Sustainable Materials in Building Construction (Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, 11) 3030467996, 9783030467999

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Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

J. M. P. Q. Delgado   Editor

Sustainable Materials in Building Construction

Building Pathology and Rehabilitation Volume 11

Series Editors Vasco Peixoto de Freitas, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Aníbal Costa, Aveiro, Portugal João M. P. Q. Delgado

, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

This book series addresses the areas of building pathologies and rehabilitation of the constructed heritage, strategies, diagnostic and design methodologies, the appropriately of existing regulations for rehabilitation, energy efficiency, adaptive rehabilitation, rehabilitation technologies and analysis of case studies. The topics of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation include but are not limited to - hygrothermal behaviour - structural pathologies (e.g. stone, wood, mortar, concrete, etc…) diagnostic techniques - costs of pathology - responsibilities, guarantees and insurance - analysis of case studies - construction code - rehabilitation technologies architecture and rehabilitation project - materials and their suitability - building performance simulation and energy efficiency - durability and service life.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10019

J. M. P. Q. Delgado Editor

Sustainable Materials in Building Construction

123

Editor J. M. P. Q. Delgado CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Porto Porto, Portugal

ISSN 2194-9832 ISSN 2194-9840 (electronic) Building Pathology and Rehabilitation ISBN 978-3-030-46799-9 ISBN 978-3-030-46800-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46800-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Construction industry and buildings have considerable environmental impacts, namely on total primary energy, and the built environment is in the centre of worldwide strategies and measures towards a more sustainable future. The construction activity, in narrow sense, transforms construction products in construction entities based on a construction technical design. Through the years, increasing requirements in terms of performance, quality, safety and environment, among others, have fall on the construction productive chain and on the processes that lead to the delivery of the construction products. Therefore, the sustainability of the built environment, the construction industry and the related activities is a pressing issue facing all stakeholders in order to promote a sustainable development. The forthcoming years are a challenge for practitioners and researchers that have in mind the sustainability of the built environment and the construction industry. The main purpose of this book, Sustainable Materials in Building Construction, is to provide a collection of recent research works and to provide best practice solutions, case studies and practical advice on implementation of sustainable construction techniques prepared by industry. It includes a set of new developments in the field of building sustainability assessment, sustainable construction and materials, service-life prediction, construction 4.0, digitalization of the construction process and circular economy. The book is divided into seven chapters that intend to be a resume of the current state of knowledge for benefit of professional colleagues, scientists, students, practitioners, lecturers and other interested parties to network. At the same time, these topics will be going to the encounter of a variety of scientific and engineering disciplines, such as civil, materials and mechanical engineering. Porto, Portugal

João M. P. Q. Delgado

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Contents

Effect of Sustainable Materials in Fresh Properties of Self-compacting Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Chandru, J. Karthikeyan, and C. Natarajan

1

Steel Slag—A Strong and Sustainable Substitute for Conventional Concreting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Chandru, J. Karthikeyan, and C. Natarajan

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Methodology for Proportioning SCC Containing High Powder Content Derived from Crushed Stone Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Chandru, J. Karthikeyan, P. Parthiban, and C. Natarajan

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Use of Traditional Materials for the Sustainable Conservation of Built Heritage: An Experience for Plastered Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Alessandro Lo Faro Data Templates—Product Information Management Across Project Life-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Pedro Mêda, Hipólito Sousa, and Eilif Hjelseth Stabilized Mud Concrete for Sustainable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Ashwin M. Joshi, S. M. Basutkar, and K. S. Jagadish Recent Innovations in Stabilized Earthen Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 H. B. Nagaraj and Sravan Muguda

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Effect of Sustainable Materials in Fresh Properties of Self-compacting Concrete P. Chandru, J. Karthikeyan, and C. Natarajan

Abstract Transforming the various industrial waste materials into an effective construction material is a key to achieve sustainability in the construction industry and it also helps in managing the industrial wastes. Numerous researches have been carried out in self compacting concrete to determine the possibility of dumping the industrial waste materials into it. This paper describes about the effect of sustainable wastes in the fresh properties of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) containing sustainable wastes as a partial replacement for the conventional concreting materials. Notably some materials show high compatibility in improving the fresh properties of concrete, whereas some seems to be detrimental to the flowability of concrete. It is worth to be mentioned here that some waste materials reduce the dosage of super plasticizer and reduce the water demand drastically due to their low water absorption property. Keywords Fresh properties · Self-Compacting concrete · Sustainability

1 Introduction The plain concrete needs only a minimum slump to get fully compacted and for a reinforced concrete member a minimum slump of 100 mm is required for the proper compaction, but when it comes to highly congested reinforcement areas such as a beam column joint and deep beams the compaction process becomes very complicated. In such areas with highly congested reinforcement poor compaction leads to the formation of honeycombs and voids, on other hand using vibrators cause dislocation of reinforcement bars and disturb the formwork. The self-compacting concrete serves to be better solution for such problems. P. Chandru (B) · J. Karthikeyan · C. Natarajan National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, India e-mail: [email protected] J. Karthikeyan e-mail: [email protected] C. Natarajan e-mail: [email protected] © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Sustainable Materials in Building Construction, Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46800-2_1

