–427), also known as Mister Five Willows, in the poem cycle titled “Drinking Wine”: I built my hut in the human realm, And yet there is no noise from horse or cart. You ask me, “How is this possible?” If the mind is far away, the place becomes remote. I pick chrysanthemums under the eastern fence, And leisurely view the southern mountain. The mountain air (qi) is fine in the evening, And flying birds return home together. There is real meaning hidden in all of this, But before I can explain, I’ve forgotten the words. See also Hinton 1993 and Berkowitz 2000. It is also interesting, though perhaps only coincidental, that Gao’s Daoist name (Yuanming [Complete Illumination]) is similar to Tao’s style-name (Yuanming [Deep Illumination]). 36. In the present Complete Perfection monastic context, “influence of one’s original family” (benjia feng), also translated as “original home,” suggests the adept’s original connection to the Dao rather than his or her inherited biological family and ancestral influences. This recalls the famous Chan Buddhist gong’an (Jpn.: ko¯an), “What was the face before your birth?” Interestingly, Complete Perfection is also referred to as Xuanfeng (Mysterious Movement). See Komjathy 2007. 37. This line recalls Gao Daokuan’s mystical experience described in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains (DZ 955, 3.32a), wherein Gao gains visions of the Daoist celestial realms. See appendix 1. 38. As evergreens, azure pines (qingsong) are a common Daoist symbol for immortality. 39. “Freedom” translates zizai (lit., self-abiding), which is also rendered as “independence.” This spiritual condition is often identified as one of the “fruits of the Dao”

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(daoguo), the beneficial and transformational effects of committed and prolonged selfcultivation. The term also appears in line 7 of poem 5. 40. As discussed in chapter 2, horse-thought (mayi; yima) was a key concept in early Complete Perfection Daoism. Like a “wild” horse, ordinary and undisciplined thought gallops out of control. See also Komjathy 2007. 41. Monkey-mind (yuanxin; xinyuan) was another a key concept in early Complete Perfection Daoism (see ch. 2). Like a “wild” monkey, the ordinary mind jumps to and fro. See also Komjathy 2007. 42. An allusion to the famous description of the Daoist sage (shengren) in chapter 15 of the Book of Master Zhuang: With the sage, his life is the working of the heavens; his death is the transformation of things. In stillness, he and yin share a single inner power; in movement, he and yang share a single flow. He is not the bearer of good fortune, nor the initiator of bad fortune. Roused by something outside himself, only then does he respond; pressed, only then does he move; finding he has no choice, only then does he rise up. He discards knowledge and purpose and accords with the principles (li) of the heavens. Therefore, he incurs no disaster from the cosmos, no entanglement from things, no opposition from humanity, no blame from ghosts. His life is a floating, his death a rest. He does not ponder or scheme, does not plot for the future. Radiant, he does not shine; trustworthy, he keeps no promises. He sleeps without dreams and wakes without cares. His spirit is pure and clean; his ethereal soul (hun) is never wearied. In emptiness, nonbeing, and limpidity, he unites with celestial inner power (tiande). (Adapted from Watson 1968, 168–69) 43. The technical meaning of Eight Purities (bachun) is obscure. It may refer to the eight directions (i.e., everywhere), but here connoting a larger cosmological dimension. The term may also relate to the eight trigrams (bagua). 44. Li (Principle) is an important traditional Chinese and thus Daoist cosmological term. Generally speaking, it refers to the underlying patterns and structure (“laws”) of the universe. 45. At first glance, the meaning of the phrase fan jing quan is obscure. One might interpret it as something like “return from waywardness to resolution,” with the secondary meaning of jing (classic) being “to regulate” and “constant,” and quan meaning “to weigh” or “to measure” and, in contrast to jing, “irregular.” However, this combination of characters appears in the “Huangong (Duke Huan), 11” chapter of the Gongyang zhuan (Gongyang Commentary), an influential commentary on the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) associated with Gongyang Gao, a secondgeneration disciple of Kongzi (“Confucius”): “Quan means going contrary to the jing in order to achieve adeptness.” Here jing refers to standard practice established through ancient precedents, or simply the norm. It can be understood as ways or

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rules of behavior within tradition. Quan is a deviation from jing (Tao et al. 2009). The phrase was adapted and incorporated into the “Grand Historian’s Postface” (ch. 130) of the Shiji (Records of the Historian). We might, in turn, understand this as deviation from the norm, as innovation with respect to entrenched patterns and mandated activity. In poem 7 this suggests freedom and spontaneity, a stage of practice in which one follows one’s own cultivation and sense of things beyond “rules” and “measurement.” Along these lines, it is noteworthy that line 2 mentions “leisurely reading poetry and prose.” Given the centrality of scriptures in the Daoist tradition, this section of the Horse Taming Pictures also anticipates line 8 of poem 10: “Watching books and scrolls disappear in ashes, he concludes Pure Conversation.” Daoist adepts become completely rooted in their own practice, with earlier textual influences and spiritual direction having become internalized and transcended. According to the accompanying commentary (7a), one also recognizes the limitations of texts. I am grateful to Jiang Sheng (Sichuan University) for a conversation that inspired this line of inquiry. 46. Here “spirited” translates jiao 驕 (lit., proud), which contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. 47. Here the poem shifts to a more personal tone, with Gao Daokuan using the first-person voice (I). It thus creates another challenge to successful translation. 48. “Being carefree” (xiaoyao) is a classical and foundational Daoist value. For example, chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang is titled “Xiaoyao you” (Carefree Wandering). In terms of late medieval Daoism, xiaoyao is often identified as one of the “fruits of the Dao,” the beneficial and transformational effects of committed and prolonged self-cultivation. 49. Although a generic term, the appearance of yanxia reminds one of Yanxia dong (Cavern of Misty Vapors) in the Kunyu mountains (near Weihai and Yantai, Shandong), the place where Wang Zhe lived with and trained some of his senior Shandong disciples. In fact, the verse commentary (7b) makes this very reference. See below; also Komjathy 2007. 50. Daoist views on and symbolic discussions of dreaming (meng) are a complex subject. Here it recalls one voice in the Book of Master Zhuang, which tells us, “Some day there will be a great awakening (dajue) when we realize that all of this is a great dream (dameng)” (ch. 2). More specifically, the line foreshadows the verse commentary’s reference to the Yellow Millet Dream of Lü Dongbin (Chunyang [Pure Yang]; b. 798 c.e.?), with Lü identified as the fourth of the Five Patriarchs of Complete Perfection (7b; see below). Similar references appear in early Complete Perfection poetry (see Komjathy 2013a). These negative connotations of dreaming contrast with “dream teachings” and “spirit transmissions” in internal alchemy in general and Complete Perfection in particular (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a). 51. Here “fate” renders yuan, which often appears as yinyuan (lit., cause and effect) and is translated as “karma.” In more traditional Daoist terms, ming is usually used.

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In this instance, fate or karma suggests sociohistorical context and cultural climate, specifically parameters of limitation for Daoists. 52. That is, rustic simplicity. 53. An allusion to the chapter 2, titled “Qiwu lun” (On Making Things Equal), of the Book of Master Zhuang, which describes the meditative absorption and mystical attainment of a higher-level Daoist adept: “Nanbo Ziqi (Adept Dissimilarity of South Wall) sat leaning on his armrest, staring up at the sky and breathing—vacant and far away, as though he had lost his companion. Yancheng Ziyou (Adept Wanderer of Flourishing Completion), who was standing by his side in attendance, said, ‘What is this? Can you really make the body like a withered tree and the mind like dead ashes? The person leaning on the armrest now is not the one who leaned on it before!’ ” (adapted from Watson 1968, 36). The phrases “withered wood” (gaomu) and “dead ashes” (sihui), in this case “cold ashes” (hanhui), in turn became used by Daoists to describe deep meditative practice and the associated contemplative state. In some sense this corresponds to the later Daoist emphasis on ding (concentration), or stabilized stillness, the conception of which is often influenced by the Buddhist understanding of sama¯dhi. 54. “Swift and strong” translates junji 駿驥, with both characters containing the ma 馬 (horse) radical. 55. In retirement. 56. In other words, mundane entanglements and cognitive obstructions. In Daoist contexts, vines, weeds, and the like are often used to symbolize defilements and vexations—that is, states of psychological agitation and spiritual disorientation. A classical precedent appears in chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “You certainly are dense when it comes to using big things. . . . Now you had a gourd big enough to hold five piculs [shoulder-loads]. Why didn’t you think of making it into a great tub so you could go floating around the rivers and lakes, instead of worrying because it was too big and unwieldy to dip into things! Obviously you still have a lot of underbrush in your head!” (adapted from Watson 1968, 34–35). The phrase “underbrush in your head” (peng zhi xin) may also be translated as “brambles of the mind.” Ordinary mind is comparable to an overgrown thicket of thorns, though at the right moment this may be cleared away with ease. Interestingly, at certain times of the year, blackberry brambles recede and are relatively easy to clear (Tatiana Dreisbach, pers. comm.). 57. As discussed in poem 8 above, the dream of mundane existence. 58. Here one thinks of Qiu Chuji’s famous poem “Qingtian ge” (Song of the Clear Sky). See Komjathy 2013a. 59. As mentioned in the introductory chapters, the Chan Buddhist Ox Herding Pictures utilize the imagery of an empty circle / full moon to represent the state of enlightenment and mystical union. While one might expect this type of illustration here, especially considering the “both forgotten” transition to poem 11, Gao Daokuan instead chooses to depict the attendant and horse sleeping next to each other. None-

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theless, it is possible to connect this to the empty circle / full moon, as it appears in both the beginning of the first scroll and the twelfth diagram in the second scroll of the Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection. 60. “Hut” translates an, which has also been rendered as “hermitage.” According to “Living in Hermitages” (zhu’an), section 1 of the Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings; DZ 1233), which is attributed to Wang Zhe, “All renunciants (chujia) must first retreat to a hermitage. A hermitage is an enclosure, a place where the body may be attuned and entrusted. When the body is attuned and entrusted, the heart-mind gradually realizes serenity. Qi and spirit become harmonious and expansive. Then you may enter the Way of Perfection (zhendao)” (1a). See Komjathy 2008, 2013a. One also thinks of the Complete Perfection practice of “meditative enclosure” (huandu). See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. In terms of biographical background, we may recall Gao’s own semi-seclusion at Longyang guan (Monastery of Dragon Radiance; near Beijing) from 1233 to 1238. 61. While “the horse” represents mundane thought, the poem, perhaps disturbingly, tells us that the horse must die (si) in the later stages of contemplative practice and asks us to consider whether the horse ever really existed outside ourselves. 62. Eccentric and unconventional behavior was a common pattern among the early Complete Perfection adherents (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a). As ascetics, contemplatives, and mystics, how could their lives not appear “crazy” from the perspective of ordinary people? 63. In technical terms, “guarding the One” (shouyi), also appearing as “embracing the One” (baoyi), refers to Daoist quietistic or apophatic meditation—that is, emptiness- and stillness-based meditation. It is contentless, nonconceptual, and nondualistic. See Neiye (Inward Training), chs. 9 and 24; Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, ch. 10; Book of Master Zhuang, ch. 11; Roth 1999; and Komjathy 2008. The term became used to refer to Daoist meditation more generally (Kohn 1989; Komjathy 2013b). It may also designate the associated contemplative state of “abiding in unity” (i.e., mystical union). 64. “The three” (san) usually refers to yin-yang interaction and the myriad beings or “ten thousand things” (wanwu) by extension. According to chapter 42 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, “The One gave birth to the two; / The two gave birth to the three; / And the three gave birth to myriad beings. / The myriad beings carry yin and embrace yang. / It is the empty [or, ‘infusing’] qi (chongqi) that harmonizes these.” This relates to the previous reference to “guarding the One,” with the One primarily designating the Dao as Source and primordial nondifferentiation. Thus, the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power also emphasizes the importance of “returning to the Source” (guigen) (ch. 16). See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. In a Complete Perfection context, “the three” may also refer to the Three Powers (sancai)—the heavens, earth, and humanity. Following foundational Complete Perfection values (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a), here the poem seems to advocate voluntary silence or silence as a spontaneous and natural condition.

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65. In other words, in a state of spiritual realization, one no longer needs to rely on the scriptures and the teachings for insights into the nature of existence. This recalls the reference to books as the “chaff and dregs of people of antiquity” in chapter 13, interestingly titled “Tiandao” (Way of Heaven), of the Book of Master Zhuang. On the place of writing, reading, and scripture study in early Complete Perfection Daoism, see Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 66. In technical terms, Qingtan (Pure Conversation) refers to an early medieval Daoist literati and recluse community and practice with close connections to the Xuanxue (Profound Learning) movement. For more on Xuanxue, see the various publications of Rudolf Wagner. Here the phrase implies not only seclusion but also the end of metaphysical concerns and “spiritual conversations.” That is, practice-realization manifests as mystical being and mystical experiencing, perhaps as a numinous and spontaneous voluntary silence in which one is infused by the Dao. 67. Literally, “double forgetting” (shuangwang). As discussed in chapter 1, “Both Extinguished” is the title of poem 10 in Puming’s version of the Ox Herding Pictures, while poem 8 of Kuoan’s edition is titled “Disappearance of Ox and Person.” The classical and foundational Daoist discussion of meditation as forgetting appears in chapter 6 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “I smash up my limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect, cast off form, do away with understanding, and make myself identical with Great Pervasion (datong). This is what I mean by sitting-in-forgetfulness (zuowang).” This is connected to the parallel practice of “fasting the heart-mind” (xinzhai) mentioned in chapter 4 of the same text. Here one also thinks of the eighthcentury Zuowang lun (Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness; DZ 1036; ZH 992; trl. Kohn 1987, 2010) by Sima Chengzhen (Zhenyi [Pure Unity]; 647–735), the Twelfth Patriarch of Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism. Reference to forgetting (method/ process) and forgetfulness (state) also appear in poems 7, 10, and 12, as well as the verse commentary, of the Horse Taming Pictures. 68. “Obscurity” (yao)—like darkness (ming), indistinctness (hun), silence (mo), and vagueness (huang)—is a characteristic of the Dao. For example, chapter 21 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power reads as follows: The Dao considered as a thing— It is elusive and indistinct. Indistinct, elusive, its center contains forms. Elusive, indistinct, its center contains beings. Obscure, unseen, its center contains essences. These essences are fundamentally real; The Center contains something deserving trust. This anticipates the subsequent description of the Dao as “mystery” (xuan) in line 6 of the poem. Here one might also recall the opening lines of the eighth-century

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Scripture on Clarity and Stillness, wherein the Dao is described as nameless (wuming) and formless (wuxing). 69. Ziran. 70. “Cleverness” (qiao), in the sense of being calculating, scheming, and possibly devious and manipulative, is identified as a negative characteristic and a psychological deficiency in classical Daoism. For example, according to chapter 19 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, Renounce sagehood and abandon intelligence; The people will benefit a hundredfold. Renounce humanity and abandon righteousness; The people will return to filial piety and familial kindness. Renounce cleverness and abandon profit-making; Robbers and thieves will no longer exist. The chapter also provides the following admonition: “Appear plain and embrace simplicity; / Lessen personal interest and decrease desire.” 71. This line recalls Wang Zhe’s “Guidance to the Jade Flower Society”: “Fellow adepts, if you long for perfect cultivation, simply eat when hungry and sleep when tired. There is no need to practice meditation or to study the Dao. You only need to separate yourself from the affairs of the mundane world. You only need to allow your heart-mind to be clear and pure. Anything beyond these two words [clarity and purity] is not cultivation” (Quanzhen ji [DZ 1153], 10.21a; see also Danyang yulu [DZ 1057], 10b–11a). See Komjathy 2013a. 72. An allusion to chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. 73. “Transformative process” renders zaohua, which is also problematically translated as “creation.” The term appears throughout the Book of Master Zhuang to describe the Dao as cosmological process. 74. In a Daoist context, “pot” (hu), which is sometimes translated as “gourd,” often refers to the lower elixir field (dantian), the navel or lower abdominal region. As the storehouse of qi in the body, this subtle location represents the alchemical process and the ground of immortality. It is referred to as a reaction vessel because it is the ground (tu) of self-transformation. For a classical precedent with respect to gourds, see chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang. As a symbol for the microcosm, the gourd is often said to contain the world. 75. The Dharma Body of Clarity and Purity is a Daoist adaptation of the Buddhist concept of the Three Bodies (Skt.: trika¯ya; Chn.: sanshen), which refers to the threefold body or nature of a Buddha: cosmic, divine, and physical. See chapter 1n71 above. The Dharma Body also appears in Gao’s “Song of Pure Awakening”: “Longing to realize the Dharma Body, one becomes an immortal of Daluo; / Resting in the Original Beginning, the heart-mind and innate nature are secure” (see appendix 2).

