Symbolic Notation of Teotihuacan: Elements of writing in a Mesoamerican culture of the Classic period 9780860544005, 9781407345833

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Symbolic Notation of Teotihuacan Elements of writing in a Mesoamerican culture of the Classic period

James C. Langley

BAR Internatiollal Series 313 1986

5, Centremead, �sney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc.,. M.A.� b.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -S313, 1986: 'Symbolic Notation of Teotihuacan'

©

James C. Langley, 1986.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544005 paperback ISBN 9781407345833 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544005 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T o A nnette w ithout w hose e ncouragement a nd h elp t his w ork m ight n ot h ave b een u ndertaken a nd c ould n ot h ave b een c ompleted .

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age T able o f C ontents. L ist o f T ables. L ist o f I llustrations.

v ii i x

P reface. I

I I

B ACKGROUND A ND O BJECTIVES

1

B ackground.

1

P revious s tudies.

4

O bjectives.

5

M ethodology a nd d ata .

6

S cope a nd l imitations.

8

S YMBOLS A ND S IGNS

1

A rt a nd c ommunication .

1

T he n otational s ign .

1 2

S ymbols, a ttributes a nd d ecoration .

1 3

C lassification o r c atalogue.

1 6

I II

T HE C OMPENDIUM O F N OTATIONAL S IGNS

1 7

I V

M ETHODOLOGY F OR T HE A NALYSIS O F S IGN U SAGE

2 1

V

S ign c lusters a nd c ontexts.

2 1

T he h ierarchical s tructure o f d ata. T he c omputer p rogramme.

2 2 2 5

P atterns o f a ssociation a nd m eaning.

2 9

T HE I NCIDENCE A ND S IMPLE C LUSTERING O F S IGNS

3 1

T he r ange o f s ign f requencies.

V I

V II

3 1

S imple c lustering.

3 5

T he c ompound s ign .

4 0

S IGNS I N R EPRESENTATIONAL C ONTEXTS

4 9

C ontextual a nalysis a nd c ompound s igns. S ign c lusters a ssociated w ith a s ingle c ontext.

5 0 5 2

C lusters a ssociated w ith a s ingle s ign .

5 6

I nsignia.

6 7

T he s ymbolic d enotation o f a ttributes.

7 2

A ttributive s igns d erived f rom S torm G od s ymbolism .

7 4

S IGNS I N S TRUCTURAL C ONTEXTS

8 7

S igns a s e nclosures t o m edallions e tc.

8 9

S igns i n b asal a nd r im b ands. S igns i n t he b orders o f m ural p aintings.

9 2 9 4

P age V III

I X

X

S EMIOTIC C LUSTERS A ND C ONTEXTS

9 8 1 02

T he C ore c luster.

1 03

T he F eather H eaddress S ymbol. T he T assel H eaddress s ign .

1 07 1 21

L INEAR S IGN S EQUENCES

1 25

S ound S croll c lusters.

1 25

F alling P anel c lusters.

1 33

S hell S equences.

1 36

C OUNTING A ND C ALENDRICS N umerical N otation . C alendrical S ymbolism a t T eotihuacan .

X I

9 7

T he R E a nd R N s igns. T he F our E lement G roup.

1 39 1 39 1 43

Y ear S ign a nd C alendar R ound.

1 48

T he M anta C ompound. T he P anel C luster .

1 53

C ONCLUSION

1 67 1 73

F ootnotes

1 75

A ppendix 1

T HE C OMPUTER P ROGRAMME

1 77

A ppendix 2

T HE D ATA S ORTED B Y A RTIFACT ( extract)

1 85

A ppendix 3

T HE A NALYTICAL I NDEX O F C ONTEXTS A ND S IGNS

( extract)

A ppendix 4

G LOSSARY O F K EY W ORDS

A ppendix 5

I DENTIFICATION O F A RTIFACTS R EFERRED T O I N T HE T EXT

1 91 2 03

2 07

A ppendix 6

S OURCES O F P RIMARY D ATA

2 19

A ppendix 7

T HE C OMPENDIUM O F N OTATIONAL S IGNS

23 2

B IBLIOGRAPHY

3 41

L IST O F T ABLES T able

P age

1 .

C hronology o f t he V alley o f T eotihuacan .

2 .

F requency i n t he d ata s ample o f

t wenty c ommon

s igns s tated a s p ercentages o f t he f requency o f F ringe F eather . 3 .

3

3 3

S igns a ppearing a lone o n a rtifacts ( adornos a nd f ragments e xcluded).

3 6

4 .

T he a ssociation o f s igns w ithout c ontext.

3 8

5 .

C ompound s igns.

4 1

6 .

P lant m urals:

7 .

S ign c lusters d irectly a ssociated w ith P anel F alling B .

5 7

ith S croll C hain S ign c lusters d irectly a ssociated w i n r epresentational c ontexts.

5 9

8 .

9 .

s ign-plant c orrelation .

S ign c lusters d irectly a ssociated w ith D ots M ultiple i n r epresentational c ontexts.

1 0.

1 2. 1 3.

6 3

S ign c lusters d irectly o r c losely a ssociated w ith O bjects E a nd F .

6 6

T he i ncidence o f s igns a s i nsignia.

7 1

S ign a nd c ontext c lusters a ssociated w ith f igures w earing P endant N ose A .

1 4.

6 1

ssociated w ith S ign c lusters d irectly o r c losely a C hevron C hain i n r epresentational c ontexts.

1.

5 3

7 3

S ign c lusters a ssociated w ith p ersons w ith a f anged m outh .

7 8

1 5.

I ncidence m atrix b ased o n T able 1 4.

8 0

1 6.

T assel w orn i n t he h eaddress b y a nthropomorphic f igures a nd r elated s ign/context c lusters ( partial).

1 7.

1 8.

8 3

I ncidence o f t he m ost c ommon s igns i n s imple s tructural c ontexts.

8 8

T he c lustering o f f eather f ringe e nclosures.

9 1

T able 1 9.

P age P rincipal t hemes o f t he i magery o n p ottery v essels w ith b asal o r r im b ands o f S croll C hain .

2 0.

9 3

T he a ssociation o f S croll C hain b orders w ith s emiotic c lusters i n m ural p aintings.

9 5

2 1.

S imple c lustering o f t he R E a nd R N s igns.

1 00

2 2.

T he C ore c luster .

1 05

2 3.

T he F eather H eaddress S ymbol ( FHS).

16

2 4.

T assel H eaddress

m urals: s ign s equences i nfixed

i n S croll S ound C . 2 5.

O ther s equences o f f our o r m ore s igns a ssociated w ith s ound s crolls.

2 6.

2 7.

A .

P robable b ar a nd d ot n umerals.

B .

P roblematical b ar a nd d ot n umerals.

1 29

1 42

C lusters d irectly a ssociated w ith t he T R s ign ( other t han F HS, P C a nd l inear s equences).

2 8.

1 29

1 50

T he M anta C ompound a nd t he s igns w ith w hich i t i s a ssociated i n t he P anel c luster .

1 61

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS F igure l a .

P age F ragment o f ap ottery v essel w ith c hamplevg d ecoration .

2 3

D endrogram b ased o n t he c ontextual a nalysis o f ( a).

2 3

2 .

R ecord f orm :

2 7

3 .

R ecord f orm : a nalysis o f a S torm G od i mage .

2 8

4 .

C ompound A .

4 3

5 .

C ompound B .

4 3

6 .

C ompound C .

4 4

7 .

C ompound D .

4 4

8 .

C ompound E .

4 4

9 .

C ompound F .

4 5

1 0 .

C ompound G .

4 5

1.

C ompound H .

4 5

1 2.

C ompound I .

4 5

1 3.

C ompound J .

4 5

1 4.

C ompound K .

4 5

1 5 .

C ompound L .

4 6

1 6.

C ompound M .

4 6

1 7.

C ompound N .

4 6

1 8.

.C ompound O .

4 6

1 9.

C ompound P .

4 6

2 0 .

C ompound Q .

4 6

2 1.

C ompound R .

4 7

2 2.

C ompound S .

4 7

2 3 .

C ompound T .

4 7

2 4.

C ompound U .

4 7

2 5a .

P anel F alling A .

5 4

b .

P anel F alling B .

5 4

b .

a nalysis o f as mall m ural f ragment.

F igure

P age

2 6.

T wo v ariants o f t he S torm G od i nsignia .

6 8

2 7a.

S torm G od o n Y axha S tela 1.

7 6

P ottery f igurine o f t he S torm G od.

7 6

b . 2 8.

R N , M anta C ompound a nd C ore c luster i n am ural p ainting .

1 06

2 9.

C ore c luster .

1 06

3 0.

C ore c luster .

1 13

3 1.

P rototype F eather H eaddress S ymbol.

15

3 2.

F eather H eaddress S ymbol.

1 18

3 3.

F eather H eaddress S ymbol.

1 18

3 4.

T hree e xamples o f t he F eather H eaddress S ymbol.

19

3 5.

T wo e xamples o f t he F eather H eaddress S ymbol.

1 20

3 6a.

C luster o f t he T assel H eaddress s ign w ith E ye G oggled Ea nd F lame s igns. C luster o f t he T assel H eaddress s ign w ith H ead S erpent

1 22

a nd M at s igns.

1 22

3 7.

T wo-part n otation f rom a m ural p ainting

1 22

3 8.

A s ign s equence a ssociated w ith s ound s crolls.

1 27

3 9.

S ign s equences i n t he M aguey P riest m ural.

1 31

4 0.

T wo e xamples o f t he P anel c luster .

1 40

4 1.

S igns a ssociated w ith d ots:

1 44

b .

a .

H ead S erpent 1 .

b . c . d .

T emple 3 . F eather H eaddress S ymbol 4 a nd 1 . T riangle 6 .

e . f .

T R 8 . F eather H eaddress S ymbol 1 0.

4 2.

E xamples o f t he R E s ign .

1 46

4 3.

ign . E xamples o f t he RM s

1 47

4. 4

T wo e xamples o f t he B atres s culptures.

1 54

4 5.

T wo m oldmade m antas

1 56

a .

T he " Finger" t ype.

b .

T he M anta C ompound.

4 6.

E xamples o f M anta C ompound v ariants.

1 57

4 7.

V ariants o f t he s ign c lusters i n M C T op .

1 58

F igure

P age

4 8.

V ariants o f t he s ign c lusters i n M C M id.

1 59

4 9.

V ariants o f t he s ign c lusters i n M C B tm .

1 60

5 0.

M anta C ompound t ype D 9.

1 68

5 1.

P ottery p laque b earing s igns t hat m ay b e c alendrical.

1 68

P REFACE

A f oreign s ervice a ssignment i n M exico t hat l asted n early f ive y ears p rovided t he i ncentive a nd o pportunity t o e xplore a nd a ppreciate magnificent r uins o f T eotihuacan .

t he

T he i dea f or t his s tudy o riginated

d uring t hat p eriod , m ore s pecifically d uring t he 1 979 e xcavation o f t he M etepec P yramid c onducted b y D r . E . R attray , w hen a c loser i nvolvement w ith t he s ite b rought h ome t he f act t hat d espite a ll t he r esearch d irected t o T eotihuacan t here w as n o s ystematic c atalogue o f t he s igns t hat w ere i ncorporated i n i ts a rt a nd c onstituted t he s ole v estige o f aw riting s ystem w ithout w hich i t s eemed i nconceivable t hat t he c ity c ould h ave d eveloped o n t he g randiose s cale t o w hich i ts r emains t estified . T his p erception h appily c oincided w ith t he d ecision t o e mbark o n a rchaeological s tudies a nd l ater e volved i nto t he p resent w ork , w hich w as a ccepted a s aP h .D . t hesis b y t he U niversity o f L ondon i n J une , 1 986 . I n u ndertaking i t Ih ave b een v ery f ortunate t o r eceive m ore h elp a nd a dvice t han I c an h ope t o a cknowledge i n t his b rief p reface . M y f irst d ebt o f g ratitude i s t o t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology f or a ccepting s uch a m ature s tudent a nd t o t he w hole c ollegiate b ody f or m ercifully i gnoring t he o utward s igns o f t hat m aturity . T o D r . W arwick B ray I o we m ost o f w hat I h ave l earnt a bout t he a rchaeology o f t he N ew W orld a s w ell a s t hat c ombination

o f

e ncouragement

a nd

c ritical

i nquiry

w hich h as

s haped

t his

s tudy i n i ts f inal f orm . T he c urators o f N ew W orld c ollections i n a lmost a ll t he m useums l isted i n A ppendix 6 w ent f ar b eyond a ny p rofessional o bligation i n o rder t o f acilitate t he e xamination a nd p hotography o f t heir T eotihuacan a rtifacts , a nswer q ueries a nd p rovide d ocumentary material . D ue t o t he s pecial c ircumstances i nvolved , Ia m p articularly i ndebted t o D r . A nnaBritta H ellbom a nd t he S tockholm E thnographic M useum f or e nabling m e t o s tudy D r . L inne 's T eotihuacan c ollection , t hen i n l ong-term s torage f or t he m useum 's move t o n ew p remises ; t o K athleen B errin a nd t he F ine A rts M useums o f S an F rancisco f or a ccess t o p hotographs o f t heir r emarkable c ollection o f m ural p aintings ,

t hen u ndergoing c onservation ;

t o J ohn H uffstot o f t he M useum o f

A rt a nd A rchaeology o f t he U niversity o f M issouri -Columbia f or p reparing p hotographs p aintings i n l ist o f t he L ehmann , n ow

a nd d rawings t o c larify s everal i ssues r aised b y t he m ural h is c are ; a nd , f inally , t o D r . B erthold R iese f or a n a nnotated c opies o f T eotihuacan m urals a nd c eramics m ade b y W alter i n t he c ollection o f t he I beroamerikanisches I nstitut , B erlin ,

a nd t he l oan o f t he r elated c olour s lides . I w ould a lso e xpress m y t hanks t o J osue a nd J acqueline S aenz a nd t he l ate K urt S tavenhagen f or a ccess t o t heir p rivate c ollections . T he

t ext

a nd

o rientation

o f

t he

s tudy

o we

m uch t o c onversations

a nd

c orrespondence w ith m any s cholars w ho h ave r esponded g enerously w ith t heir t ime a nd i n w riting . T o a ll I o we d eep g ratitude b ut I w ould b e r emiss i n n ot m entioning H asso v on W inning w ho i n a ddition t o c omments a nd i llustrations o n p articular p oints a t i ssue m ost g enerously p rovided a c opy o f h is m anuscript ' La i conografia d e T eotihuacan : l os D ioses y L os S igno e , s hortly t o b e p ublished . A l engthy d iscussion a nd s eminar w ith D r . E sther P asztory l ed m e t o t hink m ore d eeply a bout t he r esearch m ethodology a nd s ubstantially m odify C hapter I V .

C omments a nd s uggestions f rom D r . G ordon

B rotherston a re i ncorporated i n C hapter X .

D r . J anet B erlo h as b een a

s ource o f s upport a nd e ncouragement o ver t he p ast t wo y ears d uring w hich s he h as p rovided u npublished s tudies a nd r ead t he w hole o f a n e arly d raft a s a r esult o f w hich t he t ext h as b een m uch i mproved . F inally a s pecial w ord o f a ppreciation i s d ue t o D rs . C lara a nd R eng M illon w ho h ave c losely f ollowed t he w hole d rafting p rocess , k ept m e a breast o f t heir o wn u npublished w ork a nd p rovided e xtensive c omments w hich h ave s aved m e f rom m any e rrors a nd a re r eflected i n e very c hapter o f t he s tudy . T he w ork t hat

f ollows m akes

n o

p retence o f

c ompleteness

o r f inality .

I t i s b ased o n a s mall p roportion o f t he a rtifactual o utput o f T eotihuacan a nd w ill c ertainly n eed t o b e g reatly e xpanded a nd a mended a s m ore c omes t o b e k nown a bout t hat c ulture . I t i s a lso e nvisaged a s p art o f al arger a nd c ontinuing e xploration o f t he u se o f n otational s igns i n o ther c ontemporaneous s ocieties t hat h ad n ot d eveloped f ully—fledged w riting s ystems o r s upplemented t he l atter w ith n on—glyphic s igns. A s

w ork o n

t he

s tudy p rogressed

a nd

i nformation a bout

t he s igns

t heir u sage a t T eotihuacan a ccumulated a daptations w ere m ade m ethodology i n o rder t o r efine t he a nalysis a nd m eet n ew n eeds .

a nd

i n t he I n t he

l ight o f t his e xperience , t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he c omputer p rogramme c an b e s ubstantially i mproved . Ih ope t o d o s o d uring t he n ext 1 2 m onths a nd t hen m ake a vailable t o i nterested p ersons t he c omplete d ata w hich e xtracts a re p rovided i n A ppendixes 2 a nd 3 .

p rintouts

o f

B ACKGROUND A ND O BJECTIVES B ackground. T eotihuacan t oday i s a s pectacular r uin s ome 5 0 k m t o t he n ortheast o f Mexico C ity . T he c eremonial c enter a lone, n ow e nclosed w ithin t he p erimeter o f t he t ourist p ark , m easures r oughly 3 k m b y 1 .5 k m ; i n i ts h eyday , e arly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst m illenium A D , t he s ite c overed m ore t han 2 0 k m 2, m aking i t t he l argest u rban a gglomeration o f p re-Columbian A merica . I ts p opulation f ell s hort o f t hat o f T enochtitlan , g reatest o f t he l ater P ostclassic c ities a nd c apital o f t he A ztecs a t t he S panish c onquest , b ut i s n evertheless c onservatively e stimated a s h aving r eached 1 25 ,000 i nhabitants , b y f ar t he m ost n umerous o f i ts t ime . D uring a t l east h alf a m illenium i t d ominated t he C entral H ighlands o f M exico a nd t here i s a mple e vidence t hat f or s everal c enturies i ts i nfluence e xtended t hroughout m ost o f M esoamerica a lthough t he e xtent o f t hat i nfluence a nd t he w ay i n which i t was e xercised a re matters o f d ebate . R emains o f t ypically T eotihuacan s tructures h ave b een e xcavated a s f ar a way a s K aminaljuyu o n t he o utskirts o f G uatemala C ity a nd T ikal i n t he P eten , w hile T eotihuacan t rade g oods a nd a rtifacts h ave b een f ound i n m any p arts o f t he M aya a rea . T eotihuacan r eligious s ymbolism i s e ven m ore w idespread , w hich c orresponds w ell w ith t he c ity 's u biquitous a nd g randiose r eligious a rchitecture a nd t he main t hemes o f i ts i conography a s e vidence o f i ts p re-eminence a s a r eligious c enter . W hether , a s s ome h ave s peculated , i t w as a M ecca f or a ll o f M esoamerica i s u ncertain b ut t hat i t a ttracted f oreigners i s p roven b y b urials a nd m ore t ransitory v estiges o f p eoples o f O axacan , M ayan o rigin . T he

i nterplay

o f

m otives

a nd

m eans

t hat

l ed

t o

G ulf C oast a nd

t he e xpansion o f

t he

T eotihuacan p resence t hroughout m ost o f M esoamerica r emains o bscure . F actual i nformation a bout t he s ite a nd i ts c ulture a ccumulated s lowly i n t he c entury a fter t he f irst r ecorded e xcavation t here i n 1 864 b y R amön A lmaraz ( 1865) b ut h as i ncreased d ramatically s ince t he i nitiation e arly i n t he 1 960s o f t hree major r esearch p rojects . H owever, i t i s s till d erived a lmost e xclusively f rom t he e vidence o f m aterial r emains a nd a rchaeological r esearch , f rom w hich t he l ittle w e k now o f i ts h istory a nd t he l ife o f i ts i nhabitants m ust b e i nferred . T he f ollowing b rief b ackground a ccount i s b ased m ainly o n t he w ork o f R eng M illon who i nitiated t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject i n 1 962 ( Millon 1 964 , 1 973) b ut d raws a lso o n t he r esults o f I NAH 's e xcavations i n t he c eremonial c enter f rom 1 960 t o 1 964 , l atterly u nder t he d irection o f I gnacio B ernal ( 1963), a nd o f W illiam S anders ' T eotihuacan V alley P roject b egun i n 1 960 ( Sanders T his

r ecent

r esearch s uggests

1 965) .

t hat T eotihuacan h ad

i ts

o rigins d uring

t he L ate P reclassic p eriod ( Table 1 ) i n s everal s mall h amlets i n t he n orthwest s ector o f t he a ncient c ity b ut t hat i t w as n ot u ntil t he l ast c entury b efore o ur e ra t hat " major t ransformations b egin t hat s tart T eotihuacan o n i ts w ay t o b ecoming t he m ost p owerful a nd i nfluential u rban c enter i n M iddle America" ( Millon 1 973: 5 1) . B y t he e nd o f t his ( the P atlachique ) p hase , i ts a rea i s e stimated a s e ight k m2 a nd i ts p opulation a s b etween 2 0 ,000 a nd 4 0 ,000 ( Cowgill 1 974 : 3 81-383 ; M illon 1 981: 2 21) . T his i n i tself i s i mpressive b ut w hat i s p erhaps m ore s ignificant i n t he p resent c ontext i s t he e volution o f s ocial o rganisation i mplied b y r apid c hanges o n t his s cale , a n e volution w hich m ust o n t he a vailable e vidence h ave b een a

1

p rimary

f actor

i n t he g rowth o f

w hich M illon h as r ise t o 8 0 ,000 o r D etailed s urveys a ccompanied b y a d espite a p artial

t he n ext

1 50 y ears

( the

T zacualli p hase )

c haracterised a s " phenomenal" . T his s aw t he p opulation m ore a nd t he c ity l imits r each t heir m aximum e xtension . o f t he V alley o f M exico i ndicate t hat t his g rowth was m assive s hift o f p opulation f rom t he r ural a rea which , r eversal i n t he f ollowing c enturies , l eft " 85-90 p ercent

o f t he i nhabitants i n t he e astern a nd s outhern V alley o f M exico c oncentrated i n t he T eotihuacan V alley , m ost o f t hem i n t he c ity" f or 6 00 y ears o r m ore ( Millon 1 981: 2 21 ; s ee a lso S anders e t a l 1 979: 1 06-108) . I t w as a t t his r elatively e arly s tage i n t he h istory o f t he c ity t hat t he t wo g reat a xial a venues , w hich c onditioned i ts l ater u rban d evelopment , w ere e stablished a nd m ost o f t he l argest r eligious s tructures o f c enter w ere b uilt . T rade ,

t he c eremonial

i nitially i n t he f ine o bsidian t hat w as t he a rea 's m ain n atural

r esource , w as a m ajor f actor i n t his r apid g rowth . A s p opulation a nd n eeds i ncreased d uring t he s ucceeding c enturies , i t b ecame a n i ncentive t o t erritorial e xpansion a nd u ltimately a c ondition o f s urvival . E vidence o f d omination a nd e xploitation b y T eotihuacan e xists t hroughout t he V alley o f M exico a nd w hat h as b een c alled t he ' outer h interland ' t hat s urrounds i t ( Millon 1 981: 2 19-223) . B eyond t his t he e vidence i s l ess e xplicit b ut a rtifactual r emains , b urials a nd e lusive r eferences i n f oreign i nscriptions s uggest t he c onsolidation o f a l arge t rade n etwork w ith w ell-established r outes a long w hich s ome p ermanent s ettlements s eem t o h ave e xisted . W e c annot k now w hether t he m erchants w ere a rmed , a s w ere t he A ztec p ochteca , o r w hether m ilitary p osts p rotected t he t rade r outes a t k ey p oints , b ut a rmed f igures i n T eotihuacan a ttire a ppear o n p ottery f ound a t T ikal , t he l argest o f t he M aya c ities o f t he t ime a nd a k ey g ateway f or t rade t o t he e ast a nd s outh . T here, t oo , S tela 3 1 d epicts t wo o ther m artial f igures a nd c ommemorates a n e arly f ifth c entury r uler " Stormy S ky" , w ith a pparently c lose a ncestral t ies t o T eotihuacan . O ther M aya s ites d isplay s imilar e nigmatic e vidence o f a T eotihuacan p resence i n t he r uling s tructure, a ccompanied b y t he w idespread u se o f i ts r eligious s ymbolism , s upplementing r ather t han d isplacing t he r eligious o bservances a nd i conography o f t he l ocal p eoples . A mong c lear .

s o

m uch

t hat

r emains

u ncertain a nd

h ypothetical ,

o ne t hing

i s

O ver s everal h undred y ears T eotihuacanos t ravelled f ar f rom t heir

n ative c ity , i nteracted w ith f oreign p eoples a nd p enetrated t heir p ower s tructures , l eft m any t angible m arks o f t heir i nfluence a nd , i n t heir t urn , a bsorbed f oreign c ultural i nfluences. I n v iew

o f

t hese

c lose

a nd

p rolonged c ontacts

o ne o mission f rom

t he

a rchaeological r ecord a t T eotihuacan -the a bsence o f a ny e vidence o f w riting a s i t i s g enerally u nderstood -is r emarkable a nd p erplexing . S everal c ontemporaneous s ocieties , n otably t he Z apotec a nd M aya , h ad welld eveloped s ystems o f h ieroglyphic w riting i n w hich d ynastic , h istorical a nd c alendrical i nformation w as r ecorded o n s tone s telae, p anels, l intels, a ltars a nd s tairways a s w ell , m ore r arely , a s i n m ural p aintings . I n t hese t exts , o ften o f c onsiderable l ength , t he g lyphs a re a rranged i n ap attern o f r ows a nd c olumns a nd a re r ead s equentially .

i n c olumns o r B y c ontrast ,

n o s imilar c arved i nscription o r d ocument h as b een f ound a t T eotihuacan . S ome s ymbols d o a ppear t here b ut h ave l ittle i n c ommon w ith t he t exts o f t he h ieroglyphic s ystems, b eing c losely i ntegrated i nto t he p ictorial i magery o f i ts g raphic a nd s culptural a rt a nd i ntended, i t h as g enerally b een c onsidered , t o b e r ead a s p art o f t he m essage c onveyed b y t hat i magery .

2

T able

1 .

C hronology o f t he V alley o f T eotihuacan . ( Courtesy o f R . M i nor .).

V ALLEY

O F

T EOT IHUACAN

T ab le P hase L ATE

o f

N ames

C HRONOLOGY

C oncordances P hase

1

N umbers

A .D . 1 500

T eoca lco

A ztec

I V

I 4 00

C h ime Ipa

A z tec

II

I

HOR IZON

2

P OST-

1 300 1 200

Z ocango

A ztec

S ECOND I NTER-

100

M azapan

M azapo

MED IATE P ER IOD

00 I0

P ER 1 00

9 00

X ome t la

C o yo t ia te ico

8 00

o xto t icpac

P ro to-Coyot late lco

7 00

METEPEC

T eot t huocon

M IDDLE

6 00 5 00

E 0

HOR IZON

400

T

X OLALPAN

T LAM IM ILOLPA

H

2 00

U C

A .D .

TZACUAL L I

N

1 00

T eo t ihuacön

II A

T eot ihuacc in

II

L ate

T eot ihuacc in

I IA- I II

E ar ly

T eo t ihuocc in

IA

.

A

B . C .

L ate E ar ly

T eo t ihuac c in

I

L ate

T eo t ihuocim

I A

E ar ly

T eot ihuocon

I

M ICCAOTL I

A

1 00

P ATLACH IQUE

2 00

T e rm ina l C uona lan, T ezoyuco

3 00

L a te C uana lon

T icoman I II *

P ER IOD

400

M idd le

T icoman

I I

T icomon

I *P ER IOD

5 00 6 00

T eo t ihuocon

P hase a nd

2P hase

C uana lon

C uana lan

n ames b y

P RE -C LASS IC

*

M IDDLE

M idd le

P RE -C LASS IC

Z acotenco *

*

u sed

P re-c lass ic

b y

p ersonne l

p ersonne l

n umbers

N ac iona l

P ER IOD •

d e

u sed

o f

V a l ley

b y

p ersonne l

A ntropo log ia

p hases

o f

e l sewhere

e i n

o f

T eo t ihuacc in T eo t ihuac cin o f

t he

H istor ic t he

( see V a l ley

Mapp ing P ro ject

P royecto A costa o f

.•

c

c l ass if icat ion

( 1 950)

w i th

P ro ject ( Sanders

( M i l lon a nd o thers ) a nd

T ea t 'h uacon, o f 1 964:

o thers) . t he

I n st Ituto

5 8-59).

M ex ico .

N OTE : T he a bso lute c hrono logy s hown i s t hat u sed b y P ro ject. T erm ino logy f o r t he T eot ihuac cin p hases 00

L ATE

8 00

1

•

I

C u icu i lco *

C h iconauh t la

7 00

P RE —C LASS IC P ER IOD

P ro to

E a r ly

T ERM INAL

C h i ma lhuocc in *

F IRST I NTERMED IATE

. J .I V 1 • 1 1,

C LASS IC

I V

P ER IOD

I

3 00

B .C .