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A concrete shall be deemed as a self-compacting concrete when it satisfies the criteria provided in EFNARC guidelines. The Self-compacting concrete can be characterized with its unique features such as high visco-plastic deformability, resistance to segregation and also maintaining stable composition of fresh concrete. The selfcompaction in concrete without segregation can be achieved by using the fines smaller than 125 microns, viscosity modifying agents, water binder ratio not more than 0.4, super plasticizer. Many researches have been carried out with a concept of limiting the coarse aggregate content to 50% in volume of solids and fine aggregate content to 40% in mortar volume to prevent blocking. Self-compacting concrete shows a Bingham behavior which needs a minimum shear stress (threshold shear stress) to initiate the flow of mass, the self-weight of the concrete itself exceeds that threshold shear stress and makes the concrete flowable. The shear stress and plastic viscosity are the terms which are very much adhere to Bingham behavior. The self-compacting concrete exhibit a low threshold shear stress and high plastic viscosity as like a Bingham material with which it flows under gravity without undergoing any segregation. It is always important to maintain a stable equilibrium with plastic viscosity and yield stress in self-compacting concrete, if not it causes insufficient flow and segregation. Fresh properties of self-compacting concrete are very sensitive to minor change in the mix proportions, maintaining homogeneity of the mix and making it flowable without segregation is the key factor to be considered. Usually self-compacting concrete mixes requires high binder content to maintain the homogeneity of concrete, in order to minimize the cement content industrial wastes such as Silica fume, Fly ash, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), Metakaolin and Rice husk ash are used as a partial replacement. These materials enhance the fresh and mechanical properties of SCC. (Lenka and Panda 2017) witnessed the fresh property enhancement in SCC due to addition of Metakaolin. The acceptance criteria specified by EFNARC for the self-compacting concrete is listed in Table 1. A concrete mix shall be deemed as s self-compacting compacting concrete only if it satisfies the property mentioned in Table 1 such as filling ability, passing ability and segregation resistance. The rheology of self-compacting concrete cannot be explained only with the above-mentioned tests. The rheology of SCC should be carefully monitored by using the rheometer. The theoretical concrete rheometer model was proposed by Tattersall and Banfill. The rheology of concrete can be expressed by the Bingham model, only if the behavior was linear and no negative yield stress less than 10 pa was observed. But the Bingham model cannot be well fitted for SCC due to its shear thickening behavior such as thixotrophy and loss of workability. SCC shows a nonlinear relationship between the shear stress and shear rate, the apparent viscosity of SCC increase with the increasing shear rate. For the non-linear behavior of SCC, the Herschel-Bulkley model shall be applied in which the non-linearity is expressed in exponent “n”. Whereas in modified Bingham model, the non-linearity is expressed in “c/µ”. The modified Bingham model provides the most reliable yield stress than the other models.

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Table 1 Acceptance criteria for self-compacting concrete as per EFNARC Property Filling ability

Passing ability

Segregation resistance

Methods

Units

Typical range of values Minimum

Maximum 800

Slump flow

mm

650

T50 slump flow

sec

2

5

V-funnel

sec

6

12

Orimet

sec

0

5

J-ring

mm

0

10

L-box

(h2 /h1 )

0,8

1,0

U-box

(h2 − h1 ) mm

0

30

Fill-box

%

90

100

GTM screen test

%

0

15

V-funnel T5 min

sec

0

+3

2 Influence of Sustainable Materials in Fresh Properties of SCC In normal concrete sustainable waste materials can be used as a partial replacement for conventional materials where the strength and durability are the primary concern. But in case of SCC, the replacement can be made only if the replacing materials are not detrimental to the rheology of concrete. Achieving self-compaction is the primary concern in SCC, whereas the strength and durability are considered next to its fresh properties. The strength and durability performance of SCC containing industrial waste is found to be good enough (Chandru et al. 2018). Sustainable wastes which are compatible with SCC and which are detrimental to its fresh properties are discussed below.

2.1 Crumb Rubber Many researches were done by making the waste tyres and rubbers to the form of granules and they were used to replace the conventional aggregates in self-compacting concrete. The useful findings of such experimental works are discussed below. (Ganesan et al. 2013) replaced the fine aggregate with shredded rubber, during which it was observed that addition of shredded rubber from 0 to 20% in self-compacting concrete leads to a slight reduction in slump flow from 700 to 685 mm, also slightly increased the V-funnel values from 9 to 11 s and L-box values from 0.86 to 0.9 respectively. Further addition of steel fibers to the SCC containing shredded rubber showed negative impact on slump flow, V-funnel and L-box values. (Rahman et al. 2015) also observed a reduction in slump flow when the crumb rubber was used to replace the fine aggregate partially, it was also reported that the self-compacting concrete with

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rubber particles showed high plastic viscosity, low filling ability (V-funnel) and poor passing ability (L-box). In addition to that it was concluded that rubber particles resist the flow of self-compacting concrete. (Aslani et al. 2018) partially replaced the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate with 2, 5 and 10 mm rubber granules in SCC, which resulted in reduction in slump flow diameter and J-ring flow diameter. The flow diameter was decreased with the increase in rubber granules content. T500 also increased with increase in the rubber, which shows that the rubber particles resist the flow of SCC. Increase in rubber particles size also implied a negative impact on workability of SCC, 5 mm particles exhibited poor passing ability and 10 mm particles exhibited poor slump flow. (Khalil et al. 2015) also observed a same trend in slump flow and passing ability SCC when fine aggregate was replaced with crumb rubber, slump flow was reduced from 650 to 575 mm with the rubber content was varied between 0 and 40% (Figs. 1 and 2). Hesami et al. (2016) observed that addition of crumb rubber as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in SCC resulted in reduction of slump flow and increased the flow time. Further addition of polypropylene fibre to the mix containing crumb Fig. 1 Crumb rubber (Ganesan et al. 2013)

Fig. 2 Slump flow of SCC containing crumb rubber

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rubber showed a drastic reduction in slump flow and also increased flow time. Güneyisi et al. (2016) concluded that the SCC containing crumb rubber exhibited a shear thickening behavior when they were applied in Herschel-Bulkley and modified Bingham models. Venkatesh et al. (2015) also experienced the loss in slump flow when crumb rubber along with foundry sand was incorporated in SCC. From all above experimental work the reduction slump flow was commonly observed.