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76. The Three Heavens (santian) refer to the Daoist sacred realms of Yuqing (Jade Clarity; highest), Shangqing (Highest Clarity; middle), and Taiqing (Great Clarity; lowest), which are associated with the Sanqing (Three Purities), the highest Daoist “gods.” See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. 77. “Precious pagoda” (baota) may refer to the lower elixir field (navel region) or the upper elixir field (head region), with the latter associated with spirit. “Formlessness” (wuxing) is a common Daoist way of describing the Dao and, by extension, the realized Daoist. For example, the opening lines of the eighth-century Scripture on Clarity and Stillness (DZ 620, 1a) read as follows: “The great Dao is without form. It brings forth and nurtures heaven and earth. The great Dao is without feelings. It regulates the course of the sun and moon.” 78. “Thearch” (i.e., divine sovereign) translates di, which here refers to an elevated celestial being. In the present context, the description suggests completion of the process of self-divinization. 79. Chan (toad) often refers to the moon and, by extension, enlightenment. In late medieval neidan, the toad was frequently associated with immortality. For example, the Daoist names of both Liu Cao (Haichan [Oceanic Toad]; fl. 1031) and Bai Yuchan (Haiqiong [Oceanic Jade]; 1194–1229), both of whom are associated with the so-called Nanzong (Southern School), contain this character. Interestingly, in certain lineage constructions, Liu Haichan is identified as one of the Five Patriarchs of Complete Perfection. 80. A possible allusion to chapters 4 and 25 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, with the former reading: “I do not know whose child it [Dao] is. It precedes the appearance of Di (Thearch).” It also recalls the common Daoist theme of being without father and mother when abiding in the great Void. Such Daoist views also influenced the Chan Buddhist concept of the original face (benlai mianmu), which is found in the famous gong’an (Jpn.: ko¯an), “What is the face before your birth?” 81. This line suggests a general description of primordial nondifferentiation and the subsequent early cosmogonic emanation. However, “original beginning” (shichu) sometimes appears in more technical Daoist writings as a specific moment in the unfolding process of cosmological manifestation (see Major et al. 2010; Komjathy 2013b). Original Beginning also appears in Gao’s “Song of Pure Awakening” (see appendix 2). 82. This line suggests that the Daoist practitioner has become an immortal. However, the following image coupled with reference to the “purple and gold immortal” possibly points toward a connection to Laozi (Master Lao). See the introductory chapters herein and the verse commentary (10b).

c ommen tary o n th e h o rse ta m in g p o e m s In the original edition of the text, the verse commentary, primarily consisting of quatrains (four five-character lines), appears directly underneath the poems. I have decided to separate the two layers of the text in order to allow readers to engage the poems

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on their own terms before considering the commentary. As mentioned in chapter 1, I am taking the commentary to have been written by Gao Daokuan himself. 1. As mentioned, the “horse-mind” (maxin), also appearing as “horse-thought” (mayi), refers to the tendency of ordinary mind and habituated consciousness to gallop out of control. Here the reference to “thieves” (zei) recalls the Five Thieves mentioned in the sixth-century Scripture on the Hidden Talisman (DZ 31, 1a) and the Six Thieves mentioned in the eighth-century Scripture on Clarity and Stillness (DZ 620, 1b), both of which refer to sensory engagement and the associated desires (see Komjathy 2008, 2013a). 2. Here “awareness” translates yi, which appears to have a positive connotation. In other contexts and as discussed above, yi may refer to intention or thought, with the latter often identified as a source of energetic dissipation and spiritual disorientation. In traditional Chinese correlative cosmology, centering on the Five Phases (wuxing), yi is associated with Earth and the spleen. 3. “Guard” translates bao, which is straightforward. Interestingly, however, this character is sometimes used synonymously with bao (embrace) and shou (guard) as a Daoist technical term for meditation. 4. “South of the village” may refer to sinking awareness from the heart-mind into the lower elixir field, the navel region. 5. “Provisions” may refer to the degree of cognitive activity and/or the amount of effort exerted during training. In the context of internal alchemy, the latter is often discussed in terms of “firing times” (huohou). Generally speaking, as one of the Five Phases, Fire is associated with the heart, spirit, and (by extension) consciousness. 6. Interestingly, the character here translated as “run away” is ben 犇 (rush), which consists of three niu 牛 (ox) characters. 7. Abilities and endowments are only one dimension of spiritual cultivation; aspiration, orientation, practice, and effort are equally, if not more, important. 8. Ordinary mind cannot rectify ordinary mind. Meditation, including the cultivation of clarity and stillness, is the way to return to innate nature and one’s connection to the Dao. 9. Given that this line refers to the back of the horse, jiang (bridle/reins), here rendered as “tether,” could also be translated as “saddle” in the present context. 10. “Naturally” translates ziran. See chapter 2 and Horse Taming Poems n9 above. 11. “Real” translates zhen, which is also translated as “perfect/perfection” and “true/ truth.” In this line, the character suggests a return to innate nature, characterized by clarity and stillness. 12. “Corral” translates lao 牢, which may also refer to an enclosure or pen. The character consists of niu 牛 (ox) beneath the mian 宀 (roof) radical. 13. Liangxin, which often means conscience. 14. “Wild mind” translates kuangxin 狂心, with kuang containing the quan 犬/犭 (dog) radical.

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15. Liangjia, perhaps more liberally translatable as “divided allegiances/loyalties.” I take this to mean that lost horses literally create strife in a given family; analogously, the horse has “two homes”: the wilds and the stable. 16. Fushou 伏手, with fu (submit) consisting of ren 人/亻 (person) and quan 犬 (dog). 17. Ze 萴, which contains the cao 艸/艹 (grass) radical. 18. Shuan 拴 (fasten), which contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. 19. Qi 騎, which contains the ma 馬 (horse) radical. The reference to riding deviates from the general tenor of the Horse Taming Pictures and challenges my primary interpretation. See chs. 1 and 2. 20. “Degraded” translates lie 劣, which consists of shao 少 (less) above li 力 (strength/power). 21. “Bind” translates suo 索, which contains the mi 糸 (silk) radical. 22. The text actually reads xianxian (retired leisure / leisurely retirement), which might be thought of as double or twofold retirement. 23. “Beyond external things” (wuwai) recalls chapter 26 of the Book of Master Zhuang, which is titled “Waiwu” (External Things). 24. “Being carefree” (xiaoyao) is a classical and foundational Daoist value and principle. It appears in the title of chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “Xiaoyao you” (Carefree Wandering), which is also translated as “Free and Easy Wandering.” Interestingly, all three characters in the title contain the chuo 辵/辶 (walk) radical. The term eventually became associated with specific meditative states and spiritual attainments, which are often referred to as “fruits of the Dao.” 25. Zongheng, which was translated above as “argumentation” and “various positions.” 26. Here “penetration” translates da, while “realize” translates liao, both of which relate to spiritual awakening. In this way, they parallel other important Daoist technical terms such as jue and wu. 27. “Take hold” translates qin 擒 (catch/capture), which consists of the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical and qin 禽 (bird). 28. Here “capture” translates ba 把, which contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. 29. Or, “serenity of suchness” (ziran an). 30. Yunban. This recalls youyun (wandering cloud) as a term for a wandering Daoist and yunyou (cloud wandering) as the associated practice. See Komjathy 2008, 2013b. 31. “Carelessness” translates wuyou, which literally means “without grief.” The phrase recalls the classical and foundational Daoist value and state of being emotionless (wuqing), that is, free from habitual emotionality and psychological reactivity. 32. Kusong zuo, which more literally means “sitting [beneath] withered pines” and may simply refer to seclusion. The phrase recalls the famous passage in chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang. See Horse Taming Poems n53 above.

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33. “Pull” translates qian 牽, which contains the niu 牛/牜 (ox) radical. 34. Wuming, which usually refers to the five planets. 35. Literally, “red” (chi). 36. “Lay hold” translates quan 拳, which contains the shou 手/扌 (hand) radical. 37. Darkened thought? 38. Zongheng (lit., vertical and horizontal), which appeared earlier as “argumentation” and “various positions.” Here it is a spatial designation. 39. In a Complete Perfection ascetic and monastic context, “white ox” (bainiu) usually refers to vital essence (jing), and to semen in men by extension. That is, aspiring (male) adepts maintain celibacy and thus stabilize emotionality (qing). See Komjathy 2007. 40. Purple Palace (zifu) conventionally refers to a Daoist celestial and immortal realm or, by extension, to ecstasy. In the present context, it may be an esoteric name for the head region. 41. If these lines are metaphorical, “pure wind” would refer to qi and its circulation through the Waterwheel (heche; Governing Vessel) into the heart or head region. 42. Again, as is the case in Chan Buddhism, here the moon represents enlightenment. 43. Duzuo. Or, “practices solitary meditation.” 44. Here “elixir center” (danfang) most likely refers to the lower elixir field, the navel region. 45. “Nonbeing” translates wu, while “emptiness” translates kong. Along with xu, these characters are often interchangeable as technical Daoist terms. The present lines recall an obscure and difficult-to-translate section of the eighth-century Scripture on Clarity and Stillness: “Using emptiness to observe emptiness, / You see that emptiness is not empty. / When even emptiness does not exist, / You see that no-thingness is indeed no-thing” (DZ 620, 1b). See Komjathy 2008. 46. Junzi. See Horse Taming Pictures n33 above. 47. Again, this line may refer to physical seclusion or represent a symbolic description of energetic experiences—specifically, subtle movement within the body. 48. While it may simply mean agreement or meeting, cantong is a famous Daoist expression. Used as a technical term, “the three” may refer to yin-yang interaction, and thus to the heavens, earth, and humanity. By extension, it may refer to the internal Three Treasures (sanbao) of vital essence, qi, and spirit. 49. Here “original fate” (yuanming) refers to one’s original connection with and endowment from the Dao. 50. (Disturbingly) using the metaphor of starvation, this line suggests ascetic discipline, and fasting in particular. One must sever ties to hunger, decrease desire for satiation, control the appetites, and ultimately disrupt habituated consumption patterns. On asceticism and fasting in Daoism, see Eskildsen 1998 and Komjathy 2007, 2013b. 51. Here “Numinous Terrace” (lingtai) most likely refers to the heart region.

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52. As a technical internal alchemy term, tuoti usually refers to becoming immortal, specifically by sending out the yang-spirit to enter the Daoist sacred realms. 53. Chen’ai 塵埃, the mundane world, with both characters containing tu 土 (earth). 54. Or, “leisurely resides while he drinks.” 55. The appearance of riding terminology here challenges my overall interpretation of the text. 56. Yidian, here translated in a technical Daoist sense as “spark,” refers to the numinous presence of the Dao within, and thus to the possibility of spiritual realization and mystical union. 57. Kun-earth may refer to both the trigram 9 and the hexagram B (2). In both cases, it consists of yin or broken lines and corresponds to earth and pure yin. In the present context, it likely corresponds to the perineum as well as to vital essence (jing) and original qi (yuanqi). 58. Qian-heaven may refer to both the trigram 2 and the hexagram A (1). In both cases, it consists of yang or unbroken lines and corresponds to heaven and pure yang. Here, it may correspond to the head as well as to original spirit (yuanshen). 59. The appearance of woodcutters is a common Chinese literary trope. The woodcutter indicates seclusion, especially when the recluse is unencountered. 60. As mentioned in n32 above, “withered wood” and “dead ashes” allude to chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang and indicate meditative absorption and mystical attainment. 61. Or, “self-completion.” 62. Tianya—literally, “limit of heaven” or “shore”—may refer to the ends of the earth and horizon. 63. In Daoist contexts, cassia flowers and cranes generally symbolize immortality. 64. “Dancing sleeves,” also appearing as “cloud sleeves,” literally refers to Daoist robes with their extended sleeves. On a symbolic level, they indicate freedom and immortality. 65. Interestingly, “complete illumination” (yuanming) is Gao Daokuan’s Daoist religious name. 66. “Principle” (li) is a cosmological concept that designates the underlying principles and patterns of the universe. “Mysterious subtlety” (xuanmiao) refers to the Dao, with both characters appearing in chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. 67. “Traces” (ji 跡), the character for which contains the zu 足 (foot) radical, is a Daoist technical term related to phenomenal appearances, residual imprints, and psychological obscurations. With some metaphysical connotations, the term was especially important in the Xuanxue (Profound Learning) movement. See the various publications of Rudolf Wagner. 68. An allusion to the final line of chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power.

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69. Gourds, or calabashes, are often associated with immortality in Daoism. They may also symbolize the cosmos as well as the human body. 70. “Transformative process” translates zaohua, which is often problematically rendered as “creation.” It refers to the universe as an impersonal, transformative process. 71. Valley Spirit (gushen) is a Daoist technical term that first appears in chapter 6 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power: “The Valley Spirit does not die; it is called the Mysterious Female (xuanpin). The gateway to the Mysterious Female is called the root of the heavens and earth.” While the contextual meaning remains obscure, the term has received various Daoist interpretations. Here it seems to designate original spirit (yuanshen) and/or the yang-spirit (yangshen). 72. Or, “enjoying the Dao.” 73. Or, “changes without cease,” “requires no rest,” or “even more than rest.” 74. “Seven reversions” (qifan) and the subsequent “nine reversions” (jiuzhuan) generally refer to the process of alchemical transformation. Sometimes they indicate a stage-based sequence or the actual times that a practice is done. Along these lines, “reversion” or “inversion” relate to “returning to the Source” (guigen). For example, according to chapter 40 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, “Reversal (fan) is the movement of the Dao. Weakness is the application of the Dao.” 75. Or, “alchemical body.” 76. Primordial Chaos (hundun) generally refers to the Dao as primordial nondifferentiation. Here one is being encouraged to penetrate thoroughly the nature and mystery of the cosmos, as well as to discern what is ultimately real. 77. Paired Passes (shuangguan) usually denote the kidneys and thus the vital essence. 78. Handan is a city located in Hebei province. The “dream of Handan” refers to a story in which a scholar has a mystical dream encounter with the Daoist immortal Lü Dongbin. In terms of content and themes, it parallels Lü’s “Yellow Millet Dream,” in which the aspiring Daoist adept awakens from the dream of officialdom and mundane success and becomes committed to self-cultivation and spiritual realization (see Komjathy [2003] 2008, 2009). The story became famous in popular Chinese culture through the Handan ji (Record of Handan), a Ming dynasty play by Tang Xianzu (1550–1616) (see Wang 2003). 79. As in the above commentary (7b), wherein I translate chan as “moon,” this term is associated with lunar influences, and specifically ancient Chinese mythology centering on a striped toad that lives in the moon. The character became a lineage identifier among Daoists associated with the famous internal alchemists, Liu Cao (Haichan [Oceanic Toad]; fl. 1031) and Bai Yuchan (1194-ca. 1227), the latter of whom was a disciple of Chen Nan (d. 1213). Here the Toad Palace may refer to the head, heart, or navel region. 80. Zhaozhou is an area in Henan province famous for its potent green tea. However, this line may, in fact, refer to a famous dialogue exchange between the Chan

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Buddhist Zhaozhou Congshen (Jo¯shu¯ Ju¯shin; 778–897) and a fellow monastic, which is referred to as “Zhaozhou’s Cup of Tea.” The story goes as follows: Zhaozhou asked a newly arrived monk, “Have you been here before?” The monk said, “Yes, I have.” Zhaozhou said, “Have a cup of tea.” Later he asked another monk, “Have you been here before?” The monk said, “No, I haven’t.” Zhaozhou said, “Have a cup of tea.” Later the abbot addressed Zhaozhou, “You said ‘have a cup of tea’ to both the monk who had been here before and the one who had not, why is this?” Zhaozhou said, “Abbot.” The abbot responded, “Yes?” Zhaozhou said, “Have a cup of tea.” The central phrase (chicha qu), which became a famous gong’an (Jpn.: ko¯an), may also be translated as “go drink tea” or more simply as “drink tea.” The story appears in the thirteenth-century Wudeng huiyuan (Compendium of the Five Lamps). See Benn 2015, 128; also Tanahashi and Loori 2005, 317–20. 81. Along with Mount Kunlun in the west, Penglai Island, located in the east, is a famous ancient Chinese immortal paradise that was incorporated into Daoist mythology. 82. As mentioned in n78 above, the famous Yellow Millet Dream of Lü Dongbin symbolizes the illusory dream of mundane concerns as well as the possibility of spiritual awakening and liberation. 83. Or, “originally without innate nature.” 84. Located near Weihai and Yantai on the eastern peninsula of Shandong province, Yanxia dong was the place where Wang Zhe, the founder of Complete Perfection Daoism, trained some of his first-generation disciples. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 85. Purity of consciousness and serenity. 86. This line echoes the famous “Sansui kyo¯” (Mountains and Waters Sutra), contained in the Sho¯bo¯genzo¯ (Treasury of the True Dharma-Eye) by Eihei Do¯gen (1200–1253), the founder of the So¯to¯ lineage of Japanese Zen Buddhism (see Tanahashi [1985] 1995). “Mountains are mountains” indicates a state of direct experiencing and moment-to-moment immediacy and presence. 87. In this line, Gao Daokuan effectively, albeit subtly, integrates earlier Complete Perfection emphases on the monkey-mind and horse-thought with the Chan Buddhist concern for ox herding and the present interest in horse taming. 88. A Buddhist technical term, the Three Realms (sanjie), also translated as Three Worlds, refer to the realm of desire, form, and formlessness. 89. Again, a reference to the final line of chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. 90. “Mysterious Female” (xuanpin) is a Daoist technical term that first appears in chapter 6 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. See n75 above. 91. Han, here translated as “deep sleep,” can also mean intoxication. The context does not support the latter reading, unless it is metaphorical. 92. Or, “there is nothing that is not encompassed.” 93. Or, “practices solitary meditation.”

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94. Again, the horse represents thought. Nonetheless, this line slightly problematizes my overall “animal liberation” reading of the Horse Taming Pictures. 95. “Riding the wind” (chengfeng) recalls the famous passage in chapter 1 of the Book of Master Zhuang: “There is a spirit being living on faraway Gushe Mountain, with skin like ice or snow, and gentle and shy like a young girl. He doesn’t eat the five grains, but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, climbs up on the clouds and mist, rides a flying dragon, and wanders beyond the four seas. By concentrating his spirit, he can protect creatures from sickness and plague and make the harvest plentiful” (adapted from Watson 1968, 33). This same chapter describes both the Peng bird and Liezi (Master Lie) as “riding the wind.” 96. As south is associated with the Fire phase, Southern Tower is most likely an esoteric name for the heart region. 97. The Dharma Body is one of the so-called Three Bodies of the Buddha and corresponds to the cosmic or mystical dimension of personhood. See chapter 1n71 above. 98. As mentioned in n45 above, most likely an allusion to the eighth-century Scripture on Clarity and Stillness. 99. Xuan Yuan is another name for Huangdi (Yellow Thearch), also known as the Yellow Emperor. The meaning here is open to interpretation, but it may suggest complete control over one’s own fate. 100. Wuwei is a classical and foundational Daoist value, commitment, and practice. It occurs throughout the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power and became one of the Nine Practices (jiuxing) in early Tianshi (Celestial Masters) Daoism. See Komjathy 2008, 2013b. 101. The four births are the four modes of reproduction: by embryo, by egg, by humidity (insects, for example, are thought to be born from humid or putrefied things), and by transformation (beings reborn in celestial realms). Thus, this technical term indicates different modes of being and every form of sentience. 102. An allusion to the opening lines of the eighth-century Scripture on Clarity and Stillness: “The great Dao is without form. It brings forth and nurtures heaven and earth. The great Dao is without feelings. It regulates the course of the sun and moon” (DZ 620, 1a). 103. Along with Jinlian (Golden Lotus), Wuwei qingjing (Nonaction and Clear Stillness) and Xuanfeng (Mysterious Movement), Xuanmen (Mysterious Gate) was another name for Complete Perfection and, by extension, for Daoism. 104. In the present context, the Celestial Cycle (zhoutian) most likely refers to the Microcosmic Orbit practice, in which one circulates qi up the Governing Vessel (along the spine) and down the Conception Vessel (front center-line of the torso). 105. As mentioned, south corresponds to the Fire phase and, by extension, the heart and spirit. The Northern Dipper (beidou), also referred to as the Big Dipper, is associated with fate (ming) in Daoism. This line seems to suggest that one has entered complete cosmological attunement.

