Talks on Education, Art, and Philosophy [1 ed.] 2017959453, 9781622733705

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TALKS ON EDUCATION, ART, AND PHILOSOPHY Editors

Ilker Aysel Yilmaz Ilker Yorulmaz Caglar Kaya

Vernon Series in Education

Copyright © 2018 Vernon Press, an imprint of Vernon Art and Science Inc, on behalf of the author. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Vernon Art and Science Inc. www.vernonpress.com

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Vernon Series in Education Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959453 ISBN: 978-1-62273-370-5 Product and company names mentioned in this work are the trademarks of their respective owners. While every care has been taken in preparing this work, neither the authors nor Vernon Art and Science Inc. may be held responsible for any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in it. Cover Art: Prof. Dr. Lale Altınkurt Untitled, Oil on Painting, 100x80 cm

Table of Contents ix

Editorial List of Tables

xiii

List of Figures

xv

List of Acronyms Chapter 1

Teaching: A Profession between Sacredness and Professionalism

xvii

1

Kursad Yilmaz Chapter 2

Investigation of Foreign Experts’ Opinions about the Turkish Education System

17

Necdet Aykac, Selcuk Atik, Hilal Bilgin, & Gulsen Ozturk Yurtseven Chapter 3

Repercussions of Turkish National Education Policies

49

Vural Hosgorur Chapter 4

Underdetermination of Scientific Theories

71

Pakize Arikan Sandikcioglu Chapter 5

The Relationship between Political Power and State Theatres in Turkey

87

Emre Savut & Levent Yilmaz Chapter 6

An Instinctive Motion in Art: Automatism

111

Reva Boynukalin Chapter 7

“Good” Future Expectation of Modern Man: Meliorism

129

Deniz Kundakci Index

145

Editorial When science is the subject matter, what image comes to your minds? Probably such written documents as books, journals, theses, reports… However, images could be on the top when considered in specific to social sciences. So be it, is it possible to consider conducting a research in social sciences only by reading and writing? Actually, it is quite obvious that the phenomenon what is called as social science, and even the philosophy, which sets the ground for many sciences, is not just a reading and writing action; indeed, it has a further and deeper meaning. One of the scholars that could come to minds of individuals who are interested in philosophy is Socrates. Well then, does Socrates have a written book? As is known, Socrates considers philosophy as an oral action which is later called as maieutic. If Plato did not put down Socrates' ideas on paper, would you hear about Socrates? Without any doubt, oral discussions in academic environments are of great importance for science to advance and enrich. Hence, it is rather fundamental to put such oral discussions in writing for transferring the knowledge, increasing its accessibility, and providing the reproduction process. In this sense, through this current book, it is aimed to put in writing the oral discussions on the subjects of philosophy, education, nd arts, and science at 2 International Symposium on Philosophy, Education, Arts and History of Science, and hereby enable many scholars to gain access to these discussions. nd

The main theme of the 2 International Symposium on Philosophy, Education, Arts and History of Science is "unity of knowledge and humanity." This current theme both lays emphasis on the accumulation of knowledge of the past and intends to create a platform for today's people so that they would be able to discuss their problems in a scientific background. Based on this point of view, many studies from various disciplines were gathered in the same academic platform. In this way, it was aimed to create a free environment which could contribute to eliminate scientific alienation and prejudices towards different disciplines. Undoubtedly, individuals who can reach and participate in a symposium could benefit from its contributions at the uttermost. What is more, encountering with different ideas during such scholarly meetings might have a role in changing your opinions. Unfortunately, it is not possible for every single scholar interested in such events to take part in such events. Therefore, post-

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conference publications like abstract books or proceedings books are as much important as conferences in terms of the accumulation of knowledge and reproduction process. In this regard, the main purpose of this current book is to enable some of the studies presented in the symposium to be reached by scholars interested in the related subjects taking place within the scope of the book. In the very first chapter, Kursad Yilmaz discusses teaching profession with regards to professionalism and sacredness. Based on some international indicators, the author states that excessively centralized structure of Turkish Education system is an obstacle for teacher autonomy. He concludes that the attribution of sacredness to teaching has a negative influence on the professionalism of teaching profession. The second chapter by Necdet Aykac, Selcuk Atik, Hilal Bilgin and Gulsen Ozturk Yurtseven focuses on foreign experts’ opinions about Turkish Education system. Foreign experts’ opinions are examined through four categories which are elementary education, vocational education, higher education, and lastly teacher training. According to the authors, foreign experts’ opinions about Turkish education system are associated with problems related to the structure of the system and different stages of schooling. However, it is claimed by the authors that some suggestions by foreign experts have been put into practice whereas some of them have not been utilized properly, which has given rise to serious problems for Turkish education system. Vural Hosgorur, in the third chapter, deals with the repercussions of Turkish education policies. It is stated by the author that recent education policies in Turkey have created some improvements in education and training, but some goals have been ignored. It is concluded that the policies of the government do increase the inequalities among different schools and regions. In the fourth chapter of our book, we have given place to a current debate on the philosophy of science. Focusing on the discussion by Larry Laudan and Jarrett Leplin, Pakize Arikan Sandikcioglu has provoked a provocative debate on the underestimation of scientific theories by emphasizing the concept of scientific reality. It is not possible to claim that as well as all the problems discussed in the field of philosophy, the problem of underestimation of scientific theories has been finally solved. As a result, Arikan's work indicates that if the arguments of Laudan and Leplin cannot be applied to total or global theories, then the missing determination will be important as a current field of discussion in the philosophical scene. Undoubtedly, art can be regarded as an act on its own, but the discussion of art's social structure and its relation to institutions can also be considered as an inspirational scientific production process. The fifth chapter by Emre Savut

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and Levent Yilmaz examines the relationship between political power and state theatres in Turkey. The authors suggest that theater in Turkey has been a mechanism in which political power has demanded to keep under its control through many years. One of the remarkable conclusions of the study is that the power of the theater has been effectively utilized at the point of adoption of the new regime by the masses and the disappearance of the traces of the old regime. The relationship between society and art which has been discussed through theater in the previous chapter has been examined in terms of the relationship between the individual and art in the sixth chapter. Reva Boynukalin’s work, which focuses on the Automatism movement, has led to a debate focusing on how art and psychology could be combined. Boynukalin, finding out the fascination of the art’s evocation within the frame of automatism movement, demonstrates readers how art could be an exciting experience with metaphors. The last chapter of the book by Deniz Kundakci intends to make a connection between meliorism and other conceptual themes like "optimism" and "messianism". The author also aims to identify the reflections of this concept on the contemporary debates. According to the author, being literally an explanatory and authentic part of the future vision of pragmatism, meliorism continues to exist as a provocative promise in social philosophy. We hereby express our sincere thanks to all the authors for their invaluable contributions. We would also like to express our deepest gratitude and profound thanks to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yahya Altinkurt for his inestimable contributions. Hopefully, reading this work will be an inspirational experience for all readers. Ilker Aysel, PhD Yilmaz Ilker Yorulmaz, MA Caglar Kaya, MA

List of Tables Table 2.1. Foreign experts’ opinions and the categories under which they stated their opinions

20

Table 2.2. Experts’ opinions and their suggestions about elementary education

21

Table 2.3. Experts’ opinions expressed about vocational education and their suggestions

28

Table 2.4. Foreign experts’ opinions about higher education and their suggestions

36

Table 3.1. Some indicators of quality and equality in education

55

Table 3.2. Ratio of MoNE budget to consolidated budget and GDP

58

Table 3.3. Amount allocated to educational investments from MoNE budget

59

Table 3.4. Indicators related to improvement & financing in education

59

Table 3.5. Indicators related to improvement & financing in education

65

List of Figures Figure 6.1. Man Ray, Untitled, 1922

114

Figure 6.2. Andre Masson, The Earth, 1939

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Figure 6.3. Andre Masson, Automatic Drawing, 1924

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Figure 6.4. Joan Miro, Catalan Peasant Head, 1924

116

Figure 6.5. Jackson Pollock, Convergence, 1952

117

Figure 6.6. Franz Kline, Untitled II, 1952

118

Figure 6.7. Georges Mathieu, Le duc Charles épouse la duchesse de Bourgogne, 1957

118

Figure 6.8. Kikie Crevecoeur, Vue d'ensemble de la série, 2007

119

Figure 6.9. Bill Viola, The Crossing, video/sound installation, 1996

120

Figure 6.10. Cai Quo Quiang, Head On, 2006

120

Figure 6.11. Roxy Paine, Machinations, 2010

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Figure 6.12. Roxy Paine, Machinations, 2010

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Figure 6.13. Kate MccGwire, Discharge, 2015

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Figure 6.14. Kate MccGwire, Fine, 2012

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Figure 6.15. Kiki Smith, Born, 2002

123

List of Acronyms ANAP

Anavatan Partisi [Homeland Party]

CGP

Cumhuriyetci Guven Partisi [Republician Trust Party]

CHP

Cumhuriyetci Halk Partisi [Republican People’s Party]

DSP

Demokratik Sol Parti [Democratic Left Party]

DTCF

Dil Tarih Cografya Fakultesi [Faculty of Language, History and Geography]

DYP

Dogruyol Partisi [True Path Party]

EARGED Education Research and Development Department FATIH

Firsatlari Artirma ve Teknolojiyi Iyilestirme Hareketi [Movement of Enhancing Opportunities and Improving Technology

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

MC

Milliyetci Cephe [Nationalist Front]

MEB

Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education]

MEGEP

Mesleki Egitim ve Ogretim Sistemini Guclendirme Projesi [Project of Strengthening Vocational Education and Training System]

MHP

Milliyetci Hareket Partisi [Nationalist Movement Party]

MSP

Milli Selamet Partisi [National Salvation Party]

SHP

Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti [Social Democratic Populist Party]

TBMM

Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi [Turkish Grand National Assembly]

TIMMS

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study

TOTSIS

Turkiye Opera Tiyatro ve Yardimci Iscileri Sendikasi [Turkish Opera Theater and Auxilary Workers’ Union]

TUSAK

Turkiye Sanat Kurumu [Art Institution of Turkey]

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Chapter 1

Teaching: A Profession between Sacredness and Professionalism Kursad Yilmaz1

Introduction Teaching has always been a profession which has been given a great deal of importance in Turkey due to its significance for the future of the individual, Turkish society and the country as a whole, and also for its role in perpetuating social change. Regarded as the most reputable profession in the world, teaching is a concept which has been produced from the common ground of such terms as learning, instruction, learner, and instructor. The profession, which began its historical development process with babysitting, was a job originally performed by slaves and in time transformed into a profession conducted by religious functionaries and then later by teachers. Despite experiencing various transformations since ancient times, teaching has been carrying on its existence as a professional field and has also maintained its importance (Yilmaz & Altinkurt, 2014). In order to demonstrate the importance given to the teaching profession, some stereotypical expressions are utilized. These expressions include certain values and they are approved without thought among both the individuals who conduct the profession and those who benefit from the profession. The value attributed to the teaching profession in these stereotyped expressions is sacredness. In Turkey, the emphasis on the sacredness of the teaching profession has been employed for a long time. Depending on the historical background of Turkey, there have been various types of teachers at different times and teaching is a profession which is generally both respected and afforded a significant level of importance. While it was a profession conducted mostly by religious functionaries in the Seljuk and Ottoman Empire, the word “master” (the emphasis of masters’ army in II. Constitutionalism) was used later. However, it can be stated that in the first years of the Republic of Turkey, the notion of the modern teacher, who would train the community and the rising generation in accordance with the purpose and principles of the newly 1

Prof. Dr., Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Education, [email protected]

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established state arose; this lasted until the 1980’s, after which the term idealist teacher was seen and later on a teacher model whose practical aspect has been increasing. No matter what the time period, the teacher has always been given a great deal of importance in Turkish society. Nevertheless, it is quite hard to predicate that the importance given to teachers is also attributed to the profession of teacher training. It is agreed that, in Turkey, teacher training applications began with the founding of Darulmuallimin in 1848. Darulmuallimin was the boys’ school of teaching which was active between 1848 and 1924. Additionally, there was also Dârulmuallimât, the girls’ school of teaching, which was in operation from 1870 to 1924. In this sense, it can be asserted that Turkey has a rooted teacher training background. However, in spite of this background, an institutionalized teacher training system could not be constituted, hence over the course of time, many different and authentic models have been experienced. For instance, in the Village Institutes Model, which was an authentic model, it was aimed to modernize the rural villagers and teachers were trained with this aim. In the Village Institutes, teachers were trained as dedicated, selfsacrificing and skillful by imposing on them a specific mission. Their main purpose was to serve the country. Furthermore, the report prepared by John Dewey for the Turkish education system had a great influence on the foundation of the Village Institutes. As a matter of fact, it is possible to observe the direct reflections of this report on the foundation rationale and basis of the institutes (Altunya, 2000, 2005). Afterwards, in Turkey many different applications regarding teacher training have been experienced. In 1982, faculties of education were founded and teacher training was brought into the higher education system. However, at the present time teachers are trained through faculties of education, pedagogical formation programs and also through schools of physical education and sports. Moreover, some regulations have been introduced and curriculums and courses updated for teacher training from time to time. After the regulation changes of 1997, the teaching profession has been dealt with as a mechanical-technical process. Even though Turkey has a quite rooted and established teacher training background, matters such as the quality of undergraduate programs in the faculties of education, application styles of pedagogical formation programs and religious culture and moral knowledge of teachers being trained in the faculties of theology have been consistently discussed. Although, at the national level, there are no scientific studies, researches or reports concerning qualified teachers not being able to be trained in Turkey, discussions concerning teacher training have always remained on the agenda. One of these discussions relates to the status and professionalization of teaching. In contemporary education systems, the

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emphasis placed on the professionalism of teachers has been steadily increasing; however, in Turkey teaching is still considered to be aligned more with its sacredness. In this context, the teaching profession is regarded as a profession which is somewhere between sacredness and professionalism because there has always been this conflict between the notions of a “sacred profession,” resulting from the meaning ascribed to the profession, and the expectation that the job must be carried out with professionalism. In the modern education systems, so as to dispose teacher authority, sacredness is referred to teachers and this condition can be regarded as normal. In this way, an idealist and strong teacher type has been created. However, especially in recent years, the emphasis that teaching is a professional job has progressively increased. On the one hand, teachers are trained with the attribution of sacredness in the Turkish education system; but on the other hand, they are expected to perform their job in a professional way. If teaching is a specialized profession bearing on a specific education and fund of knowledge, then the question arises as to how it can be both sacred and professional? The aim of this current study, therefore, is to perform an analysis regarding this mixed perception. Teaching as a Profession between Sacredness and Professionalism Sacred can be defined as: Arising or supposed to arise a strong religious esteem, holy, sainted; the one who is loved so much to be idolized or die on his way, holy, sainted, blessed; somebody or something that should not be degenerated, harmed or objected, the one to be coddled. (TDK Turkish Dictionary, 2016) As can be deduced from the dictionary definition, sacredness is a concept that is more concerned with religion. Even though sacredness is a term related to religion, the teaching profession is usually associated with sacredness in Turkey. Especially, in conversations at formal ceremonies, it is often underlined as such. The following expressions are examples of this: For forty years, I would be a slave of the one who taught me one letter [Hz. Ali]. Teachers: the new generation will be your devotion [M. Kemal Ataturk]. The ones who will save the nations are only the teachers [M. Kemal Ataturk]. Teacher is holy as a mother. Teacher is holy as a father [Ali Riza Binboga – The First Teacher Song].

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The assurance of our national unification and cooperation is teachers [Anonymous]. Such associations are not only used in Turkey, but also in many countries with different yet similar expressions: Everything in the world can be valued, but the devotion of teacher cannot be appraised [Socrates]. I do not know anything on earth more honorable than teaching [Diogenes]. A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops [Henry Adams]. Do not even step on the shadow of a teacher [South Korean proverb]. As can be inferred from these statements, the emotional aspect of the teaching profession is stressed by the attribution of sacredness. Therefore, it can be commonly asserted that teaching cannot be conducted without loving it and also that teachers should become role models. In contemporary education systems, the attribution of sacredness gives the notion that teachers are the masters of knowledge; guardians of the classroom, and by this way the authority of teachers is empowered. According to this opinion, teaching is a sacred profession and those performing it are required to set their hearts to their profession because all other occupational groups are in fact trained by teachers. Moreover, the progress and development of countries is substantially attached to training teachers satisfactorily. Even in recent years, the training of moral children has been devolved from families and the job assigned to teachers. Along with applications known as values education, teachers are expected to train children morally in a way to sustain their sacredness. Teaching is so sacred that it stands for wiping away a tiny child’s tears and gathering around one’s students like a parent. It also means sharing knowledge with students and guiding them properly. Indeed, teachers are the masters of knowledge. This point of view can be regarded as the perception of traditional professionalism and specialized field knowledge is stressed more here. Teachers in Turkey have been provided with quite important roles in the contemporary education system, as constituted with the 1923 establishment of the Republic of Turkey. Teachers are responsible for training the community and the rising generation in accordance with the purpose and principles of the newly established state. Within this context, in the early years of the Republic, teachers were expected to be pioneers of a new alternation movement. As a result, an idealist and strong teacher type was created. However, in today’s world this idealist teacher type has evolved into an operative teacher who prepares students for exams. Moreover, the ideal has given way to the

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earning of more money and to have students correctly solve more test questions. It is not possible to consider this alternation independently from worldwide neo-liberal educational policies. This situation has also reflected on the faculties of education, where not only the sacredness of teaching has been emphasized, but also pre-service teachers have been trained as operators who make students solve more questions. Especially the educational reforms of 1997 caused the technical aspects of teaching to be taken to fore. Teachers are trained in a way to operate more than they are to think. This condition is rather related to “New Perception of Professionalism.” Teachers, who are formed in the basis of this new perception of professionalism, are directed to operating more than they are to thinking. The new teacher has based the experiences at school on teaching much more than learning. In this sense, teachers are motivated to attain competences and new abilities more than values and ethics (Maguire, 2002). Today, increasing teacher quality is regarded as one of the fundamental factors determining student achievement and many studies regarding the professionalization of teachers. Teaching as a Professional Job Professional is defined as “a person performing a job in order to derive a profit” (TDK, 2016). Besides, professionalism refers to how much individuals or groups consisting of individuals are compatible with the features expected from them due to their jobs (Lee, 1981). In a general sense, professionalism can be described as an individual’s taking responsibility for his professional development and progress. Professional jobs have basically five characteristic features (Tobias & Baffert, 2010): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Field of specialization based on knowledge is obtained through academic study. Standards of the professional application are determined by a professional organization. In order to carry out the profession, testing, controlling the competence continuously and improvement is required. Its social status and economic return is relatively high. There is independence and autonomy to some extent in carrying out the profession.

As can be seen, professionalism brings forward a certain number of competences which teachers are required to possess. These competences of teachers are measured with standard tests applied to students especially in the recent years and accordingly students are classified, ranged or even labeled. Standardized and centralized examinations are the best instruments for this. In the application of these instruments, it can be observed that the emphasis on the

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professionalism of teachers has increased. In recent years, the encouragement of international organizations such as UNESCO, the ILO, OECD, and the World Bank have enhanced the emphasis on professionalism. As a result of the findings revealed by the evaluations of the 2013 TALIS (The Teaching and Learning International Survey), the Supporting Teacher Professionalism Report (2016) was published by the OECD (2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017). With consideration of the 2013 TALIS data, the report identified the factors playing key roles in enhancing teacher effectiveness in educational processes and in this direction it exhibited some policy suggestions. The report stated that the fundamental factors that are effective in the teachers’ professionalism process were investigated under the heads of “Teachers’ Professional Knowledge,” “Teacher Autonomy” and “Professional Collaboration” and they were compared on the basis of country (TEDMEM, 2017). Each of these titles is examined on an individual basis specific to Turkey as follows: Teachers’ Professional Knowledge The criteria taken as reference for measuring teachers’ professional knowledge and abilities by Supporting Teacher Professionalism (OECD, 2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017) Report are indicated below: •

•

•

Teaching Education: participation status in teaching education and the comprehensiveness of the instructional content of teaching education. Professional Development: promoting in-service education, supporting types of professional development (within or outside of working hours, financial or nonfinancial), taking part in professional development processes for a long duration. Applied Research: promoting applied researches, action research and the participation status in applied research.

In the Turkish teacher training system, the fundamental knowledge and formation fields required for teachers to possess are gathered under three main heads. These are the dimensions of “Field Knowledge,” “Teachers’ Professional Knowledge” and “General Knowledge.” In general, the ratio for field knowledge courses is 50%, for professional knowledge courses 30% and for general culture courses it constitutes 20% of the curriculum. In the 2006-2007 academic year, a regulation was introduced affecting Turkish teacher training curriculums (YOK, 2007a). In this regulation, the ratio of field knowledge courses was reduced; whereas, the proportion of professional knowledge and general culture courses increased. Moreover, in Turkey, pre-service teachers receive a four-year education in their training as teachers. However, in order for individuals graduating from faculties other than Education, a pedagogical

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formation program lasting for one year is an additional requirement for noneducation graduates to become teachers. The duration of pedagogical formation programs might sometimes be 14 weeks lasting for two terms (one term lasts for seven weeks in intensive programs). Hence, this situation contains rather important problems in terms of participation in teaching education and the comprehensiveness of the instructional content of teaching education. There has been no extensive research which evaluates the quality of education provided by faculties of education in Turkey. However, most of the preservice teachers failed in the field knowledge test of the centralized exam, namely the Public Personnel Selection Examination (known in Turkish as KPSS), which is a requirement for teachers to be assigned to work in Turkish public schools and a rather significant proportion of the pre-service teachers could not even solve half of the 50 questions (Cakmakci, 2017). This situation brought into question the field knowledge of pre-service teachers. In addition to this, it is impossible to reach any information, document or research concerning in-service teachers. Nonetheless, it has been identified in the literature (Gomleksiz & Serhatlioglu, 2013; Ustuner, Demirtas, Comert, & Ozer, 2009; Yilmaz & Cokluk-Bokeoglu, 2008) that teachers found themselves to be adequately sufficient with regards to their teaching competencies. Similarly, in studies related to pre-service teachers, it was also determined that preservice teachers generally perceive themselves as being competent (AggulYalcin, 2011; Gercek, Yilmaz, Koseoglu, & Soran, 2006; Oguz, 2012; Yesilyurt, 2013; Yilmaz & Gurcay, 2011). Furthermore, in various studies, different problems regarding the teacher training system in Turkey have been mentioned. Among these matters such as taking quantity to the fore over quality (Azar, 2011; Ozturk, 2016); the problem of qualitative lecturers (Ayas, 2006); the culture problem in faculties of education (Okcabol, 2017); problems regarding the quantities of lecturers (Korkut, 1987; Sarac, 2016; TED, 2009; YOK, 2007b); the scantiness and quality of applied courses (Dincer & Kapisiz, 2013; Oguz, 2004); and problems related to pedagogical formation (Durmuscelebi, 2015; Sozer, 1991; Senel, 1999; Temel, 1990) can be included. Teacher Autonomy Teacher autonomy generally states the requirement for teachers’ active participation in the decision-making processes about the planning of instruction, professional development and school management and their carrying authority in these issues. In this sense, authority and independence involves issues such as Teachers, as professionals, can make a certain number of decisions regarding their job (Ingersoll, 2007); have a say in the

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organization of educational environments (Pearson & Hall, 1993); and participating in processes like planning, developing and administering the instruction (Freidman, 1999). Teacher autonomy means the independence given to teachers in educational applications within the framework of norms which they have already been dealt, universal codes of ethics, legislation, and scientific and pedagogical principles in place so that the school can reach its objectives. Thus, teacher autonomy stands for neither an unlimited domain of independence nor acting on one’s own initiative (Colak, 2016). By means of autonomy, teachers can play a more efficient role in the teaching process due to the decisions and preferences they make depending on their own opinions (Ozturk, 2012). In measuring teacher autonomy, the roles of teachers in decision-making processes are considered under five sub-categories in Supporting Teacher Professionalism (OECD, 2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017) Report. These subcategories are “Curriculum,” “Course Aims and Objectives,” “Discipline Applications,” “Evaluation of Students” and “Course Materials.” On the other hand, various studies have been carried out so as to determine the autonomy of teachers in the Turkish education system. In the study conducted by Ozturk (2012), it was identified that History teachers at secondary schools in Turkey were extremely restricted in creating instructional plans. In this regard, teachers adopt instructional autonomy more and they find it more practicable (Karabacak, 2014). Similarly, the study of Colak (2016) determined that teachers demonstrated autonomous behaviors in the instructional process at the most among all the autonomy dimensions. In addition, it was remarked upon that teachers’ general autonomy behaviors were above the medium level (Colak & Altinkurt, 2017). The reason why teachers in Turkey perceive themselves as more autonomous in the instructional process is the excessively centralist structure of the Turkish education system. In Turkey, many issues such as curriculum development, approval and selection of course books, teaching materials, teacher employment and even the in-service training of teachers are in the hands of the Ministry of National Education (MoNE). In this sense, it is rather hard to remark that teachers have professional autonomy in Turkey because the MoNE mostly determines what teachers will teach, how they will teach it, and even which books they will utilize (Ozoglu, Gur, & Altunoglu, 2013). Besides, in Turkey, teachers are dependent to the MoNE in such matters as determining the content of compulsory curriculum and selecting course books (Colak, Yorulmaz, Altinkurt, & Ekinci, 2017). Teachers are not permitted to utilize a book as a course book apart from those specified by the MoNE (Milli Egitim Bakanligi – MEB [Ministry of National Education – MoNE], 2012). Furthermore, among OECD countries, Turkey is one of the countries ensuring the

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least autonomy to schools in the issues of curriculum, evaluation of students and utilization of sources (OECD, 2011). Teacher autonomy is related to a specific field of authority and independence in issues regarding their profession and decision-making processes. However, it has been identified through many studies (e.g., Basyigit, 2009; Demirtas & Alanoglu, 2015; Gurkan, 2006; Koklu, 2012) that in Turkey, there have been significant problems in teachers’ participating in the decisions being made. Consequently, it can be concluded that there are quite significant deficiencies concerning teacher autonomy in Turkey. Professional Collaboration In the Supporting Teacher Professionalism (OECD, 2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017) Report, so as to measure the professional collaboration level of teachers, data regarding the following criteria were investigated: “engaging in coaching application at school, Attending to relation networks among teachers (professional learning communities), Receiving feedbacks from colleagues as a result of naturalistic observations and Making individualized professional development plans.” As can be inferred, professional collaboration focuses on the issues of associating with colleagues about collaborative works and carrying out individual professional development activities, because teachers’ effective professional development requires collaborative activities (Hunzicker, 2010). Professional development opportunities enhance professional collaboration and interaction and also this condition can increase the job satisfaction of teachers. Besides, it can also enhance the probability of teachers staying in the profession (Martson, 2010). In the report conducted by the OECD (2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017), it was emphasized that recently qualified teachers, who are at a really important step in their professional development, should be promoted with such applications as an orientation period and coaching. In recent years, training teachers has taken place among many outstanding issues in MoNE’s agenda and many changes regarding this process have been instigated. Hence, in Turkey, many applications have been conducted with relation to the orientation and coaching processes of new teachers. In the process of training candidate teachers, a candidacy education which includes 16 weeks of in-school and out-of-school activities and also eight weeks of training during the summer months comprising of theoretical subjects has been designed. Teachers, therefore, are required to take classes on their own after carrying out an orientation process lasting for a total of 24 weeks. The MoNE has requested that candidate teachers should read at least five books among a list of 31 that are recommended, and also watch at least 10 films among 22 films during their candidacy education process. An extensive

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research was conducted with the purpose of evaluating the candidacy education process. According to a study (Ilyas, Coskun, & Toklucu, 2017) which was carried out with 17,619 candidate teachers, it was identified that: •

•

•

•

•

Candidate teachers who would take up a position in the following year had read approximately 4.8 among 31 books recommended by the MoNE. The books mostly read by teachers were the Little Prince (89%), the Land of the White Lilies (82%), the Education of Little Tree (43%) and Turkey’s Educational Case (36%). The most important criterion for candidate teachers in the selection of books was the number of pages. Candidate teachers generally preferred to read the finest books among the recommendation list consisting of 31 books. The ratio of academic books read as recommended to contribute to their professional development was very low, with only 5% or less of candidates having read such types of books. Books on the list such as “Human Beings from Past to Today: Introduction to Social Psychology” (by C. Kagitcibasi & Z. Cemalcilar) or “Open the Social Sciences!” (Report of the Gulbenkian Commission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences) were read by hardly any of the candidate teachers.

As can be understood from these results, candidate teachers almost entirely failed in the task of reading the required books. This condition can be regarded as significantly negative in terms of their professionalization because teachers are required to behave like a researcher in order that they will learn consistently (Kincheloe, 2004). One of the indicators researchers identified of teachers was their book reading habits, and found in Turkey that teachers performed inadequately related to this issue. Even though in recent years more intensive research concerning teachers’ professional development has commenced in Turkey, it is rather hard to state that in Turkey, a systematically political process is being performed which deals with the professionalization of teachers by considering all of its dimensions. Also, those concrete and decisive steps are being actuated in eliminating the restrictions of the Turkish Educational system (TEDMEM, 2017). Conclusions In the Turkish education system, teachers are trained with the attribution of sacredness; on the other hand, they are also expected to perform their job in a professional way. If teaching is a specialized profession bearing on a specific education and fund of knowledge and the job is performed for money, then

Teaching: A Profession between Sacredness and Professionalism

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how can teachers be both sacred and professional? An analysis regarding this mixed perception was conducted in this study. The most utilized concepts regarding the emphasis of sacredness are terms such as “conscience, devotion, patience, enduring and tolerating.” Each of these terms refers to a virtue and the emphasis here is that teaching is a matter of conscience. Can the requirements of the profession be conceded to the consciences of individuals, in other words to coincidences? In the attribution of sacredness, an idea like “Here is your money for you, but as you are sacred and you have to work, you shouldn’t complain either” cannot take place. It is just because of the fact that teaching is not a matter of conscience; however, it might be a profession of responsibilities. Teaching is a professional job having a job definition and leaning on a specific education. Therefore, if individuals perform the requirements of their job in a professional way, it is not necessary to question their consciences in doing that job. In a job carried out considering their conscience, will performance be evaluated according to their conscience, as well? Teaching is a rather important job, which can be performed in a professional way together with a certain spirit and enthusiasm. As a result, what is actually sacred is not the profession itself, but the effort invested in it by its practitioners, the teachers. At the present time, teaching is a respected professional job and therefore teachers are required to be trained and work accordingly. The attribution of sacredness to teaching has a negative influence on the professionalism of the job. The expression of sacredness might be valid and essential for a certain period of time, as especially in the contemporary states, teachers’ authority is really significant and in order for this authority to be disposed; there might be a need for such an emphasis. Indeed, the emphasis of sacredness is also used in the contemporary system in order to explain certain things such as schooling reproduces poverty and improves social status; it blunts the creativity and authenticity of individuals and deepens the inequalities. In many countries, various reforms have been applied to make teachers more professional. However, these reforms are occasionally unable to go beyond simple rhetoric because of the fact that “independence and autonomy,” which are criteria for professionalism, might still not be applied through such reforms. Teachers are described as being more responsible where there is a structure that has been constructed in which teachers are less authorized and independent. That is to say, on the one hand the rhetoric of enhancing teaching through professional applications has been expressed; but on the other hand, the adopted techniques have begun to restrict the teachers’ independence (Popkewitz, 1991). Some audits conducted in favor of professionalization rely completely on the assumption that teachers are in some way deficient or

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at fault. It is remarked that teachers should be professionalized; however, the opinions of teachers have not been consulted in any of the reforms. The fact that teachers are detracted from decision-making processes deactivates teachers and degrades them to the status of a technical practitioner. In fact, what is desired with all these reforms is to redefine teachers as “operators” more than a professional who can make critical judgments and reactions. Teachers who endeavor to be within the framework of the “new perception of professionalism,” aim to be converted into a member of a profession whose professional activities can be measured through external accountability mechanisms such as professional standards, performance indicators and productivity. Moreover, it is a problematical situation that the concept of the professional has been downgraded to market terms like “rivalry, productivity, entrepreneurship and competition.” Besides, that teaching is converted into a salaried laborers role might lie behind professionalism being regularly overemphasized. Nonetheless, the teaching profession must be prevented from becoming a marketplace. Teachers are not simply individuals there to train the types of people which the market or sovereign powers require. In order for the quality of education to increase, the MoNE should position teachers as professionals, encourage efforts intended at increasing the qualities of teachers and provide teachers with the independence and autonomy to a considerable extent in support of them carrying out their jobs. Meanwhile, teachers’ professionalism stands for a more qualified education. In this regard, the issue of training teachers is vital. Nevertheless, the current teacher training system, unfortunately, endeavors to train “individuals who are masters, working to earn more and enterprising” instead of “individuals who are thinking and loving.” Education is perceived as a totally mechanical process and it is maintained in accordance with this situation. It is also being largely ignored that education is a process of humanization and liberation. In this way, administrative officials for the education system are receiving more training than teachers. According to the literature, it is identified that if teachers are to be considered as professionals, just like in the other professions requiring specialization, they should have the necessary autonomy in utilizing their own knowledge and experiences in order to organize the educational environment (Ozturk, 2012; Pearson & Moomaw, 2005). However, the excessively centralist structure of the Turkish education system does not enable this. When the titles of the OECD (2016, as cited in TEDMEM, 2017) Report, namely “Teachers’ Professional Knowledge,” “Teacher Autonomy” and “Professional Collaboration” are investigated individually, it can be determined that there are a great many significant deficiencies in the professionalization of teaching in Turkey. Pre-service teachers are trained with a specific fund of knowledge in Turkey.

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The most important deficiency regarding this issue is the lack of applied studies in their pre-service education. Nevertheless, some regulations have also been introduced and new applications have been introduced in Turkey for the orientation process of newly qualified teachers. Although there are still some certain problems about these applications, they might turn into more efficient implementations in the future. Teachers are able to collaborate with their colleagues to a certain extent. However, these collaborations can only be exactly within the scope of the limitations allowed by the central education system. For instance, the meetings of the group teachers’ commission, consisting of teachers from the same subject enhance the interaction between the teachers. Nonetheless, the interaction between teachers from different subjects is also important and research is needed to increase this interaction. On the other hand, one of the most important issues for a job to professionalize is the matter of professional development. In Turkey, not only the activities organized for the professional development of teachers, but also the efforts of teachers for professional development fall behind (TED, 2009). The MoNE suggests that teachers who want to participate in scientific meetings as audience or present a proceeding should be enabled and designated. Yet, there are significant problems in the applications of this, with school administrators potentially raising difficulties for teachers. The Turkish education system is rather inadequate in terms of teacher autonomy, which is probably the most important parameter in the matter of professionalization. In this respect, the most significant problem in Turkey is that the importance of teacher autonomy could not be comprehended yet. The fact that with increased teacher autonomy, students’ achievement also increases has not been completely subscribed to. Moreover, one of the requisitions of teacher autonomy is that teachers actively engage in the decision processes. However, as a result of school administrators being regarded as those in the position of responsible for all processes of schooling in the education system, school administrators do not volunteer that much to share decision making with other workers/teachers. In Turkey, further studies are required in order to enhance the professionalism of teachers. In addition, there are various studies related to subjects that should be dealt with regarding the professionalization of teachers. However, what is rather important is that these studies need to be applied in the education system and culture in an appropriate way. Taking this principle into consideration for future studies will increase the overall achievement.