2.2 Crushed Plastic Wastes The possibility of incorporating the plastic wastes in concrete was experimentally studied and being studied across the world by various researchers. Their effect in self-compacting concrete is discussed below. (Yang et al. 2015) observed an increment in slump flow, when the fine aggregate was partially replaced with the crushed plastic waste. The slump flow increased from 550 to 750 mm when the replacement percentage was increased from 0 to 30%, this increase in slump flow was due to low water absorption of plastic waste, notably at 30% replacement the concrete tends to bleed due to high free water content. It was observed that T500 was ranging between 4.5 and 6 s for the SCC containing various percentage of plastic waste and for control mix it was about 7.5 s. It was also concluded that viscosity of SCC was low at 15% replacement and passing ability was improved at 20% replacement. Al-Hadithi and Hilal (2016) studied the possibility of adding waste plastic fibre in SCC, in which they had showed clearly that addition of waste plastic fibre from 0 to 2% of volume reduced the slump flow 780–650 mm, increased the T50 flow time from 3 to 12 s, increased the V-funnel time from 9 to 25 s and reduced the passing ability. It was also concluded that due to low specific gravity of waste plastic fibers, SCC containing 2% of waste plastic fiber showed 100 kg/m3 lower wet density than the control concrete. Hama and Hilal (2017) reported that the addition of plastic waste in self-compacting concrete resulted in reduction of flowability, passing ability and segregation resistance. It was observed that using 12.5% fine plastic waste as a replacement for fine aggregate reduced slump flow by 70 mm, whereas 12.5% coarse plastic waste reduced the slump flow by 100 mm and 12.5% of mixed plastic waste reduced the slump flow by 90 mm. It was also noted that increase in plastic waste content in SCC increased the T50 slump flow and V-funnel flow values and decreased the L-Box height ratio. Sadrmomtazi et al. 2016) partially replaced the fine aggregate with Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) particles, in their experimental work it was found that at the slump flow increased at 5 and 10% replacement but reduced at 15%. The same trend was followed when the fine aggregate was replaced with PET particles along with 10% of silica fume as binder. But when 30% fly ash was used as binder, the reduction in slump flow of SCC with PET particles was negligible. Slight segregation was also reported at 15% replacement of fine aggregate with PET particles (Figs. 3, 4 5, 6 and 7).

6 Fig. 3 PET particles (Sadrmomtazi et al. 2016)

Fig. 4 Plastic wastes (Yang et al. 2015)

Fig. 5 Slump flow of SCC containing plastic wastes

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Fig. 6 Slump flow of SCC containing plastic waste

Fig. 7 Fresh property of SCC containing plastic waste

2.3 Recycled Fines Recycled fine aggregates are obtained from the residue resulting from the construction demolition wastes. During demolition of old structures, the fines are obtained from the old mortar and concrete pieces, these fines are reused as a filler in selfcompacting concrete. Some findings about their behavior in SCC are discussed below. (Diego Carro-López et al. 2017) showed reduction in slump flow, increase in T500 slump flow time and V-funnel flow time with increase in recycled fine aggregate content. At 20% replacement of fine aggregate with recycled fines, the fresh property of SCC was found to be satisfactory, but the SCC containing 50 and 100% recycled fines ended up with severe slump loss and was not self-compactable. This slump loss was found be due to high water absorption property of recycled fines. (Vinay Kumar et al. 2017) experienced a slight reduction in slump flow and segregation resistance when 20% of fine aggregate was replaced with recycled fines. The slump flow of control SCC was found to be 710 mm whereas for SCC with 20% recycled fines it was reported as 705 mm, it was also observed that the SCC containing 20% recycled

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Fig. 8 Slump flow of SCC containing recycled fines

fines as well as 20% recycled coarse aggregate reached only 635 mm slump flow. They also revealed that the water absorption of recycled fines exceeded the water absorption of fine aggregate by the factor of 5. (Manzi et al. 2017) achieved a higher slump flow value for the SCC containing 25 and 40% recycled concrete aggregates than the control SCC. This higher slump flow was achieved by increasing the super plasticizer dosage by 0.1% and by using the aggregates in a saturated surface dried condition due to higher water absorption tendency of recycled aggregates. (Omrane et al. 2017) reported that SCC containing 50% of recycled coarse and fines showed a slight reduction in slump flow when compared with the control SCC. It was also observed that the SCC containing 50% of recycled aggregates and various percentage of pozzolans showed higher slump than the SCC containing normal aggregates and various percentage of pozzolans. In a rheological study made by (Carro-López et al. 2017) it was found that the SCC containing 50 and 100% recycled fines exhibited a higher growth in static yield stress in disturbed as well as undisturbed condition than the control SCC. In addition to that it was also observed that the SCC containing 20, 50 and 100% recycled fines showed higher plastic viscosity than the control mix, plastic viscosity increased with the increase in recycled fines content (Figs. 8 and 9).

2.4 Recycled Coarse Aggregates The coarse aggregate present in the demolished concrete can be recycled and reused in the concrete. They also exhibit potential to be used as a coarse aggregate in concrete. Their behavior in self-compacting concrete was experimentally studied by many researchers, which are discussed here. Even though at higher water absorption rate in recycled coarse aggregate, (Salesa et al. 2017) achieved higher slump