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106. Xuanxuan xuanshang qing or xuanxuan xuan shangqing. That is, as a commentary on the allusion to chapter 1 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power— “mysterious and again more mysterious”—here Gao Daokuan uses three xuan (dark/ mysterious) characters in a row, perhaps suggesting a threefold, rather than twofold, mystery. The line could be alternatively translated as “mysterious Shangqing (Highest Clarity) of mysterious mystery.” Shangqing is the middle of the Three Heavens (santian), which are in turn associated with the Sanqing (Three Purities). 107. Or, “perfection of one taste.” 108. As nine is a pure yang number, the Nine Heavens (jiutian) may represent completion (3 × 3) as well as the entire cosmos. They could also allude to the Three Heavens inhabited by the Three Purities. 109. “Stringless zithers” and “holeless flutes” are poetic descriptions of states of mystical perception, in which one hears the hidden sonorousness of the cosmos, specifically its deeper energetic layers. In certain contexts, these terms also refer to esoteric techniques of alchemical transformation. 110. The entire universe, including the Daoist sacred realms. 111. The elixir of immortality. Interestingly, Jinlian (Golden Lotus) was an alternative name for Complete Perfection. 112. The Mysterious Gate (xuanmen) is an esoteric Daoist technical term and may refer to various corporeal locations depending on the context. Here it seems to indicate the entrance to the Daoist sacred realms. 113. Lord Gold-Tower (jinque dijun) was a key Daoist deity of the early medieval period. See, e.g., Kohn 2000. 114. Here, Primordial Chaos recalls the famous story in chapter 7 of the Book of Master Zhuang, wherein it represents cosmic unity and spiritual integration. 115. Zimo is an obscure term, but it may be a variant of Zigong (Purple Palace). The latter is a key Daoist sacred realm, which also symbolizes immortality. 116. Taichu, also appearing as Taishi (Great Beginning), is a Daoist name for a moment in the cosmogonic process, corresponding to a particular phase of emanation. In classical Daoism, and the second-century b.c.e. Huainanzi (Book of the Huainan Masters) in particular, it has a very technical meaning (see Major et al. 2010). 117. An allusion to chapter 4 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power: “The Dao is empty; when applied, it does not overflow. Fathomless, as if the ancestor of the ten thousand beings. . . . Deep and clear, it seems as though it exists. I do not know whose descendent it is; it symbolizes that which preceded Di (Thearch).” See also chapters 25 and 52. 118. Most likely an abbreviated reference to Yuanshi tianzun (Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning), the highest of the Three Purities. He resides in Yuqing (Jade Clarity), the highest of the Three Heavens, with the other two being Shangqing (Highest Clarity; middle) and Taiqing (Great Clarity; lowest). Original Beginning also appears in Gao’s “Song of Pure Awakening”: “Longing to realize the Dharma Body,

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one becomes an immortal of Daluo; / Resting in the Original Beginning, the heartmind and innate nature are secure” (see appendix 2). 119. The Daluo heaven is a key Daoist sacred realm. There are various Daoist explanations about its location. In one expression, it is the highest, located above the Three Heavens. More often, it is located below the Three Heavens and is the residence of Yuhuang dadi (Jade Thearch). From this Daoist theological perspective, it is the highest manifest theistic realm, as the Three Purities are usually understood as primordial cosmic ethers rather than “gods” in the conventional sense.

being with h orse s 1. Each of the stage sections is organized into four parts: (1) description of the illustration; (2) summary of the poem; (3) discussion of contemplative practice; and (4) reflections on “the animal.” The first two sections are more descriptive; they are written in a third-person mode, often referring to “the attendant” and “the practitioner.” The third section discusses the Horse Taming Pictures in terms of personal contemplative practice; thus, I often use the pronoun “one” or “we” as an inclusive gesture for individuals with such interests. This part is also informed by my own dedicated and prolonged practice of Daoist meditation for over twenty years, so that my exegesis could be understood as a “scholar-practitioner commentary” (see Komjathy 2011a, 2011c, 2016). The final section attempts to express a transpersonal contemplative perspective, specifically one informed by equine being.

append ix 1 From Li Daoqian, Zhongnan shan Zuting xianzhen neizhuan (Esoteric Biographies of Immortals and Perfected of the Ancestral Hall of the Zhongnan Mountains; DZ 955), 3.28b–32a. Li Daoqian (Hefu [Harmonious Beginning]; 1219–1296) was the most famous early Complete Perfection historiographer (see Komjathy 2007, 2013a). Like Gao Daokuan, Li was a disciple of Yu Zhidao. Given their dates and residence, Gao and Li seem to have been associates, possibly even master-brothers (shixiong; shidi) in contemporary monastic terms. A stele inscription (dat. 1277) dedicated to Gao, which was composed by Yao Sui (1238–1313), appears in the Ganshui xianyuan lu (Record of the Immortal Stream of Ganshui; DZ 973), 8.2b–7b. 1. Near Datong and Shouzhou in present-day Shanxi province. 2. Mingchang (1190–1196) was the first reign period of the Jin emperor Zhangzong (Wanyan Jing; 1168–1208; r. 1189–1208). 3. Da’an was the first reign period of Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji (1168–1213; r. 1208–1213), who is also know as Prince Shao of Wei. These years correspond to the Mongol invasion of Jurchen territory, which eventually resulted in the relocation of the Jin capital from Beijing to Kaifeng (1215) and then to its total defeat (1234). See

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Franke and Twitchett 1994 and Twitchett and Smith 2009. In terms of the present inquiry, one might contemplate the large number of horses moving through the landscape and cities of northern China. 4. Present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi. 5. An official title. According to Hucker (1985), “Lit., functionary using a knife (for erasing) and a brush: Scribbler, throughout history the designation of a petty subofficial with copying chores, often used contemptuously” (6320). Here Li Daoqian seems to want to bring attention to both the family’s relatively low social position and the Daoist respect for societal hiddenness. Given the deep social connections between officialdom and horses, this biographical detail may provide a clue with respect to Gao Daokuan’s potential experiences with horses. See chapter 2. 6. Xingding (1217–1222) was the second reign period of Jin emperor Xuanzong (Wanyan Xun; 1163–1224; r. 1213–1224). 7. The identity of Lord An is unknown. “Lord” translates jun. From the context, it appears that jun functions something like abbot or superintendent, which more commonly are referred to as fangzhang or zhuren. As I have been unable to determine the actual monastic position of these various Daoists, I have translated jun in the more neutral rendering of “lord,” which appears to parallel shi (master) as an honorific title. On Daoist religious titles, see Komjathy 2013a, 2013b. 8. Location unknown. Based on context, Penglai an may have been in or around Chang’an. As it is rare to have a specific street mentioned (Zhangtai Street) and given the name, it appears that this detail is meant to suggest the temple’s location on a major thoroughfare and in close proximity to Chinese officialdom. 9. For a contemporaneous description of the Complete Perfection hair-pinning ceremony see section 2 of the Quanzhen qinggui (Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection [DZ 1235], 2b-3b); see Komjathy 2013a, 305–6. 10. The phrase cuorui appears in chapters 4 and 56 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, while guayu appears in chapter 19. Therein these phrases appear with other classical and foundational principles and practices: “Blunt the sharpness; untie the knots. Harmonize the brightness; unite with the dust” (ch. 4), and “Appear plain and embrace simplicity; lessen personal interest and decrease desire” (ch. 19). There are also various references to governing or regulation (zhi) in the same text (e.g., chs. 3, 8, 10, 57, 60). 11. Reading biyi (tattered robes) for biyi (corrupt robes). 12. This description recalls various discussions of early Complete Perfection commitments. For example, the Danyang zhenren yulu (Discourse Record of Perfected Danyang; DZ 1057) explains, “The master [Ma Yu] wore only a single cotton garment in winter and summer, being unconcerned about his clothes. He ate coarse food and ceased with sufficiency. In the cold of winter with its accompanying snowfall, he had no fire in his hut. He lived like this for ten years. If he did not have the qi of the Dao (daoqi) in his belly, he would not have been able to sustain himself” (7b; Komjathy 2013a, 85). Similarly, according to the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection, “If you

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regulate your rest, then spirit and qi will be constantly calm. Being earnest in your aspirations is essential to your cultivation. You must also do away with sleep and forget food” (DZ 1235, 11a; Komjathy 2013a, 315). 13. Zhengda (1224–1234) was the first reign period of Jin emperor Aizong (Wanyan Shouxu; 1198–1234; r. 1224–1234). 14. Present-day Kaifeng, Henan, which is located in the northeastern part of China. In Complete Perfection history, this place is specifically important as the death site of Wang Zhe (Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]; 1113–1170), from which his corpse was later transferred to a formal grave at Chongyang gong (Palace of Chongyang) in Liujiang (present-day Huxian, Shaanxi). See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 15. Possibly Li Chongdao (Qingxu [Clear Emptiness]; fl. 1170–1230), a secondgeneration Complete Perfection adherent with connections to Yu Zhidao. Li Chongdao was first a disciple of Ma Yu (Danyang [Elixir Yang]; 1123–1184) and then of Qiu Chuji (Changchun [Perpetual Spring]; 1148–1227). According to his hagiography, Li became a formal Complete Perfection adherent under Ma in 1172 at Liujiang. He later resided in Chongxu guan (Monastery of Infused Emptiness), which was located in Linfen, Shanxi. His hagiography appears in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains [DZ 955], 2.9b–10b. 16. A monastery dedicated to Ma Yu, the senior first-generation disciple of Wang Zhe and second Complete Perfection Patriarch. The appearance of this monastery name in the present hagiography as well as the forthcoming mention of “Danyang” may explain Catherine Despeux’s (2004) misidentification of Gao Daokuan as a disciple of Ma Yu. Based on context, the present Danyang guan appears to have been located in present-day Kaifeng, Henan. 17. Or, “exalting the Dao.” 18. A second-generation Complete Perfection adherent, Yu Zhidao (Dongzhen [Cavernous Perfection]; 1166–1250) was first a disciple of Ma Yu and then of Qiu Chuji. After his time at Taiyi gong (Palace of Great Unity; present-day Kaifeng, Henan), he was appointed abbot of the Palace of Redoubled Yang in 1238 by Yin Zhiping (Qinghe [Clear Harmony]; 1169–1251), then Complete Perfection Patriarch. A hagiography of Yu appears in the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains (DZ 955), 3.13a– 20b. One extant work is contained in the Ming dynasty Daoist Canon—namely, the Wuxuan pian (Chapters on Awakening to the Mysterious; DZ 1046). Yu Zhidao was also the master-father (shifu) of Li Daoqian, who eventually succeeded him as abbot of the Palace of Redoubled Yang in 1277. Li is principally remembered in Complete Perfection history as one of its greatest historiographers. In addition to the Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains, he compiled and edited the Qizhen nianpu (Chronological Accounts of the Seven Perfected; DZ 175; ZH 1488; dat. 1271) and the Ganshui xianyuan lu (Record of the Immortal Stream of Ganshui; DZ 973; ZH 1491; dat. 1288), the latter being a collection of inscriptions that remains one of the principal sources for Complete Perfection history. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a.

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19. Principle (li) was a key dimension of traditional Chinese cosmology. In a late medieval context, it generally refers to the underlying principles and pattern (structure) of the manifest universe, specifically as an expression of the Dao. 20. This detail adds support for accepting the identification of Li Chongxu as Li Chongdao. 21. More literally, “ancestral carpenters and bricklayers.” 22. This parallels guidance on monastic residency and master-disciple relationships in the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection (DZ 1235), 1b; see Komjathy 2013b, 304. 23. This year is noteworthy because it corresponds to the Mongol siege of Kaifeng, during which the Mongols eventually defeated the Jurchen Jin forces and captured the capital city (see Franke and Twitchett 1994 and Twitchett and Smith 2009). Again, one might contemplate the large numbers of horses moving through the landscape and cities of northern China. 24. One of the imperial capitals at the time. Present-day Beijing. 25. Monastery unidentified. 26. Located in present-day Huxian, Shaanxi, the Ancestral Hall originally was a site of one of Wang Zhe’s early hermitages and of the Liujiang Daoist eremitic community. After Wang’s death, in 1170, his body was interred at this site. It subsequently became an imperially recognized Complete Perfection monastery and was renamed Palace of Redoubled Yang, in honor of the Complete Perfection founder. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. 27. Ganhe was a small township near Liujiang (present-day Huxian) and Chang’an (present-day Xi’an) in Shaanxi province. 28. Possibly an allusion to chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang, wherein the Daoist adept Nanbo Ziqi is found in a state of meditative absorption in which the body resembles “withered wood” (gaomu) and the heart-mind resembles “dead ashes” (sihui). See also chapters 22 and 23. The phrase refers to Daoist apophatic, or emptiness- and stillness-based, meditation. In Complete Perfection, it is also referred to as “quiet sitting” (jingzuo). 29. Or “breath awareness.” 30. Or “concentration and wisdom,” with ding often referring to sama¯dhi, a technical Indian Sanskrit and Buddhist term for meditative absorption or yogic stasis. It refers to stabilized stillness, an advanced state and stage of meditation. 31. Or, “theory and practice.” 32. “Nonaction” is a classical and foundational Daoist principle and practice. It appears throughout the textual corpus of classical Daoism, especially in the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power. On “being unconcerned” (lit., without affairs), see chapters 48, 57, and 63 of the same text, with the latter chapter paralleling the present passage. 33. An allusion to chapters 4 and 56 of the Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, which also advise adepts to blunt the sharpness and to loosen the tangles / untie the knots.

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34. Or, “the venerable masters.” Reference to Laozi makes sense given that he was identified as one of the Five Patriarchs of Complete Perfection. 35. Li Zhichang (Zhenchang [Perfect Constancy]; 1193–1256) succeeded Yin Zhiping as the national leader of the Complete Perfection monastic order following the latter’s death in 1251. 36. Here daolu seems to be a title for the Daoist in charge of the Complete Perfection monastic community in Shaanxi. In the subsequent Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, the Daolu, or Central Daoist Registry, was responsible for certifying and overseeing Daoists throughout the empire. See Hucker 1985, 6319; De Bruyn 2000; and Esposito 2000. 37. At this time Jingzhao was located near Xi’an, Shaanxi. 38. Zhongtong (1260–1264) was the first reign period of Yuan emperor Shizu (Qubilai Qan [Kublai Khan]; 1215–1294; r. 1260–1294). 39. Zhang Zhijing (Chengming [Sincere Illumination]; 1220–1270) succeeded Li Zhichang as the national leader of the Complete Perfection monastic order following the latter’s death in 1256. 40. Zhiyuan (1264–1294) was the second reign period of Yuan emperor Shizu. 41. Wang Zhitan (Chunhe [Pure Harmony]; 1200–1272) succeeded Zhang Zhijing as the national leader of the Complete Perfection monastic order following Zhang’s death in 1270. 42. The technical specifics of such ritual are unclear, as additional research on contemporaneous Complete Perfection ritual is required. For a general overview of Daoist ritual, see Komjathy 2013b. 43. Or, “until the main hall was finished.” 44. During the Song–Jin period, this technical term referred to the position of Vice Grand Councilor, while in the Yuan, it referred to the Assistant Grand Councilor (Hucker 1985, 517 [6868]). 45. A ritual in which inscribed messages were attached to metal dragons and thrown from a great height, so as to wing their way as messengers of the gods. 46. In a religious context, hua may refer to conversion. 47. Nanchang may refer to the city in Jiangxi. In terms of Daoism, it is associated with Xu Xun (a.k.a. Xu Jingyang; d. 292/374) and the nearby Xishan (Western Mountain). Xu Xun is the mythical founder of the Jingming (Pure Brightness) movement. Xishan is mentioned in the Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir (DZ 244), 8b; see Komjathy 2013a, 159. Alternatively, Nanchang may refer to the constellation in Daoist astronomy. There are also associated rituals of “refinement and salvation” (liandu). For example, the Song dynasty Lingbao wuliang duren shangjing dafa (Major Rites of the Highest Scriptures of Numinous Treasure for Universal Salvation; DZ 219; ZH 1284) describes a rite in which the officiant summons the qi of the Five Thearchs of the five directions so that the souls (hunpo) of the dead “return five times and revolve three times, so that their qi merges with great numinosity [tailing]” (60.8a).

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48. The Five Patriarchs refer to the five “founders” or lineage ancestors of Complete Perfection. In the mid-thirteenth-century Jinlian ji (Record of the Golden Lotus; DZ 173), they are identified as Donghua dijun (Sovereign Lord of Eastern Florescence; a.k.a. Wang Xuanfu), Zhongli Quan (Zhengyang [Aligned Yang]; second c. c.e.?), Lü Dongbin (Chunyang [Purified Yang]; b. 798?), Liu Cao (Haichan [Oceanic Toad]; fl. 1031), and Wang Zhe (Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]; 1113–1170). In the early-fourteenth-century Jinlian xiangzhuan (Illustrated Biographies of the Golden Lotus; DZ 174), Laozi is added as the first patriarch, while Wang Chongyang stands between the so-called Five Patriarchs and Seven Perfected—that is, Wang’s senior first-generation Shandong disciples. See Komjathy 2007, 2013a. The depiction of Laozi in the Illustrated Biographies of the Golden Lotus parallels that of the thirteenth illustration of the Horse Taming Pictures. 49. Here “stable” translates jiu, which may also refer to livestock pens. If stable is viable, it may again provide a clue with respect to Gao Daokuan’s potential experiences with horses. See chapter 2. 50. In early Complete Perfection Daoism, gong may refer to exercises, merit, and/ or accomplishment. See Komjathy 2007. 51. Literally meaning “vital essence and spirit,” jingshen is often used as a compound to indicate strong vitality.

append ix 2 “Chunjue xinxing ge” (Song of Pure Awakening of the Heart-Mind and Innate Nature), Shangsheng xiuzhen sanyao, DZ 267, 2.15a–16a. Xinxing in the title, here translated as “heart-mind and innate nature,” is often a compound term for innate nature, or one’s consciousness and spiritual capacities. Interestingly, the use of jue (to awaken), rather than the more common de (to attain), liao (to realize), or wu (to awaken), recalls chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang, titled “On Making Things Equal.” In it we are told, “Some day there will be a great awakening (dajue) when we realize that all of this is a great dream (dameng).” 1. Shentong. This technical term often relates to the Indian and Buddhist notion of siddhi, which is translated as “paranormal abilities” or “supernatural powers.” For a discussion in terms of Complete Perfection Daoism, see Komjathy 2007. 2. As in the Horse Taming Pictures, “enclosed” translates xian, which also means leisure. The rendering of course has practical implications. As I interpret it, Gao is suggesting that one has sealed oneself from the dissipation of excessive sensory engagement and emotional reactivity. 3. Suzhai. In a technical sense, these characters often relate to karma (yinyuan) and fate (ming). Here they seem to suggest a return to one’s innate nature, one’s original connection to the Dao. 4. Ding. In a medieval context, this character often relates to the Indian and Buddhist notion of sama¯dhi, which has been rendered as “meditative absorption,” “one-

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pointedness,” and “yogic stasis.” However, the term already appears as an advanced meditative state in the texts of classical Daoism. See Roth 1999, 2015, and Komjathy 2013b, 2015. 5. Jiujia feng, which literally means “old family winds.” In Daoism in general and in Complete Perfection and the Horse Taming Pictures in particular, jia often refers to something like “tradition,” that is, a Daoist adherent’s connection to a specific religious community and lineage. Feng often designates “influences” or “currents,” in the sense of a particular Daoist movement. For example, Xuanfeng (Mysterious Movement) is one of the alternative names for Complete Perfection. 6. This line is an allusion to the opening of chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang, wherein Nanbo Ziqi is described in a state of meditative absorption. Here we are told that he appeared to have a “body of withered wood” (gaomu xing) and “heart-mind of dead ashes” (sihui xin). The reference to “solitary sitting” (duzuo) also echoes chapter 6 of the same text. See Komjathy 2013b, 47–48. 7. Again, an allusion to chapter 2 of the Book of Master Zhuang, but here using “withered wood” instead of “dead ashes” to describe meditative absorption. Gao may be interpreting “form” (xing) as related to the heart-mind, rather than the more standard “body.” 8. Most likely an allusion to the famous lines of the Buddhist Heart Sutra: “Form is emptiness; emptiness is form.” This text exerted some influence on early Complete Perfection (see Komjathy 2007). 9. Literally, “lords of the teachings” (jiaojun), which might also be understood as the “teachings and elders.” 10. Here “guard” translates shou, which is often used as a Daoist technical term for meditation. The most influential example is shouyi (guarding the One). See Kohn 1989 and Komjathy 2013b. 11. Yinguo, literally “causes and effects,” is one of the Chinese translations of the Indian concept of karma. 12. Here “obscure” translates yao, which often appears as yaoming (obscure and silent). This is a classical and foundational Daoist description of the Dao. “Residual traces” renders zong 蹤, which also appears in Daoist contexts as ji 跡. Both characters include the zu 足 (foot) radical. Referring to the phenomenal appearances of the Dao, and thus to potential sources of distraction and dissipation, the latter term was a major concern in the early medieval Xuanxue (Profound Learning) Daoist movement. See the various publications of Rudolf Wagner. 13. Literally, “front and back” (xiangbei). 14. Or, “egoistic exhibition” (zimai; lit., self-selling). 15. Greed (tan) and anger (chen) are two of the Three Poisons (sandu), with the other being ignorance (chi). Following Buddhist psychology and soteriology, they are considered obscurations of consciousness and major spiritual hindrances in Complete Perfection Daoism.