Chapter 1

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References Aggul-Yalcin, F. (2011). Fen bilgisi ogretmen adaylarinin bazi degiskenlere gore oz yeterlik inanclarinin incelenmesi. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(3), 1046-1063. Altunya, N. (2000). Koy enstitusu sistemine toplu bakis. Ankara: Kelebek. Altunya, N. (2005). Millî egitimde Mustafa Necati donemi. Istanbul: Basari. Ayas, A. P. (2006). Egitim fakultelerinin yeniden yapilandirilmasi sureci: Hedeflerin neresindeyiz? Egitime Bakis, 2(5), 14-20. Azar, A. (2011). Turkiye’de ogretmen egitimi uzerine bir soylem: Nitelik mi, nicelik mi? Yuksekogretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 1(1), 36-38. Basyigit, F. (2009). Ogretmenlerin karar alma surecine katilim duzeylerinin orgutsel baglilik duzeyleri ile iliskisi (Master’s thesis). Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara, Turkey. Cakmakci, N. (2017, February 1). Ogretmen adaylarinin cogu sinifta kaldi. Hurriyet. Retrieved from http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ogretmenadaylarinin-cogu-sinifta-kaldi-40352151. Colak, I. (2016). Okul iklimi ile ogretmenlerin ozerklik davranislari arasindaki iliski (Mugla ili ornegi) (Master’s thesis). Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Mugla, Turkey. Colak, I., & Altinkurt, Y. (2017). Okul iklimi ile ogretmenlerin ozerklik davranislari arasindaki iliski. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Yonetimi, 23(1), 33-71. Colak, I., Yorulmaz, Y. I., Altinkurt, Y., & Ekinci, C. E. (2017, May). Bazi ulkelerdeki ogretmenlerin ve okullarin ozerklik duzeyleri. Paper presented at nd the 2 International Symposium on Philosophy, Education, Art and History of Science. Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Mugla, Turkey. Demirtas, Z., & Alanoglu, M. (2015). Ogretmenlerin karara katilimi ve is doyumu arasindaki iliski. Ahi Evran Universitesi Kirsehir Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 16(2), 83-100. Dincer, S., & Kapisiz, T. (2013). Ogretmen adaylarinin uygulama dersleri ile ilgili yapilan akademik calismalarinin icerik analizi. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 12(2), 281-294. Durmuscelebi, M. (2015). Ogretmenlik egitimi programinin etkililigi. Pegem Egitim ve Ogretim Dergisi, 5(5), 747-766. Friedman, I. A. (1999). Teacher-perceived work autonomy: The concept and its measurement. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59(1), 58-76. Gercek, C., Yilmaz, M., Koseoglu, P., & Soran, H. (2006). Biyoloji egitimi ogretmen adaylarinin ogretiminde oz-yeterlik inanclari. Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi Dergisi, 39(1), 57-73. Gomleksiz, M. N., & Serhatlioglu, B. (2013). Okul oncesi ogretmenlerinin ozyeterlik inanclarina iliskin gorusleri. Turkish Studies, 8(7), 201-221. Gurkan, M. (2006). Mesleki ve teknik egitim kurumlarinda gorev yapan ogretmenlerin karara katilma durumlari (Master’s thesis). Yildiz Teknik University, Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey. Hunzicker, J. (2010). Characteristic of effective professional development: A checklist. ERIC Documents. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED510366.pdf.

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Ilyas, I. E., Coskun, I., & Toklucu, D. (2017). Turkiye’de aday ogretmen yetistirme modeli izleme ve degerlendirme raporu. Ankara: SETA. Ingersoll, R. M. (2007). Short on power long on responsibility. Educational Leadership, 65(1), 20-25. Karabacak, M. S. (2014). Ankara ili genel liselerinde gorev yapan ogretmenlerin ozerklik algilari ile ozyeterlik algilari arasindaki iliski (Master’s thesis). Ankara University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara. Kincheloe, J. L. (2004). The knowledges of teacher education: Developing a critical complex epistemology. Teacher Education Quarterly, 31(1), 49-66. Koklu, M. (2012). Participations in decision making, desires for participation, job satisfactions and conflict management styles of secondary education teachers. Education and Science, 37(165), 208-223. Korkut, H. (1987). Egitim fakultelerinde ogretim elemani sorunu. In proceedings of Ogretmen Yetistiren Yuksekogretim Kurumlarinin DunuBugunu-Gelecegi Sempozyumu, (pp. 723-734). Ankara: Gazi University. Lee, J. S. (1981). Editor’s page: Professionalism. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 54(1), 3. Maguire, M. (2002). Globalization, education policy and the teacher. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 12(3), 261-276. Martson, S. H. (2010). Why do they teach? A comparison of elementary, high school, and college teachers. Education, 131(2), 437-454. Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2012). Milli Egitim Bakanligi ders kitaplari ve egitim araclari yonetmeligi. Resmi Gazete [Official Gazette]. Issue: 28409. OECD. (2011). School autonomy and accountability: Are they related to student performance? PISA in Focus, 9, 1-4. doi: 10.1787/22260919. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9h362kcx9w-en. Oguz, A. (2004). Okul deneyimi I dersinin ogretmen adaylari uzerindeki etkileri. Dumlupinar Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11, 141-162. Oguz, A. (2012). Sinif ogretmeni adaylarinin akademik oz-yeterlik inanclari. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 2(2), 15-28. Okcabol, R. (2017). Egitim fakulteleri: Egitim sisteminin hem icinde hem disinda. Ogretmen Dunyasi, 38(447), 17-21. Ozoglu, M., Gur, B. S., & Altunoglu, A. (2013). Turkiye ve dunyada ogretmenlik: retorik ve pratik. Ankara: Egitim-Bir-Sen. Ozturk, C. (2016). Turkiye’de ogretmen yetistirmenin serencami. Yuksekogretim Dergisi, 2, 70-73. https://yoksis.yok.gov.tr/websitesiuygulamalari/yuksekogretimdergisi/inde x.html Ozturk, I. H. (2012). Ogretimin planlanmasinda ogretmenin rolu ve ozerkligi: Ortaogretim tarih ogretmenlerinin yillik plan hazirlama ve uygulama ornegi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri, 12(1), 271-299. Pearson, L. C. & Moomaw, W. (2005). The relationship between teacher autonomy and stress, work satisfaction, empowerment, and professionalism. Educational Research Quarterly, 29(1), 37-53. Pearson, L. C., & Hall, B. W. (1993). Initial construct validation of the teaching autonomy scale. Journal of Educational Research, 86(3), 172-177.

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Popkewitz, T. (1991). A political sociology of educational reform: Power/knowledge in teaching, teacher education and research. New York: Teachers College Press. Sarac, Y. (2016). Bakan Yilmaz, YOK´te egitim fakultelerinin yoneticileriyle bir araya geldi. Retrieved from http://meb.gov.tr/bakan-yilmaz-yokte-egitimfakultelerinin-yoneticileriyle-bir-araya-geldi/haber/11969/tr Senel, E. A. (1999). Ogretmenlik sertifikasi programina katilan ogretmen adaylarinin ogretmenlik meslegine yonelik tutumlarina ogretmenlik uygulamalarinin etkisi (Master’s thesis). Anadolu Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitusu, Eskisehir. Sozer, E. (1991). Turk universitelerinde ogretmen yetistirme sistemlerinin ogretmenlik davranislarini kazandirma yonunden etkililigi. Eskisehir: Anadolu Universitesi Yayinlari. TDK. (2016). Guncel Turkce Sozluk. Retrieved from http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index. php?option=com_gts. TED. (2009). Ogretmen yeterlikleri: Ogretmene yatirim, gelecege atilim. Ankara: TED. TEDMEM. (2017). Ogretmenlerin profesyonellesmesinin desteklenmesi. Retrieved from https://tedmem.org. Temel, A. (1990). Fen edebiyat fakultesi ogrencilerinin ogretmenlik meslegine iliskin tutumlarina ogretmenlik formasyon programlarinin etkisi. Cukurova Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 1, 180-192. Tobias, S., & Baffert, A. (2010). Science teaching as a profession: Why it isn’t. How it could be. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Ustuner, M., Demirtas, H., Comert, M., & Ozer, N. (2009). Ortaogretim ogretmenlerinin oz-yeterlik algilari. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 9(17), 1-16. Yesilyurt, E. (2013). Ogretmen adaylarinin ogretmen oz-yeterlik algilari. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 12(45), 88-104.) Yilmaz, K., & Altinkurt, Y. (2014). Ogretmenlerin mesleki profesyonelligi olcegi gecerlik ve guvenirlik calismasi. Uluslararasi Insan Bilimleri Dergisi, 11(2), 332-345. Yilmaz, K., & Cokluk-Bokeoglu, O. (2008). Ilkogretim okulu ogretmenlerinin yeterlik inanclari. Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi Dergisi, 41(2), 143-167. Yilmaz, M., & Gurcay, D. (2011). Biyoloji ve fizik ogretmen adaylarinin ogretmen ozyeterliklerini yordayan degiskenlerin belirlenmesi. Cukurova Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 1(40), 53-60. YOK. (2007a). Egitim fakultesi ogretmen yetistirme lisans programlari. Ankara: YOK. YOK. (2007b). Turkiye’nin yuksekogrenim stratejisi. Ankara: YOK.

Chapter 2

Investigation of Foreign Experts’ Opinions about the Turkish Education System Necdet Aykac1, Selcuk Atik2, Hilal Bilgin3, & Gulsen Ozturk Yurtseven4

Introduction In Western countries, the English revolution against feudal monarchy (1688) became a source of inspiration and power for the bourgeoisie, and the French revolution (1789) took place in the continuation of this revolution. Thus, society, state, religion and educational institutions were liberated from the dominant ideology, enlightened by positive science, and passed into a rational world of culture (Sensekerci, Sahin, Gulcan, & Akkus, 2007). As a result of the industrial revolution and industrialization, a great need arose for qualified human power. During this process, significant progress was made in the fields of economy, politics, science, the arts and education. While there were great developments in the West, the Ottoman Empire at that time was in the pursuit of structural reforms in the face of disintegration and decline. All attempts made to improve state administration, the military system and education had ended in failure. The Turkish nation, with the War of Independence, ended the Ottoman period and under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk made the transition to the Republican period. Thus, the reforms in the fields of politics, economics and education that would enable the Turkish nation to move towards modernization were initiated by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.

1

Assoc. Prof., Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Faculty of Education, necdetaykac @mu.edu.tr 2 Teacher, Ministry of National Education, [email protected] 3 Correspondence: Res. Asst., Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Faculty of Education, [email protected] 4 Res. Asst., Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Faculty of Education, gulsenozturk @mu.edu.tr

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When the Republic was first established, one of the biggest problems was the lack of qualified human power. In 1923, only 11% of the country’s population, estimated to be around 12 million, was literate and literacy in women was only 3% (Onk, 2015). In 1923, the number of primary schools in Turkey was insufficient, and the number of secondary schools, high schools, vocational schools, faculties and universities was also very low. In addition, besides the shortage of teachers and faculty members, education and training institutions were inadequate in terms of their physical and material capability (Demirtas, 2008). Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who gave great importance to education, and the administration of the Republic took great efforts to identify the problems in education and then to solve these problems. Educational and instructional practices in Turkey have taken a path from the 18th century to the present day that has centered on the views and functioning of the West (Onk, 2015). The Republic of Turkey struggled to overcome the troubles of the Ottoman period and tried to achieve a goal of civilization and cultural exchange in the newly established state (Kafadar, 1997). In Europe, the Renaissance period made it possible to base science on the material and spiritual development of the West by significantly changing the life of science and thought. The French Revolution and scientific and technological developments were reflected in the educational and social lives of the West, enabling influential scientists to become established (Ergun, 1990). In order to take advantage of the innovations occurring in the social life and developments taking place in education, philosophers and educational experts well known in their respective fields were invited to Turkey. In the early days of the Republic, students were sent abroad to reflect the concept of modernization to the Turkish education system, and were asked to prepare reports on the education of other countries (Sahin, 1996). Additionally, experts invited from European countries and America was asked to examine the general structure of the Turkish education system and the different stages of education and to prepare reports. Between 1923 and 1960, a total of 123 foreign education experts came to Turkey (Ergun, 1982). While the vast majority of foreign education experts who came to Turkey during the period 1923-1950 consisted of experts from Europe, the experts from 1950 to 1960 mainly consisted of Americans (Sahin, 1996). Opinions and suggestions of these experts made important contributions to the Turkish education system in terms of shaping the education system and being aware of the advanced educational practices in other countries. Moreover, the reports that these experts produced also helped to solve similar problems encountered in the Turkish education system, and thereby saving resources and time (Cakir, 1999).

Investigation of Foreign Experts’ Opinions

19

Before conducting profound amendments and changes to both current and future educational systems, it is necessary to determine the past educational practices and what problems existed. In addition, discussions on the problems in the education system and taking into account the opinions and suggestions of national and international education experts regarding the problems in the education system will make important contributions to the efforts invested to find solutions to today’s educational problems (Akyuz, 2001). In this regard, the current study aims to determine what problems were noted by the foreign experts in the Turkish education system, the solutions they suggested for these problems and the extent to which their opinions were taken into account in practice. The current research is limited to reports, articles, dissertations and other sources issued on the basis of the examinations of the Turkish education system by the foreign experts visiting Turkey in the period between 1923 and 1960. The current study analyzes opinions and suggestions of John Dewey, Alfred Kuhne, George Stiehler, the American delegation, Omer Buyse, Mr. and Mrs. Ruatelet, Geheimrat Regierungsrat Oldenburg, Adolphe Ferriêre, Paul Monroe, Albert Malche, Beryl Parker, Watson Dickerman, Kate Vixon Wofford, John F. Rufi, Ellsworth Tompkins, Roben J. Maaske, M. Costat and Elizabeth S. Gorving having conducted investigations and written reports about the Turkish education system. The opinions of the foreign experts are divided into the categories of primary school, vocational education, higher education and teacher education in order to be systematic and are addressed under these headings. The categories under which the foreign experts stated their opinions are presented in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1. Foreign experts’ opinions and the categories under which they stated their opinions Categories under which opinions and suggestions are stated

Experts

Year

John Dewey

1924

Alfred Kuhne

1925

George Stiehler

1926

X

X

American Delegation

1927

X

Omer Buyse

Elementary Education X

Vocational Education

Higher Education

Teacher Training

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

1927

X

X

Mr. & Mrs. Ruatelet

1927

X

Oldenburg

1927

X

Adolphe Ferriêre

1929

Albert Malche

1932

Paul Monroe

1934

X

Beryl Parker

1934

X

Watson Dickerman

1951

Kate Vixon Wofford

1951

John F. Rufi

1951

X

Tompkins

1952

X

Roben J. Maaske

1953

M. Costat

1955

X

Elizabeth S. Gorving

1955

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

Foreign experts’ opinions about elementary education In this section, opinions and suggestions of the foreign experts invited to Turkey about elementary education are presented. Moreover, the extent to which the experts’ opinions were taken into consideration and their reflections on today’s education system are also discussed. The experts visiting

Investigation of Foreign Experts’ Opinions

21

Turkey in 1923-1960 and their suggestions about elementary education are given in Table 2.2. Table 2.2. Experts’ opinions and their suggestions about elementary education Experts

Year

Country

Suggestions about elementary education

John Dewey

1924

America

Elementary schools’ physical condition and equipment Libraries Elementary school curriculum Teaching methods and techniques Health and cleaning

George Stiehler

1926

Germany

Elementary school curriculum

Amerikan Heyeti (American delegation)

1927

America

Elementary schools’ physical condition and equipment Libraries Elementary school curriculum Health and cleaning

Adolphe Ferriêre

1929

Switzerland

Elementary school curriculum Health and cleaning

Paul Monroe

1934

America

Elementary school curriculum Teaching methods and techniques Health and Cleaning

Beryl Parker

1934

America

Elementary school buildings, playgrounds, gardens Elementary schools’ physical condition and equipment

Kate Vixon Wofford

1951

America

Teaching methods and techniques

John Dewey, an American educator who was the first expert invited to Turkey in 1924, prepared two reports (Ata, 2001). Dewey (1939); in general, made suggestions about the education system. Dewey (1939) stated that a period of 8-12 years was needed to organize a national education plan to serve the social needs of Turkey, and stated that this general program should be accepted by parliament as a constitution in order not to be influenced by new people subsequently being appointed into office. Dewey (1939) argued that every part of the school system must form a unity. In this connection, he pointed out that a person who finishes a school level has to reach a clear and specific goal, whether or not s/he should continue a higher level of schooling and that under the circumstances of that time, schools functioned like a preparatory stage for the next level. The foreign experts also stated opinions about the elementary school programs. In this regard, Dewey (1939) suggested that the main focus should be opening new schools and improving the conditions of teachers and no new education program should be developed until the necessary preparations had

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been completed. He stated that commissions had to be set up for writing programs, which would require a period of two years. Dewey (1939) also referred to the regional disparities in Turkey and suggested that primary school programs should be prepared with regional differences in mind, and that a simple program with some literacy and mathematics lessons should be applied to schools in some regions. In 1926, the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) invited George Stiehler Erey, a professor at the Pedagogical Institute of Leipzig, to study the theoretical and practical principles of handicraft teaching in elementary schools. Stiehler (1926) also stated that it would be appropriate to operate with a curriculum based on local conditions; that a fixed program for the primary school curriculum should not be initially proposed, and that setting teachers free without forcing them to adhere to a fixed program would give better results. The American delegation of 1927/1933 (Amerikan Heyeti, 1939) likewise stated that the elementary education in the Republican period aimed to provide cultural integrity by giving the same cultural education throughout the country. However, they pointed out that the fact that differing village and city facilities made it impossible for education to be implemented everywhere in the same way. For this reason, it was stated that it would be more appropriate to implement different programs according to the needs of rural and urban elementary schools. Ferriêre (1929) also indicated that in elementary schools it would be appropriate to provide teachers with choices in relation to curriculum and some subjects. Dewey (1939) also suggested that opening and closing dates of schools should be arranged according to the conditions of the area where they are located. Especially in the rural areas where animal-breeding or agricultural activities are intense, special attention should be paid to the arrangement of these times; otherwise, students’ attendance to school might be adversely affected. Dewey (1939) stated that some courses were unnecessarily subdivided, which caused some subjects to be randomly separated. He noted that separate presentation of such subjects that exist in real life as a whole might result in some difficulties for students to relate the subjects to each other and to real life. Beryl Parker (1939), who was invited to Turkey in 1934 with the recommendation of Dewey, stated that classes should be grouped and maximum attention should be paid to the completeness of the lectures. Parker (1939), Monroe (1934, as cited in Ergun, 1982), Ferriêre (1929) and Dewey (1939) observed that what was learned remained within the school walls and could not be put into practice. They stated that it would be beneficial for schools to include information that students could use in everyday life as well as purely theoretical knowledge. They also mentioned that the information taught should contain aspects that could be used during childhood and adolescence in order to increase efficiency in education. In addition to these, Parker (1939) argued that artificially limiting the number of class hours

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would make it difficult to pass on the ideas to be given in some lessons; therefore, some flexibility should be offered to teachers in terms of class hours. Parker (1939) suggested that rather than the length of the time allocated for lessons, attention should be paid to educational methods to be employed and new educational techniques should be put into practice at schools at the earliest point by closely following scientific developments. George Stiehler (1926) emphasized the importance of painting and handicrafts in the elementary school age in terms of both children’s creativity and the development of aesthetic sensibilities. He also noted the importance to acquire skills for the repair and construction of some tools that require handworkmanship. The American delegation (Amerikan Heyeti, 1939) maintained that handicrafts were taught children at schools with simple tools. They reported that Turkey needs better hand-workmanship and education should help educate a more qualified labor force. In relation to this, they pointed to the necessity of taking handcraft lessons into the elementary curriculum, which would contribute especially to home industry, give some insights into what good handcrafts should be and emphasize the importance and pleasure of the works to be produced with good hand-workmanship. The foreign experts’ reports also included opinions on the methods and techniques used in elementary schools. In this regard, Parker (1939) suggested that in a series of successive lessons, a teaching method that filled the child’s mind with the teacher’s thoughts and questions did not allow children to develop with their own work. He, on the other hand, stated that there are a limited number of schools making use of experiment and discussion methods. He also stated that if the recommended curriculum were adopted, the teaching methods used must also be changed. Wofford, a professor at the University of Florida, came to Turkey in 1951 and held many meetings on the issues related to education and instruction given in rural areas. Wofford (1952) maintained in her report that the principal methods used in elementary schools in Turkey are lecturing, question-answer and memorization, and that all these methods are the products of thought and not considering the interests and needs of children and their individual differences. She emphasized no magic method guarantees success in all classes but that teachers should deliver units and projects using as many methods as possible. Thus, she suggested that teachers should gain information and skills about the use of various teaching methods. Parker (1939); on the basis of data he gathered from 100 schools, stated that while the education he had seen engaged some students, it excluded others and suggested group working as a solution to this problem. He also noted that the rare occurrence of discussion and experience-gaining methods in lessons had a negative effect on the participation of students in the class. Thus, he suggested that through group works, the maximum number of students

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should be encouraged to participate in classes and teachers should be trained on how to do so. Monroe, a lecturer at Columbia University in the United States, was invited to Turkey several times to conduct investigations in 1924. Monroe (1934, as cited in Ergun, 1982) stated that schools in Turkey fulfill their duty as teaching schools and that they are not influenced by ideas like “business school” in developed countries. He emphasized the fact that it would be more appropriate to transform into business schools instead of teaching schools, which would provide preparation for children (Sahin, 1996). Monroe (1934, as cited in Ergun, 1982) stated that the spirit of nationality, which had to be given to the Turkish nation through education at that time, could be achieved through the methods that the Russians were practicing in education. That is, he claimed that it would be possible to apply a task assigned to each child by relating it to an event in society and to do so it would be enough to train teachers accordingly without needing to completely change the method in use in the education system (Monroe, 1934, as cited in Ergun, 1982). Views on the physical conditions of schools, the equipment used in teaching and the experts’ recommendations can also be found in the reports of the foreign experts. In this regard, Dewey (1939) wrote of the physical conditions of schools in his interim and final reports, and pointed out that the most important problem after educating teachers was the school buildings. Dewey (1939) noted that ordinary buildings would prevent the implementation of advanced methods and would condemn teachers and students to textbookbased instruction. For this reason, he suggested that a unit connected to the MoNE consisting of experts who understood the architecture and school construction should be established and that these experts should be sent to the developed countries in order to get ideas. He also proposed the establishment of an inspection commission for the control of school buildings and that this commission should conduct the supervision of school buildings, school grounds, playgrounds and school equipment in cooperation with the school architecture commission. Parker (1939); based on his observations of school buildings, playgrounds, and school grounds, offered suggestions that would be cost-effective and more efficient for education. He stated that playgrounds and equipment-tools in these areas were inadequate. As a solution to this problem, he suggested that different groups of students could take breaks at different times. On the other hand, Parker spoke of sample schools where areas were set aside for gardens and for the keeping of poultry. He suggested how these areas were to be utilized in terms of student education and what responsibilities should be given to students in these subjects, how they should be examined and the information obtained from such examinations should be offered for the use by other schools. Parker (1939) found that while some schools experienced shortages of classrooms, too many school rooms were allocated to the admin-

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istrative sections and that it was unnecessary to keep some places spare and not used as storage. Thus, he recommended that the existing rooms be used more conservatively, and that some storage should be moved to the school corridors so that rooms allocated as storage could then be used as classrooms. Parker (1939) also noted that overcrowded and stuffy classrooms were the main factors deteriorating the quality of education and that although at first glance students’ spending less time at school seemed to be something negative, the quality of education could not be measured on the basis of the time spent in the school. Thus, he suggested that dual education should be adopted by dividing the crowded classes into two, as morning and afternoon classes, so that more students could be reached and the quality of education could be improved. John Dewey (1939) suggested that schools with the necessary tools for the production of furniture and equipment necessary in classrooms produce this equipment, or that such equipment could be produced by local craftsmen. In addition, he also remarked that teachers might not have known how to use all the tools and equipment in educationally efficient ways. In order to address this, he suggested that the MoNE could organize mobile exhibitions to introduce tools-equipment to teachers throughout the country and produce sample tools-equipment to be sent to other schools. Parker (1939) made similar suggestions by saying that money should be used more efficiently by having vocational schools or military factories manufacture the necessary tools and equipment for schools. The American delegation, which was invited in 1933-1934, noted that the efforts to improve children’s schooling and facilities throughout the country were positive, but that the efficiency achieved in this area was low. For this reason, the American delegation stated that in the upcoming few years it would be more useful to concentrate on the most effective use of available facilities, not constructing school buildings and equipment (Amerikan Heyeti, 1939). John Dewey (1939) pointed out that reading resources should be increased in order to address the illiteracy rate in the country, and made suggestions for the delivery of resources to the public and to schools. Dewey (1939) emphasized that every school should have an active library center in order to impart reading habits to young people and that while building schools, the greatest priority should be attached to the establishment of libraries and the relevant department at the MoNE should expand its activities in this regard. In addition, he added that school libraries should be made open to the public, not just to students, and emphasized that a greater importance should be assigned to ensuring that books in libraries were made available and read than simply supplying libraries with books. Dewey (1939), in this regard, said that as children learning reading did not have good books by which they could practice reading at home, mobile libraries could be utilized in order to meet

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this need. He suggested that library bookcases including 25 to 50 books interesting for children should be left at schools for one month and then sent on to other schools. In addition, he suggested that public libraries in large cities and teahouses in villages and rural areas could be opened to benefit the public. In order to encourage the public to read, it was first suggested that books should be allowed to be taken to homes and to be kept until they were finished. From among the foreign experts visiting Turkey [note: dates may be year of visit, not report publication], Dewey Ferriêre Monroe Parker and the American delegation stated that great importance should be attached to health and cleanliness due to the conditions that existed in Turkey at that time. It was emphasized that importance should be attached to education for the protection of health in urban and rural schools and issues related to the hygiene of students should be seriously dealt with. It was stated that the health checks that teachers made were inadequate and that it would have been easier to take preventive measures than treating a disease. For this, they stated that the Ministry of Health and the MoNE work together to reach pupils first and then to reach parents through the pupils. Other suggestions were that at least a few years of healthcare courses should be given at schools, with information for the first year kept simple and that health protection practices should be started from the first semester of primary school (Amerikan Heyeti [American delegation], 1939; Dewey, 1939; Ferriêre, 1929; Monroe, 1934, as cited in Ergun, 1982; Parker, 1939). The most striking points of the foreign experts’ opinions on elementary schools were with regard to the school buildings, the physical conditions of schools and their cleanliness. Today, the Ministry of Construction and Real Estate, which is affiliated to the MoNE, is the unit responsible for school buildings. This unit aimed to establish a standard in the construction and maintenance of school buildings by issuing the Blueprint of Minimum Standards of Designing Educational Structures (2015). On the other hand, studies investigating school buildings over different years have revealed that while these standards have been achieved in some buildings, other schools far from meet these standards (Cinar, Cizmeci, & Akdemir, 2007; Gok & Gurol, 2002; Gultekin, Aruntas, & Gun, 2014; Unal, Ozturk, & Gurdal, 2014; Yilmaz, 2012). In addition to this, it has become clear from the studies that a shortage of tools and equipment necessary for the application of modern educational methods at schools still continues today (Aykac, 2007; Demirboya, 2014; Kaya & Azar, 2010; Kosterelioglu, 2012; Unal & Basaran, 2010; Yildirim & GungorAkgun, 2015). The visiting foreign experts made some suggestions in order to increase the literacy rate and inculcate reading habits. Revision of the research conducted on this issue reveals the extent to which these problems have been overcome. The results of Ortas’ (2014) study on the comparison of book reading rates in

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Turkey and worldwide clearly show that the problem of reading still continues in Turkey and that it is far behind developed countries. According to the research of the ARGE Board of the Independent Educators’ Union, the number of public libraries in Turkey is 1412, but the th number of coffee houses per library is 430. Turkey is in the 86 place out of 173 countries in terms of reading rate. The rate of regular book reading is 14% in Japan, 12% in USA, 21% in England and France and 0.01% in Turkey. The most frequently read book genres in Turkey are comic books, prayer handbooks and romance books. (Ortas, 2014, p. 327) When the problems that the foreign experts identified regarding primary school programs are examined, it is clear that many of the problems still remain valid today. Studies conducted on elementary school programs show that during the development of programs, regional differences were not taken into consideration, that the classes were too crowded to allow for the implementation of contemporary educational practices, and that the practice was neglected while theoretical knowledge was emphasized in education (Akmehmetoglu, 2014; Coskun, 2007; Dinc & Dogan, 2010; Erkose, 2007; Fettahoglu, 2011). Another remarkable point noted in the foreign experts’ reports was the issue of hygiene and cleaning. The results of the “Cleaning and Hygiene in Elementary Schools” survey conducted by the Education Research and Development Department (EARGED, 2010), which is the research and development unit of the MoNE, in line with a 2010 request from the General Directorate of Primary Education, stated that the majority of schools cannot meet the cleaning material needs, the number of toilets at schools is inadequate, the equipment and tools used are unhygienic and the ventilation is insufficient. Moreover, studies on cleaning and hygiene in primary schools have shown that in many schools there are no cleaning materials in toilets and that the cleanliness of toilets is not taken care of. In addition, the self-care of primary school students was found to be insufficient (Bayindir & Ozel, 2016; Kahveci & Demirtas, 2012). In today’s Turkey, health and hygiene problems are still experienced in elementary schools; though not as intensely as seen in the first years of the Republic. Foreign Experts’ Opinions about Vocational Education Of the experts visiting Turkey between 1924 and 1960, those who expressed their opinions about vocational education and their suggestions are presented in Table 2.3.

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Table 2.3. Experts’ opinions expressed about vocational education and their suggestions Experts

Year

Country

John Dewey

1924

America

Alfred Kuhne

1925

Germany

George Stiehler

1926

Germany

Omer Buyse

1927

Belgium

Mr. & Mrs. Ruatelet

1927

France

Oldenburg

1927

Germany

American delegation

1933

America

John J. Rufi

1951

America

Tompkins

1952

America

M. Costat

1955

America

Elizabeth S. Gorving

1955

America

Suggestions about vocational education Internship of vocational school students Establishing schools considering the conditions of the region Establishing new vocational schools Developing the current vocational schools Painting and workshop training’s being conducted by well-trained teachers Placing shop classes in general knowledge schools Maintaining the connection between schools and industrial enterprises Adding new branches into some schools Making changes in curriculums Establishing agricultural schools Transferring students to Germany Increasing the number of comprehensive schools Building collaboration between comprehensive schools and industrial enterprises Curriculums and their problems in secondary schools Organization, administration and supervision in secondary education Theoretical course teachers employed in comprehensive schools being trained at specific branches in teacher training schools Establishing girls’ vocational teaching supervisorship Establishing institutes as a continuation of girls’ vocational teaching

In his (1939) report, Dewey presented important opinions and suggestions on the vocational education system in Turkey at that time, along with many important issues. Dewey (1939) proposed opening trade and agriculture courses in vocational schools in accordance with the needs of various regions and establishing a unit in the central organization of the MoNE to deal with

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them (Hizlan, 1983, as cited in Akdag, 2008). Dewey also stated that only the general guidelines of the training programs to be applied in vocational schools should be regulated and that the details should be determined according to the environmental conditions. One of the most important aspects of the vocational training report was that vocational high school students had to practice in their workplaces before graduation. Besides these, Dewey (1939) stated that art schools should be opened considering the economic situation of the region or city, the conditions and necessities of the environment. Furthermore, Dewey (1939) also mentioned in his report that it was necessary to open up mobile exhibits for the introduction of vehicles and machines to be used in industry to the public and schools, and that the personnel to be trained in using them should be sent to foreign countries. In addition, sending not only students but also teachers abroad, and calling foreign experts as visiting scholars for colleges and universities from abroad were among the other views expressed on vocational education (Akyuz, 2002; Ayaz, 1948; Ekizceli, 2006). In 1925, the MoNE, in order to receive opinions on vocational and technical education, invited Dr. Kuhne, one of the then leading figures of the German Ministry of Commerce and founder of a large vocational school in Berlin (Ayaz, 1948). Kuhne conducted investigations in vocational schools in Ankara, Eskisehir, Bursa, Izmir and Istanbul, as well as in “Life Schools” (Onk, 2015). In his report, Kuhne (1939) placed great emphasis on compulsory education by stating that basic education was a very important factor in the success of vocational education (Akkutay, 1996). In addition, he remarked that Turkish schools were successful in training those in handicrafts; yet, the number of education institutions training technicians was very small; thus, a Machinery Construction School had to be established (Onk, 2015). Kuhne’s (1939) other views and suggestions on vocational education included the opening of a School of Decorative Arts, improvements to the Istanbul Higher School of Engineering, the development of equipment for trade schools, the expansion of schools for home administration, the opening of vocational training courses and the establishment of cooperatives. In addition, Kuhne (1939) stated that the vocational schools to be opened should be in harmony with the economic and industrial conditions of the region, that schools should be opened to train qualified workers, technicians and engineers, and a Vocational Education Administration should be established (Ergun, 1997). Kuhne also suggested that apprenticeship schools in the hands of the State Railways, the army and the marines should be developed and the task of apprenticeship training assigned to these organizations (Ekizceli, 2006). George Stiehler, who was invited to Turkey in 1926, presented a short report on arts education to the Ministry (Ergun, 1997). In his report, Stiehler noted

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that high-level special painting and workshop training should be given by qualified teachers, especially by those who were good at this training. It was also noted in Stiehler’s report that there was a need to work with qualified teachers and a curriculum tailored to local conditions (Sulubulut, 2014). One of the experts stating important opinions on vocational education was Buyse. He was invited as the Belgian Director of Vocational Education in 1927 to conduct investigations in the field of technical education in Turkey and to make suggestions regarding the programs of new vocational and technical schools to be opened (Koc, 1970). Buyse conducted surveys in cities and thus made suggestions on the basis of statistical data (Basgoz, 2005). He observed that the general culture schools, high schools and teacher training schools he visited did not care about the information required to operationalize the wealth of resources of the country (Sahin, 1996). In order for the measures to be taken for vocational and technical education to be successful, it was necessary to create a suitable environment for work life and agriculture (Ekizceli, 2006). In addition, the general culture schools changed their programs and added vocational courses, thus giving the message that young people should prepare for daily life (Sulubulut, 2014). Buyse (1939) made suggestions for the establishment of many schools related to vocational education in Turkey and prepared the projects of these schools. Is Dârulfunu was one of the important schools proposed by Buyse and whose project was prepared by him. It was decided to establish this school in Ankara in order to train skilled workers, technicians and specialists as well as to train foremen and teachers to vocational schools. He also proposed to open a school that aimed to provide professional, business and social information for young girls. In addition to these, Buyse (1939) prepared projects for improving and expanding industrial schools in places such as Istanbul, Konya, Izmir and Aydin and proposed the establishment of Middle Agricultural Schools, a Social Services School in Istanbul, Sanayi-i Nescie (Weaving) in Izmir, and Weaving, Sugar Industry and Leather Schools in Usak. Buyse (1939) suggested that in each city, farming, shoemaking, wood and mining works, masonry, trade and language courses should be organized for males according to the characteristics of the region and sewing, housework, decorative arts, language and trade courses for females (Ergun, 1997). In the Agriculture schools, which were among the programs proposed by Buyse, students would be educated as individuals who would engage in and contribute to the development of agriculture. He also stated that one-third of the class time allocated to courses in the program of these schools should be devoted to theory and the remaining to practicals. He argued that programs prepared in this way could provide the information and skills needed to be a good farmer for their students so that they would be able to utilize modern farming practices (Kartal, 2016). It can be said that the reflections of the

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opinions expressed in Buyse’s report about vocational training on the Turkish technical education system are very important. Other experts presenting opinions and suggestions on vocational training were Mr. and Mrs. Ruatelet of France. As a result of his investigations, Mr. Ruatelet prepared a High Technical Teacher School project in Ankara and Izmir and reorganized arts school programs. Mrs. Ruatelet presented a new proposal to the Ministry on the direction of vocational education in Turkey at the end of her studies at various girls’ schools in Istanbul and Ankara. Mr. and Mrs. Ruatelet prepared a new plan for vocational education in Turkey. Moreover, they recommended the addition of new classes to some schools and changes in course schedules (Ergun, 1997). One of the experts presenting opinions on vocational training was Geheimrat Regierungsrat Oldenburg, from the General Directorate of Agricultural Institutions of the Ministry of Agriculture of Germany. In 1927, Oldenburg, invited by the Ministry of Agriculture for the development and improvement of agricultural schools, contributed to the establishment and development of secondary agricultural schools through his research and reports. After 1930, he was invited again. All the projects he had prepared were implemented and all his suggestions about the agricultural schools were put into effect. Also, Turkish teachers were sent to specialize in German institutions (Ergun, 1997). The American delegation came to Turkey in May 1933 in order to examine the economic structure of Turkey. In order to support the economic development, the American delegation (Amerikan Heyeti, 1939) stated that importance should be given to the establishment of agricultural education, science and engineering education, education of commerce, training of masters, workers and managers. The delegation also emphasized the need to increase the number of art schools, the establishment of a business alliance between art schools and industrial organizations and to initiate a joint work between Sumerbank and its factories employing more than 250 workers and art schools. The American delegation put forward views that the buildings used for eight hours a day could be used for 16 hours by opening the evening trade schools and that the cost of trade education would be reduced by sharing the costs of the trade education with the chambers of commerce (Ekizceli, 2006). In 1955, Costat (1956), a specialist at the Middle East Center of the International Labor Organization, was invited to Turkey and investigated the structure of the male arts schools and presented his observations and findings in a report. Costat (1956) made suggestions for the elimination of problems in vocational schools to render them more effective. Costat (1956) described the problems in vocational education as follows:

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•

Disconnection between theoretical and practical programs;

•

Lack of cooperation between general culture teachers and vocational teachers;

•

Few commonalities between workshops and general cultural classes;

•

Differences in the number and quality of equipment, teachers and students between schools and branches;

•

Long and exhausting tasks assigned to vocational school students;

•

Shortage of tools and toolkits needed by students to do their work.