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Fig. 9 Fresh property of SCC containing recycled fines

flow of 739 mm in SCC with recycled concrete aggregate than control SCC with 640 mm slump flow. This behavior was justified with particle size distribution and foam contributed from the super plasticizer present in the parental concrete. Loss in slump flow in SCC was reported by (Vinay Kumar et al. 2017), when the 20% of recycled coarse aggregate was used as a replacement for conventional aggregate. Higher water absorption of 1.25% for recycled coarse aggregate was reported by (Panda and Bal 2013), however they also reported that the SCC containing 0–40% of recycled coarse aggregate satisfied the EFNARC guidelines. From the experimental work carried out by (Singh and Singh 2016), it was observed that SCC containing 100% recycled coarse aggregate with admixture such as fly ash and metakaolin exhibited almost same slump flow and slightly high L-box and V-funnel values when compared with control SCC. (Silva et al. 2016) demonstrated the reduction in slump flow in SCC with increase in recycled coarse aggregate content. Slump flow, LBox values were drastically reduced and T500 , V-Funnel values were increased with usage of 100% recycled coarse aggregate. (Khodair and Luqman 2017) replaced the coarse aggregate with recycled aggregate and recycled asphalt pavement in SCC, in their experimental work it was observed that the slump flow was increased with the increase in replacement percentage from 0 to 75%. It was also noted that usage of recycled aggregates along with the various dosage of silica fume and fly ash improved the fresh property of SCC. From the results obtained by (Kapoor et al. 2016), it can be clearly seen that a marginal slump flow of 700 mm can be easily achieved by using 100% recycled aggregate along with various admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume and metakaolin. In a rheological study made by (Singh and Singh 2018), it was revealed that the slump flow of SCC increased with the increase in recycled aggregate content. In addition to that it was also observed that addition of fly ash to the SCC containing recycled aggregate improved the rheology, but addition of silica fume was not so effective in improving fresh property of SCC. It should be highlighted that the addition of recycled aggregate and supplementary cementitious materials in SCC increased its yield stress, SCC containing recycled aggregate with fly ash showed yield stress less than 10 Pa which cannot be considered as a bingham

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Fig. 10 Slump flow of recycled aggregate SCC

behavior, but SCC with recycled aggregate and silica fume was able to show bingham behavior by exhibiting yield stress of more than 10 Pa. Increase in shear stress of SCC was clearly demonstrated by (González-Taboada et al. 2018) with increase in recycled coarse aggregate content. The shear stress of normal SCC was found as 160 Pa whereas the shear stress of SCC containing recycled coarse aggregate was reported as 190, 240 and 275 Pa for the replacement level of 20, 50 and 100% respectively. In a rheological study by (Güneyisi et al. 2012), it was reported that the SCC mix with 50% recycled coarse along with 25% recycled fines required higher energy to initiate the flow. It was also concluded that the Herschel-Bulkley and modified Bingham models provide better representation for the shear thickening behavior of SCC, whereas Bingham model was not recommended for SCC due to its non-linear shear thickening behavior. (González-Taboada et al. 2017a, b) also recommended that the bingham model cannot be always applied to describe the behavior of SCC due to the generation of negative yield stress, therefore the Herschel-Bulkley and modified Bingham model were recommended for representing the behavior of SCC (Figs. 10 and 11).

2.5 Steel Making Slags The steel slags are an industrial by product obtained during the manufacturing process of steel, the steel slag, Ladle Furnace Slag (LFS) and Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS) are the common slag in which the attempts were made to incorporate them in the production of self-compacting concrete. (Anastasiou et al. 2014) incorporated the ladle furnace slag in SCC as a filler in the range of 60–120 kg/m3 , in which the SCC

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Fig. 11 Fresh property of SCC with recycled aggregate

mix with 60 and 90 kg/m3 showed a slump flow of 580 and 570 mm respectively, whereas the SCC mix with 120 kg/m3 reached 600 mm slump flow. It was also reported that the SCC with steel fibers showed a drastic reduction in the slump flow, but inclusion of fibre increased the segregation resistance of SCC to 14%. They also showed that addition of steel fiber increased the risk of segregation, whereas increasing the powder content by adding ladle furnace slag resulted in reduction in segregation. Therefore the risk of segregation due to addition of fiber in SCC can be minimized by increasing the powder content of SCC. (Sheen et al. 2015) demonstrated the increase in slump flow when the cement was partially replaced with stainless steel slag in SCC. As the replacement percentage was increased from 0 to 50%, the slump flow was raised from 523 to 653 mm and V-funnel flow time was increased from 11 to 20 s. It was also summarized that the replacing 20% cement with the stainless steel slag showed better fresh properties in SCC. (Sideris et al. 2015) also showed that the addition ladle furnace slag increased the slump flow of the SCC when compared with the SCC containing limestone filler. It was also concluded that the addition of ladle furnace slag reduced the demand for super plasticizer in SCC. Santamaría et al. (2017) used Electric arc furnace slag as a partial replacement for fine and coarse aggregate in SCC. From their results it was observed that the addition of EAFS as an aggregate in SCC improved its flowability characteristics, on the other hand addition of fly ash and increasing the size of EAFS 12–20 mm resulted in drastic reduction in slump flow of SCC. Tomasiello and Felitti (2010) reported that replacing the coarse aggregate partially with EAF slag resulted in increase of slump flow in SCC, but reduction in the slump flow was also observed when fly ash was added along with EAF slag in SCC. However a tremendous increase in slump flow was also observed in mix containing EAF slag, fly ash along with small quantity of recycled coarse aggregates (Figs. 12 and 13).

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Fig. 12 Slump flow of SCC containing steel slag

Fig. 13 Fresh property of SCC containing steel slag

2.6 Iron Slag Iron slag is an industrial by-product obtained during the manufacturing process of iron. This iron slag had been used as an aggregate in the self-compacting concrete to study about their compatibility with SCC. (Singh and Siddique 2016) reported a reduction in fresh property of SCC when the fine aggregate was partially replaced with the iron slag. It was reported that the increase in iron slag content from 0 to 40% leads to the reduction of slump flow from 790 to 690 mm, reduced the L-box ratio from 0.92 to 0.84, increased the U-Box value from 28 to 31 mm and increased the V-funnel value from 11 to 12.5 s. The reason behind the reduction in workability was

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Fig. 14 Slump flow of SCC containing iron slag

reported as due to rough surface of iron slag which increased the friction between the particles. (Krishnasami and Malathy 2016) replaced the fine aggregate with ground granulated blast furnace slag along with 30% fly ash as a replacement for cement in self-compacting concrete. They reported the mixes containing GGBFS as a fine aggregate satisfied the criteria such as high flowability and segregation resistance provided in EFNARC guidelines. Decrease in workability of SCC was observed by (Samuel and Sahana 2015) when the fine aggregate was replaced with the GGBFS. It was also reported that the SCC mix containing GGBFS as a fine aggregate exhibited low flowing ability, low passing ability and low segregation resistance. At 100% replacement of fine aggregate with GGBFS, the requirements criteria of SCC were not satisfied. Experimental results obtained by (Behrera and Behera 2016) revealed that the addition of GGBFS as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate impaired the fresh property of SCC. But however all the mix containing GGBFS as a coarse aggregate had satisfied the minimum requirement provided in the EFNARC guidelines. The Slump flow of SCC containing iron slag is shown in Fig. 14, whereas the T500 slump flow, V-funnel and L-Box ratio values are shown in the Fig. 15.