C LASS IC

t he T eo t ihuacan i s b ased o n t he

M app ing A rm il l as

m od if icat ions.

v. .

V44

3

5 79

T he a bsence o f a ny a ccounting r ecords o f t he k ind w hich w ould c ertainly h ave b een r equired i n t he a dministration o f ac ity a s l arge a nd a dvanced a s T eotihuacan a nd i n t he r egulation o f p roduction , e xchange a nd f oreign t rade m ay b e e xplained b y t he u se o f p erishable m aterials o r n on-graphic m nemonic d evices ( such a s t he I nca q uipu o r s ome f orm o f t oken ) a s s eems a lso t o h ave b een t he c ase i n o ther c ultures o f C lassic M esoamerica . H owever , t he f ailure t o c ommemorate t he c ity 's r ulers a nd m omentous e vents i n i ts h istory i s u nusual i n h uman e xperience a nd i nconsistent w ith t he p ractice o f o ther c ontemporaneous s ocieties . I t c annot b e e xplained b y i solation o r i gnorance a nd i s a lso d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he writing s ystems c urrent i n t he C entral H ighlands s hortly a fter t he d ecline o f T eotihuacan . T he p resent s tudy was i n p art p rompted b y t his c urious d iscrepancy a nd e xamines w hether t he T eotihuacan u se o f s ymbols f ulfilled s ome o f t he n eeds m et e lsewhere b y h ieroglyphic w riting .

P revious s tudies. T eotihuacan 's

s ymbols

h ave

a ttracted

t he

a ttention

o f

s cholars

s ince

l ate i n t he l ast c entury . E arly s tudies i ncluded t hose o f E duard S eler a nd H ermann B eyer w ho e xamined s ome a spects o f T eotihuacan s ymbolism d uring r esearch o f b roader c ompass .

I t h as ,

h owever ,

o nly b een i n t he l ast

4 0

y ears o r s o t hat t he s ubject h as a ttracted m uch a ttention i n i ts o wn r ight . F irst i n p aper a s H is m ost e leventh

t he f ield w as a n e xtension c omprehensive R ound T able o f

t he m eantime ,

A lfonso C aso w ho i n 1 937 p ublished a s hort i nitial o f h is w ork o n mesoamerican c alendrical s ystems . p aper o n T eotihuacan s ymbols w as d elivered a t t he t he S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologfa i n 1 966 . I n

P edro A rmillas w ho h ad w orked a t T eotihuacan ,

e xamined a nd

w rote o n t he r eligious a spects o f t he c ulture . T his was a lso a m ajor f ocus o f i nterest f or L aurette S éjourné w ho e xcavated t hree r esidential c ompounds b etween 1 955 a nd 1 964 a nd d escribed h er w ork i n a s eries o f b ooks a nd a rticles i n t he d ecade a fter 1 959 . O thers w ho h ave s ince m ade a m ajor c ontribution h ave b een H asso v on W inning , G eorge K ubler , C lara M illon a nd E sther P asztory . i ncluded i n w orks

T his l ist i s n ot e xhaustive a nd much o f i nterest i s t hat b ridge t he g ap b etween M aya a nd C entral M exican

s tudies, s uch a s t hose o f N icholas H ellmuth , L ee A . P arsons, C lemency C oggins a nd, more r ecently , J anet B erlo w ho h as i n p articular e xamined c ertain t ypically m etropolitan a rea.

T eotihuacan

a rtistic

m anifestations

o utside

t he

I t w ould b e m isleading t o a ttempt t o s ummarise o r c haracterise e ach o f t hese d iverse c ontributions t o o ur k nowledge o f T eotihuacan s ymbolism . ( A f ull l isting i s p rovided i n t he b ibliography a nd r eferences a re i ncluded t hroughout t he t ext ) . T hey r eflect d ifferent i nterests a nd c onform t o t he m ethodologies o f d ifferent d isciplines . T hey a re , m oreover , r elevant i n d ifferent d egree t o t he p resent s tudy , b ut o ne g eneralisation m ight b e v entured : t hey s hare t he a ssumption t hat t he i nterpretation o f t he a rt a nd s ymbolism o f T eotihuacan p rovides a n i mportant k ey t o c ultural e xplanation . I nitially , when v irtually n othing b ut i ts l ocation a nd A ztec n ame w ere k nown , i nterest w as f ocussed o n t he b roadest o f c ultural p henomena : w here a nd h ow d id T eotihucan f it i nto t he m esoamerican s equence a nd w hat g ods w ere w orshipped t here? L ater , a s d ata a nd i nterpretations p roliferated , aw ider r ange o f p roblems h as b een t ackled i n g reater d epth -aspects o f s ocial s tructure a nd t he i dentity o f i ndividual d eities, f or e xample . I nterpretation o f t his k ind m ight b e c alled " high l evel" i n t he s ense t hat i t i s c oncerned w ith s ymbolic m eanings , n ot t he d escription o f a ppearances . I t h as r elied h eavily o n c ross-cultural c omparisons a nd e thnohistorical

4

a nalogy a nd, n o matter h ow s ubtle a nd e rudite, e lement a s K ubler ( 1981: 2 1) h as w arned .

i ncludes a s peculative

I conographic i nterpretation h as n evertheless b een a r ich s ource o f h ypotheses a bout t he r eligious b eliefs , e xternal

r elations

o f T eotihuacan ,

p olitical a nd s ocial s tructure a nd many o f

t hem

c orroborated b y t he

a rchaeological e vidence . I t h as a lso g reatly i ncreased o ur k nowledge o f i ndividual s ymbols . W hile t he l atter h ave u sually b een o f s econdary i nterest t o s cholars , t he e xamination o f p ictorial d erivations a nd m anifest m eaning ( "Low l evel" i nterpretation ) h as b een a u seful b yproduct o f s tudies d irected p rimarily t owards t he u nderstanding o f m ore c omplex s ymbolic c ompositions.' I n t his p rocess ,

r elatively f ew o f t he s ymbols d iscussed i n t his s tudy

h ave b een c ompletely o verlooked . I nterpretations a nd c ounter— i nterpretations , a t d ifferent l evels o f a bstraction , a re a vailable f or m any o f t hem .

H owever , t he w ay i n w hich t his i nformation h as b een g enerated h as

i nevitably

meant

t hat

i t

h as

a ccumulated

p iecemeal,

t hat

t he

i nterrelationship o f t he s ymbols h as n ot b een s ubjected t o s ystematic s tudy a nd t hat t he m echanics o f s ymbol u sage h ave b een r elatively n eglected . A s C lara M illon h as w ritten i n a n i ndispensable a rticle : " No k nowledgeable s tudent o f T eotihuacan a rt a nd a rtifacts h as d oubted t hat t he T eotihuacanos h ad e volved a s ystem o f g lyphic s igns . B ut . . . i t h as b een much m ore d ifficult t o s ort o ut w hat r ules t he T eotihuacanos d id o bserve i n f orming a nd o rdering t heir s igns . . . . O ur e xtant l egacy c onsists o f av ery p artial l exicon ( one which I b elieve h as b een g rossly u nderestimated q uantitatively ) a nd v irtually n o k nowledge o f w hatever s yntactic s tructure m ay h ave b een e mployed . k now t he r ules g overning u sage a nd 3 06). S everal o f

J ust a s i mportant ,

w e d o n ot

p lacement o f g lyphs: '

( 1973 :

t hese g aps i n o ur k nowledge w ill b e e xamined i n t he f ollowing

c hapters . S pecifically a n a ttempt i s m ade t o p roduce a c omprehensive c onspectus o f t he " glyphic s igns" a nd t o e xamine t he w ays i n w hich t hey w ere u sed a t T eotihuacan .

O bjectives. I n t he p ast ,

w ith i conographic a nalysis a s t he m ain f ocus o f i nterest ,

t he n eed t o d istinguish r igorously b etween " glyphic s igns" a nd o ther m otifs u sed s ymbolically d id n ot a rise . H owever , t he d istinction i s f undamental i n t he p resent s tudy , w here t he f ocus i s r estricted t o t he f orms o f s ymbolic c ommunication most c losely r elated t o w riting . T he f irst t ask h as t herefore b een t o e stablish c riteria f or d iscriminating b etween s igns t hat m ay b e g lyphic a nd o ther m otifs , a nd t o i dentify a nd r ecord t he f ormer . T he m ethodology i nvolved i s d iscussed i n C hapter I I a nd t he r esults a re p resented i n C hapter I II i n t he f orm o f ac ompendium i n w hich w ell o ver 1 00 s igns a nd m any v ariants a re l isted a nd i llustrated. •T he i ssues i nvolved a re w ell e xemplified b y J oralemon 's d ictionary o f O lmec m otifs a nd s ymbols ( 1971) a nd b y H ellmuth 's c atalogue o f e lements a nd m otifs u sed a t T eotihuacan ( 1969) . I n b oth c ases t he p rimary i nterest i s i conographic a nd m ost o f t he i tems i n b oth l istings a re c omponent p arts o f l arger n aturalistic

i mages ,

f or

e xample

5

c haracteristic

p arts

o f

a nimals ,

i tems o f h uman c lothing e tc .

B y c ontrast ,

s uch m otifs a re i ncluded i n t he

c ompendium o nly i f e xamples o f t heir g lyphic u se c an b e f ound . T he s econd

t ask h as b een t o e xplore w hether t he s igns f orm p art o f a

s ystem o f s ymbolic c ommunication . T he methodology d eveloped f or t his p urpose i s b riefly d escribed b elow a nd i s d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n C hapter I V . I t i s d esigned t o s how p recisely h ow s igns a re r elated t o e ach o ther a nd t o p ictorial c ontexts o n e ach a rtifact i n t he d ata s ample . T his a nalysis r eveals m any r egularities a nd m uch r epetition i n t he p atterns o f a ssociation b etween s igns a nd o f s igns w ith c ontexts . T he e xtent t o w hich t hese u sages i ndicate s ystematic c ommunication i s c onsidered i n C hapters V — X . A lthough

t he m eaning o f

s igns c annot

b e i gnored

i n t he d iscussion o f

c ommunication , i nterpretation i s n ot a m ajor o bjective o f t he a nalysis . P atterns o f a ssociation d o , o f c ourse , i mply m eanings b ut i nterpretation r emains u ncertain a nd s peculative . I t i s t herefore c onfined i n t he f irst p art o f t he s tudy t o a nnotations i n t he c ompendium o n t he m eanings a scribed t o s igns b y e arlier s cholars a nd , i n t he s econd p art , t o e xamples o f t he w ay t hat t he p utative m eaning o f s igns c an b e u sed t o v alidate c onclusions d rawn f rom t he e xamination o f t he f actual d ata , t hat i s t he r elationships b etween t he s igns a nd c ontexts o n t he a rtifacts a nalysed.

M ethodology a nd D ata . T he m ethodology f or t he s tudy w as d eveloped b y t rial a nd e rror o ver a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime d uring w hich t he d ata w ere b eing a ssembled a nd e xamined . I t s oon b ecame c lear t hat t he a mount o f i nformation i nvolved a nd t he i ntricacy o f t he a nalysis w ere w ell s uited t o c omputer p rocessing w ithout w hich a n e normous a mount o f h and t abulation w ould b e r equired .

T he

a daptation o f a n e xisting s oftware p ackage w as t herefore b egun w hile t he o ther d etails o f t he r esearch p rogramme w ere b eing w orked o ut . T his i nteraction w as m ost o pportune a nd c ontributed t o t he r igour o f t he a nalysis a nd t he s erviceability o f t he s oftware a pplications. T he d ata a re d rawn f rom a ll t ypes o f d ecorated a rtifact f rom T eotihuacan . S ince " artifact" i s u sed i n i ts m ost g eneral s ense , t his i n p ractice m eans m ural p aintings , p ottery w ith s urface d ecoration , p ottery f igurines ,

s tone s culpture o f v arious k inds a nd o bjects o f b one a nd s hell .

I n d ecoration o f a ny c omplexity s everal s igns a nd c ontexts m ay w ell b e p resent a nd t here a re m any w ays i n w hich t hey c an b e a ssociated . S igns m ay f orm c lusters a nd c ontexts m ay n est w ithin o ther c ontexts ; c lusters m ay t hen b e r elated l aterally t o o ther c lusters t hrough t he c ontext n etwork i n h ierarchical s tructures w hich c an b e r epresented i n t ree d iagrams s imilar t o t hose o f g enealogy ( Figure 1 ) . W ith e ven a f ew s igns a nd c ontexts , t he n umber o f p ossible c ombinations a nd p ermutations b ecomes v ery l arge ; w ith t he n umber o f s igns a nd c ontexts i nvolved i n t his s tudy i t i s a stronomical. T he a nalysis e stablishes

t he r elationships b etween s igns a nd

c ontexts

f or e ach a rtifact a nd m anipulate t he r esults .

t he c omputer p rogramme c an t hen t abulate a nd S ince d ecoration i s a c onscious h uman a ctivity

t hat

t hrough

e xpresses

i tself

t he

c hoice

o f

p leasing

o r s ignificant

p atterns , a nd s ince T eotihuacan s igns a re i ntegrated w ith d ecoration , t he n umber o f c ombinations a nd p ermutations i s g reatly r educed b ut w e a re s till l eft w ith a l arge n umber o f p atterns o f a ssociation . W hether t he l atter r eflect n otational u sage i s t he m ain c oncern o f t he s econd p art o f t he

6

a nalysis. I t w as e vident f rom t he b eginning t hat t he l argest m anageable d atabase s hould b e f ormed i n o rder t o e nsure t hat t he c overage o f t he s tudy w as a s c omprehensive a s p ossible . W ith t his i n m ind , d ata h ave b een a ssembled f rom a v ariety o f s ources a nd a re n ow c ontained i n ap hotographic a rchive o f a bout 4 ,000 s lides a nd n egatives . T he p rimary s ources i nclude m any v isits t o t he s ite o f T eotihuacan f or p hotography a nd t o c heck p oints o f u ncertainty , a nd t he e xamination a nd p hotography o f a rtifacts i n m useums i n M exico , t he U nited S tates a nd W estern E urope ( see A ppendix 6 ) . P hotographs a nd i nformation h ave a lso b een s upplied b y s everal m useums t hat c ould n ot b e v isited p ersonally .

M uch o f

t his material

h ad

n ot

p reviously

b een

p hotographed o r p ublished e ither b ecause i t w as r elatively i naccessible i n museum s torerooms o r b ecause t he a rtifact i tself w as c onsidered t o b e o f m inor i mportance . F or t he p urpose o f t his s tudy , h owever , a d ecorated s herd m ay b e m ore e loquent t han a m ajor s culpture a nd t he d atabase c ontains m any e xamples o f b roken p ottery , d ismembered f igurines a nd f ragmentary m ural p aintings. U nfortunately s everal f actors l imit t he u tility o f t his d ata . A part f rom t he mural p aintings , l ittle i nformation i s a vailable o n t he p recise p rovenience o f a rtifacts . T he b est-documented a re t hose w hich h ave b een p rofessionally e xcavated , e specially f rom b urials , d etailed r ecords o f e xcavations a re n ot a vailable . a ccessions

b ut a ll t oo f requently M useum i nventories o f

f rom o ther s ources a re p redictably l aconic ,

r arely g iving m ore

t han a s ite a ttribution a nd m any o f t he a rtifacts a nalysed f or t his s tudy h ad n o r ecorded p rovenience o r a re g iven a v ague o rigin s uch a s M exico o r V alley o f M exico . W hat t o i nclude i s t hen a m atter o f p ersonal j udgment a s i s t he d ecision o n b adly d eteriorated a rtifacts, p ossible f akes a nd i ntentional r econstructions a nd r estorations . T he w ise r ule o f t humb h as a ppeared t o b e :

i f i n d oubt , e xclude .

T he l arge l iterature o n T eotihuacan c onstituted t he s econdary s ource o f d ata a nd h as b een s ystematically s canned f or i llustrations . T he w orks o f S 6journg , M iller a nd v on W inning h ave b een p articularly v aluable a s s ources o f o riginal m aterial b ut d ata a re a vailable i n t he m ost o bscure j ournals a nd e ven d uplicate i llustrations s erve a p urpose i f t hey p rovide a lternative v iews o f t hree d imensional o bjects . T he u se o f t his m aterial i s s ubject t o t he c onstraints m entioned a bove a nd t here a re t wo o ther f actors w hich m ay l imit i ts u sefulness u nless t he o riginal a rtifacts a re a vailable f or c hecking . F irst, o nly p art o f t he d ecoration may b e r eproduced a nd v aluable d ata m ay t herefore b e m issing . T his h appens a ll t oo o ften i n p hotography where

o nly multiple v iews

o r " roll-outs" g ive s atisfactory

r esults . S econd , d rawings a nd w atercolours s ometimes f ail t o r eproduce t he d etail o f a rtifacts a nd t heir d ecoration a ccurately . T his m ay b e o f n o c onsequence f or t he p urposes f or which t he i llustration w as o riginally i ntended -a n i mpressionistic s ketch f or e xample -but i t m ay b e as ource o f e rror i n t he a nalysis . M ore s ubtly d angerous i s t he n otorious u nreliability o f t he a rtist 's e ye . W aldeck 's A ssyrian t ransfigurations o f M aya r uins a re a n e xtreme e xample , b ut e ven t he m ost a ware a nd m eticulous o f a rtists may b e m isled b y h is c ultural c onditioning . A mong t he e xamples e ncountered h ave b een a n umeral f alsified , p arabolic h earts r eproducted a s e yes a nd f angs m isrepresented a s g eometrical f orms . T his i s m entioned b y w ay o f p recaution : m ost d rawings a re a ccurate a nd m eet t he n eeds o f t he a nalytical

s ystem

b ut u ncorroborated

p ieces d eserve a m easure o f o riginal w henever p ossible .

r eproductions

s cepticism a nd

7

o f

u nique

o r u ntypical

s hould b e c hecked a gainst

t he

S cope a nd l imitations. A lthough f irm c hronological a ttributions b ased o n s tratigraphy o r s cientific a nalysis a re e ven r arer t han p rovenience i n m useum c ollections o f T eotihuacan m aterial , t he s igns l isted i n t he c ompendium a ppear o n a rtifacts m ost o f w hich a re a ssigned b y e xpert o pinion t o t he l ast 3 50 y ears o f t he s ite 's h istory o n t he b asis o f t he d ecorative t echniques i nvolved . T ha i s , m ost o f t he s urviving m urals a s w ell a s s tucco-painted a nd c hamplevg p ottery a nd mold-made p ottery f igurines a re t hought t o d ate f rom t he X olalpan p hase a t e arliest . T his d oes n ot, o f c ourse, e xclude t he p ossibility t hat s igns w ere d eveloped b efore t hat t ime a nd , i ndeed , i t w ould b e s urprising i f t here w ere n ot b oth c ontinuity a nd i nnovation i n s ymbol u sage . H owever t he e vidence f or t his i s s canty a nd a ll t hat c an b e f irmly a sserted i s t hat t he s igns i n t he c ompendium w ere c urrent d uring t he l atter p art o f T eotihuacan 's C lassic p eriod . T he d ata a re a lso l imited i n g eographical c overage .

I n o rder t o

e xclude m aterial t hat m ight b e e xtraneous t o t he s ymbolism o r s ymbol u sage d eveloped

b y

t he

T eotihuacanos

o f

t he

m etropolitan

a rea ,

t rade

w ares

o f

f oreign o rigin h ave b een o mitted , a s h ave a rtifacts i n w hat m ight b e c alled t he p rovincial s tyle a ssociated w ith K aminaljuyu a nd t he T iquisate r egion ( Department o f E scuintla ) o n t he n earby c oastal p lain . T his i s n ot t o d eny t he c lose a ssociation o f T eotihuacan w ith t hese o utposts o f i ts c ulture n or t he s ingular i nterest o f t heir i conography . H owever , i n o rder t o r estrict t his i nitial s tudy w ithin c lear a nd m anageable b ounds , t he d ata h ave b een c onfined t o a rtifacts o f k nown p rovenience f rom T eotihuacan i tself a nd s ites i n t he A zcapotzalco a rea o r , i f f rom f urther a field , t o e xamples o f w hat h as b een c alled t he p ure T eotihuacan s tyle ( the C alpulalpan b owl a nd s ome t hin o range w are w hose e xact p lace o f o rigin i s u nknown ) . U ntypical i tems o f u ncertain o rigin h ave b een e xcluded a nd i t h as a lso s eemed p rudent t o l eave a side s ome a rtifacts f ound a t T eotihuacan w hose d ecoration i s c ulturally a mbiguous , f or e xample t ripod v essels d ecorated w ith a m edallion c ontaining t he t ypically l owland " long-lipped m onster h ead" s uch a s w ere e xcavated b y L inng a t X olalpan ( Linng 1 934 :

6 0 ; K idder e t a l 1 946 :

2 25 ;

Q uirarte 1 973 ) .

M any t housands o f a rtifacts h ave b een e xamined d uring t he c ourse o f t his s tudy . T he e limination o f t he d ubious, o f t hose w ithout s ignificant d ecoration , o f t hose t hat w ere d ecorated b ut d id n ot i nclude s igns a nd o f d uplicates h as r educed t he n umber t o a bout 2 ,000 i tems, r anging i n c omplexity f rom t he s implest c abecita w ith o ne s ign i n i ts h eaddress t o t he C leveland A rt M useum 's " Maguey P riest" m ural ( Reference 8 5 i n A ppendix 5 ) w ith i ts c omplex s ymbolism a nd m ultiplicity o f s igns . T his d atabase i s s ubstantial b ut i s n ot s ufficient t o g uarantee t hat t he s tudy a nd i ts c ompendium o f s igns a re e xhaustive , f or t wo r easons . F irst , t he a bsolute s ize o f t he d atabase . D onnan , i n h is s tudy o f Moche a rt ( 1976 : 1) h as e stimated t hat " when t he s ample i ncluded a pproximately 2 ,000 s pecimens i t s eemed t hat t here w ere m any u nique p ieces" b ut t hat , w ith m ore t han 7 ,000 s pecimens, t his w as n o l onger t rue a nd t he n umber o f t hemes r epresented i n t he a rt w as r evealed a s " surprisingly l imited" . T he s ame p rinciple i s r elevant a t T eotihuacan .

T he s econd f actor r elates m ore g enerally t o t he d eficiencies i nherent i n a ny s tudy o f T eotihuacan a rtifacts . O nly a s mall p roportion o f t heir t otal o utput i s a ccessible a nd t here i s n o w ay o f t elling h ow r epresentative i t i s o f t he c ity 's c ulture . I n p articular, t here i s v irtually n o t race o f

8

p erishable

m aterials

a t

T eotihuacan .

T he

i mplications

c an b e

j udged

b y

c onsidering h ow i mpoverished o ur k nowledge o f m esoamerican w riting s ystems w ould b e i f i t d epended s olely o n r ecords o n d urable m aterials . A s o ne e xample , w e w ould h ave n o c lues t o t he A ztec t ribute a nd a ccounting s ystem , am ajor c omponent o f t hat c ulture. E xpansion o f t he d ata s ample w ill b e d esirable n ot o nly i n t he i nterest o f c ompleteness b ut b ecause o f q uestions w hich a rose u nexpectedly d uring t he s econd p hase o f t he a nalysis . S everal s igns a nd s ign c lusters p roved t o h ave a l arge n umber o f m inor v ariants . I n s ome c ases i t h as b een impossible t o d etermine o n t he b asis o f t he a vailable d ata w hether t he v ariants were s ignificant a nd w hat t he f ull r ange o f t heir c ontextual a ssociations m ight b e ( see , f or e xample , t he d iscussion o f t he R E a nd R N s igns a nd o f t he P anel c luster i n C hapters V III a nd X ) . I n o thers , m otifs a ppear t o f unction a s s igns b ut i t h as b een i mpossible t o t ell i f t heir u sage i s s ymbolic o r d ecorative . A l arger d atabase m ight b e e xpected t o c ontribute t o t he s olution o f t hese a nd o ther s imilar q uestions .

9

I I S YMBOLS A ND S IGNS

A rt a nd C ommunication . T he l arge c orpus o f T eotihuacan m ural p ainting , h owever i ncomplete , p rovides e loquent t estimony t o t he w ay i n w hich t he g raphic a rts w ere u sed t o r ecord a nd c onvey i nformation .

T his h as b een d escribed a s p rimarily a n

a rt o f r itual a nd r eligion b y s everal o f t he s cholars w ho h ave m ost c losely s tudied i t ,3 b ut t here i s n ow a g ood d eal o f e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he r ange o f i nformation i nvolved w as much b roader . I t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he e xtent t o w hich r eligion p ermeated l ife a t T eotihuacan b ut t here i s a t l east a s ecular e lement i n t he d epictions o f a rmed f igures i n t he m urals o f t he W hite P atio o f A tetelco ( Miller 1 973 : F igures 3 35-343) a nd t he a nimated s cenes i n t he t alud murals o f T epantitla 's T lalocan P atio ( Pasztory 1 976 : F igures 3 6 a nd 3 9) t o c ite o nly t wo e xamples . A s imilar r ange o f s ubject m atter i s e vident i n t he d ecoration o f p ottery v essels a nd a mong p ottery f igures. T he c apacity t o c ommunicate t hrough a rt a nd t he s kills d eployed i n d oing s o c ontrast s trangely w ith t he a bsence o f c onventional t extual m aterial . W hat d o e xist a re s igns t hat f orm p art o f t he i conography o f m ural p ainting a nd o f t he d ecoration o f s tone s culpture a nd p ottery a rtifacts . T hey a re h ighly c onventionalised a nd u sually w ell d ifferentiated f rom t he p ictorial s ettings i n w hich t hey a ppear . N atural o bjects a re o ften d epicted b ut t here a re a lso m any a bstract s igns w hich m ay c luster i n n on-representational . c ompositions o f c onsiderable c omplexity . A bove a ll , an umber o f T eotihuacan s igns a re r eminiscent o f g lyphs i n t he M aya a nd Z apotec w riting s ystems . C ombined w ith t he o ther c haracteristics o f t he s igns t his i s s trong p rima f acie e vidence o f a n e stablished, i f u nusual, s ystem o f g raphic c ommunication a t T eotihuacan . T he f irst s tage i n t he e xploration o f t his f orm o f c ommunication ,

t he

i dentification o f i ts c onstituent s ymbols , r equired t he c larification o f s everal s emantic a nd d efinitional p roblems t hat o riginate i n t he v ery n ature o f T eotihuacan a rt . C aso , i n a m uch q uoted p assage , h as w ritten ( 1967b : 2 50) " el a rte t eotihuacano n o e s n i r ealista n i a bstracto ;

e s u n a rte

s imbölico p or e xcelencia , e n q ue c ada d etaille t iene u n s entido . N o b asta d ecir q ue h ay d ecoraciones " geom f tricos" o " florales" o " acugticos" , e sto e s s olo u na p rimera y s uperficial q ue n o p enetra e n e l s ignificado m ismo d el s imbolo" . D espite i ts e lement o f h yperbole,

d escripciön

t his g eneralisation e pitomises

t he

d ifficulties : h ow , i n t he f irst p lace , t o d iscriminate b etween t he s ymbolic a nd t he d ecorative a nd , s econd , h ow t o d istinguish t he b roadly s ymbolic f rom t he s pecific s ymbols r elevant t o t his s tudy . S uch p roblems a re s o f amiliar i n s ocial a nthropology a nd s emiotics t hat e laborate t echnical t erminologies h ave b een d evised t o m eet t hem ( see ,

f or

e xample , L each 1 976) . H owever , w hat s eemed t o b e r equired i n t he p resent c ontext w as a s impler d efinition o f t erms t hat w ould b e a ccurate , a pt a nd

1

w ould

h elp

t o

e lucidate

t he

b asic

c haracteristics

o f

i magery a mong w hich i t w as n ecessary t o d iscriminate .

t he

f ew c lasses o f

T hus t he f ollowing

d efinitions w ere r eached e mpirically a s t he s tudy p rogressed . I n t he f irst p lace , " decorative" i n i ts o rdinary s ense a ppeared c lear a nd a ppropriate w ith t he q ualification t hat t he t erm i s c omprehensive a nd t hat e ven w riting ( oriental c alligraphy ,

f or e xample ) m ay s erve a d ecorative p urpose .

I n t he

p resent s tudy t he p roblem h as b een t o i dentify t hat p art o f T eotihuacan i magery , s mall i f C aso i s c orrect , w hich i s p urely d ecorative . Symbolic"

i s

a m ore

c omplex

c oncept .