Costat (1956) argued that it would be useful to train teachers of theoretical courses to be employed in art schools in special classes of teacher training schools. In addition, he recommended that the training period be extended from five to six years in order to distribute the theoretical courses in vocational schools more evenly (Sulubulut, 2014). American home economist Gorvine, who came to Turkey in 1955, prepared a report on all the stages of girls’ technical education. In his report, Gorvine (1957) stated that it was necessary to exchange opinions between the General Director of Girls’ Technical Education and the Director of Education and Training at the MoNE, and the other branch managers in this department. In his report, he argued that it was necessary to authorize the Director of the Girls’ Technical Education Branch to make official decisions about the functioning of various programs and to authorize the General Manager and Deputy General Manager to be consultants. In addition, he recommended the establishment of “Girls’ Technical Education District Inspectorates” in four different geographical regions of Turkey to supervise the operation of the program in girls’ technical schools, to communicate the emerging problems to the Ministry and to make the program work better in general (Sulubulut, 2014). Gorvine (1957) proposed the establishment of the Modern Measurement Laboratory to continuously evaluate the programs in the girls’ technical education system. Additionally, he stated that in girls’ technical education, the greatest importance was attached to sewing and embroidery; yet, important issues such as health, home nursing, nutrition and child raising were neglected; thus, students may experience problems in solving everyday problems. Gorvine (1957) emphasized that girls’ technical school students were technically weak and unable to produce work of high quality. In his report, he pointed out that in vocational schools, course subjects were directed towards too much specialization in some areas, and teacher and student programs, as a result, were directed towards specialization as well.

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Moreover, he emphasized that there were no institutes in the status of the continuation of the Girls’ Technical Teacher School, that there were very few Girls’ Technical Teacher Schools and that only very few girls were accepted to these schools (Sulubulut, 2014; Sahin, 1996). John J. Rufi, a professor at the University of Missouri, came to Turkey in 1951 to investigate the goals, achievements and problems of the program applied to secondary schools in Turkey (Ekizceli, 2006). Rufi pointed out that since the vocational school programs were so loaded, they spent little time on extracurricular activities, the majority of learning was superficial, the students worked hard to get high grades rather than learning and teaching had become textbook-based and formal. In his report, Rufi suggested that required courses should be reduced in vocational schools and that elective courses should be increased to reflect individual differences among students. On the other hand, he stated that the physical conditions of schools and their facilities should be made suitable for the application of new methods and materials in the class should be movable for group work. He also spoke of the need for the enrichment of libraries and the change of written and oral exams as they did not lend themselves to reliable measurement (Ekizceli, 2006). Tompkins, who came to Turkey in 1952, conducted investigations on the organization, administration and inspection of secondary education. Tompkins noted that changes in secondary and high school programs were needed to train young people as better citizens. Tompkins emphasized that teachers of vocational schools were too strict towards students, and that teacher-student relations needed to be improved. In addition, Tompkins recommended the implementation of the Comprehensive Junior High School system of the United States in Turkey and stated that in this system more flexible programs could be applied in high schools; thus, trade and vocational courses could be included in the programs as electives. Tompkins noted that it would be better to keep teachers in high schools on a full-time basis for them to make better plans and for the implementation of new methods (Ekizceli, 2006). In line with the opinions of the aforementioned foreign experts, important steps were taken in vocational education in Turkey. Though some attempts were made in the field of vocational and technical education during the Ottoman period, these attempts were quite ineffectual. As in all areas of education in the Republican period, this issue was reconsidered, and efforts invested to make vocational schools more widespread and to meet the needs of Turkish society. With regards to vocational education, within the campaign for education carried out under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, efforts were made to take the necessary steps to develop vocational education under the responsibility of Mehmet Rustu Uzel, the founder and first

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Undersecretary of Vocational and Technical Education. First, in 1927, it was deemed appropriate for vocational schools to be administered by the Higher Education Office, and in the same year the male arts schools were transferred to the MoNE (Tuna, 1973). In this way, the MoNE made the first reform movement in art schools. Existing schools were reorganized at the secondary and high school levels. While the cultural courses in these schools increased, new vocational courses were added to the program. The MoNE sent students to Europe and America to be trained as teachers due to the shortage of teachers at that time, and invited some teachers and experts to Turkey from these countries. As a result, the programs were evaluated in line with the recommendations of foreign experts, coming especially from Europe and America, and vocational schools were opened in line with the determined needs. From 1927 to 1933, five new art schools were opened. While the number of vocational and technical schools was 44 in the 1923-1924 school year, this number increased by 245% by the 1936-1937 school year (Demirtas, 2008). Despite this increase, in Turkey, where literacy rates were rather low, efforts concentrated more on primary school and teacher education systems. In this regard, it is possible to say that vocational education problems in Turkey have continued, even to the present day. Dewey proposed flexibility in the preparation of programs and that they should be developed considering local conditions; yet, his opinions seem not to have been taken into consideration, even today in terms of program development. Dewey also suggested that vocational school students should be subjected to a certain period of apprenticeship before graduation, indicating the importance of industry-school cooperation. Even today, due to the lack of cooperation between industry and schools, students cannot be provided with proper training necessary to make them actually “ready to work” in their respective sectors. John Dewey’s Report was put into practice during the ministry of Necati Bey in 1926 (Onk, 2015). Considering some of the opinions expressed by Kuhne in his (1939) report, in the 1934-1935 academic year, Girls’ Arts Teachers School, which became the Girls’ Technical Teachers School, was opened in Ankara, and instead of Handicrafts Teachers School for Boys, an Art Teaching Department was opened in the Gazi Education Institute in 1933. Kuhne’s other proposals were not deemed that viable (Binbasioglu, 1999; Ergun, 1997). Yet, in a similar manner to that expressed by Dewey, the gardens of practice were put into effect in Village Institutes. In 1927, Buyse’s report was examined at the Board of Education and Discipline and on the basis of the report, it was decided to open a Sanayi-i Kimyeviye and Nesciye school in Izmir, to establish the School of Business

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and Girls’ Institute in Ankara, to reorganize school programs and prepare textbooks, to invite foreign experts from Europe and to organize evening trade courses (Ergun, 1997). One of the most important suggestions of Buyse was to establish a link between industry and schools, although this was only realized 50-60 years later. With the Law on Apprenticeship and Vocational Training No. 3308 issued in 1986, vocational high school students had the opportunity to practice in workplaces (Binbasioglu, 1999). However, strong connection and cooperation between the schools and industrial organizations could not be established, which constitutes an important gap in the vocational education. This gap is seen as one of the most important obstacles facing vocational education. When the opinions of the foreign experts on vocational education are evaluated in general, it can be said that they made very important contributions in terms of opening, developing and creating programs in vocational education more widespread. Implementation of flexible programs, attaching greater importance to practice rather than theoretical courses, incorporation of elective courses into the program, putting greater emphasis on school-business partnership and to apprenticeships, opening multi-purpose schools and taking local conditions into consideration while opening vocational schools were among the important suggestions for effective training in vocational schools. Although some of the opinions presented by the foreign experts on vocational education were put into effect, the majority were not. Let alone solving many problems in vocational education, they have grown exponentially and nowadays they have come to a bottleneck. It can be contended that one of the most important factors leading to this blockage are vocational education policies which do not consider regional differences and the needs of the country adequately. Foreign Experts’ Opinions about Higher Education The experts who made proposals in relation to many aspects of the Turkish education system also made suggestions about higher education. From among the foreign experts, those stating opinions about higher education and their suggestions are presented in Table 2.4.

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Table 2.4. Foreign experts’ opinions about higher education and their suggestions Experts

Year

Country

John Dewey

1924

America

Alfred Kuhne

1925

Germany

Omar Buyse

1927

Belgium

Albert Malche

1932

Switzerland

1933

America

1934

America

1951

America

1953

America

American delegation Beryl Parker Watson Dickerman Roben J. Maaske

Suggestions about higher education Transferring students abroad The Ottoman University Transition to higher education examination Establishing Ataturk Profession University Examining the Ottoman University University reform Transferring students abroad Training experts Lecturers’ composing works Responsibility of universities in terms of public education Responsibility of universities in terms of teacher training

Although Dewey did not conduct any special research on higher education, he made some general suggestions in this area. Dewey (1939) pointed out that those who achieved high success among Darulfunun students should continue their education abroad. He also proposed opening the Higher School of Engineering and introducing teaching staff from abroad to train the technical staff and engineers needed to carry out the developmental thrust. He emphasized the importance of establishing departments of archeology and social services in Darulfunun, Istanbul, and assigning graduates of these departments to orphanages, correctional institutions, prisons and all kinds of charitable works (Dewey, 1939). In his report, Kuhne stated that the number of high school graduates was low and that the examination system should be changed so that more students could be taught in higher education (Ekizceli, 2006). Another expert presenting opinions about higher education was Omer Buyse. Buyse (1939) proposed the establishment of Ataturk University of Business in Ankara in order to ensure the technical and economic development of the country. He stated that the objectives of the Ataturk University of Business should be to train technicians, qualified workers and specialized technicians needed in the country, as well as foremen and teachers for vocational schools. Buyse also argued that more emphasis be given to applied education and students should be involved in an industrial apprenticeship process throughout their education. He also emphasized that it was important to develop and disseminate technical teaching methods by exhibiting sample works produced in the professional, artistic, agricultural

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and commercial schools of the country (Buyse, 1939). Although some of Buyse’s suggestions regarding education were put into practice, the Ataturk Business University was never established. Istanbul Darulfunun, the only university the Republican administration took over from the Ottoman Empire, was recognized as a “legal entity” in 1924. Darulfunun, however, was criticized for taking a negative attitude towards the revolution and not being involved in works deemed useful for society (Akyuz, 1999). In the years following the foundation of the Republic, opinions were raised to reform the university, to make the university work better and to have it gain a more dynamic structure. Swiss Professor Albert Malche prepared a report in 1932 with the aim of laying the ground for university reform (Akkutay, 1996). Malche’s report focused on teaching programs. The most criticized issues were that Darulfunun’s course program was too loaded, course notes taught for years without undergoing any change, methods requiring the repetition of encyclopedic information without including individual inquiry and thinking were also widely used (Ekizceli, 2006; Ozel, 2007). Malche stated that the university problem was basically an intellectual, spiritual and social problem of Turkey at the time, and that Istanbul Darulfunun was a large enterprise operating with low efficiency. He emphasized that universities should be built on science, but that making students memorize information was not science. As a recommendation, he suggested that learners should be able to work on their own by using the methods taught to them and to be able to produce a new product and work of their own, instead of accepting knowledge just as it is through memorization (Kartal, 2016). The American delegation (1939) made some suggestions about higher education in their report. In short, the report said that the state should educate people who could uncover natural resources and develop and manage industry and the economy in higher education; yet, at the time, such people were not educated at Turkish universities and vocational schools of higher education to the desired number or quality. He argued that to solve this problem, assistance had been received from specialists to translate or write textbooks and workbooks used up to that time, but from then on the provision of nonexistent books would be the duty of universities. The American delegation stated that despite the fact that laboratory studies are a very good teaching method, Turkish students needed more practice in order to gain practical field experience and to work with specialists. In addition, they suggested that great care should be taken to select students to be sent abroad from among those having graduated from universities and experienced in their own fields (Ekizceli, 2006).

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In relation to higher education, Parker also advised that teachers and inspectors should be helped to acquire the necessary skills by contacting with universities, recommending that university professors should conduct research on Turkish schools and that they should write books that could be read by students and teachers alike (Sulubulut, 2014). The American public education expert Prof. Watson Dickerman came to Turkey in 1951. He proposed that universities and colleges should organize courses and conferences on public education for university students, prepare training courses for professional groups, and prepare programs for the training of public educators to enhance public education activities (Ekizceli, 2006). In 1953, upon invitation by the MoNE, Prof. Roben J. Maaske came to Turkey and in his report, stated that the Turkish universities in Istanbul and Ankara had not yet taken leadership for the professional training and in-service training of teaching staff. Maaske suggested that these universities should be closely involved in teacher-training institutions and with the in-service training of teachers (Sulubulut, 2014). The modernization movement in higher education, which was effected by foreign experts, started with Ataturk’s “University Reform” in 1933. Malche’s report was influential on the MoNE and the Turkish Grand National Assembly (parliament). As a result of Malche’s report, Istanbul Darulfunun was closed down by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1933 and reopened as “Istanbul University” (Binbasioglu, 1999). Thus, during the Republican era, the first university in the modern sense was established. To aid this modernization movement in higher education, scientists escaping from Nazi Germany came to Turkey and made significant contributions. With the closure of Darulfunun and the opening of Istanbul University, foreign scientists were able to work in the Faculties of Medicine, Science, Literature, Law and Economics and achieved great success in their fields. Thanks to foreign scientists, education programs were made contemporary. In this period, the university library developed and the quality and number of textbooks increased. Moreover, in this period, many assistants and lecturers were trained by these scientists. As a result, Turkish scholars who had been recognized by the world of Western science and whose original research had become classical books were introduced to the world of science. Despite these developments in higher education, some of these foreign scholars left Turkey and returned to the United States or to their own countries due to the inadequacy of Turkish universities’ libraries and laboratories (Namal, 2012). Foreign Experts’ Opinions about Teacher Training Foreign experts invited to Turkey between 1924 and 1960 presented important opinions and suggestions about teacher training, an important part of the

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education system. The foreign experts addressed teacher training in their reports and their suggestions are presented in Table 2.5. Table 2.5. Experts expressing about teacher training and their suggestions Experts

Year

Country

John Dewey

1924

America

Alfred Kuhne

1925

Germany

Adolphe Ferriêre

1928

Switzerland

American delegation

1933

America

Beryl Parker

1934

America

Kate Vixon Wofford

1951

America

Roben J. Maaske

1953

America

Suggestions about teacher training Training expert teachers, school administrators and teaching supervisors Developing teachers professionally Training teachers for village schools Constituting an implementation garden in teacher training schools Enhancing teacher salaries Changing the requirements for admission to teaching profession Conducting in-service trainings for teachers Enhancing teacher salaries Increasing the quality and quantity of teachers Increasing the motivation of teachers Generalizing in-service training Students’ entering the profession through selection Balancing theory and application in teacher training and increasing the application Increasing in-service training Enhancing teacher salaries Changing the selection of students for teacher training institutions Increasing the duration of application in teacher training Increasing the status and prestige of teaching profession Enhancing teacher salaries Enhancing the requirements for admission to the teaching profession Increasing the duration of application in teacher training

John Dewey, in his report, emphasized teacher training as the most important point to be corrected immediately (Sulubulut, 2014). The main theme of the report was the idea of training teachers for village schools and the opinions expressed related to learning by doing had important influences especially on the foundation philosophy of Village Institutes (Hizlan, 1983, as cited

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in Akdag, 2008). In his report, Dewey (1939) made suggestions for the professional development of teachers. In his report, he stated that teachers, administrators and inspectors should be trained in different branches in teacher training schools. He emphasized that translations should be made from foreign books and periodicals related to the profession of teaching for both teachers and pre-service teachers and reading associations and discussion groups should be established among teachers. Dewey (1939) stated that it was necessary for lessons to train school principals and inspectors in at least one teacher training school. He also suggested opening an Experience School where new course methods could be tried, tools could be developed and research performed. Dewey stressed that teachers working in teacher training schools should be the most qualified teachers in the country and that each of these teachers should be given one year off to undertake their professional examinations and research in Turkey or in foreign countries with the condition that all expenses are met once every five or six years (Ekizceli, 2006). Dewey (1939), on the other hand, mentioned in his report that teacher salaries were very low and should be raised. He also pointed out that teachers should be given some financial aid, such as free use of transportation and should be provided with allocation to purchase fuel to be used for home heating, should be provided with housing for free or for a small contribution by regional administrations, and that their economic situations should be rendered stable, secure and attractive. Alfred Kuhne; in his report mainly focusing on vocational education in Turkey, but also addressing the problems of the Turkish education system in a general framework (Sulubulut, 2014), discussed important issues related to teacher training. Kuhne suggested that teachers working in primary education should be equipped with practical and useful information to meet the needs of everyday life and for this, practice gardens should be established in teacher training schools where teachers could learn gardening and agricultural practices (Ekizceli, 2006). This point of view overlapped with John Dewey’s idea that “education should be the life itself” and at the same time had positive reflections on the system of practice-based Village Institutes. Moreover, Kuhne (1939) stated that female teachers should be trained in such a way as to be able to help village women serve their household duties more effectively and help them learn about housekeeping. Another issue in Kuhne’s (1939) report on teacher training was teacher salaries. Kuhne emphasized that teachers who had been studying for many years were underpaid, and that their salaries should be raised in order that teachers would feel more committed to their profession. Ferriêre (1929) stated in his report that there were significant problems in training teachers in Turkey. Ferriêre (1929) emphasized that the training of

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future teachers was of great importance; therefore, teachers should at least have a university education. He also pointed out that teachers should be chosen from among those who understood a child’s spirit and who had a scientific and philosophical mindset. While making this selection, it was suggested that orientation from early ages was important, and it would be more appropriate to direct those who could have significant teaching skills among students towards the teaching profession. Ferriêre (1929) pointed to the need to open courses on holidays for teachers who have not had the opportunity to learn new practices and method-techniques to ensure their professional development. Thus, it was emphasized that it was important for teachers to be provided with opportunities to learn new teaching methods and techniques and to learn and apply educational theories and changing applications. The American Delegation (Amerikan Heyeti, 1939), composed of a number of researchers, was invited to Turkey in 1933 to prepare a report particularly on the economic structure of Turkey and to report on problems related to issues ranging from the education economy to elementary schools, from teacher training to universities. In their report, it was noted that as the number of elementary schools rapidly increased, it became imperative to send teachers who were ill-prepared to work in rural elementary schools; thus, the main problem at that time was the shortage of teachers. However, the report claimed that of greatest importance was the qualifications of teachers and that teachers should be specifically trained for certain subject areas. In other words, it was stated in the report that the quality of the teachers was more important than the quantity. Another point mentioned in the report was that to train qualified teachers, besides teacher training, great importance should be attached to the physical conditions of schools and that the morale of teachers should be improved. Accordingly, a monthly journal where teachers could share their experiences and could obtain information about MoNE activities was suggested to be issued and the journal distributed to teachers free of charge. In addition, it was suggested that every teacher should be given in-service training for two or three weeks during the summer months; a house model should be developed for village life to offer higher quality life to village teachers, and teacher clubs and associations established in urban areas. They also emphasized that a general agricultural lesson should be given to teachers due to be sent to villages so that they could adapt more easily to village life (Ekizceli, 2006). In his report, Parker (1939) made important suggestions for teacher training as well as for elementary education and many other issues. Some of these suggestions were the determination of students to be teachers through selection, the training of teachers in vocational courses combining theory and practice, following a plan oriented towards research, discussion and

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implementation in teacher training schools and an apprenticeship period of one month, at least one week of which should be spent in a village. Parker also emphasized the need to organize training programs and clearly explain the programs to teachers. On the other hand, it was also stated that the number of courses, conferences and publications prepared to illuminate teachers should be increased, as should the salaries of teachers at that time. Another foreign expert who devoted a large part of her report to the issue of teacher training was Kate Vixon Wofford. In her (1952) report, the remarkable point related to teacher training was her evaluation of the exam taken to enter the teaching profession. Wofford (1952) stated that student enrolment and admission to teacher training schools and Village Institutes was determined through a written examination. She also stated that this exam covered three subject areas (Turkish, Math and Biology) and was based on candidates’ ability to recall previously learned information. Even if candidates achieved good grades from the exam, she stressed that the examination system could not be considered a good way to select teachers of the future. Wofford (1952) stated that to be able to select better candidates to teacher training schools, information should be gathered about the past performance of the candidate from their former teachers, that the form of the exam should be changed and personal interviews conducted with each candidate. It was also stated that teacher candidates should be reassessed during the course of their education at teacher training institutions. Wofford (1952) suggested a more effective model for student selection to teacher training institutions. In addition, she emphasized that the most important point of the professional training of teachers was teaching practicum (Ekizceli, 2006), and stated that teaching practicum in teacher training schools of only one day a week throughout the school year to be insufficient. In this regard, Wofford (1952) argued that the duration of the teaching practicum should last for a period of at least four months and that at least half of this time should be spent in a village school. In addition, according to Wofford (1952), practice schools should be established both in teacher training schools and in Village Institutes and the most advanced and tried methods of working with children and parents in these schools should be shown to candidate teachers. In addition to all these experts, Roben J. Maaske was invited to Turkey in 1953 to investigate the teacher training system in Turkey and then to prepare a report after his examinations of the schools. One of the most striking points in Maaske’s (1956) report was that the content of courses needed to be improved in the curricula of elementary and secondary school teacher education institutions. Maaske (1956) suggested that a balanced curriculum should be developed for teacher training schools consisting of general culture courses, main pedagogy courses and special pedagogy courses. He also indicated in

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his report that some of the courses in these areas should be elective and that students should be given the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, Maaske (1956) emphasized that the length of teacher training in Turkey was short and that this training time should be increased. Maaske (1956) made some suggestions for the training of better teachers in his report. Accordingly, teacher salaries should be increased and that teaching should be publically regarded as an important profession. He also noted in his report that the entrance examination to the teaching profession was based solely on success in lessons and that no attention was paid to whether or not candidates had the personal and social characteristics required in teachers (Ekizceli, 2006). He drafted a detailed plan for students entering teacher training schools. According to his plan, candidates who wanted to be teachers would have to take an exam consisting of questions related to topics they had already studied in their lessons and then interviews would be conducted with them. In addition, Maaske (1956) stated that for at least the last two years of their teacher training, students should go to schools for observation and application training (teaching practicum). In addition to this, he emphasized in his report that there should be laboratory schools beside teacher training institutions. Among the views of foreign experts, the most striking and most frequently repeated aspects of teacher training were that the books and reference resources available to teacher training institutions were inadequate and that the teaching methods were not taught effectively. For this, it was emphasized that the teaching process should include teaching practicum as well as theoretical learning. It was also reported that acceptance of candidate teachers through selection and consideration of whether or not candidates had the required personal and social characteristics of a teacher were important points that could affect teacher training. On the other hand, in the reports of the foreign experts, it was stated that the quality of teachers was seen as more important than their sheer quantity, and that the salaries of teachers should be adjusted and more importance attached to in-service teacher training in Turkey. Some of the opinions and suggestions of the foreign experts regarding teacher training were put into effect in the years following the reports. However, it can also be said that some of the problems that the foreign experts identified regarding teacher training are still persistent today. Conclusion When the foreign experts’ reports are subjected to a general evaluation, it is seen that important problems were detected related to the structure and different stages of schooling in the Turkish education system, those suggestions

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for solutions to these problems were made and that some of these solutions were put into effect. Thus, it can be said that despite the economic conditions in the country at the time, by providing both practical and economic suggestions for the establishment of educational environments necessary for the application of contemporary education, these foreign experts made important contributions to the educational development of Turkey. In the experts’ reports, in general, it is seen that inadequacies in the field of education in the conditions of that period were emphasized. The experts who made these important suggestions in the field of education pointed out that the improvements to be made in order to establish contemporary foundations in education should be done so on the basis of scientific approach, and not applied haphazardly. However, it is possible to say that many of the changes suggested by the foreign experts about the general structure of the Turkish education system, as well as the different levels of education and training, were not put into effect and as a result, serious problems still persist today. Though seeking expert opinions was a good decision at the time, it is true that the contents of the reports could not be utilized efficiently. As partial reasoning for this situation, it can be shown that the foreign experts mostly reflected experiences of their own countries and thus they might have made some unrealistic proposals because of a lack of knowledge of Turkish culture and society. Had it been possible to accomplish the suggestions outlined in the reports, the Turkish education system could, of course, be in a much better situation today. Due to the existence of important recommendations still valid today, the foreign expert reports can still be used as a resource to address problems in the Turkish education system. Past research and expert opinions should be used to solve the problems of every level of the education system and all past and present applications should be revised before education system regulations are made or changed. Considering that some of the problems in the reports prepared between 1923 and 1960 still persist in the Turkish education system, radical changes must be made in order to solve these problems and that existing problems should be addressed by making detailed reviews at all stages of the education system.

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References Akdag, O. (2008). Cumhuriyetin ilk yillarinda egitim alaninda yabanci uzman istihdami. Usak Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1(1), 45-77. Akkutay, U. (1996). Milli egitimde yabanci uzman raporlari (Ataturk donemi). Ankara: Avni Akyol Umit Kultur ve Egitim Vakfi Yayinlari. Akmehmetoglu, H. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler ogretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler ogretiminde karsilastiklari sorunlar (Kastamonu ili ornegi) (Master’s thesis). Kastamonu University, Institute of Social Sciences, Kastamonu, Turkey. Akyuz, Y. (1999). Turk egitim tarihi. Istanbul: Alfa. Akyuz, Y. (2001). Turk egitim tarihi. Istanbul: Alfa. Akyuz, Y. (2002). Turkiye’de cagdas anlamda ogretmenlik mesleginim dogusu. Ankara: Turkler. Amerikan Heyeti. (1939). Amerikan heyeti raporundan maarif isleri. Istanbul: Devlet basimevi. Ata, B. (2001). 1924 Turk Basini isiginda Amerikali egitimci John Dewey’nin Turkiye seyahati. Gazi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 21(3), 193-207. Ayaz, N. (1948). Turkiye Cumhuriyeti milli egitimi kuruluslar ve tarihceler. Ankara: MEB. Aykac, N. (2007). Ilkogretim sosyal bilgiler dersi egitim-ogretim programina yonelik ogretmen gorusleri. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(22), 46-73. Basgoz, I. (2005). Turkiye’nin egitim cikmazi ve Ataturk. Istanbul: Pan. Bayindir, N., & Ozel, A. (2016). Ilkokul ogrencilerinin tuvaletleri hijyenik kullanma durumlarinin belirlenmesi. Uluslararasi Turk Egitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(6), 41-47. Binbasioglu, C. (1999). Cumhuriyet donemi egitim bilimleri tarihi. Ankara: Ogretmen Huseyin Husnu Tekisik Egitim Arastirma Gelistirme Merkezi. Buyse, O. (1939). Teknik ogretim hakkinda rapor. Istanbul: Maarif Vekâleti Yayinlari. Cakir, T. (1999). Cumhuriyet’in yetmis besinci yilinda turk milli egitiminde ilkogretim (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Sakarya University, Institute of Social Sciences, Sakarya, Turkey. Cinar, C., Cizmeci, F., & Akdemir, Z. (2007). 8 yillik temel egitim okullarinda mufredatin gerektirdigi mekân standartlarinin Istanbul okullari uzerinden analizi. Yildiz Teknik Universitesi Mimarlik Fakultesi E-Dergisi, 2(4), 188203. Coskun, A. (2007). Ilkogretim 4. ve 5. Siniflar sosyal bilgiler programi hakkinda ogretmen goruslerine iliskin bir calisma (Ankara ili ornegi) (Master’s thesis). Baskent University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara, Turkey. Costat, M. (1956). Turkiye’de meslek okullari hakkinda rapor. Ankara: Maarif Vekaleti. Demirboya, F. (2014). Ilkogretim sosyal bilgiler dersi (6. ve 7. Sinif ) ogretim programini Hakkâri ilinde uygulamak: Bir durum saptamasi (Master’s thesis). Marmara University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey. Demirtas, B. (2008). Ataturk doneminde egitim alaninda yasanan gelismeler. Gazi Akademik Bakis, 1(2), 155-176.

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Namal, Y. (2012). Turkiye’de 1933-1950 yillari arasinda yuksekogretime yabanci bilim adamlarinin katkilari. Yuksekogretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 2(1), 1419. Onk, M. (2015). Ataturk donemi egitim sistemi gelismelere bir bakis. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 37, 511-530. Ortas, I. (2014). Turkiye ve dunyada kitap okuma degerlerinin karsilastirmasi ve sosyal yasamimiza etkileri. Turk Kutuphaneciligi, 28(3), 323-337. Ozel, E. (2007). Ataturk Donemi Turk Egitim Politikalari (Master’s thesis). Dumlupinar University, Institute of Social Sciences, Kutahya, Turkey. Parker, B. (1939). Turkiye’de ilk tahsil hakkinda rapor. Istanbul: Maarif Vekilligi Devlet Basimevi. Sahin, M. (1996). Turkiye’de ogretmen yetistirme uygulamalarinda yabanci uzmanlarin yeri (Doctoral dissertation). Dokuz Eylul University, Institute of Ataturk's Principles and History of Turkish Revolution, Izmir, Turkey. Sensekerci, E., Sahin, H., Gulcan, Y., & Akkus, M. (2007). Ataturk ilkeleri ve devrim tarihi-I ve II. Bursa: Uludag Universitesi. Stiehler, G. (1926). Sanat terbiyesi hakkinda rapor. Maarif Vekâleti Mecmuasi, 9. Istanbul: MEB. Sulubulut, M. (2014). Egitim alaninda Turkiye’ye davet edilen yabanci uzmanlar (1923-1960) (Master’s thesis). Ahi Evran University, Institute of Social Sciences, Kirsehir, Turkey. Tuna, O. (1973). Turkiye’de mesleki ve teknik egitim. Ankara: Ayyildiz. Unal, C., & Basaran, Z. (2010). Yeni program cercevesinde sosyal bilgiler ogretmenlerinin sorunlari (Erzurum). Milli Egitim, 186, 291-309. Unal, S., Ozturk, M., & Gurdal, A. (2014). Ilkogretim okullarinin bina standartlarina uygunlugu. Pamukkale Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 7(7), 74-79. Wofford, K. V. (1952). Turkiye koy ilkokullari hakkinda rapor (F. Varis, Trans.). Ankara: Milli Egitim. Yildirim, N., & Gungor-Akgun, O. (2015). Ilkokul 3. sinif ogretmenlerinin yenilenen fen bilimleri dersine iliskin gorusleri. Ahi Evran Universitesi Kirsehir Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi (KEFAD) 16(2), 199-218. Yilmaz, A. (2012). Ilkogretim okullarinin fiziksel yapilarinin egitim ve ogretim acisindan degerlendirilmesi. Balikesir Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitusu Dergisi, 15(28), 77-107.