2.7 Marble Powder and Ceramic Wastes The marble powder is the waste powder material produced during sawing the marble stone and also during polishing the marble, whereas the ceramic wastes are resulting from the demolition of tiles and ceramic materials. Their behavior in self-compacting concrete as an aggregate was discussed below. (Tennich et al. 2015) stated that the super plasticizer dosage was increased with the fineness of the filler material, due

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Fig. 15 Fresh property of SCC containing iron slag

to the higher fineness of the marble powder and ceramic waste the super plasticizer dosage for the SCC containing marble powder and ceramic waste was increased from 1 to 1.6%. It was also observed that the marble powder and ceramic waste showed a negative impact in workability of SCC. The SCC containing limestone filler showed a slump of 750 mm but the slump was reduced to 650 mm when the limestone filler was completely replaced with the marble powder and 680 mm slump was achieved in case of ceramic wastes. But replacing the coarse aggregate partially with ceramic waste resulted in a slight reduction in the workability of SCC. It was also concluded satisfactory fluidity and resistance to segregation can be achieved in SCC by using 150–250 kg/m3 of marble powder or ceramic waste instead of limestone filler. (Alyamac et al. 2017) used marble powder as a binder in self-compacting concrete, In which they had achieved an average slump of 650 mm for the different marble content with different w/b ratio. They also added that slump flow increases with increase in w/b ratio and increase in marble powder content, highest slump flow of 730 mm was achieved in a mix containing 300 kg/m3 of cement and 200 kg/m3 of marble powder with 0.7 w/b ratio. From the ANOVA results, they had observed a linear relationship in w/b ratio and marble/cement ratio. However the increase in slump flow was majorly contributed by w/b ratio rather than the marble powder content. Reduction in slump flow was observed by (Sadek et al. 2016), when the marble powder was used as a mineral additive in SCC. The slump flow of control SCC was observed as 765 mm, whereas the slump flow of SCC containing 50% marble powder showed only 660 mm slump flow. But addition of 25% marble powder and 25% of granite powder showed a higher slump flow of 740 mm, which was contributed by the presence of granite powder. In addition to that, compared with the control SCC super plasticizer dosage was also increased for the mix containing marble powder. Angular particle shape and rough texture of marble powder was reported as the reason behind the higher super plasticizer requirement. Suba¸si et al. (2017) demonstrated a slight slump flow loss in SCC with increase in the dosage of ceramic powder as

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a partial replacement for cement. The slump flow varied between 778 and 763 mm when the replacement level was increased from 0 to 20%. It was also concluded that, addition of ceramic powder increased the passing ability of SCC. Azeredo and Diniz (2013) used fine kaolin waste and coarse kaolin waste in the self-compacting concrete. In their experimental work, it was observed that the SCC containing fine kaolin waste exhibited good fluidity and viscosity. It was also reported that the SCC containing fine kaolin waste showed better flowability and cohesion which resulted from the fineness of kaolin, this fineness improved the compactness, filling capacity and passing ability of the SCC. It was also reported that, usage of coarse kaolin waste as a replacement for coarse aggregate in SCC improved the passing ability but not filling ability (Figs. 16 and 17). Fig. 16 Slump flow of SCC containing marble waste

Fig. 17 Fresh property of SCC containing marble waste

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2.8 Granite Powder Granite Powder Granite powder is the waste powder resulting from the granite quarrying process and sawing the granite stones. Attempts were made to partially replace the cement and fine aggregate with this granite powder. The useful findings of those attempts are discussed below. (Aarthi and Arunachalam 2018) inferred that all the SCC mix containing 0–20% of granite powder and 25% fly ash as a mineral admixture showed a higher slump flow than the control SCC. It was also discussed that the negative effect of angularity in granite powder was nullified by the presence of spherical particles of fly ash. In their another research publication it was discussed that the addition of more than 015% of polypropylene fiber in the SCC containing granite powder and fly ash as a partial replacement of cement resulted in poor workability. It was also highlighted that, increasing the powder content of SCC by addition of mineral admixture helped in maintaining the flow property and viscosity. In an another experimental work, Slump flow of 750 mm was achieved by (Sadek et al. 2016), when they used 50% granite powder as a mineral additive in self-compacting concrete. Their V-funnel values and step values of J-ring was observed as same for the control SCC and the SCC containing 50% of granite powder as a mineral admixture. It was also reported that the internal friction between the particles reduces and passing ability of SCC was improved by adding granite powder. An average slump flow of above 600–680 mm was achieved by Suma paralada (2016) in SCC containing various quantity of granite powder as a filler material. It was also concluded that the finer particles of granite powder helped in segregation resistance of SCC, but increase in viscosity of mix was also reported at the higher dosage of granite powder (Figs. 18 and 19). Calmon et al. (2005) achieved a slump flow of 710 mm with the granite and marble sawing waste as a filler in high strength self-compacting concrete. They also commented the granite and marble sawing waste as excellent filler in SCC due to its high fineness and physical properties. (Hunger and Brouwers 2008) replaced the Fig. 18 Slump flow of SCC with granite powder

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Fig. 19 Fresh property of SCC with granite powder

fine aggregate completely with the granite powder which showed a slump flow of 730 mm with moderate viscosity.