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16. As a geographical designation, Taishan (Mount Tai; Tai’an, Shandong) is the eastern sacred peak in the Five Marchmounts (wuyue) system. Like the Genmountain trigram [8], this mountain is sometimes used in Daoist contexts to symbolize stillness and meditative absorption. For example, in Discourse 7, titled “Sitting in Meditation,” of the Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings, Daoist adepts are instructed as follows: “To sit authentically, you must maintain a heart-mind like Mount Tai, remaining unmovable and unshakable throughout the entire day” (DZ 1233, 3b). See Komjathy 2013a, 111. 17. The Three Death-Bringers (sanshi) are three malevolent biospiritual parasites believed by medieval Daoists to inhabit the three elixir fields (dantian) and to seek to bring about premature death. In early Complete Perfection, they appear to have become more psychologized, being associated with negative psychological states and patterns of dissipation. See Komjathy 2007. 18. Drawing on correlative cosmology, the Five Phases (wuxing), and paralleling classical Chinese medicine, Daoists tend to identify the heart-mind as the “king” or “ruler” of the body. Corresponding to both the actual organ and “mind” in a more abstract sense, it is the psychosomatic center of human personhood. This recalls the depiction of the heart-mind as a general with raised sword in the “Hymn of the Three Methods.” See chapter 1. 19. Consisting of one yin/broken line inside of two yang/unbroken lines, the Li-fire 4 trigram generally corresponds to the heart and spirit (shen). 20. The Maiden (chanü) usually corresponds to the lungs and qi. It often appears with the paired term of the Child (ying’er), which usually corresponds to the liver and spirit. 21. Wuxin. Complete clarity and stillness. In such a state of pure, contentless consciousness, one abides in a transpersonal “state” of union with the Dao. 22. Consisting of one yang/unbroken line inside of two yin/broken lines, the Kanwater 7 trigram generally corresponds to the kidneys and vital essence (jing). 23. While often used in a cosmological sense of cosmic cycles, in Daoist internal alchemy the Celestial Cycle (zhoutian), also translated as Microcosmic Orbit, often refers to a method in which one circulates qi up the Governing Vessel (center-line of the spine) and down the Conception Vessel (front center-line of the torso). 24. Reference to the raven and tortoise as neidan terminology is less common. In the present context, they most likely refer to innate nature and life-destiny, to spirit and qi. 25. Caoxi probably refers to the town of the corresponding name, which is located near present-day Shaoguan, Guangdong. According to the Chan (Jpn.: Zen) Buddhist tradition, this is a mountain locale where Huineng (638–713), the Sixth Patriarch, once lived and taught. Today it is the location of Nanhua si (Temple of Nanhua [Southern Florescence]), which houses the mummified body of Huineng. In the present context, this would suggest the practice of intensive meditation, possibly wall gaz-

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ing (biguan) or silent illumination (mozhao), with the ultimate goal of enlightenment, as well as the informing view of “suddenness.” The cao of the Caodong lineage may, in turn, refer to Caoxi (Huineng). See Dumoulin (1988) 1994. 26. According to one version of the legend, it was in the town of Handan (near present-day Xingtai, Hebei) where Lü Dongbin (Chunyang [Purified Yang]; b. 798 c.e.?) had his famous Yellow Millet Dream, during which he wakes up from the dream of mundane existence and dedicates himself to the pursuit of immortality. However, the “dream of Handan” also designates a parallel story about a scholar who has a mystical dream encounter with Lü. It is also mentioned in the internal commentary to line 8 of poem 7 (7a). The story became famous in popular Chinese culture through the Handan ji (Record of Handan), a Ming dynasty play by Tang Xianzu (1550–1616). See Wang 2003. 27. In the context of internal alchemy, lead (qian) and mercury (hong) usually refer to original spirit (yuanshen) and original qi (yuanqi), respectively. 28. Quanzhen. On the original, context-specific meaning of the term as “complete perfection,” see Komjathy 2007. 29. Guan (observe), often appearing as neiguan (inner observation), is one of the major forms of Daoist meditation, as well as a key Daoist value and principle (see Komjathy 2013b). “Independence” translates zizai (lit., self-abiding). Following earlier Daoist movements, in a Complete Perfection context it is identified as one of the “fruits of the Dao” (daoguo), or advanced states of spiritual attainment. Other qualities and conditions include being carefree (xiaoyao), nonaction (wuwei), and nondissipation (wulou). Here we again find a connection to the inner cultivation lineages of classical Daoism. 30. Adapted from the Buddhist concept of the Three Bodies, the Dharma Body in a Complete Perfection context usually refers the Dharmaka¯ya (zixing), the body of a buddha (enlightened being) in its essential nature (cosmic). This would correspond to original nature and the Dao (see Komjathy 2007). The term also appears in line 1 of poem 12, as well as in the internal commentary on line 5 of poem 10 (9a). 31. The Daluo (Grand Network) heaven usually refers to the sacred realm associated with Yuhuang (Jade Emperor). From one Daoist theological perspective, it is located just below the Three Heavens (santian) of the Three Purities (sanqing) and thus represents the highest phenomenal locale of divine beings. Other Daoists claim that it is located above the Three Heavens. “Daluo” also appears in the internal commentary on line 8 of poem 12 (11a). 32. Original Beginning (yuanchu) refers to one of the earliest moments of cosmogonic emanation (see Komjathy 2013b). The phrase also appears in the internal commentary on line 8 of poem 12 (11a). 33. Reading huai (to cherish) for huai (to ruin).

c har ac t er g l o s s a r y

Aizong 哀宗 An 安 an (hut) 庵/蓭 an (saddle) 鞍 ba 把 bachun 八純 bagua 八卦 bai 擺 Bai Yuchan白玉蟾 bainiu 白牛 Baitiwu白蹄烏 ban (board) 板 ban (companion) 伴 bang 棒 bao (embrace) 抱 bao (guard) 保 baoshen 報身 baota 寶塔 baoyi 抱一

Basho¯ 芭蕉 beidou 北斗 ben 犇 benfen 本分 benjia feng 本家風 benlai 本來 benlai mianmu 本來面目 benxing 本性 bian 鞭 biance 鞭筴 bianhua 變化 bigu 辟榖 biguan 壁觀 biyi (corrupt robes) 弊衣 biyi (tattered robes) 敝衣 Bole 伯樂 cantong 參同 canzheng參政 cao 艸/艹

Caodong 曹洞 Caoxi 曹溪 chan (assist) 攙 chan (toad) 蟾 Changchun 長春 Changchun guan 長 春觀 changong 蟾宮 chanü 奼女 chaotuo 超脫 che 車 chen (anger) 嗔 chen (dust) 塵 Chen Nan 陳楠 Chen Tuan 陳摶 chen’ai 塵埃 chengfeng 乘風 Chengming 誠明 chi (ignorance) 痴

198

c ha r a c t e r g l o ssa r y

chi (red) 赤 chicha qu 吃茶去 chicheng 馳騁 Chong 衝 chongqi 沖氣 chongsun 重損 Chongxu guan 沖虛觀 chongxuan 重玄 Chongyang 重陽 Chongyang gong 重陽宮 Chongyang zhenren shou Danyang ershisi jue 重陽真人授丹陽二 十四訣 chuandao 傳道 chujia 出家 Chunhe 淳和 “Chunjue xinxing ge” 純 覺心性歌 Chunqiu 春秋 Chunyang 純陽 chuo 辵 /辶 Chuzhen jie 初真戒 ci 詞 cuiqiang 摧強 Cunshen lianqi ming 存 神鍊氣銘 cunxiang 存想 cuorui 挫銳 da 達 Da’an大安 Dadan zhizhi 大丹直指 dajue 大覺 Daluo 大羅 dameng 大夢 danfang 丹方 danfeng 丹鳳 dansha 丹砂 danti 丹體 dantian 丹田 Danyang 丹陽

Danyang guan 丹陽觀 Dao 道 daoban 道伴 daobi shi 刀筆史 Daode jing 道德經 Daode tianzun 道德天尊 daoguo 道果 daohua 道化 daojiao 道教 Daokuan 道寬 daoli 道力 daolu 道錄 daoqi 道炁 daoqing 道情 daoren 道人 daoyao 道要 Daoyin 導引 daoyou 道友 Daozang 道藏 daozhong道眾 datong 大通 dazuo 打坐 de (attain) 得 de (inner power) 德 dedao 得道 Di 帝 ding 定 dinghui 定慧 dixian 地仙 dizhi 地支 dizi 弟子 dong 動 Dongguan puji yuanming zhenren 洞觀普 濟圓明真人 Donghua dijun 東華 帝君 Dongzhen 洞真 duanyuan 斷緣 dunjue 頓覺 duo 多

duzuo 獨坐 Eihei Do¯gen 永平道元 erye 爾業 fan 反 fan jing quan 返經權 fangwai 方外 fangzhang 方丈 fannao 煩惱 fanyao 反要 fanzhen 反真 fashen 法身 feixian 飛仙 Fozu sanjing 佛祖三經 fude 福德 fulian 伏煉 Fuma tu 伏馬圖 fuqi 服氣 fushou 伏手 gaitian 蓋天 Ganshui xianyuan lu 甘 水仙源錄 Gao Daokuan 高道寬 Gao Yuanming 高圓明 gaomu 槁木 gaomu xing 槁木形 ge 革 gong (exercise) 功 gong (palace) 宮 gong’an 公案 Gongyang Gao 公羊高 Gongyang zhuan 公羊傳 guan (egret) 雚 guan (observe) 觀 guangming 光明 Guangning 廣寧 guangyin 光陰 guayu 寡欲 Gugong bowuyuan 故宮 博物院 guigen 歸根 Gushe 姑射

c ha ra cte r glossa ry

gushen 谷神 Haichan 海蟾 Haiqiong 海瓊 han 酣 Han Gan 韓幹 Handan 邯鄲 Handan ji 邯鄲記 Hangu 函谷 hanhui 寒灰 hao 號 Hao 豪 Hao Datong 郝大通 heche 河車 Hefu 和甫 heguang 和光 hong 汞 hu 壺 huahu 花胡 huai (cherish) 懷 huai (ruin) 壞 Huainanzi 淮南子 huandu 環堵 huang (vague) 恍 huang (wild) 荒 Huangdi 黃帝 huangjiao 荒郊 Huangong 桓公 huashen 化身 Huineng 惠能 hun (ethereal soul) 魂 hun (indistinct) 昏 hundun 混沌 hunpo 魂魄 Hunyuan 混元 huo 惑 huohou 火候 ji 跡 jiafeng 家風 jian 見 jiang 韁 jianshi 簡事

jiao (offering) 醮 jiao (proud) 驕 jiaojun 教君 jiaomen 教門 jiaoshi 教事 jiefen 解忿 jieqi 節氣 jin 金 jindao 進道 jing (stillness) 靜 jing (vital essence) 精 jinggong 靜功 Jingming 淨明 jingong 金公 jingshen 精神 jingshi 靜室 Jinguan yusuo jue 金關 玉鎖訣 jingxin 敬信 jingzuo 靜坐 jinhua 金花 Jinlian 金蓮 Jinlian ji 金蓮記 Jinlian xiangzhuan 金蓮 像傳 jinlu 金錄 jinque dijun 金闕帝君 jinzhen 金真 jiren 幾人 jiu 廄 jiugong 九宮 jiujia feng 舊家風 jiutian 九天 jiuxiao 九霄 jiuxing 九行 jiuzhuan 九轉 Jixingzi 紀渻子 jizhi 羈馽 juan 卷 jue (awake) 覺 jue (instruct) 訣

199

jueshi 橛飾 jun 君 junji 駿驥 junzi 君子 kong 空 kongxing 空性 kou 口 koujue 口訣 kuang 狂 kuangxin 狂心 Kun 坤 Kunlun 崑崙 Kunyu 崑嵛 Kuoan 廓庵 kusong zuo 枯松坐 kuzuo 枯坐 kyo¯saku 警策 lai 騋 lao 牢 Laojun 老君 Laozi 老子 ledao 樂道 li 理 Li Chongdao 李沖道 Li Chongxu 李沖虛 Li Daoqian 李道謙 Li Zhichang 李志常 liandu 煉度 liangjia 兩家 liangxin 良心 lianyang 鍊養 liao 了 lie 劣 Lijiao shiwu lun 立教十 五論 Lingbao wuliang duren shangjing dafa 靈寶 無量度人上經大法 lingtai 靈臺 Linji 臨済 Liu Cao 劉操

200

c har a c t e r g l o ssa r y

liuchen 六塵 liuzei 六賊 Longyang guan 龍陽觀 lou 漏 Lü Dongbin 呂洞賓 lundao 論道 luo (net) 絡 luo (net) 羅 luotian 羅天 ma 馬 Ma Yu 馬鈺 madao 馬道 “Mati” 馬蹄 Matsuo Basho¯ 松尾芭蕉 maxin 馬心 mayi 馬意 men 門 meng 夢 mi 糸 mian 宀 ming (dark) 冥 ming (fate) 命 ming (illumination) 明 ming (name) 名 Mingchang 明昌 Minghe yuyin 鳴鶴餘音 Mingtang 明堂 mo 默 mozhao 默照 Mu 穆 mu (shepherd) 牧 mu (tree) 木 Muniu tu 牧牛圖 mutong 牧童 muzhai 牧寨 Nanbo Ziqi 南郭子綦 Nanchang 南昌 Nanhua si 南華寺 nanlou 南樓 Nanzong 南宗 Nei riyong jing 內日用經

neidan 內丹 neiguan 內觀 Neijing tu 內經圖 neishou 內守 neixiu 內修 Neiye 內業 nian 念 niu 牛/牜 pei 轡 peng zhi xin 蓬之心 Penglai 蓬萊 Penglai an 蓬萊菴 Piyun 披雲 pu 樸/朴 Puming 普明 qi (ride) 騎 qi (subtle breath) 氣 Qian 乾 qian (lead) 鉛 qian (pull) 牽 qiao 巧 qifan 七返 qin (bird) 禽 qin (seize) 擒 qing (clarity) 清 qing (emotions) 情 Qinghe 清和 qingjing 清靜 Qingjing 清靜 qingjing fashen 清淨法身 Qingjing jing 清靜經 Qingju 清居 qingsong 青松 Qingtan 清談 “Qingtian ge” 青天歌 Qingxu 清虛 Qingzhui 青騅 qiqing 七情 Qiu Chuji 丘處機 “Qiushui” 秋水 “Qiwu lun” 齊物論

Qiyun 棲雲 qizhen 七真 Qizhen nianpu 七真年譜 quan (dog) 犬/犭 quan (fist) 拳 Quanmaogua 拳毛騧 Quanzhen 全真 Quanzhen an 全真菴 Quanzhen qinggui 全真 清規 Quanzhen zuobo jiefa 全 真坐鉢捷法 Qunxian yaoyu zuanji 群 仙要語纂集 ren 人 Renqi tu 人騎圖 riyong 日用 Saluzi 颯露紫 san 三 sanbao 三寶 sancai 三才 sandu 三毒 “Sanfa song” 三法頌 sanjiao 三教 sanjie 三界 sanmei huashen 三昧 化身 Sanqing 三清 sanshen 三身 sanshi 三尸 “Sansui kyo¯” 山水經 santian 三天 sanyao 三要 se 色 shangda上達 shangdao 上道 Shangqing 上清 shangsheng 上乘 Shangsheng xiuzhen sanyao 上乘修真三要 shanlin 山林

c h a ra cte r glossa ry

shanshui 山水 shaodong 少動 shaojing 少靜 shen (body) 身 shen (spirit) 神 shengong 神公 shengren 聖人 shenguang 神光 shenjun 神君 shentong 神通 shenwai shen 身外身 Shenxian dong 神仙洞 shi (cosmic board) 式 shi (teacher) 師 shi wushi 事無事 shichu 始初 shidi 師弟 Shifachi 什伐赤 shifu 師父 Shiji 史記 shijie 世界 Shiniu tu 十牛圖 Shiniu tusong 十牛圖頌 shixing 實性 shixiong 師兄 shiye 師爺 Shizu世祖 Sho¯bo¯genzo¯ 正法眼蔵 Sho¯koku-ji 相國寺 shou (animal) 獸 shou (guard) 守 shou (hand) 手/扌 shouci 守雌 shouxin 收心 shouyi 守一 shouyin 手印 shouyong 受用 shuan 拴 shuangguan 雙關 shuangwang 雙忘 Shu¯bun 周文

shuigong 睡功 si (die) 死 si (silk) 絲 si (thought) 思 sihai 四害 sihui 死灰 sihui xin 死灰心 Sima Chengzhen 司馬 承禎 simen 四門 sisheng 四生 sixiang 祀香 song 鬆 Song Defang 宋德方 So¯to¯ 曹洞 suiboku 水墨 Sun Buer 孫不二 sun zhi you sun 損之 又損 suo (lock) 鎖 suo (tie) 索 supu 素樸 suzhai 宿債 tai 太 Taichu 太初 taiding 泰定 taidong 太動 Taigu 太古 Taiji 太極 taijing 太靜 tailing 太靈 Taiqing 太清 Taishan 泰山 Taishi 太始 taixu 太虛 Taiyi gong 太一宮 tan 貪 Tang Xianzu 唐顯祖 Tao Qian 陶潛 Tao Yuanming 陶淵明 Telebiao 特勒驃