Chapter 3

Repercussions of Turkish National Education Policies Vural Hosgorur1

Introduction The education policy encompasses the principles and rules governing the achievement of the objectives of the educational organization at the planned level. Here the principles show the basic ideas about the product to be produced and the rules show the ways of action (Basaran, 1982). The aim of the education policy is to ensure determination, consistency, unity and continuity in the functioning of the organization. Today, the criterion of social development is determined on the basis of educational policies implemented rather than economic indicators (Tunc & Ertuna, 2015). The most effective applications of education policy and education in the Turkish National Education System can be seen clearly in the first 15 years following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. During this period, radical changes were made both in terms of social and individual development through education. According to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the education policies and programs around before the Republic were uncertain; with no unity or common goals in education. Turkey’s education was under the influence of foreign elements. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the Republic, gave great importance to education for the preservation of independence and the future of the Republic and said that education should be national and that Turkish children should be educated in such a way as to protect Turkey’s independence and uphold the Republic (Yucel, 1998). This philosophy and the subsequent educational system established based on this philosophy strengthened the democratic system established by serving the functions of imparting the political conception to individuals and developing the political system. The general framework of the Turkish National Education System was set out in the National Education Law No. 1739, dated 1973. The general aims of 1

Assoc. Prof., Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Faculty of Education, vuralhosgorur @mu.edu.tr

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the national education system constitute the state policy of the Turkish National Education System (Republic of Turkey, 1973). The first general objective stated in this law, in the broadest sense, being to educate citizens. This objective explains the characteristics to be possessed by citizens to be educated in connection with the structure and ideology of the state. The first general objective describes the citizenship qualities needed for the sustainability of the state, while the second general objective points to the characteristics related to the development of the individual. These objectives place great emphasis on the training of individuals as creative and productive. The third general objective is to bring the individual into an economically self-sufficient position. In addition to the general objectives of Turkish National Education, its basic principles put forth important targets for the education policy. Right to receive education, equality of opportunities, Ataturk’s principles and reforms, Ataturk’s nationalism, democracy education, secularism, scientificity, planning and mixed education are some of the principles related to the education policy of Turkish National Education. All of these principles set up the infrastructure of the education policy. The basis of the education policy is laid by philosophy, culture, science and history. Educational policies not built on philosophy, culture, science and history just in order to save the day can result in continuously changing education systems. Some examples of this are given below; In the newly established Republic of Turkey, preparations for the establishment of the Village Institutes started in 1935 and they legally started to provide education from 1940. Though these institutes were very successful, they were later closed in 1954 (Law No. 6234) with the transition to the multiparty period. Up until their closure, these institutes educated a total of 17,251 village teachers and after their closure, the buildings were used as elementary schools. With the academic year of 1991-1992, the credit system was put into effect, but this system was gradually abandoned by 1995-1996 due to problems it had brought about and the class passing system resumed. The eight-year compulsory education program, which was proposed by many National Education Councils, which can be regarded as a successful educational policy and whose basis was laid in 1973, started to be implemented nationally as of 1997, but was then replaced by the 12-year compulsory education known as “4+4+4” in the 2012-2013 school year (due to problems experienced in the implementation of this new program, revisions are still being made). The school starting age was determined to be 60-66 months as from the 2012-2013 school year, with the condition of the parent’s approval. Parents who did not want to send their children to school at that age were obliged to receive a medical report. During this period, a total of 79,565 children re-

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ceived a medical report in order not to start school. Due to harsh criticisms of this system, an amendment was made to the Elementary Schools Regulation and the new school starting age was set as 66-69 months. Constant changes in the curriculum, short-lived regimes in teacher training; new practices in the inspection system can all be regarded as natural consequences of policy uncertainty within Turkey’s education system. The education policies of the Turkish National Education System are constituted by laws, agreements and documents such as the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, Laws on Education, Government Programs, Development Plans, National Education Councils, Education Board, International Treaties, European Union Integration Programs, Ministry of National Education Strategic Plan Document (Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2015b), and Lifelong Learning Strategy Paper linked to the European Union strategy (OECD, 2010a). The Turkish Republic aims to achieve the following targets by 2023: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)

creating a society made up of educated individuals; installing interactive whiteboards in all the classes and giving a tablet to each student; achieving 100% enrolment in elementary and secondary education; promoting vocational education; implementation of the Higher Education Council reform; increasing the number of private universities; enhancing the quality of universities; execution of the foreign language teaching policy; elimination of societal gender and inter-regional inequalities; better preparation of students for higher education and future in a more flexible structure.

Many projects have been developed, many reforms have been supported by international organizations, and pilot projects have been initiated recently in order to achieve these objectives. Some of these are the Basic Education Program (1997) and the Secondary Education Project (2006-2011), both initiated with the support of the World Bank with the aim of improving the quality of education. The Main Implementation Plan covering the years 2001-2005 includes various projects supported by UNICEF in order to improve both equality and quality in the Turkish education system. Revisions have been made to the education system in order for it to comply with worldwide developments, to accomplish its objectives and to successfully fulfill social, political and economic duties assigned to it (Ozdemir, 2014).

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Many projects have been put into effect such as the “Mobile Classroom Project” for children aged 36-66 months of low-income families; for children aged 60-66 months there is the “Summer School Project” and to increase the cooperation with parents there is the “Child Development and Training Project.” Besides the mobile education program, an “Address-based Population Registration System” has been put into effect in order to help the authorities in education track children who are left outside of education. The “Project of Increasing the Schooling Rate among Girls” (ISEG, 2011-2013) implemented in 16 cities with low rates of schooling, the “Special Education Project” (2004), and the “Project of Strengthening the Special Education” (2011-2013) are among those implemented (OECD, 2012). The General Directorate of Vocational and Technical Education prepared eGuides for the placement of students in the vocational fields of Anatolian Technical and Anatolian Vocational schools and determined the principals of placement on February 16, 2015. The procedures governing how vocational and technical school students can proceed through higher education were reorganized. Accordingly, while 60% of places in vocational schools of higher education are reserved for students having graduated from vocational high schools, the remaining 40% are allocated to students who want to be placed on the basis of their transition to higher education examination scores. In 2012, a law was enacted to increase the duration of compulsory education from eight years to 12 in order that the quality of education and schooling rates could be enhanced; thus, the education system was divided into three levels each of which lasts four years (elementary, secondary, and high school education, known as “4+4+4”). In addition, incentives have been introduced in order to encourage the private sector to contribute to the education system (OECD, 2013b). In order to ensure equal opportunities for everyone in education, to improve the technological infrastructure in the schools and to ensure effective use of information and communication technologies in education and training processes, all primary and secondary schools have been included in the FATIH Project (Movement of Enhancing Opportunities and Improving Technology). For the effective use of information technologies in education, teachers and students are all being provided with tablet computers (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015b). The Ministry of National Education (MoNE) has made some attempts to improve the quality of basic education by renewing the curriculum, improving teachers’ in-service training and competencies, developing course materials, books and supplementary materials, as well as the physical infrastructure of schools. It was thought that rote learning was seen as a reason for the failure of Turkish students in international standardized exams (PISA, TIMSS) and should be eradicated through newly prepared programs (Guven &

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Demirhan Iscan, 2006). In this regard, the Board of Education revised the st th curriculums of elementary education 1 to 5 grades on the basis of the constructivist approach and has put them into practice from the 2005-2006 school year. Moreover, course books, student’s books and teacher books have been prepared parallel to the new curriculums, and a total of 230 thousand classroom teachers were included in an in-service training program (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2005). In addition to all these actions, within the context of the 100% support project, new classes have been established and new projects have been put into effect to increase schooling among girls. With the implementation of the MEGEP project, vocational education has at last been brought to the fore. Changes taking place in countries in line with scientific and technological developments and the globalization process have changed the needs of societies, and led to the emergence of a new type of society that feels obliged to continuously renew itself and acquire new information (Turan, 2005). Education policies are important for determining how an education system of an individual country will be shaped in the future and what should be done about education in that country. In this current study, the results of educational policies applied in Turkey are presented. The current study aims to contribute to a clearer understanding and questioning of Turkey’s educational problems by evaluating the repercussions of these applied educational policies in terms of quality and equality, improvements in education, financing and preparation of individuals for the future in an objective way without resorting to a pejorative definition and to make suggestions for solutions to these problems. The current study aims to investigate the repercussions of the educational policies applied in Turkey as a qualitative study designed in the survey model. The study addresses the topic of “Turkish Education Policies and Their Repercussions.” Repercussions of educational policies in terms of quality and equality One of the Basic Principles of National Education, as stated in the National Education Basic Law (Republic of Turkey, 1973), is the principle of “Equal Opportunity.” With this principle, the state pledges its citizens that a student lacking financial means but having the potential to be successful can proceed to the highest levels of education. Despite the fact that some works have been carried out in Turkey to increase the enrolment rate in all levels of schooling, this has not been completely achieved. Enrolment rate in pre-school education is considerably low when compared to the OECD average (37% in Turkey in 2014, 85% in OECD in 2013). In pre-school education the number of students per teacher was found to be 17, compared to the OECD average of 14 (TEDMEM, 2016). According to

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the 2014 Human Development Report, in countries with a high development index, the average education period of the population over the age of 25 is 9.1 years, whereas this period is 7.6 years in Turkey (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015b). In terms of ensuring that all individuals have access to education and instruction under just and equal conditions, as a result of the education policies developed and applications conducted to increase the enrolment and graduation rates in all the levels of schooling, particularly among the disadvantaged groups, until 2019, positive developments have been observed in the rates of students who are under the basic competence level in Turkey (including the 2012 exam). For example, in the PISA 2003 reading skills test, 36.8% of students were below the basic proficiency level, compared to 21.6% for PISA 2012; in science tests this rate dropped from 38.6% to 26.4%; and in the mathematics test, from 52.3% to 42.2%. These results show that the proportion of students below the basic level of competence in all areas is decreasing. In addition, while there were no students in the top level in Turkey in the exam held in 2009, this rate was 0.3% on average in the exam held in 2012. However, while these improvements were expected to continue or at least the level was expected to remain stable, according to the results of the PISA exam conducted in 2015, which was participated in by 72 countries, Turkey has unable to catch up with the average of OECD countries and even lagged behind the results obtained in both 2009 and 2012. As an example; while the proportion of students staying in the first level or lower of the Science Literacy Exam conducted in 2012 was 26.9%, this rate increased to 44.4% (OECD average th 23.3%) in the PISA exam of 2015. Turkey was placed 50 out of 72 countries having participated in this exam. In all test areas, the proportion of Turkish students in the lower proficiency level increased, whereas the proportion of students in the upper proficiency level has decreased (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2016). By looking at the results of the PISA exams, it is understood that Turkey is unable to achieve stable success in education and training, and cannot train students with high-level competences (Aydin, 2015). By examining the results obtained from the exams up until 2012, it can be said that Turkey has made limited progress in tackling inequality in education. Another example of the improvement in equality in education in Turkey, although small, is the success of students living in different residential areas. Almost half of 15 year-old students in Turkey were at or below the lowest proficiency level, which is 20% in the average OECD country. The proficiency levels vary across the regions in Turkey and it is seen that the students with the lowest proficiency level live in the Eastern regions (OECD, 2013a).

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Table 3.1. Some indicators of quality and equality in education Levels of schooling Number of students per teacher

Schooling ratio (%)

Absence rate for 20 days or more (%) Dropout rate (%)

2012

2013

2014

1. Elementary

20

20

19

2. Secondary

16

16

15

1. Pre-school

44.04

37.36

37.46

2. Elementary

--

98.86

99.57

3. Secondary

67.37

70.06

76.65

1. Elementary

--

14.60

14.80

2. Secondary

38.90

40.80

34.80

39.60

37.05

38.02

Source: Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE] (2015b)

Elementary education programs (Life Sciences 1-3, Social Studies 4-5, Science & Technology 4-5, Mathematics 1-5, Turkish 1-5), prepared on the basis of the constructivist approach in Turkey, started to be implemented as from the 2005-2006 academic year. The new programs in general aim to create individuals who can properly and effectively use Turkish, acquire basic numerical and verbal literacy skills, express themselves, communicate healthily, take the initiative, solve problems, understand their responsibilities and rights, think scientifically, investigate, criticize, question, use technology and internalize social and universal values (Akinoglu, 2005). Despite this application, Turkey still lags behind the OECD average in reading, mathematics and science in PISA exams. The effect of teachers in the success of students and in the quality of their education is obvious. Although Turkey has a long history of 169 years in educating teachers, it seems to be inadequate in training teachers who have the st correct qualifications and competences to meet the requirements of the 21 century (Hosgorur, 2016). Among the main reasons for the quality-related problems of the teaching profession are the changes made in teacher training policies without conducting comprehensive research and planning considering the unity of the education system (Azar, 2011). As political ideologies have been given greater priority than managerial approaches such as accountability, human resource planning, the problem of teacher education and recruitment has become unsolvable (Aydin, 2015). The balance between teacher training and teacher recruitment has deteriorated; while there are shortages of teachers in some areas, more teachers than needed have been trained in some other areas. Those who have graduated from faculties and departments that are not related to teaching have been appointed as teachers after a short

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formation program or sometimes without any formation in order to overcome the shortage problem in areas where more teachers are needed. Such practices have negatively affected not only the quality of education, but also the status and respectability of the teaching profession (Ozoglu, 2010). Solving the problems of teacher training programs is very important in terms of designing the society of the future. Without making the necessary preliminary studies and planning, without ensuring continuity in practice and without being supported by scientific study, the efforts made for change cannot be effective in solving the problems (Hosgorur, 2016). Repercussions of education policies in terms of improvement in education and financing Turkey has a deeply-rooted tradition of education. Education in Turkey has always been an important part of the social and political agenda. All over the world, education is playing an important role in terms of accelerating social development, lending impetus to job growth and thus increasing national competitiveness. Due to frequent changes made in the education system, it seems to be difficult to develop policies for distant targets in Turkey. It is difficult to say that there has been a period of stable education policy in the Turkish national education system. One of the most important negative reflections of the education policy followed in Turkey is the lack of success in international exams. These exams show that Turkey has lagged behind the desired levels (Eres, 2016). The education policy in the Turkish education system with its highly centralized inspection structure in education is directed by the MoNE and at the level of higher education by the Higher Education Council (known in Turkish as YOK). Schools have very limited autonomy and their capacity to meet their needs are also at a limited level. Funding for education is provided from the public purse, but schools can also accept contributions from parents through school family associations (OECD, 2013b). The per-capita income in Turkey is US$ 9,364 in 2016. According to OECD data, with its US$ 3,327 spending per rd student on average, Turkey takes the 33 place among 45 countries. The average amount spent per student among OECD countries is around US$ 10,493. The average amount of this spending across the levels of schooling is as follows: US$ 8,477 in primary schools, US$ 9,980 in secondary schools and US$ 9,990 in high schools. In higher education, this increases to US$ 15,772 (OECD, 2016). Education expenditures in Turkey increased by 13.2% in 2014 compared to the same period in 2013, reaching 113.5 billion TL. In 2014, the most expenditure compared to previous years was made to secondary education with 20.4%. The ratio of education spending to gross domestic product increased

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to 6.5% in 2014. Of the education expenditures made in 2014, 77.7% were financed by the state and the share of expenditures made by households in education expenditures was 19.8%. Total education expenditure per student increased by 8.9% compared to the previous year. The highest increase in education expenditures in 2014 was again in secondary education with 14.7%. This is followed by elementary education with 9.5% (Turkiye Istatistik Kurumu [Turkish Statistical Institute, TUIK], 2015). These data show that Turkey is one of the countries that have increased the annual expenditure per student the most in recent years. Despite this increase, however, Turkey is still one of the countries with the lowest total expenditure per student. Annual spending per student is behind OECD countries. Some of the countries with the lowest spending per student are South Africa, Indonesia and Mexico (OECD, 2016). According to National Education Statistics of 2014-2015, the number of vocational and technical education high schools in Turkey is 4,089 and the number of teachers working in these institutions is 139,374. Moreover, in 2014-2015 school year, 40% of students were trained in vocational and technical secondary education institutions. The total net enrolment rate of vocational and technical secondary education, which was 39.99% in the 2013-2014 school year, reached 44.02% in the 2014-2015 school year as a result of abolishing the differences existing in the calculation of the university entrance exam scores of the high school graduates and vocational school graduates (TEDMEM, 2016). It can be said that this inadequacy of education spending has reached more serious dimensions due to the rapid increase in the number of students in Turkey and accordingly due to the increasing need for classrooms and educational and instructional materials. In Turkey, 17.6 million students (approximately 48.8% female, 51.2% male students) are in the formal education system, including 985,013 in pre-school, 5,230,878 elementary school students, 5,069,683 secondary school students and 5,691,071 high school students (general + vocational). When these figures are added to the 5,440,000 students studying in universities, it can be seen that there are about 24 million students in the Turkish National Education System. When seen that these 24 million students are served by 919,393 teachers and about 150 thousand teaching staff, the vastness and importance of the Turkish education sector become clear. The adequacy and quality of the resources spent on education are important in the development of a country (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015a). Compared to OECD countries, Turkey has the lowest ratio of public finance of education to GDP. Table 3.2 shows the recent budgetary allocations for education and their proportion to national income. The proportion of budget of the MoNE in the consolidated budget and GDP is also shown.

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Table 3.2. Ratio of MoNE budget to consolidated budget and GDP Years

Ratio of MoNE budget to consolidated budget (%)

Ratio of MoNE budget to GDP (%)

2012

10.16

2.75

2013

11.76

3.02

2015

17.02

4.14

Source: Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE] (2015a)

As can be seen in Table 3.2, it is noteworthy that although the amount of the budget allocated to education has increased in recent years, its proportion in the national income has not changed much. Educational expenditures, which are limited within the central budget but have a significant share in social expenditures, have been reduced or kept constant due to resource transfers to the private sector. According to a survey conducted by the Turkish Statistical Institute (Turkiye Istatistik Kurumu [TUIK], 2002), the distribution of educational expenditures in Turkey across the funding sources is as follows; the state 46.81%, household 32.85%, private individuals and organizations 1.55%, local administrations 0.70%, and international institutions 0.09%. When the distribution of educational expenditures is examined, it is seen that great financial burden is placed on the shoulders of parents (Apaydin, 2008). Inadequate funding allocated to investments and purchases of goods and services from the general budget and from the MoNE budget causes schools to experience difficulties. School principals are struggling to keep schools functioning. However, investments in education to develop human resources are the most important determinant of today’s and tomorrow’s standard of living (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012). This difficult situation for schools makes it necessary to compensate for deficiencies from out-of-school sources, which means that individuals who demand education from the state are more obliged to undertake the cost of education. As seen in Table 3, 70% (42 billion TL) of the 62.25 billion TL in the 2015 MoNE budget is spent on personnel expenditures and 11% (6 billion TL) is spent on social security and government premiums. The ratio allocated to investments from this budget is 8.33% (5.5 billion TL).

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Table 3.3. Amount allocated to educational investments from MoNE budget Years

MoNE Budget (TL)

MoNE Investment Budget (TL)

Ratio of investment budget from MoNE budget (%)

2012

39,169,379,190

2,600,000,000

6.64

2013

47,496,378,650

3,955,000,000

8.33

2015

62,000,248,000

5,494,000,800

13.58

Source: Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE] (2015a)

The total number of public and private schools (51,622 public and 9,581 private) affiliated to the MoNE in the 2015-2016 school year is 61,203, and the number of classrooms totals 651,828 (553,066 public and 98,762 private). The number of biology, science, physics, chemistry, vocational practice and foreign language laboratories in elementary and secondary education totaled 33,732 and the number of libraries (excluding class libraries) totaled 17,914 in the 2013-2014 school year. As a part of the FATIH project, interactive whiteboards were implemented at 3,657 schools in 84,921 classrooms. A total of 737,800 tablet computers were also distributed to teachers and high school students. Table 3.4. Indicators related to improvement & financing in education Levels of schooling Number of students per class Ratio of schools implementing dual system (%) Ratio of schools having a library (%) Ratio of schools having internet infrastructure (%)

2012

2013

2014

1. Elementary

30

30

29

2. Secondary

31

31

29

1. Pre-school

29.20

26.00

23.50

2. Elementary

14.80

10.70

8.50

41.40

41.40

39.20

-

-

38.02

Source: Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE] (2015b)

Lack of economic possibility is the most important factor to impede the quality and continuation of education in Turkey. Families need to meet the needs of education that are not met by the state. In addition, differences between regions, provinces, and even in income levels in different districts within the same province also result in differences in terms of making a contribution to education. The inequality and injustice already existing in education

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can be worsened by factors such as the extent to which educational opportunities are utilized, the quality of education, the physical equipment and infrastructure of schools, tools and equipment at schools, shortage of teachers and classrooms. In a study by Isik and Alpay (2004), a large number of participants (more than 80%) said that the budget and planning activities were connected to each other and that planning activities would not make any sense without environmental support. More than half of the respondents were found to have negative opinions about the efficiency of the work done. It is stated at every opportunity by school principals that the amount allocated for schools from the general budget is far from meeting the needs of schools. Repercussions of education policies in terms of preparing students for the future In PISA exams, it was researched how well 15-year-old students in the participating countries are prepared for the life at the end of their elementary education, to what extent they have acquired the skills they are expected to acquire in the fields of “Mathematics,” “Problem solving,” “Reading comprehension,” and “Science”, and what the factors are affecting their achievement. In these exams, four different skill levels were determined for mathematics competence, six for problem solving competence and three for reading competence. When the education systems of the OECD countries are compared in terms of the inculcation of the basic skills in students, it is seen that Turkey is at the bottom among OECD countries with 75% of students below the Math Skill rd th Level 2. According to exam results, Turkey ranked 33 in math skills, 36 in th science skills and 34 in reading skills and in the general ranking among th OECD countries Turkey was in 28 place. In fact, these results are not surprising because when the statistics showing the number of students in Turkey, amount allocated to education from the budget and per-capita income are taken into consideration, it becomes clear that education in Turkey is more disadvantaged than other countries. These results have made it compulsory to make some arrangements and amendments in some areas of the Turkish National Education System, and the MoNE has started some works to improve the quality of basic education, to renew curriculums, to enhance teachers’ in-service training and competencies, to develop instructional equipment, books and materials as well as the physical infrastructure. The Board of Education renewed the st th curriculums of elementary school 1 -5 grades on the basis of the constructivist approach and these new programs have been in effect since 2005-2006 school year. However, because the constructivist approach has not been sufficiently understood by teachers, students’ opinions have not been adequately taken into consideration in the control of the learning process and

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teachers have implemented the new programs instead with a traditional viewpoint. The activities were not interesting enough for the students because the teachers totally adhered to the sources sent to them by the MoNE, which negatively affected attitudes towards lessons. Teachers have not been able to sufficiently master the philosophy and practices of the constructivist approach. Teachers are unable to create complex learning environments that will support the mental development of students (Atasonmez, 2008). It is not difficult to see the repercussions of these negativities in the results of the 2015 PISA exam results. The unemployment rate remained above the OECD average for those aged 25-64 who graduated from upper secondary or higher education in 2011, but remained below the OECD average for those without upper secondary education diplomas. The unemployment rate (36.5%) of the 15-29 age group who have no upper secondary education diploma and are currently unemployed and not continuing their education or vocational training is more than twice the OECD average (15.8%). In OECD countries, the ratio of staying outside education and employment was 16.4% for males and 19.4% for females in the 20-24 age group in 2014. When we look at Turkish data, the ratio of male and female out of education and employment in the 20-24 age group is 20.5% and 51%, respectively. This gender-based difference is in favor of males (OECD, 2016). In order to improve these results with regards to young people, there is a need for policies that respond to skill needs, improve the employment in the labor market and creates strong ties with the labor market for young people. In upper secondary education, entrance exams are applied for acceptance to schools. In Turkey, there are counselors in each school, with guidance and counseling services offered to help learners and families make informed decisions based on the interests of students and the opportunities of the education and labor market. Graduation rate in vocational education and training at secondary level (25%) is still almost half that of the OECD average (47% in 2011) (OECD, 2012). The importance of an education system that enables the training of individuals with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors complying with the requirements of the labor market exhibiting a dynamic structure parallel to the developments in business life caused by rapidly changing information, technology and production methods is increasing worldwide. Acquisition of new skills, support for creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship, enabling transition between jobs and imparting the skill of adapting to a new job can play an important role in strengthening the economic and social structure, especially for Turkey with its young population. One of the factors affecting the employability of individuals is the level of satisfaction of employers with the professional skills they have acquired as a result of the education and training they receive. According to the results of the Employer Satisfaction

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Questionnaire found in the Determination of Turkey’s Human Resources Report prepared by the Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology, nearly half of the companies are content with the occupational skills of the apprenticeship education graduates (46.9%), vocational high school graduates (57.2%), graduates of vocational schools of higher education, (56.7%) and university graduates (59.6%). The proportion of those who are satisfied with the current structure of industry, school and university cooperation is 46.2%. The ratio of vocational and technical education (MTE) graduates employed in their respective fields is 58.41% according to the 2011 e-Graduation report (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015b). Discussion Regular interest groups in social institutions and society seek ways to shape the education that is a social and economic as well as a political initiative, according to their worldviews by influencing the aims and policies of education. Societal desires and actions based on these desires are usually the result of influences of powerful groups centered around economic, political, occupational, religious and similar axes. If the educational institution does not have a sound philosophy about the aims, policies and their supervision, it cannot resist this pressure (Bursalioglu, 1987). “Equality of opportunity,” the most common type of equality in modern democracies, is a liberal principle stipulating that everyone, regardless of their social, political and economic origins, can compete proportional to their skills and competences (Unal & Ozsoy, 1999). The concept of “equality of opportunity in education” means that all students should have an equal chance in making use of educational opportunities and developing their skills in the most favorable way (Tezcan, 1985). According to 2013 data, only 7% of children in Turkey at the age of three and only 36% of children at four years of age were enrolled in pre-school education; whereas, in OECD countries, these ratios were 74% and 85%, respectively. In Turkey, the rate of receiving education that finishes below the level of high school is 64% for the adult population aged 25-64; whereas, this is 24% in OECD countries on average. Moreover, while the enrolment rate among the 15-19 year olds is 84% in OECD countries, it is 69% in Turkey (TEDMEM, 2016). According to the 2014 Human Development Report, in countries with a high development index, the average education period of the population over the age of 25 is 9.1 years; whereas, this period is 7.6 years in Turkey (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015b). The rate of enrolment in lifelong learning is 4.8% (Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE], 2015b). In Turkey, the ratio of males and females who are out of education and employment in the 20-24 age group was 20.5% and 51%, respectively in 2014. Gender-based differences are in favor of males.

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According to the data, the employment rate of university graduates aged 5564 is 69% in OECD countries, whilst it is 42% in Turkey. In young adults (25-34 years) as a group, the rate of employment for university graduates is 76% in Turkey; whilst the OECD average is 82%. Turkey has one of the four highest unemployment ratios of OECD countries among university students. In the population aged 25-64, the unemployment rate for university graduates, which was 3.9% in 2000, rose to 8.2% in 2014 (TEDMEM, 2016). The quality of teaching is one of the important school variables that affect the quality of education and student achievement. Thanks to quality teachers, the achievement gap between the low- and high-income students can be largely filled depending on the quality of the teacher, and poorly performing students are more likely to benefit from quality teachers. Turkey is a country having the youngest teacher population. While the proportion of teachers in the age group 30 and below is 13% in OECD countries, it is 24% in Turkey. In secondary education, the proportion of teachers under 40 years old is 76% in Turkey and 38% in OECD countries. The distribution of financial resources in the Turkish education system is unequal to some extent, leading to increasing inequality of opportunities. Distribution of special expenditures on education across different income levels shows a high degree of inequality. Inequality in income distribution in Turkey negatively affects equal education opportunities. Examinations that determine the placement of pupils according to different skill areas and whose consequences are extremely important create opportunity inequality (World Bank, 2011, as cited in Celebi, Guner, Tascikaya, & Korumaz, 2014). Learning environments in the Turkish National Education System are not oriented towards life. Students cannot sufficiently relate what they have learned at school to real life. Research in Turkey shows that although a constructivist approach has been adopted in theory, a path more in accordance with the behavioral approach is followed in practice. This approach has only been trapped within the framework of certain dimensions, and has not been addressed within the integrity of the system (Bilasa, 2016). When Turkey’s current state of basic education is evaluated, it is seen that the quality of education in the country is lower than most OECD countries and there is a significant difference between high and low performance students. Almost half of all 15-year-olds in Turkey are at or below the lowest proficiency level, while this is 20% on average in OECD countries. The proficiency levels vary according to the regions in Turkey and it is seen that the lowest level students live in the Eastern regions. There is also a difference in quality among the different types of schools in Turkey, which leads to lifelong inequality among students depending on where they happen to study (OECD, 2010b). There are many factors that cause these differences between student performances. The most important of these factors is the differences between the socioeconomic status of the individuals and their family backgrounds

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(Dincer & Uysal, 2010). Moreover, teacher quality is also influencing student success (OECD, 2009; Santiago, 2002; Hattie, 2003, as cited in World Bank, 2005a). Thanks to quality teachers, the achievement gap between the low- and high-income students has been largely reduced and poorly performing students are more likely to benefit from quality teachers (Ripley, 2010) because quality teachers always set higher objectives for their students and continuously seek for ways of development (Farr, 2010). The quality of teachers and teaching in Turkey is low according to international standards. The teaching profession attracts people disproportionately from the low-middle socioeconomic segments, as it is in many countries. A survey of more than 17,000 students currently continuing their education at teacher training institutions showed that approximately 70% of their mothers and 40% of their fathers have only completed their elementary education (Aksu, Demir, Daloglu, Yildirim, & Kiraz, 2010). The distribution of financial resources in the Turkish education system is unequal to some extent, leading to increasing inequality of opportunities. Investment made in Turkey’s education is almost at the same level as an average OECD country. According to the MoNE’s Strategy Development Department 2010 data, the share allocated from the MoNE budget to educational investments is 6.32%. However, the share of special contributions is much higher than the average. The contributions of Turkish families constitute about 36% of total public and private spending on primary and secondary education (World Bank, 2005b). The wealthiest 20% of Turkish families spend 14 times more than the poorest 40% of the Turkish families on education (Duygan & Guner, 2006). Especially the families who are university graduates and have high-level income recruit private tutors to increase their children’s’ chances of placement in good schools and to prepare for the higher education entrance exam. Schools in Turkey tend to have a homogeneous appearance both in terms of their socioeconomic status and their academic performance as indicators of low social and academic participation. According to PISA 2009 results, the difference in academic performance between schools (51.7%) is largely explained by the economic, social and cultural status of schools and students (OECD, 2010a). Conclusion Education is the most basic right to enable people to develop without discrimination. As a result of the implemented policies, the opportunity of making equal use of education as an important means of overcoming poverty is gradually being reduced. One of the important reasons for the inequality of opportunity in the Turkish education system is the pre-schooling rate of 3040%. Children of families with high economic status and who have received pre-school education become advantaged over other children in the system.

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When Turkey’s current state of basic education is evaluated, it is seen that the quality of education is lower than most OECD countries, and that there is a significant difference between high and low performing students. Although the interregional gap has begun to close, the rate of school enrolment in some areas continues to vary by region and gender (World Bank, 2011, as cited in Celebi et al., 2014). When compared to other countries in terms of the relationship between the quality of education and the income level of parents, it is possible to define the educational system in Turkey with this duality, “low quality-high inequality.” The relationship between 15 year old students’ achievement in PISA exams and socioeconomic status in OECD countries was compared with their average mathematics scores, and Turkey was found to be among the countries where the inequality of opportunity is the highest and the quality of education is the lowest. In other words, Turkey is one of the countries where living conditions most affect achievement in education. The quality of education received by students in Turkey is also greatly influenced by the education and income level of their parents. Families having high incomes can pay for private courses and tutors in order for their children to attend better schools, which results in inadequacy of opportunity in high school and university entrance exams where competition is fierce (Aslankurt, 2013). Table 3.5. Indicators related to improvement & financing in education Levels of schooling

2012

2013

2014

Mean achievement score

2. Secondary school

69.92

69.36

70.18

Mean achievement score

3. High school

64.98

66.30

68.93

1. Elementary

21.02

21.65

23.32

2. Secondary school

8.51

7.09

7.26

3. High school

2.78

2.94

2.77

9 grade

33.90

30.10

17.06

10th grade

9.38

10.04

4.39

11 grade

3.25

3.14

2.50

12th grade

2.25

1.40

0.45

2. Secondary school

0.21

0.21

0.23

3. High school

2.31

2.45

3.16

Number of books read per student

th

Grade repetition in high school

Ratio of students receiving disciplinary punishment

th

Source: Milli Egitim Bakanligi [Ministry of National Education, MoNE] (2015b)

Despite some improvements that have been accomplished in education due to education policies in recent years, the objectives such as ensuring that all

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individuals have access to education and training under fair conditions, increasing participation and completion rates at all levels of education and training, imparting the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors required by the age to all individuals, increasing the academic achievement levels of students, increasing employability by training adaptable individuals with the skills demanded by the labor market, creating an organizational structure functioning effectively and efficiently to increase the access to education and quality of education by improving the human, financial, physical and technological structure and management and organizational structure and establishing educational environments that meet institutional standards have not yet been achieved. The level of socioeconomic diversity among schools in Turkey (0.78) is above the OECD average (0.63). It can be argued that the MoNE’s teacher recruitment policy has played a role in creating inequality of opportunity between school types and regions in terms of the provision of quality education. Suggestions Education is the most basic right to enable all people to develop without discrimination. There is a need for more effective policies to provide equal access to educational opportunities. Educational policies related to the inclusion of pre-school education in compulsory education may be beneficial in increasing school enrolment rates and providing equal opportunities. Public education should not be restricted to within schools, but rather the whole society should be included in the process. The main goal of education should be to unlock all the intellectual potential of students and educators. Therefore, ways of developing participatory education rather than rote learning should be sought and demanded. Constructivist approach-based programs were put into effect in 2005, but some problems have been experienced in their application. These constructivist approach-based programs should be re-evaluated and works should be conducted for their effective application. Although it seems to increase annually, the MoNE budget is inadequate to meet the needs of schools and institutions. The share allocated to education, which is a public service, from the general budget should be increased. The contribution of local government to the financing of education and training is insufficient. Policies should be developed so that local governments can contribute more to education.