I ts

d ictionary

s ense ,

w hich

m ight b e p araphrased a s " anything w hich s tands f or o r r epresents s omething o ther t han i tself" , i s t oo b road t o p rovide a b asis f or d iscrimination b etween s igns r elevant i n t he p resent c ontext a nd t heir p ictorial s etting . O n t he o ther h and , a t erm s uch a s " glyphic" , w hich h as a p recise t echnical m eaning a nd p rovides c riteria f or d istinguishing b etween c lasses o f s ymbol , i s s o s pecific t hat i t w ould b e p remature a nd p erhaps u ltimately m isleading t o u se i t f or s igns a s l ittle k nown a s t hose o f T eotihuacan . I n t he m iddle g round, t he c oncept o f " notation" -the c onveyance o f i nformation b y a s ystem o f s igns -seemed t o o ffer a n on-prejudicial s olution . T he c oncept i s i ntrinsic t o w ritten c ommunication a nd n oncommital a s t o t he k inds o f s igns i nvolved . T he t erm " notational s ign" i s t herefore a n a ccurate r eflection o f t he h ypothesis w hich t his s tudy i s d esigned t o e xplore a nd w ill b e u sed ( abbreviated t o " sign" w hen t his w ill n ot c ause c onfusion ) t o r efer t o t he s ymbols t hat a re i ts m ain s ubject . " Symbol" a nd " symbolic" h ave b een r etained a s u seful t erms i n t heir b road d ictionary s ense .

T he n otational s ign . T he

s election o f n otational s igns f or i nclusion i n t he c ompendium w as

a ccompanied a nd u ltimately v alidated b y t he d evelopment o f c riteria f or t he i dentification o f t hese s igns . I t w ould b e m isleading t o s uggest t hat t he c riteria p rovide i nfallible r ules : t he f ield i s s o c omplex a nd t he v ariation i n t he n otational s igns a nd t heir u sage i s s o g reat t hat s ubjective j udgment c annot b e e ntirely d ispensed w ith . H owever , i n m ost c ases t he c riteria , w hich a re f irmly r ooted i n t he n otational c oncept , p rovide a p ractical b asis f or d iscrimination . I n b rief, t he r epresentation o f a n o bject o r a n a bstract m otif i s u nlikely t o b e an otational s ign u nless t hree c riteria a re m et. 1 . I t m ust b e c ompact a nd s elf-contained a nd m ust a pproximate t o a s tandard c onventionalised f orm . 2 . I t m ust b e d ivorced f rom i ts n atural c ontext. 3 . I t must f orm p art o f av isual p attern c ompatible w ith t he t ransmission o f v erbal m essages. I n

r etrospect

d istillation t ook

a ll

t hree

t ime a nd

c riteria

a ppear

s elf-evident

f amiliarity w ith t he d ata .

d efines t he a ppearance o f t he s ign ,

b ut

t heir

T he f irst ,

w hich

i s t he e asiest o f a pplication b ut e ven

i t c alls f or t he e xercise o f s ome j udgment . T he d egree o f a cceptable v ariability , f or e xample , d etermines w hether a s eries o f s imilar i mages i s c lassified a s o ne o r m ore s igns . T his w ill b e d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n t he c ommentary o n t he c ompendium i n t he n ext c hapter . T he s econd c riterion p roved t o b e s imple a nd p ractical a nd w as a pplied with f ew e xceptions t hroughout t he a nalytical p rocess . T he p roblem i t a ddresses i s

1 2

t hat m any n otational s igns a t T eotihuacan r epresent n atural o bjects a nd c an o nly b e d istinguished f rom i mages i ntended a s n aturalistic d epictions o f t he o bject i tself b y t he c ontext i n w hich t hey o ccur . T o e liminate t he p ictorial e lement f rom t he f ield o f s tudy i t w as t herefore n ecessary t o e xclude a ll r epresentations o f o bjects i n t heir n atural c ontextual s etting . F or e xample , a t T eotihuacan , a s t hroughout M esoamerica , s andals a re o ften s hown b earing s ymbols : aS t . A ndrew 's C ross i s n ot u ncommon . T hey a re a lso u sually t ied w ith a k not o r b ow . I n t his c ase , t he c ross i s a dmissible a s a n otational s ign , b ut t he k not o r b ow , b eing n atural f eatures o f t he s andal , s igns.

a re

e xcluded

a lthough

i n s ome

o ther

c ontexts

t hey

a re

i mportant

T he t hird c riterion e xpresses a f undamental c haracteristic o f n otation , n amely t hat i nformation i s e ncoded i n p atterned s ets o f s igns w hose a rrangement w ill r eflect b oth t he c onventions o f t he n otational s ystem a nd t he s ubstance o f t he c ommunication . O ther e vidence t hat a m essage i s i ntended may a lso b e p resent . A p ictorial c omposition m ay , f or e xample , d epict t he o riginator o f t he m essage , t he m eans o f t ransmission e tc . A t T eotihuacan , t here a re m any e xamples o f j ust s uch c onjunctions . H uman a nd a nthropomorphic f igures i n m ural p aintings a nd o n p ottery u sually h ave s ound s crolls e merging f rom t heir m ouths a nd t hese o ften h ave a ffixed o r i nfixed s equences o f s igns w hich c an b e c lassed w ith s ome c onfidence a s n otational . I t i s p erhaps w orth m entioning t hat m any s igns w hich m eet t he c riteria h ave o ther f eatures w hich r einforce t he c ase f or t heir i dentification a s n otational . T he r esemblance o f s ome T eotihuacan s igns t o Z apotec a nd M ayan g lyphs h as a lready b een m entioned b ut t here a re e ven g reater a ffinities w ith t he w riting s ystems o f t he e arly P ostclassic p eriod, n otably t hat o f X ochicalco, a nd many c enturies l ater s ome s imilarities p ersist i n t he i conographic s cript o f t he A ztecs . I n a ddition , a f ew T eotihuacan s igns a re t hemselves t ypically g lyphic , t hat i s t hey a re e nclosed w ithin a f rame o r c artouche w hich i nsulates t hem f rom t he s urrounding i magery i n aw ay t hat s uggests t hey a re i ndependent u nits o f m eaning .

S ymbols, a ttributes a nd d ecoration . D espite

t he

d ifficulty

i nherent

i n

t he

a bstraction o f

t he

n otational

f rom i ts p ictorial s etting i n ac ulture a s l ittle k nown a s T eotihuacan ,

t he

t hree c riteria h ave p rovided a n e ffective b asis f or d iscrimination e xcept i n two p roblem a reas w here a g ood d eal o f j udgment a nd s ome a rbitrary d ecisions h ave b een r equired . • T he f irst h as b een i n c ases w here i t i s n ot c lear f rom t he c ontext w hether a m otif i s s ymbolic o r n aturalistic . T he s econd l ies a t t he m argins b etween t he n otational s ign , t he d ecorative m otif a nd t he n on—notational s ymbol.

A s

e arly

a s

1 900 A ntonio P enafiel n oticed

t hat a mong

t he f ragmentary

f igurines f ound i n g reat n umbers a t T eotihuacan m any w ore d istinctive i tems o f m ilitary o r c ivil a ttire while o thers d isplayed t he c haracteristic a ttributes o f g ods i n t he f orm o f n ose p endants , f acial m asks , g oggles e tc . ( 1900 :

5 1) .

H is o bservation h as s ince b een e laborated b y s cholars w ho h ave

i nterpreted a v ariety o f m otifs a s d enoting t he a ttributes o f o bjects, a nimals , m en a nd g ods .

1 3

A lthough t hey may o ccasionally b e a bstract,

t hese m otifs u sually

r epresent o bjects a nd o ften a ppear a s p art o f c lothing o r a dornment ,

o r a s

d istinctive p hysical c haracteristics o f anthropomorphic b eings . H eaddresses a nd t he f anged mouth o f t he S torm G od c alled T laloc b y t he A ztecs , a re t ypical e xamples . T he p roblem h as b een t o d etermine w hether t hese m otifs a re s ymbols o r m erely t he s traightforward r epresentation o f n atural o bjects a nd w hether , i f s ymbolic , t heir u sage c ould b e r egarded a s n otational. C onsideration o f

t he p roblem i s c omplicated b oth b y t he multiple

m eanings o f t he w ord " attribute" a nd t he v ariety o f w ays i n which a ttributes m ay b e d epicted a t T eotihuacan . I n i ts m ost c ommon s ense , " attribut e c overs b oth i nnate q uality a nd p hysical c haracteristic . W hen s uch a n a ttribute i s r epresented n aturalistically i n av isually a ppropriate c ontext , t he image c annot b e c onsidered s ymbolic e ven i f a m easure o f c onventionalisation o r e xaggeration i s i nvolved . T hus g reatly e xaggerated c laws o r f angs t hat m ay s ignify f erocity o r r apacity i n a nimals a re n ot i ncluded a mong n otational s igns ,

n or i s t he w rinkled f ace d iagnostic o f t he

O ld F ire G od. H owever ,

" attribute" m ay a lso m ean a m aterial o bject u sed t o s ignify a

d istinction o f r ank , f unction , a ffiliation e tc . I n t his s ense , t he c rown i s c onsidered a s a n a ttribute o f r oyalty ; i t i s a n o bject u sed a s a s ymbol t o s ignify a q uality . S uch u sage a ppears t o b e c ommon a t T eotihuacan . A s triking e xample i s p rovided b y t he f anged m outh o f t he S torm G od . I t i s n ot a n ormal p art o f t he b ody b ut r ather a f orm o f b ucal mask . A s s uch i t i s o ne o f t he d iagnostic f eatures o f t he d eity a nd , w hen f ound d isembodied i n h eraldic i nsignia o r a s ad iscrete s ign , i s g enerally c onsidered t o i ndicate a ffiliation w ith h im . H eaddresses a ppear t o b e ap articularly r ich s ource o f a ttributive s igns o f t his k ind .

I t h as, f or e xample , b een c ogently a rgued t hat a d istinctive

h eaddress t assel i s c haracteristic o f T eotihuacan a nd m ay b e t he i nsignia o f a p articular s ocial g roup o r a b adge o f o ffice ( C . M illon 1 973: 3 05) . T assels a re c ommon h eaddress o rnaments a nd t he c riteria m ight s eem t o p reclude t hem f rom t he c ompendium b ut, i f M illon 's i nterpretation i s c orrect , t his p articular t assel s erves o nly a s t he s ymbol o f a n a ttribute . I t c an b e d istinguished f rom o rdinary d ecorative t assels a nd i ts p resence i s a lways e xceptional a nd s ignificative . nough i s k nown a bout t he u se o f m otifs o f t his k ind t o a ssert t hat N ot -e a ll f orms o f f inery a nd t he z oomorphic h eads t hat o ften a ppear i n h eaddresses a t T eotihuacan h ave t he s ame s ignificance a s t he e quivalent m otifs i n t he d istinctive h eaddresses w orn b y t he A ztec m ilitary o rders ( Canseco V incourt 1 966 : 11-112), a lthough t he p arallels a re s triking . I t h as t herefore s eemed p rudent f or t he t ime b eing t o i nclude i n t he c ompendium o nly t hose h eaddresses a nd h eaddress m otifs f or w hose n otational u se t here i s o ther i ndependent e vidence. T his i nevitably r aises t he q uestion w hether t he a ttributive u se o f a ny i tems o f t his k ind c an p roperly b e c alled n otational . T he p roblem a rises n ot s o much f rom t he n ature o f t he i tems i nvolved, s ince a nything c an f unction a s a s ign , b ut r ather f rom t heir u sage a s p art o f t he a ttire o r a dornment o f h umans a nd a nthropomorphic c reatures . T his s eems , a t f irst s ight, d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he c oncept o f n otation b ut t he d ifficulty i s m ore a pparent t han r eal . G lyphic n ames a nd t exts a re n ot i nfrequently i nscribed o n c lothing a nd i n h eaddresses i n m esoamerican

1 4

c ultures

( see ,

f or e xample,

B audez a nd M athews

1 978) a nd ,

i n o ur o wn

s ociety , n ames , a cronyms , c yphers a nd c rests a ppear o n m ilitary h eaddresses a nd e paulets t o m ention o nly t he m ost o bvious e xamples . T he m ain o bjection t o i ncluding a ttributive s ymbols i n t he c ompendium w ould t herefore s eem t o b e n either t he w ay i n w hich t hey a re u sed n or t heir i ntrinsic c haracter , b ut r ather t he p ractical d ifficulty o f m aking s ure t hat a m otif i s i n f act a s ign a nd n ot s imply a n ormal i tem o f a pparel . A s imilar p roblem a rises t hose

t hat

a re u tilitarian

i n t he c ase o f a nother c lass

c oncomitants

o f

o f

a ttributes ,

p articular s ocial g roups ,

f or

e xample w eapons a s a t ypical a ttribute o f w arriors . C learly s uch o bjects , o f w hich t he w arrior 's a tlatl a nd t he p riest 's c eremonial b ag a re t ypical T eotihuacan e xamples, h elp i n t he i dentification o f s tatus a nd r ole b ut t hey d o n ot f unction p rimarily a s s ymbols i n t his c ontext b ut r ather a s i ndispensible e lements i n an aturalistic p ortrayal o f c haracteristic m embers o f ad istinctive g roup . T he d ifficulty i n a ll t hese c ases i s t hat i t i s v irtually i mpossible t o a pply t he s econd n otational c riterion s ince t he i tems i n q uestion c an o ccur b oth n aturally a nd s ymbolically i n t he s ame c ontext . T he s olution h as b een t o r equire c onfirmation i n s ome o ther c ontext b efore a ccepting t he a uthenticity o f a ny a ttributive s ign . T hus, f or e xample, t he t assel mentioned a bove a ppears i n a s hort s ign s equence ( Reference 7 1 5 ) a nd i n o ther s emiotic c ontexts u nrelated t o h eaddresses . t herefore b e n o d oubt o f i ts n otational c haracter .

i n A ppendix T here c an

H owever , d espite t hese p recautions , a n e lement o f d oubt m ay o ccasionally r emain . F or e xample , u ntil more i s k nown a bout h eraldic d evices a t T eotihuacan ( Chapter V I) , i t i s n ot c lear w hether s uch u sage a lone s hould b e c onsidered n otational . F or t his r eason , t he c ompendium h as b een d ivided i nto t hree p arts i n o rder t o d istinguish b etween s igns o f c onfirmed n otational s tatus, p robable n otational s igns a nd t hose whose s tatus i s p roblematical . T he a tlatl d art, f or e xample , a ppears s ymbolically i n h eraldic c ompositions w ith s hields , b irds a nd o ther m otifs a nd t herefore q ualifies a s a p robable b ut u nconfirmed n otational s ign . P aradoxically , t he c onfirmation r equirement h as m eant t he e xclusion f rom t he c ompendium o f o ne c ommon t ype o f T eotihuacan h eaddress, t he s egmented h elmet, which appears a s a M ayan g lyph ( T678 i n a n i nscription o n W all P anel 2 f rom P iedras N egras) 4 , b ut i s n ot f ound i n a n otational c ontext i n t he d ata s ample . T urning t o t he s econd p roblem a rea , t he d ifficulty o f d iscriminating b etween n otational s igns , d ecorative m otifs a nd n on-notational s ymbols a rises b ecause t here i s n o i ntrinsic v isual d ifference b etween t hem a t t he margin : t hey l ook a like a nd t heir i ncidence may a lso b e s imilar . A s a lready m entioned , t he d istinction b etween d ecoration a nd n otation i s n ot a bsolute a nd t here a re m any p recedents i n o ther s ocieties f or t he d ecorative u se o f r ecognised g lyphs ( Caso 1 967a : 1 64) . I t would a ppear t hat a t T eotihuacan n otational s igns were a lso u sed i n t his w ay . F or e xample, s hells

a nd

f lowers

a ppear

w ith

o ther

s igns

i n

s equences

w hich m eet

t he

n otational c riteria b ut t he s ame s hell o r f lower m ay b e r epeated m any t imes i n b ands a round p ottery v essels o r a ppear i n a pparently r andom a ssociation with o ther f lowers o r s hells i n c ontexts w hich a re p rima f acie d ecorative . T he p atterning o f s ign u se t hus a ppears t o o ffer t he b est g rounds f or d istinguishing b etween n otation a nd d ecoration i n c ases w here t he o ther t wo c riteria d o n ot p rovide a b asis f or d iscrimination , b ut t his r emains a n a rea o f g reat u ncertainty w hich i s u nlikely t o b e r esolved u ntil m ore d ata a re

1 5

a vailable. T he

c riteria

must

b e

s upplemented

b y a n

e ven g reater d egree o f

s ubjective j udgment i n t he c ase o f c ertain c ommon a nd c learly s ymbolic m otifs s uch a s d eity a nd z oomorphic i mages . T he j aguar, f or e xample , a ppears f requently i n m ural p aintings a nd o n p ottery v essels w here i ts u se i s o ften c learly s ymbolic . S everal o f i ts p arts -head , t ail a nd c laws a ppear a s n otational s igns b ut i t i s n ot i tself i ncluded i n t he c ompendium b ecause t he w hole j aguar h as n ot b een f ound i n a s pecifically n otational c ontext . I t m ay n evertheless t urn o ut t hat t he d ividing l ine b etween t he n otational a nd n on-notational h as b een d rawn i n t he w rong p lace .

C lassification o r c atalogue. E ven a c ursory p erusal o f t he l iterature r eveals t he g reat v ariation i n t ype a nd c omplexity o f t he s igns u sed a t T eotihuacan . S ome a re g eometrical , o thers a re a bstract t hough n ot g eometrical a nd y et o thers r epresent n atural o bjects . E arly i n t he d evelopment o f t he r esearch m ethodology , t he i dea o f i ntroducing s ome o rder i nto t his d iversity a ppeared a ttractive a nd t he p ossibility o f c lassifying t he s igns a s a s tep i n t heir a nalysis a nd i nterpretation w as c onsidered . S pecifically , i f r ules a ccording s traight

t o a nd

w hich c urved

s igns

w ere

l ines ,

c ompounded

c ircles ,

f rom

t riangles

e lementary a nd

o ther

c onstituents g eometrical

a nd

n atural f orms -could b e d educed , t his m ight p rovide t he b asis f or a s imple c lassification s ystem t hat m ight i n t urn r eflect a n u nderlying g rammatical o r

s emantic

s tructure .

T he

i dea

w as

p articularly

a ttractive

b ecause

a

m ethodology f or t his k ind o f a nalysis o f p ictorial m otifs h ad b een d eveloped a t t he F rench C entre N ational d e l a R echerche S cientifique ( Gardin 1 978 ) . I t w as o bjective a nd s ystematic a nd h ad t he a dded a dvantage o f h aving b een p repared s pecifically f or c omputer a pplication . R egrettably i t d id n ot p rove u seful i n t he p resent s tudy . E xamination o f e ven t he s mall i nitial s ample s oon r evealed t hat t he s igns w ere n ot o nly v ariegated b ut h eterogeneous s uggesting t hat a n a ttempt t o b ase a c lassification s ystem o n f orm a lone w as b ound t o f ail . T he p rospects f or a ny o ther a p riori c lassification s ystem w ere n o m ore e ncouraging . O ne b ased o n t he d istinction b etween p ictographic , g eometrical a nd a bstract s igns d id n ot l ead t o u seful i nsights a nd s ince a ny s ystem o ther t han o ne b ased o n o bjective d ifferences o f f orm w ould h ave i nvolved p rejudging t he r esults o f t he a nalysis , i t s eemed b est t o p roceed b y w ay o f a c atalogue a pproach a t l east i nitially . E ach s ign i dentified a s n otational a nd a s d istinct f rom o ther s uch s igns h as t herefore b een l isted i n t he c ompendium , t he q uestion o f i ts p ossible c lassification a nd u sage b eing d eferred u ntil l ater . T he a ssumptions i nvolved i n t his p rocess a nd t he p ractical p roblems t o w hich i t g ave r ise a re d iscussed i n t he n ext c hapter.

1 6

I II T HE C OMPENDIUM O F N OTATIONAL S IGNS T he o bject o f t he c ompendium r eproduced i n A ppendix 7 i s t o p rovide a c onvenient i llustrated r ecord o f a ll s igns t hat m eet t he t hree c riteria o f n otational c haracter d escribed i n t he p revious c hapter . B ecause , a s mentioned t here , t he q uality o f t he e vidence v aries f rom s ign t o s ign , t he c ompendium h as b een d ivided i nto t hree p arts . P art I , b y f ar t he l argest , c onsists o f t hose s igns t hat o ccur i n t he s emiotic c ontexts d iscussed i n C hapters V III -X o r w hose c onformity w ith t he s econd n otational c riterion i s c onfirmed i n m ore t han o ne t ype o f c ontext . P art I I c onsists o f s igns t hat a re p robably n otational b ut w hose s tatus c ould n ot b e c onfirmed . P art II r ecords a s mall g roup o f s ymbolic motifs which m ay c onceivably b e I n otational b ut f or w hich t he e vidence i s a mbiguous .

F or c onvenience e ach

s ign i s n umbered . A n i ndex f or P arts I a nd I I w ill b e f ound a t t he b eginning o f t he C ompendium ; t hat f or P art I II b egins o n p age 2 27 . C ompound s igns a re d iscussed a nd i llustrated i n C hapters V , V III a nd X . I n c ompiling t he c ompendium i t p roved n ecessary t o r esolve s everal p ractical p roblems r elating t o t he i llustration a nd n aming o f t he s igns . T here i s a m arked v ariability i n t he a ppearance o f m ost s igns a nd t he f irst c oncern was t herefore t o d etermine w hat s hould b e c onsidered t he b asic f orm o f e ach s ign , t o d istinguish b etween i ncidental a nd i ntentional d ifferences i n t heir d epiction a nd t o d ecide w hat v ariants t o i nclude i n t he c ompendium . E ven a t

t he b eginning o f

v isual e vidence

t o g o o n ,

t he s tudy ,

w hen t here w as l ittle m ore t han t he

t his d iscrimination p roved

l ess

d ifficult

t han

e xpected . I ncidental v ariability t akes t he f orm o f s uperficial d ivergences f rom t he n orm a nd a re a ttributable t o a rtistic l icence a nd d ifferences o f t echnical s kill o r i n t he media e mployed . T hey a re i gnored i n t he c ompendium e xcept i n s o f ar a s i t i s d esirable t o i llustrate t he r ange o f v ariation i nvolved . I ntentional v ariability i s i ndicated b y c onfigural o r s tructural v ariance i n t he s igns a nd h ints a t d ifferences i n t heir u sage o r m eaning ; t hese v ariants a re i ncluded i n t he c ompendium w ith s eparate n ames . T he n otion o f i ntentional v ariability f orm o f e ach s ign w hich m ay b e m odified T his h as p roved t rue a t T eotihuacan a nd h as t herefore b een t reated a s i ts b asic

i mplies t hat t here i s ap rototypal t o p roduce m ore e laborate v ariants . t he s implest v ersion o f e ach s ign f orm a nd i s u sually l isted i n t he

c ompendium b y n ame w ithout a ny a lphabetical o r n umerical s uffix . I n af ew c ases ( for e xample , F angs ) n o f orm o f t he s ign c an b e r egarded a s ' simplest ' o r ' b asic ' a nd e ach v ersion i s d istinguished b y a n a lphabetical s uffix . I ntentional v ariation m ay b e e xpressed i n s everal d ifferent w ays o f which t he most c ommon i s t he a ddition o f a m inor i nfix t o a b asic s ign . S everal e xamples o f s uch v ariants a re l isted i n t he c ompendium ; t hey a ppear with t he b asic s ign b ut a re d istinguished f rom i t b y al ower-case a lphabetic s uffix ( see D rop a -e) . O ne d ifficulty h as b een t o d ecide w hich s ign c ombinations s hould b e t reated i n t his w ay a nd w hich s hould b e r egarded a s c lusters o f c oordinate s igns . T he s olution a dopted h as b een b ased o n t he p erception , w hich e merged a s t he s tudy p roceeded , t hat a f ew s igns m ight b e r egarded a s a ncillary . T hat i s , t heir m ost f requent a nd c haracteristic u se w as n ot a s i ndependent s igns b ut a s i ncidental a djuncts o f o ther s igns . T he c ombination o f a s ign w ith o ne o f t hese a ncillary s igns ( e .g . m ultiple

1 7

d ots ,

w avy l ines ,

h ooks ,

e tc )

h as b een t reated a s

a v ariant o f t he

f irst

s ign w hereas a n e qually i ntimate c luster o f t wo c oordinate s igns ( say a s ound s croll e nclosing a s hell) w ould b e t reated a s as ign a nd a ffix o r p ossibly a s a c ompound s ign . A nother c ommon f orm o f v ariant i s c reated b y a c hange i n t he s tructure o f as ign . I f t he c hange i s s mall , t he s ign r emains v isually c lose t o i ts c ognate a nd i s l isted w ith t he s ame b asic n ame p lus a n a lphabetical s uffix . M ore d istant v ariants a re t reated a s s eparate s igns w ith q uite d ifferent n ames , a s a n e xample m ay h elp t o m ake c lear . I n t he " Trapeze-Ray" s ign t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he t rapeze a nd r ay m ay v ary c onsiderably b ut a s l ong a s t hese t wo e lements a ppear a lone , w ith t he r ay s uperimposed o n t he t rapeze , t hey a re t reated a s e xamples o f o ne s ign . T he T R may h owever a lso a ppear o n a r ectangular b ase a nd, o ccasionally , w ith f eathers a bove . T hese t wo v ariants h ave b een c alled T R A a nd T R B r espectively . F urther d ifferentiation o f t he s ign l eads t o t he F eather H eaddress S ymbol a nd t he Manta C ompound i n which t he T R e lement i s am inor c omponent o f l arger s ymbolic c ompositions . T hese t wo m otifs a re i llustrated a nd d iscussed i n C hapters V III a nd X r espectively , r ather t han i n t he c ompendium , s ince t hey a ppear n ot t o b e s imple n otational s igns b ut t o r epresent t wo o f t he ways i n w hich s igns m eaning . T he

w ere

c ombined

a t

T eotihuacan

t o

f orm

m ore

j uxtaposition o f s everal e xamples o f a s ign o r

c omplex u nits

t he

o f

r epetition o f

s ome e lement o f i ts s tructure i s a t hird f orm o f i ntentional v ariation . T hese v ariants a re d istinguished i n t he c ompendium b y an umerical s uffix o r t he w ord " Chain" . T hus C ircle 3 i ndicates a l inear s et o f t hree c ircles w hile S croll C hain d enotes a b and o f a djoining h ook-shaped s crolls. A s t he f oregoing i mplies ,

e ach s ign h as b een n amed .

S ince t his

m ight

a ppear t o p rejudge t heir i nterpretation , i t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat t he n ames a re i ntended p rimarily a s ac onvenient m eans o f r eference . A n e ffort h as b een m ade t o k eep t hem s imple a nd o bjective a nd , w henever p ossible , a w ord o r p hrase t hat a ccurately d escribes t he a ppearance o f t he s ign i s u sed . F or many p ictographic s igns t his n ame w ill c oincide with a p lausible i nterpretation ( e .g . D rop o r S hell); o n o ther o ccasions i t m ay n ot ( e .g . S tar a nd m ost a bstract s igns ) b ut i t h as s eemed p referable t o s elect n ames t hat w ere v isually a pt , a nd r egard t hem a s e ntirely c onventional , r ather t han a ttempt a n omenclature b ased o n i nterpretation ( impossible i n a dvance o f t he c ontextual a nalysis) o r t hat i gnored t he n atural a ppearance o f t hings .

W henever t he n ame f or a s ign h as c ome i nto c ommon u sage i n t he

l iterature , i t h as b een r etained i f i t a ppeared a ppropriate a nd o bjective , a nd t he s ame c onsideration a pplies i f a c hoice i s o ffered b etween t wo o r m ore s uch n ames . T hus K ubler 's " Roundel" ( 1975 : 3 7) h as b een p referred t o t he m ore t raditional b ut l ess o bjective " Chalchihuit r . I n c ases w here a n ame i s o f s ome a ntiquity a nd h as e ntered i nto g eneral u sage , s uch a s " Reptile 's E ye" ( RE), i t h as b een r etained b ut r eservations a bout i ts a ppropriateness may b e i ncluded a mong t he a nnotations . G lyph n ames s pecific t o o ther m esoamerican c ultures h ave b een a voided a lthough t his m ay o n

o ccasion

l ead

t o

s omewhat

i diosyncratic n omenclature .

T hus

a lthough

" Calli" , " Olin" a nd t he " Kan C ross" a ll h ave t heir v isual c ounterparts a t T eotihuacan , t hese s igns a re c alled " Temple" , " Bands I nterlaced" a nd " Quincross" i n t he c ompendium . I n o ther c ases , w here t he a ppearance o f t he s ign d efied a ttempts t o f ind a n a ccurate d escriptive n ame , t he p ortmanteau " Object" h as b een u sed w ith a n a lphabetic s uffix .

S ome o f t he n ames m ay

a ppear a wkward b ut i t s eemed , a fter r eflection , t hat p lacing t he n oun b efore t he a djective a s i n i ndexes w as m ost c onvenient f or r eference p urposes a nd

1 8

i n t he c omputer p rogramme .