201

tian 天 “Tiandao” 天道 tiande 天德 tiandi 天地 tianfang 天放 tianmen 天門 tianpan 天盤 Tianshi 天師 Tiantai 天台 tianxia 天下 tianya 天涯 tiyong 體用 tongchen 同塵 toulong 投龍 tu 土 tuoti 脫體 “Waiwu” 外物 wan 萬 wang 网/罒 Wang Chongyang 王 重陽 Wang Xuanfu 王玄甫 Wang Zhe 王嚞 Wang Zhijin王志瑾 wanwu 萬物 Wanyan Jing 完顏璟 Wanyan Shouxu 完顏 守緒 Wanyan Xun 完顏珣 Wanyan Yongji 完顏 永濟 wei wuwei 為無為 weizuo 危坐 wu (awaken) 悟 wu (being/thing) 物 wu (branch) 午 wu (without) 無 wuchang 無常 Wudeng huiyuan 五燈 會元 Wuji 無極

202

c ha r a c t e r g l o ssa r y

wulou 無漏 wuming 五明 wuming 無名 Wuqin xi 五禽戲 wuqing 無情 wushen 無身 wushi 五時 wuwai 物外 wuwei 無為 Wuwei qingjing 無為 清靜 wuwu 無無 wuwu 無物 wuxin 無心 wuxing 五行 wuxing 無形 wuxing 無性 Wuxuan pian 悟玄篇 wuyou 無憂 wuyu 無欲 wuyue 五嶽 wuzheng 無爭 wuzhi 無知 wuzu 五祖 xian (bit) 銜 xian (enclose/retire) 閑 xiangban 香板 xiangbei 向背 xiangma 相馬 Xiangma jing 相馬經 xiangu 仙骨 xianji zhi shen 顯跡之神 xianren 仙人 xiantai 仙胎 Xiantui yuan 仙蛻園 xianxian 閑閑 xiaoyao 逍遙 “Xiaoyao you” 逍遙遊 xin 心/忄 xing 性 Xingding 興定

xingming 性命 xingming shuangxiu 性 命雙修 xinxing 心性 xinyuan 心猿 xinzhai 心齋 xisi 息思 xiudao 修道 xiulian 修煉 xiushen 修身 xiuzhen 修真 Xiuzhen shishu 修真十書 Xiuzhen tu 修真圖 xiuzhen zhi dao 修真 之道 Xiyi 希夷 xu 虛 Xu Jingyang 許旌陽 Xu Xun 許遜 Xu zangjing 續藏經 xuan 玄 Xuan Yuan 軒轅 xuan zhi you xuan 玄之 又玄 Xuanfeng 玄風 xuanhua 玄化 xuanlan 玄覽 Xuanmen 玄門 xuanmiao 玄妙 xuanpin 玄牝 Xuanwu 玄武 Xuanxue 玄學 Xuanzong 玄宗 Xuanzong 宣宗 xuedao 學道 Xunma tu 馴馬圖 Yancheng Ziyou 顏成 子游 yangshen 陽神 Yangsheng 養生 Yanxia dong 煙霞洞

yao 杳 Yao Sui 姚燧 yaoming 杳冥 ye 野 yi 意 yidian 一點 Yijiao jing 遺教經 yiling 一靈 yima 意馬 yin 音 Yin Xi 尹喜 Yin Zhiping 尹志平 Yinfu jing 陰符經 ying’er 嬰兒 yinguo 因果 yinke 印可 Yintang 印堂 yinyang 陰陽 yinyuan 因緣 Yongchang 永昌 youyun 游雲 Yu Dongzhen 于洞真 Yu Zhidao 于志道 yuan (cause) 緣 yuan (monkey) 猿 yuanchu 元初 yuanfen 緣分 yuanlai 元來 yuanman baoshen 圓滿 報身 yuanming 元命 Yuanming 淵明 Yuanming 圓明 Yuanming laoren 圓明 老人 yuanqi 元氣 yuanshen 元神 Yuanshi tianzun 元始 天尊 yuantong 圓通 yuanxin 猿心

c h a ra cte r glossa ry

Yuhuang 玉皇 Yuhuang dadi 玉皇大帝 yuji 語極 yulu 玉爐 yulu 語錄 yunban 雲伴 yunyou 雲遊 Yuqing 玉清 Yuxian gong 遇仙宮 Yuzhi 裕之 yuzhou 宇宙 Zaiyou 在宥 zaohua 造化 zaozhan 皁棧 ze 萴 zei 賊 Zhang Zhijing 張志敬 zhangjiao 掌教 Zhangtai 章臺 Zhangzong 章宗 Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫 Zhaoyebai 照夜白 Zhaozhou 趙州 Zhaozhou Congshen 趙 州從諗 zhen 真 Zhenchang 真常 zhendao 真道

zheng 正 Zhengda 正大 zhenguan 真觀 Zhengyang 正陽 Zhenwu 真武 Zhenxian zhizhi yulu 真 仙直指語錄 zhenxing 真性 zhenxuan men 真玄門 Zhenyi 貞一 zhi 治 Zhichang baode yuanming zunshi 知常抱 德圓明尊師 zhifu 制伏 zhima 治馬 zhixin 治心 Zhiyuan 至元 zhong 中 Zhonghua daozang 中華 道藏 Zhongli Quan 鍾離權 Zhongnan shan Zuting xianzhen neizhuan 終南山祖庭仙真 內傳 Zhongtong 中統 zhoutian 周天

203

zhu 主 Zhu Hong 祩宏 zhu’an 住庵 Zhuangzi 莊子 zhuo 濁 zhuren 主人 Zide Huihui自得慧暉 zifu 紫府 Zigong 紫宮 zijin xian 紫金仙 zimai 自賣 Zimo 紫磨 ziran 自然 ziran an 自然安 ziru 自如 ziwu 子午 zixing 自性 ziyou 自由 ziyuan 自圓 zizai 自在 zong 蹤 zongheng 縱橫 zongjiang 宗匠 zu 足 zuobo 坐鉢 zuowang 坐忘 Zuowang lun 坐忘論 Zuting 祖庭

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in d ex

abbots, 5, 8, 184, 188–89 absent presences, 160 absent referents, 160 abstention from grains, 40 accoutrements, 31–32, 39, 44, 47, 49, 152, 158, 163, 167–68 actual animals, 29, 36–37, 39–40, 45, 49–51, 53, 160–61 Adams, Carol, 160 adepts. See adherence; practitioners adherence, 4, 7–8, 10, 18, 134, 145–46, 163. See also identity; lineage; ordination affinities, 9, 111 Afghanistan, 5 agitation, 3, 12, 20, 24, 26, 33, 43–44, 51, 75, 84–85, 87–88, 92, 100–2, 104, 106–11, 113, 116–17, 119, 121, 125, 172,

174, 180, 192. See also defilements; emotionality; thought; vexations agriculture, 40 Aizong, 5, 189 alchemical body, 11, 111, 114, 116, 122, 130–32, 140, 150, 181, 183, 185, 194. See also specific dimensions alchemy. See internal alchemy alcohol, 8, 170, 184. See also sobriety alignment, 10, 20, 113, 115, 121, 124, 158 aliveness. See vitality altars, 8 Ancestral Hall, 6, 135–36, 145, 190. See also Palace of Redoubled Yang anger, 8, 24, 100, 102, 140, 193 animal gaze, 160 animal liberation, 37, 153, 160, 163, 169, 185

220

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animal studies, 36, 45, 149, 159–60, 162–63 animal welfare, 37, 53, 160, 163 animals, 15, 29–54, 85, 100–1, 103, 105, 107, 109, 112, 115, 118–20, 123, 126, 129, 132, 151, 153, 156–66, 170, 187; as models, 30; as other-construct, 29, 36, 160. See also actual animals; specific animals; symbolic animals anthropocentrism, 37, 42, 49, 51–53, 160 anthropology, 10–12, 19, 37–38, 42–43, 51, 159, 165–66. See also personhood; psychology anxiety. See agitation; emotionality apophatic meditation, 8, 10, 20–22, 147, 153–54, 175. See also quietistic meditation aptitude, 71, 85, 90, 179, 192. See also skillfulness argumentation. See contention aristocracy, 38–39, 41, 47, 136, 148, 161 art, 38–39, 45, 158, 161. See also specific expressions Art of Horsemanship. See De equis alendis asceticism, 7, 125, 175, 181 aspiration, 11, 87, 102, 106, 108, 117, 120, 133, 179, 189 astrology, 18, 150, 161 astronomy, 18, 191 attainment, 13, 25, 59, 61, 84, 89–90, 104–5, 119, 121–22, 135, 155, 174, 180, 182, 195. See also effects; experiential confirmation; realization attendant, 18, 44, 51–52, 100–2, 104–10, 112–13, 115–16, 119–25, 127, 149, 153, 167–68, 174, 187. See also shepherd attentiveness, 14, 20, 30, 50, 77, 84, 92–93, 106, 111, 117, 120, 124–25, 135, 170 attunement, 23–24, 26, 30, 32, 34, 44, 51, 100, 116, 118, 127–28, 157, 168, 175, 185

“Autumn Floods” (chapter), 32–34 awakening, 13, 20, 89, 91–93, 113, 117, 119– 21, 132, 139–41, 172–73, 180, 183–84, 189, 192, 195. See also enlightenment; illumination; realization awareness, 45, 49–50, 84, 89, 102, 111, 116, 124–27, 150, 165, 167, 170, 179, 190 bagua. See trigrams Bai Yuchan, 177, 183 bainiu. See white ox Baker, Steve, 36–37, 161 “beasts of burden,” 41 beholding, 44–45, 50 Beijing. See Yanjing being, 12, 30–32, 38, 41–42, 49, 51–53, 90, 92, 100–2, 108–9, 111, 114, 116–17, 119, 122, 125–27, 130, 132, 156, 158, 164, 168, 170, 185 being carefree, 25, 73, 86, 88, 91, 111, 113–14, 119–20, 158, 170, 173, 180, 195 being with horses, 99–132, 187. See also equine being Belyea, Charles, 163 benefits. See effects Bianjing. See Bianliang Bianliang, 5–7, 47, 134–35 Big Dipper. See Northern Dipper bigu. See abstention from grains biguan. See wall gazing birds, 30–32, 34, 157, 180 bits, 31, 39, 152, 163, 167–68 body. See embodiment; personhood body-beyond-the-body, 11, 27, 130, 155 Bole, 30–32, 157 Book of Master Zhuang, 21, 30–34, 41–42, 113–14, 116, 119, 121–22, 127, 153–54, 157–59, 162–64, 169–70, 172–77, 180, 182, 185–86, 190, 192–93 Book of the Huainan Masters, 21, 158–59, 186

i nde x books, 8, 47, 77, 88, 90, 93, 117, 125, 146, 173 brambles, 75, 92, 94, 122, 156, 174 breaking. See control; horse training; subjugation breakthrough. See awakening; enlightenment; realization breath, 104, 106 bridles, 18, 39, 44, 48, 61, 85, 152, 163–64, 167–69, 179 Brown, Daniel, 153 Buber, Martin, 160 Buddhism, 12, 15–16, 19, 24, 27, 41, 121, 148, 152–53, 155, 161–62, 177, 193 Cage, John, 151 Cahill, Suzanne, 164 calmness. See stillness Canopy Heaven, 150 cantong. See kinship of the three Caoxi, 140, 194–95 capacities. See aptitude captivity. See confinement “Carefree Wandering” (chapter), 113, 158, 173, 180 carpenters, 31, 190 carriages, 31, 110, 140, 150, 171 cartography, 3, 8, 16–20, 23–25, 43, 49, 147–48, 154, 166. See also stages on the contemplative path casting dragons (rite), 136, 191 cats, 160 Cavern of Misty Vapors, 91, 173, 184 Celestial Cycle, 10–11, 94, 140, 150, 185, 194. See also Waterwheel Celestial Masters, 185 Celestial Plate, 13, 150 celestial realms. See sacred realms Celestial Terrace, 12 Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning, 27, 186

221

Celestial Worthy of the Dao and Inner Power, 27. See also Laozi celibacy, 8, 25, 40, 181 Centering Prayer, 152 Chan Buddhism, 14–17, 19, 26, 41–42, 45, 151, 155, 157, 171, 178, 181, 183–84, 194 Chang’an, 4–5, 7, 47, 133, 190 Changchun guan. See Monastery of Perpetual Spring Chapters on Awakening to the Mysterious, 189 charismatic megafauna, 30, 157 Chen Tuan, 121, 163 children, 4, 27, 51, 81, 85, 95, 127, 130, 133, 140, 162, 165, 194 China Institute Gallery, 38 China’s Green Religion, 156 Chinese painting, 38–40, 158, 161 Chinggis Qan, 5 chongsun. See twofold decreasing Chongxu guan. See Monastery of Infused Emptiness chongxuan. See twofold mystery Chongyang gong. See Palace of Redoubled Yang Chongyang zhenren shou Danyang ershisi jue. See Twenty-Four Instructions Transmitted from Perfected Chongyang to Danyang Christianity, 152, 159, 165 Chronological Accounts of the Seven Perfected, 189 Ch’üan-chen. See Quanzhen chuandao. See transmitting the Dao Chuang-tzu. See Zhuangzi chujia, 5, 124, 175. See also asceticism; renunciation “Chunjue xinxing ge.” See “Song of Pure Awakening” Chunqiu. See Spring and Autumn Annals

222

in d e x

Chuzhen jie. See Precepts of Initial Perfection clarity, 43, 108, 117, 121, 125, 148 clarity and stillness, 10, 20, 23, 25, 43, 95, 100–1, 107, 109, 111, 117, 121–22, 126, 130–31, 150, 155, 177, 179, 194 Clarity-and-Stillness Literature, 20, 23 Classic on Horse Physiognomy, 157 classical Daoism, 20–22, 25, 29–34, 40–42, 51, 153–54, 156–58, 162, 167–68, 176–77, 180, 186, 188, 190, 193, 195 clepsydra meditation, 147 clergy, 26–27, 51, 78, 100, 127, 129, 163 clothing, 39, 58, 73, 188 cloud-wanderers, 8, 86, 180 clouds, 13, 86, 93, 102, 107, 111, 135–36, 150 Collection of Essential Sayings from Various Immortals, 10 commitment, 3, 8, 12, 19–20, 25, 29, 33, 40, 53, 101, 103–6, 109, 113–14, 119, 124, 134–35, 154, 157, 160, 166, 185, 188 communion, 34, 49, 51–53, 127, 132, 162 community, 5–9, 12, 42, 103, 114, 127, 149, 153, 193 Companions of the Dao, 134, 169, 174 companionship, 18–19, 34, 44, 48–49, 51–53, 63, 69, 86, 89, 91, 101, 103, 105–10, 112, 115, 119–20, 123, 132, 134–35, 152–53, 158, 162, 166, 169, 174 compassion. See empathy Compendium of the Five Lamps, 183 Complete Perfection, 3–11, 19, 23–27, 29, 33–34, 40, 42–43, 45, 51, 79, 94, 108, 124, 127–28, 131, 133–37, 145–51, 155, 157, 162, 171–73, 175–76, 181, 184–89, 194–95, passim; contemplative practice in, 9–12; monastic system of, 7–11, 145–46; Patriarchs of, 5, 7 Complete Reality. See Complete Perfection

concentration, 10, 20, 24, 85, 90, 92, 100–1, 106, 108–9, 111, 115, 118, 121, 123, 129–30, 135, 137, 139, 151–52, 154, 165, 174, 181, 190, 192, 194 conditioning. See habituation confinement, 18, 36, 52, 63, 85–86, 90, 92, 101, 103–4, 106, 121, 126, 156, 159, 162–63, 169, 179–80 Confucianism, 38, 162, 171–72 Confucius. See Kongzi confusion. See agitation; disorientation connection, 13, 26, 30, 34, 40–41, 44, 51–53, 94, 101, 113–14, 117, 122–24, 128, 131, 134, 146, 158, 160, 162, 167, 169, 171, 179, 181, 192 consciousness, 3, 12, 17–18, 24, 43, 49–51, 102, 104, 106–8, 114, 116–17, 120–22, 125, 130, 132, 151, 160, 166–67, 171, 179, 192–94. See also psychology consensus reality, 53 conservation, 12, 25, 40, 53, 156–57, 159 constellations. See astronomy; specific constellations contemplative experience, 3, 8, 18, 19–28, 32, 42, 45, 107, 113–14, 121, 126, 162, 166, 174 contemplative inquiry, 29, 33, 50, 160 contemplative literature, 49, 153 contemplative practice, 3, 8, 10, 12, 16–19, 23–25, 29–30, 34–35, 37, 43, 45, 49–50, 52–53, 99–132, 147, 153–54, 160, 162–63, 166, 187. See also meditation contemplative psychology, 3, 19–28 Contemplative Psychology, 24 contemplative reading, 30, 35, 45, 49–51, 90, 97–132, 173 contemplative studies, 35, 45, 164–65 contention, 67, 73, 88, 109–10, 124, 171. See also noncontention contentment, 31–32, 65, 87, 100–2, 104, 108, 113, 120–21, 123, 159

i nde x contextualization, 11, 19, 29–30, 34–35, 40, 47–48, 51, 160, 162, passim control, 31, 36, 44, 52, 59, 63, 71, 84–87, 90–91, 101–6, 108, 116, 121, 126, 135, 149, 152–55, 159, 162, 164, 181 convents. See monasteries Cook Ding, 157 corpse pose, 44, 124, 164 corrals. See confinement; enclosure cosmology, 30, 34, 43, 91, 149–50, 154, 156, 166, 172, 177, 179, 182, 190, 194 Cowherd (constellation), 18 cranes, 89, 91, 95, 182 critical subjectivity, 23, 97–132, 187 crops, 18–19, 31, 44, 59–61, 84–85, 102, 104–6, 153, 168 cross-pollination, 18 cultivating perfection, 11–13, 137, 146, 148, 150 Cultivating Perfection, 146 cultivation, 10–15, 26, 29–30, 33, 41–42, 47, 101–2, 111, 113–14, 117, 119, 122, 126– 28, 131–32, 134–35, 139, 148–51, 154, 158, 167, 170–73, 177, 179, 183, 189. See also domestication; refinement cultural studies, 36–37 Cunshen lianqi ming. See Inscription on Preserving Spirit and Refining Qi cunxiang. See visualization Da Yuan Circle, 163 Da’an (period), 133, 187 Dadan zhizhi. See Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir daily application, 13, 150 Daluo. See Grand Network dancing, 44, 49, 64–65, 69, 75, 77, 87, 89, 91–93, 109, 121, 170 dantian. See elixir fields Danyang guan. See Monastery of Elixir Yang