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References Akinoglu, O. (2005). Turkiye’de uygulanan ve degisen egitim programlarinin psikolojik temelleri. Marmara Universitesi. Ataturk Egitim Fakultesi Egitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 22, 31-46. Aksu, M., Demir, C. E., Daloglu, A., Yildirim, S., & Kiraz, E. (2010). Who are the future teachers in Turkey? Characteristics of entering student teachers, International Journal of Educational Development, 30(1), 91-101. Apaydin, Y. (2008). Turkiye’de yoksulluk ve egitim iliskileri. Ilem yillik. 3(3), 4964. Aslankurt, B. (2013). Egitimde kusaklararasi hareketlilik: firsat esitliginde Turkiye nerede? Ankara: Turkiye Ekonomi Politikalari Arastirma Vakfi (TEPAV). Retrieved from http://www.tepav.org.tr/upload/files/13584237342.Egitimde_Kusaklararasi_Hareketlilik___Firsat_Esitliginde_Turkiye_Nerede. pdf Atasonmez, S. S. (2008). Program gelistirme sureci dogrultusunda yeni ilkogretim programlarinin incelenmesi (Master’s thesis). Firat University, Elazig, Turkey. Aydin, A. (2015). Egitim politikasi. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Azar, A. (2011). Turkiye’deki ogretmen egitimi uzerine bir soylem: Nitelik mi, nicelik mi? [Quality or quantity: A Statement for teacher training in Turkey]. Journal of Higher Education and Science, 1(1). 36-38. Basaran, I. E. (1982). Orgutsel davranisin yonetimi. Ankara: Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi. Bilasa, P. (2016). Constructivist education understanding in the curricula. Educational policies in Turkey and its reflection (pp. 155-167) (Ed. F. Eres). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Bursalioglu, Z. (1987). Okul yonetiminde yeni yapi ve davranis (7th ed.). Ankara: Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi. Celebi, N., Guner, H., Tascikaya, G., & Korumaz, M. (2014). Neoliberal egitim politikalari ve egitimde firsat esitligi baglaminda uluslararasi sinavlarin (PISA, TIMSS & PIRLS) analizi. Tarih Kultur ve Sanat Arastirmalari Dergisi, 3(3), 33-75. doi:1o.7596/taksad.v3i3.329. Dincer, M. A., & Uysal, G. (2010). Determinants of student achievement in Turkey. BETAM Working Paper. Istanbul: Bahcesehir University. Duygan, B., & Guner, N. (2006). Income and consumption inequality in Turkey: What role does education play? The Turkish economy: The real economy, corporate governance and reform (pp. 61-91) (Ed. S. Altug & A. Filiztekin). London & New York: Routledge. Eres, F. (2016). An overview of education policy and its reflections. Educational policies in Turkey and its reflection (pp. 183-204) (Ed. F. Eres). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Farr, S. (2010). Teach for America-teaching as leadership: the highly effective teacher’s guide to closing the achievement gap. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Guven, I., & Demirhan Iscan, C. (2006). Yeni ilkogretim programlarinin basina yansimalari. Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi Dergisi, 39(2), 95123.

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Hosgorur, T. (2016). Teacher-training policies in Turkey. Educational policies in Turkey and its reflection (pp. 135-154) (Ed. F. Eres). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Isik, H., & Alpay, A. (2004). Problems faced in the process of strategic planning in education: A study conducted in Canakkale. Gazi Universitesi Gazi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 24(3), 349-363. Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. C. (2012). Educational administration. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2005). OECD PISA 2003 Arastirmasinin Turkiye ile ilgili sonuclari-PISA 2003 projesi ulusal nihai raporu. Ankara: Milli Egitim Bakanligi Egitimi Arastirma ve Gelistirme Dairesi Baskanligi. Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2015a). Milli egitim istatistikleri orgun egitim 20142015. Ankara: Milli Egitim Baskanligi. Retrieved from http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/mill-egitim-istatistikleri-orgun-egitim-20142015/icerik/153. Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2015b). 2015-2019 Stratejik plan. Ankara: Milli Egitim Baskanligi. Retrieved from http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/mill-egitimbakanligi-2015-2019-stratejik-plani-yayinlanmistir/icerik/181 Milli Egitim Bakanligi. (2016). Uluslararasi ogrenci degerlendirme programi PISA 2015 ulusal raporu, (pp. 1-54). Olcme Degerlendirme ve Sinav Hizmetleri Genel Mudurlugu. Ankara. Milli Egitim Bakanligi. OECD. (2009). Education at a glance. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD. (2010a). PISA 2009 at a Glance. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD. (2010b). PISA 2009 Results: What students know and can do: Student performance in reading, mathematics and science (Volume I). Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en. OECD. (2012). Education at a glance 2012: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2012-en. OECD. (2013a). Education at a glance 2013: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2013-en. OECD. (2013b). Egitim politikasi genel gorunumu: Turkiye. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD. (2016). Education at a glance 2016: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.187/eag-2016-en Ozdemir, I. (2014). Postmodern dusuncenin Turkiye’de egitim sistemine yansimalari. Millî Egitim Dergisi, 204, 18-41. Retrieved from http://uvt.ulakbim.gov.tr/uvt/index.php? cwid=9&vtadi=TSOS&c=ebsco&ano=177687_eec02ec7c3db3693b0cbf4a3eb 566851&. Ozoglu, M. (2010). Turkiye’de ogretmen yetistirme sisteminin sorunlari. Ankara: Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Toplum Arastirmalari Vakfi. Republic of Turkey. (1973). Milli egitim temel kanunu. [National education law]. Law No. 1739. Resmi Gazete [Official Gazette], Issue: 14574. Retrieved from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.5.1739.pdf. Ripley, A. (2010). What makes a great teacher? The Atlantic, 2010 (January/February). Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/01/what-makes-agreat-teacher/307841/.

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Chapter 4

Underdetermination of Scientific Theories 1

Pakize Arikan Sandikcioglu

Introduction The belief that scientific activities produce scientific theories that aim to correctly explain the world, is very common both in philosophy and in daily life. According to this approach known as “scientific realism”, a scientific theory is characterized “as a story about what there really is and scientific activity as an enterprise of discovery as opposed to invention” (van Fraassen, 1980, p. 7). For scientific realism, successful scientific theories are true and scientific success brings us closer to reality. However, two important subjects of debate in the philosophy of science lead to a skeptical attitude towards scientific realism and to the need to reevaluate it. The first is the notion of empirical equivalence which expresses the claim that a scientific theory has at least one equivalent rival that has exactly the same empirical consequences. And the other is the notion of underdetermination of scientific theories that expresses the claim that no empirical and observational datum is able to determine which equivalent rival is true. According to many philosophers of science, these two notions indicate that some scientific theories are empirically indistinguishable and that we have no empirical criterion for choice of theory. This means that we have no empirical reason for believing the truth of a scientific theory and the existence of theoretical entities posited by a theory. Similarly, we have equal reason to believe another theory which is empirically equivalent to the theory in hand, even though it is inconsistent with it. On the other hand, several philosophers of science oppose the claim that scientific theories are underdetermined and assert that it is always possible to make a rational choice between equivalent rivals. In their article “Empirical Equivalence and Underdetermination,” Larry Laudan and Jarrett Leplin (1991) reject empirical equivalence and claim that even if we accept that empirically equivalent theories exist, this does not lead to underdetermination in any way. The main point that Laudan and Leplin try to show is that a theory’s empirical and observational consequences are not identical to evidence that 1

Asst. Prof., Izmir Katip Celebi [email protected]

University,

Department

of

Philosophy,

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supports the theory in question. The aim of this paper is to explain and evaluate counter-arguments presented by Laudan and Leplin and to interpret the philosophical consequences of underdetermination of scientific theories. To this aim, firstly the main claims of scientific realism will be introduced. Secondly, the concepts of empirical equivalence and underdetermination will be explained. And finally, Laudan and Leplin’s counterarguments and objections put forward against them will be presented and evaluated. Scientific Realism Is there an independent world that awaits discovery by science? Do scientific theories aim to describe the external world accurately? Is it possible to say that successful scientific theories are closer to the truth? Do theoretical terms used by scientific theories refer to real entities? If you are a scientific realist your answers to these questions will be probably “yes.” Certainly, the number of these questions can be increased, since scientific realism is not a position that expresses a single claim through which we can understand it in all its details. It can be said that scientific realism makes the following assertions but its claims are not limited with them: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Scientific theories are true or false depending on the way the world actually is. That is to say, the world we live in can determine whether a scientific theory is true or not. If a scientific theory describes and explains the world as it is, then this theory is true. True scientific theories are knowable by us. In other words, it is in principle possible to achieve a true scientific theory that describes the world as the way it is. The aim of science is to give us the correct story about the world. Therefore, accepting a scientific theory means believing that it is true (van Fraassen, 1980). If a scientific theory is true, then the theoretical terms that it contains refer to real theoretical entities. For instance, if Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is true, then space-time that is posited by that theory really exists. Theoretical entities referred by theoretical terms are knowable by us. That is, if space-time, electrons, magnetic fields do exist, we can in principle have the knowledge of them (Newton-Smith & Lukes, 1978, pp. 71-72).

In this context, scientific realists think that the aim of science is to discover true scientific theories, that successful theories are getting us closer to reality and that reality can be known by us. Therefore, mature and successful theories should be considered as nearly true (Psillos, 1999). It is thus thought

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that scientific developments are getting us closer to the true story of the world. The most important point that makes scientific realism a plausible option is the success of scientific theories. When we look at the history of science we can see that scientific theories accepted as successful explained many unknown phenomena and made many good predictions. It seems that this success can only be explained with the truth (proximity to truth) of scientific theories. Arguing otherwise would mean that the success of scientific theories is based upon a miracle or coincidence. If we have to choose between truth and miracle, it seems obvious that truth will be a better explanation. This argument known as “the No Miracle Argument” is stated by Hillary Putnam as, “Realism is the only philosophy that does not make the success of science a miracle” (Putnam, 1975, p. 73). It is undeniable that scientific realism accords with reason and common sense. Today, most of us unhesitatingly believe that electrons, magnetic fields and DNA exist. This is so because these theoretical entities and theories that contain them successfully explained many natural phenomena, provided satisfactory answers to many important questions and made very good predictions. However, it is debatable whether or not a theory’s epistemic success provides a genuine criterion for determining the truth of the theory. It is quite possible to explain the success of a theory with different factors. Moreover, explaining the success of scientific theories on the basis of their truth (or proximity to truth) renders the existence of equally successful rivals impossible. But is it not possible to conceive two rival theories which are equally successful but nevertheless incompatible with each other? If our answer to this question is “yes,” then we have to accept that scientific success and good predictions cannot be genuine criteria for truth. Since, while it is possible that two incompatible rival theories make equally good predictions, it is not possible that they are both true. This point comes into question with the notions “empirical equivalence” and “underdetermination of scientific theories” and indicates the need to question the claims of scientific realism. To consider these notions in more detail: Empirical Equivalence of Scientific Theories Let us try to think about two scientific theories such that even though they are incompatible they have exactly the same empirical and observational consequences. Is it possible to conceive such theories? According to many philosophers of science, it is possible to conceive empirical equivalent(s) for every scientific theory. We can briefly define empirical equivalence as; if two or more theories agree on the truth value of observational statements but disagree on the truth value of theoretical statements, then these theories are dif-

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ferent but empirically equivalent (so it can be said that empirical equivalence is based on the observational-theoretical distinction) (Newton-Smith & Lukes, 1978, p. 74). In other words, any two theories are empirically equivalent if they entail the same observational or empirical consequences; or exhibit no empirical difference. In order to clarify the notion of empirical equivalence it would be useful to mention some well-known skeptical scenarios. The first is Descartes’ famous “Evil Demon Argument.” In his Meditations, Descartes (1641) claims that we can never understand whether our experiences are caused by an evil demon that constantly deceives us or not. This is so because we do not have any evidence to show it. Therefore, the hypothesis that we are experiencing the external world and the hypothesis that we are deceived by an evil demon are empirically equivalent, since these two hypotheses create no empirical difference. All of our experiences are equally in accordance with both of these hypotheses. A more recent version of this example is the thought experiment known as “the Brain in a Vat”, introduced by Putnam (1981). According to it, the hypothesis that we are brains in vats that are connected to a computer is in accordance with all of our experiences and observations. Therefore, the hypothesis that we are actually experiencing the external world, and the hypothesis that our experiences are created by a computer connected to our brains are empirically equivalent. Given that both of these hypotheses cannot be true at the same time, we either need to introduce another criterion to determine the true one, or we may have to say that the truth of these hypotheses can never be demonstrated. A more scientific example of empirical equivalence is introduced by Bas van Fraassen (1980) in his Scientific Image. As van Fraassen also indicates, even though Newton thinks that the center of the universe is at rest, according to him the universe’s moving with constant velocity and its being at rest does not create any empirical difference (if we increase the velocity of every object in the universe equally without changing their direction their relative speed will remain constant, and given that there will be no change in their acceleration there will not be any noticeable change). According to van Fraassen, this will confront us with two empirically equivalent theories. The first consists of Newton’s Theory of Gravity conjoined with the postulate that the center of the universe moves with constant velocity, and the other is Newton’s Theory of Gravity conjoined with the postulate that the center of the universe is at rest. According to van Fraassen, given that these two theories will be equivalent with respect to their observational consequences, it is not possible to find any observational or empirical evidence to prefer either one of them (van Fraassen, 1980, p. 46).

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The given examples can be considered as fantastic thought experiments or fictional scenarios and therefore may not be seen as a threat to scientific realism. However, some philosophers think that only one actual example will be sufficient to indicate that empirical equivalence is a real philosophical problem. Such an example can be found in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics and Bohmian mechanics. According to the former, while macroscopic events are determinate, events taking place at the microscopic level are probabilistic and nothing can travel faster than light. On the other hand, according to the latter, both macroscopic and microscopic events are determinate and there are things that travel faster than light. These two hypotheses are overtly incompatible due to the theoretical propositions they contain. However, both tell the same thing about observable phenomena and have identical predictions. They should, therefore, be considered as empirically equivalent (Park, 2009, p. 115). A similar example is the empirical equivalence of Newtonian Mechanics and Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. The latter replaces gravitational fields with curvature in space-time. Newton claims that objects exert gravitational force to each other, while Einstein claims that space is bent by masses. But both theories agree on the observable movements of bodies and are therefore empirically equivalent (Earman, 1993, p. 31). Underdetermination of Scientific Theories by Data If we can introduce a criterion apart from observation and experience in order to determine the truth of a theory, the fact that all scientific theories have empirical equivalences will not be a danger for scientific realism. However, if we think that empirical equivalence entails the conclusion that theory choice cannot be based on any epistemic criterion, then scientific realism does not seem to be a reasonable option. As a matter of fact, particularly Quine (1970) claims that empirical equivalence entails that scientific theories are underdetermined. Many philosophers state that possible observations and experiences are insufficient to make choices among empirically equivalent theories. In other words, all scientific theories, including theories that are the most successful, are underdetermined by experience and observation. In Quine’s words: Consider all the observation sentences of the language: all the occasion sentences that are suited for use in reporting observable events in the external world. Apply dates and positions to them in all combinations, without regard to whether observers were at the place and time. Some of these place-timed sentences will be true and the others false, by virtue simply of the observable though unobserved past and future events in the world. Now my point about physical theory is that physical theory is

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underdetermined even by all these truths. Theory can still vary though all possible observations be fixed. Physical theories can be at odds with each other and yet compatible with all possible data even in the broadest sense. In a word, they can be logically incompatible and empirically equivalent. (Quine, 1970, p. 179) Now let us reconsider these given examples. The hypothesis that we are experiencing the external world, then, is underdetermined. Because every observation that supports this hypothesis is also compatible with evil demon hypothesis and the brain in a vat hypothesis. Moreover, there is no possible observation that will render the first hypothesis true. Even if we consider all possible observations made in the past, to be made in the future and even observations that will never be made, they will be insufficient to establish the truth of the hypothesis in hand. Similarly, in van Fraassen’s example also we have two empirically equivalent theories that are equally supported through observation. Even if we do not accept the possibility of radically skeptic scenarios, it still seems intelligible to claim that every scientific theory has at least one empirically equivalent rival and hence, that no theory is determined by experience and observation. There is no empirical datum that provides a criterion for choosing the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics or the Bohmian mechanics. In short, the world is insufficient to determine the truth of a theory. Therefore, it is unlikely that science tells us a true story about the world, as scientific realists would claim, since it is not determinate which story is the correct one. There are various attitudes one can adopt towards empirical equivalence and underdetermination. We can, for instance, accept that empirical equivalence leads to underdetermination, give up realism and adopt an instrumentalist point of view. We may claim that scientific theories are not stories that aim to correctly describe the world, rather instruments that help us to organize data about the external world. According to this point of view, the aim of science, then, is not to arrive at true theories but rather to produce useful theories. So, even though some rival theories are empirically equivalent, the fact that one theory is more useful can constitute a good criterion for theory choice. On the other hand, there are also various ways to resist the thesis of underdetermination without giving up scientific realism. Firstly, it is possible to claim that the truth of a scientific theory can be determined by different criteria other than observational or empirical consequences. For instance, the simplicity of a theory can be considered as an indication of its truth (Newton-

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2

Smith & Lukes, 1978, p. 77). A second strategy is to argue that empirically equivalent theories are not actually different, that they are different expressions of one and the same theory. For; empirically equivalent theories are telling exactly the same things about the empirical world in different ways (Park, 2009, p. 115). Laudan and Leplin (1991), on the other hand, reject underdetermination in two ways. Their first argument is based on the claim that the observational-theoretical distinction is unstable; therefore, it is not possible to establish the empirical equivalent of a given theory. Their second argument is based on the claim that empirical equivalence does not entail underdetermination. That is to say, even if empirically equivalent theories are possible, they are not necessarily equally supported by empirical data because a theory can also be supported by empirical factors that are not the consequences of the theory. Arguments against Empirical Equivalence of Scientific Theories Laudan and Leplin claim that if concepts like “observational qualities,” “empirical consequences of a theory,” and “logical consequences of a theory” are well understood, empirical equivalence will lose its epistemological importance. Laudan and Leplin’s argument against empirical equivalence is based upon three claims: 1.

2. 3.

The range of observable phenomena depends upon scientific knowledge and technological resources available for observation. Therefore, the range of observable phenomena may change. In order to derive observable consequences from a theory, auxiliary information is needed. Auxiliary information that serves as premises for deriving observable consequences is not stable in two ways: the information is defeasible and augmentable (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 452).

As mentioned previously, empirically equivalent theories have the same observable consequences, but they differ in their theoretical consequences. Thus, it can be said that empirical equivalence depends upon the observational-theoretical dichotomy. Therefore, in order to reject empirical equivalence, it is possible to claim that this dichotomy is not genuine or that it is not a stable and absolute distinction. As Laudan and Leplin indicate observational consequences of a theory may change from time to time as technology develops. A theory’s consequences that are considered as theoretical can later 2

As Newton-Smith and Lukes (1978) indicate, simplicity may not be an indication of truth. Moreover, it is possible to conceive empirically equivalent rivals that are equally simple. Simplicity can be criteria for preferring a theory over another, but is not an indication of its truth.

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be classified as observational. Moreover, we can never know which theoretical consequences will be considered as observational in the future. This is why it is not possible to determine empirical equivalents of theories because we have no absolute criterion for it (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 453). Although Laudan and Leplin do not make the holistic (Duhemian) claim that theories cannot have empirical consequences in isolation, they nevertheless claim that auxiliary hypotheses are needed for deriving epistemically relevant consequences from a theory. If a scientific theory aims at making significant predictions, it needs to appeal to auxiliary hypotheses. However, auxiliary hypotheses needed for making predictions are changeable. Therefore, even if we put aside the indeterminacy of the observational-theoretical distinction, empirical consequences of a scientific theory can increase as new auxiliary hypotheses are added. Similarly, empirical consequences of a theory can decrease as some auxiliary hypotheses are rejected. This is why by claiming that that empirical equivalence is relative and may change from context to context, Laudan and Leplin argue that it is impossible to find out an absolute equivalent of a scientific theory (1991, p. 454). The fact that two scientific theories make the same empirical predictions today does not make them empirically equivalent, because technological changes may alter their predictions. So, the claim that all theories have empirical equivalents is based on the assumption that observational and theoretical consequences of a theory are stable. However, according to Laudan and Leplin, we have no guarantee that scientific theories, that we consider as equivalent today, will remain equivalent in the future. For, “the epistemic bearing of evidence on theory is not a purely logical relation, but is subject to reinterpretation as science grows and may be indeterminate at a particular point in the process of growth” (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 455). If so, logical consequences of a theory should not be identified with its observational or empirical consequences. It can be claimed that technological developments and auxiliary hypotheses do not alter the logical consequences of a theory, however according to Laudan and Leplin, they obviously alter its empirical consequences. Philosophers who believe in empirical equivalence do not attach importance to the changes in observational consequences, because logical consequences or semantics of theories remain unchanged by technological developments. For them, what changes is not the (logical) consequences of a theory, but merely it is the boundary of the observable. However, according to Laudan and Leplin what matters is not merely logical or semantic, but is also epistemic (1991, p. 454). Even though Laudan and Leplin’s argument introduced against empirical equivalence is effective, it is open to criticism. Laudan and Leplin claim that empirical equivalence is possible only if observational consequences are

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eternally fixed. However, according to André Kukla, we do not need such an assumption; because, according to him, Laudan and Leplin’s argument only shows that empirical equivalence should be interpreted as a relation between indexed theories (“triplets consisting of a theory, a partitioning of phenomena into observables and non-observables, and a specification of the permissible auxiliaries”) (Kukla, 1993, p. 2). Although Kukla believes that Laudan and Leplin are right in claiming that we cannot determine a time-independent equivalent of a theory, he claims that it is not possible to deny that all theories have empirical equivalents in a specific time t where a specific observationaltheoretical distinction and specific auxiliaries are available. Let At be the permitted auxiliaries at time t and T1 and T2 be two scientific theories. According to Kukla: It is true as Leplin and Laudan note, that the fact that the indexed theory (T1, At) has the same observational consequences as (T2, At) does not mean that T1 is atemporally empirically equivalent to T2. Empirical equivalence at t is not the same thing as empirical equivalence tout court. But the fact that (T1, At) is empirically equivalent to (T2, At) means that we believe at time t that T1and T2 are atemporally empirically equivalent. (Kukla, 1996, pp. 142). So empirical equivalence should be understood not as the claim that some scientific theories have the same observational consequences for all times, but as the claim that some theories have the same observational consequences at a specific time with the same specific auxiliaries. In their article “Determination Underdeterred: Reply to Kukla,” Laudan and Leplin (1993) reject Kukla’s counter-argument. According to Laudan and Leplin, philosophers who put forward the notion of empirical equivalence do not consider it as a notion about indexed theories. Let us suppose that we have two empirically equivalent theories. If one day, these two theories make different predictions due to a newly discovered test, it would not be appropriate to say that these theories were empirically equivalent before the test is discovered, but are not so anymore. It would be more reasonable to say that these theories are not empirically equivalent after all. Therefore, according to them, empirical equivalence should be seen as an atemporal notion (Leplin & Laudan, 1993, p. 8). Laudan and Leplin’s reply seems right because empirical equivalence, if possible, does not seem to be a quality that is acquired or lost due to novel data and auxiliaries. Otherwise, empirical equivalence would not be this relevant for philosophy of science, particularly for scientific realism. If we think about Quine’s (1970) definition of empirical equivalence and underdetermination mentioned previously, we can clearly see that his claims are not about time-indexed empirical data, but about all possible observations.

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Another important objection to Laudan and Leplin is put forward by Carl Hoefer and Alexander Rosenberg: The thesis of underdetermination of theory by evidence is about empirically adequate total science; it is a thesis about what Quine calls ‘systems of the world’—theories that comprehensively account for all observations—past, present and future. It is a thesis about theories that entail all and only the true observational conditionals, all the empirical regularities already confirmed by observation and experiment. Underdetermination is not an acute theoretical problem in the context of partial, incomplete scientific theories for reasons Laudan and Leplin advance, and which we sketch below. (Hoefer & Rosenberg 1994, p. 594) Does Empirical Equivalence Lead to Underdetermination? According to several philosophers, the fact that scientific theories have empirical equivalents leads to the conclusion that theory choice cannot be based on any empirical criteria because it is thought that theories with identical observable consequences are equally supported by empirical data. However, according to Laudan and Leplin, even though the empirical equivalence thesis is accepted, it does not necessarily entail underdetermination, mainly because being the observable consequence of a theory is neither sufficient nor necessary for supporting that theory. While empirical equivalence is a thesis about the semantic features or logical consequences of a theory, the thesis of underdetermination is about the epistemological features of it. Philosophers who adopt these theses, according to Laudan and Leplin, mistakenly reduce the evidential features of a theory to its semantics. The fact that two theories are empirically equivalent does not annihilate the possibility that one is better supported or preferable, since a theory’s empirical consequences are not identical to evidence that supports the theory (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 460). According to Laudan and Leplin there are two reasons for this: 1. 2.

A scientific theory can be supported by evidence that is not its empirical consequences. A scientific theory’s empirical consequences may not constitute evidential support. Evidence that is not the Consequence of a Scientific Theory

Let us think about the hypothesis “the crows that I will observe tomorrow will be black.” Although the black crows that I previously observed are not the empirical consequences of that hypothesis, they clearly support it. Because any evidence that supports the more general hypothesis “all crows are black”

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will also support the hypothesis “the crows I will observe tomorrow are black.” This very simple example shows us that there can be evidence that is not consequences of the theory they support (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 461). In order to give a more scientific example, Laudan and Leplin mention the theory of continental drift. According to this theory, every region of the earth was located on latitudes and longitudes different from those they are located on today. The theory entails two main hypotheses: 1. 2.

The current climates of regions of earth differ from their climates at earlier times. The current alignment with the earth’s magnetic pole of the magnetism of iron-bearing rock in any given region of the earth differs from the alignments of earlier times (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 462).

As Laudan and Leplin indicate, although observational data that constitute evidence for the second hypothesis are not observational consequences of the first hypothesis, they constitute evidence for it too. This is so because the data that support the second hypothesis also support the more general Continental Drift Theory. Given that the first hypothesis is a consequence of the Continental Drift Theory, any data that support a general theory would also support hypotheses that it entails (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 462). So, evidence can indirectly support a hypothesis by supporting a more general hypothesis that entails the hypothesis in question. Observational data that verify a theory also constitutes evidence for the theory’s sub-hypothesis. Now suppose that H1and H2 are empirically equivalent, yet theoretically different hypotheses. According to many philosophers, these two hypotheses are equally supported by observational data, therefore are underdetermined. But suppose also that H1 is entailed by the more general theory T and that T also entails the hypothesis H. Then, the evidence e that is the consequences of H besides supporting H, will also support T that entails H. Given that e supports T, e will indirectly support H1 that is entailed by T. So, even though e is not a consequence of H1, it will nevertheless support it. In that case, although H1 and H2 are empirically equivalent, they are not equally supported by empirical data and hence are not underdetermined (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 464). One of the most important criticisms against the above argument, is again introduced by Hoefer and Rosenberg. According to them, Laudan and Leplin’s argument about evidence that are not consequences is also about partial theories. But as said before, underdetermination is a thesis about total theories or systems of the world. A total theory cannot be entailed by a more general theory, since it will already contain hypotheses about all observable phenomena. A theory can be entailed by another only if it is a partial theory that explains only specific phenomena. Given that there is no general theory

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that will entail empirically equivalent total theories, it will not be possible to say that one total theory is better supported than the other total theory. In short, if H1and H2 are considered as total theories, then underdetermination seems inevitable (Hoefer & Rosenberg, 1994, p. 600). However, it should be noted that in his article “The Underdetermination of Total Theories,” Leplin (1997) introduces several arguments against the thesis that total theories are underdetermined by evidence. According to him, total theories cannot rescue the thesis of underdetermination from their criticism. One of the main reasons is that theories’ being total does not necessarily make their observational consequences fixed. Technological developments that create changes in the scope of what is observable do not arise from changes in theory but as an application of theory. Therefore, not only observational consequences of partial theory but also observational consequences of total theories are subject to change as well. Moreover, according to Leplin, it is not possible to plausibly claim that empirically equivalent total theories are equally supported by observation. One of the total theories may contain some observational data as predictions, the rival total theory may contain the same data as assumptions. In that case, the evidential status of these observational data, that are common to both theories, can differ for equivalent theories (Leplin,1997, pp. 211-212). Consequences that are not Evidence for a Scientific Theory According to Laudan and Leplin, consequences of a scientific theory do not necessarily constitute evidence for it. Therefore, we have no reason to claim that empirically equivalent theories are equally supported by empirical data. Laudan and Leplin clarify their point with the following example: A televangelist introduces the hypothesis H that regular reading of scripture induces puberty in young males. As evidence, the televangelist cites a study of 1000 seven years old males who regularly read scripture for nine years and who are pubescent at age sixteen. Although the young males’ puberty is a consequence of H, according to Laudan and Leplin, it would be wrong to say that it constitutes evidential support for H (Laudan &Leplin, 1991, p. 465). A similar example is the hypothesis that coffee is a remedy for the common cold. One of the empirical consequences of this hypothesis is that after several days of drinking coffee symptoms of the common cold dissipate. However, the fact that the common cold dissipates cannot be seen as an evidence for the hypothesis in question (Laudan & Leplin, 1991, p. 466) Since, we know that the common cold dissipates for independent reasons.

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So, according to Laudan and Leplin, being the empirical consequence of a theory is neither necessary nor sufficient for constituting evidential support for the theory. Therefore, having identical empirical consequences does not entail being equally supported. In other words, empirical equivalence does not entail underdetermination of scientific theories. In order to understand Laudan and Leplin’s argument, we need to see why some empirical consequences are not considered as evidential. Let us examine the hypothesis H that coffee is a remedy of the common cold. Today most of us agree that this hypothesis is wrong. But suppose that we are not equipped with enough information and we do not know whether H is true or not. Suppose further that the only available empirical datum about H is the observation O that the common cold dissipates after regularly drinking coffee. Laudan and Leplin claims that this datum, besides being H’s consequence, does not support H. However, the real problem with O is that it underdeterminates H. The observation that the common cold dissipates after regularly drinking coffee, is the empirical consequence of both H and another hypothesis H1 (the common cold dissipates after a certain period of time) and it supports both hypotheses equally. So, O does not provide a criterion for preferring one of the hypotheses over the other. The reason why Laudan and Leplin claim that O does not constitute evidence for H, is merely the fact that it does support another hypothesis equally. So, it is possible to claim that every observational consequence of a theory provides evidential support for the theory, but it can at the same time equally support some other hypothesis as well. Does Underdetermination Cast out Empirical Equivalence? In his article “Underdetermination of Total Theories” Leplin (1997) introduces another interesting argument against underdetermination. Leplin claims that it is not possible that empirical equivalence leads to underdetermination because underdetermination renders empirical equivalence impossible. According to Leplin, accepting the underdetermination thesis compels us to accept the thesis that all auxiliary hypotheses are also underdetermined. This means that we have no epistemic criteria for deciding which auxiliary hypothesis should be used for making predictions. As mentioned previously, according to Laudan and Leplin, a theory’s observational consequences depend on which auxiliaries are used. If we change our auxiliaries, the observational consequences of our theory will also change as well. So, if we cannot base which auxiliary to choose on a criterion, the observational consequences and empirically equivalent rivals of our theory will be indeterminate. In other words, underdetermination leads to the conclusion that establishing the empirically equivalent rival theory is impossible or based on our arbitrary choice. As Leplin states,

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The application of UD to auxiliaries trivializes EE to the point that it carries no epistemic implications. If auxiliaries may be freely chosen, EE holds by fiat; simply select whatever auxiliaries are needed to make the observational consequences of rival theories agree. (Leplin, 1997, p. 205) In summary, Leplin argues that the underdetermination thesis cannot be inferred from empirical equivalence. If philosophers of science will claim that scientific theories are underdetermined, they need to base this claim on a different ground. It should be noted that Leplin’s argument is also based upon the assumption that in order to make successful predictions scientific theories need auxiliaries. So, Hoefer and Rosenberg’s argument concerning total theories is also applicable to Leplin’s argument. If our theory is total, then it would not need any auxiliaries since it will already contain every hypothesis about the empirical world. In that case, the claim that auxiliaries are underdetermined will become meaningless and the claim that observational consequences of our theory are indeterminate will be groundless. Conclusion Empirical equivalence and underdetermination of scientific theories have important implications for epistemology and philosophy of science. First of all, scientific, realism that is widely held, loses its reliability and this leads to a revision of our attitudes towards scientific theories. Certainly, adopting a skeptical attitude towards scientific theories is far more difficult than believing that scientific theories tell the correct story about the world. Therefore, counter arguments that are introduced against criticism of scientific realism are strong and important. On the one hand, Laudan and Leplin’s twofold argument renders the existence of empirically equivalent theories impossible, on the other it trivializes empirical equivalence by claiming that it does not entail underdetermination. According to Laudan and Leplin, empirical equivalence is not epistemically relevant as it is mistakenly thought. The main reason why empirical equivalence is perceived as an important philosophical problem, is philosophers’ attempt to reduce the evidential elements that support a theory to its semantics and logical consequences. However, if it is accepted that a theory’s evidential features are not identical to its logical or semantic features, it will clearly be seen that empirical equivalence does not give rise to philosophical problems. This understanding also clarifies and supports the claim that scientific theories’ empirical consequences are changeable and that scientific theories can be supported by evidence that are not their consequences.

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However, like every philosophical problem faced in the history of philosophy, it is not possible to say that the problem of underdetermination has arrived at an absolute solution. Laudan and Leplin’s counterarguments are criticized and thought to miss the point by many philosophers. It is claimed that empirical equivalence and underdetermination theses are not about partial theories, but about total theories that explain all observable phenomena. As Quine also states, the problem is about “all observation sentences” that express all observable phenomena. But Laudan and Leplin’s arguments seem to be merely about partial theories that need auxiliaries to make predictions. Therefore, it can be said that underdetermination will preserve its philosophical relevance if it can be shown that Laudan and Leplin’s arguments cannot be applied to total or global theories.