O rdinary w ord o rder

i s u sed i n r eferring t o

s igns i n t he t ext e xcept i n q uoting t heir e xact t itles. A ll s igns i n t he c ompendium ,

i ncluding n amed v ariants ,

a re i llustrated

e xcept f or g eometrical f igures w hose s hapes a re s elf-evident . O ften s everal i llustrations a re p rovided t o i ndicate t he r ange o f v ariability i n t he d epiction o f t he s igns . H owever , i t w ill b e n oted t hat, e ven i n d ifferent media w ith d ecorative t echniques h aving v ery d ifferent c haracteristics a nd l imitations , t he s igns a re f airly s tandardised . A lmost a ll t he d rawings a re o riginal a nd h ave b een c opied f rom a s lide o r p hotograph o f a n a ctual a rtifact , i f p ossible w ith a n a ssured p rovenience . O ccasionally i t h as b een n ecessary t o f all b ack o n d rawings o r c olour r eproductions a vailable i n t he l iterature . M ost o f t he o riginal d rawings , b eing c opied f rom a s ingle a rtifact , a re n ot i n a ny s ense i dealised v ersions o f t he s igns b ut r eproduce t he i ndividuality o f t he m odel . H owever , e very e ffort h as b een made t o c hoose t ypical a nd c lear e xamples . W henever s hading h as b een u sed t he o bjective h as b een t o r ender t he d etails o f t he s ign a s d istinct a s p ossible a nd n o u niform c onvention a pplies t hroughout t he c ompendium e xcept t hat d ifferences o f s hading ' w ithin a ny o ne d rawing i ndicate d ifferences o f c olour , o f t exture o r , i n t he c ase o f b as-relief s culpture a nd m oldmade o r m old-impressed p ottery , o f d epth i n r elief . T he r eference n umbers o f t he a rtifacts f rom w hich t he i llustrations h ave b een d rawn i s i ndicated i n t he c ompendium a nd t he s ource o f t he i llustrations c an t hus b e t raced t hrough A ppendix 5 i n w hich t he l ocation a nd/or b ibliographic i nformation o n t he a rtifacts a re l isted . M ost o f t he e ntries a re a nnotated .

S ince t he c ompendium i s t o b e

r egarded a s d ata f or t he c ontextual a nalysis i n t he r emainder o f t his s tudy a nd n ot i n a ny s ense a s a s ummary o f f indings , t he a nnotations a re l imited t o b rief d escriptive c omments a nd r eferences t o t he m ore p ersuasive o r a uthoritative i nterpretations o f t he s igns t hat h ave b een o ffered i n t he p ast . Mention o f a n i nterpretation d oes n ot i mply t hat i t i s s ubstantiated b y t he t o b e t he c ase . T he n ecessarily s elective o f m any o f t he s igns

c ontextual a nalysis , a lthough t his m ay o ften t urn o ut l iterature i s s o v oluminous t hat t he a nnotations a re a nd v ary g reatly i n d etail . F or a f uller d iscussion r eference i s r ecommended t o t he w orks l isted i n t he

b ibliography , p articularly t hose b y B erlo , 1 962 ) , P asztory , S gjourng a nd v on W inning .

C aso , C . M illon ( including H all I t w ould n ot b e p ossible w ithin

t he s cope o f t his w ork t o r ecord a ll a nalogies b etween T eotihuacan s igns a nd t hose o f o ther m esoamerican c ultures b ut s ome i nformation i s i ncluded i n t he c ase o f

t hose s igns s elected

f or

t he c losest

s tudy i n t he f ollowing

c hapters. F inally ,

i n s o f ar a s t here i s c orrespondence b etween t he s igns i n t he

c ompendium a nd t he t wo t abulations o f T eotihuacan s ymbols w hich a lready e xist ( Kubler , 1 967; H ellmuth 1 969), c ross-references t o t he l atter a re p rovided . T he c overage i s , h owever , v ery d ifferent s ince t heir f ields o f i nquiry a re m uch b roader t han t hat o f t he p resent s tudy a nd t he a nalytical m ethods e mployed a re d issimilar . g reater p roportion o f H ellmuth 's w hose u sage i s n ot n otational .

A bout h alf o f K ubler 's t able a nd a n e ven l isting c onsist o f i conographic e lements

1 9

I V M ETHODOLOGY F OR T HE A NALYSIS O F S IGN U SAGE

S ign c lusters a nd c ontexts. T he a nalytical m ethod d escribed s o f ar h as b een r elatively s imple .

I ts

o bjective h as b een t he i dentification o f s igns t hat m ight b e c onsidered n otational a nd i t h as r elied h eavily o n t he d ifferentiation o f t he s ign f rom i ts c ontext , d efined a s i ts p ictorial s etting . T he s hift i n t he f ocus o f t he s tudy f rom t he i ndividual s ign t o t he q uestion w hether a n otational s ystem h ad b een d eveloped a t T eotihuacan n ow g ives r ise t o n ew o bjectives r equiring a n e laboration o f t he m ethodology . A n otational p atterning

i n

t he

s ystem m ight i ncidence

o f

b e e xpected t o s how u p s igns .

i n t he f orm o f

I nformation w ould

b e

e ncoded

i n

p articular c ombinations o r c lusters o f s igns a nd i n t he a ssociation o f s igns a nd c ontexts . T he r ecurrence o f s uch p atterns w ould i ndicate r epetitions o f t he e ncoded i nformation w hile a v ariation i n t he s ign c luster a ssociated with a p articular c ontext w ould i ndicate a n uance i n t he m essage b eing c onveyed . A s a n e xample , a p rayer a nd a h istorical i nscription w ould b e e ncoded i n d ifferent s ign c lusters a nd a ssociated w ith d ifferent c ontexts . A p rayer f or r ain a nd a p rayer f or f ood w ould r equire s ome v ariation i n t he s ign c luster b ut m ight w ell b e a ssociated w ith t he s ame c ontext, s ay a p riestly f igure. T he a ssumption i s , o f c ourse , t hat b oth s igns a nd c ontexts a re p art o f a s ystem o f a rtistic e xpression t hrough which i nformation i s a ccordance w ith a c onsistent s et o f r ules a nd c onventions .

c onveyed

i n

T his i s b asic

t o a ny a rt f orm w hich p urports t o c onvey a n i ntelligible m essage . I ts i mport i s , h owever , m ore p recise i n t he p resent c ase b ecause i t i mplies t hat i nformation i s e ncoded i n s table p atterns o f s ign/context a ssociation a nd i n s pecific s ign c lusters . T he o bjective i s t hen t o i dentify t he r elevant p atterns a nd c lusters i n t he h ope t hat t his w ill r eveal t he k ind o f r ules , i f a ny , t hat a pply a nd p ermit s ome i nference t o b e d rawn a bout t he w ay i n w hich m eaning i s c onveyed. I conographic

s tudies

h ave

a lready

e stablished

b eyond

d oubt

t hat

p atterning e xists i n t he s ymbolic i magery o f T eotihuacan . T he c oncept i s i mplicit i n t he e arliest a ttempts t o i dentify t he d eities w orshipped a t t he s ite o n t he b asis o f t he s imilarities b etween t heir c haracteristic a ttributes a nd t hose o f t he k nown g ods o f t he A ztec p antheon . M ore r ecently Kubler ( 1967) h as d istinguished f ive i conographic c lusters a s e xpressive o f i mportant r eligious t hemes t here a nd P asztory ( 1973a ) , t aking h is w ork a s a p oint o f d eparture, p osed t he q uestion whether " image c lusters" were r epresentations o f s eparate g ods . H er a nswer was a ffirmative a nd w as d etailed i n h er s tudies o n t he T eotihuacan a nd A ztec A t a bout t he s ame t ime v on W inning ( 1977b ) R ain G ods ( 1974; 1 979) .5 i dentified a nd d iscussed w hat h e h as c alled t he F ire G od c omplex . I n b oth c ases s ignificant n ew i nsights a bout t he r eligious b eliefs o f T eotihuacan were d erived f rom t he c omparative s tudy o f i conographic c lusters f rom d ifferent mesoamerican c ultures .

2 1

P attern i dentification a ppeared a t f irst t o b e f airly s imple .

C lusters

o f t he s ame t wo o r t hree s igns r ecur f requently i n t he d ata a nd i t s eemed a s traightforward t ask t o e numerate t hem a nd p roceed t o t he e xploration o f t he r ules g overning t heir f ormation . H owever , t he a nalysis o f a rtifacts s uch a s m ural p aintings a nd p ainted v essels w ith e xtensive d ecoration r evealed t hat t he r eality w as m uch m ore c omplex . S uch a rtifacts o ften b ear m any s igns , t he t otality o f w hich f orm l arge a nd h eterogeneous c lusters i n t he a nalysis o f w hich t wo p roblems a rise : t he l arger t he c luster t he l ess t he l ikelihood i t w ill r ecur ( except o n d uplicate a rtifacts) a nd t he m ore c omplex t he r elationships a re l ikely t o b e a mong i ts c onstituent s igns . T o m eet t he f irst p roblem , t he c lusters c an b e e xamined t o s ee w hether t hey b reak d own i nto s ub-clusters o f p ossible n otational s ignificance . O ne t est o f s ignificance w ould b e s tatistical : t he m ore o ften a p attern o f s igns o ccurs i n t he d ata a s a whole, t he m ore l ikely i t i s t o r epresent t he i ntentional e ncoding o f i nformation . T he most c omprehensive w ay o f c alculating f requencies w ould b e t o e numerate a ll p ossible c ombinations o f s igns o n e ach a rtifact , b ut t he t ask i s a n i nordinate o ne a s a s imple mathematical e xample w ill s how . A n a rtifact b earing ( say) 2 0 s igns i s n ot u nusual . T hese s igns c an b e a rranged i n 1 90 d ifferent p airs . T he n umber o f d ifferent c ombinations r ises t o o ver 6 000 i f s ets o f t hree a nd f our s igns a re c onsidered . T his a pproach w ould t herefore i nvolve a h uge a mount o f c omputation a nd i t w ould a lso p roduce a l arge a mount o f u seless i nformation i n t he f orm o f r andom c ombinations o f n o s ignificance .

I t m ay b e r equired a s a l ast r esort b ut

i t h as s eemed w orth e xploring f irst w hether t he o ther c haracteristic o f l arge c lusters , t heir s tructural c omplexity , c an b e e xploited a s ap ossible c riterion o f s ignificance .

T he h ierarchical s tructure o f d ata . T his p ossibility a rises f rom t he f act t hat a p ictorial c omposition m ay b e c onsidered a s ac omplex o f i nterrelated c ontexts . S ince e ach s ign c an b e r elated t o ac ontext i n s ome w ay , i t f ollows t hat s igns a re a lso r elated t o e ach o ther t hrough t heir c ontexts . T he l atter p rovide t he a rticulation , a s i t w ere , b etween t he s igns . T his s tructure o f i nterr elationships c an b e r epresented b y af amily t ree i n which t he c ontext a ppears a s t he p arent o f t he s ign a nd t he m odel c an b e e xtended t o i nclude a s equence o f n esting c ontexts e ach e ncompassing t he o ne b elow . T hus , a t assel ' sign i n ah eaddress w orn b y ah uman f igure w ould f orm a t hree l evel h ierarchy i n w hich t he h uman i s p arent t o t he h eaddress a nd b oth a re , i n a s ense ,

a ncestral t o t he s ign .

G raphically t he c ontexts f orm t he b ranches

o f t he t ree s tructure o r d endrogram w hile t he s igns a ppear a t t he t erminal n odes a s i ts " leaves" . T he s tructure c an b e e xtended l aterally t o a ccommodate r elationships o ther t han t hose o f d irect l ineal d escent . I ndeed , i t c an b e a pplied n o m atter w hat t he c omplexity o f t he c omposition b eing a nalysed . A f airly s imple e xample , b ased o n t he a nalysis o f a S torm G od i mage m ight t ake t he f orm o f t he d endrogram i n F igure 1 . I n t his e xample t here a re t hree s igns d irectly a ssociated i n w hat m ight b e c alled a " fraternal" c luster a s p art o f t he f anged m outh ; t here i s a s imilar c luster o f t wo s igns i n t he h eaddress a nd o ne s ign t hat o ccurs a lone . A ll t hese s igns a re i nterrelated i n v arious w ays , t he i mplications o f w hich f or t he a nalysis o f s ign p atterning w ill b e c onsidered b elow . T he h ierarchical s tructure i s f lexible i n t he s ense t hat t he i nformation e ntered i n t he d endrogram i s a m atter o f c hoice b oth a s

2 2

t o

s ubstance a nd

( a)

HUMAN EYE

MOUTH

BIGOTERA

GOGGLED

C

FANGED

FANGS

B

HEADDRESS FEATHER

TONGUE BIFURCATED

TASSEL

QUINCROSS

( b)

F igure 1 : ( a) Fragment of a pottery vessel with champl evg decoration ( after S äjourne 1 966a: Fig 4 1 detail). ( b) Dendrogram based on the contextual analysis of ( a). S igns are illustrated f rom the compendium. Note:

The

f eather

headdress

i s

not

sufficiently

t inct to determine if a f eather array or f ringe t ed. The quincross, as occasionally happens at can, is r epresented by a bisected s ign.

2 3

dis-

i s depicTeotihua-

q uantity .

I n

d escriptive

t he

t erms

b ut

p receding t his

e xample ,

t he

i s n ot a n ecessary

c ontexts f eature

a re

o f

a ll

s imple

t he m ethod

a nd

i ndeed w as o nly a rrived a t b y a p rocess o f t rial a nd e rror . I nitially i t h ad s eemed t hat t he b est w ay t o p roceed w ould b e t o e stablish a h ierarchy o f m eanings b y t he w ell-tried methods o f i conographic a nalysis . T his i nvolved d etermining w hat e ach o f t he m otifs i n a c omposition r epresented a nd , o n t he b asis o f t heir i nterrelationships , d educing t he m eaning o f t he w hole . T his m ethod h as b een m uch u sed i n s tudies o f T eotihuacan . F or e xample t he i nterpretation o f a f lower a ffixed t o a s ound s croll a s a s ign f or s ong o r c hant r ests o n t he a nalysis o f c omplex m ural p aintings a s r itual s cenes i nvolving p riests e ngaged i n p ublic w orship . U nfortunately i t s oon b ecame c lear t hat , w hile m uch e ffort h as b een d evoted t o t he i nterpretation o f T eotihuacan i conography ,

r elatively l ittle i s a greed a mong s cholars a nd

e ven l ess i s k nown w ith c ertainty . I n o ne s triking a nd n ot u ntypical c ase , a m ural p ainting h as b een i nterpreted v ariously a s t he f rontal f igure o f a g od , h is r ear v iew , a g oddess , a p riest , a n i dol , a g od i mpersonator a nd a r uler ( for i llustration s ee K ubler 1 967 : F igures 4 a nd 5 ) . U nder t he c ircumstances t he meanings a ssigned t o p ictorial c ompositions r isked b ecoming m ere c atalogues o f c ontroversal i nterpretations . T he m ethodology w as a lso q uestionable i n t erms o f l ogic s ince t he d ata w hich w ere i ts p rinciple i nput p rejudged t he c onclusions w hich i t w as i ntended t o y ield . T he s olution a dopted l ay i n t reating c ontexts i n m uch t he s ame s ay a s s igns ; t hat i s t o s ay b y m aking o nly m inimal a ssumptions a bout t heir m eaning a nd a ssigning t hem n ames b ased o n t heir a ppearance . T hus t he f igure m entioned a bove, b eing h uman i n a ppearance , i s s imply c alled " human" d espite i ts p ossible A s

d ivinity .

t he s tudy p roceeded ,

i t b ecame c lear t hat c ontext p layed a k ey r ole

i n t he i dentification o f s igns a nd i n t he a nalysis o f t heir c lustering b ut t hat i ts d efinition w as r ather t oo n arrow t o c over t he v arious k inds o f i magery w ith w hich s igns m ay b e a ssociated . I t h as s o f ar b een r egarded a s t he p ictorial f ramework f or t he s ign a nd t his i s a ccurate a s f ar a s i t g oes . N aturalistic r epresentational i mages a bound a t T eotihuacan a nd a re e specially c onspicuous b y v irtue o f t he m any s triking r emains o f m ural p aintings a nd p ainted p ottery . T he " representational" c ontext i s t herefore p articularly c ommon . H owever , s igns m ay a lso o ccur i n t wo o ther t ypes o f c ontext . T he f irst m ight b e c alled s tructural a nd c onsists o f t he b orders a nd b ackgrounds o f m ural p aintings, t he r im a nd b asal b ands o f p ottery v essels e tc . T he s econd c an l oosely b e c alled s ymbolic i n t he s ense t hat t he i magery i s a bstract ; n aturalistic r epresentation p lays a m inor r ole , i f a ny . S ince t he w ord s ymbolic i s a mbiguous a nd c an a pply t o m uch o f t he n aturalistic p ictorial i magery o f T eotihuacan , t hese c ontexts w ill b e c alled s emiotic a s p ertaining e ssentially t o s igns . T he t hree t ypes o f c ontext m ay c oexist o n a s ingle a rtifact a nd i t i s n ot u nusual t o f ind a s emiotic c ontext n ested w ithin a p ictorial s tructural c ontext . A lthough

t he

s ubjective

c ontext ,

e lement

b oth

c annot

b eing

b e

a ssociated

e ntirely

w ith a

e xcluded ,

h ierarchical d ata r epresentation o f t he k ind d escribed a bove i s i ntended t o p roduce a s uccinct a nd o bjective s ummary o f a ll t he r elevant v isual d ata . I t c an b e u sed t o e xamine p atterns o f s igns a nd c ontext a ssociation w ithin a s ingle a rtifact a nd t o c ompare t hose a t t he s ame h ierarchical l evel i n d ifferent a rtifacts . T he d endroäram i s c apable o f e numerating t he e ntire i conographic c ontent o f a ny p ictorial c omposition . H owever , a l arge a mount o f p ictorial i nformation i s n ot i mmediately r elevant t o t he a nalysis o f s ign u sage a nd i t h as b een p ossible t o s implify t he p resent s tudy b y i gnoring s uch i nformation . T he d ata a re m ost m anageable a nd i ntelligible

2 4

i f t he h ierarchy o f c ontexts i s k ept a s c oncise a s w ill a ccurately s ituate t he s ign i n t he p ictorial f ramework a nd d efine i ts r elationships w ith o ther s igns . I n t erms o f t he d endrogram t his m eans t hat t he b ranch t o w hich t he s ign i s a ttached a s a " leaf" w ill b e c omposed o nly o f t he s et o f n esting c ontexts which i s n ecessary t o t race i ts a ssociations b ack t o t he a ncestral i mage o n t he a rtifact . T hus , i n F igure 1 a ll t he s igns a re t raced b ack t o " Human " b ut t he c ontext s equence m akes n o m ention o f t he h uman h ead ; t he l atter i s i mplicit a nd a r eference t o i t w ould b e r edundant . I n p ractice i t h as b een f ound t hat t hree , v ery o ccasionally f our , h ierarchical l evels s uffice t o r ecord t he e ssential c ontext s equences a nd a f urther t wo a re r equired t o a ccommodate s igns a nd t heir a ffixes. O ne c onsequence i s t hat t he d endrogram w ill i n p ractice p rovide o nly a p artial

e numeration

o f

t he

p ictorial

c ontent

o f

t he

a rtifact .

H owever ,

c ontexts w hich a ppear p articularly s ignificant f or t he i nterpretation o f a p ictorial c omposition m ay b e i ncluded i n t he d endrogram e ven i f t hey a re n ot a ssociated d irectly w ith a s ign . T hus a s a n a id t o i nterpretation , i t m ight b e u seful t o i nclude t he c haracteristic a ccoutrements o f p articular s ocial g roups , s uch a s r egarded a s p riests.

t he

c eremonial

b ags

c arried

b y

p ersons

g enerally

A s a lready m entioned i n t he d iscussion o f t he s ymbolism o f a ttributes , i mages o f

t his k ind c an a lso f unction a s s igns .

I ndeed t he s ame d uality

o ccurs i n t he c ase o f a ny p ictographic s ign a nd i s a p otential s ource o f s erious c onfusion i n t he s tudy o f t he p atterns o f s ign a ssociation . T he b utterfly , f or e xample , o ften a ppears n aturalistically a t T eotihuacan a nd , i f i t h as s igns o n i ts b ody ( as i n R eference 7 11), i t w ill a ppear i n t he a nalysis a s a c ontext . A s imilar b utterfly o ccurs a s a n otational s ign a ffixed t o a s ound s croll ( Reference 2 77) . T he s ame m otif m ay t hus t ake i ts p lace i n t he h ierarchical d ata s tructure a s a c ontext o r a s ign . A lthough i t i s o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo u sages , i t i s e xtremely i mportant t o d o s o s ince t he a nalysis w ill o therwise b e s eriously d istorted. A s omewhat

d ifferent

p roblem

o f

d iscrimination a rises

when

t he

p ictographic s ign h as b een s o c onventionalised a s t o b ear o nly a r emote r esemblance t o t he o bject f rom w hich i t i s d erived a nd i s t hen s ubstituted f or t he o bject i n o therwise n aturalistic c ompositions .

A n e xample o ccurs

i n t he s o—called " heart s acrifice" s cene i n t he M .H . d e Y oung M emorial M useum i n S an F rancisco , i n w hich t wo c oyotes a re d epicted t earing t he h eart f rom a d eer ( Braun 1 982 : 1 03) . U nlike t he r est o f t he m ural , t he h eart i s d epicted s ymbolically b y t he c onventionalised p arabolic h eart s ign . T his a nd o ther s imilar c ases a re b eing t reated a s e xamples o f s ign u sage o n t he g rounds t hat t he a rtist 's i ntention w as t o i nvoke t he s ymbolic p otency o f t he i mage n ot m erely t o e mphasise a n atural a ttribute a s h e h as d one b y e xaggerating t he s ize o f t he c oyotes' c laws a nd j aws.

T he c omputer p rogramme. T he n umber a nd c omplexity o f t he p atterns o f a ssociation t o b e e xamined a nd c ompared s uggested t hat a c omputer w ould b e u seful i n p rocessing t he d ata . A ccordingly a p roprietary s oftware p ackage c alled G OS , w ritten b y D r . M artin F . P orter f or t he M useum D evelopment A ssociation , w as a dapted f or t his p urpose . I ts s pecial q uality i s i ts a bility t o h andle c omplex h ierarchical d ata s tructures . A lthough i ntended f or t he p reparation o f c atalogues o f m useum c ollections , i t i s r eadily a pplicable t o t he p rocessing

2 5

o f o ther r ecords p repared i n a s imilar f ormat .

A ppendix I c ontains

t echnical d etails a bout t he w ay i n w hich t he p rogramme f or u se with t he T eotihuacan d ata , w hile e xtracts p rintouts a re i ncluded i n A ppendixes 2 a nd 3 a s e xamples t hese d ata c an b e p rocessed a nd r eproduced i n c atalogue D uring

t he l engthy p hase o f w hat w ould

s ome

p ackage w as a dapted f rom t he c omputer o f t he w ay i n w hich o r i ndex f orm .

i n c omputing

t erms

b e

c alled

s ystem a nalysis a nd d esign t here w as a g ood d eal o f i nteraction i n t he d evelopment o f t he a nalytical m ethodology a nd t he a daptation o f t he a pplications s oftware .

P erhaps t he c learest e xample i s t he f orm o n w hich

d escriptive m aterial r elating t o e ach a rtifact a nd t he r esults o f t he c ontextural a nalysis a re r ecorded . I ts d esign c onforms t o t he d ata s tructure o f t he c omputer p rogramme a s d oes t he c oding o f t he d ata f ields . I t t herefore s erves b oth a s a p ermanent w ritten r ecord o f t he a nalytical p rocess a nd a s t he s ource f or c omputer i nput . F igures 2 a nd 3 a re e xamples o f t he c ompleted f orm a nd i llustrate t he w ay i n w hich t wo m ural f ragments w ere a nalysed a nd t he c oding o f t he r esulting d ata . I n F igure 2 t he c ontext i s s emiotic ( BAS=SE 1 4 ) a nd t here a re t wo s igns ( X ) e ach w ith o ne a ffix ( Z ) . F igure 3 r epresents a r ather m ore c omplex c omposition i n w hich a f rontal S torm G od i mage i s s urrounded b y a quatic s igns . ( For d etails o f t he c oding u sed s ee A ppendix 1 ). T o b e e ffective b oth t he c omputer p rogramme a nd t he c ontextual a nalysis r equired a p recise a nd i nvariable t erminology .

T he n omenclature o f

s igns

a nd c ontexts s erved t his p urpose a nd c ame i n t ime t o f orm p art o f a s ystem o f k eywords i n w hich s tandard t erms a nd a bbreviations f or t he d escription o f a rtifacts a nd r elated r eference m aterial w ere i ncluded ( Appendix 4 ). T he c omputer p rogramme c an o utput t he p rocessed d ata i n v arious f orms . I t i s s pecifically d esigned t o p repare i ndexes i n w hich t he r elationships i n t he h ierarchical d ata s tructure a re c learly r eflected . r etrieval s ystem which r esponds t o s pecific q ueries c onveniently b e a nswered

f rom

t he

s ummary

i ndexes .

I t

I t a lso h as a w hich c annot

c an f or

e xample

p roduce a l ist o f a ll o ccurrences i n t he d ata o f t he a ssociation o f a p articular s ign a nd c ontext . T he i ndexing

c apability h as b een u sed

t o p roduce

t hree d ifferent

p rintouts: ( a) T he a rtifact c atalogue ( Appendix 2 ) . E ach e ntry i n t he c atalogue c ontains t he d ata r elating t o o ne a rtifact, t he c ontextual a nalysis b eing d isplayed i n t he f orm o f am ulti—level i ndex w hich r eflects t he h ierarchical a rrangement o f t he d ata . T he c atalogue i s s orted b y a rtifact t ype . T his c atalogue i s u seful a s a s ummary o f a ll t he i nformation a vailable a bout e ach a rtifact. ( b ) T he s ign i ndex ( Appendix 3 ) .

A s t he n ame i mplies,

t his i s

a r ecord o f a ll t he o ccurrences o f e ach s ign . E ach e ntry c onsists o f a n i dentifying n umber a nd t hat p art o f t he r elevant c ontextural a nalysis m ost c losely r elated t o t he s ign . I t i s f rom t his i ndex t hat t he p atterns o f s ign c lustering a nd o f t he a ssociation b etween s igns a nd c ontexts c an m ost e asily b e d erived. ( c ) T he

c ontext

i ndex

( not

r eproduced ) .

T his

i s s imilar t o

t he s ign i ndex b ut i s s orted b y c ontext n ame . T he e ntire e ntry o f p roved

c ontextual a nalysis

t he s ign a nd c ontext

t hat

t his

w ould

o f a n a rtifact c an b e i ncluded i n e ach

i ndexes .

H owever ,

i nvolve a n e normous

e xperimental p rintouts

a mount

o f

r epetition a nd

r edundant i nformation a nd t hat a m uch m ore u seful i ndex c ould b e p roduced b y r estricting e ach e ntry t o t hose c lusters m ost r elevant t o t he u sage o f t he

2 6

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2 8

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image.

s ign o r c ontext . h ierarchical

T his i s n ot e asy t o d etermine b ut f ortunately t he

a rrangement o f

t he

d ata

p rovides

a c riterion f or

e valuating

t he s ignificance o f s ign a nd c ontext p atterns . T his c riterion , t he d egree o f r elationship b etween i tems i n t he d endrogram, i s c ommonly u sed i n e veryday l ife ( as w hen o ne r efers t o c lose o r d istant r elations ) a nd a lso h as a m athematical c ounterpart i n t he m easures o f d istance a nd d ispersion u sed i n c luster a nalysis . I t a lso r eflects t he p hysical d ispersion o f s igns a nd c ontexts o n t he a rtifacts . T here

c an b e

n o d oubt a bout

t he s ignificance o f

c lusters o f d irectly

r elated s igns , t he " fraternal" c lusters m entioned e arlier . T he m embers o f s uch a c luster a re r elated b y a c ommon p arent . E xperience s uggests t hat o ther d egrees o f d irect l ineal d escent a re a lso l ikely t o b e s ignificant a s i s c lose l ateral r elationship t hrough a c ommon a ncestor a t o ne r emove ( i .e . a g randparent) . A ll s igns a nd c ontexts w ithin t hese d egrees o f r elationship a re t herefore i ncluded i n t he e ntries o f e ach s ign a nd c ontext . T his w ill n ot n ecessarily r eveal a ll s ignificant a ssociations a mong s igns b ut , i n t he i nterest o f s implicity a nd e conomy , e xtensions o f t hese b asic c lusters a re l eft f or e xamination t hrough t he r etrieval s ystem o r b y s crutiny o f t he g eneral a rtifact c atalogue i f t here a re g rounds f or t hinking t hat t hey may b e s ignificant . S tatistical d ata c an a lso b e d erived f rom t he c omputer p rogramme b ut i s u sed s paringly i n t he f ollowing c hapters . T he m ain r eason i s t hat t he d ata a re n ot a r andom s ample . I n t he o riginal r esearch d esign t he i dentification o f s igns a nd t heir u se p atterns w as c onsidered p aramount . A rtifacts w ere , t herefore , s elected t o p rovide t he l argest p ossible n umber o f d ifferent p atterns o f s ign a nd c ontext a ssociation a nd r epetitive d ata i n t he f orm o f s imilar m oldmade f igurines a nd a dornos a nd d uplicate m otifs i n mural p aintings w ere e xcluded . T his s ource o f b ias w as a ggravated w hen , a s t he s tudy p rogressed , i t b ecame c lear t hat i t w ould b e i mpossible t o d eal c omprehensively w ith a ll t he i nteresting s ign c lusters t hat w ere e merging . I t w as t hen d ecided t o s elect a n umber o f e xamples t ypical o f d ifferent p atterns o f a ssociation a nd d iscuss t hem m ore f ully t han w ould b e p ossible i n a g eneral s urvey . A ll a vailable e xamples o f t hese c lusters , a mong w hich a re t hose d escribed i n t he f ollowing c hapters a s t he C ore c luster , t he M anta C ompound a nd P anel c luster , t he F eather H eaddress S ymbol a nd l inear s equences, w ere s ought o ut a nd i ncluded i n t he s ample . T he r esult i s t hat s tatistics b ased o n t he d ata a s aw hole h ave o nly l imited u tility . A much l arger a nd r andom s ample o f d ata a nd more e xtensive u se o f s tatistical

m ethods

w ould

c ertainly b e h elpful i n t he s olution o f s everal

p roblems t hat h ave a risen i n t he c ourse o f t he s tudy . T he m ethodology a nd c omputer p rogramme c an e asily b e a dapted t o m eet s uch n eeds.