223

Dao, 4, 10, 13, 20, 23–24, 26–28, 30, 32–33, 40–44, 51–52, 79, 94, 100–2, 104, 109, 113–14, 116–17, 120, 122, 125–29, 131–32, 134–35, 140, 153–54, 157–59, 167–69, 171, 175–78, 181, 186, 190, 194–95 daobi shi. See scribes Daode jing. See Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power Daode tianzun. See Celestial Worthy of the Dao and Inner Power daoguo. See fruits of the Dao Daoism. See specific lineages, movements, and texts Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed, 146 Daoist Canon, 146, 189 Daoist Horse Taming Pictures. See Horse Taming Pictures Daoist names, 4, 135–36, 145–46, 171, 183 daolu. See registrar daoqi, 42, 125, 188 daoqing (meter), 13 Daoyin, 157 daoyou. See Companions of the Dao Daozang. See Daoist Canon darkness, 28, 42, 59, 77, 84, 93–94, 125, 140, 169–70, 176, 186, 193. See also mystery dazuo. See meditation de. See inner power; virtue De equis alendis, 157 De Waal, Frans, 162 De Wit, Han, 23 dead ashes, 75, 77, 88, 92, 121–22, 139, 174, 182, 190, 193 death, 4, 7, 27, 31, 51–52, 87, 93, 124–26, 130, 132, 133, 137, 148, 152, 163, 172, 175, 190–91, 194. See also immortality deconditioning, 32, 42, 44, 52, 109, 127 dedication. See commitment defilements, 17, 24–25, 102, 106, 108, 117, 150, 169, 174

224

in d e x

degeneration. See disorientation Deikman, Arthur, 17 delusion, 25, 102, 163 Derrida, Jacques, 160 desire, 16, 23, 31–33, 40, 92, 108–9, 159, 177, 179, 181, 184, 188. See also emotionality desirelessness, 31, 155, 159 Despeux, Catherine, 13, 16, 148, 152, 167, 170, 189 detachment. See disengagement determination. See aspiration; commitment; effort Dharma Body, 27, 81, 93, 95, 130–32, 141, 155, 177, 185–86, 195 Diagram of Cultivating Perfection, 148 Diagram of Internal Pathways, 152 ding. See concentration; meditative absorption Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir, 10–11, 155, 191 disappearance. See unification discernment, 33, 133, 151, 183 discipline. See control; effort; training Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness, 20, 154, 176 Discourse Record of Perfected Danyang, 188 discourse records, 43 Discourse Records and Direct Pointers of Perfected Immortals, 42 discoursing on the Dao, 7, 73, 77, 91, 93, 119, 173. See also guidance disengagement, 9, 20, 104–5, 109, 111, 117, 125, 128, 135, 154. See also seclusion disorientation, 24, 30, 33, 40, 42, 44, 85, 100, 159, 172, 174, 179. See also orientation disputation. See contention dissipation, 12, 25, 40, 151, 179, 192, 194. See also conservation; nondissipation

distraction, 104, 106, 108, 140, 150. See also agitation; sensory engagement Divine Duke, 13, 150 dizhi. See terrestrial branches dogs, 30, 152, 165 domestication, 29–34, 36, 148, 156, 159, 165. See also cultivation Doniger, Wendy, 148, 162, 165 double barring, 61, 85, 104, 168 double forgetting, 27, 93–94, 104, 127, 168, 176 double retirement, 180 doubt, 48, 87, 102, 110, 113. See also trust Dragon’s Play, 163 dragons, 161 Dream of Handan, 183 dream teachings, 173 dreaming, 73, 75, 90–92, 94, 116–17, 119–22, 126, 140, 170, 172–74, 183–84, 192, 195 “Drinking Wine” (poem), 171 dual cultivation, 15. See also cultivation; training Duke Mu, 30 Dzungrian horse. See Przewalski horse eating, 8, 79, 94, 106, 127–28, 134, 137, 177, 179, 181, 185, 188 ecology, 37, 53, 156–57, 159, 161, 166 education, 4, 36, 40, 164 effects, 16–17, 19–20, 23, 25, 29, 34–35, 42, 45, 51–53, 61, 113, 119, 122, 126, 130, 132, 154, 158, 160, 166, 172–73. See also states; traits; transformation effort, 11, 61, 75, 85–86, 88–89, 92, 102, 104–7, 113, 116, 121–22, 134–35, 137, 140, 153, 157, 159, 168, 179 Eight Purities, 71, 172 eight trigrams. See trigrams Eihei Do¯gen, 42

i nde x elders, 5, 8–9, 19, 26–27, 84, 89, 103, 113, 127, 131–32, 134–35, 137, 140, 149, 154, 157, 191, 193 Elephant Taming Pictures, 16, 157 elephants, 157, 159 elixir fields, 11, 111, 120, 128, 130–32, 150, 177, 179, 181 elixirs. See internal alchemy; refinement emanation, 131, 178, 186, 195 emancipation of the heavens, 31 embodiment, 25, 37, 50, 113, 120, 122, 127–29, 131–32, 135, 150, 158, 163 embryo of immortality. See immortal embryo emotionality, 3, 8–10, 23–24, 26, 84, 87, 90, 94, 102, 104, 108–9, 140, 151, 154, 169–70, 181, 192. See also agitation; emotionlessness emotionlessness, 25, 94, 154, 178, 180, 185 empathy, 52–53, 140 emptiness, 8–9, 13, 17, 26, 28, 69, 71, 86–89, 93–94, 104, 106, 108, 116–17, 120, 122, 132, 139, 148, 151, 172, 175, 178, 181, 186, 190, 193. See also Nonbeing; nondifferentiation empty circle, 13, 17–18, 25, 28, 151, 166, 175 enclosure, 18, 59, 63, 69, 84–85, 87, 89, 104, 106, 108–9, 121, 124, 126, 139, 159, 162–63, 167, 169, 175, 179, 192 encounters with animals, 36–38, 44–45, 48–50, 52–54, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 112, 115, 118, 120, 123, 126, 129, 132, 152, 160, 165 energetic sensitivity, 14, 23, 40, 49, 51, 100, 111, 113, 122, 181 energy. See qi enlightenment, 17–18, 23, 41, 52, 121, 123, 131–32, 163, 174, 178, 181, 195. See also awakening; illumination; realization equanimity, 25, 113–14, 121

225

equestrian equipment. See accoutrements; horses equine behavior. See horses equine being, 49–50, 52–54, 123, 126, 129, 187 equine ethnography, 165 equine physiognomy, 30, 157 equine spirituality, 166 Equus (language), 48 Equus ferus, 156, 167 Equus ferus caballus, 156, 167 Equus ferus przewalski, 156 eremiticism, 7, 122, 190 Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains, 4, 7, 48, 145–47, 165, 171, 187, 189; translation of, 133–37 ethics, 8, 37–38, 53, 150, 153, 157, 166. See also precepts; virtue ethnicity, 47, 160, 164 excrement, 159 exorcism, 150 experiential confirmation, 34, 42, 52, 132. See also effects “External Things” (chapter), 180 fame. See reputation family, 6 fan jing quan, 172 fannao. See vexations fashen. See Dharma Body fasting the heart-mind, 127, 147, 176 fate (ming). See life-destiny fear, 24, 34, 100, 135 feelings. See emotionality fellowship. See companionship female Daoists. See women ferality, 33–34, 156, 159, 166–67 fertilizer, 159 Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings, 9, 116, 124, 175, 194 fighting roosters, 32, 153

226

in d e x

fire, 32, 43, 104, 107, 121–22, 125–26, 140, 150, 185, 188, 194 firing times, 13, 104, 179 first-person discourse. See critical subjectivity fish, 30, 42, 119, 162, 169 Five Animal Frolics, 157 Five Luminosities, 87 Five Marchmounts, 194 Five Patriarchs, 8, 27, 131, 136, 151, 173, 178, 191–92 Five Phases, 43, 118, 154, 156, 179, 191, 194 Five Thearchs, 191 forgetting, 16, 26, 42, 52, 71, 77, 79, 81, 90, 93–95, 116–17, 124–25, 127–28, 130, 132, 140, 145, 154, 168, 171, 174, 176, 189 formlessness, 28, 81, 89, 131–32, 155, 177–78, 184–85 Four Divisions, 153 Four Gates, 9 Four Hindrances, 8, 40, 100, 140 four stages, 10 Fozu sanjing. See Three Sutras of the Buddhas and Patriarchs freedom, 25, 33, 37, 41, 44, 53, 67, 71, 73, 84, 90, 93, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 111, 114, 116–17, 119, 121–22, 126, 129, 131, 139–40, 153, 156, 158–59, 163, 169, 171, 173, 182 friendship. See companionship fruits of the Dao, 25, 113, 119, 158, 171, 173, 180, 195 Fuma tu, 149 Fumyo¯. See Puming funeral rites, 4 fuqi. See ingestion gaitian. See Canopy Heaven Ganhe, 6, 135, 190 Ganshui xianyuan lu. See Record of the Immortal Stream of Ganshui

Gao Daokuan, 3–7, 9, 11–14, 25, 35, 40, 44, 47, 52, 116, 146–49, 151, 166–67, 171, 173, 182, 184, 186, 189, 192; and horses, 40, 47–48, 52, 192; and the Horse Taming Pictures, 3–4, 11–13, 40, 49–50, 166, 178; as Complete Perfection monk, 3, 6–7, 9; author of Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, 10–13; Daoist lineage of, 4–6, 146; hagiography of, 4, 7, 11, 48, 133–37, 145–47, 187; historical context of, 5–7, 29; residences of, 5–7; teachers of, 4–6 Gao Yuanming. See Gao Daokuan Garden of Immortal Husks, 137 gates, 4, 9, 79, 90, 92, 94–95, 128, 134, 167, 169, 183 Gates of Heaven, 4, 133 gender, 148, 160, 162, 167. See also women genealogy, 5, 41, 145. See also lineage Genghis Khan. See Chinggis Qan Golden Lotus, 93, 95, 185–86 Golden Register (rite), 136 gong’an, 171, 178, 184 Gongyang Commentary, 172 Gongyang Gao, 172 gourds, 79, 86, 90–92, 131, 174, 177, 183 Grand Inception. See Original Beginning Grand Network, 95, 141, 177, 187, 195 graves, 6, 135, 137, 189 Great Treatise on Stages on the Path to Enlightenment, 153 Gross, Aaron, 36, 160, 166 Grotto of Spirit Immortals, 121, 163 guan. See observation Guangdong, 194 guarding, 42, 52, 65, 79, 84–88, 90, 94, 108–10, 127–28, 140, 179, 193 guarding the feminine, 162

i nde x guarding the One, 77, 79, 93–94, 117, 124–25, 128, 147, 175, 193 Gugong bowuyuan. See Palace Museum guidance, 7–9, 12, 19, 51, 84, 88–89, 92– 93, 102–6, 108–10, 116, 125, 127, 134–35, 137, 148–49, 152, 163, 168, 172, 176 “Guidance for the Jade Flower Society,” 128, 177 guigen. See returning to the Source Gushe Mountain, 185 gushen. See Valley Spirit Habito, Ruben, 152 habituation, 3, 12, 23–24, 30–33, 38, 40, 43, 100, 104–6, 109, 111, 116–17, 122, 125, 128, 154, 159, 167, 179–81. See also deconditioning hagiography, 4, 11, 133, 145–47, 160, 163, 187, 189 halters, 18–19, 32, 39, 41, 44, 47–48, 58–62, 64, 84–85, 105, 152, 163, 167–68 Han Gan, 40 Handan, 90, 140, 183, 195 Handan ji. See Record of Handan Hangu Pass, 155 Hao clan, 4, 47, 133 Hao Datong, 42 harm. See injury harnesses, 12, 39–41, 44, 84, 101, 106, 126, 158, 163 Harrist, Robert, 38 Heart Sutra, 193 heart-mind, 3–4, 8–9, 12–14, 20, 23–24, 43, 61, 65, 75, 79, 81, 84–85, 87, 91–95, 100–1, 104–5, 108–10, 116–18, 120–22, 124, 131–32, 133–35, 139–41, 148–51, 155, 158, 162, 167, 170–71, 174–75, 177, 179, 185, 187, 190, 192–94. See also innate nature; spirit Hebei, 183, 195 heche. See Waterwheel

227

Heine, Steven, 15, 17, 152 Henan, 5, 7, 47, 183, 189 Henderson, Bob, 54, 166 Hermitage of Complete Perfection, 147 Hermitage of Penglai, 5, 7, 134, 188 hermitages, 6–7, 77, 89, 93, 109, 122, 124, 145–46, 167, 169, 171, 175, 188, 190. See also seclusion; specific hermitages hexagrams, 13, 150, 182 Highest Clarity, 20, 176, 186 Highest Vehicle, 12 Hindu Kush, 5 Hinduism, 148, 153, 160, 164 horse farms, 49 “Horse Hooves” (chapter), 30–31, 34 horse painting, 38–40, 45 Horse Taming Pictures, 3, 7, 9–19, 23–28, 29–30, 33–35, 41–45, 47–53, 100–1, 147–49, 153–54, 156, 160–62, 165–66, 168–70, 173, 176, 180, 185, 187, 192–93, passim; as contemplative practice, 30, 35, 49, 52; audience of, 12; color of horse in, 17, 25, 63, 86–90, 92, 106, 167, 169; exegesis of, 97–132; horse-related technical terminology in, 143–44; interpretive approaches to, 35–37, 45, 49–50; proposed titles of, 26, 33, 148, 152; translation of, 57–82 Horse Taming Poems, 3, 12–13, 19, 26, 47, 51, 148–49, 167, 187; commentary on, 13, 25, 83–95, 167, 170, 173, 178; horse-related technical terminology in, 143–44; illustrations of, 13, 18–19, 24–27, 44, 48, 51, 57–82, 100, 148–49, 151, 153, 155, 187; translation of, 57–82 horse trainers, 30–32, 49–50, 165 horse training, 3, 12, 18–19, 26, 29–35, 40, 44, 47–49, 51, 57–132, 152–53, 158–59, 164–68, 184, 187 horse whisperer, 48

228

in d e x

horse-thought, 42–44, 59, 71, 84, 86, 89–90, 100–2, 111, 116–17, 120, 122, 162, 170, 172, 175, 178, 184–85 horses, 3–4, 7, 13, 18, 24, 26, 30–33, 35–36, 38–54, 57–77, 79, 84–94, 99–132, 145–46, 149, 152–53, 156–68, 170–71, 174–75, 180, 187–88, 190, passim; as actual animals and living beings, 29, 32, 35–36, 40–42, 45, 47, 49–51, 53–54, 160–62, 170; as flight animal, 48, 165; as herd animal, 160, 166; as symbolic animals, 18–19, 24, 29, 35, 38–45, 47, 50–53, 100–1, 157, 161, 175, 179, 185; behavior of, 30–31, 49, 52, 63, 84, 86, 104, 106, 153, 163, 165–66; breeding of, 47, 165; characteristics of, 38–39, 44, 49, 161, 165; depictions of, 19, 39, 46; equipment for, 31, 39, 44, 47, 152, 158, 163, 167–68; in Complete Perfection, 34; in Daoism, 30–34; in the modern world, 161–62, 164; in traditional Chinese culture, 7, 38–40, 45, 47, 146, 161, 164; language of, 48; types of, 46–47, 156 Hsu Yun, 152 Huainanzi. See Book of the Huainan Masters huandu. See meditative enclosure Huangdi, 95, 185 Hubei, 121, 164 Huineng, 194 human-animal relationship, 18–19, 37–39, 41, 45, 47–53, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 112, 115, 118, 120, 123, 126, 129, 132, 152, 156–58, 160–61, 163–66, 175 Hundun. See Primordial Chaos hunger, 79, 85, 94, 127–28, 177, 181 Hunyuan (Chaos Prime). See Laozi huohou. See firing times Huxian. See Liujiang

“Hymn of the Three Methods,” 12, 14, 148, 194 iconography, 18, 27, 37, 43–44, 51, 130–31, 150, 155, 163. See also symbolism identification. See companionship; unification identity, 4, 18, 26–28, 36–37, 49, 51–53, 127, 129, 132, 134, 140, 145–46, 149, 151, 160, 163–64, 166 illumination, 77, 89–90, 92–93, 95, 124–25, 130, 133, 139, 154, 172, 182 Illustrated Biographies of the Golden Lotus, 192 imagery. See metaphor; symbolism immortal bones, 113 immortal embryo, 11, 26–27, 51, 79–80, 128–30 immortal realms. See sacred realms immortality, 9, 13, 25–28, 40, 42–43, 51–52, 81, 89, 95, 100, 114, 119, 121, 125, 127–32, 135, 137, 139–41, 154, 163–64, 170–71, 177–78, 181–82, 186. See also cranes; pines; toads imperial bureaucracy. See officialdom impermanence, 14, 120, 129, 151 independence, 25, 86, 88, 111, 116–17, 130–31, 141, 161, 171, 195 ingestion, 147 injury, 32, 100, 105, 109, 158 innate nature, 10, 12–15, 23–24, 31–34, 41–44, 51–52, 59, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 75, 77, 81, 84–94, 100–2, 106–10, 113–14, 116–18, 121–26, 132, 133–34, 139–41, 149, 151, 154–55, 159, 167, 169–71, 177, 184, 187, 192, 194 inner cultivation lineages, 20, 29–34, 41, 153, 157–58, 174, 195 inner observation, 11, 111, 147, 170, 195 inner power, 8, 21, 31–32, 34, 135, 158, 172

i nde x Inscription on Preserving Spirit and Refining Qi, 154 insects, 30, 185 institutionalization, 7 instruction. See guidance; oral instructions Instructions on the Gold Pass and Jade Lock, 149, 155 integration, 23, 33–34, 40, 43–44, 100–1, 107, 150–51, 158, 163, 186 intention, 24, 49, 85, 105–6, 150, 155, 179 internal alchemy, 8–13, 25–28, 40, 43–44, 100–1, 104, 107, 121–22, 129–30, 132, 147–50, 155, 158, 173, 177–79, 181, 194–95 Inward Training, 175 Jade Clarity, 95. See also Three Heavens Jade Furnace, 13, 150 Jiang Sheng, 149, 173 jiao-offering, 136 jiefen. See untying the knots Jin dynasty, 5, 7, 15, 40, 47–48, 187, 190–91 jing. See stillness jing. See vital essence Jingming. See Pure Brightness jingshi. See quiet room Jinguan yusuo jue. See Instructions on the Gold Pass and Jade Lock Jingzhao, 6, 136, 191 jingzuo. See quiet sitting Jinlian. See Golden Lotus Jinlian ji. See Record of the Golden Lotus Jinlian xiangzhuan. See Illustrated Biographies of the Golden Lotus Jitoku. See Zide Huihui jiuxing. See Nine Practices jiuzhuan. See reversion Jixingzi, 153 join-up method, 48