2.9 Volcanic Powders Pumice is a light weight material originated from the volcanic eruptions which has been used as an aggregate in concrete. Whereas their behavior in SCC was experimentally studied by various researchers. In a research carried out by (Kurt et al. 2016), the conventional aggregates were completely replaced with the pumice aggregates and also partially replaced the cement with pumice powder. In their experimental work, it was observed that the flow diameter of SCC containing pumice powder as partial replacement for cement was ranged between 650 and 640 mm and SCC without pumice powder showed 600–650 mm. It was also clearly demonstrated that the workability of SCC decreased with the increase in replacement percentage of conventional aggregates with pumice aggregates. In a SCC mix with fly ash as admixture, the slump flow decreased from 800 to 650 mm when the pumice aggregate content increased from 0 to 100%. Whereas for SCC mix with GGBFS as a mineral admixture showed a slump flow of 770–1645 mm when the pumice aggregate content increased from 0 to 100%. They also concluded that addition of pumice powder reduced the shear stress of the SCC. (Bani Ardalan et al. 2017) incorporated 10–50% of pumice as a partial replacement for the cement in SCC. In which they had demonstrated that to achieve a target slump flow of 650 mm, the super plasticizer requirement was increased with the increase in pumice content. But they also concluded that the SCC containing pumice powder exhibited higher sump flow retention even after 50 min. It was also shown that the J-ring values of SCC containing more than 20% of pumice powder did not satisfied the EFNARC requirements. When (Granata 2015)

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Fig. 20 Slump flow of SCC with pumice powder

used pumice powder as filler in SCC, it was reported that the increase in super plasticizer dosage was due to irregular and porous surface of pumice. It was also observed that the workability of SCC with pumice filler was lower than that of control SCC. In an in-depth literature survey done by (Papanicolaou and Kaffetzakis 2011), they showed that the SCC containing various quantity of coarse and fine pumice aggregates exhibited an average slump flow of more than 650 mm. It was also noted that the SCC containing coarse pumice showed better workability than the SCC containing fine pumice. (Samimi et al. 2017) revealed that the slump flow property of SCC containing 10 and 15% of pumice powder as a partial replacement for cement was same as the control SCC with limestone filler. It was also highlighted that the slump flow of SCC was drastically decreased when the cement was replaced with 10 and 15% of natural zeolite. (Revathy and Thomas 2016) concluded that pumice aggregate did not improved the self-compacting properties and the shear stress was reportedly reduced its porous and rough surface texture. From an experimental work done by (El Mir and Nehme 2017), it was observed that usage of waste perlite powder as a filler in SCC increased the super plasticizer dosage. In addition to that, increase in slump flow was observed by (Abhijeet et al. 2013), when the waste perlite powder was used to replace the fine aggregate in the range of 0–10% (Figs. 20 and 21).

2.10 Copper Slag Copper slag is a waste industrial by-product which is obtained during the smelting and refining operation of copper metal. To overcome the disposal problem of copper slag, the effect of copper slag in self-compacting concrete was experimentally studied

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Fig. 21 Fresh property of SCC with pumice powder

by many researchers. The fresh property result of (Sharma and Khan 2017b) on SCC containing 40% of fly ash as a binder and 0–100% of copper slag as a filler implied that the workability of SCC increased with the increase in copper slag content. The slump flow values increased from 705 to 735 mm and super plasticizer dosage was decreased from 0.80 to 0.40% when the copper slag content was increased from 0 to 100%. This reduction in super plasticizer content was due to the lower water absorption of copper slag when compared to normal fine aggregate. In another research work done by (Sharma and Khan 2017a, c), an increasing trend in workability was observed when the fine aggregate was replaced with 0–100% of copper slag and cement was replaced with 30% of fly ash, 10% of metakaolin. It was also observed that highest slump flow without any bleeding and segregation was achieved in a SCC mix containing 100% copper slag as fine aggregate. It was also highlighted that the demand for super plasticizer decreased beyond 40% replacement with copper slag. Once again an increasing trend in workability was witnessed by (Sharma and Khan 2018), when the fine aggregate was replaced with copper slag and cement was replaced with 30% fly ash and 10% silica fume. But no effect in workability of fresh concrete was observed by Fadaee et al. (2015), when they partially replaced the cement with 20–40% of copper slag. Daniel et al. (2016) reported that the workability of SCC increased with increase in copper slag up to 60% replacement. Beyond 60% replacement, slight reduction in the workability was observed. (Rahul et al. 2016) also experienced an increasing trend in slump flow from 680 to 757 mm, when the fine aggregate was replaced with copper slag from 0 to 50%. But controversially decreasing trend in workability of SCC was observed by Karthik and Baskar (2015), when they partially replaced the fine aggregate with 0–80% of copper slag and cement with silica fume. The slump flow of SCC was decreased from 710 to 540 mm when the copper slag content was increased from 0 to 80%. This reduction in workability might be due

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to the increase in silica fume content in SCC. Sureshkumar and Fernando (2014) achieved an average slump of 700 mm when the copper slag is used as partial filler in SCC. From the results obtained from the various researchers it can be clearly observed that copper slag shows low water absorption property and also increase the workability of SCC (Figs. 22 and 23). Fig. 22 Slump flow of SCC with copper slag