P atterns o f a ssociation a nd m eaning. T he m ain p urpose o f t he m ethodology d iscussed a bove i s

t o p roduce a n

o bjective a nd f actual s ummary o f s ign u sage t hat i s c apable o f s peaking f or i tself . I f t he s ign a nd c ontext a ssociations i t r eveals a re r andom , t he u sage c annot b e n otational . H owever, e vidence o f t he r epetition , d eliberate v ariation a nd o rdering c haracteristic o f c ommunication w ould c reate a p resumption i n f avour o f n otation which c ould t hen b e f urther e xplored b y t he m ethods o f c ryptography .

2 9

T he meaning o f s igns n eed p lay n o p art i n t he e arly s tages o f t he a nalysis b ut u ltimately t he e xistence o f a n otational c onfirmed b y d ecoding

s ystem c an o nly b e

t he i nformation e mbodied i n t he s ign c lusters .

M eaning m ay a lso c ontribute t o o ur u nderstanding o f s ign u sage d uring a nalytical p rocess .

t he

I t p rovides r eassurance t hat a c luster i s n ot m erely a

d ecorative a rrangement o f s igns o r a n a ccident o f j uxtaposition a nd i t m ay s uggest h ow s igns a re b eing u sed a nd t hus d irect a ttention t owards o ther i nstances o f t he s ame u sage . T he r ecurrence i n h eaddresses o f t wo s igns s uch a s K nife a nd D rop ( Reference 2 81), f or e xample , i mplies s omething a bout t he a ttributes o f t he w earer a nd l eads t o t he e xpectation t hat o ther s igns m ay a lso b e u sed a ttributively i n h eaddresses. I nterpretation b eing n otoriously s ubjective a nd u ncertain ,

t his k ind o f

c ross-checking b etween meaning a nd p attern must b e u sed w ith c aution . H owever , c onvincing e vidence o f t he meaning o f a t l east a f ew s igns i s p resent i n t he i magery w ith w hich t hey a re a ssociated a t T eotihuacan o r i n t he s ign s ystems o f o ther m esoamerican c ultures. S ince m uch o f T eotihuacan i magery i s d irectly d erived f rom n ature a nd c an b e i dentified a t l east i n ag eneral w ay , t he meaning o f s igns m ay s ometimes b e d educed f rom t he c ontexts w ith w hich t hey a re a ssociated . R easoning o f t his k ind i s p articularly c onvincing w hen t he s ign i s i tself p ictographic .

S everal l evels o f c onnotation m ay b e i nvolved i n t he k nife-

d rop c luster c ited a bove , b ut a t l east i ts s uperficial m eaning i s s uggested b y t he f act t hat i n n ature l iquid i s p roduced w hen a s ubstance l ike f ruit o r f lesh i s c ut . M ore c omplex c lusters o f t his k ind w ill b e d iscussed i n t he n ext t wo c hapters . A lthough t here i s a lways s ome u ncertainty a bout h ow s table t he meaning o f s igns i s o ver t ime a nd d istance a nd i n s ocieties o f d ifferent c ulture , e thnohistorical a nalogy may a lso c ontribute t o o ur u nderstanding o f T eotihuacan s igns a nd t heir u sage . T he k nife/drop c luster i s , f or e xample , r eminiscent o f t he h uman a nd a nimal s acrifice p racticed i n s everal o ther m esoamerican c ultures a nd t his a nalogy m ust b e t aken i nto a ccount w hen t he t wo s igns o ccur t ogether i n t his o r o ther c lusters a nd c ontexts. I t

r emains

p resent s tudy .

t hat

i nterpretation i s n ot a s ignificant

H owever,

o bjective

o f

t he

t he i nterplay o f m eaning a nd p attern will b e

i nvoked i n t he f ollowing c hapters w hen i t a ppears r easonable a nd u seful t o d o s o.

3 0

V T HE I NCIDENCE A ND S IMPLE C LUSTERING O F S IGNS W hether d ue t o d estruction o ver t he a ges o r d isinterest i n t he m edium , a s a ppears t o b e t he c ase i n t he M inoan c ulture , t he p aucity o f s culpture i n a c ity a s g randiose a nd m onumental a s T eotihuacan i s s urprising a nd d isappointing i n t hat i t d eprives u s o f what i n o ther s ocieties o f c omparable p ower a nd d evelopment i s a p rime s ource o f h istorical a nd r eligious i nformation . W hat m ay b e n otational s igns d o a ppear o n a f ew s culpted f acades a nd s tone b locks b ut m ost o f t he e vidence o f s ign u sage i s f ound o n o ther t ypes o f a rtifact , o f w hich p ottery a nd m ural p aintings a re t he m ost a ccessible . T he i mmediately n oticeable f eature o f d ecoration i n t hese m edia i s t he g reat d ifference i n f requency w ith w hich v arious m otifs a ppear : f lowers , s hells a nd f eathers a bound a nd t he d epiction o f h umans a nd a nimals i n c eremonial o r r itual s ettings i s a lso c ommon . u tilitarian o bjects a nd d omestic s cenes a re r arely s hown .

O n t he o ther h and ,

T he r ange o f s ign f requencies. As imilar d ifference o ccurs i n t he i ncidence o f s igns a nd i s i llustrated b y T able 2 w hich l ists t he f requencies o f 2 0 c ommon s igns .

T hese s tatistics

p rovide a s tarting p oint f or t he e xamination o f s ign u sage a lthough t hey m ust b e t reated w ith c aution f or t he r easons m entioned i n t he l ast c hapter . S ome s igns — f or e xample T assel w hich i s c ommon i n f igurine h eaddresses a nd w ould p robably a ppear i n t he t able i f t he s ample w ere c ompletely r andom — a re o mitted b ecause o f t he e xclusion f rom t he d atabase o f s imilar m oldmade f igurines a nd d uplicate m ural p aintings . A s econd s ource o f d eliberate b ias , t he s earch f or a nd i nclusion i n t he d atabase o f a s m any e xamples a s p ossible o f a f ew s ign c lusters t hat a re t o b e e xamined i n d epth , h as r esulted i n a g reater r epresentation o f s ome s igns ( such a s t he R E a nd R N ) t han w ould o ccur i n a r andom s ample . T hey h ave t herefore b een l eft o ut o f t he t able a nd a re b eing c onsidered s eparately i n C hapters V I , V III a nd X . D espite t he b ias, T able 2 p rovides s ome i nsights i nto s ign u sage a t T eotihuacan . F irst, t he i mportance o f t he n atural e nvironment i n t he c omposition o f s igns i s s uggested b y t he f act t hat a bout t hree—quarters o f t hose l isted i n t he t able h ave a f airly c lear p ictographic o rigin a nd , o f t hese , o ne—third r epresent o bjects m ade i n w hole o r i n p art b y m an ( Array F eather ,

R oundel ,

C &B ,

E ye G oggled E a nd P anels O blique ) .

A r ough c heck

i ndicates t hat t hese p roportions a re a bout t he s ame i n t he c ompendium a s a w hole . A lthough t he o vert p ictographic m eaning o f as ign m ay b e r emote f rom i ts r eal c onnotation , i t c an p rovide u seful l eads i n t he e xploration o f s ign u sage . F or e xample , t he u nexpected p resence o f s everal " eye" s igns i n t he t able s uggests t hat t he u se o f t he e ye m etaphor i n t he s ymbolism o f T eotihuacan w ould b e ar ewarding s ubject f or s tudy . C onversely , t he a bsence o f s hells i s s urprising c onsidering t he p rominence o f w ater s ymbolism t here a nd d efies a ny s imple e xplanation . I t m ight b e a rgued t hat, a lthough s everal s hell s igns h ave b een d ifferentiated i n t he c ompendium o n t he b asis o f s hape a nd s urface d ecoration , t hey a re a ll i nsignificant v ariants o f a s ingle s ign w ith a n a quatic c onnotation . S uch a s ign w ould c ertainly b e c ommon e nough f or i nclusion i n t he t able . A lternatively , i f t he d ifferentiation o f t he s igns i s s ignificant , o ne w ould e xpect t he c ontextual

3 1

a nalysis

t o

p rovide e vidence o f d iversity i n t heir m eanings a nd u sage ,

i n

w hich c ase t heir e xclusion f rom t he t able w ould b e l ess p uzzling . S econd ,

t he v ariability o f s ign f requency ,

w hich i s f airly l imited i n

t he t able b ut c an e xceed a r atio o f 5 0 t o 1 i n t he d ata s ample a s a w hole , r eflects s everal d ifferent a spects o f t heir u sage . W hile i t i s n ot p ossible t o d etermine a p riori w hether s igns w ere c apable o f e xpressing a w ide r ange o f i deas o r w ere n arrowly l imited a s t o s ubject matter , t heir r elative f requency i s g enerally i ndicative o f t he s ignificance a ttached b y T eotihuacan s ociety t o t he c oncepts t hey e xpress : t hey m ay b e i ntrinsically i mportant i n t erms o f i ts b eliefs , o rganisation o r a ctivities ; t hey m ay b e a ssociated w ith p opular t hemes o r s ubjects o f i ts v isual i magery o r t hey m ay s imply b e u seful , a s a re t he d eterminatives o f h ieroglyphic w riting s ystems . T hus , i f t he m eaning o f a s ign c an b e d etermined , i ts r elative f requency w ill c ontribute t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he s ociety . F requency i s a lso m ore f ormally r elated t o t he m eaning a nd u sage o f s igns i n t hat a s ign w ith m ultiple m eanings o r a b road g eneric c onnotation m ay b e e xpected t o o ccur m ore o ften t han o ne w ith a s ingle o r e xtremely s pecific m eaning . T he t hird c olumn o f T able 2 p rovides a s ummary , b ased o n t he c ontextual a nalysis , o f t he w ays i n w hich e ach s ign i s m ost o ften u sed i n t he d ata s ample . T he s triking f act w hich e merges i s t hat o ver o ne—half o f t he s igns o ccur i n t he b orders o f mural p aintings, i n t he r im a nd b asal b ands o f p ottery v essels a nd a s t he e nclosures o r t rim o f o ther m otifs . T hese a re v ery c ommon s tructural f eatures o f T eotihuacan i magery a nd i t i s n ot s urprising t hat s igns f orming p art o f t hem s hould b e h igh i n t he f requency t able . A s t o w hy s igns s hould h ave b een u sed s o f requently i n t his w ay , K ubler ( 1967 : 8 ) h as s uggested t hat f rames a nd b orders o ften f unction a s a djectival q ualifiers o f t he s pace which t hey e nclose o r a djoin ; f or e xample, t hat t hey i ndicate whether t he s pace i n q uestion i s o f t he c elestial r ealm , w hether p ersons d epicted a re o f h igh r ank e tc . W hile T able 2p resents o nly a p artial p icture , i t d oes s uggest a h eavy c oncentration o n a r elatively n arrow r ange o f s ymbolic m eaning i n s tructural c ontexts . T his w ill b e e xamined f urther i n C hapter V II b ut, i f K ubler i s c orrect, i t c learly i mplies t hat t he f ew s igns i nvolved must e xpress c oncepts a ppropriate t o t he w ide r ange o f i magery t hat a ppears within t he s pace e nclosed b y s uch c ontexts . •

A ll o f

t he

s igns

l isted i n T able 2 t hat o ccur

h ave b een i nterpreted i n t he p ast a nd ,

i n s tructural c ontexts

a lthough t he m eanings a ttributed t o

t hem c a nnot b e v erified f rom t he i nformation i n t he t able , i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat f ive h ave g enerally b een r egarded a s s ymbols f or l iquid ( Roundel , S croll C hain , C ircles C oncentric , E ye E longated a nd L ine W avy ) , t hree a s s ymbols f or f ire o r h eat ( Sawtooth , C &B , a nd E ye R homboid ) , o ne f or d ivinity o r p reciousness ( Fringe F eather ) a nd t wo a s f loral , p erhaps s ymbolising f ertility ( Flower P rofile A a nd Q uatrefoil ) . T he e vidence f or s ome o f t hese i nterpretations w ill b e c onsidered i n t he n ext c hapter a nd h ere i t s uffices t o n ote t he i mplication t hat t he r ange o f s ymbolic m eaning e xpressed b y s tructural c ontexts i s e ven n arrower t han s uggested a bove a nd i s v ery h eavily o riented t owards t he e lements o f f ertility ( water , h eat a nd t he d ivine ) v ital t o a c ommunity l argely d ependent o n p rimitive a griculture a nd l ocated i n a n a rea w ith a c apricious c limate . T he

o ccurrence

o f

f our

s igns

i n h eaddresses

r ecalls

t he m esoamerican

p ractice , c ommon f rom p reclassic t imes t o t he c onquest , o f i ndicating n ames a nd a ttributes o f a ffiliation a nd r ank i n t his w ay . T he m eaning o f t hese s igns c annot b e d etermined b y t heir f requency a lone b ut t he f act t hat t hey

3 2

Table 2 . mon s igns

Frequency i n the data s ample of 2 0 c oms tated a s p ercentages of t he f requency of Fringe F eather.

S ign

Fringe Feather Array Feather R oundel

Frequency

1 00 9 3 9 3

S croll Chain S awtooth Drop Circles Concentric

7 7 7 2 6 9 6 3

Trilobe C &B

6 3 6 1

D ots Multiple Circle 3 S croll Sound B Eye Elongated Eye G oggled E

6 1 5 8 5 4 4 9 4 5

Line Wavy F lower Profile A

4 4 4 2

Eye Rhomboid

3 7

Quatrefoil

3 7

Bands Interlaced Panels Oblique

3 3 3 3

Common U sage

As enclosure and border I n headdresses I n borders and a s discrete s ign As border As border As affix I n borders a nd a s discrete s ign; i n headdresses a nd p ectorals As affix I n borders a nd a s d iscrete s ign As i nfix I n headdresses A medium f or messages I n borders Attribute of c eremonial f igures As border I n borders a nd a s discrete s ign I n borders a nd a s discrete s ign As enclosure a nd d iscrete s ign As discrete s ign On adornos a nd i n h eaddresses

Note: As explained i n t he p le has l ed t o t he exclusion of t he t able.

3 3

t ext, bias i n the data s ams everal c ommon s igns f rom

a re s o c ommon w ould s uggest t hat n othing s o s pecific a s an ame i s i nvolved . A costa ( 1964 : 3 4) s uggests t hat a f eather a rray i s a s ign o f a h igh r ank o r , i n s ome c ases,

d ivinity while f or K ubler ( 1967:

9 ) f eathered e dges i n

h eaddresses a nd e lsewhere i ndicate " precious q uality" . T he p rimary a ssociations o f t he f eather a rray s ign w ould , i n f act , l end g eneral s upport f or s uch i nterpretations a lthough i ts u biquity o n p ottery f igurines a nd i n m ural p aintings o f e laborately c ostumed p ersons a nd o n t he b acks o f t hronel ike s eats a ppears m ore s pecifically r elated t o t emporal a nd s piritual a uthority . T he o ther t wo s igns ( Circle 3 a nd P anels O blique ) r emain e nigmatic u ntil t heir a ssociations c an b e m ore f ully e xamined . O ne o ther i tem i n t he t able c alls f or a b rief c omment .

S croll S ound i s

s omewhat a nomalous i n t hat i t a ppears n ot t o r epresent a q uality o r a ttribute b ut t o e xpress a n a ction . C haracteristically s ound s crolls a djoin t he m ouths

o f h umans

a nd a nimals .

T hey h ave g enerally b een r egarded a s

s ignifying s ound , a n i nterpretation a ll t he m ore p lausible f or t he o ther s igns t hat a re o ften d irectly a ssociated w ith t hem a s i nfixes o r a ffixes a nd w hich , i t h as b een s uggested ( Barthel 1 982) , c onstitute v erbal m essages c onveyed t hrough s peech a nd s ong . T his i nterpretation w ill b e e xamined i n C hapter I X . F or t he m oment , i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t he p rominence o f t he s ign i n T able 2 . I f i ts r ole a s a n i ndicator o f c ommunication w ere c onfirmed, o ne might b e t empted t o c onclude, o n t he b asis o f t he t able ( incomplete t hough i t i s ) , t hat t he e xchange o f i nformation w as a m ajor p reoccupation a t T eotihuacan a nd t hat t he d ominant t hemes o f i ts n otational s ystem h ad t o d o w ith a uthority ( secular a nd d ivine ) , l iquid a nd f ire , -all p erhaps u ltimately a s r elated a spects o f t he a gricultural f ertility o n w hich t he s ociety d epended . A lthough m ost o f t he s igns i n T able 2 a ppear i n s everal c onfigurations , f or e xample i n b orders a nd a s d iscrete s igns ,

c ontextual e vidence s uggests

t hat t heir m eaning i s i dentical i n t hese d ifferent u sages . A s ign a nd t he r eiteration o f t hat s ign i n ab order i s , p rima f acie , n ot l ikely t o i nvolve a m ajor c hange o f m eaning . H owever , t he p rimary a ssociations o f t hree s igns ( Dots M ultiple , P anels O blique a nd C ircles C oncentric ) i ndicate t hat e ach was u sed i n s ignificantly d ifferent w ays a nd c ontexts , w ith t he i mplication o f a c orresponding v ariety o f m eanings . B riefly , t he s ign D ots M ultiple h as u sually b een i nterpreted a s a s ymbol f or w ater b ut a lso o ccurs i n p rimary c ontexts s uggestive o f p added c otton o r f eathers ( for f urther d iscussion s ee C hapter V I ) . P anels O blique a ppears n ot o nly i n h eaddresses a nd a s a c lothing a ccessory , w here i t s eems t o r epresent a n o rnament o f c loth o r p aper , b ut a lso o n t he a dornos o f c ensers a nd t he u pper p ortions o f t hrone-like s eats where i t i s d ivorced f rom a ny o bvious u tilitarian f unction . F inally , C ircles C oncentric i s , i n i ts s implest a nd m ost c ommon f orm , av ariant o f t he f amiliar r oundel . h eaddresses

a nd

a s

t he

b asic

f orm

o f

I t a lso a ppears a s a n o rnament i n h ip

r osettes

( "texcacuitlapilli" i n

N ahuatl ) a nd p ectorals . W hether i n t hese u sages i t c onstitutes a s ign w hose m eaning i s d erived f rom R oundel o r , i ndeed , h as a ny m eaning a t a ll a part f rom r epresenting t he s hape o f t he r osette o r p ectoral i s f or t he m oment a n o pen q uestion . A d etailed e xamination o f t he a ssociation p atterns o f t he t hree s igns would b e r equired t o v erify w hether t heir m eanings v ary i n d ifferent c ontexts . I f s o, t heir i nclusion i n T able 2 w ould b e d ue t o t he c ulmination o f s everal s eparate i dentities ( possibly i ncluding n on-notational u sage ) . A t

t he l ower e nd o f t he f requency s pectrum a s ign m ay a ppear i n t he

d ata s ample o nly t wo o r t hree t imes a nd t he n arrow r ange o f i ts a ssociations w ith c ontexts a nd o ther s igns i nevitably i mplies a c orresponding s pecificity

3 4

o f m eaning .

F or e xample , a lthough n ot t he r arest o f s igns ,

P endant N ose G

a ppears o nly i n t he C ore c luster ( Chapter V III) t o w hich i ts m eaning m ust b e i ntimately r elated .

S imilarly , s everal o f t he c ompound s igns d iscussed a t

t he e nd o f t his c hapter a ppear o nly o n t he s tems o f f lowering p lants s uggesting t hat t hey m ay d esignate s pecific p laces, l ineages o r t he q ualities o f t he p lants t hemselves .

S imple c lustering. T he p rimary e vidence f or s ystem i n t he p atterning o f s ign u sage m ust l ie i n t he c lusters w hich t he s igns a ctually f orm o n T eotihuacan a rtifacts . T here a re a n umber o f w ays i n w hich t hese c ould b e e xplored , p erhaps t he m ost o bvious b eing t o t abulate w hat s igns a re a ssociated i n p airs , i n g roups o f t hree e tc . i n t he d ata s ample a s a w hole .

T his a nalysis r eveals s trong

p atterns o f a ssociation b ut p roduces v ery l arge i ncidence m atrixes t hat a re c lumsy t o h andle a nd d o n ot t hrow m uch l ight o n t he r ationale b ehind c luster f ormation . A n a lternative a pproach , b ased o n t he e xamination o f t he s tructure o f c lusters , o ffers a m eans o f e xploring t his r ationale a nd o f d ividing t he f ield o f s tudy i nto m ore m anageable p arts. S tructure , a s i ndicated i n t he l ast c hapter , i s d etermined b y t he i nter— r elationships o f s igns a nd c ontexts a nd t hese p rove t o c onform t o a l imited n umber o f t ypes t he e xamination o f which i s r evealing . T he most e lementary s tructure i s t he s ingle s ign w ithout a ny c ontext o ther t han t he a rtifact o n w hich i t a ppears . S trictly s peaking t his u sage i s r are a t T eotihuacan a nd p rovides l ittle i nsight i nto t he s ymbol s ystem e xcept t hat i t c onfirms t he i ntegrity o f s ome o f t he s igns i n t he c ompendium a nd i ndicates t hat t hey c ould b e u sed a s a bstractions , a ssociations .

d ivorced f rom a ll o ther

I t d oes , h owever , r aise t he i mportant q uestion w hether s igns

u sed i n t his w ay w ere d ecorative o r h ad a n otational s ignificance . I n t he a bsence o f c ontextual e vidence , t he a nswer i s i nherently p roblematical b ut T able 3 , w hich l ists t he s igns t hat a ppear i n t he d ata s ample w ithout o ther a ssociated s igns o r c ontexts, p rovides s ome c ircumstantial g rounds f or t hinking t hat , o n o ccasion a t l east , t he u sage c ould b e n otational . M ost o f t he e ntries i n t he t able r elate t o p ainted o r e ngraved p ottery v essels . T here i s a lso o ne r are e xample o f a s tone s culpture i n t he f orm o f a s ign , t he d istinctive T R A w ith c ircular i nfix . T his a rtifact a ppears r epeatedly a s a n " almena" ( merlon ) o n t he r oof o f t he Q uetzalpapalotl P alace a t T eotihuacan w here s ome f orm o f e mblematic f unction i s i mplied . A lthough t he e vidence i s l ess c ogent , a s imilar i nference m ight b e m ade i n t he c ase o f s igns o n c eremonial a nd r itual v essels , o n t he g rounds t hat t hese a re s trikingly d ifferent f rom t he s imple d ecorative m otifs o n u tilitarian w are . S ingle

s igns a nd s mall c lusters o ften a ppear

o n t he s lab f eet o f

c ylinder t ripod v essels a nd t he s mall p ottery o rnaments c alled ' adornos ' i n t he a rchaeology o f M esoamerica , b ut i t h as b een s omewhat d ifficult t o d ecide h ow t o t reat t hem i n t he a nalysis . T heir i conography m ust u ltimately b e a nalysed i n t he c ontext o f t he v essels t o w hich i t w as i ntended t hat t hey b e a ffixed . O n t he o ther h and, t hey a re o ften f ound i n e xcavations a nd m useum c ollections a s d etached a rtifacts a nd a bout a q uarter o f t he s igns i n t he c ompendium a ppear a lone o r i n s mall c lusters o n t hem . I t s eemed u ndesirable t o i gnore s uch a r ich s ource o f d ata b ut i t w ould h ave b een m isleading t o i nclude t hem a s e vidence f or t he n otational u se o f t he s ingle 6 .W s ign s ince t hey a lways a ppear i n a ssociation w ith o ther s igns o n t he M -1 v essels i n t he d ata s ample . T hey h ave , t herefore , b een e xcluded f rom T able 3 . H owever , t hese a rtifacts h ave a c ertain i ndependence b y v irtue o f t heir

3 5

Table

3 .

S igns a ppearing a lone on a rtifacts n os and f ragments excluded).

R eference

S ign

5 10 2 7 3 90

Bands I nterlaced B ar Hooked Bundle C Chevron Chain Circle A Eye Eye F eathered Eye G oggled E F lower F rontal F ootprint H atching F ourway Quatrefoil Rattle S erpent S hell GA S tepped Fret Tassel TR A Trilobe Trispiral

4 54 2 08 5 87 5 90 4 93 2 36 4 41 4 50 5 7 4 68 4 51 5 89 2 61 2 20 7 6

( ador-

A rtifact Pottery S tamp B owl Cylinder T ripod B owl Jar Vase B owl B owl B owl J ar Candelario B owl S tone s culpture Tripod v essel Tripod bowl B owl S tone s culpture B oot v essel S pouted v essel

Note: Adornos a re excluded, a lthough about a quarter of a ll s igns i n t he compendium m ay t ake t his f orm, because t hey d o n ot -o ut of c ontext -t hrow a ny l ight o n the q uest ion whether s ingle s ign u se i s d ecorative or n otational.

3 6

f unction a nd f abrication ,

b eing i ndividually m oldmade f or s ubsequent

a ttachment t o v essels t hat a re u sually h and-modeled . s eemed u seful a nd l egitimate t o u se t hem i n t he r est

o f

I t h as t herefore t his c hapter i n

w hich t wo s imple f orms o f s ign c lustering a re e xamined. T he

most

e lementary f orm

o f

c lustering ,

t hat

i n w hich s everal

s igns

a ppear t ogether w ithout c ontextual a ssociation , i s i llustrated b y T able 4 . L ike t he s ingle s ign i t i s r are a t T eotihuacan a nd u sually t akes t he f orm o f a s ign w ith a ffixes o r o f t wo o r t hree s eparate b ut a djacent s igns . T he t able n aturally e xcludes t hose v ariant s igns w hich a re f ormed b y a dding a m inor e lement, u sually a n i nfix , t o ab asic s ign a nd w hich a re a lready l isted i n t he c ompendium . A lso e xcluded a re c ompounds , t o b e d iscussed s eparately a t t he e nd o f t his c hapter . T able 4 i s

i nteresting f or t he e vidence i t o ffers o f t he e xistence o f

p atterns i n c lustering .