229

Jo¯shu¯ Ju¯shin. See Zhaozhou Congshen joy, 53, 61, 65, 67, 71, 75, 88–90, 92, 104–5, 108–9, 111–17, 119–20, 122, 124, 129, 135, 170 “Joy of Fish” (chapter), 119, 163–64, 170 junzi. See superior person Jurchens, 5, 47–48, 146, 187, 190 Kaifeng, 5, 47–48, 187, 189–90 Kakuan. See Kuoan Kan-water, 140, 194 Kapleau, Philip, 15 Kara (dog), 152 karma, 18, 20, 52, 140, 163, 173, 192–93 Katahdin (dog), 152, 165 keisaku. See wake-up stick kidneys, 11–12, 150–51, 154, 183 kinship of the three, 87–88, 90, 181 kles´a. See vexations ko¯an. See gong’an Kohn, Livia, 20, 175 Kongzi, 172 koujue. See oral instructions Kublai Khan. See Qubilai Qan Kuma¯rajı¯va, 16 Kun-earth, 13, 88, 90, 150 Kunlun, 184 Kunyu mountains, 173 Kuoan, 15–17, 170, 176 kyo¯saku. See wake-up stick lakes, 31, 174. See also water Lamrim Chenmo. See Great Treatise on Stages on the Path to Enlightenment language, 10, 28, 41–42, 48, 77, 93, 114, 119, 122–25, 128, 130, 132, 154, 160, 162–63, 167, 169–70 Laozi (person), 27–28, 131, 135, 155, 178, 191–92 Laozi (text). See Daode jing

230

in d e x

Larson-Harris, Marwood, 152 laughter, 67, 86, 88, 111, 170 laxity, 61, 71, 85–86, 104, 113, 119. See also relaxation leads, 18–19, 44, 47–49, 58–60, 62–65, 69, 84–87, 89, 102, 104, 106–10, 113, 119, 152, 167–68 leave the family. See chujia leisure, 13, 26, 44, 63, 67, 69, 71, 73, 77, 86–91, 94, 110, 116–17, 119–20, 167, 169, 171, 173, 180, 192 Leopold, Aldo, 159 “Letting Be and Leaving Alone” (chapter), 158 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 160 li. See Principle Li Chongdao, 5, 146, 189–90 Li Chongxu, 4–6, 134, 146, 190 Li Daoqian, 145, 187–89 Li Qingxu. See Li Chongdao Li Zhenchang. See Li Zhichang Li Zhichang, 5–6, 136, 191 Li-fire, 140, 194 Liezi, 185 life-destiny, 12, 14–15, 18, 32, 42, 73, 91, 120, 134, 151, 173, 181, 185, 192, 194 Lijiao shiwu lun. See Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings lineage, 3–6, 30, 32, 42, 134–35, 145–47, 157, 178, 183, 193 Lingering Overtones of the Calling Crane, 42 Linji, 15 listening, 49–50, 108, 111, 114, 117, 170 Liu Cao. See Liu Haichan Liu Haichan, 177, 183, 192 Liu Ming. See Belyea, Charles liuchen. See Six Defilements Liujiang, 6–7, 48, 145–47, 189–90 liuzei. See Six Thieves “Living in Hermitages,” 124, 175

Longyang guan. See Monastery of Dragon Radiance loosening the tangles. See untying the knots Lord An, 134, 188 Lord Gold-Tower, 95, 186 lotus, 102, 107, 111, 117, 122 Lotus Sutra, 12 Lü Dongbin, 91, 119, 121, 151, 163, 173, 183–84, 192, 195 lundao. See discoursing on the Dao luotian. See Network Heaven Ma Danyang. See Ma Yu Ma Yu, 5–6, 134, 146, 188–89 madao. See way of the horse magpie bridge, 18 Man Riding a Horse (painting), 39 Manual of Zen Buddhism, 15 manure, 159 maps. See cartography Master An, 5, 134, 188 Master Complete Illumination. See Gao Daokuan; Yuanming laoren master-father, 5, 189 master-grandfather, 5 masters. See elders mastery, 30–31 material culture. See specific types “Mati.” See “Horse Hooves” Mawangdui, 157 Maximus (horse), 54, 166 “maybe story,” 159 mayi. See horse-thought meat. See slaughtered animal flesh meditation, 8–12, 17, 19, 25–26, 33, 43, 50, 86, 92–93, 101–2, 104, 106, 108, 111, 113, 116, 118, 120–21, 124, 128, 137, 147, 150, 165, 167, 174–77, 179, 181, 184, 187, 190, 193–95. See also contemplative practice; specific forms

i nde x meditative absorption, 10, 20, 23, 101, 109, 121–23, 174, 182, 190, 192–94 meditative enclosure, 109, 116, 124, 174 Meninger, William, 152 meridians, 11, 154, 181, 185, 194 metaphor, 6, 29, 37, 181, 184. See also symbolism methods. See specific methods; training microcosm, 19, 111, 116, 132, 166, 177, 183, 194 Microcosmic Orbit. See Celestial Cycle military. See war Miller, James, 156 mind. See consciousness; heart-mind; psychology; xin mindfulness. See attentiveness ming. See life-destiny Mingchang (period), 133, 187 Minghe yuyin. See Lingering Overtones of the Calling Crane mirrors, 17, 93, 95 Mister Five Willows. See Tao Qian monasteries, 5, 7–8, 146. See also specific monasteries Monastery of Dragon Radiance, 6–7, 135, 175 Monastery of Elixir Yang, 5, 7, 134, 189 Monastery of Infused Emptiness, 189 Monastery of Perpetual Spring, 121, 163–64 monastic manuals, 8, 10, 147. See also specific texts monasticism, 3–5, 7–12, 19, 25, 124, 127, 133–37, 145–47, 171, 181, 183, 187–91 monastics. See clergy Mongols, 5, 7, 47–48, 146, 156, 164, 187, 189 monkey-mind, 42, 71, 90, 116, 172, 184 monkeys, 42, 92, 157, 162–63 moon, 13, 17–18, 41, 87–89, 91–92, 119, 131– 32, 140, 156, 166, 175, 178, 181, 183, 185

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Mount Tai, 9, 140, 193 mountains, 31, 42, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 86, 88–93, 110–11, 114, 116–17, 120–22, 126, 156, 159, 171, 184, 194. See also specific mountains “Mountains and Waters Sutra,” 42, 184 mourning rites. See funeral rites movement, 43, 50, 77, 84, 91, 93, 100, 107–9, 115, 118–22, 124, 126, 135, 153–54, 172 mozhao. See silent illumination Muniu tu. See Ox Herding Pictures Muping. See Ninghai music, 110–11, 116, 186 myriad beings, 30, 34, 84, 87, 93–94, 167, 175, 180, 182, 186. See also phenomenal world Mysterious Female, 92, 183–84 Mysterious Gate, 94–95, 185–86 Mysterious Movement, 171, 185, 193 mystical being, 17, 25, 27–28, 51–53, 100–1, 125, 158, 166, 175–76 mystical experience, 4–5, 17, 42–43, 114, 121–22, 128, 146, 153, 158, 169–71, 173–74 mystical experiencing, 25, 51–52, 166, 176, 186 mystery, 28, 79, 89, 94, 106, 128–29, 169, 176, 182–83, 186, 193 myth, 18, 38, 53, 161, 183–84 namelessness, 155, 177 names, 4, 135–36, 145–46, 155, 160, 162, 164, 171. See also language Nanbo Ziqi, 174, 190, 193 Nanchang, 136, 191 Nanzong. See Southern School natural horsemanship, 48, 153, 166 naturalness. See ziran Nature, 30, 33, 156. See also specific terms

232

in d e x

Nei riyong jing. See Scripture on Daily Internal Practice neidan. See internal alchemy neiguan. See inner observation Neijing tu. See Diagram of Internal Pathways Neiye. See Inward Training Network Heaven (rite), 136 Night-Shining White (painting), 40 Nine Heavens, 95, 186 Nine Palaces, 130 Nine Practices, 185 nine stages, 10–11 Ninghai, 147 no-mind, 94, 101, 132, 140 nonaction, 13, 25, 32–33, 92, 94–95, 110, 135, 151, 155, 157–59, 168, 185, 190, 195 Nonaction and Clear Stillness, 185 Nonbeing, 28, 87, 89–92, 95, 172, 181. See also emptiness; nondifferentiation noncontention, 114, 125, 155 nondifferentiation, 34, 94, 125, 131–32, 175, 178, 183. See also emptiness; Nonbeing nondissipation, 12, 25, 155, 181, 195 noninterference. See nonaction nonknowing, 31, 81, 155 Northern Dipper, 18, 94, 150, 185 novitiate, 127 numinous abilities, 26, 192 numinous qi. See daoqi; qi Numinous Tower, 88, 93, 148, 181 nuns. See monasticism; women observation, 20, 50, 67, 87–88, 109–11, 116–17, 119, 140, 154, 159, 165, 170, 181, 195 officialdom, 4, 38–40, 47, 136, 148, 161, 188, 190–91 Old Mill Creek, 49 “On Making Things Equal” (chapter), 41, 121, 174, 192

One. See Dao oneness. See unification oppression. See subjugation oral instructions, 8, 91 ordination, 6, 26, 127, 134, 146 organs, 11, 24, 194 orientation, 14, 35, 41, 102, 108, 120, 122, 125, 179 Original Beginning, 42, 95, 130–31, 141, 177, 186, 195 original face, 178 original qi, 12, 182, 195 original spirit, 12, 101, 107, 116, 130, 182–83, 195 Orthodox Daoism in America. See Da Yuan Circle Osho. See Rajneesh Other Peoples’ Myths, 165 Ox Herding Pictures, 15–18, 24, 26, 45, 151–52, 157, 167, 169–70, 174, 176 oxen, 13, 15–18, 30, 32–33, 41, 87, 92, 140, 149, 151–52, 155, 157, 162, 168, 179, 184 Palace for Meeting Immortals, 6, 135 Palace Museum, 39 Palace of Great Unity, 5, 7, 134, 189 Palace of Redoubled Yang, 6–7, 48, 135–36, 147, 189–90. See also Ancestral Hall pa¯ramita¯. See Ten Perfections paraphernalia. See accoutrements parinirva¯na posture, 44, 52, 121, 163 Path of Freedom, 153 Path to Purification, 153 Patriarchs, 5, 7, 135–36, 189 peace. See contentment pearls, 140 Peng bird, 114, 185 Penglai, 91, 184 Penglai an. See Hermitage of Penglai perception. See sensory engagement Peri hippike¯s, 157

i nde x personhood, 10–12, 14, 24, 26–28, 42–43, 124, 127, 129–30, 132, 145, 149, 151, 160, 166, 169, 172, 181, 194 pervasion, 9, 94, 112, 116–17, 122, 124–26, 128–29, 131–32, 135, 139, 176, 180 phenomenal world, 9, 16, 31, 36–37, 40, 49–50, 52–53, 75, 88, 93, 102, 111, 116, 124–25, 139, 156, 172, 177, 182, 193. See also myriad beings “philosophical Daoism” (so-called). See classical Daoism Picturing the Beast, 36–37 pilgrimage, 6, 153 pines, 69, 86, 88–90, 114,171, 179, 180 play, 65, 85, 167, 170 poetry, 3, 11, 13, 15–16, 35, 43, 51, 71, 89–90, 100, 116–17, 149, 155, 173, 179 postulate, 127 posture, 9–10, 44, 48, 51–52, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75–76, 92–93, 104, 110, 112–13, 116, 118–21, 124, 130, 139, 150, 153, 163–64 potters, 31 Practical Methods for the Sinking BowlClepsydra, 147 practice. See specific types; training practitioners, 9–11, 13–14, 18, 25, 27, 52, 101, 108, 110, 113, 116, 119, 121, 126–28, 130, 134, 149, 163, 174, 177, 181, 187, 190, 194 precepts, 8, 16, 94. See also ethics; virtue Precepts of Initial Perfection, 147 predestined affinities, 113 prerequisites, 8, 20, 100, 153–54 presence, 38, 42, 49, 51–54, 100–1, 106, 110–11, 113, 115, 118, 122–23, 126, 128, 130–32, 158, 184 priesthood. See clergy Primordial Chaos, 90, 95, 183, 186. See also nondifferentiation Prince of Anxi, 136 Prince of Yongchang, 136

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Prince Shao of Wei, 187 Principle, 13, 32, 71, 89–90, 116–17, 134–35, 137, 154, 172, 182, 188, 190 Profound Learning, 125, 176, 182, 193 progress, 17, 101, 106, 109, 125, 137, 140. See also stages Przewalski horse, 156 psychology, 3, 8–9, 12, 19, 24, 34, 40, 42–43, 49, 51, 100–2, 107, 110, 125, 132, 149, 154, 160, 165, 169, 174, 177, 182, 193–94. See also anthropology; consciousness; contemplative psychology; heart-mind Puming, 15–17, 169, 176 Pure Brightness, 191 Pure Conversation, 77, 93, 125, 173, 176 Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection, 10, 147, 188, 190 purification, 15, 17, 25, 63, 65, 69, 86–87, 89, 92, 102, 104, 108–9, 114, 122, 127, 139–41, 150 Purple Palace, 87, 95, 181, 186 qi (ch’i), 11–12, 95, 111, 119–20, 132, 150, 175, 177, 181, 185, 187–88, 191. See also specific types; Three Treasures Qian-heaven, 13, 88, 90, 150 qifan. See reversion Qin (state), 30 qing. See clarity qingjing. See clarity and stillness Qingjing jing. See Scripture on Clarity and Stillness Qingju, 15 Qingtan. See Pure Conversation “Qingtian ge.” See “Song of the Clear Sky” qiqing. See Seven Emotions Qiu Changchun. See Qiu Chuji Qiu Chuji, 5–7, 10, 121, 134, 146, 163, 174, 189 “Qiushui.” See “Autumn Floods”

234

in d e x

“Qiwu lun.” See “On Making Things Equal” qizhen. See Seven Perfected Qizhen nianpu. See Chronological Accounts of the Seven Perfected Quanzhen. See Complete Perfection Quanzhen an. See Hermitage of Complete Perfection Quanzhen qinggui. See Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection Quanzhen zuobo jiefa. See Practical Methods for the Sinking Bowl-Clepsydra quatrains, 13, 179 Qubilai Qan, 191 question of the animal, 29, 34–38, 45, 50, 157 quiet room, 7, 137 quiet sitting, 8–11, 117, 137, 190 quietistic meditation, 8–11, 26, 128, 147, 175 Qunxian yaoyu zuanji. See Collection of Essential Sayings from Various Immortals radiance. See illumination Rajneesh, 152, 163 Rasskaz strannika. See Tale of a Pilgrim reactivity. See agitation reading. See contemplative reading realization, 12, 23–25, 43, 51–53, 86, 89, 94, 100, 102, 108–9, 114, 117, 119–20, 122, 124–27, 130–31, 135, 139–41, 149, 154, 159, 171, 176, 178, 180, 182–83. See also awakening; enlightenment; illumination receptivity, 48–49, 51, 105–6, 110, 116–17, 153, 158, 162 reclusion. See seclusion Record of Handan, 183, 195 Record of the Golden Lotus, 192

Record of the Immortal Stream of Ganshui, 187, 189 Records of the Historian, 172 Red Pine, 15 refinement, 40, 79, 87, 90, 93–95, 100–1, 128–32, 133, 137, 140, 149. See also cultivation; internal alchemy; transformation registrar, 6, 48, 136, 191 reins, 18, 31–32, 39, 48, 152, 158, 163, 167–68, 179 relaxation, 10, 51, 77, 93–94, 106, 108, 113, 116, 119–20, 124–25, 153. See also laxity religious names. See Daoist names religious studies, 35, 45 Renqi tu. See Man Riding a Horse renunciation, 5, 67, 84, 87–88, 124, 127, 134, 175, 177 Reps, Paul, 15 reputation, 32, 40, 100, 111, 119 resistance, 103, 105, 107–8 respect. See reverence responsiveness, 13, 52, 71, 90, 100, 113, 116, 154, 170, 172 results. See effects retirement. See leisure; seclusion retreat. See disengagement; seclusion return, 32–34, 44, 59, 63, 65, 75, 84, 86, 88, 92, 102, 104, 106, 110, 130–32, 139, 159, 179, 183 returning to the Source, 16, 34, 175, 183 reverence, 20, 110, 112, 135, 137, 140 reversion, 11, 90, 183, 191 riding, 18, 47, 85, 104, 152, 164–65, 169, 179, 182 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 159 Rinzai. See Linji ritual, 4, 7–8, 133–34, 136–37, 188, 191 riyong. See daily application Roberts, Bernadette, 152

i nde x Roberts, Monty, 48, 164–65 Roth, Harold, 17, 153, 157–58 sacred. See Dao; theology sacred realms, 5, 27, 127, 130, 132, 171, 181, 184–86, 195 saddles, 18, 39, 44, 61, 85, 87, 104, 121, 152, 158, 163–64, 168–69, 179 sages, 116, 160, 171, 177 sama¯dhi. See meditative absorption sanbao. See Three Treasures sancai. See Three Powers sanche. See Three Carts sandu. See Three Poisons “Sanfa song.” See “Hymn of the Three Methods” sanjiao. See Three Teachings sanjie. See Three Realms Sanqing. See Three Purities sanshen. See Three Bodies sanshi. See Three Death-Bringers “Sansui kyo¯.” See “Mountains and Waters Sutra” santian. See Three Heavens sanyao. See Three Essentials Schafer, Edward, 161 scholar-practitioners, 165, 187 scribes, 4, 47, 133, 188 Scripture on Clarity and Stillness, 8, 23, 155, 176, 178–79, 181, 185 Scripture on Daily Internal Practice, 148 Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power, 8, 32, 90, 92, 94, 104, 109, 122, 127–28, 154–55, 158–59, 162, 168–69, 175–78, 182–86, 188, 190 Scripture on the Hidden Talisman, 8, 155, 179 scripture study, 8, 88, 117, 173, 175–76. See also books; contemplative reading seclusion, 6, 51, 71, 73, 77, 87–94, 106–11, 114, 116–17, 119–20, 122, 124–25, 132,