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References Earman, J. (1993). Undetermination, realism and reason. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 1(18), 19-38. Hoefer, C., & Rosenberg, A. (1994). Empirical equivalence, underdetermination, and systems of the world. Philosophy of Science, 61(4),592-602. Kukla, A. (1993). Laudan, Leplin, empirical equivalence and undetermination. Analysis, 53(1), 1-7. Kukla, A. (1996). Does every theory have empirically equivalent rivals? Erkenntnis, 44(2),137-166. Laudan, L., & Leplin, J. (1991). Empirical equivalence and underdetermination. Journal of Philosophy, 88(9), 449-472. Laudan, L., & Leplin, J. (1993). Determination underdeterred: reply to Kukla. Analysis, 53(1), 8-16. Leplin, J. (1997). The underdetermination of total theories. Erkenntnis, 47(2), 203-215. Newton-Smith, W., & Lukes, S. (1978). The underdetermination of theory by data. Proceedings of Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes, 52 (pp. 71-91, 93-107). Tisbury, Wilts.: Compton Press. Park, S. (2009). Philosophical responses to underdetermination in science. Journal for General Philosophy of Science, 40(1), 115-124. Psillos, S. (1999). Scientific realism: How science tracks truth. London & New York: Routledge. Putnam, H. (1975). Mathematics, matter and method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Putnam, H. (1981). Reason, truth and history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Quine, W. V. (1970). On the reasons for the indeterminacy of translation. Journal of Philosophy, (6)67, 178-183. Van Fraassen, B. C. (1980). The scientific image. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Chapter 5

The Relationship between Political Power and State Theatres in Turkey1 Emre Savut2 & Levent Yilmaz3

Introduction The development of theater in Turkey also constitutes one of the important th milestones in the history of Turkish modernization. Towards the mid-19 century, the awareness about modern theater started to increase in Turkey, especially among the Ottoman elites. It can be argued that this interest originated both from the literary side of the modern theater, a Western art, and from the recognized effect of it on the cultural transformation of the society as a whole. The aim of this study is not to reveal the historical development of Turkish theatre, but rather to conduct a political and sociological analysis of it. The focus of this analysis is on State Theaters (Devlet Tiyatrolari–DT). The process until the establishment of State Theaters is tried to be evaluated in the context of the relationship between political power and art. In order to do this, there is a need for a theoretical framework that explains the relationship between politics and art, especially in the context of the theater. The development of Turkish theater is discussed in the light of a relevant theoretical framework. Likewise, the establishment of the State Theaters has been covered both within the relevant theoretical framework and historical/factual developments. In order to explain the political position of the DT, it is also necessary to refer to its administrative structure. Avoiding the examination of the detailed legislation, focus is put on features that have a key function in explaining the relationship between arts and politics in particular: the autonomy and management of the DT, General Directorate, Literary Board, assignments and financial structure. In doing so, it helps to set the significant legal 1

This work is produced from the Master’s thesis of Emre Savut (Research Assistant), entitled “State Theater in Turkey in the Context of Arts-Politics Relationship,” supervised by Assistant Professor Levent Yilmaz. 2 Correspondence: Research Assistant, Dokuz Eylul University, [email protected] 3 Assistant Professor, Dokuz Eylul University, [email protected]

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infrastructure in determining the political position of the DT. However, in order to mobilize this infrastructure to achieve meaningful results, the controversy about the theater in Turkey should be handled. It is necessary to deal both with relevant academic studies and the opinions expressed in both press and other written works following the foundation of the DT and the subsequent process. In the light of these explanations, relations of the DT with those in political power are explained by focusing on two points: DT’s autonomy and the General Director(ate) of DT. These two are fundamental determinants of the relationship of the DT with the political power. Some interviews with former general directors support the analysis of the aforementioned resources and the relevant legislation in order to reveal the dynamics of this relation. The Relationship between Arts and Politics Although it is generally more evident in underdeveloped societies, political 1 powers in many countries consider art as a means to conduct their policies. On the other hand, in social structures that have completed a process of modernization, it is accepted that a freer environment for arts is created and the arts are used more for social development (Erinc, 2009, pp. 45-46). With the influence of modernization, the arts have acquired an important political identity. In this period, the arts have become an important means for nationstates to implement national consciousness. In this regard, there are three perspectives explaining the relationship between arts and politics: the nationbuilding model, the autonomy of art model and the avant-garde model (Kreft, 2008, p. 20). The nation-building model, used to explain the French modernization process, tries to explain the relationship between art and politics in other countries departing from the influence of the practices in France. Here, the purpose and function of art is different. Art does not act with imposed rules; on the contrary, it becomes much more than a means of building a nation, but filling the void of the state (Kreft, 2008, p. 31). What is meant by the autonomy of art is both the reproduction of its own distinctiveness as well as not being a means of religious, political, academic, etc. ends (Artun, 2004). As long as art remains autonomous, it has the power to intervene in the system. In other words, this model both prevents art from being organized and restricted by political rules and considers it as a policy means providing all the information that people should have (Kreft, 2008, p. 36). In the avant-garde model, art is politically identified. The concept of 1 It is possible to classify this interaction in three dimensions: (1) Determining the field of arts with subsidies, prizes, competition, etc.; (2) Affecting the issues and contents handled by the arts; (3) Directly affecting the artist (Tezcan, p. 74).

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avant-garde is used to express the leading role given to art and artists in the realization of social design in the artistic sense. According to this model, art is not neutral. Art has become one of the most important political means to reach the goal. Avant-garde art aims to establish the world of the future in today’s conditions (Akbulut, 2011, p. 59). Italian philosopher Gramsci, focusing on the process of consent building by political powers, did not regard the state as only a structure with the power to use force and emphasized the importance of its effectiveness on civil society. The consent of the society for the political system is indispensable for the maintenance of political power. Thus, Gramsci puts the issue of culture and art into the core of the state’s activities. The state has a function that structures and shapes society, not only in the economic and political context, but in every aspect of daily life (Hall, 1999, pp. 230-231). Developing Gramsci’s point of view at an institutional level, Althusser refers to the ideological apparatus of the state, including the institutions of art and culture. According to Althusser, ideology is the effect of the political system on the individual. It is mostly experienced subconsciously and aims to bring individuals into conformity with the system by ensuring that they adopt the dominant values. In other words, ideology is something that is not produced by the individual, but produces the individual (Althusser, 1994, pp. 30-31; James, 2007, p. 191). At this point, in the context of Foucault’s conceptualization of power, it is useful to refer to his view that power is handled not at an institutional level, but a more abstract level, or in his own words, the “discursive” level. According to Foucault, discourse is unlimited. The prayers in religious ceremonies, the defenses in the courtrooms, the interpretations made through the media, the lyrics, and the play scenarios all carry the features of discourse. Discourse can strengthen the power on the one hand, while weakening it on the other. However, in this case too, the government tries to limit the continuity of its rule by limiting the discourse (Canpolat, 2005, p. 106; Foucault, 2000, p. 218). Another conceptualization, attempting to explain what Foucault tried to explain with the concept of discourse earlier than him but at a narrower and more concrete level, is the notion of a culture industry that is suggested by the Frankfurt School and later handled by critical theorists. According to Adorno and Horkheimer, who are among the most important representatives of this school, cultural products and interest in these products have been predetermined by the ruling powers (Krogh, 1999, p. 258). Baudrillard, who represents the generation after them, has also stated, in relation to this issue, that consumption is no longer an original activity of the individual, but is a situation that turned out to be a necessity for the individual. In other words, consumption is not an activity carried out freely in the individual’s

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private sphere, but a collective institution based on coercion (Baudrillard, 1997, p. 90). The culture industry is the determining factor in the entire consumption process, from the houses people live in and the cars they use, to the clothes they wear and artists they like, presenting to people the “ins” and “outs” (Odabasi, 1999, p. 40). It is possible to define the culture industry simply as intentional and top-down integration of consumers (Bernstein, 2007, p. 33). In this context, it is possible to say that the culture is infecting all things with similarity and that the culture products have generated a system determined from above (Adorno, 2007, p. 47). Similarly, Baudrillard argues that consumption generates a system of ideological values and communication. It is possible to evaluate the theater in this context, which is one of the oldest and the most influential cultural products in the modern period. Although there is a variety of theater known as political theater which is an openly ideological apparatus, the theoretical framework mentioned claims to include all theater products. Piscator’s political theater anticipates the use of theater as a means of creating political consciousness and reconsideration of all the elements of theater in this sense. The use of theater as a means of propaganda has increased the importance of the audience. All elements should be used to influence the audience to a higher degree (Piscator, 1985, p. 117). Brecht has developed theater theory from the political theater. Piscator and Brecht agree that the theater is an art that can intervene in social and political life and change people by increasing consciousness. However, they have not reached a consensus on how this should function. Brecht opposed theater being a means of direct propaganda and realization of his using the technical means of the scene. He has developed a theory to reveal the didactic side of the theater through simpler stage designs, short plays and acting. According to him, mobilizing the audience in the theater is consuming their energy there. What is needed to be done is to make the audience think both during and after the play. In other words, theater should appeal to the audience’s mind rather than to their feelings (Kocabay, 2003, pp. 28-29). It would not be wrong to consider the people who fulfil the function of political power to shape the society within the concept of bureaucracy. The bureaucracy, with the formation of modern states, is now in the position of executors of the goals, and practices to be realized in line with these goals, as set by the political powers. Three approaches are generally used in explaining the relationship between bureaucracy and politics. The first is the belief that the bureaucracy is directly involved in politics. According to this approach, the task of the bureaucracy is to implement the tasks assigned to it by the political authorities smoothly and without question (Durgun, 2002, p. 84).

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According to the second approach on the relationship between bureaucracy and politics, bureaucracy is not only in the role of executors of the decisions taken, but also the decision makers. This is because bureaucratic procedures require specialization, and secondly, there is a need for continuity of government affairs. The third approach considers the bureaucracy as an autonomous area remote from state control and where the intervention of the state is limited as much as possible. The bureaucratic structures are autonomous from political intervention, thanks to the rights granted in law. With this right provided to high-ranking bureaucrats, the abuse of powers and granting various privileges by politicians is aimed to be prevented. According to this point of view, the bureaucratic system, which is remote from the intervention and control of political power, is quite convenient in terms of increasing the public interest and it is accepted as a necessity in terms of continuity and efficiency of the administration (Durgun, 2002, pp. 85-86). Which of these approaches that deal with the bureaucracy’s relation to the political sphere will be accepted depends on the parties involved in this relationship. Members of the political power want to have a say in the bureaucratic structure based on ideas like “I am the assigner,” “I am the one who gives the money,” and “people chose me” in democratic systems, while the bureaucrats want to keep their distance from the political structures based on their professional expertise and the law. History of State-Theater Relations in Turkey and State Theaters Position of Theater in Turkey and State Theaters The establishment of modern theater in Turkey can be traced back to the Tanzimat period, both in terms of institutional and literary development. Important developments in terms of theater have also occurred in the constitutional era following Tanzimat. Developments such as the construction of new theater buildings, introducing legal regulations for the theater, the training of actors, accepting the educational function of the theater, the opening of a school for the art of theater and the appearance of Muslim-Turkish women on the scenes are significant developments in terms of the history of theater in Turkey. In spite of these developments, in this period theater –like other branches of art– was mostly adopted by foreign embassies and minorities living in big cities and did not spread to large segments of the society; in this process the conservative segments rejecting the arts movement even tried to prevent the activities of the innovative sultans. In this period, although the administration seemed on the side of the art of theater, practices such as controlling the plays, censorship and even prohibition were carried out even during the libertarian constitutional period. Another shortcoming in this

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period is that the training of the actors was only limited to their use of language, and not on the art of acting. As such, the depth of thought and emotions covered in the plays could not be transmitted as they should be to the audience (Sener, 1998, pp. 41-42). The founding members of the Republic of Turkey aimed to continue the th Westernization movement which has been ongoing since the 18 century on a cultural and institutional level within the new Turkish state. Westernization, considered as a solution for the survival of a demolishing state in the Tanzimat period, spread to cover the whole of the social area during the Republican period as the level of the Western civilization was aimed at. In the formation of this cultural structure, the theater was used as effectively as other branches of the arts. The artists of that period also accepted the idea of creating a new identity and a contemporary society as a duty and aimed to strengthen the existing ties of the new administration with society and to work for adoption of the innovations and principles by the people (Erol, 2012, p. 1202). Ataturk also mentioned the importance of means that can reach more than one person at the same time for the adoption of new cultural values by the masses by saying that “The Party will educate the people; it will lead in training people in all cultural areas such as science, economics, politics and fine arts” (And, 1983, pp. 2-3). In this period, especially the People’s Houses (Halkevleri), played an important role with the plays staged by its theater branches. Halkevleri, which has been active in the fields of language, folklore, fine arts and sports, staged plays all over the country thanks to its theater branches and strengthened the relationship between the peasant and urban peoples by conveying new values to the public (Erol, 2012, p. 1203). It is possible to talk about political and cultural reasons for the establishment of Halkevleri. With regards to the political reasons, various opposition incidents and foci against the new system that had not been fully adopted and to what it had introduced was observed in the period after the foundation of the Republic. The anti-regime revolts and the rapid acceptance of an alternative party caused the administration to think that the new values of the Republic were not fully adopted by the people. Among the cultural reasons in the foundation of the Halkevleri are factors such as transmitting the history of Anatolia to the new generations, developing the arts, the raising of healthy future generations, saving the people from superstition and reaching to the level of modern civilization (Ozsari, n.d.). The theater branches of Halkevleri is a significant reason as to why they are covered in this research. The theater branches worked on the emergence and development of love towards theater. It was also the task of this branch to educate the public and raise consciousness with plays representing traditional values and the principles of revolution (Cecen,

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1990, p. 125). Only the plays selected by the Republican People’s Party or written upon direct request by the administration were staged by the theater branch. It is estimated that the theater, which was accepted as an important apparatus of creating awareness by the administration, can convey an idea with a play to more than 136,000 people in 136 Halkevi branches (Yesilkaya, 2003, pp. 94-95). The process leading to the formation of the State Theater started with the establishment of a Music Teacher School affiliated to the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) in 1924. The main aim of this school was to train music teachers for secondary, high and other relevant schools. However, by 1934, it was observed that this school could not meet the contemporary needs (Nutku, 1999, pp. 15-16). Upon this development, Munir Hayri Egeli drew attention to the difficulty of acting for the students of the schools opened for other purposes and demanded the establishment of a school particularly for theater training from Ataturk, and Ataturk subsequently asked Egeli to prepare a report on this subject. Upon the recommendation of his circle, Egeli prepared a low-cost report with short-term aims. On the back of this report Ataturk noted: “such an important task cannot be achieved with such halfmeasures. The establishment of the National Acting Academy should be ensured by a law and Munir Hayri should bring in the experts whom we need, by examining the foreign countries” (And, 1983, pp. 15-16). Following this development, a draft law was prepared for the establishment of an academy composed of the Presidential Philharmonic Orchestra and a theater department, and thus the National Music and Acting Academy was founded. Munir Hayri Egeli, who was appointed as the director of the Academy, went abroad and interacted with foreign experts. After a while, Carl Ebert, who came to Turkey with Egeli, was appointed as head of the academy’s theater department which began its training in 1936 with a total of eight students (Dundar, 1999). Recognizing that the legislation for the establishment of this academy in 1934 failed to meet the requirements of latter periods, a new law was drafted with the support of Carl Ebert (Nutku, 1999, p. 55) and the State Conservatory was established under Law No. 3829 (Devlet Konservatuvari hakkinda kanun) and was enacted in the Official Gazette on May 24, 1940 (Republic of Turkey, 1940). The aim of the conservatory, which consists of two departments, music and acting, was expressed as “cultivating music, theater, opera and ballet culture in the country and raising artists” (Republic of Turkey, 1940). From the second half of the 1940’s, the idea that the state should have a theater began to be vigorously spoken. On June 10, 1949, the 26-item Statute on the Establishment of the State Theater was voted in and adopted, and thus the State Theater was established (Republic of Turkey, 1949).

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According to this law, DT was established as affiliated with the MoNE as a legal entity. It included departments of drama and opera and is headed up by a General Director. The works to be performed in the DT are determined by a Literary Board composed of three well-known people in the field of art and literature, appointed by the Minister of National Education, the General Director and a rapporteur. There is also a board of directors, composed of the head of the literary delegation, the conductor of the orchestra and artists from the opera and drama departments, who take care of technical, artistic and disciplinary issues of DT. From those who will be assigned to DT, the General Director is appointed upon the proposal of the Minister of National Education by a common decree, the Deputy General Director is chosen among the rapporteur of the Literary Board, the head stage director, the orchestra directors and foreign experts, and is assigned on the proposal of the General Director by the Minister of National Education. Literary board members are appointed by the Minister of National Education, and other officers and civil servants are appointed by the General Director. The incomes of DT include the sales from acts, concerts, informative and didactic publications, and grants and statutory grants. In addition, issues like employees’ salaries, social rights, and facilities are regulated by law (Law on the Establishment of the State Theater [Republic of Turkey, 1949]). The aforementioned matters related to the content of the law are those published in 1949, and therefore the first version of the law. Various amendments have since been made to the law. The law, which was issued in 1949, was amended in 1970 and took its current form in 1983. The first notable difference between the first (1949) and the current (1983) form of the law is that the DT is affiliated with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism instead of the MoNE with the 1970 amendment. The expression “Ministry of National Education” in the first version of the law was replaced with “Ministry of Culture and Tourism,” and the “Minister of Education” was replaced with “Minister of Culture and Tourism.” This change is important in matters such as the institution to which it is affiliated with, the appointing authority, and the revenues of the DT. Although the authority to determine the plays to be staged by the DT remained with the Literary Board, the way in which this board will be formed changed. Accordingly, the Literary Board is composed of three people known in the field of arts and literature, General Director, the head stage director, the head dramaturgic delegate and an artist. In the first version of the law issued in 1949, it was noted that technical, artistic and disciplinary matters of the DT were to be carried out by the board of directors. With the amendment made in 1970, the Discipline Committee was introduced as a separate mechanism. An Art and Directors Board composed of the chairman of the Literary Board, the head stage director, the technical manager of the arts, the manager of the music works and an artist appointed by the General Director, chaired by the director was introduced

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with this 1970 amendment. The Disciplinary Board consists of the head stage director, legal counsel, head of personal affairs, and an artist chosen by the DT staff by secret ballot. The disciplinary board is chaired by the General Director or one their assistants. These boards convene by absolute majority and decide by absolute majority of the participants (Legislation Information System). Amendments on how to determine the staff of DT were also introduced in Law No. 5441 (Republic of Turkey, 1949). Accordingly: •

•

•

•

The General Director shall be appointed by a joint decree upon the proposal of the Minister of Culture and Tourism. The director should be chosen among successful artists, playwrights, critics and leading directors and academicians who work in universities in the field of theater who fulfil the conditions of serving at least 15 years in private or public institutions (or both) and having graduated from a higher education institutions; The head stage director, deputy directors, and foreign experts are appointed by the Minister of Culture and Tourism, upon the proposal of the General Director; Three known members of the Literary Board are appointed by the Minister of Culture and Tourism, and the artist member is appointed by the General Director from among the artists of DT; All other types of staff working at DT are appointed by the General Director (Republic of Turkey, 1949, Article No. 4).

There are different approaches to the legal structure of DT among the artists who have been managing and performing in DT. First, focusing on whether or not the appointment of the General Director of DT in the current legislation is causing a problem in terms of the institution’s autonomy and whether or not it conveys the institution a political identity, there are administrators who say that the determination of the General Director by appointment causes problems. For example, Can Gurzap, the former Regional Director of the Istanbul State Theater, states that some of the appointments made to the general directorate were not based on merit but due to close relations to some people in key positions, and that these appointees feel an obligation to those who contributed to their appointment (C. Gurzap, interview, January 11, 2014). Likewise, the former Regional Director of the Izmir State Theater, Hulya Savas, stated that in the case of determination by appointment the rumors that the appointed General Director serve to the people who appointed them cannot be avoided (H. Savas, interview, November 16, 2013). Former General Director of DT Tamer Levent argues that the problem arises from the fact that DT artists are employed within the scope of Law No. 657. According to Levent, because of this fact the politicians consider the theater

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as a civil service institution and they want to create a manager identity that compromises with the logic of “I hire or fire anyone I want” (T. Levent, interview, March 29, 2014). Former General Director of DT Bozkurt Kuruc states that the current legislation has a strong structure in this respect. Because the General Director is appointed by a joint decree, the fate of the theater is not left only to the government. The existence of an impartial president is an important assurance for both the appointment of the merited and the prevention of arbitrary dismissals. According to Bozkurt Kuruc, what is most important is that the appointed General Director could stand against possible political interventions (B. Kuruc, interview, February 4, 2014). Former General Director of DT Yucel Erten states in his book The State Cannot Have a Theater (?) that it is not possible to talk about the autonomy of an institution whose General Director and the three members of the Literary Board are appointed by those in political power, and the artist member of the Literary Board and the regional directors are appointed by the General Director (Erten, 2013, p. 85). There are two main schools of thought about how the General Director should be determined that came out in the interviews with the former DT administrators: the first is an election where the artists can vote and the second is the continuation of the current system. According to the directors who advocate the electoral system, coming to terms with the votes of the artists will prevent the General Director from facing political criticism and the legitimacy of the practices, in the artistic sense, performed by the director will be ensured. The fundamental idea of those who favor the continuation of the current system is that any legal change made will not introduce a more democratic and liberal structure. The 1949 law established an arts institution that has to be financially supported and that the political powers do not have a say in the institution. Managers who believe that new legislation will not include these conditions defend the continuation of the current situation and stress the importance of directors who care about the arts and the rule of law in the well-functioning of this law. Yucel Erten mentioned his support for the continuation of the appointment with triple decree in order to protect the prestige of the institution, but stated that the director should be appointed for a set period. According to Erten, if appointed for a certain period, the General Director will have immunity during his/her term in office and without the assurance of keeping the seat if unsuccessful, any failing director can be easily removed from the position. Otherwise, general directors see the right in themselves to stay in office until they retire, whether they are successful or not. This leads to institutional turmoil, stagnation and inefficiency (Erten, 2013, pp. 88-89).

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State Theaters versus the Government(s) Under the Democratic Party (Demokrat Parti–DP) government, state intervention in theater was observed in the process of the resignation of then General Director of DT, Muhsin Ertugrul, in 1951 and in his dismissal in 1958. In 1951, the then Minister of National Education, Tevfik Ileri, asked for a ball to be organized in the opera house of DT. Muhsin Ertugrul resigned not accepting this request, which was actually an order, on the basis of the idea that only artistic plays should be staged in theater buildings and that accepting such a request would lead to others about the usage of stages, halls, and plays. Muhsin Ertugrul, who was appointed as General Director again in 1954, received a telephone call in 1958, when he was in Mersin, reporting that he was dis2 missed due to age limit. Despite all these, DT achieved significant gains both financially and immaterially in the DP period. Theaters made great progress in terms of technical equipment, and the artists of the institution were almost paid equal salaries to ministers (Gurzap, 2012, p. 111). Although there was no change in the executive level of DT after May 27, DT administrators and actors have been involved in the Yassiada proceedings following the coup because of two different issues. The first is the case about the relationship between Adnan Menderes and Aydan Ayhan, an artist of the State Opera and Ballet, and the claims that suggested that the baby born out of this relationship was murdered. The then General Director of DT, Cuneyt Gokcer, also testified in the case (Arslan, 2013, p. 65). Another case in which the DT managers and actors were involved in the Yassiada proceedings is the 3 “Homeland Front Case.” In the last period of the DP government, the Supreme Auditing Board investigated the participants of the Homeland Front from the arts circles (Arslan, 2013, p. 14). Homeland Front membership of DT artists caused reaction from the National Union Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi–MBK). The artists who learned about this reaction visited MBK

2

The main reason of Ertugrul’s dismissal was claimed to be that he rejected the request to delay a play the then Minister of National Education, Celal Yusuf, was to have seen in DT, following a telephone call from the ministry just before the start of the play, as the minister would be late (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 109-110). Peyami Safa, on the other hand, claimed, in his Milliyet newspaper column on August 24, 1958, that a large majority of the arts community were happy with Ertugrul’s dismissal. The ruling over discipline in the barracks caused a crisis that the theater had constantly experienced and that Ertugrul, whom he described as a dictator, granted no freedom to the artists (Safa, 1958, p. 2). 3 The DP against the growing opposition from the mid-1950’s had used the Homeland Front as a means of propaganda. The names of the supporters of the government, who participated in the Homeland Front, were read out on the radio one by one in order to make an appearance (Pehlivan, 2010).

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leader Cemal Gursel. Keeping his distance from the artists, Gursel used expressions in this meeting mentioning that the arts had been infiltrated by the mud of politics, and that institutions such as the arts, army and schools should be kept out of politics and politically involved art, that the arts couldn’t protect its autonomy and would be harmful to itself at the end. Following these expressions, Cuneyt Gokcer, the then General Director of DT, mentioned that some artists were involved in the murky world of politics, but that art was able to stay clean mostly. At the end of his speech he gave his word to DT staff that they would be worthy for the trust and confidence of the MBK (Evintan, 1969, as cited in Arslan, 2013, p. 66). In addition to its relationship with politics, DT also had institutional problems. Muhsin Ertugrul and Cuneyt Gokcer’s discussion about regional theaters and the Turkish Opera Theater and Auxiliary Workers’ Union (Turkiye Opera Tiyatro ve Yardimci Iscileri Sendikasi–TOTSIS) strike are examples of these events. Despite all these negativities, however, the 1960’s was a very productive period for DT, both in terms of plays and the employee personal rights of the artists. The artists were paid salaries close to those of the MP’s, and had the chance to receive significant amounts of allowances in their overseas assignments. In addition, it was also a very productive period in terms of the number of plays staged and the musical Kiss Me Kate, the first musical to be staged in Turkey, was also staged during this period (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 128-152). The first issue to be discussed on state-theater relations in the 1970’s is the 1970 amendment to the 1949 law. These changes were generally welcomed by the Republican People’s Party (CHP), the opposition party of the period. However, the CHP were opposed to the newly introduced structure of the Literary Board. This opposition was also important in terms of the subject of this work. Because, on the basis of this opposition was the idea that the amendment to be made meant nothing but the rule of politics on DT (Arslan, 2013, p. 73). Given that with the 1970 amendment, all members of the Literary Board were directly or indirectly determined by the political authority, it is clear that this criticism by the CHP was not unjust and that it is still valid today. The March 12 Memorandum also affected the DT as all other institutions in the country. However, just as with the May 27 coup, the management cadres of the DT were not changed, and Cuneyt Gokcer remained at his duty. The soldiers did not intervene in DT mostly. Perhaps their most important demand was the establishment of permanent cadres in Izmir and Bursa (Gurzap, 2012, p. 165). The Ministry of Culture was founded by the first Nihat Erim government, on March 26, 1971, after the coup, and Talat Halman was appointed as the Minister.

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In 1974, AP, the National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi–MSP), the Nationalist Movement Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi–MHP) and the Republican Trust Party (Cumhuriyetci Guven Partisi–CGP) formed the government called the Nationalist Front (Milliyetci Cephe–MC) (Zurcher, 2008, p. 337). The censorship on DT plays continued during the MC government. In 1976, a CHP deputy called Nedim Okmen gave a speech in which he criticized prohibition of a play written by a Turkish playwright at DT’s Altinag Stage. In his speech, Okmen stated that art is a product of social change as well as a means of social change, and therefore political powers can use art and cultural politics to change or keep social and economic structure according to their will. Okmen gave some examples of the acts carried out by the MC government targeting the DT, such as the prohibition of certain plays staged by the DT, staff changes within the Ministry of Culture, and the Ministry of Justice’s supervision of plays to be staged in the provinces and districts via prosecutors (TBMM [Turkish Grand National Assembly], 1976, p. 277-278). Looking at the 1970’s in general, it is observed that the theater has affected by the turbulent political structure of the period. The focus of the tension between state and theater in this period was on which plays will not be staged rather than which ones will be staged. In other words, the theater was used as an ideological tool, as a means of hegemony, by determination of the plays which will not be staged by the state. Naturally, the unstable political structure of the period also affected the theater. Constantly changing political rule led to an unstable structure for the theater. After the coup d’état of September 12, it was inevitable that DT would also be affected with the effort of the military officials to discipline society through prohibitions, arrests, censure, courts, and many other ways. The military junta obliged DT artists to wear ties and sign relevant papers upon arriving at work each day, and some artists were forced to retire under Martial Law, whilst others were dismissed from the institution either by the abolishment of their contracts or through being reassigned to regional theaters. Significant legal regulations targeting DT were introduced following the September 12 coup d’état. Significant changes were introduced to the founding 1949 law. In particular, the issue of determining the General Director of DT. Significant improvements were also seen in the employee personal rights of the DT artists (Arslan, 2013, pp. 174-175). In the 1982 Constitution, introduced after the coup, important expressions take place with regards to the state-theater relations. A constitutional dimension was added to the relationship between state and art under Article 64, which read as “the state shall protect artistic activities and artists. It shall take necessary measures to protect, evaluate, support artistic works and artists and the spread the love towards art” (Republic of Turkey, 1982).

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Between 1980 and 1983, the focus of the DT was on the national plays; even prize competitions, originating in the 1960’s, were organized in order to promote national plays. Another feature of this period was village tours, organized to increase the cultural level of rural citizens (Arslan, 2013, pp. 176180). Cuneyt Gokcer’s general directorate continued after the coup. However, the restless atmosphere in DT continued. DT management was severely criticized for not admiring the people’s choices in the selection of the repertoire. Apart from this, the opposition towards the personality of Cuneyt Gokcer also increased on a daily basis. Those that Gokcer had a dispute to be settled in court with were assigned to regional theaters, and many artists were forced to retire by the DT administration (Arslan, 2013, p. 183). However, uneasiness in DT did not come to an end, the expected thing happened as a result of the complaints sent to the Minister of Culture and Tourism, Ilhan Evliyaoglu, about Cuneyt Gokcer. As a result, Turgut Ozakman was appointed to replace Cuneyt Gokcer as the General Director DT (Sener, 1998, p. 236). Thus, the Cuneyt Gokcer period, which started in 1958 and lasted about 25 years despite the short breaks, was ended. Following the removal of Cuneyt Gokcer from his duty, Turgut Ozakman was appointed as the General Director of State Theater on March 25, 1983. Crises were also evident during Turgut Ozakman’s tenure as General Director. The first indication of the process was the removal of the then Minister of Culture and Tourism, Mukerrem Tascioglu, from the ministry after he rejected the request of Semra Ozal, the wife of the then Prime Minister Turgut Ozal, to dismiss Turgut Ozakman from his duty based on staff complaints (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 209-210). After taking duty, the new Minister of Culture and Tourism, Mesut Yilmaz, asked for Turgut Ozakman’s resignation; a request Ozakman declined. Following this, Mesut Yilmaz claimed that Turgut Ozakman, who also served as a faculty member of Ankara University’s Faculty of Language and History Geography (DTCF) Theater Department, had neglected his faculty duties and had to return to his original duty; upon this, the head of the Theater Department, Sevda Sener, stated that in no way had Turgut Ozakman neglected his duty at the faculty. Trying another way this time, Mesut Yilmaz suggested that as transition to democracy was realized with the Ozal government, the bureaucrats or senior executives assigned by the military junta should not continue their duty under the democratic regime. After all these developments, Turgut Ozakman resigned, three months after Mesut Yilmaz was appointed. The Homeland Party (Anavatan Partisi–ANAP) also won the general election held in 1987 and Tinaz Titiz became the Minister of Culture and Tourism in the newly established government. The theater policy declared by Tinaz Titiz

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in early 1989 brought about debates about the privatization of DT. Tinaz Titiz held a consultation meeting with playwrights to discuss Turkish theater policy and declared that, as a result of this meeting, the State Theater will be given an identity as a prestige theater in terms of staff, repertoire and technique, thus the DT would be a small but effective theater where theater life would be taught with an abiding cadre, not hiring new people if not compulsory (“Devlet tiyatrolarina prestij statusu”, 1989, p. 10). In the coalition government of The True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi–DYP) and Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyaldemokrat Halkci Parti–SHP) founded on November 20, 1991, Fikri Saglar, who was actually the acting Minister of Culture behind the curtains during the ANAP government, officially became the Minister (“Devlet tiyatrolari opera ve bale ozellestirilebilir”, 1991, p. 1). After taking up the position, Fikri Saglar removed Bozkurt Kuruc from his post on February 14, 1992, and sent the decree to the presidency appointing Mehmet Ege as the General Director, Yucel Erten as head stage director, and Tamer Levent as Deputy General Director. President Turgut Ozal, however, did not sign this decree for more than two months (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 238243). Emre Kongar, who acted as Undersecretary during the Ministry of Culture of Fikri Saglar, gave place to the assignment crisis between Bozkurt Kuruc and Fikri Saglar in his book entitled Ben Mustesarken (When I Was the Undersecretary). He stated in his book that he made continuous efforts to find a solution between Bozkurt Kuruc and Fikri Saglar but he failed, and Turgut Ozal did not approve the appointment of Mehmet Ege because he did not find his professional qualities to be adequate and Mehmet Ege withdrew his candidacy because he was opposed by the president of the country, and thus Yucel Erten, a name that was also accepted by the artists, was appointed as General Director (Kongar, 2003, pp. 122-127). Shortly after the appointment of Yucel Erten as the General Director, a crisis between the Minister and the General Director started. It is claimed that one reason for this crisis was that Yucel Erten dismissed a close relative of the Minister’s wife and another was that the General Director rejected the request of the Minister to hire some party members as technical staff to the Antalya State Theater which established with an abiding cadre (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 257-258). After this crisis, the Minister continued to intervene in the functioning of the DT, while the DT administration functioned based on the autonomy granted to them by the law. Seeing that the requests were not fulfilled, the Minister brought the DT’s operation to a bottleneck, blocking staff movements at DT, recruiting inspectors to investigate various claims, and restricting funding. In the meantime, the necessity of reappointing Bozkurt Kuruc occurred, having won his appeal to the Council of State regarding his removal from office (Kongar, 2003, p. 128).