O f t he 4 5 s igns l isted i n 3 2 c lusters ,

s ix a ppear

t wice a nd o thers a ppear f rom t hree t o f ive t imes , w hile F angs A a nd T rilobe a re p resent s even t imes e ach . T his c learly r ules o ut m ere c hance i n t he f ormation o f c lusters, a c onclusion t hat i s r einforced b y w hat c an b e i nferred a bout t he m eaning o f t he s igns . C onfining a ttention t o t he t wo m ost c ommon s igns i n t he t able , i t m ay b e n oted t hat F angs A a nd T rilobe a re o bvious p ictographs . F angs A o ccurs i n t he n aturalistic d epiction o f a nimals a nd b utterflies . I ts m ain s ymbolic a ssociation i s w ith a d eity g enerally i dentified a s t he S torm G od ( see , f or e xample , P asztory 1 974) . I t i s a c ommon s ign a t T eotihuacan b ut , f or r easons a lready e xplained , w as e xcluded f rom T ables 2 a nd 3 . I ts p resence i n T able 4 i s a ccounted f or b y t he f act t hat i t a lso o ften a ppears o n t he s lab f eet o f c ylinder t ripod v essels . S everal o f t he c lusters t hus f ormed -notably w ith C ircle 3 a nd Q uincunx - h ave i n t he p ast b een i nterpreted a s a f orm o f a bbreviated r eference t o t he S torm G od ( e .g . P eterson 1 952 : 1 3) a nd w ill b e f ound , i n t he a nalysis o f S torm G od s ymbolism i n t he n ext c hapter, t o b e c losely a ssociated w ith t hat d eity . M ore r ecently , i t h as b een s uggested t hat F angs A i n t he f orm o f an ose p endant ( Pendant N ose B ) i s c haracteristic o f a p rominent f emale d eity , n amed t he G ran D iosa o r D iosa M ayor ( Pasztory 1 973(a): 1 55-158 ; T aube 1 983) a mong whose s ymbolism t he o ther s igns mentioned a bove a lso o ccur . I n e ither c ase , t hese p articular c lusters a re d rawn f rom t he s ymbolic r epertoire o f, a nd i nvoke, e ntities whose r epresentations a re c ommon a t T eotihuacan . T he

r ecurrent a ssociation o f F angs A w ith v essel f eet i n T able 4

s uggests t hat a nother f actor , t he p ropensity o f t he T eotihuacan a rtist t o v isual p unning , m ay h ave p layed a r ole i n t he c omposition o f t hese c lusters . A m otif o f t he s ame g eneral c onfiguration a s F angs A a ppears f requently a s a n a ffix t o M aya d ay s igns ( T125) a nd i s d escribed b y T hompson ( 1971: 6 7) a s a s upport f or t he g lyph 's c artouche . A s imilar m otif o ccurs b elow t he ' long-lipped monster ' h eads which d ecorate c ertain T eotihuacan c ylinder t ripods o f t he X olalpan p hase a nd h as b een i dentified b y Q uirarte ( 1973 : 1 5) a s ap edestal . T his c oncept o f t he m otif a s as upport c oincides w ell w ith t he f unction o f v essel f eet a nd m ay h ave i nfluenced i ts i nclusion i n t he c lusters t hat a ppear o n t hem . T he

t rilobe

i s

a p ictographic

s ign

f or d ripping

1 947a ) a nd h as a lready m ade i ts a ppearance a s

l iquid

( von W inning

a c ommon a ffix i n T able

2 .

I t i s h ere a ssociated w ith a n umber o f o ther s igns, m ost o f w hich a re a bstract . N ot m uch c an b e i nferred f rom t he t able a bout t he m eaning o f t hese c lusters , a part f rom t he t enuous l ink w ith t he c oncept o f l iquid . H owever , t he n aturalistic i nterpretation o f E ye/Trilobe i s p lausible , a t

3 7

4 o o

7 5

g i g i u ) r4 , 1 E c ne g 4 u ) c n c n 3 ul Z 0 0 c n 0 t 31 3 3 ( I c n g i o u ) I v a ) o 4 ) ord r d cu r c i Z 00 4 CD 7 1 CD > > > ( 1 ) < < > > Zr z l>

g i 0 , i f t i > 1 K 1 0

4 0

Artifact

00 00

4 ) -

0

4 14 4

4 4

0 o a . )

4 1 4 1

, 1 I 1 -

4 ) 0 0

o 0

41

r 1 1 ) 0 0 , 1 0 -

r 1

0 C24 r 1 0 , 1 0 41

1

context.

go u o p

qa d mn a I agoTT.I I

aT Tj o J d

uT PI ID

TI n xs

TT 01 2 'T

Ae ma n o ä

I

S S

BuTt loq p H zeqsg reri ab uT J J

V

G ug oa d

aa moT,1

association

y g

sb ue j

paT 5 5 o5

X X

X

aA g doJc i

qq n qq a w l X

eT 3aT D

X

G9 D a

aT pun g mo g

r iz aq oßT g r a r t i ( 1 ) 1 . ) U C) r d r d r 1,1 a ) ' C D r d 1 ) 4 C L ) . , 1 + H 0 ( t i 0 C I )r d r d

H ( t i . U

r C 5 C D 4 cn c l , I

r d a ) r C i 4 ) I 1 ( c s 0 tr A . E g i 0 0 r d , - I . 4 -)

a )

3 > , ( D O W E I W r d > U T )

a )

R 4

g io

, a )

K 1 ( e e a ) cv 44 K 2 C \ \

L k 7 5 r c l ( 4(4 1 4 1 4

( i ) c u r --

, . H 0 > 1 > 1 › , r d 1 r c i r 1 o l r d « 30

1 0 0 >m

0

H

M

H

a )re

• 34 . )a )a )1 ) 00 4 )e o

r d 0

a . )

PS B B B B B

P P P

BP

Note:

The u sage of the explained in the

abbreviations B , t ext.

5 9

P and S i s

l iquid .

U nfortunately , a s a lready m entioned , P anel F alling A c an p lausibly

b e i nterpreted i n s everal w ays o f w hich o nly o ne , t he l ibation , i s d irectly c onnected w ith l iquid a nd t his i nterpretation r elies e ssentially o n t he p resence o f t he s croll c hain a ffix . S uch c ircular r easoning i s a voided i n t he c ase o f t he o ther c ontext, t he S torm G od, e vidence f or whose i dentification w ith l iquid i s p rovided b y s everal p ictographs w ith w hich h e i s

a ssociated

( as

i n T able

7 a nd 8 )

a nd

b y e thnohistorical

a nalogy .

I n

e ffect , t he v isual r esemblance o f t his e ntity f rom T eotihuacan a nd t he P ostclassic r ain d eity T laloc i s s triking a nd u niversally a ccepted a s a v alid b asis f or c onsidering t he f irst a s t he a ntecedent f or t he s econd w ith m uch t he s ame c haracteristics . T hus t he s inuous r od , w ith i ts a quatic a ssociation i s v isually ( "coatopilli" i n N ahuatl )

a nd c onceptually a kin t o t he s erpent s taff w ith w hich T laloc c onjured u p t hunderbolts a nd

l ightning , a nd t he t rilobal b ag m ight b e e quated w ith w hich t he r ains w ere p oured f orth .

t he

c ontainer f rom

B efore l eaving T able 8 i t m ay b e w orth m entioning t hat t he i tem " Sign S equence" r epresents a l inear s equence o f s igns i n which s hells a re p rominent . I ts o ccurrence w ithin P anel F alling A s uggests t hat t he l atter may , l ike t he s ound s croll, f unction a s a m edium f or messages . T his p ossibility w ill b e e xamined w ith o ther f orms o f l inear s ign s equence i n C hapter I X . T he r est o f t his s ection w ill c onsider w hat i nformation c an b e d erived f rom t he a nalytical m ethod a pplied t o t wo o bscure s igns , o ne w ith a p ossible p ictographic r eference, t he o ther e vidently a bstract. D ots M ultiple .

T he a mbiguity o f t his s ign h as a lready b een m entioned i n

C hapter V w here t he q uestion w as r aised w hether i ts f requency i n T able 2 m ight b e a ccounted f or b y a m ultiplicity o f m eanings r ather t han b y o ne u nique b ut c ommon c onnotation . T he s ign m ay o ccur i n t he f orm o f d ots o r d ashes i n m ural p aintings a nd o n p ainted p ottery o r a s t he p unctate s urface o f p ottery f igurines , a dornos a nd v essels . I t u sually f unctions a s a n i nfix a nd t hus s eems t o q ualify t he c ontext o r s ign with w hich i t i s a ssociated r ather t han e xisting a s an otational s ign i n i ts own r ight . T he o nly s ignificant e xceptions a re i n a s emiotic c ontext , t he " Four E lement G roup" , w here i t i s a ssociated o n a b asis o f e quality w ith o ther s igns ( see C hapter V III ) a nd t he s ign P atch , w hich i s s omewhat i ndeterminate a nd m ight b e r egarded s imply a s a c ontainer f or D ots M ultiple . I t h as i n t he p ast b een i nterpreted a s a p ictograph f or r ain o r w ater ( von W inning 1 977b : 1 9) a nd , w hen i t o ccurs o n t he b odies o f h uman ( and p erhaps z oomorphic ) f igures , a s s ignifying q uilted c lothing a nalogous t o t he p added c otton a rmour w orn b y P ostclassic w arriors ( S6journg 1 966b : 1 06-112). I n o rder t o e valuate s uch i nterpretations , t he s igns a nd c ontexts w ith w hich D ots M ultiple c lusters d irectly a re t abulated i n t he t wo p arts o f T able 9 . I n P art I t he s ign o ccurs a s a n i nfix i n a nother s ign o r c ontext w ithout o ther a ssociations while i n P art I I i t f orms p art o f l arger c lusters . T he f igures e ntered i n t he t able i ndicate t he n umber o f o ccurrences i n t he d ata s ample, t he l etter M s ignifying ' many '. P erhaps t he most i nteresting c onclusion t o b e d rawn i s t he marked d ifference i n t he c haracter o f t he c lusters i n t he t wo p arts o f T o b egin w ith P art I I , m ost o f t he c lusters l isted c ontain s igns a quatic c onnotation . T his p rovides c ircumstantial e vidence i n t he r ain o r w ater i nterpretation i n t he c ase o f t he t rilobal b ag ,

t he t able . w ith s ome f avour o f t he s ound

s croll w ith d rop a nd s hell i nfixes a nd t he f alling p anel w ith s hell i nfix o r s croll c hain a ffix . O ne o ther i nteresting c luster s uggests t hat P atch m ay , o n o ccasion a t l east ,

s ignify l iquid .

6 0

I t o ccurs o n t he t wo a quatic p lants ,

Table 9 . S ign clusters directly a ssociated with Dots Multiple in r epresentational contexts.

I .

D ots Multiple o ccurs a s an infix in w ithout other a ssociated s igns:

s igns

Sign

Drop Patch S croll Sound Trefoil E

II.

Context

Bird ( body) Canine ( head) Headdress ( turban) Panel Falling A Undergarment ( human)

5

Dots Multiple also occurs

in

r

U

Circle/Oval Falling Falling Falling Falling

4 4 5

Associated with

r d

Bag Trilobal Patch Scroll S ound Scroll S ound * Scroll S ound Scroll S ound

2

l arger c lusters:

and

I nfixed i n

Panel Panel Panel Panel

and c ontexts

( 1

t r W

0

0

A

0

0

0 0 > ir1 W W

1

. c )

t r

H H 0

M

U M

0 01 c r M M

1

1 1

e

1 3 1

1

A A A A

3 2 1

Note: Variants of s igns are s eparately l isted i n this and other t ables only if the d ifferentiation i s significant in understanding s ign u sage.

6 1

c ited a bove a t t he e nd o f t he a nalysis o f t he e longated e ye , i n t he s tems o f w hich P atch a nd E ye E longated a lternate . T he D rop ,

s ituation

r evealed

b y P art

I i s m arkedly d ifferent .

A part

f rom

t he s igns a nd c ontexts w ith w hich D ots M ultiple i s a ssociated a s s ole

i nfix h ave n o c onclusive a quatic c onnection , n or d o t hey l end t hemselves t o a ny s imple p ictographic i nterpretation . A f alling p anel w ith d ot i nfix i s a s c onsistent w ith s eed s owing o r d ivining w ith maize k ernels a s w ith l ibation a nd t he i nterpretation o f d otted c lothing o r h eaddresses a s q uilted c otton d epends o n a much b roader s pectrum o f c ontextual i nformation t han i s a vailable i n T able 9 . ( For a d iscussion o f t he d otted h uman u ndergarment s ee C . M illon 1 973: 3 11) . H owever , t he h eterogeneity o f P art I o f t he t able d oes s upport t he n otion t hat D ots M ultiple h as s everal d istinct m eanings i n a ddition t o t he a quatic c onnotation e vinced b y t he c lusters o f P art I I . C hevron C hain . T his s ign , w hich h as a ttracted l ittle a ttention a mong s tudents o f T eotihuacan , h as n o o bvious p ictographic p rototype . I t i s, h owever , w ell-known i n t he p ictorial m anuscripts o f t he M ixteca a nd h as b een i dentified b y C aso a s t he s ign f or a w arpath ( Caso 1 977: IIg ) . I ( 1973 :

2 9 a nd L amina

S mith s uggests t hat i t m ay r epresent t he M ixtec w ord f or ' e r i (m W 3) . I t i s n ot u ncommon a t T eotihuacan a nd o ccurs i n a ll t hree t ypes 3

o f c ontext , t he r epresentational b eing t he m ost c ommon . I t i s t herefore i nteresting t o e xamine i ts p attern o f c lustering t o s ee w hether t here m ight b e s ome a ffinity o f u sage b etween t he t wo c ultures , s eparated a s t hey a re i n b oth t ime a nd s pace .

T he r elevant i nformation i s g iven i n T able 1 0 ,

i n

w hich t he c lusters i nvolving C hevron C hain i n r epresentational c ontexts a re t abulated . T he c overage i s s lightly b roader t han i n p revious t ables o f t his k ind i n t hat i t a ppeared f rom t he c omputer a nalysis t hat s ome s igns which f ell j ust o utside t he ' fraternal ' c luster m ight n evertheless b e s ignificant f or t he i nterpretation . T hese f ew s igns h ave t herefore b een i ncluded i n t he t able . I n t he l isting o f c ontexts, t he c onventions o f T able 8 a re f ollowed . I t i s i mmediately c lear t hat , i n s o f ar a s t he d ata s ample i s c oncerned , t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he s ign m ight m ean " warpath" a s i n t he M ixteca . T here i s , h owever , a s trong c orrelation b etween t he s ign a nd t he w eaponry a nd a ccoutrements a ssociated w ith a rmed p ersons: s hields, h ip r osettes a nd q uilted p rotective c lothing. O f t he 1 e ntries i n T able 1 0 t hree i nclude k nives a nd, i ndicates ,

k nives ,

d arts ,

a s t he f ootnote

d arts a ppear o r a re h eld b y h uman f igures i n a nother f our .

I n

t wo o f t hese a n a tlatl ( spear t hrower ) i s a lso c arried w hile i n a nother a ' h ip r osette i s w orn . W hile l ess c onclusive t han w eapons a s e vidence o f m artial c haracter a t T eotihuacan , t he h ip r osette w as a d istinctive i nsignia o f t he w arrior i n t he s ucceeding T oltec c ult ure . I t e xisted a s a n i tem o f A ztec d eity a ttire , t he " array o f Q uetzalcoatl" g iven b y M octezuma t o C ortgs h aving i ncluded t he " yoan t ezcacujtlapilli q uetzallo" . T his , m ore s imply c alled t he " tezcacuitlapilli" , i s d escribed a s " a m irror u pon t he s mall o f t he b ack , w ith q uetzal f eathers; a nd t his m irror . . . . w as a s t hough p rovided w ith a s hield o f t urquoise ( mosaic ) -encrusted w ith t urquoise ' ' . T he a rray i s s aid a lso t o h ave i ncluded t he t urquoise s pear t hrower ( Sahagun V olume 1 2 :11 a nd f ootnote 5 ) . T he i tem w as e specially p rominent a t T ula a nd C hichen I tza o n A tlantean f igures a nd s culpted c olumns r epresenting T oltec w arriors , w here i t w as d escribed b y S eler a s a r osette o n t he r ear k not o f t he l oincloth ( GA V : 2 75) . I t a ppears t o h ave h ad t he s ame f unction a t T eotihuacan .

I t o ccurs i n o ne o ther e ntry i n T able 1 0, a

6 2

Table

1 0.

S ign c lusters d irectly or c losely a ssociated with Chevron Chain i n r epresentational contexts.

Context

S igns

Fraternal

U . 1 -

. . g i . 1 e a l

a

120 610 127 423 * 550 * 552 42

BP BP B B B B B

* 290-1 2 90-2 4 70 488

B B B

*

Quincross

Loincloth

e e m l a ) x

Rosette

Ref

Headdress

U ) W W

Pectoral

0 E 0 0 N

• e E • x

Associated

x x x x x x x

P P

x

P P S

P

x

P

x

x x

P

x p

P

Figure

x x x

x B

carries darts

x

and,

6 3

in two

cases,

an a tlatl.

f ragmentary m ural i n w hich a h uman f igure c arries a s tandard o r s taff .

A p rima f acie r elationship b etween t he c hevron c hain a nd military e quipment a lso o ccurs i n o ne f urther e ntry , af ragmentary f igurine w earing a h uman m ask p ectoral ( Reference 4 70 ) . v on W inning ( 1978) h as a rgued t hat p ottery f igurines w earing a h uman m ask p ectoral a nd c lothing c haracterised b y p unctate m ultiple d ots c an b e i dentified a s w arriors .

U nfortunately t he

a vailable i llustration d oes n ot m ake c lear w hether t he c ostume i n R eference 4 70 i s p unctate . O ne f igurine w ith i ndisputable p unctate c lothing a nd a n a pparent c hevron c hain o n h is l oincloth h as n ot b een i ncluded i n T able 1 0 s ince o nly a r ather i mpressionistic d rawing o f t he a rtifact i s a vailable ( S6journ6 1 959 : F igure 6 5c ) . T here r emain t wo e ntries i n t he t able f or w hich a r elationship b etween t he c hevron c hain a nd m artial e quipment o r s ymbolism c annot b e d emonstrated a lthough i t r emains a p ossibility . O ne ( Reference 4 23) h as a c hevron c hain b and a round a p air o f s erpent h eads i n a ' wide ' h eaddress . T he h eaddress a lso c ontains a m otif , w ith p endant d rops , w hich m ay r epresent a l ithic k nife . T he r est o f t he s ymbolism i s d istinctly a quatic . T he f inal e ntry ( Reference 4 88) i s f ragmentary b ut h as a n u nmistakable a nthropomorphic b ird a s i ts c entral m otif , r ecalling t he b irds t hat v ery o ften a ccompany a rmed f igures a t T eotihuacan o r a ppear w ith c rossed d arts a s a n i nsignia o f p ersons w earing p unctate c lothing ( see n ext p age ) . A lthough t he f act d oes n ot e merge f rom T able 1 0 , i t i s p erhaps s uggestive t hat f ive o f t he o ther e ntries i n t he t able a lso h ave s ome a vian a ssociation . T he e vidence i s ,

o f c ourse ,

c ircumstantial a nd t he a ssociation b etween

C hevron C hain a nd martial f igures may b e c oincidental b ut n o b etter h ypothesis o f s ignificant c ontextual a ssociation e merges f rom T able 1 0 . T he r elationship d oes n ot , h owever , h old g ood i n r everse , i ndicating t hat t he u se o f t he s ign w as s elective . I n t he W hite P atio o f A tetelco , f or e xample , w here m en-at-arms a re t he p redominant m otif , b eing r epeated m any t imes i n d ifferent g uises o n t he t ableros o f t he t hree p orticos , t here i s o nly o ne p ossible e xample o f t he C hevron C hain , n ot m entioned i n T able 1 0 a s t oo u ncertain , a lthough i t w ill b e d iscussed b elow . C uriously , t he •a djoining P ainted P atio c ontains a c onspicuous C hevron C hain o n a t ablero f rame ( Miller 1 973 : F igure 3 50) . T he d ecoration o f t he a djacent w all h as d isappeared c ompletely b ut t here w as o riginally a f rieze o f c urved k nives o n t he

t alud

b elow

( C .

M illon -personal

c ommunication J uly

1 985) .

I t

i s

i mpossible , o n t he a vailable d ata , t o d o m ore t han s peculate a s t o t he b asis f or t he s elective u se o f t he s ign . W hile

i t

i nvolves

a nticipating

t he

r esults

o f

l ater

c hapters ,

i t

i s

w orth m entioning h ere t hat C hevron C hain a lso a ppears i n t he d ata s ample o n s ix o ccasions i n c ontexts w hich a re n ot r epresentational b ut which a re r elevant t o t he f oregoing d iscussion . I n o ne i t f orms t he b asal b and o n a s herd f rom a e ngraved p ottery v essel w hose p rincipal d ecoration c onsists o f t he r epresentation o f o bsidian k nives ( Reference 4 36) . A nother ( Reference 4 66) i s t ypical o f ag roup o f p ottery a dornos i n w hich a n o bsidian k nife i s c apped b y a t rilobal s ign . T his i s C ompound C b ut d iffers f rom t he u sual d epiction i n t hat t he i nfixed h atching o r s awtooth t hat r epresents t he f laked e dge o f t he b lade i s r eplaced b y a c hevron c hain . S gjourng ( 1959 : F igure 1 05) p rovides e xamples o f t hese d epictions . T hat t his c onvention m ay a lso a ppear i n r epresentational m ural p aintings i s s uggested b y o ne o f t he f igures o n t he t alud o f p ortico 3 o f t he W hite P atio m entioned a bove , w ho h olds

b oth d arts a nd a n o bsidian k nife a pparently w ith c hevron c hain

6 4

i nfix , a lthough t he m ural i s s omewhat d eteriorated a nd o ther f igures i n t he s ame s eries c arry k nives o f t he m ore c onventional k ind ( Miller 1 973 :

F igure

3 41) . I n a ny c ase, t he a ssociation b etween k nife a nd c hevron c hain i s s ufficiently f requent t o s uggest t he p ossibility o f a p ictographic o rigin f or t he s ign o r a t l east a c onceptual l ink b etween t he t wo . T wo o ther n on-representational c ontexts i n w hich C hevron C hain a ppears a lso m erit a b rief m ention h ere .

T he i nner b order o f t he r emarkable

Maguey P riests m ural ( Miller 1 973 : F igure 3 66) c onsists o f a c hevron c hain . T he p rincipal f igure o ccupying t he e nclosed s pace w ears a h ip r osette c ontaining t he s ign B ellshape A ( which a ppears t o b e a n i nsignia ) a nd t he o uter b order , w ith w hich t he C hevron C hain i s r ather more c losely a ssociated, c ontains a n umber o f motifs a mong which t here a re s everal i solated d artbutt s igns . A c loser a ssociation o f C hevron C hain a nd a m edallion c ontaining B ellshape A , p ossibly a h ip r osette , i s f ound a mong t he m ural p aintings o f R oom 1 a t T etitla ( Miller 1 973 : F igure 3 15) . I t m ay t hus b e s aid t hat t hese e xamples f rom n on-representational c ontexts e xhibit t he s ame s ort o f a ssociation p atterns r ecorded i n T able 1 0 a nd r einforce t he c onclusions d rawn f rom i t. T he

r elationship b etween C hevron C hain a nd m artial

s ymbolism i s a lso

d emonstrated b y t wo c omplex s igns, c alled O bject E a nd O bject F i n t he c ompendium, o f w hich t he c hevron c hain f orms a p rominent p art . T hese s igns a re s imilar, b eing p erhaps v ariants o n a c ommon t heme , a nd h ave b een i nterpreted b oth a s s hields w ith s ome f orm o f f ringe a long t heir l ower e dge a nd a s ab ase o r p latform o n w hich a p erson s its o r a n e ffigy i s p laced ( see c ompendium a nnotations ) . T able 1 l ists a ll t he c lusters i n w hich t hey a ppear i n t he d ata s ample . B ecause o f t heir r elative r arity , a ll e xamples a re i ncluded r egardless o f c ontext t ype . T he l etters D a nd I i ndicate w hether t he a ssociation w ithin t he s ign c luster i s d irect o r i ndirect . F or e xample , i n R eference 2 46 O bject F i s d irectly a ssociated w ith T emple i n t he d ecorative b and a round t he v essel 's r im b ut o nly i ndirectly a ssociated w ith t he m ain m otifs o n t he v essel 's w all. A s c an e asily b e s een ,

t he t wo i nterpretations w hich h ave b een o ffered

f or t he s igns r eflect m ajor d ifferences i n t he c lusters w ith w hich t hey a re a ssociated . O bject E a nd O bject F m ay a ppear i n c ontexts s uggestive o f s hields , i n w hich c ase t hey a re a lways a ssociated w ith a s ign c luster t hat i ncludes H and a nd D art . T he f ormer i s a lways p laced i nside t he s hield while t he D art i s o bliquely s ubjacent . T his c ombination i s h ighly r eminiscent o f t he " owl-and-weapon" s ymbol a nalysed b y v on W inning a nd c onsidered b y h im a s a n e mblem c ombining t he ' ideologic e xpression o f w ar a nd d eath ' ( 1948 : 1 31) . I n f act , t he h and s ign i n a s hield a ssociated w ith b irds a nd d arts i s r elatively c ommon a t T eotihuacan a nd f orms a c lass o f i nsignia o f w hich t he e xamples i n T able 1 a re a d istinctive s ub-group . T he p resence o f w eapons s uggests t hat t his i nsignia h as a m artial c onnotation c onsistent w ith t he g eneral s ense o f t he C hevron C hain a s i t e merged f rom t he c lusters i n T able 1 0 . T he s ignificance o f t he s ign T emple , r epresented b y a t emple f acade , i s n ot i mmediately o bvious i n t he c ontexts u nder d iscussion a lthough i t i s n ot d ifficult t o s peculate a bout t his . O nly O bject E i s f ound i n c ontexts s uggestive o f a b ase o r p latform . T hese a lways a ppear i mmediately b elow f rontal h uman b usts o r a s ymbolic a bstraction a nd t he i dea t hat t hey r epresent a s tructure o n w hich t he f igure o r s ymbols r est i s a ttractive a lthough i t c annot b e p roved o n t he b asis o f t he a vailable e vidence a nd o ther i nterpretations a re a vailable . T aube i n

6 5

R ef

1 1.

S ign

S ign c lusters d irectly or c losely a ssociated with Objects E and F .

Context

Basic

Associated s igns

Proximate

0

1 4

•r 4

M

1 20 1 99 2 43 4 34 4 35 1 98 25 2 2 46 9 81

E E E E E? F F F F

Note:

Human S emiotic Human S emiotic Human S emiotic Human Rim-Band S emiotic

Base S hield Base Base Base S hield Shield Shield

The u sage of the explained in the

6 6

P

r j

r d

r d

al

E E 1

Q uincross

Table

I D I ? D D I D

abbreviations t ext.

D

D D I D

D D D

D a nd

I i s

h is r ecent

s tudy ( 1983),

f or e xample,

w ould c lass a ll s uch i mages a s

v ariants o n t he s hield t heme , i n w hich c ase o ne m ight r egard t he c hevron c hain a s t he i nfixed e mblematic e lement r eplacing t he h and o f t he o ther e xamples. I nsignia . I nformation

a bout

t he

a ffiliation ,

i dentity

a nd

a ttributes

i ndividuals a nd o ther e ntities m ay b e c onveyed b y v irtually a ny a spect

o f o f

v isual i magery : b y n aturalistic r epresentation , b y a ssociated s ymbol o r b y s igns i ncorporated i n c lothing o r p ersonal a dornment . T he j ustification f or c onsidering t his l ast c ategory a s n otational a nd s ome o f t he p recautions t o b e o bserved i n d oing s o h ave a lready b een d iscussed i n C hapter I I ( pp . 1 415 ) . I n w hat f ollows , t he w ay i n w hich s igns w ere a ctually u sed a t T eotihuacan t o d enote a ffiliation a nd a ttribute w ill b e e xplored . T he s ubject i s s o v ast t hat o nly a s omewhat i mpressionistic r eview w ill b e p ossible . I n p articular , r easonable c ertainty i n d istinguishing b etween n otational a nd o ther u sages r equires a n e xtensive c ontextual a nalysis w ith a l arge d atabase a nd, f or p ractical r easons, o nly a f ew e xamples c an b e p resented w ithin t he s pace a vailable . A ttribute

i s a f lexible c oncept a nd ,

a s h as a lready b een i mplied ,

m ay

c over a b road r ange o f q ualities a scribed t o a nimate a nd i nanimate e ntities . A t o ne e xtreme i t m ight b e c onsidered t o r epresent t he t otality o f t he c haracteristics o f t he e ntity , a s w hen a d eity i s d efined i n t erms o f h is a ttributes. More c ommonly, h owever, i t r elates t o i ndividual c haracteristics a nd, i n n otational u se , t o t hose d istinctions o f a ffiliation , f unction a nd r ank w hich h ave a s ocial s ignificance a nd w hich , t o b e e ffective , r equire w idespread p ublic r ecognition . S igns u sed f or t his p urpose f orm o nly a p art , a nd p erhaps a s mall p art , o f t he T eotihuacan s ign s ystem . P ast s tudies o f t he s ite 's i conography h ave , n evertheless, b een much p reoccupied w ith t hem . W ith s o l ittle i ndigenous i nformation a vailable , a nalogy f rom o ther c ontemporary a nd l ater m esoamerican s ocieties a ppeared t o o ffer t he b est m eans o f u nderstanding t he c ulture a nd t o b e j ustified b y t he s imilarities o f v isual i magery i nvolved . S ince r eligion f igured p rominently i n m esoamerican a rt a nd l ife a nd w as w ell d ocumented b y t he S panish c onquerors , i t i s n ot s urprising t hat r eligious s ymbolism a nd d eity a ttributes s hould h ave r eceived p articular a ttention f rom t he t ime o f Pjafiel a nd S eler o n . I nsignia a nd s igns a s c lothing a ccessories o ccur i n s ecular a s w ell a s r eligious c ontexts a lthough i t i s o nly f airly r ecently t hat t he f ormer h ave b een s tudied i n a ny d epth . Two i nnovative s tudies o f t his k ind h ave a lready b een m entioned : v on W inning 's e xamination o f t he " owl-and-weapon" s ymbol a s am artial e mblem o r i nsignia a nd C . M illon 's a nalysis o f t he " tassel h eaddress" , i nter-alia, a s a s ymbol o f r eligious a nd p olitical l eadership ( 1973) . T hey i llustrate t wo s omewhat d ifferent f orms o f a ttributive u sage , w hich m ight b e c alled h eraldic a nd i ndicative . T his d istinction , a lthough s omewhat a rbitrary , i s au seful w ay o f a pproaching t he a nalysis s ince m otifs t hat d enote m ost a ttributes o ccur i n c ontexts t hat a re n aturalistically a ppropriate a nd a re t herefore d ifficult t o i dentify . H owever , h eraldic i nsignia a ppear o n al imited n umber o f d istinctive d evices t hat h ave r ecognised .

s erved

t his p urpose

t hroughout h uman h istory a nd

A t T eotihuacan t hey i nclude t he f ollowing : H eaddress r osettes H ip r osettes

6 7

c an e asily b e

Figure 2 6a. Storm G od i nsignia on a s tuccopainted cylinder tripod v essel. Reference 1 82.