Fig. 23 Fresh property of SCC with copper slag

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2.11 Foundry Sand The foundry sand is used in ferrous and non-ferrous metal casting industries for their good thermal conductivity property, after usage this foundry sand is disposed into lands which leads to many environmental issues. In order to use this foundry sand as an aggregate in concrete various research had been carried out. But most of the research showed that 30% of foundry sand replacement was optimum. (Bhardwaj and Kumar 2017), reviewed the foundry san behavior in concrete, in which they had concluded that addition of foundry sand in self-compacting concrete resulted in decrease of workability. This decrease in workability of SCC was reported due to the fine particles of foundry sand. They also added that beyond 50% replacement of fine aggregate with foundry sand, the demand for water and super plasticizer was increased drastically. Siddique and Sandhu (2013) replaced the fine aggregate with waste foundry sand in 0–20%, in which it was observed that increase in replacement from 0 to 15% increased the slump flow of SCC from 605 to 625 mm, but at 20% replacement the slump flow was reduced to 590 mm. In another research work done by (Vennila et al. 2017), it was showed that the workability of SCC reduced when the fine aggregate was partially replaced with foundry sand. Slump flow of SCC decreased from 750 to 680 mm when the fine aggregate was replaced with 0–40% of foundry sand. (Mahesh Babu and Durga Prasad 2016) also observed a decreasing trend in SCC containing foundry sand. It was reported that beyond 25% replacement of fine aggregate with foundry sand the concrete failed to satisfy the EFNARC guideline, poor slump flow of 400–300 mm was achieved for the mix containing more than 25% of foundry sand. (Venkatesh et al. 2015) demonstrated the loss of slump flow in SCC with the addition of foundry sand and rubber crumb as a partial replacement for fine aggregate. (Pothunuri et al. 2016) also reported a reduction workability of SCC, when foundry sand was used as a partial replacement for fine aggregate. (Chakraborty et al. 2017) investigated the fresh property of geopolymer self-compacting concrete, from their results it was observed that increase in replacement of fine aggregate with foundry sand reduced the workability of geopolymer self-compacting concrete. 750 mm slump flow was achieved in control SCC, whereas the slump flow of SCC containing 30% and 60% was observed as 670 mm and 450 mm respectively (Figs. 24 and 25). In addition to that, the SCC with 60% of foundry sand was not able to satisfy the EFNARC guidelines. 678 mm slump flow was achieved by (Pathak and Siddique 2012), when they replaced the fine aggregate with 10% of foundry sand along with 50% of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement. Since the foundry sand content was low and high volume of fly ash also used, the slump flow was increased when compared with the control SCC. Decrease in workability of SCC was also demonstrated by Pole and Suresh (2014).

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Fig. 24 Slump flow of SCC with foundry sand

Fig. 25 Fresh property of SCC with foundry sand

2.12 Cold Bonded Light Weight Aggregates The cold bonded light weight aggregates are produced by the pelletization process. These light weight pellets can be used as coarse aggregate in the production of light weight concrete. Fly ash and GGBFS are commonly used in the production of cold bonded light weight aggregates. Since the light weight pellets shows high water absorption, it is recommended to use it in a saturated surface dried condition. In a research work done by (Güneyisi et al. 2016), the fly ash pellets was used to completely replace the coarse aggregate. In which it was reported that the SCC containing light weight fly ash pellets showed the slump flow of 700–750 mm, V-funnel value of 6.30–17.52 s and L-Box ratio of 0.851–0.975. Increase in super plasticizer demand

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was observed with addition of 5–10% of silica fume to SCC containing fly ash pellets, but the super plasticizer dosage was decreased when the fly ash was added as a partial binder. (Gesoglu et al. 2012) investigated the behavior of GGBFS pellets as a coarse aggregate in SCC. The GGBFS pellets was used to replace the coarse aggregate from 0 to 100%, with the increase in GGBFS pellets content the demand for super plasticizer was reduced from 8 to 4.2 kg/m3 . It was also observed that the increase in GGBFS pellets content increased the slump flow of SCC, decreased the slump flow time and V-funnel time. The better flow properties were reported as due to round shape and smooth surface of aggregates. It was also concluded that the passing ability of SCC was increased with the increase in pellets content, L-Box ratio was 1.0 at 80 and 100% replacement of coarse aggregate with GGBFS pellets. In another research work done by (Gesoglu et al. 2015a, b), it was concluded that the SCC containing 100% light weight coarse and fine aggregate showed 25% low unit weight than the control SCC. To be highlighted that 43% reduction in super plasticizer was achieved by using fly ash pellets as a coarse aggregate in SCC, this reduction was justified with the spherical shape of light weight aggregate and reduced internal friction. The behavior of SCC containing 100% light weight coarse and fine aggregate was found similar to the Bingham material. It was also concluded that the flow curve of SCC was non-linear and negative yield stress, yield stress less than 10 Pa was also observed in certain SCC mix. (Güneyisi et al. 2016) demonstrated the influence of light weight aggregate surface in slump flow of SCC. It was observed that, at constant water/binder ratio, the SCC made with normal fly ash pellets showed 700 mm slump flow. Whereas the SCC made with surface treated fly ash pellets showed 740 mm slump flow. It was also clearly shown that, the addition of 2.5–5% of nano silica reduced the workability of SCC. They concluded that applying water glass treatment for fly ash light weight pellets helped in reducing the water absorption, the super plasticizer dosage was increased with the increase in nano silica content in SCC (Figs. 26 and 27). Fig. 26 Slump flow of SCC containing pellets

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Fig. 27 Fresh property of SCC containing pellets

3 Inferences From the results obtained from the various research work on SCC containing sustainable materials, the following things are observed, • The modified Bingham model and Herschel-Bulkley model can be used for explaining the rheological behavior of self-compacting concrete rather than the Bingham model. Because the Bingham model is not suitable for the non-linear shear thickening behavior. • In most of the research work, the addition of silica fume and nano silica in SCC was resulted in low workability and increased the shear thickening behavior in SCC. In other hand addition of fly ash showed a positive impact in workability of SCC. • Usage of rubber waste such as crumb rubber in SCC resulted in marginal reduction of flowability and passing ability. In case of plastic wastes, the plastic waste can be crushed and used as a fine aggregate, increasing the coarseness of plastic waste found to be detrimental to the fresh property of SCC. • The recycled fine and coarse aggregate shows a high water absorption property, which drastically affects the flow ability of SCC. But desired slump flow and workability can be achieved by using the aggregates in saturated surface dried condition and by adjusting the super plasticizer dosage. Increase in fineness of fine aggregate increased super plasticizer demand and water demand to achieve the target slump. Angular shaped particles in fine aggregate makes the SCC low workable. • The steel making slag such as ladle furnace slag and electric arc furnace slag shows a good impact on the fresh property of SCC, whereas the iron slag shows convincing performance with a marginal reduction in workability. The rough surface and angularity of iron slag increases the water demand and super plasticizer demand to achieve the target slump flow. • Due to the high fineness, the marble powder shows a higher water absorption property and reduces the workability of the SCC. The super plasticizer demand