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Minister Fikri Saglar was determined to again dismiss Bozkurt Kuruc, even if he was appointed as the General Director compulsorily. But after the dismissal of Bozkurt Kuruc, Tamer Levent’s name instead of Yucel Erten was mentioned as the successor of Bozkurt Kuruc. In this turmoil, Yucel Erten prepared a referendum and then an election calendar and resigned by a writing a letter to Fikri Saglar requesting that the General Director who would be determined by election would be appointed with a triple decree (Oral, 1994, p .24). The mentioned referendum would be held with the participation of artists and their ideas about the method of determination of the General Director would be sought. As a result of the referendum, it was decided that the General Director should be determined by election. Following the resignation of Yucel Erten, Tamer Levent was appointed as his proxy. Although it was announced that one of the three candidates who had the highest votes in the elections would be appointed by the Minister, because of the reactions, it was declared that the candidate who received the highest number of votes would be appointed. Even though it was declared that the election would be made with the participation of the artists, a last-minute decision allowed administrative and technical staff to also participate in the election (Kongar, 2003, p. 130). In the Anasol-D coalition government founded in 1997 under the prime ministry of Mesut Yilmaz, Istemihan Talay, Icel deputy of the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Parti–DSP), was appointed as the Minister of Culture. Bozkurt Kuruc’s name was not received very well under the ministry of Istemihan Talay, but a change of the General Director was not realized, considering that he would retire anyway in a year because of age limit (Gurzap, 2012, pp. 271-300). After Bozkurt Kuruc, Lemi Bilgin was appointed as General Director in August 1998. However, upon his return to Turkey, he criticized the Minister of Culture because of the practices carried out when he was abroad, and following this he was suspended from duty (Arslan, 2013, p. 198). The 1990’s was a period when unstable structure in DT prevailed. It was a distressing period because of the disagreements between government officials and general directors, incompatibilities between the artists and the DT administration, resignations, petitions, and court cases. After the dismissal of Lemi Bilgin, Rahmi Dilligil and Faruk Gunugur consecutively became proxy directors; Lemi Bilgin was returned to his duty in August 2001 by court decision (Arslan, 2013, p. 198). After the return of Lemi Bilgin to the general directorate, winning the general elections held in 2002 the Justice and Development Party started to rule the country under the Prime Ministry of Abdullah Gul. In the government of th Abdullah Gul, the Ministry of Culture was assigned to Huseyin Celik. The 59

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Government of the Republic of Turkey was established after Recep Tayyip Erdogan was elected as a deputy as a result of the repeated election in Siirt on March 14, 2003, and Erkan Mumcu was appointed as the Minister of Culture and Tourism, as the two ministries (culture and tourism) were merged. During the terms of both ministers, relations between DT and the ministry followed a positive trend and the government respected the autonomous structure of the theater (Gurzap, 2012, p. 301). However, Erkan Mumcu’s relationship with his party was tainted, and in the following period Mumcu resigned both from his party and the ministry. After Mumcu’s resignation in 2005, Atilla Koc was appointed as the Minister of Culture and Tourism. Shortly after Atilla Koc took office, problems resembling those of the past between the general directorate and the ministry resumed, and in the wake of this, Lemi Bilgin was suspended from duty by Atilla Koc in August. This happened as Lemi Bilgin rejected the appointment requests from him and the demands of censorship on the plays; thus there appeared another round of political intervention in the arts (Arslan, 2013, p. 209; Gurzap, 2012, pp. 303305). Ali Atif Bir also interpreted this suspension as Atilla Koc’s attempt to dictate his own artistic understanding to DT in his Hurriyet newspaper column on September 1, 2005 (Bir, 2005). Lemi Bilgin won the two year long legal battle he started after his suspenth sion and returned to the general directorate in May 2007. In the 60 government, formed after the general elections held several months after his return, Ertugrul Gunay was appointed as the Minister of Culture and Tourism. During the ministry of Ertugrul Gunay, a harmony was observed between DT and the ministry, and DT experienced one of its most productive periods under the general directorate of Lemi Bilgin (Arslan, 2013, p. 213). However, in 2012, when the debate on the privatization of DT, which started with the words of the Prime Minister as “there cannot be a state theater” and the draft law on Art Institution of Turkey (Turkiye Sanat Kurumu–TUSAK) caused problems between Lemi Bilgin and the then government. The dismissal of Minister of Culture, Ertugrul Gunay, who stood with DT in these debates about the privatization, also contributed to the tension between the government and the general directorate. After Gunay’s removal from his post, Omer Celik was appointed as the Minister of Culture and the TUSAK draft began to be mentioned more frequently and Lemi Bilgin’s expression of his discomfort at every opportunity during his term increased the tension between the government and the DT. The final straw in this sense was the newspaper advertisement of the DT General Directorate published in newspapers on May 31, 2013. The advertisement of the General Directorate, read as follows:

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We have traveled 430 thousand kilometers only in this season. We went to 81 provinces and we were on the stage 6,180 times with 149 different plays. We would like to thank our people who show great interest to us in every corner of our country. (Erdem, 2013) The advertisement was found allusive in the context where the draft law preparations were going on, and Lemi Bilgin was dismissed as a result (Erdem, 2013). Mustafa Kurt was appointed as the successor of Lemi Bilgin. However, his general directorate period was also problematic, particularly due to interventions regarding the plays to be staged. After the resignation of Mustafa Kurt due to political intervention, the current General Director, Nejat Birecik, was brought to the office. Conclusion To sum up, theater has been in a close relationship with the political sphere from the moment it came about. Its ability to reach a large number of people simultaneously and to influence them by appealing to their emotions and thoughts has put the theater in the scope of those in political power. In Turkey, the theater has been actively involved in the political sphere since the Tanzimat period. The theater’s handling of political events shifts with time, space and people, the reflection of the changes in the political system and the prominent ideologies of the period are examples of the relationship between politics and theater during the Tanzimat period. With the foundation of the Republic, the theater in Turkey was put under direct control of political power. The power of the theater has been effectively used at the point of adoption of the new regime by the masses and the disappearance of the traces of the old regime. Especially the theater branch of Halkevleri had a great significance in this regard. Both the functioning of the Halkevleri as an institution and the quality of the plays to be staged by the theater branch are very important in terms of state-theater relations. In this period, there were no new crises in the arts life of the country because of the nature of the political regime and the lack of a legal structure of the theater, and in this period the theater acted under the control of political power. Unlike other branches of the arts, the theater holds an inherent power in itself; undoubtedly this power keeps the desire to take theater under the influence of political power constantly alive. It would not be wrong to say that the theater, among other branches of the classical arts, is the one considered as the most ideological of apparatus. While the Law No. 5441, issued in 1949 (Republic of Turkey, 1949), seemed to restrict the intervention of the political powers in the theater concerning the state-theater relations, it, in fact, caused problems in terms of the functioning of the institution. The changes in the power were reflected in the theater; the new government wanted to appoint the people who could work in

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harmony with it, and the changes in the office brought along changes in the staff, repertoire and in many other areas. In addition, the dismissed general directors objected to the decisions through the legal mechanisms, and often returned to their positions in office. Therefore, stability and efficiency have not been achieved in the institution because of a constantly changing management structure and thus the institution has not managed to realize the expected development despite its history of approximately 65 years. In the light of the developments in Turkish political life, it is possible to say that during the single party period a bureaucracy-political power conflict has not been experienced, as in the latter periods when different political parties were in power, because of the identification of the political power with the state apparatus. Thus, the consideration of the theater as a political apparatus has an impact on the relations between the DT management and the political power. Four periods can be used to examine the reflection of the relationship between the DT management and the political power(s) on the institution in the historical process: a) the Cuneyt Gokcer period; b) 1983-2007; c) 2007-2013, Ertugrul Gunay’s Ministry of Culture, and finally d) the post-2013 period. It can be seen that during the 25-year general directorate of Cuneyt Gokcer, the bureaucracy served politics. Although the general directorate of Cuneyt Gokcer coincided with political turning points, he managed to keep good relations with those in political power during this time, and thus serious crises did not occur in terms of state-theater relations. On the other hand, the period between 1983 and 2007 emerged as a period when the bureaucracy started a struggle for autonomy against the governments. This process, started with Turgut Ozakman’s general directorate and continued during the terms of Bozkurt Kuruc, Yucel Erten, Tamer Levent and Rahmi Dilligil, and the bureaucracy sought to avoid the interventions of political power taking strength from the laws and its professional qualifications. Especially in the 1990’s, the person who was or was not the General Director showed to whom the power really belonged. Constant changes in the general directorate and internal conflicts caused serious problems, both in terms of autonomy and effectiveness of the institutions. According to the bureaucrats, with the appointment of Ertugrul Gunay as the Minister of Culture and Tourism in 2007 a peace atmosphere dominated the relations between the political power and the institution. Thinking in terms of the relationship between bureaucracy and politics, Gunay left the functioning of the institution to the experts of the subject and the politics did not significantly intervene in the field of arts.

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The period after 2013 resembles the time under Cuneyt Gokcer’s directorate. After Ertugrul Gunay left the ministry, the institution became again an area in which the political powers wanted to take control. The post-2013 period is significant not only because of the attempts of politics to intervene in bureaucracy, but also for the attempts to privatize the institution. Both the interventions on bureaucracy and the attempts of privatization were reflected in the TUSAK draft. The draft caused a new crisis between the institution directors and the political power which lasted with the dismissal of Lemi Bilgin. After Mustafa Kurt, the successor of Lemi Bilgin, resigned on the basis that the institution was subjected to censorship. Nejat Birecik, a name supporting the TUSAK draft, was appointed. It can be seen that the institution was ruled in accordance with political power during the Birecik period. An interesting aspect of this period is that although Birecik had supported the TUSAK draft, it was postponed after he was appointed as the General Director. This shows that political power does not feel the need to make an institutional arrangement as long as it can intervene in and control the bureaucracy. Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that the government used the legal regulations as a means on the basis of the existence of crisis periods. The process of determination of the General Director and the formation of the repertoire emerge as the two most fundamental means of political power in intervening in the institution. For this reason, a necessity to introduce a new law to regulate the operation of the theater in Turkey occurs. Although some administrators are in favor of a continuation of the existing system, the current law causes the name of the institution to be constantly mentioned together with politics. It will be useful to take the systems of developed societies as an example while indicting the new law. For example, it should be possible to reduce economic dependence of the institution to the political power by providing different sources of revenue, more participatory systems should be accepted for the determination of the basic organs of the institution, and the transfer of authority to local bodies should be introduced. In this way, both the interventions to the institution and the criticism that the institution serves political powers can be avoided. However, the new legal regulation should place emphasis on the autonomy and quality of the arts, not closing the institutions and leaving the arts entirely under the control of politics, as in the case of the TUSAK draft. It is generally not possible in Turkey to find a solution that would reconcile the autonomy of public institutions with the constant emphasis of political powers that those elected should be decisive. Depending on the conjuncture, there are some periods when one or the other is heavily dominant.

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References Adorno, T. (2007) Kultur endustrisi kultur yonetimi (N. Ulner, M. Tuzel, & E. Gen, Trans.). Istanbul: Iletisim. Akbulut, D. (2011). Sanatta siyasal soylem uzerine gorsel cozumlemeler (Proficiency in arts thesis). Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. Althusser, L. (1994). Ideoloji ve devletin ideolojik aygitlari (Y. Alp & M. Ozisik, Trans.). Istanbul: Iletisim. rd And, M. (1983). Cumhuriyet donemi Turk tiyatrosu (3 ed.). Ankara: Turkiye Is Bankasi Kultur. Arslan, Z. (2013). Turkiye’de devlet tiyatrosu’nu yasatmak. Istanbul: Sahhaflar. Artun, A. (2004). Baudelaire’de sanatin ozerklesmesi ve modernizm, Retrieved from http://www.aliartun.com/content/detail/44. Baudrillard, J. (1997). Tuketim toplumu (H. Delicecayli, Trans.). Istanbul: Ayrinti. Bernstein, J. M. (2007). Sunus. Kultur Endustrisi Kultur Yonetimi (N. Ulner, M. Tuzel, & E. Gen, Trans.) (pp. 7-44) (Ed. T. W. Adorno). Istanbul: Iletisim. Bir, A. A. (2005, September 1). Dinci basin mit degil gercek, Hurriyet. Retrieved from http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/dinci-basin-mit-degil-gercek-346372. Canpolat, N. (2005). Bilginin arkelogu Michel Foucault. Kadife Karanlik (pp. 75-139) (Ed. N. Rigel). Istanbul: Su. Cecen, A. (1990). Ataturk’un kultur kurumu halkevleri. Ankara: Gundogan. Devlet tiyatrolari opera ve bale ozellestirilebilir. (1991, February 17). Milliyet (p. 12). Retrieved from http://gazetearsivi.milliyet.com.tr/Arsiv/1991/02/17. Devlet tiyatrolarina prestij statusu (February 8, 1989). Milliyet (p. 10). Retrieved from http://gazetearsivi.milliyet.com.tr/Arsiv/1989/02/08 Dundar, C. (1999). Devlet tiyatrolari belgeseli. Retrieved from http://www.candundar.com.tr/_v3/index.php#!%23Did=2142. Durgun, S. (2002). Turk kamu yonetiminde burokratik siyaset. Gazi Universitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakultesi Dergisi, Ozel Sayi [Special Issue], 83-102. Erdem, U. (2013, June 1). Genel mudur bilgin gorevinden alindi. Hurriyet. Retrieved from http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/genel-mudur-bilgingorevinden-alindi-23411699. Erinc, S. (2009). Sanat sosyolojisine giris. Ankara: Utopya. Erol, E. (2012). Cumhuriyetin ilk yillarinda yazilan tiyatro eserlerinde Ataturk ve Ataturkculuk. Turkish Studies, 7(3), 1201-1213. nd Erten, Y. (2013). Devletin tiyatrosu olmaz (mi?) (2 ed.). Istanbul: MitosBoyut. rd Foucault, M. (2000). Deliligin Tarihi (3 ed.). Ankara: Imge. Gurzap, C. (2012). Perde arkasindan devlet tiyatrosu gercegi. Istanbul: Remzi. nd Hall, S. (1999). Kultur, medya ve ideolojik etki. Medya iktidar ideoloji (2 ed.) (M. Kucuk, Trans Ed.). Ankara: Ark. James, S. (2007). Louis Althusser. Cagdas temel kuramlar (A. Demirhan, Trans.) (pp. 180-200). (Ed. Q. Skinner). Ankara: Vadi.

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Kocabay, H. (2003). Gerceklikle yuzlesmek belgesel tiyatro ve politik tiyatro gelenegi. Istanbul: Papirus. th Kongar, E. (2003). Ben mustesarken (8 ed.). Istanbul: Remzi. Kreft, L. (2008). Sanat ve siyaset: sanatin siyaseti ve siyasetin sanati. Sanat siyaset kultur caginda sanat ve kulturel politika (pp. 9-51) (Ed. A. Artun). Istanbul: Iletisim. Krogh, T. (1999). Frankfurt okulu’nun kultur analizi. Medya iktidar ideoloji nd (2 ed.) (M. Kucuk, Trans. Ed.) (pp. 245-267). Ankara: Ark. Kultur Varliklari ve Muzeler Genel Mudurlugu. (n.d.). Genel mudurlugun kurulus ve tarihcesi [Establishment and history of the general directorate]. Retrieved from http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,43034/tarihce.html. Nutku, O. (1999). Ataturk ve cumhuriyet tiyatrosu. Istanbul: Ozgur. Odabasi, Y. (1999). Tuketim kulturu yetinen toplumun tuketen topluma donusumu. Istanbul: Sistem. Oral, Z. (1994, February 13). Secimleri durdurun. Milliyet (p. 26). Retrieved from http://gazetearsivi.milliyet.com.tr/Arsiv/1994/02/13. Ozsari, M. (n.d.). Halkevlerinin kurulusu ve calismalari. Retrieved from http://w3.balikesir.edu.tr/~mozsari/Halkevleri.htm. Pehlivan, H. (2010, May 31). Ismet Pasa darbeyi istemedi. Radikal. Retrieved from http://www.radikal.com.tr/dizi/ismet-pasa-darbeyi-istemedi-999776/. Piscator, E. (1985). Politik tiyatro (M. Unlu & S. Guney, Trans.). Istanbul: Metis. Republic of Turkey. (1940). Law No. 3829 on State Conservatory [Devlet Konservatuvari hakkinda kanun]. Resmi Gazete [Official Gazette], Issue: 4517, May 24, 1940. Retrieved from http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/main.aspx?home=http://www.resmi gazete.gov.tr/arsiv/4517.pdf&main=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/arsiv/45 17.pdf. Republic of Turkey. (1949). Law No. 5435 on amending certain articles of the Turkish Criminal Law [Turk Ceza Kanununun bazi maddelerinin degistirilmesi hakkinda kanun]. Resmi Gazete [Official Gazette], Issue: 7234, June 16, 1949. Retrieved from http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/main.aspx?home=http://www.resmigazete.g ov.tr/arsiv/7234.pdf&main=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/arsiv/7234.pdf. Republic of Turkey. (1949). Law No. 5441 on the directorate general for legislation development and publications, law on the establishment of State Theater [Devlet Tiyatrosu kurulusu hakkinda kanun], Mevzuat bilgi sistemi, Issue: 7234, June 10, 1949. Retrieved from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.3.5441.pdf. Republic of Turkey. (1982). Law No. 2709 on the directorate general for legislation development and publications. Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Mevzuat bilgi sistemi, Issue: 17863, October 18, 1982. Retrieved from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/ Metin.Aspx?MevzuatKod=1.5.2709&MevzuatIliski=0&sourceXmlSearch. Safa, P. (1958, August 24). Korkunc bir vesika (p. 2). Milliyet. Retrieved from http://gazetearsivi.milliyet.com.tr/Arsiv/1958/08/24. Sener, S. (1998). Cumhuriyetin 75. yilinda turk tiyatrosu. Istanbul: Turkiye Is Bankasi Kultur.

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TBMM. (1976, February 27). Book of minutes of the Turkish Parliament, Devre: 4, Birlesim: 68, Volume: 17, Session: 3. Retrieved from https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/ tutanaklar/TUTANAK/MM__/d04/c017/mm__04017068.pdf. Tezcan, M. (2011). Sanat sosyolojisine giris. Ankara: Ani. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Basbakanlik. (n.d.). Hukumetler [Governments]. Retrieved from http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr/Forms/pCabinetRoot. nd Yesilkaya, N. (2003). Halkevleri: Ideoloji ve mimarlik (2 ed.). Istanbul: Iletisim. th Zurcher, E. J. (2008). Modernlesen Turkiye'nin tarihi (24 ed., Y. Saner, Trans.), Istanbul: Iletisim.

Chapter 6

An Instinctive Motion in Art: Automatism 1

Reva Boynukalin

Introduction According to Sigmund Freud, consciousness is determined by two parts called unconsciousness and sub-consciousness. The objective of psychoanalysis is to ensure that the problems in the unconscious level are solved by transforming them from unconscious to conscious level. In his book called “The Interpretation of Dreams,” published in 1899, Freud clarified that there were various ways to reach unconscious level and it could help us to explain the complicated internal functioning of our mind. He also expected to dispose consciousness and self in the place of unconsciousness and thereby to empower consciousness, namely “ego.” Freud observed that electrotherapy and hypnosis methods he implemented in order to treat neurotic patients attending his clinic and through a method he named after “concentration technique,” he intended that the patients focus on the symptom and express all the memories they remember. This technique encourages patients to express all the goings-on through “free association” method instead of explaining the symptoms and reasons of the sickness to the patient. “Calling the data in the unconscious level through ‘free association’ and revealing the symptoms full frontally is the starting point of psychoanalysis” (Sheppard, 2012, p. 34-38). Surrealistic artists have stated that they advocate for the free unconsciousness by applying the free association theory of Freud, who internalized the scientific studies in the field of psychiatry. This method, called pure psychic automatism by Andre Breton, puts forward heuristic expression instead of rational thought (Breton, 1924). By releasing their consciousness, the artists were allowing their pencils and brushes to compose drawings, words and figures on their own accord. In this way, they believed that they prompted their unconsciousness and reached words, colors and figures which indicate their feelings in the deepest sense. They thought that the source of imagination was unconsciousness and also in order to achieve the highest levels of creativity, it is required to reach the unconscious level.

1

Asst. Prof., Cankiri Karatekin University, Faculty of Fine Arts, [email protected]

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Jean Pierre Janet described automatism as an activity specific to unconsciousness in his work called “Psychological Automatism”; The studies conducted on automatism take us into unconscious cognitive formations and habits in which images pursue each other on a regular basis. If we state it more literally, we can identify that it is an activity intended to repeat and preserve. (Janet, 1930, p. 210) The meaning of automatism in philosophy has been utilized in order to specify Descartes’ biological mechanism consciousness in contrary to vitalism and animism. According to this theory, the body is a machine and the organism is assimilated with automats produced by the individuals. Descartes has emphasized that being a part of nature; automatism holds a divine characteristic and clarified it as the “self” belonging to a living creature, in other words as “body moving power” (Descartes, 1962, p. 85). Therefore, the first sample of automatism can be asserted to be the reflection of a creature, being a part of the creator or inner person on the material. While Descartes expresses that automatism is of the inner person, in other words the energy is related to the divine power moving him, Spinoza mentions that a third alternative takes place which is revealed on the basis of the strain between automatism and human consciousness. According to Spinoza, if the soul is resembled to an automat in terms of its functioning, this so-called automat will possess the characteristics of a machine producing opinions (Charles, 2004, p. 9). Besides, having a different approach, Antoine Giraud identified in his work called “Automatism in Art” that automatism is considered to have the same meaning with unconsciousness. In a notwithstanding way, he states that the limits of automatism are rather broader than unconsciousness. In addition, he is of the opinion that automatism contains perceptual perspectives connecting it with consciousness and thought. According to Giraud, automatism, not limited by unconsciousness and self-control corresponds to the term of “authentic motion” in real terms (Giraud, 1927, p. 35). Even though automatism obtains its basis from psychoanalysis studies, its definitions in philosophy emphasize its influences within art. As an artistic approach, automatism can be described as automation activities which actualize independently from self-control and sometimes out of consciousness in a simultaneous, spontaneous and incidental way. The works of artists who have regarded unconsciousness from contemporary art to today’s art are examined throughout this study by focusing on the metaphorical structure of automatism method. Images of Unconsciousness As an author and poet, Muzaffer Ilhan Dost expressed the instantaneity principle in surrealistic understanding as follows:

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While a painting, which was not designed before, is conducted, the unrecognized self is realized both in the painting and in the production process of the painting. If you transform this point into the poem, then it will exist; otherwise it will disappear together with this point. (Erdost, 1997, p. 112) These statements can be regarded as complimentary to the instantaneity principle of surrealism. In surrealism, the job of a poet is to type spontaneous words as they are. Besides, the vocation of an artist is to reveal images, as he feels them, which have reached the conscious level. The unconscious patterns and emotional energy consciousness are transferred through images. Besides, psychical experience takes form in the conscious level by means of images, as well. According to Gaston Bachelard (Bachelard, 2008, p. 5), poetic image is the relief of psychism which has emerged in an instant. Besides, we observe the reflections of psychical experiences in dreams. Jorge Louis Borges, who utilizes dreams frequently as a metaphor in his stories, mentions that dreams take precedence over poetry and in this way he emphasizes that dreams are the premise of poetry which turned into language. In addition, we can also encounter a similar relationship developed with dreams in surrealism. In this context, Andre Breton expressed that: Surrealism is a reflection of psychical automatism which is applied by mind, not only through words but also in writing or in other methods without any moral or aesthetical control and which ensures us to express the real functioning of opinion. (Breton, 1924, p. 34) Even though Breton considered automatism as a literary movement in the first instance, he applied this so-called method into painting art and specified it as duplication from mind to paper, rather than creating visuals. The first to utilize the opportunities of unconsciousness and to use the method of automatism were the protagonists of Dadaism, who appear in every field of art. They created poems by organizing words which have neither meaning nor a connection with one another. For Dadaists, who notice such concepts as chance, irony or accidental order, automatism has been an indispensable theory. Williy Verkauf identified that instead of following a rationalist way regarding the name they select for their movement, Dadaist artists apply a method which depends on randomness and spontaneity principle, and this approach is as a consequence of the “transformation” emerged after war (Verkauf, 1975, p. 76). It is also asserted that the selection of the name, Dada, is left up to haphazard by turning the pages of a dictionary and hence it can be regarded as an approach which holds approximately the same characteristics with free association method of Freud. Besides, Verkauf

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stated that the desire to work in a deep-seated darkness is accurately what is important for Dadaists and they actualize these activities in such an environment without being aware of what they do (Verkauf, 1975, p. 82). Here, the dense darkness phenomenon is a metaphor concerning the deepness of unconsciousness. Unconsciousness, which gives primitive instincts the opportunity to develop in an unimpeded way, enables them to rise to the surface.

Figure 6.1. Man Ray, Untitled, 1922

One of the most known artists of Dadaism, Man Ray discovered the automatism method in his photographic works. Man Ray expressed that in his childhood, he placed some foliage on the draft papers and exposed them to the sun in order to attain negative images. He has also mentioned that he started from the same technique; however, the only difference in between arose from the fact that these paintings were three-dimensional. The objects in Man Ray’s photographs are not only in uncertainty, but also the extensions of shades resembling forms like the human body. Such objects as ordinary kitchenware, key holders, and gloves assume figures evoking a living body and they are in relation with each other. It can be observed that the forms in the background and foreground of his paintings integrate with each other. Perl mentioned that the phenomena perceived in an exhibition, where these aforementioned works are displayed, might change at the end of the exhibition. The reason for this condition is due to the forms, observed upon an image in an uncertainty,

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are persistently in a state of change according to the individual perceiving these forms (Sembol, 2012, pp. 45-46). Another artist who utilizes automatism method in his works, Andre Masson, disclosed peripatetic drawings by releasing his mind. Each of the drawings he generated has a mysterious flow independent from each other and in his paintings we get the impression as if we observe the movements of his hand from the moment he was creating them.

Figure 6.2. Andre Masson, The Earth, 1939

Figure 6.3. Andre Masson, Automatic Drawing, 1924

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Automatism is a double-layered process. A hand goes on drawing without being exposed to any influences. This drawing is reinterpreted continuously by the mind in order to create figures. The appearance of these figures is promoted upon the existing drawings providing insight. The drawings, emerging in an instant, constitute their figures on their own. As Breton identified, most of the time these processes are separate from each other. An artist creates a mass of drawings, and maintains and converts them into a visual which has just emerged at that moment (Breton, 1924, p. 34). The images, formed as a result of this application, transform into a multilayered structure which is extremely open-ended and quite significant. Imaginative thinking is not a directly audiovisual perception, but in fact is the result of a complicated process of functioning records in memory. Besides, in terms of art there is a different relationship not only between reality and fiction, but also between real and fantastic expressions. Moreover, what gathers concepts, shapes and materials throughout the process surrounding artistic images are metaphors. Umberto Eco regards a shape as culminating a metaphor creation process and the beginning of a series of successive interpretations. Owing to this feature, our guide is the metaphors upon analyzing the images (Eco, 2000, p. 211). In addition to Masson, Joan Miro created his works through automatism experience, endeavoring to return to the pure consciousness of childhood. He emphasizes the purified state of consciousness from culture, society and prejudices along with plain and clear geometrical forms. Miro expressed the images of unconsciousness through automatism with a naivety specific to children.

Figure 6.4. Joan Miro, Catalan Peasant Head, 1924

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The other one of the most important factors in shaping an image constituted through automatism is the name an artist has given his work. Utilizing metaphors’ function of making analogies, the artists have achieved to activate different associations by giving a shape a special name which doesn’t belong to that shape. The names of works which open the doors for multiple perceptions compose an aspect of metaphoric expression in the visual arts. This condition also originates from the fact that metaphor is essentially a literary language. In order to release unconsciousness, the modernist and precursor approaches have affected the artists of the Abstract Expressionism movement. Most of the representatives of Abstract Expressionism, which emerged in New York in the 1940’s, are artists who intend to convert physical energy into motion. These so-called artists, who frequently apply the paint either by dripping or pouring it on large scale toiles in a rapid and spontaneous manner, attach a great deal of importance to the creative process of a work.

Figure 6.5. Jackson Pollock, Convergence, 1952

Another artist who has highlighted the process is undoubtedly Jackson Pollock. Pollock’s paintings, which he carried out with a great concentration like a ritual’s psychic who transmits psychical energy, endure on a rather intensive performance. Besides, Pollock’s expression of “spontaneity,” corresponding to automatism method contains the condition of being seized and conducted by a different power just like the liturgical activity of a primitive culture. Abstract expressionists have extracted the images of unconsciousness by not only compounding their special rhythmical hand and arm movements but also utilizing brushes. Additionally, they have aimed to put forward only the existence of artists by objecting to humanitarian and individual signals together

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with mechanical symbols. Throughout the limitlessness of automatism, abstract expressionists have achieved the deed of “independent person” and the ability to get the core, both of which belong to existentialist philosophy (Levine, 1967, pp. 367-373).

Figure 6.6. Franz Kline, Untitled II, 1952

Figure 6.7. Georges Mathieu, Le duc Charles épouse la duchesse de Bourgogne, 1957

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Lyton considers that the artists of abstract expressionism put forward the polysemy existing in the nature of their painterly expression manners (Lynton, 2015, p. 268). This approach is an indicator that abstract art is related with automatism method. Many artists of abstract art have permitted random figures and shapes to compose by applying the paint on a ground from the tube without making any design. These random images which have undergone a range of chemical changes remind us directly of metaphors. Motion in Current Art At the present time, automatism has existed as a method which develops authentic expression ways of an artist utilizing the technological developments of this age. Through automatism, artists are able to transfer the mechanics of the instinctive motion in living creatures within the current art practices and also dream images which are evoked by way of a phenomenon in perceptual reality. In today’s arts of painting, sculpture, installation and performance, it can be observed that as a production method, automatism can convey the symbols sheltered in unconsciousness into a dimension which consciousness might perceive. By applying improvisation, Robert Motherwell, Kikie Crevecoeur, Christian Dotreamont and other similar artists have reflected symbols evoking their unconsciousness into their tainted expressions.

Figure 6.8. Kikie Crevecoeur, Vue d'ensemble de la série, 2007

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Figure 6.9. Bill Viola, The Crossing, video/sound installation, 1996

The fact that ritual, celebration and other similar behavior forms continue to exist in current art is an indicator of artists adopting the role of a priest or shaman. Performances containing a time-wise dimension and also those involving repetition, patience and other factors related to body have been formed so as to take the artists and the audience out of ordinary perception and to create a more advanced awareness. In the work called “The Crossing,” one of the video/sound installations of Bill Viola, we can observe a figure which is continuously swallowed within a grand waterhole at the one side and a figure at in flames at the other side. This crossing phase including mental shifts and physical changes can be associated with the concept of transformation in automatism.

Figure 6.10. Cai Quo Quiang, Head On, 2006

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On the other hand, in the work of Cai Quo Quiang called “Head on,” the figure on the move is pointed out by compounding it with rhythmical case of being instinctive. The persistence of the stuffed animals following each other recalls the audiences’ herd mentality. This aforementioned fact can be asserted to be in a relation with the persistence of communication and motion within a whole. Hence, it can be indicated that in such works of Cai Quo Quiang, an automatism sheltering in the naturalness of instinctive movement. In this situation, it is observed that the connection among the animals with one another in a herd corresponds to the biological mechanism understanding of Descartes (Sembol, 2012, p. 146).

Figure 6.11. Roxy Paine, Machinations, 2010

Figure 6.12. Roxy Paine, Machinations, 2010

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Roxy Paine dealt with the relationship between technological production with sculpturing machines which he named after Scumak and natural production. In his sculptures exuding from machines in an unregulated way and consisting of overlapping plastic paint layers, metaphors’ motive force of different lexical associations can be intuited. Upon seeing these sculptures, we cannot help but resemble them to a sexual organ, sexuality or to an organism belonging to the body; stool or other waste material. Roxy Paine’s instigator of conceptual works changes our perceptions and prejudices by compounding such layers as humor and romanticism in an ironical way. Besides, in his other works called “Second Nature,” he compares by imitating monumental art creation machines and its machine production process repeating natural, botanical environments together with its body part production process. Along with the numinous power of nature, we can regard the instinctive motion of human and animal body in Kate MccGwire’s works. Great deals of works belonging to MccGwire take a concept of Freud named after spooky. Moreover, it involves all the artistic opinions of mawkishness. Besides, there is a harmony which can easily be observed with the naked eye in organical design, form and materials. Especially the utilization of spiral, circle or familiar materials has a great influence on the audience.

Figure 6.13. Kate MccGwire, Discharge, 2015

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Figure 6.14. Kate MccGwire, Fine, 2012

Another artist who intends to put forward a new understanding with regard to body and soul by emphasizing the transformation in automatism is Kiki Smith. The artist has aimed to rediscover our existence in space through introspection. Most of Kiki Smith’s sculptures are in the matter of our complicated and worrisome relationship with nature. The artist has remarked that she believes the destiny of humankind is determined by his conflict with nature. This preference of the artist is derived from the belief that the spiritual expression appears with bodily transformations or that the emotions give shape to body. Besides, animalistic characteristics and anatomical supplementations are the best method to verbalize it. In addition to these, Smith’s sculptures predicate growing to maturity, which has been defined as the function of soul and love by Carl Gustave Jung.

Figure 6.15. Kiki Smith, Born, 2002

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Conclusion In artistic expression, automatism method and the concepts of internal and external realities have been interpenetrated. The artist can convert his imaginations into artistic creations instead of symptoms. In this way, the artist can abstain from the consequence of neurosis and by means of this deviation, he can familiarize with reality. “Automatism enables individuals to reveal the images and ‘symbols,’ which cannot be perceived by conscious mind and which exist in unconsciousness” (Rose, 1967, p. 165). Hence, today it can be a method applied in order to surface the permissiveness of humankind that he has repelled into unconsciousness. Automatism, which has emerged as a poetical approach in Dadaism, is a method developed in surrealistic movement so as to achieve psychological and unconscious individuality. Besides, automatism, experienced with such techniques as “cutting, rubbing, scrapping, engraving” in surrealism, has appeared as a dynamic power maintaining motion in the works of Andre Masson’ and Man Ray. It is possible to observe the most explicit state of motion in the paintings which expressionist artists applied through hand and arm movements by releasing their consciousness. Jackson Pollock, as first, and many other artists since, have converted their artistic expressions into a primitive rite in order to express their consciousness. In the artistic creation process, which has turned into a ritual, the artist has substituted for a psychic or a shamanist wizard who conveys his spiritual energy. It is obviously clear that the most important factor mediating the originality of unconsciousness is automatism. Automatism also helps dream images to stem from unconsciousness into surface. These images mostly include primitive symbols, as well. These symbols, named as “archetype” by Carl Gustave Jung, are regarded as “a mediator in order for humankind to reach his own values existing in unconsciousness” (Jung, 1984, p. 259). Automatism has gained quite significant ground in current art due to its feature of bringing these so-called symbols concealed in the unconsciousness to a level of consciousness. Robert Motherwell, Kikie Crevecoeur, Christian Dotreamont and other such artists have applied improvisation and reflected symbols evoking their unconsciousness into their tainted expressions. The artists, who have created their individual unconsciousness languages by developing their aforementioned approaches, express a physical motion in their works. In his article called “The Darkness of Automatism,” Dalibor Vesely emphasized that as a method, pure automatism could not achieve the expected results. Besides, he mentioned that when surrealists handle automatism over a long period of time, they grow into the mood of hazardous hypnosis and the texts they write become inorganic after becoming meaningless (Vesely, 2014,

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p. 68). In fact, it can be observed that in the case of automatism in art, the functioning of the relationship between artists and the creation of work have been experienced at different dimensions from the first age to present day. Through their video, installation, performance or sculpture works, such artists as Bill Viola, Cai Quo Quiang, Roxy Paine and Kiki Smith taking part in current art have intended to reveal the mechanics of instinctive motion in the living and lifeless articles. Within the context of current art practices, automatism corresponds to the biological mechanism of Descartes. According to this theory, the body functions like a machine and “it makes unique motions on its own in a way which none of the human-design machines cannot do” (Descartes, 1962, p. 85). Moreover, Freud’s concept of “spooky,” which has been adopted by surrealist artists, constitutes the starting point for many artists, just like in the installations of Kate MccGwire. In current day art, automatism has not been satisfied with mediating unconsciousness and has become a part of body and nature. As an artistic production method, this versatility of automatism originates from its being metaphoric. With their antonyms, different qualities and ability in conveying concepts to compound, metaphors enhance the persistency of an artistic work in memory. Including various connotation layers into perception process, metaphoric exposition holds an intuitional comprehension process in terms of artistic expression. Lissack stated that: Metaphor is an invitation to perceive an object or a matter as a different one. It is an invitation to concentrate on qualities which seem as if there were no relationships in appearance and to enrich so that it is maintained that the aforementioned matter or object is perceived. Besides, metaphors direct the audience to establish an arrangement by creating a viewpoint instead of stating a matter directly. The concept of free association in automatism match up with the metaphoric expression’s the following opinion; ‘It neither expresses nor hides; it implicates. (Davidson, 1997, p. 85) This condition demonstrates that not only a limitation cannot be conducted in connotations of the works created through automatism method, but also the effect of the deepening metaphoric expression propounds continuity.