L IU

Figure

2 6b.

S torm G od

i nsignia

on

a p ottery

adorno.

1 84. T o t he r ight, t he i nsignia h eld by a p ottery ( Drawing by H . von Winning). R eference 8 32.

6 8

=

R eference

f igurine.

M edallions P ectorals R attles S hields S tandards v on W inning ,

w ho h as e xamined s everal o f t hese d evices i n ar ecent s tudy o n

p rofessional

i nsignia ( 1984),

m entions o ne o ther -an

o bject

w orn a t

s houlder -w hich h e s uggests may b e a n i nsignia o f w arriors .

t he

I t i s

i ncluded i n t he c omputer a nalysis a s ' epaulet ' b ut h as b een o mitted f rom t he a bove l ist s ince , a lthough s ome m otifs t hat may f unction a s s igns a re a ssociated w ith i t , t hey a ppear i n t his c ase m erely t o r eflect t he p hysical s tructure o f t he d evice a nd t o l ack a ny n otational s ignificance . I t i s t he p urpose o f t his s ection t o e nquire w hether t he s ame i s t rue o f o ther d evices o f t he k ind l isted o r w hether s igns a ppearing o n t hem c an b e c onsidered a s n otational . T he i ssue i s c omplex b ut t he e vidence f or a n a nswer i s p rovided b y o ne o f t he m ost p revalent i mages a t T eotihuacan . T he S torm G od, t he m ost s tudied a nd d istinctive o f t he T eotihuacan d eities s o f ar r ecognised, i s i dentified b y an umber o f c haracteristic m otifs w hich h ave b een c omprehensively d iscussed b y P asztory i n t he s tudies c ited e arlier . T hese m otifs r ecur , d issociated f rom t he e ffigy o f t he G od , i n t wo w ays t hat a re r elevant i n t he p resent c ontext . F irst , s everal o f t hem m ay b e c ombined t o f orm a n i nsignia , t he f irst e xamples o f w hich w ere e xcavated i n 1 880 b y C harnay i n " Los s ubterraneos" t o t he w est o f t he A venue o f t he D ead , a nd w ere i dentified b y h im a s " a m onument t o t he g od o f r ain" ( 1887: 1 49-150 a nd i llustration o n p . 1 51) . T his p articular i nsignia , t he s o-called " Cross o f T laloc" , c onsists o f B igotera , F angs B a nd T ongue B ifurcated , a ll o f w hich a ppear a s s igns i n t he c ompendium . O ther s igns , i ntimately a ssociated w ith t he S torm G od , a ppear i n v ariants o f t he i nsignia, two e xamples o f which a re i llustrated i n F igure 2 6 ( see a lso S ejourn6 1 966b : F igures 5 7-58 a nd v on W inning 1 981a: 4 62-466) . T hese i nsignia a ppear o n s tone m erlons , i n m edallions o n p ottery v essels , b oth e ngraved a nd p ainted, a nd o n s hields h eld b y p ottery f igurines . B y c ombining s everal o f h is c haracteristic f eatures , t he i nsignia s erve a s a s ummary r epresentation o f t he d eity a nd m ay r easonably b e i nterpreted a s a n e xpression o f a llegiance t o h im w hich i s p articularly s uggestive i n t he c ase o f t he p ottery f igurines w hose s hields i dentify t hem a s w arriors . F or f urther d iscussion s ee p ages 7 4-75. T he

i ndividual

s igns

o thers c haracteristic F rontal A ,

e nter

t he

o f

o f t he

w hich g od

s ign s ystem

t he

i nsignia a re

s uch a s

h is

c omposed ,

g oggles

i n a nother w ay .

a nd

a nd

i ndeed

p endant

F lower

T hey a ppear s ingly i n

a bstract s ymbolic c ompositions o r a s c ostume a nd o rnamental a ccessories t hat s uggest t he d enotation o f a ttributes s pecifically a ssociated w ith t he d eity . I t i s t hus i nteresting t o n ote t hat , w hile h is f anged m outh i s c learly o f a nimal o rigin a nd t ells u s s omething a bout h is p edigree , i ts a ppearance a s a s ign r ecalls n ot t he a nimal b ut t he d eity f rom w hom i t d erives i ts s ymbolic s ignificance. W hile t he e vidence i s r ather more c ircumstantial,

t he p atterns o f

a ssociation b etween o ther s igns a nd h eraldic d evices r einforce t he h ypothesis t hat i nsignia a t T eotihuacan e xpress s ome f orm o f a ffiliation : r eligious, p rofessional o r o f l ineage . A g eneral i mpression o f t he i ncidence o f s uch i nsignia i n t he d ata s ample m ay b e g ained f rom T able 1 2 . S ince t he d iscussion m ust n ecessarily b e a bbreviated, t he d ata a re s ummarised

i n

s implified

f orm .

F irst ,

6 9

i nsignia

t hat

a re u nique

i n t he

s ense

t hat

t he m otifs

t hey b ear a ppear o nly o nce i n t he d ata s ample h ave

b een e xcluded ( although t hey w ill b e d iscussed b elow) . S econd, t he c lustering o f s igns i s n ot i ndicated a lthough s ign c lusters a re n ot u nusual a s i nsignia . H and , f or e xample , i s u sually a ssociated w ith d arts a nd b irds i n t he c omplex m artial i nsignia a nalysed b y v on W inning . I n t he t able c lusters a re r epresented b y t heir m ost p rominent s ign . T hird , s igns t hat i nvolve a c ircle o r a s tar h ave b een g rouped a s c ircular m otifs a nd s tar-like m otifs r espectively . F inally , t he d iversity o f i nsignia i s c oncealed b y t he o mission o f t he v arious b orders a nd c artouches -feathered , f loral a nd g eometrical -that o ften e nclose t hem . T able 1 2 n evertheless i ndicates t he v ariety o f s igns t hat s erve a s i nsignia

a nd

t heir d istribution o n h eraldic

i mplications ,

d evices .

I n

a ssessing

i ts

a llowance m ust b e m ade f or t he w ay i n w hich t he d ata s ample

was a ssembled . T he e xclusion o f d uplicate i mages a nd i dentical s ign c lusters m eans t hat t he r ecurrence o f s igns a s i nsignia i s g reatly u nderstated , c reating t he i mpression o f m uch l ess u niformity o f a ffiliation t han w as t he c ase . T o t ake a s pecific e xample , m ost o f t he e xtant M aguey P riests ( of w hom o nly o ne i s i ncluded i n t he s ample ) w ear a v ariant o f B ells hape A o n t heir h ip r osettes i ndicating t hat a s ignificant g roup o f i ndividuals o wed a llegiance t o t he s ame i nstitution o r e ntity . As omewhat s imilar c onclusion w as r eached b y v on W inning i n h is e xamination o f t he o val p ectoral w ith t wo o r t hree r ound b osses ( 1984 : 1 516) w hich h e c onsiders t o b e a n i nsignia o f t he R ain G od a nd which i s f airly c ommon o n p ottery f igurines. A ll t he s igns l isted i n T able 1 2 a re i ncluded i n t he c ompendium .

S ince

t heir a ppearance o n h eraldic d evices h as n ot o f i tself b een c onsidered s ufficient p roof o f n otational u sage , s ome a re l isted i n P art I I o f A ppendix 7 . O ne d ubious c ase a ppears i n P art I II: t his i s L attice w hich , a s a n i nfix i n s hields, m ight merely b e t he n aturalistic r epresentation o f a l atticed s urface . I t h as n evertheless b een i ncluded a s a p ossible s ign s ince i t i s c ommonly u sed i n o ther m esoamerican c ultures a s o ne f orm o f t he " mat" s ymbol , i ndicative o f p ower a nd l eadership . ( Lattice a nd M at a re s eparately r ecorded i n t he c ompendium) . O ne o ther e ntry m erits a b rief c omment . T he i nclusion i n t he t able o f s o m any e xamples o f t he R N s ign a nd t he f act t hat t he R E i s n ot r epresented i s b oth s urprising a nd a n i nteresting c onfirmation t hat

t wo d ifferent

s igns a re

i nvolved .

A nother

i ntriguing a spect o f t his e ntry i s t hat f our o f t he s even e xamples d o n ot h ave t he u sual p aired t ab i nfix .

T hese t wo s igns w ill b e f urther e xplored

i n C hapters V III a nd X . T he d ata s ample c ontains a bout a s m any e xamples o f u nique i nsignia a s i t d oes s igns t hat a ppear m ore t han o nce o n h eraldic d evices . A n e xcellent e xample o f s uch i nsignia i s p rovided b y t he f eathered r attles c arried b y t he k neeling j aguar i n t he m urals f rom c orridor a nd r oom 1 2 a t T etitla 1 973 : F igure 3 20 ) . S everal o f t he m urals h ave s urvived a nd t he c omplex m otif o n t he r attle i s d ifferent i n e ach c ase a lthough t he r emainder o f t he v isual i magery i s e ssentially t he s ame i n a ll t he m urals .

T his s uggests ,

a s d o o ther e xamples o f u nique i nsignia , t hat a ffliation o f a v ery s pecific k ind i s i nvolved . B y t he s ame t oken i nsignia t hat r ecur f requently a ppear t o s ignify a n a ssociation t hat i s m ore g eneric i n c haracter. M otifs

o n u nique

i nsignia a re n ot

i ncluded

i n

t he

c ompendium a s

n otational s igns u nless t hey a lso a ppear i n o ther c ontexts t hat c onfirm t heir n otational u se . T his v alidation i s e ssential i n a ll c ases i nvolving t he a ttributive u se o f s igns w here t he d anger o f c onfusion b etween t he

7 0

Table

1 2.

The

i ncidence of

s igns

a s

i nsignia

Bars Transverse Bellshape A Circular motifs Drop Flame Hand Head H uman Lattice Net Quatrefoil Quincross RM Scroll* Shell Skull Star-like motifs TR

N ote:

C ' )

U ) 0 0 P g i

0 4 ) -

G i r d r i ) i t

U ) Q 1

a )

w

-i I

0 a ) r 4x

o• r i ,. t xx C l )

5

3 6

2 1 2

7 1 H

Standard

S ign

Pectoral

Main

Medallion

Artifact

1 1 3

1 2

5 1

2 2

7 1 4

2 2 2 3

2 3

I 2

2 2 3

2 2

1

The d istinction between p ectoral a nd medallion i s not a lways c lear-cut. Occasionally a c ircular d evice appears below human busts or on animal bodies in a position that suggests a pectoral a lthough l arge f or that purpose a nd with no visible means of s upport around t he neck. I t i s then l isted a s a medallion. 7 1

n otational , t he d ecorative a nd t he u tilitarian i s s o g reat . I n s o f ar a s u nique i nsignia a re c oncerned , i t m eans t hat s ome h alf d ozen m otifs t hat m ay u ltimately p rove t o b e n otational a re n ow e xcluded f rom t he c ompendium . T he f ollowing a re i ncluded , a s s igns w hose n otational s tatus i s c onfirmed i n o ther c ontexts: B ands I nterlaced E ye E longated H ourglass P endant N ose C T emple

T he s ymbolic d enotation o f a ttributes. T he e xtraordinary r ichness o f T eotihuacan a rt i n e quivocal i magery , m uch o f i t r elated t o t he d enotation o f a ttributes , h as l ong b een r ecognised , K ubler h aving w ritten 2 5 y ears a go o f " the p reponderance i n t hat a rt o f c ompound f orms which h ave n o c ounterpart i n v isible r eality" ( 1967: 3 ) . M any o f t hese a ttributes a re r eadily r ecognisable b y t he i ncongruity o f t he c ontextual a ssociations i nvolved : t he a vian a ttributes o f t he c anine i ndicated b y i ts f eathered e ye o r t he f eline a ttributes o f t he s erpent b y t he c lawed l imb s uperposed o n i ts s inuous b ody . H owever , t he d enotation o f m any a ttributes , i ncluding t hose o f p ersonal s tatus a nd f unction w hich a re i mportant f or a n u nderstanding o f T eotihuacan s ociety a nd i ts s ign s ystem , i s m uch m ore e lusive a nd d ifficult t o s ubstantiate . E xcept i n t he c ase o f a bstract s igns - f or e xample, t he T R t ucked i nto a h eaddress - t heir c ontexts a re n aturalistically a ppropriate a nd t he o nly c lues t o u sage a re p rovided b y t he r ecurrence o f d istinctive p atterns i n t heir c lustering . T assels a re t ypical o f s uch m otifs , s ince t hey a re a c omm on f orm o f c lothing a ccessory , a nd i t r equired a s earching a nalysis o f c ontextual a nd s ymbolic a ssociations f or M illon t o a rrive a t h er c onclusion t hat a s pecific k ind o f t assel Masser i n t he c ompendium ) w orn i n ah eaddress d enoted a p articular c lass o f T eotihuacan f unctionary . I n v iew o f t he a mbiguities i nvolved a nd t he f reedom w hith w hich t he T eotihuacan a rtist c ompounded n atural f orms i n u nnatural w ays w ith n o e vident n otational i ntent , s ign u sage o f t his k ind i s o nly a ccepted a s n otational i f t he r ule o f t humb d eveloped i n C hapter I I a pplies : t hat i s , i f t he s ign i s a lso f ound i n c learly n otational c ontexts . M illon 's t assel meets t his t est,

t he s upporting e vidence

b eing f airly

e xtensive, n otably a m ural p ainting c ontaining a s hort g lyphic t ext: a t assel s ign p laced a bove a c anine h ead ( 1973 : F igure 1 . A lso s ee F igure 3 7 b elow) . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s ame s ign i s t hus u sed i n t wo q uite d ifferent w ays : i n o ne t o c haracterise t he w earer a nd i n t he o ther p resumably a s t he e xpression o f ac ognate a bstraction . P atterning

o f

a s imilar k ind i s

d isplayed b y

m any

o ther c ostume

a ccessories o f w hich o ne w ill b e c ited b y w ay o f e xample b efore a ttempting t o e xamine t he w ay i n w hich a ttributive s igns c luster t o c onvey c omplex i nformation a bout t he e ntities t hat t hey q ualify . N ose p endants a re a mong t he i tems o f p ersonal a dornment w orn a t T eotihuacan ; t hey a lso a ppear d issociated f rom h uman f igures i n c ontexts t hat s atisfy t he n otational c riteria . T he s implest f orm o f t hese p endants i s ar ectangular p laque w orn b elow t he n ose a nd i llustrated i n t he c ompendium a s P endant N ose . T able 1 3 p rovides a s ummary o f t he w ay i n w hich t his o bject , w orn b y h uman f igures d epicted

o n p ottery v essels

o r a s

p ottery

f igurines

( but c uriously n ot

i n

m ural p aintings w here t he n ose p endant i s a lways m ore e laborate ) , c lusters w ith b oth c ontexts a nd o ther s igns . T he p resentation o f t he d ata d iffers

7 2

T able

1 3.

S ign a nd c ontext c lusters a ssociated with f igures wearing P endant Nose.

Context

H eaddress

S ign

P ectoral*

Other

0

S 4

Ref

2 76 4 28 6 37 4 30 6 95 2 25 1 007 1 009 8 16 2 55 2 49 2 50

4

M

C D

r d

, . n

n 4

e e

E

U e

e u ) g i o 0

g i

. 1

H

i t i

g i

r d Z

, 1

x x x x x

x x x x

r d

CI

4 4 a ) w 14 4 1 a ) 4

e — 1

I -) G . ) 0 4 4 -) ( 1 ) 1 ) 0 . 1 ( 1 ) r d r i r d U ( 1 ) .

x

x x

x x x xx x x x x

5 0

x

n i

t y ) 5 2 , w o i . Q 0 a ) 4 o ( 1 )

E E E E E E A E E E E E

( 4 4

x x x

H

x xx x

x x x x x ?

So c alled b ecause i t a ppears immediately b elow t he f igure, d epicted a s a f rontal or profile bust. May, however, b e i ntended t o r epresent a s hield or d etached medallion.

7 3

f rom p revious t ables i n t hat t he w hole c ontextual a nalysis o f e ach a rtifact h as b een e xamined a nd f rom i t h ave b een e xtracted t hose c ontexts a nd s igns t hat a ppear t o c onfer a c ertain t hematic u nity o n t he 1 2 f igures i n a ddition t o t he r emarkable s imilarity i n t heir d epiction : o nly t he h ead a nd b ust a re s hown o r t he f igure i s s eated . T he t able d oes n ot i ndicate t he d egree o f r elationship b etween t he i tems l isted b ut d oes d emonstrate t hat , w ithin t he t otal i magery o n e ach v essel , s trong p atterns o f a ssociation e merge . T he s trongest o f t hese i s w ith E ye G oggled E , w hich a ppears i n a ll b ut o ne o f t he e ntries . I n c ontrasting s uch e yes w ith t hose o f t he r ain g od, P asztory ( 1976: 2 47) s ays " most w arrior f igures h ave, w ithin t he g oggles , r egular o val e yes w ith d ark p upils i nside" a nd t his i mplication o f am artial c onnotation t ends t o b e c onfirmed b y t he o ther i ngredients o f t he c lusters i n T able 1 3 . M ost o f t hese c ontain s ome e lement a lready n oted a s b eing d irectly a ssociated w ith a rmed f igures : t he h and a nd d art p ectoral , a w eapon o r s hield . C . M illon ( 1973) h as f ound s imilar m artial a ssociations t o e xist w ith t he t assel h eaddress . W hether t he o ther t wo e ntries i n t he t able ( References249 a nd 2 50) a lso h ave t his c onnotation c annot y et b e c onfirmed .

I n e ach c ase t he R N s ign i s p laced i n am edallion t hat a ppears

i mmediately

b elow

t he

p rofile

b usts

d epicted

o n

t he v essels a nd

may b e

i ntended t o r epresent a s hield ; i n a ddition b utterfly s ymbolism , w hich i s c onspicuous i n b oth , s ometimes c oincides w ith w eapons a t T eotihuacan a nd i s a ssociated w ith w arriors i n t he P ostclassic p eriod . H owever , t he e vidence c annot b e c onsidered d ecisive a nd t he a ssertion t hat P endant N ose d enotes a p rofessional a ttribute o f a rmed f igures m ust f or t he m oment r ely o n t he o ther 1 0 e ntries i n t he t able .6 O ne

i tem h eld b y t hree o f t he f igures i s s o u nusual a s t o b e w orth a

s pecial m ention . T his i s a n e longated f eathered o bject t hat d oes n ot o ccur e lsewhere i n t he d ata s ample . I n R eference 2 49 i t i s s haped l ike a b ird w hose h ead a nd w ing s croll a re c learly r ecognisable .

I t d oes n ot a ppear t o

b e a w eapon a nd i s b eing c alled " sceptre" s ince i ts c ontextual a ssociations a re c onsistent w ith i ts u se a s as ymbol o f a uthority .

A ttributive s igns d erived f rom S torm G od s ymbolism . T his e xample h as b een c hosen t o i llustrate t he w ays c lusters

may

o verlap

a nd

i nterrelate

b ecause

i n w hich c omplex

t he

s igns

-singly ,

c ollectively a nd i n c ombination w ith o ther s igns -pervade T eotihuacan i magery t o a n e xtraordinary e xtent a nd b ecause t hey a re a mong t he m ost f amiliar a nd b est u nderstood

t hanks

i n l arge measure

t o t he

s tudies

p ublished b y P asztory i n t he 1 970 's . I n

t he

e xtensive

d iscussion

o f

h is

a ttributes

a nd

j urisdiction ,

t he

S torm G od h as u sually b een c alled b y h is N ahuatl n ame T laloc a nd d escribed a s a r ain o r w ater d eity ( see f ootnote 5 , p . 1 75) . H e i s, h owever , a c omplex b eing a s w as f irst d emonstrated b y P asztory . I n a s eminal s tudy ( 1974) , s he d istinguished c learly b etween t wo e ntities a ffirming , o n t he b asis o f t heir c haracteristic d epictions , t hat o ne w as e ssentially p eaceful ( Tlaloc A ) w hile t he s econd w as p rimarily w arlike ( Tlaloc B ) . A lthough s he i s n uance i n h er c haracterisations a nd r ecognises a n o verlap i n s ymbolism , h er p erception h as s ince b een t urned b y o thers i nto a d ichotomy t hat i s m ore r adical t han p erhaps s he i ntended a nd d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he n otational u se o f t he s ymbols a ssociated w ith t he S torm G od , a s ac oncrete e xample w ill s how . T he

d iagnostic

f eatures

b y

which

7 4

t he

t wo

T lalocs

a re g enerally

d istinguished i nclude t he s igns L ip, F angs A , B ow B a nd H eadpiece A f or T laloc A a nd B igotera , F angs B , T ongue B ifurcated a nd T assel f or T laloc E . T he Q uincross a nd C ircle S et a re a ssociated w ith b oth e ntities b ut, t o a nticipate t he a nalysis r ecorded i n T able 1 4 , o ccur m ore o ften w ith T laloc A t han T laloc B . T his p olarisation o f t ypes i s , h owever , n ot r eflected i n t he S torm G od i nsignia d iscussed o n p age 6 9 ( see a lso F igure 2 6). A lthough

t he

f ifteen

s pecimens

i n

t he d ata

s ample h ave n ot b een

t abulated, i t c an b e s aid t hat t here i s o nly o ne e xample o f aq uintessential T laloc B ( Reference 3 1 -the C ross o f T laloc) a nd t hree e xamples o f a t ypical T laloc A . T he r emainder c onsist o f am ixture o f s igns t hat o verlap t he t wo e ntities : B igotera i s i nvariably p resent a nd i s a ccompanied i n f ive c ases b y B ow B , i n o ne b y F angs A a nd i n t he r emaining f ive b y e ither Q uincross o r C ircle S et ( or b oth ) . M any o f t hese i nsignia , i ncluding o ne t ypically T laloc A c luster, a re o n s hield-like d evices h eld b y p ottery f igurines . T he l atter a re f ragmentary a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o t ell i f t hey a re w arriors b ut a nother e xample o f t he T laloc A c luster a ppears o n a n u nmistakable s hield c arried b y a f igure b earing a s inuous r od . P erhaps e ven m ore s urprising i s t he f act t hat , i n t he s ole e xample o f t he e mblematic u se o f t he T assel H eaddress s ign t hat i ncludes t he f ull f eatures o f t he S torm G od, h is f anged m outh i s c omposed o f F angs A a nd B igotera . I n t his c ase t he s ign i s a ssociated w ith a f igure w earing a d otted u ndergarment ( Reference 7 4).

F or d iscussion s ee p ages 8 4 a nd 1 21-123.

T his p attern o f u sage i s p uzzling . T he m ixture o f s igns c haracteristic o f t he t wo e ntities m ight b e i nterpreted a s t he r econciliation o f t he c oncepts o f p eace a nd w ar b ut t his i s h ardly p lausible i n c ases s uch a s t he s hield b earer w ith u niquely T laloc A s ymbolism ( Reference 2 03 -Figure 2 7b ) . I t h as t herefore s eemed d esirable t o e xamine t he p ossibility t hat , a t l east i n n otational u se, t he n otion o f a c lear-cut d istinction b etween t wo e ntities i s l ess v alid t han t hat o f as ingle m ulti-dimensional f igure w hose c haracteristics a nd d epiction v ary w ith t he c ircumstances a nd t he r ole h e i s c alled o n t o p lay . T he s ign c lusters o n t he b asis o f which t he t wo T lalocs a re d istinguished i nvariably i nclude t he f anged m outh a nd t he g oggled e ye . A s b oth P asztory a nd C . M illon h ave s tressed, t he l atter i s n ot i n f act e xclusive t o t he r ain g od , a ppearing w ith o ther d eities a nd m any p ersons w hose a ppearance a nd c ontextual a ssociations s uggest s ecular r ather t han r eligious a ctivities a nd v ocation . M illon s ummaries t he m atter n eatly b y s aying t hat , w hile " eye g oggles a re a c onstant a ttribute" o f t he d eity , t he u se o f g oggles i n T eotihuacan a rt i s n ot c onfined t o h im ( 1973 : 3 02) . O n t he o ther h and , t he h uman h ead w ith f anged m outh i s e xclusive t o t he r ain g od a nd t he c onfiguration .

t wo T lalocs a re d istinguished b y d ifferences i n i ts T he d iagnostic c luster b y w hich T laloc A i s i dentified

i ncludes F angs A a nd t hat o f T laloc B , F angs B , b ut t he c lusters a re f lexibly d efined a nd o ccasionally s ome o ther e lement s uch a s t he b igotera o r b ifurcated t ongue h as b een r egarded a s t he d ecisive a ttribute . S ince t hese d iagnostic c lusters r arely a ppear i n e mblematic u se i n t heir p ristine f orm , i t a ppeared t hat t he b est w ay t o a nalyse t he u sage o f t he s igns i nvolved m ight b e t o e xamine t he m atrix f ormed b y t he r elationships o f e ach s ign w ith a ll o ther a ssociated s igns i n e very e xample o f t he S torm G od i mage i n t he d ata s ample . I n d oing s o i t a lso b ecame a pparent t hat t here w as a r ange o f v ariation w ithin e ach o f t he t wo m ain f ang t ypes a nd , s ince t his m ight c onceivably h ave s ome n otational s ignificance , i t w as i ntroduced i nto t he

a nalysis .

T he l argest e lement

7 5

o f v ariability

i s

t he n umber o f

4

. . . .. .

Z

Ca

r d - w e o

xe M 0

>4 C . ) 0

z

. ( C I

r d

0

a ) C I ) i • i •

CIM 4 ) 0

r i • r 1 1 ) g m C D C r /

7 6

i ncisors b etween t he t wo t usks o f F angs A , b ut t he s hape o f t he i ncisors m ay v ary i n b oth t ypes, p arts o f t he f anged m outh u sually a ssociated w ith o ne t ype m ay i nstead b e a ssociated w ith t he o ther a nd , f inally , F angs A m ay a ppear e ither f rontally o r i n p rofile . T he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f s ome 7 5 S torm G od r epresentations a re p resented i n T ables 1 4 a nd 1 5 . I n t he f irst , t he s igns a ssociated w ith 6 2 o f t he i mages a re t abulated . T he o ther e xamples i n t he d ata s ample a re n ot s ignificant f or p resent p urposes o r a re t oo f ragmentary f or i nclusion . T he s ame i nformation i s r earranged i n t he f orm o f i ncidence m atrixes i n T able 1 5, P art I o f w hich s hows h ow s igns c luster w ith t he v arious f ang c onfigurations , w hile P art I I s hows h ow t he s igns c luster i nter-se a nd b y a rtifact t ype . Ag reat d eal c an b e l earnt f rom t hese t ables b ut , a f ew s imple g eneralisations m ust

s uffice .

T hese

f or p resent p urposes , w ill

b e

b ased

o n

t he

a ssumption t hat t he d ata f orm a r easonably r epresentative s ample o f S torm G od i magery a t T eotihuacan . F irst , a s e xpected , s ome f orm o f g oggled e ye i s i nvariably p resent . U sually i t i s o f t ype A o r C b ut t here a re a f ew i mages w ith a b ulbous g oggle e ye ( Eye PL )a nd s everal m ore w ith E ye G oggled E w hich , a s n oted e arlier, i s c ommon i n t he d epiction o f h uman b eings . S econd , i t c omes a s n o s urprise t hat t he v arious i mages d ifferentiated b y f ang c onfiguration a re c losely c orrelated t o a rtifact t ype . T hus p rofile i mages o ccur o nly o n t wo d imensional s urfaces -m ural p aintings a nd v essel w alls . What i s more s triking i s t hat i mages c haracterised b y F angs B s hould a lso o nly o ccur o n s uch a rtifacts a nd, i ndeed, o nly o n a l imited n umber o f t hese : m ost o n c hamplev6 v essels a nd o ne e ach o n a b as-relief r oof m erlon a nd t he m old-impressed d ecoration o f ac ylinder t ripod .