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135, 139–40, 145, 156, 167, 169–71, 174, 176, 180–82, 193 seeing through horses, 29, 35–36, 45–51 Seikyo. See Qingju self. See anthropology; personhood sensory engagement, 3, 9, 12, 16, 25, 102, 104, 108, 122, 128, 151, 165, 167, 169, 171–72, 179, 192 Senzaki, Nyogen, 15 serenity. See stillness Seven Emotions, 24 Seven Perfected, 6, 8, 43, 93, 192 Seven Periods, 153 “seven steps to the Dao,” 20 sexuality, 8, 38–40, 100, 148–49, 185. See also celibacy Shaanxi, 4, 6–7, 9, 47–48, 135–36, 145–47, 189, 191 shamanism, 158 Shandong, 121, 146–47, 163, 173, 184, 194 Shangqing. See Highest Clarity Shangsheng xiuzhen sanyao. See Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection Shanxi, 4, 187, 189 shared animality, 38, 50, 52, 101, 118, 123, 126, 132 shen. See spirit Sheng Yen, 152 shengren. See sages shenwai shen. See body-beyond-the-body Shenxian dong. See Grotto of Spirit Immortals shepherd, 13, 16, 58, 61, 65, 67, 71, 84, 86–88, 90, 92, 100, 140, 149, 167–68. See also attendant shifu. See master-father Shiji. See Records of the Historian Shiniu tu. See Ox Herding Pictures Shiwu lun. See Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings shiye. See master-grandfather

236

in d e x

Shizu, 191 Sho¯bo¯genzo¯. See Treasury of the True Dharma-Eye shou (animal). See animals shouyi. See guarding the One shuangguan. See double barring shuangwang. See double forgetting shuigong. See sleeping exercises Shuko¯. See Zhu Hong Sichuan, 136 siddhi. See numinous abilities sihai. See Four Hindrances silence, 8–10, 27, 42, 50, 93–94, 104, 107, 110, 121, 124–25, 132, 154, 175–76, 193. See also stillness silent illumination, 195 Sima Chengzhen, 20, 176 simen. See Four Gates simplicity, 31, 34, 73, 77, 93, 95, 119–20, 124, 128, 130, 174, 177, 188 simulacra, 36 sincerity, 63, 69, 73, 89, 91, 105–6, 113–14, 119–20 singing, 13, 31, 63, 65, 69, 75, 77, 85–89, 92–93, 106, 121 sitting. See posture “Sitting in Meditation,” 9, 194 sitting-in-forgetfulness, 117, 127, 147, 154, 176 Six Defilements, 25 Six Thieves, 42, 151, 179 skillfulness, 30–31, 79, 94, 113, 127, 157. See also aptitude sky, 4, 89, 91, 102, 107, 111, 117, 122, 133 slaughtered animal flesh, 8, 160. See also vegetarianism sleep, 8, 18–19, 44, 49, 51–52, 71, 74–75, 77, 79, 90, 92, 94, 116–19, 121–28, 137, 152, 163, 172, 174, 177, 184, 189 sleeping exercises, 121, 163 snares. See confinement

sobriety, 8 social constructivism, 37, 164 social justice, 160 solitude. See seclusion Song Defang, 5 Song dynasty, 7, 15, 40, 47–48, 191 “Song of Pure Awakening,” 13, 139–41, 148, 151, 177–78, 186, 192 “Song of the Clear Sky,” 174 soteriology, 23, 37, 43, 51, 154, 193 So¯to¯, 42, 184 Source. See Dao Southern School, 178 spark, 88, 182 spirit, 12, 23, 43, 95, 132, 137, 150–51, 158, 167, 169, 172, 175, 178–79, 185, 189, 192, 194. See also original spirit; Three Treasures spiritual direction. See guidance spiritual realization. See realization spontaneity. See ziran Spring and Autumn Annals, 172 stability. See concentration stables, 29–30, 41, 47–48, 53, 106, 126, 137, 156, 165, 180, 192 Stace, Walter, 17 stages, 9–11, 16–20, 29, 47, 109, 111, 116–17, 119–21, 123–24, 127, 130–31, 147, 152–55, 163–64, 173, 187, 190 stages on the contemplative path, 3, 9–11, 16–23, 25–28, 29, 43, 45, 49, 51, 99–132, 147, 155, 166, 175, 183 stallions, 29–30, 39, 41, 53, 148, 156, 163 starvation, 40 states, 12–13, 20, 25, 31–32, 34, 40, 43, 51–52, 94, 101–2, 107, 111, 117, 121–22, 125, 127–28, 131–32, 154, 158, 174–76, 180, 190, 193–95 steppes, 29–30, 41, 53, 156 stillness, 8–10, 20, 23–24, 26, 34, 43–44, 50, 65, 86–87, 91, 93, 100, 102, 104,

i nde x 106, 108, 111, 113–15, 117, 120–22, 124–25, 128, 132, 134–35, 140, 148, 151, 162, 167, 172, 174–75, 189–90, 194 streams, 30–31, 73. See also water studying the Dao, 4, 133, 168, 177 subjectivity. See consciousness; identity; personhood subjugation, 18, 33, 101, 126, 149, 153, 159–60, 168, 180. See also control subtle body. See alchemical body suchness, 26, 30, 33–34, 41, 79, 88–89, 91–92, 94–95, 127, 145, 156, 170. See also ziran suffering, 53, 102, 129, 151 sun, 13, 73, 90–92, 119, 140, 156, 170, 178, 185 Sun Buer, 43 superior person, 67, 87–88, 110–11, 171, 181 Supplement to the Buddhist Canon, 15–16 Sutra on the Bequeathed Teachings, 15 Suzuki, D. T., 15 switches. See crops; whips swords, 14, 140, 151, 194 symbiosis, 36, 156, 159 symbolic animals, 15–18, 24, 29, 36–45, 50–53, 100–1, 151, 161, 163, 171–72, 179, 181, 185 symbolism, 8, 12, 16–18, 29, 36, 38–40, 45, 50–52, 148, 151–52, 155, 161, 163, 169–71, 173–74, 182–84, 186, 194. See also metaphor syncretism, 18 Taishan. See Mount Tai Taiyi gong. See Palace of Great Unity Taizong, 161 Tale of a Pilgrim, 160 taming the wild horse, 3, 10, 12, 18, 26, 33–34, 40, 43–44, 59, 65, 84, 87, 101, 106, 108, 116, 127, 148, passim

237

Tang dynasty, 20, 38, 161 Tang Xianzu, 183, 195 Tao. See Dao Tao Qian, 171 Tao Yuanming. See Tao Qian tea, 91, 119–20, 184 teachers. See elders teaching. See guidance; oral instruction techniques. See specific techniques; training Tempel Lipazzans, 49 temples, 5, 7, 136–37, 146. See also specific temples Ten Perfections, 152 ten thousand beings. See myriad beings Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection, 148 Terebess Asia Online, 152 terrestrial branches, 43, 150, 161 tether. See control; leads The Age of Empathy, 162 The Daoist Tradition, 146 The Man Who Listens to Horses, 164 “The Old Man Loses His Horse” (proverb), 159 “The Panther” (poem), 159 The Question of the Animal and Religion, 36 The Three Pillars of Zen, 15 The Way of Complete Perfection, 146 Thearch, 81, 130, 178, 186 theology, 8, 37, 51–52, 156, 186–87, 195 thieves, 84, 108, 151, 170, 179. See also Six Thieves “thinking like a mountain,” 159 thought, 12, 18, 20, 24, 26, 33, 43–44, 51, 59, 61, 84, 100, 102, 104, 106, 108–11, 114, 117, 121–22, 125, 128, 135, 148, 154, 160, 162, 167, 170–71, 175, 179. See also agitation; horse-thought three, 77, 93, 124, 175, 181. See also yin-yang

238

in d e x

Three Bodies, 27, 130, 155, 177, 185, 195 Three Carts, 150 three characteristics of existence, 151 Three Death-Bringers, 140, 194 Three Essentials, 12 Three Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, 11–14, 25, 28, 148, 151, 166, 175, 192; contents of, 12–13; Horse Taming Pictures in, 12–13; meaning of title, 12; preface of, 13; translation of, 13–14, 57–95, 139–41 Three Heavens, 27, 81, 95, 130, 132, 178, 186, 195 Three Poisons, 24, 100, 193 Three Powers, 175 Three Purities, 8, 130, 132, 178, 186, 195 Three Realms, 92, 184 Three Sutras of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, 16 Three Teachings, 162 Three Treasures, 12, 130, 132, 181. See also vital essence; qi; spirit three vows, 8 thunder, 88, 95 “Tiandao.” See “Way of Heaven” Tianshi. See Celestial Masters Tiantai. See Celestial Terrace Tibetan Elephant Taming Pictures. See Elephant Taming Pictures time, 10, 116, 124, 147, 150 Title Index to Daoist Collections, 146 toads, 81, 91, 95, 177, 183, 191 topography. See cartography Totemism, 160 toulong. See casting dragons Townsend, Kate, 165 traces, 9, 16, 90, 92, 140, 155, 182, 193 tradition, 5, 8, 33, 36–38–41, 43, 113–14, 120, 131, 135–37, 139, 154–55, 193 training, 5, 8–14, 16–19, 26, 29–33, 40, 43–44, 47–49, 52, 57–132, 134–35, 146,

148, 151, 153–55, 157–58, 163, 168, 170, 176, 179, 183–84, 186 traits, 20. See also effects; experiential confirmation tranquil sitting. See quiet sitting transformation, 7, 9, 12, 16–20, 23, 25–28, 29, 34–35, 40, 42–43, 45, 50–53, 90, 92, 94–95, 100, 109, 113, 116–20, 127–32, 135–37, 140, 149, 154, 158, 160, 162, 166, 171–72, 177, 183, 185–87, 194–95 transformative process, 79, 90, 94, 116, 118, 128, 156, 177, 182 transmission, 5–6, 8, 51, 113, 131–32, 134, 155, 173, 183, 195 transmitting the Dao, 8 traps. See confinement Treasury of the True Dharma-Eye, 42, 184 trees, 31–32, 156, 159. See also specific trees trigrams, 13, 150, 172, 182, 194. See also specific trigrams trika¯ya. See Three Bodies Trungpa, Chogyam, 152 trust, 20, 44, 48, 52, 106–7, 110, 120 Twenty-Four Instructions Transmitted from Perfected Chongyang to Danyang, 162 twofold decreasing, 127, 168 twofold mystery, 104, 127–28, 168, 186 twofold retirement, 180 tzu-jan. See ziran uncarved block. See simplicity unification, 20, 26–28, 43, 51–52, 79, 103, 117–18, 124–29, 131–32, 149, 153–54, 158, 166, 172, 174–76, 182, 186–87, 194 untying the knots, 109, 122, 154, 190 useless trees. See trees Valley Spirit, 90, 183 vegetarianism, 8, 165–66

i nde x vexations, 17, 24–25, 102, 106, 108, 117, 150, 169, 174 view, 29, 42–43, 157, 162, 171 Vimuttimagga. See Path of Freedom vipassana¯. See guan virility, 39–40 virtue, 8, 39, 41, 158. See also ethics; inner power; precepts visions, 5, 67, 69, 88–89, 114, 116, 170–71 visualization, 147 Visuddhimagga. See Path to Purification vital breath. See qi vital essence, 12, 25, 40, 132, 149, 151, 154, 181, 183, 192, 194. See also Three Treasures vital substances, 11. See also specific substances vitality, 11–12, 14, 100–1, 117, 121–22, 126, 128, 132, 137, 149, 161, 192 Void. See emptiness; nondifferentiation Wagner, Rudolf, 175, 182, 193 “Waiwu.” See “External Things” wake-up stick, 19, 168 wall gazing, 195 wandering, 13, 69, 86, 89, 91, 93, 135, 153, 180. See also cloud-wanderers Wang Chongyang. See Wang Zhe Wang Chunhe. See Wang Zhitan Wang Zhe, 5–6, 8–9, 116, 124, 128, 135, 145–47, 149, 173, 175, 177, 184, 189–90, 192 Wang Zhijin, 5 Wang Zhitan, 6, 136, 191 wanwu. See myriad beings Wanyan Jing. See Zhangzong Wanyan Shouxu. See Aizong Wanyan Xun. See Xuanzong Wanyan Yongji. See Prince Shao of Wei war, 30, 38, 44, 47–48, 133, 150, 161

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water, 30–32, 42, 63, 67, 73, 86–88, 91–92, 106, 110–11, 113, 117, 139–40, 150, 156, 161, 194 water buffalo. See oxen Waterwheel, 11, 181. See also Celestial Cycle Way. See Dao “Way of Heaven” (chapter), 176 way of the horse, 32, 50–54, 166 wealth, 8, 100 Weaving Maiden (constellation), 18 whips, 31, 44, 49, 153 white ox, 13, 181 Wild Horses of Alberta Society, 54, 166 wildness, 3–4, 29–34, 40–41, 44, 50, 53–54, 59, 65, 67, 84–88, 102, 104, 106, 108, 110, 120, 126, 132, 145, 148, 156, 158–59, 165–67, 170, 172, 179 wind, 30, 73, 84, 87–89, 91, 93, 119, 139, 171, 181, 185, 193 wisdom, 135, 145, 151–52, 190 withdrawal. See seclusion withered wood, 75, 86, 88, 92, 121–22, 135, 139, 174, 180, 182, 190, 193 wolves, 30, 159 women, 8, 39, 43, 147–48, 160 woodcutters, 88, 182 worldview. See view wu (being/thing), 30 wuchang. See impermanence Wudeng huiyuan. See Compendium of the Five Lamps wuji. See nondifferentiation wulou. See nondissipation wuming. See namelessness Wuqin xi. See Five Animal Frolics wuqing. See emotionlessness wuwei. See nonaction Wuwei qingjing. See Nonaction and Clear Stillness

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wuxin. See no-mind wuxing. See Five Phases wuxing. See formlessness Wuxuan pian. See Chapters on Awakening to the Mysterious wuyu. See desirelessness wuzheng. See noncontention wuzhi. See nonknowing wuzu. See Five Patriarchs Xenophon, 157 Xi’an. See Chang’an Xiangma jing. See Classic on Horse Physiognomy xiangu. See immortal bones xianren. See immortality Xiantui yuan. See Garden of Immortal Husks xiaoyao. See being carefree “Xiaoyao you.” See “Carefree Wandering” xin, 12, 24, 43, 158, 169. See also heart-mind xing. See innate nature Xingding (period), 134, 187 xingming shuangxiu. See dual cultivation Xingyuan (period), 136 xinxing. See heart-mind; innate nature xinzhai. See fasting the heart-mind Xishan, 191 xiudao. See cultivating the Dao xiulian. See cultivation; refinement xiuzhen. See cultivating perfection Xiuzhen shishu. See Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection Xiuzhen tu. See Diagram of Cultivating Perfection Xu Xun, 191 Xu zangjing. See Supplement to the Buddhist Canon xuan. See mystery

Xuan Yuan, 93, 95, 185. See also Huangdi Xuanfeng. See Mysterious Movement xuanguan. See Mysterious Gate xuanpin. See Mysterious Female Xuanwu. See Zhenwu Xuanxue. See Profound Learning Xuanzang, 161 Xuanzong, 40, 188 xuedao. See studying the Dao Xunma tu, 149 Xuyun. See Hsu Yun Yancheng Ziyou, 173 yang-spirit, 11, 27, 121, 130–32, 155, 181–83 Yangsheng, 157 Yanjing, 6–7, 47, 135, 187, 190 Yanxia dong. See Cavern of Misty Vapors Yao Sui, 187 Yellow Emperor. See Huangdi Yellow Millet Dream, 91, 119, 173, 183–84, 195 yi, 106, 154, 179. See also awareness; intention; thought yidian. See spark Yijiao jing. See Sutra on the Bequeathed Teachings Yin Xi, 155 Yin Zhiping, 5, 189, 191 yin-organs. See organs yin-yang, 43, 100, 118, 124, 135, 150, 156, 162–63, 172, 175, 181–82, 186, 194 Yinfu jing. See Scripture on the Hidden Talisman Yingzhou, 4, 133 Yoga Su¯tras, 160 Yu Dongzhen. See Yu Zhidao Yu Zhidao, 4–6, 134–35, 146, 187, 189 Yuan dynasty, 7, 47, 191 yuanfen. See predestined affinities

i nde x Yuanming, 4, 89, 133, 135, 171, 182 Yuanming laoren, 4 yuanqi. See original qi yuanshen. See original spirit Yuanshi tianzun. See Celestial Worthy of Original Beginning yuanxin. See monkey-mind yulu. See discourse records yunyou. See cloud-wanderers Yuqing. See Jade Clarity Yuxian gong. See Palace for Meeting Immortals “Zaiyou.” See “Letting Be and Leaving Alone” zaohua. See transformative process Zen Buddhism. See Chan Buddhism Zen Flesh, Zen Bones, 15 Zen Oxherding Pictures. See Ox Herding Pictures Zhang Chengming. See Zhang Zhijing Zhang Zhijing, 6, 136, 191 Zhangzong, 187 Zhao Mengfu, 39 Zhaoyebai. See Night-Shining White Zhaoyebai (horse), 40, 161 Zhaozhou, 91, 184 Zhaozhou Congshen, 183 “Zhaozhou’s Cup of Tea,” 183 Zhengda (period), 134, 189

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zhengyan. See experiential confirmation Zhenwu, 150 Zhenxian zhizhi yulu. See Discourse Records and Direct Pointers of Perfected Immortals Zhiyuan (period), 136, 191 Zhonghua daozang, 146 Zhongnan mountains, 4, 135, 145 Zhongnan shan Zuting xianzhen neizhuan. See Esoteric Biographies from the Zhongnan Mountains Zhongtong (period), 136, 191 zhoutian. See Celestial Cycle Zhu Hong, 152 Zhuangzi. See Book of Master Zhuang Zide Huihui, 15 ziran, 30, 33, 41, 51–52, 59, 75, 84–85, 92, 116, 127, 145, 156–57, 168, 173, 179–80 ziwu, 13, 150 ziyou. See freedom zizai. See independence zongheng, 93, 110, 171, 180–81 zoology, 36, 42. See also animals zoos. See confinement zuobo, 147 zuowang. See sitting-in-forgetfulness Zuowang lun. See Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness Zuting. See Ancestral Hall