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References Bachelard, G. (2008). Uzamin poetikasi. (A. Tumertekin, Trans.). Istanbul: Ithaki. Batur, E. (1987). Gercekustuculuk ozel sayisi. Gergedan-Yeryuzu Kultur Dergisi, 6, 51-56. Istanbul: Hurriyet Ofsed. Breton, A. (1924). Manifeste de surréalisme. Paris: Nouvelle Edition de Pauvert. Charles, S. M. (2004). Affects et conscience Chez Spinoza. L’automatisme dans le progres ethique. New York: Georg Olms Verlag Hildesheim. Davidson, D. (1997). Egretilemede anlam. Kuram Dergisi (Y. Salman, Trans.). Istanbul: Kur. Descartes, R. (1962). Metod uzerine konusma (M. Karasan, Trans.). Ankara: MEB. Eco, U. (2000). Acik yapit (N. U. Dalay, Trans.). Istanbul: Can. Erdost, M. I. (1997). Ikinci yeni yazilari. Ankara: Onur. Giraud, A. (1927). Automatisme dans l’art. Paris: Librairie Marcel Riviere. Janet, P. (1930). L’Automatisme psychologique, essaie de psychologie expérimentale sur les formes inférieure de l’activité humaine. Paris: Felix Alcan. Jung, G. (1984). Psychology and western religion. New Jersey: Editions Paperback. Levine, E, (1967). Mythical overtones in the work of Jackson Pollock. Art Journal, 26(4), 367-373. Lynton, N. (2015). Modern sanatin oykusu (S. Ozis & C. Capan, Trans.). Istanbul: Remzi. Rose, B. (1967). L’art Americain depuis 1900. New York: Editions Francaises. Sembol, E. (2012). Otomatizm’in sanattaki yapisal bagintilari (Master’s thesis). Erciyes University, Institute of Fine Arts, Kayseri, Turkey. Sheppard, R. (2012). Zihnin kasifi Sigmund Freud biyografisi. Istanbul: Turkiye Is Bankasi Kultur. Verkauf, W. (1975). Dada. England: St. Martin’s Press. Vesely, D. (2014). Otomatizmin muglakliklari (R. Akman, N. Artun, & Z. Baransel, Trans.). Surrealizm/mimarlik mekan sanati (pp. 67-70) (Ed. N. Altinyildiz Artun). Istanbul: Iletisim.

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References for Figures Crevecoeur, K. (2007). Vue d'ensemble de la série. Retrieved from http://www.centredelagravure.be/fr/exhibitions/233-kikie-crevecoeur Kline, F. (1952). Untitled II. Retrieved from https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/category/sanatcilar/soyadi-k/klinefranz/ Masson, A. (1924). Automatic Drawing. Retrieved from https://www.widewalls.ch/automatic-drawing/ Masson, A. (1939). The Earth. Retrieved from http://surrealism.website/Masson.html Mathieu, G. (1957). Le duc Charles épouse la duchesse de Bourgogne. Retrieved from https://www.baskiloji.com/kanvas-tablo/Sanatci/1239 MccGwire, K. (2012). Fine. Retrieved from http://katemccgwire.com MccGwire, K. (2015). Discharge. Retrieved from http://katemccgwire.com Miro, J. (1924). Catalan Peasant Head. Retrieved from https://www.wikiart.org/en/joanmiro/not_detected_227967 Paine, R. (2010a). Machinations. Retrieved from http://www.benjaminharlow.com/alloftheabove/archives/1942 Paine, R. (2010b). Machinations. Retrieved from http://cargocollective.com/flatsurface/Roxy-Paine Pollock, J. (1952). Convergence. Retrieved from https://www.jacksonpollock.org/convergen ce.jsp Quiang, C. Q. (2006). Head on. Retrieved from http://dbartmag.com/en/89/news/wolves-in-japan-caiguo-qiangs-head-on-at-theyokohama-museum-of/ Ray, M. (1922). Untitled. Retrieved from https://www.artsy.net/artwork/manray-untitled-rayograph Smith, K. (2002). Born. Retrieved from https://historiesdrawingsprints.com/courses/ contemporary-artist-asresearcher-and-activist/kiki-smith/ Viola, B. (1996). The Crossing, video/sound installation. Retrieved from http://acikerisim.deu.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/12345/9680/293260.p df?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Chapter 7

“Good” Future Expectation of Modern Man: Meliorism Deniz Kundakci1

Introduction: Meliorism as a Concept Meliorism is at the forefront of features illustrating the pragmatist tradition. This concept bears on the belief that “the currently existing conditions which can be comparatively regarded as good or bad at a specific moment might be better in any case when the necessary effort is made.” In this respect, the concept refers to a kind of optimism and hopefulness; in addition it contains a profoundly strong belief (Stroud, 2010, p. 46). Moreover, the concept can be regarded not only as a reflection of a philosophical vision like pragmatism, but also as a part of the social tradition of the “American dream” (Campbell, 1987, p. 97). Pragmatists describe the meliorist approach as a manner of belief through which the acts of human beings soothe the pains of the world. Hence, meliorism can be regarded as something desired to be created in the living experience, which is beyond the theoretical affirmation of the desire to change the current situation. Indeed, meliorism is the method of selecting the appropriate ways for the purpose of reaching desired goals (Stroud, 2010, pp. 45-46). In this regard, it can be assumed as a method for the efforts to change the 2 existing reality with the better one and to reconstruct it. According to the pragmatist constructionists like Scott Stroud, pragmatism contains two different approaches that correlate with each other, and within itself. The first one of these is called “descriptive pragmatism”; and it is the aspect of pragmatism which is related to making sense of the existing situation and also which predicates the philosophical efforts of pragmatism much more. The second of these approaches is regarded as “reconstructive 1

Asst. Prof., Kastamonu University, [email protected] Upon describing pragmatism, William James stated that “pragmatism is an indicator regarding how the existing realities can be changed” instead of providing a solution prescription and by this way he intended to indicate this methodological feature of pragmatism (James, 2015, p.65).

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pragmatism” and which places emphasis on another aspect of pragmatism which includes a more subjective focus regarding an ideal or value. As a concept, meliorism generates one of the central issues of the aforementioned second approach of pragmatism (Stroud, 2009, p. 393). Within this context, meliorism can be connoted as the development of a past experience or an 3 ethical effort directed to constitute a philosophy of action. Upon stating that “we can believe in the things which we desire in a logical, legitimate and undefeated way… [and] thought is generally the father of phenomena,” famous pragmatist, William James actually intended to refer to the strong relationship between belief, thought and action (James, 1992, p. 533). Both James and his successor John Dewey thought that in order to reveal the will to change the world into a better place, it would be first necessary to believe that 4 the world can indeed be a better a place (Pappas, 2008, p. 295). What Meliorism Stands for? It can be asserted that three different visions composing the comprehension of the world regarding pragmatist tradition have an influence on propounding a philosophical and practical tendency like meliorism, which accompanies life experience. These three visions can be mentioned as “an incomplete [and moldable] world comprehension,” “pluralism” and “humanism”, respectively. First of all, in pragmatism, individual, society and hence the universe is regarded not only in a rooted and constant basis in terms of intellectual aspect, but also with regards to the style of understanding the world; instead it is regarded as a mobile and plastic (or moldable) place which is already under formation (Dewey, 1996, p. 206). Thereby, meliorism invites individuals to attend a piecemeal and continuous social construction in an incomplete world. As a product of such a world idea, it advocates that the actions of individuals might create distinguishable differences, even though they may seem small and unimportant individually. A world vision, in which everything is not yet complete and is still inherently under construction, so to speak, maintains a future belief which we can give form (in a way we desire). On the other hand, in this approach, it is never trusted that expectations and promises towards the future are guaranteed. As James frequently mentioned, life is 3

When it is considered that the concept of pragmatism is originally derived from the words of the English language; “practice” and “practical,” which stand for action, it is not that confounding that meliorism has some focus on the foundation of real life. To understand more about the meaning of pragmatism, see also James (2015, p. 61). 4 Likewise, Dewey also refers to the effect of the concept; belief on action by emphasizing that the human being is a naturally irrational creature by means of expressing that what primarily prompts a human and manages his behaviors are factors such as stimulations and habits more than thoughts (Campbell, 1987, p. 101).

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always fragile and our actions never have a specific precision that they will contribute to bringing about a world regarding the solutions of better, further or deeper humanistic problems. As life ultimately holds contingencies including different perspectives, it compels individuals to take the existing uncertainty seriously in reference to the expectation of a good future (Fagiano, 2013, p. 260). Stating that “there is not an ultimate accuracy in ethics until the human has the final word and experience (the life),” James actually connoted to this uncertainty (James, 1987, as cited in Perry, 1998, p. 116). In a different context, James emphasized a similar uncertainty by expressing that “we dwell in a finite experience; and this finite experience is homeless. Nothing guarantees its way out apart from the flow.” By the end of the work, James had reminded human being that taking over “a ship wreck” is just one of the possible outcomes (James, 2015, p. 189). In a similar way, according to John Dewey, it is referred that all the actions have unpredictable outcomes by describing the world as “an insecure and hazardous place.” Besides, according to Dewey, if human beings could foresee the outcomes of existing conditions, he would in a way surrender to the flow (Dewey, 1977, as cited in Campbell, 1987, p. 101). Secondly, meliorism is a state of hopefulness which can be associated with a pluralist concern. As a result of the meliorist conception of pragmatism, the world itself is described as a plural, dynamic and pluriverse universe; instead of something perceived as a united and unique universe. This perspective indicates the evaluation that all phenomena can be comprehended more differently than they exist and it specifies the world reality we ensconce as a dispersed and strewn place (Koopman, 2006, p. 107). From this point of view, it can be asserted that just like pragmatism, meliorism takes inspiration, criticizes the rationalist and absolutist philosophical approaches and their monistic characteristics; and it also might indict their constant and perpetual selfunderstanding with dogmatism. It must, therefore, be indicated that melioristic expectation tends to prefer to being deprived of a practical balance instead of searching for the opportunity to catch inner peace like the religions and as monistic understanding of religions indicate less certainty in contrast to a secret world envision (James, 1987, p. 1054). James stated that “truth is the thing which we say about them”; thereby, he has uttered that truth presents an erectable, plural and inconsistent semantic world in a way by declining a sole, trans-historical, universal and exclusive comprehension of information, (James, 2015, p. 70). Thus, as mentioned, the belief that phenomena can always be described in different ways than real is advocated. Under these aforementioned circumstances, the meliorism understanding of pragmatism never trusts that human beings have an actual right to let the world ride. Also, it drastically rejects the claims that religious understandings

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eliminate the fears and worries of human beings, the goings-on in the world are committed to more trustworthy hands like “absoluteness” and therefore “dealing with these issues does not concern individuals stamped with mortality” (James, 2015, p. 77). Alternatively, it calls for a humanist vision which shares the very belief that the world can be changed through human effort, expectations and his “active good will.” This call can be seen as the third basic feature of meliorism. This feature requires us to believe that the world is not identified with an absolute destiny and it is indeed fundamentally flawed, just like humankind. Moreover, it asserts that world might have a future vision hosting different opportunities with human effort instead of bearing similar qualifications with the “past.” As a matter of fact, if the world was indeed excellent, there would be no need for human effort and freedom; in such a world people would struggle only for the freedom of being “worse” (James, 2015, p. 104) On the other hand, meliorism perceives “the salvation of world” just as an possibility. Without posting a guarantee, it endeavors for the universe so that it can be a more secure place and objects all the proposals that might wipe out “life” (James, 2015, p. 205). In this sense, it never remains indifferent to the world issues. However, it is aware of the fact that the expectation that the world will be a more secure place and the future might be more hopeful would be condemned to fail if no individual endeavors in order for this expectation to actualize. As James frequently expressed, it will succeed just in proportion as more of these work for its success. If none works, then it will fail. If each does his best, it will not fail. Its destiny thus hangs on an “if”, or on a lot of “ifs” (James, 1987, p. 1099). That melioristic vision might grow into a possibility through human effort and activities can be revealed with the expressions of James as follows: Take, for example, any one of us in this room with the ideals which he cherishes and is willing to live and work for. But these particular ideals are not bare abstract possibilities. They are grounded, they are live possibilities, for we are their live champions and pledges, and if the complementary conditions come and add themselves, our ideals will become actual things… In our world, the wishes of the individual are only one condition… We want water and we turn a faucet. We want a Kodakpicture and we press a button. We want information and we telephone. We want to travel and we buy a ticket. In these and similar cases, we hardly need to do more than the wishing. (James, 1987, pp. 613-614) As can be deduced from the expressions above, “a perfect world ideal” can only exist as a logical outcome; that’s why the world can just become a “better” place with human effort and activity. However, according to the

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melioristic understanding of pragmatism, even though humankind does his best for his expectation to realize, in such a world where many plural and complicated factors take place, the effect of other numerous factors might become a part of the activity and hinder the “good” future ideal of humankind to actualize. In this sense, humankind might be disappointed, feeling that all the effort he has put in, is cast away. According to James, for this reason “being part of such a world, any insurance company cannot save us against the risks we take” (James, 1987, p. 1100). Therefore, there is never a guarantor for the 5 good future expectation to actualize. If expressed with Kantian concepts, this expectation has a possibility to realize with “conditional” statements hypothetically, but not categorically. Conditions Creating Meliorism The general disposition of the pragmatist philosophers, notably John Dewey, is that the future can be predicted is a quite valuable objective. In this sense, demonstrating a momentous and self-scarifying human activity within the present conditions is rather important in planning the future. Undoubtedly, although human beings do not have a grasp of all the stages of the process he has planned concerning the future and the knowledge about these stages, their vision regarding the future encourages them at every stage. In this regard, pragmatism believes that the present conditions can be enhanced through piecemeal regulations and wise ways of participation against life’s problems and also activities to reform the world. It also asserts that they can be achieved without sinking into the opinion of long-terms and “remotely and constantly good” and also without being stuck in the absolute and ultimate ideals. In this respect, a good future expectation might present inspirational ideas (Pappas, 2008, pp. 148-153). On the other hand, revealing a life activity like meliorism is unquestionably originated from the commitment of pragmatism, which is a part of modern thought tradition in itself, to the idea of scientific and technological progression. Especially the pragmatists of the classical period, who internally believe that “the potential of the physical nature can be taken under control by human dominance,” are of the opinion that the number of problems humankind cannot overcome will decrease gradually by means of the developing scientific activities. For instance, Dewey (1998) stated that “in conjunction with the development of utilizing the scientific method, the first lights of a new intellectual era appear and this era will have effects penetrating in the

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When Dewey mentions about democracy, he states that “democracy will either persist or…go out of existence” and he underlies that indeed even the existence of democracy has no guarantee in itself and it will only be possible through human effort and activity (Dewey, 1962, p. 121).

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whole of human life.” The most significant result of this is the opinion that human beings, who have taken lessons from their wrong experiences, “will guide a more qualified society” (Dewey, 1998, as cited in Campbell, 1987, p. 97). Dewey has complained that science is hardly ever used in social issues to transform the radical actions and manners of human beings and believes that it is required to behave more courageously on this matter. According to Dewey, five or ten-year economic plans of a country can be regarded as a typical example of applying scientific thought concerning the requirements, problems and opportunities of society, with the intention of gaining control on the social outcomes to a certain degree (Dewey, 1998, pp. 366-367). Dewey considers that in this way, political order, stability and as a natural consequence of these, “social control” can be established. Social control as science and its natural reflection is designed as an efficient tool for predictable future search. What is Meliorism, What is not? a)

Is Meliorism a type of Optimism?

The question whether meliorism, whose conceptual framework has been outlined, is a type of optimism or not that may come to the fore. However, due to the fact that the differences between meliorism and optimism are revealed, it can easily be indicated that these two concepts refer to quite different meanings. In the literature, even if not “optimism,” the word of “optimum” was first used technically in 1710 by the famous philosopher, Leibniz in order to describe “the best of the possible words”; by the way, this word can be as7 serted to appear on the stage of history (Perry, 1998, p. 14). Leibniz utilized the word in the following context:

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In order to raise awareness regarding the gravity of technological progress, Dewey shares the striking detections of Alfred Whitehead. According to Whitehead, although such great technological alterations did not occur in the history of humanity between the years of 100 A.D. and 1400 A.D.; greater changes than the ones occurred throughout the earlier thousands of years took place especially after the utilization of steam power. According to Dewey, the current alteration in politics, international relations and personal relations has been experienced so rapidly that we cannot rationally grip or understand it (Dewey, 1998, p. 363). 7 The word “optimism” was first used in 1737, in Mémoires de Trévoux, which was in fact a Jesuit journal. The journal adopted the doctrine of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The word was also included in the French academy dictionary in 1762 (Loemker, 1967, p. 244).

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This supreme wisdom [God] has certainly selected the best by uniting with the goodness, which is not less finite than him…If it was possible to perform the best, there would be something in the actions of God that should be reformed…But for that good (optimum) did not take place among the possible worlds, God would not create a world. If the smallest badness existing in the world disappeared, the world would not be the same world. (Leibniz, 2009, pp. 117-118) As can be indicated from the passage cited from Leibniz, having the absolute perfection, God contemplated everything upon creating the world and he created the best of the possible worlds by comparing the world he would create with the other possible scenarios. According to Leibniz, If we could comprehend the organization of the universe sufficiently, then we would ascertain that it surpasses all the wishes of the wise man at the most…and also we would find out that it is impossible to perform it better than it is right now. (Leibniz, 1998, p. 107) In that case, it can be asserted that God has operated according to the principle of “optimum.” Therefore, from the assertion of Leibniz, it can be stated that the best world is not a place where badness takes place in the least, but in fact “it is the thought of a world in which goodness is balanced at the most above badness.” That’s why, in the current world, there should always exist a certain of number of phenomena, evils and sins, even though they might seem to overshadow the fairness of God. That is to say, due to the optimistic viewpoint of Leibniz, it can be mentioned that God has actually wished for evil and all the bad things in order to avoid bigger evils and to attain greater goodness. As a matter of fact, but for badness, humankind would not be able to understand the value of goodness and taste goodness (Leibniz, 2009, p. 120). For instance, according to Leibniz, if a human never falls sick, he would not know the value of healthiness; but for tangy and sour foods, the tastes of sweet foods could not be comprehended (Stumpf, 1994, p. 258). Briefly, as Leibniz’s optimism endeavors to reconcile mind and faith on the one hand while it discusses that God is an entity that tends to produce goodness as much as possible, it even describes “evil” as a factor serving in order for the supernal goal of God to come in sight. Besides, in a way even permitting sin is assumed as a part of God’s virtue and extensive goodness (Leibniz, 8 2009, pp. 131, 184).

8 According to Leibniz, the most important indicator of the fact that badness is not predominant, indeed it is an element of balance in the face of goodness only in order to

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From this point of view, if on all occasions, anybody was complaining and invoking about why the world is so filled with great sins and evils, Leibniz would conceivably answer as the following: “it is known that God looks out for the whole universe all parts of which are interrelating”; there are numerous things God takes into account; the consequence of these would be as follows: God regards that preventing certain evils is in contradiction to mind (Leibniz, 2009, p. 74). In other words, when sins and evils are compulsory for a greater goodness, it is not necessary to complain about them. Instead of rioting against God, we are required to search for goodness in each evil or “make an 9 evil through which goodness might turn up.” Without doubt, in his novel 10 called Candide one of the most important philosophers of Enlightenment, Voltaire, would settle an ironical account with such kind of simple-hearted optimism after approximately half a century. 11

Like Voltaire William James criticized such optimism out of its senses, and a manner which he specified as “a product of shallow childhood” (James, 1987, as cited in Robinson, 1924, p. 177), and he has argued that “The world should not be looked at with the eye of a machine whose ultimate goal is to actualize all the extrinsic goodness” (James, 1992, p. 581). According to him, “life is neither optimism nor pessimism”; at the very outside it can be considered as “Gnosticism.” Hence, James perceives meliorism as disclosing the existing current relationships on earth or efforts so as to make them meaningful, instead of regarding meliorism as a type of optimism (or vice versa). When the pluralist viewpoint of James is evaluated, both optimism and pessimism can be specified as excessive forms. These attitudes conceive the world as

reveal more goodness is that “There is incomparably much more homes in the world than jails” (Perry, 1998, p. 26). 9 Its Latin version is: “Non esse faciende mala, ut eveniant bona” 10 The topic of the novel is as follows: Candide is a young who lives in the castle of a bar called as Tunder-ten Tronk and he leads a quite easy life as an illegitimate child of the bar’s sister. When he falls in love with Mrs. Cunégonde, the bar’s daughter, he is dismissed from the castle and he has to encounter great deals of problems. First, he is beaten to within an inch of his life, then his ship caught by the storm sinks, he is injured in an earthquake, sentenced by a priest, he learns that his beloved has had an attack, he murders his girlfriend’s brother, he loses most of the diamonds he has found by chance…When all these happen, he cannot take himself from thinking that ‘if this is the best one of the possible worlds, then who knows how the other worlds are?’ (Voltaire, 2014, p. 22) 11 In fact, the expression that “none of the realistic images of the experience belonging to an accursed soul do not tangle in Leibniz’s mind” underlies in the reference James has attributed to Voltaire (James, 2015, p. 50). James might have thought that he could wither the arguments of Leibniz through an accursed character who has fallen victim to God in a way and whom he has encountered in Voltaire’s Candide.

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totally good or totally bad. According to James, because of the fact that they embrace the world in a unidirectional way, they block the disclosing of current relationships; however, with reference to James, the world can be entitled as a partially and contextually good place and also a partially and contextually bad place (Perry, 1998, p. 128). As well as being a sense of thought that has a great impact on every term in Western philosophy, optimism can be defined as “a doctrine which regards the salvation of world as indispensable.” It predicates on the completeness of the world and its absolute certainty. However, meliorism identifies salvation as being neither indispensable nor impossible; indeed salvation is regarded just as a possibility and it is believed that salvation can be turned into a greater possibility along with increasing the actual conditions (James, 1987, p. 612). Nonetheless, most of the monistic religious understandings encourage success with an optimist viewpoint on the one side; whereas, they postpone the salvation for future life on the other side. These understandings take the following idea as a reference, the “world is absolutely salvable despite the 12 appearance of all the extraordinary risks.” Their mistake is that they depend on the opinion of “a constant good” (James, 1987, p. 1054). Nevertheless, the collective intelligence of society acting mutually can provide various instruments for the self-development of society. In addition, scientific knowledge and technology generates some of these instruments that enable the conditions to become accessible in actualizing the desired purposes. A meliorist and diligent mood demonstrated on behalf of social development is a quite significant resistance point in enhancing the capacity, but according to pragmatists, in spite of all these efforts, the outcomes will always continue to be uncertain (Uffelman, 2011, p. 320). Literally, pragmatism does not select any one of the dual discriminations such as “empiricism and rationalism,” “idealism and materialism,” and ultimately “dogmatism and skepticism” and it takes establishing a kind of reconciliation and mediation between these discriminations as a mission. Therefore, it can be asserted that the meliorist understanding of pragmatism also denies the opinion that the outcomes of things are determined in advance preferring between two indispensable aspects, “optimism and pessimism” (Perry, 1998, p. 104). In this context, rather than designing the future as an

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As a matter of fact, religions necessitate a pessimist vision by their very nature, because even though the religion’s core depending on disposing of such badness requires an optimistic effort; yet the religions hold a pessimist relation network due to the fact that not all the individuals and groups, but only the ones who are selected and who deserve the blessing of God will be saved. For more on this, see also (Loemker, 1967, p. 244).

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accomplished fact, meliorism chooses a type of midway and it prefers taking a fancy to an opinion which presents the possibility of being absolutely safe (James, 2015, pp. 207, 209). b)

Is Meliorism a type of contemporary Messianism?

After the argument that meliorist vision of pragmatism cannot be a type of “optimism,” the issue whether or not meliorism can be mentioned with some terms which have become a current topic with postmodern philosophy can be evaluated in another discussion. One of these concepts, Messianism or “messianic hope” is quoted with Jacques Derrida. Accordingly, messianic hope is not degraded with any Messianism having religious origins (Derrida, 2014, p. 76) and it can be defined as a “promise,” which does not allow taking the form of a programmed future, does not have certain content and also which cannot be regarded as being identical to a Messiah. Thereby, “Messianic hope” refers to a relation network that exists as a commitment holding the impossibility of promising and which can never be specified as an “oath.” Derrida has emphasized that especially communist and democratic promises bear such a Messianic characteristic; Just like the reality of the communist promise, the reality of the democratic promise will always preserve the undetermined messianic expectation deep down and also the informational relation concerning the future of a dissimilarity that cannot be prioritized, a partiality and an incident. (Derrida, 2001, p. 107) As can be deduced from this quotation of Derrida (2001), due to the fact that communist and democratic promises are inaccessible “currently,” “now” and already, they take us to an infinite “adjourning process.” Likewise, each one of them stands as forthcoming promises. Besides, since they cannot be predetermined and any decisions about them cannot be made, according to Derrida, they always keep the condition of being hopeful alive and in this sense they always continue to exist as a Messianic expectation (Kundakci, 2012, p. 231). Thus, it will not be limited with an obligation like closing the doors for the other promises or options. Messianism is a statement of experience structure rather than religion. Because Derrida criticizes that predicting a forthcoming presence, ordaining it or summoning it, in order words its becoming a living reality provides a certain expectation horizon (Derrida, 2014, p. 17). Messianic promise is unexpectedly expected, it does not have any faces and moreover, it is a half transcendental structure (Derrida, 2014, pp. 79, 86). The future can be identified as a kind of “absolute danger” which is desired but never captured; rather than a possible future or a future holding the possibility to realize in any place now (Jacques, 2008, pp. 63-64).

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In fact, in all the ideologies, there is such a bossiness and “presence call” for a now in the future. As a concept originated during the French Revolution of the 1700’s, idéologie, or in other words, science of opinions, reveals a desirable “good society vision” by each one’s building enclosed thought system. Ideologies call for presence in the future or society’s vision against the criticism of the existing order and this condition is promoted with a certain number of th th political alteration theories. The history of both the 19 and 20 century is abound with such kind of calls belonging to Liberalism, Socialism or Nationalism. From this perspective, ideologies can be identified as secular phenomena of monistic religions making calls for the salvation day. Similarly, these ideologies contain some pessimistic approaches just like the following statement of religions; salvation is a feature that is granted only for some certain 13 people. Nonetheless, from the viewpoint of Derrida, a messianic promise is like a “word” which exists between “real time” and “deferred time” and which is never kept. An expectation with no horizon and ultimate point makes informational relations regarding the hereafter among undefined partialities (Derrida, 2001, pp. 77, 107). Hereby, meliorism also includes a messianic understanding in the way described by Derrida. I must admit that I do not take the contradiction of optimism and pessimism seriously: Messianism, which I have mentioned as holding the ‘experience of impossibility’ in the middle of its heart, is that bizarre alliance established by ‘optimism’ and ‘pessimism,’ both of which underlie in the basis of all serious and revolutionist approaches regarding the political entity. As ‘optimism’ can also be remarked as far as ‘pessimism,’ I hardly ever use these so-called categories. (Derrida, 2014, p. 68) As can be observed here, just like meliorism, described as a kind of midway, Derrida defines Messianism as a type of alliance between optimism and pessimism without leaning one upon the discrimination of optimism and pessimism, but suspending this discrimination. Even though there is no absolute 13 Liberalism demonstrates an optimistic manner concerning the controllability of human life by enabling such terms as mind and progress on the one side; it refers to the self-interest, rivalry and selfishness of the human nature on the other side. The emphasis put on the ability and working will, finds its expression in the statement of “God serves for himself” and it holds the intellection that only the strongest can be one of the selected ones through natural selection (Heywood, 2016, pp. 55, 72). For instance, in the following statement of the famous liberal, William Summer, “the drunkard in marsh is exactly in the place where it should be,” the secular drunkard can in fact be regarded as a modern period provision of a religionist who could not attain the blessing of God. Both of them are different reflections of the similar pessimism scene.

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overlap between these concepts, it cannot be denied that there is such a common context. On the other hand, according to some constructionists, meliorism has always preserved the hereafter and amorous meaning search. Even when James criticizes Leibniz’s expression of “best of the most possible worlds,” he caused Leibniz to reveal claims like “this finite world is not perfect right now; however its having a type of improvement cell would enable the world to reach an eternal perfectness” (Robinson, 1924, p. 178). The passage below belonging to James can be referred to as a basis for these claims: Suppose that the creator of world confronts you before creation with such a condition: ‘I am going to create a world whose salvation is not certain; it is such a world whose perfectness is only conditional, and the condition will be that each different subject should ‘do his best.’ I give you a chance to take part in such a world. As you can see, there is not a guarantee of security. This world means a real adventure including real dangers; however, at the end, the world might also win. What is in question is that it is a social project depending on a real collaboration. How about attending this group? How about trusting yourself and other subjects sufficiently in order to face the risk?’ (James, 2015, p. 208). Actually, this criticism can be identified as partially correct and partially wrong. As indicated, while James invites the world to attend a mutual collaboration which will enable an eternal perfectness, he has attributed an importance to the human effort and activity and emphasized the humanist elements of meliorism. Besides, expressing that “Like the kingdom of heaven, the world endures the severity implemented by human beings on his own accord. Humankind builds truths upon it,” he refers to the efficiency of human activity to interfere in the earthly and otherworldly life (James, 2015, p. 186). However, James cannot take himself from indicating that there is never a guarantee for the world to be a perfect place. Hence, James describes meliorism as an eternal and forthcoming purpose like Derrida, instead of proposing it as a substitution of Leibniz’s Absolute. In addition, as Derrida has argued, in terms of messianism, meliorism exists as a concept reminding of the possibility of fragileness, uneasiness, unsteadiness and impossibility. Conclusion Even though meliorism has a bearing on similar historical origins which present a practical and effective social philosophy, it is a conceptual reflection which does not altogether correspond to the relatively determined idea of the modern (and positivist) human, and which empowers the claims of classical pragmatism like “philosophy is directed to future.” Like pragmatism, it cannot

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do without asking the simple question, “What is this world promising?” (James, 2015, p. 93). In light of all the that has been mentioned thus far, meliorism can be asserted to exist in the following expressions of James; “I want to think about the universe as a really dangerous and adventurous place, hence without breaking my promise” and stating that “I am quitting the game” (James, 2015, p. 212). It can also be specified as a half transcendent promise with regards to that in the fragile nature of the world, relatively good or bad current conditions might, in fact, be potentially better. From this aspect, as Derrida has defined, it can be regarded as a messianic hope, as well. Besides, it can also be considered as a moral manner which is not a side of the discussion concerning simple-hearted optimism and pessimism on the one hand, and which, on the other hand, intends to increase the mutual profits shared with human effort and activity. Within the framework of all these discussions, meliorism can be identified as just one of the various ways for humankind to confront with his environment at certain forms and comply with his social and natural environment. To sum up, being literally an explanatory and authentic part of the future vision of pragmatism, meliorism continues to exist as a provocative promise in social philosophy as the classical period philosophers like James and Dewey being in the first place. The more democratic, equal and fair social envisions of the modern day can merely become more significant by applying for a call like meliorism.

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Index A Althusser, 89, 107 animism, 112 authority, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 94, 98, 106 automatism, xi, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125 autonomy, x, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 56, 87, 88, 95, 96, 98, 101, 105, 106

B Baudrillard, 89, 107 bourgeoisie, 17

C Carl Gustave Jung, 123, 124 contemporary education, 2, 4, 44 creativity, 11, 23, 61, 111 criticism, 78, 82, 84, 96, 98, 106, 139, 140 culture industry, 89 curriculum, 6, 8, 21, 22, 23, 30, 42, 51, 52

D Dadaism, 113, 114, 124 Derrida, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142 Descartes, 74, 112, 121, 125, 126, 142

E education system, x, 2, 3, 8, 10, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 28, 31, 32,

35, 39, 40, 43, 44, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61, 63, 64, 69 educational policies, 5, 49, 53 elementary schools, 22, 23, 26, 27, 41, 50 empirical equivalence, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86 Expressionism, 117

F feudal, 17 Foucault, 89, 107 Frankfurt School, 89 Freud, 111, 113, 122, 125, 126

G globalization, 53 Gramsci, 89

H higher education, x, 2, 19, 35, 36, 37, 38, 51, 52, 56, 61, 62, 64, 95 humanism, 130

I ideology, 17, 50, 89 industrialization, 17 instruction, 1, 7, 23, 24, 54

J John Dewey, 2, 19, 20, 21, 25, 28, 34, 36, 39, 40, 45, 130, 131, 133, 142

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L labor, 23, 61, 66 learning, 1, 5, 9, 25, 33, 39, 43, 52, 60, 62, 66 Leibniz, 134, 135, 136, 140, 142 Liberalism, 139

S

mechanism, xi, 94, 112, 121, 125 Meliorism, 129, 130, 133, 134, 138, 142, 143 Messianism, 138, 139 modern, 1, 3, 26, 30, 38, 62, 87, 90, 91, 92, 133, 139, 140, 141 modernization, 17, 18, 38, 87, 88

scientific realism, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 84 scientific theory, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 80, 82 secondary education, 28, 33, 51, 56, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64 skills, 23, 30, 38, 41, 54, 55, 60, 61, 62, 66 social change, 1, 99 social construction, 130 social control, 134 social development, 49, 56, 88, 137 Socialism, 139 Socrates, ix, 4 Spinoza, 112, 126, 142

N

T

M

Nationalism, 139 Newton, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 86

O optimism, xi, 129, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141

P painting, 23, 30, 113, 119 pessimism, 136, 137, 139, 141 pluralism, 130 political power, xi, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 104, 105, 106 political theater, 90 pragmatism, xi, 129, 130, 131, 133, 137, 138, 140, 141 Professionalism, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15

R realism, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 84, 86 Renaissance, 18 revolution, 17, 37, 92 romanticism, 122

teacher training, x, 2, 6, 7, 12, 28, 30, 32, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 51, 55, 64, 67 teaching profession, x, 1, 2, 3, 4, 12, 39, 41, 42, 43, 55, 64

U underdetermination, 71, 73, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86

V Village Institutes, 2, 34, 39, 40, 42, 50 vitalism, 112 vocational education, x, 19, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 40, 51, 53, 61 vocational school, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 57

W Westernization, 92