( This

i s p erhaps e vidence f or d ifferential c eremonial u se o f a rtifacts a t T eotihuaca r) . F inally , t he c lusters m ost c haracteristic o f T laloc A a nd T laloc B a re r eadily r ecognizable . I n T able 1 4 F angs A a nd L ip, t he d iagnostic a ttributes t o T laloc A , a re o ften a ssociated w ith B ow B a nd R od S inuous; t hese s igns d o n ot a ppear i n t he T laloc B c luster w hich i s c omposed e ssentially o f F angs B a nd B igotera , a lmost a lways a ssociated w ith T ongue B ifurcated a nd T assel . T his s econd c luster f orms a s mall p roportion o f t he w hole s ample b ut t here i s ar ather l arger r epresentation o f a h ybrid c luster i n w hich t he b igotera o r b ifurcated t ongue a re a ssociated w ith F angs A . T his o verlap i s s imilar t o t he i ntermixing o f s igns i n S torm G od i nsignia a nd i nvolves t he s ame i ncongruity i n t hat s igns, p rimarily a ssociated w ith e ntities w hose a lleged v ocations a re i ncompatible , a re f ound t o c luster t ogether . n otational u se ,

T he q uestion w hich t his p oses i s w hether ,

t he c onnotation o f

t hese s igns

i s

i n f act

i n t heir

t hat w hich h as

b een a ttributed t o t he t wo T lalocs . I n a n e ffort t o c larify t his q uestion ,

t he b roadest p ossible c ontextual

a ssociations o f t he c lusters i n T able 1 4 h ave b een e xamined a nd ,

b y w ay o f

p reliminaries , t wo o bservations m ay b e m ade . F irst , t he h ybrid c lusters , o f w hich 1 4 a re l isted i n t he t able , d o n ot s hare a ny d istinctive g eneral c haracteristic t hat w ould d istinguish t hem f rom T laloc A a nd B . S econd , a lthough m ost m arked i n t he c ase o f T laloc A , w ater s ymbolism i s a lso f ound i n t he i magery o f T laloc B a nd o f t he h ybrid c luster , i mplying t hat a w ater a nd f ertility a ssociation i s b asic t o t he c onstitution o f a ll t hree . T urning t o t he u sage o f t he i ndividual s igns , i t m ay b e s aid t hat F angs Ba re n ever d irectly a ssociated w ith w eapons o r o ther m ilitary a ccoutrements u nless l eaf-like o bjects h anging f rom t he m outh i n R eferences 2 68 a nd 6 52 s hould b e i ntended t o r epresent k nives . T his i s n ot n ecessarily

7 7

Table

1 4.

Sign

clusters

associated with persons with a fanged mouth.

r d

< Artifact

U ) t r

A

B

0

C d

C d

r I 0 4 WH M

C

D

E F G H

1 7 8 0 5 08 82 8 4 0 5 19 8 1 8 2 1 97 6 45 5 06 2 3 8 3

PM VE AE F PA VE VSP VE VE FPA(c) AE(f) AE AE AE

FO FO FO FO F1S F1S F1S F 2S F2S F 2S F2S F 2S F 2S

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

4 35 2 69 1 002 3 01 7 9 2 70 9 62 51 5 5 27 5 17 9 62 8 4 7 89 28 2 8 78 9 4 2 67 2 42 1 5 1 7 8 84 5 16 1 92

VSP AE AE(f) AE AE AE PM VE VMI PM PM PM ALM AE VE PM PM(f) VSP PM PM VE VC(f) PM

F 2S F 2S F2S F2S F2S F 2S F2S F3S F 3S F3S F3S F 3S F3S F 4S F 4S F 4S F 4S F 4S F 5S F5S FO F 2S F3S

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

C A A A A A x x x

x x x x x x

x x x x x

x

x

7 8

KL M N

x x x x x x 3 x x

x x x x x x

x x 3

A A A A

x x

c 4 Eye

Ref

• m e

m

0 Circle

•' O 4 1

Set

Goggled

4 H M ( d U 4

4 3 x 3 x

C 3 x E x A A 3 x E 5 x A 5 x C 5 A x E 3 C 5 C 5 C A 4 C 3 A C 4 x Fragmentary E 5 C 5 C 5 x x C 3 x A

x ?

4 3 x 5 3 3 5

x x ? x ? x x x

5 3

x

x 5 x

x x

Table

A

1 4

B

( Continued).

C

D

EF G H

x

I

J

KL M N

C A A A A C C

Fragmentary 5 x x x

3 ?

8 51 1 87 3 9 1 90 1 022 8 52 8 52

PM ALM VE F PA(c) AE(f) PM PM

F 3S F 2S F 3S F 3S F3S F 4S F 5S

x x

x x x x x x x x

1 27 7 16

PM PM

FM ' FIT

x

x

A

5 14 4 57 1 8 2 19 4 27 6 20 2 68 6 52

VMI(f) ALM VMI(f) VC VC(f) VC VC VC(f)

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

E A E C C C A C

1 6 5 15 2 44 1 042 9 4 1 043 5 19 1 033 1 041

PM VC(f) PM PM(f) PM VC VSP PM PM

F 3T F 3T F 3T F 3T F 3T F 3T F 3T F 4T P 2S P2S P3S P3S P3S P3S P3S P 4S P 4S

x

x x x x x x x x x x x

C C C Fragmentary C x C x C C C

3 3

0

PQ

4 3

x 3 x 3 3 4 x 3 x Fragmentary 5 3 3 x 5 5 5 5

x x

3

x

N otes: 1 . Artifacts are identified by the a bbreviau sed and described i n Appendix 5 . 2 . Code f or the d escription of Fangs: F f rontal; P -p rofile; S -s quare; T -t riangular. The numeral indicates t he number of incisors in Fangs A and of f angs i n Fangs B . 3 . The entries under Eye Goggled, Bow B and Circle f ollow the c onventions used in t he compendium. 4 . The r epetition of r eference numbers i ndicates t hat the artifact bears more than one Storm G od image. 5 . Together with the Quincross are included examples of a problematic s ign consisting of z igzag l ines enclosing what appears to be a bisected quincross. t ions

7 9

Wd

H

dS A

H

IN A

N

DA

e

H

a rtifacts.

snonuTs

H en N

LO

H N

e n

e n

H

H

e

1 1

1 1

H

H

H

e n

e n

e n

N

N

N

r n

C O

C O

C O

H

N

N H

H

H

L n

H

H

H

c v c m H N H

HV

H

0 1 H

d i H

e i H

H

H H

H H

e i

1 1

H

0 H

C D H

r -N

H

C D

0 H

P od

e ID1TD

H

H

e n

e n

. C D

L O

e n

e n

H

N

H

N

H

e n

L n H

H

C O

N

H

e .

N

D

paT ab oD

aA H

e n H

e

H

M

v

paT a6 oD

eAH

N

N

r f l N

r--r --H

v

aA H

H

N

dTr i paq epa n; T g

anb uoi ,

l . 0 H

N

pl aq obT g

N

H

C O

su logI

N

, — I C O

H

N

C O

N

e n N

H

N

i n

L O H

H

N H

N

i n H

H

e e n e n e H 0 N

H

e n H e .

CN H

e n

N

N

N

H H H

aA H

H

C O H

0 1

pai bb op

H

H

i n

i n

c n

a

H

N

H

r e l r i l H

Ja moT ä

e n

l . 0

i n c l N

T241 10 .1 1

N

HA

I P (10 I TJI bes qas

L I I H

H

H

H

i n e n e n e n H

H

N

Vd ä Wi ld

H

C n

0 1 H H

N

i n H

H

H N

H H i n c N i N H

H

H

N

e l N

0 1 r l

N c iI

u : .

H

r--

L e )

H L O

i n C Y ' ) . e, N l . O . C r ) C I H H

C V i n

H

H

e n H

H

e .

C O

r N r e l N

H

r e )

0 H

V D

N

e n CO

e . H r n

H H

H

i n o l r . 1 C O u D H

N ir l

e .

H

N H

N

N

e .

L O H

N

L C . d e H

N

Nt 11

N

N C YN

L 0 H

N

L e ) H

a )

H

n i EI

M 4 1


p TnbT r I

A ulaqqng

X

X

c r )

z r H

C O0 r I01

( N 1 1 . 1 ) C O U )

Figure 2 8. RM, Manta Compound and Core cluster i n t he r econstruction of a mural painting by A . Villagra ( courtesy MNA, Mexico). Reference 3 85.

F igure

2 9.

Core

c luster.

1 06

R eference

4 08.

r epeated m uch m ore f requently t han t he r emainder , a ccounting f or o ver 8 0% o f t he t otal s ign c ontent o f t he m ural . A lthough . t here i s n o c lear p atterning t o t his s catter o f s igns , i t s eems u nlikely t hat i t i s r andom a nd a l arger s ample o f t he C ore c luster w ould p erhaps h elp i n d eciphering i t. T he p atterns f ormed b y t he c lusters l isted i n T able 2 2 a re p resented s chematically i n t he d iagrams o n p ages 1 08-112 ( not t o s cale) . T he a bbreviations u sed a re : B ands I nterlaced -BI

D ot -D

T refoil E -TE

P od -P

P endant N ose G -PNG

C ircle -C

F lower F rontal Q -FQ

R oundel -R

F lower P rofile A -FP

R ectangle P attern -S

B ars T ransverse -BT A lthough

s ub-sets

o f

t he

C ore

c luster

o ccasionally

o ccur

w ith

o ther

s igns , a s f or e xample i n t he " Los G lifos" m ural, i n t he b orders o f t he Z acuala P alace m urals d iscussed o n p age 1 36 a nd o n ac enser l id i llustrated b y S gjourng ( 1969 : P late 6 6) w ith i ts p rofusion o f s hells , t he c luster i s u sually i solated f rom o ther i magery e ither b y s ome f orm o f e nclosure o r b y v irtue o f t he s pace l imitations o f t he a rtifact o n w hich t he c luster a ppears . T he s electivity a nd d eliberation o f t he p atterning w ithin t he c luster a re a pparent b ut i t i s f ar f rom c lear h ow i t w as i ntended t o b e i nterpreted . I f i t e ncodes a m essage, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat e ach s ign c ontributes t o t he m eaning . W hat i s u ncertain i s w hether t he s igns a re i ntended

t o

b e " read" i ndividually a nd i n a s pecific o rder o r w hether t he

c luster i s t o b e a pprehended a s a w hole i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s a d eity i n t he c odices m ay b e r ecognised b y h is r egalia w ithout t he n eed t o e valuate s eparately e ach o f t he s ymbols t hat e nters i ts c omposition . T he f act t hat s everal o f t he s igns a ppear i n av ariety o f c ontexts a nd h ave k nown m eanings i n o ther m esoamerican w riting s ystems t ends t o w eigh h eavily i n f avour o f t he f irst a lternative . T his i s a lso i mplied b y t he p ermutation o f t he s ame s igns i n d ifferent c lusters o n a s ingle a rtifact ( as i n R eference 4 98 ) b ut , a s i n o ther a spects o f t he T eotihuacan s ign s ystem , t he e vidence i s n ot c onclusive. H owever , w hichever m ethod o f i nterpretation u ltimately p roves c orrect , o ne t entative c onclusion i s s uggested b y t he p receding a nalysis . O n t he b asis o f t he r epresentational m otifs i nvolved a nd t he a ppearance o f t he c luster o n a dornos , s ome o f w hich a re k nown t o b e a ffixed t o c ensers , t he m essage t hat t he C ore c luster was i ntended t o c onvey a ccords w ith t he s ymbolic c omplex o f w hich t he b utterfly i s ac entral i mage .

T he F eather H eaddress S ymbol ( FHS) I n s everal s tudies C aso h as d iscussed s igns t hat a ppear w ithin t he f ramework o f a n a rrangement o f f eathers w hich , a s h e p ointed o ut o n o ne o ccasion , t ypically i ncludes a f eather a rray a nd s ide p anaches ( 1962 r eprinted

i n

T eotihuacan

1 967a : f eather

1 78 ) . h eaddress

T his b ut

a rrangement C aso

1 07

d id

e mulates

n ot

t he

i dentify

i t

c haracteristic a s

s uch ,

t he

Reference

5 05 Based on a n impressionistic • drawing ( Sgjourn6 " 1 966a: Figure 2 8) in which the s igns a re not well defined. Their identifications a re therefore u ncertain. TE

Reference

5 04 Same r emarks apply. 1 966a: F igure 3 4).

Reference

( Sgjourn

5 3 Appears i n the data sample both a s a mold and as a moldmade adorno. ( See Figure 3 0).

BI

TE

FP

BI

TE

FP

R eference

BI FP

TE

FP

FP_

4 98

TE

BI

Based on a n i llustration t hat may not be complete ( Seler 1 915: Figure 1 78). S everal o f the Pod s igns are bar-like and m ight be r ead a s numerals.

F P

1 08

R eference

FP

4 98

c ontinued).

TE

BI

BI

TE

D

FP

FP

P

R eference

FP

T E B I F P DD F P

5 03 An adorno in t he D iego R ivera c ollection, M exico C ity . The s ign marked ? i s o bscure p ossibly a s hell.

R eference

9 9

FQ TE

L P N G R eference

5 00

R eference

7 5

BI BT

TE

BI

C luster o n t he tasselled b and o f a c enser adorno. I t i s enclosed a t b oth ends b y a After s errated C&B. ( S ejourne 1 959: F igure 9 9). Bands Interlaced a ppears o nce on t he main b ody o f t he adorno.

An adorno in t he D iego R ivera c ollection, M exico C ity .

A s tuccoed and p ainted c ylinder tripod v essel in t he c ollection o f the P ennsylvania University Museum. Unfortunately t he entire d ecoration i s n ot v isible in available p hotographs. Left: Below:

band to right of central butterfly. band to l eft of the butterfly.

R eference

7 5 ( continued). FP

B I

B T D

p

R eference

Ed

5 01

A f ragmentary a dorno in t he c ollection o f t he Museum o f t he American Indian, New Y ork.

R eference 4 08 A f ragmentary adorno in t he c ollection o f t he Museum o f t he American Indian, New Y ork . S ee F igure 29. The c luster is a ssociated w ith a f eathered e ye and s everal s ound s crolls.

PNG

F Q BI

D TE P

FQ BI

c

T E

R eference 4 05

A s tuccoed and p ainted b owl in t he D umbarton Oaks c ollection, W ashington D .C. A s imilar p anel f alls f rom a b utterfly's mouth , but t he arrangement o f t he d ots i s l ess c lear .

TE

1 10

Reference 405 (continued). The cluster 1s enclosed 1n the panel that falls from the left hand of the principal figure on the vessel. An identical panel, except for the arrangement of the dots, falls from the other hand.

p

R

PC

BI

I BT

BT

I

PNG/ /

From the badly eroded inner rim.

1--------

Reference 507 ?

?

BI

D

TE

FP

?

FP

An adorno in place on a censer. (After Rattray 19781 Figure 11). Lack of clarity in the reproduction of the photograph accounts for the large number of signs marked?. The cluster is flanked by the serrated C&B sign.

FQ PNG

D

?

TE

?

BI

FP

FP

FP

· Reference 502

Reconstructed from two identical adorno fragments in the Diego Rivera collection, Mexico City.

TE

s

p

FQ

BI

B_I

PNG

TE

D p

p FP

FP

FP

111

3 93

R eference

A champleve cylinder tripod vessel. ( After Caso 1967b: F igure 23, checked agai nst photographs).

BT ?

BI TE FQ

Two examples of Panel Falling A. The third has b een destroyed.

BI I BT

FQ

Two volutes that flank a profile b ird.

BI BT

A U-shaped motif below the profile bi rd.

R eference

385 Reconstruction of a fragmentary mural painting from the Temple of Agriculture. ( After Villagra Caleti, Museo Nacional de Antropologfa, Mexico City). Figure 2 8.

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F igure 3 0. Core c luster on a moldmade p ottery adorno. ( Courtesy t he Museum f ür Völkerkunde, B erlin). R eference

1 13

5 3.

f irst u se o f t his a s a d escriptive t erm b eing i n a m anuscript b y C . M illon ( 1970 : 3 ) .

S hortly t hereafter P asztory, n oting t hat t he T R s ign o ften

a ppears w ithin t he f ramework o f af eathered m otif , w rote o f t he l atter " The m ost o bvious r elationship o f t his d esign i s w ith t he l arge h eaddresses w orn b y i mportant p ersonages i n T eotihuacan a rt ... I n t he l ate a rt o f b oth T eotihuacan a nd o f M onte A lban , t he h eaddress

o f

a d eity u sually

c ontains

s ome g lyphic o r

s ymbolic

e lements t hat s erve t o i dentify h im . T hus t he h eaddress i s a n e xtremely i mportant s ymbol a nd , a s t he t rapeze-and-ray g lyph , i t i s o ften r epresented b y i tself" ( 1976 : 1 21) .

T his m otif , h ere c alled t he F eather H eaddress S ymbol ( FHS), o ften o ccurs a s t he c ontextual f ramework w ithin w hich s emiotic s ign c lusters a re p laced ( Figure

3 1) ;

i t

i s v isually ( and i n a ll l iklihood c onceptually ) r elated t o

t he T R B s ign . B oth i nvariably i nclude t he f eather a rray a nd h orizontal b ar b ut t he F HS i s m uch m ore c omplex . I n i t t here i s a lways a n e xtension b elow t he b ar i n t he f orm o f t wo o utward c urving b ands , w hich a ppear t o r epresent t he b rim o f t he h eaddress , a nd/or c losely s paced v ertical l ines o r o blique b ars s ignifying h air a nd h eaddress t ippets r espectively , a s c an most c learly b e s een i n e xamples o f t he motif u sed n aturalistically a s t he h eaddress o f ah uman f igure ( see , f or e xample , m ural 3 o f P atio 2 0 , P alace o f t he J aguars -M iller 1 973 : F igure 4 7) . T he F HS i s a lso d ifferentiated f rom T R Bb y t he r ange o f i nfixes t hat m ay a ppear i n t he h orizontal b ar , b y t he f eather p anaches i n w hich t he b ar u sually e nds a nd b y t he f act t hat t he t rapeze a nd r ay e lements a re n ot a lways p resent. T he F HS i s a lmost a lways p art o f ac omplex s ymbolic c omposition i n w hich t hree m ain e lements c an b e d istinguished : t he s igns t hat c luster w ithin t he f ramework o f t he s ymbol , a ssociated s igns p laced i n c lose p roximity o n e ither s ide o r i n t he b asal b and ( of

p ottery v essels )

a nd ,

f inally ,

o ther

m otifs w ith which t he F HS a lternates ( on p ottery v essels) o r i s l ess d irectly a ssociated ( in m ural p aintings ) . T he c luster w ithin t he F HS i s a rranged v ertically i n t wo o r t hree t iers, t he t op t wo o f which a ppear •w ithin t he h eaddress i tself w hile t he t hird i s e nclosed b etween t he t ippets o r v ertical l ines b elow t he h orizontal b ar . T his a rrangment i s r eflected i n T able 2 3 i n which t he s igns t hat a ppear a t t he t hree l evels o f

t he

c luster a re g rouped u nder t he h eadings T , M a nd B , s tanding f or T op , M iddle a nd B ottom r espectively . F igures 3 2 a nd 3 3 i llustrate t ypical t wo-tier a rrangments ; e xamples o f t he t hree t ier v ariant a re i ncluded a mong t he i llustrations o f t he s ymbol i n F igures 3 4 a nd 3 5. A s c an b e s een f rom T able 2 3,

t he u niformity a nd r epetition o f t he

p atterns f ormed b y t he s igns t hat c luster w ithin t he F HS c ontrast w ith t he h eterogenity o f t he a ssociated s igns a nd a lternating m otifs , s uggesting s ome s tability o f m eaning i n t he F HS b ut v ariability i n t hat o f t he c ompositions a s a w hole . I n s o f ar a s t he " internal" c luster i s c oncerned , t he T R i s t he m ost c ommon o f t he c onstituent s igns . I t h as , h owever , b een l isted i n s eparate c olumns a s ' Triangle ' a nd ' Trapeze ' p artly b ecause o ne o f t hese e lements o ccasionally a ppears a lone a nd p artly b ecause t heir d epiction i s s ometimes r emote f rom t hat o f t he c onventional T R s ign . v on W inning, n oting t he e xtreme o btuse f orm o f s ome e xamples o f t he t riangular m otif ( e .g . a s i n F igure 3 1) h as i nterpreted i t a s a " mountain" s ymbol ( 1961: 1 28) a nd h as s uggested t hat t he f airly c ommon c ombination o f t his s ign w ith t he f eathered e ye r epresents a m ountain a nd s pring o r s ource o f w ater ( 1981a : 4 72) .

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APPENDIX

2

THE DATA SORTED BY ARTIFACT ( Extract)

aZ rUR i ä2 P GITFRY I LLD .222£:

5 3

0 -dro H 5.5W3.5 S anti ago

A huizotla V olkerkunde M useum, I V ca 3 7487 N egatives: B 36:15A+S42:7A Mold A RT B AND I NTERLACED T REFOIL E F LOvER P ROFILE A v jNQ ULLF )MAOL: Z acual a. l eotY N e9atives: P 79:1 L e iourne(1959):Fig 1 05A ART T NFFOIL I nfix: P ATCH

5 8

E

4 12 2 . 14E2 " UL22AUL: L acuala, f ecti

N egatives: P 79:1 P SeJourne(1959):Fi3 1 054 A RT T REFOIL I nfix: P ATCH,

5 9

F H OOK

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3 7

L A2 LELLLA UTTE fa m ULL2A2L: Tot j L S lir ies: 1 134 . y e t gatives: 6 10:35138 HUMAN Headdress

8 9

6 11:2-4

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E ir GOGGLED E T ASSEL

( Three)

LU IEL LIA P C ITIIR/ P . 1£ 4 1 1 2mA2F:

a ro w H 4.5 N egativPs: P 2r :1 1 4 t n27:10 A lbers(19 7 0 ):01 6 4 HUMAN ( Xipe?) M ASK T RICIRCLE

1 85

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G OnGLES B IRD B OW

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5 6.16.273

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B roL O re H 4.5 C amhriude, N eyatives: H UMAN

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1 86

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m useum,

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G re W H 8W6 L os A ngeles. M useum o f Natural N egatives: 8 62:36-37 H UMAN Headdress R OSETTE

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+ LZISI .P . 4 . 4 9 21: u B roL U Zacual a, T ent S lides: 9 16H . S ejourne(1959):Fig 97 ed areas) A DORNO P LAQUE ( Colou r D ARTBOTT ( Four)

LLU M ur iA4 p: 8 1a C ro G RI ) W S An Francisco, d e Y our i qMuseum S lides; 1 192 DEER HEART P ARABOLIC S ubfix: D ROP ( Three) T RILOBE C ANINE ( Coyote? NB F angs C laws)

1 87

2 1

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7 1

H EAD A NIMAL C f eather T ASSEL R OUNDEL R osette h ip O BSC U ndergarment D OTS M ULTIPLE B ag R ATTLE S ERPENT K NOT B OBSC B order B and F OOTPRINT H eaddress

I c ulanaL a rA t ez I .

a wa t u :

useum T eotiluacan R egional M N egatives: 8 68:33-34 A velevra d e A nda(1963):Fig 6 H UMAN ( Eroded) S kull ( Two b ack t o b ack) B and ( Basal) . S KULL P ROFILE B OW C P hiladel phia, P ennsa U niversity, 14865 N egatives: B 74:8 A RT ( Rim s herd) S KULL F RONTAL ( Four)

n l iLE2 H 7 A msterdam, N egatives: A RT

6 2

1 09

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2 362-14 B 2 . 4f : 2 ./A D ROP I nfix .: L INE W AVY L INE W AVY S CROLL C HAIN 1 31

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O D H 5 H amburg, V olkerkunde Museum, 3 5.36:51 N egatives: B 31: 1 2 -13 A RT TR A I nfix: C IRCLE ( Six ?)

1 88

U. 5 .2EL Z YLINQ a . 1 E12 1 22 L i o LAMPLEvE:

B ra H 12013 G rave 1 , R oom V TI, X olalpan, T eot S tockholm, E thnographic M useum, 3 2.8.4200 S li des: 1 033 N egatives; 8 50:32-34 L inne(1934):Fig 2 4 2c V on W inning(19(7):Fig 2 SEM B UNDLE I nfix: D ASH S uperfix: F LAME B UNDLE E I nfix: D ASH S uperfix; _ F LAME ASPERGTLLUM I nfix: A STERISK, T RILOSE A D ROP C HAIN I nfix: D ASHES MULTIPLE B and ( Rim a nd b asal) D ROP C HAIN

1 51

/ E MU . Z YLINGZB I EIED LL I L L UIEU: X ol alpan Teat L ondon, M useum o f N egatives: 8 15:2 A RT F rame B and C artouche

9 6

19 26.5.1.1

M ankind,

C P .B R E 7 T AB P AIRED

I E W .E1 L YLINDEE I EIEUZ =

6 1

MAUL:

L ate X olalpan M exico D F, M NA S lides: 5 16 N egatives; „ E 67:18 B ernal(1974b):234(ill) S ejourne(1966a):Fi9 1 33 H UMAN S CROLL S OUND A ffix: T AB T RIPLE E ARSPOOL A Headdress z oomorphic ( Cipactli) B and H ALF-STAR A RRAY F EATHER Cartouche ( Pectoral?) Border F RINGE F EATHER A S AWTOOTH E QUILATERAL H ALF-STAR . S KULL P ROFILE B and ( Basal) . H ALF-STAR V essel -foot H ALF-STAR S EMICIRCLE F ANGS A

I L UEL

Q /4 1 .1L ug

9 2 .

1 212 -22 Z 1E:

B la G Ru RM w Wash D C, D umbarton O aks, E -63.TP S lides: 5 98B&C A N egatives: 8 19: 1 2 C ross-refs: 8 19:11A A lternates a nd S EM B OW C A ffix: F RINGE F EATHER wo) A SPERGILLUm (-T

I nfix: T RIANGLE

1 89

on

l id

APPENDIX 3

THE ANALYTICAL I NDEX OF CONTEXTS AND S IGNS ( Extract)

Note: Several s igns have been d iscarded during t he course of t he study and do not a ppear i n t he c ompendium ; a f ew have been r enamed.

ä a r m eg . E LAIULE : BAND

BAND KNO1TbD I nfix: C IRCLE A RRAY FEAThEP QUI NCRoSs BANDS I NTERLACED FANG SC

Se m

VP , A/ -

1 1/

N

FATHF2 .: F NET PATCH A RRAY FEATHER S AWTOOTH EQUILATERAL

ANTHROP—FELINE Headdress

f eather

A EEAI E LA a lLE : 15 1 ART human

H eaddress

s egmented

GOGGLES PATCH A RRAY FEATHER

A as a F EATHzE : 120 HUMAN Headdress B i rd

z oomorPhic

MASK BUCAL E ARRAY FEATHER S AWTOOTH EQUILATERAL CHEVRON CHAIN S AWTOOTH I SOSCELES PANACHE FEATHER KNIFE A Superfix: TRILOBE POD C IRCLE

T i ppet

A JI2LeGIAI UM:

8 9 A RT

A SPERGILLUM I nfix: F EATHER

1 91

. d

. x 1 . . . .4 , .. c -uj x

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0 W M J U

3 = EM 4 . -

z w L I Z c na .e zc bcC.. 4 W m ac : 1-Z 0 m u ma . 0 a OW

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p laque

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z i

4 • J C CO

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i .24 6 J « . -1 . -Z.2 . 1-tx : 20 . -. K . Me 4w .c .C . C 7F- w je c tm e z z- ( m 0 40 4to ‹ea M a . . 1(

Mask

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< t i . 1 . W uuj 1 2 l a .. 4 44 . 1.. 4C C

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C

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4

. 00 Z « . 114 t 1 .0Z i o -cc M 4 n= te ' r.x . C w . .. m w a a a aa .2 1a) .0 -ucs c . .

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) . . .

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C D Wu .

u jim r

, m

a Z M 0 0

1

0 3. 1re. 0 < C = x6 . 1.= W W* .- Z W

.8 (

MtM % a t . w O Z Z M M ZZ Za U 0 I 08» w e O W W wsoC C -CC W x t .60 . 0 W J J J x1 -• O W

_ J_p- w c z o ucc m - m w o_J otm c›- o « a - - .-4coc_ Jo w w - wu. mim u u u a t u u o o

C M C % A l xxy l

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