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also increases with the increase in marble powder content. Whereas the SCC with granite powder as a filler shows an excellent flowability and filling ability property along with satisfactory segregation resistance. • It is highly recommended to partially replace the fine aggregate with the 20–30% of copper slag, which shows low water absorption and increases the fresh property of SCC. With the usage of copper slag, the target slump flow can be achieved with low water content and super plasticizer dosage. In other hand, the foundry sand reduces the workability of SCC. • Cold bonded aggregates shows high water absorption than the conventional aggregates, so it should be used in a saturated surface dried condition, SCC with cold bonded aggregates shows a good flowability and passing ability than control SCC.

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Steel Slag—A Strong and Sustainable Substitute for Conventional Concreting Materials P. Chandru, J. Karthikeyan, and C. Natarajan

Abstract This chapter reports the feasibility of employing steel slag-based aggregates and binders as an alternate for the conventional concrete making materials and their effect on fresh, mechanical and durability properties of concrete. The ladle furnace slag (LFS), basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) and electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) are the types of steel slag conceded in this study. The various attempt has been made to dump these steel slags into the concrete as a binder, filler, fine and coarse aggregates. From those various attempts, it is inferred that the utilization of steel slag as filler, fine and coarse aggregate in concrete is a prominent way to fix the sustainability issues in the construction industry and also it paves the path for solid waste management. However, the combined substitution of steel slag as a coarse and fine aggregate slightly affects the inherent properties of concrete. In many cases, the incorporation of steel slag as a binder showed a negative effect on the early strength of concrete/mortar due to its low pozzolanic activity and slow hydration rate but improved the mechanical properties at later ages. Keywords Steel slag · Ladle furnace slag · Electric arc furnace slag · Basic oxygen furnace slag

1 Introduction Manufacturing iron or steel results in the generation of large volume of hard solid waste material like slag. In general, 1 tonne of solid waste is being produced during 1 ton of crude steel production (Grubeša et al. 2016). Annually, around 29 million tons of solid wastes are produced from the large steelmaking plants (Mohapatra P. Chandru (B) · J. Karthikeyan · C. Natarajan National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] J. Karthikeyan e-mail: [email protected] C. Natarajan e-mail: [email protected] © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Sustainable Materials in Building Construction, Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46800-2_2

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2007). Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) plants contributes around 40% of world steel production (IISI 2004). All over Europe, it has been reported that greater than 10 million tons of slag per year are being generated from electric arc furnaces during steel making (Pellegrino and Gaddo 2009). In the year of 2010, steel production and steel slag generation of china reached 626 and 90 million tons respectively. In which, only 22% of the steel slag was reused. Around 300 million tons of steel slag has been accumulated in china, which caused severe pollution to the environment (Yi et al. 2012). The World Steel Association (2014) reported India as the third-largest manufacturer of crude steel in Asia. In 2010, nearly 4 million tonnes of blast furnace slag and 23 million tonnes of stainless-steel slags were produced. In which, 40% of stainless-steel slag was EAFS and 60% was AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarburization) slag. Lesser than 75% of the stainless-steel slags were only recycled (Adegoloye et al. 2016). An average of 30 kg LFS slag was produced during the manufacture of one ton of steel in ladle furnace. The World Steel Association (2019) reported that from 2010 the annual worldwide production of crude steel was exceeded 1500 million tonnes, in which 10% of the crude steel was manufactured by the European Union (28 countries). Indian Minerals Yearbook (2018) reported that the approximate steel slag production as 20–30% mass of total steel production in the country. The consumption of the slag for cement production also reported being very low in 2018 as compared to 2015. Recent data released by the World Steel Association (2019) shows that crude steel production increased by 4.9% i.e. 925 Metric tonnes in the first half of 2019 from 882 Metric tonnes in the same period in 2018. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI 2019) stated that the current steel production capacity of India is around 140 million tons, which will exceed 300 million tonnes by 2030, the blast furnace slag and basic oxygen furnace slag output will be 27 and 12 million tonnes respectively. Figure 1 illustrates that there is a considerable increase in worldwide crude steel production. World Steel Association (2019) revealed the 20 major steel manufacturing nations in the world for the year of 2018. In which China, India, and Japan were in the top 3 places producing greater than 100 million tonnes of crude steel per year. India and Japan were reported to produce 106.5 and 104.3 million tonnes respectively, whereas China was pronounced to produce about 928.3 million tonnes. So, countries like China, India, and Japan would face solid waste management issues in the upcoming decades unless or otherwise the proper way to dispose of the slag is identified.

2 Steel Slag—Classification, Composition and Volumetric Stability Based on the nature of furnace in which they are generated, the steel slag may be classified as Blast Furnace Slag (BFS), Ladle Furnace Slag (LFS), Basic Oxygen Furnace

Crude Steel Production (Million Tonnes)

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1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1940

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Year Fig. 1 Worldwide crude steel production as reported by the world steel association

slag (BOFS) and Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS). Type of process adopted to produce the crude steel, cooling rate of the slag and the valorization process are the key factors which influence the physical and chemical properties of these slags. If cooling of molten slag is done slowly, their components crystallize into stable structures and form a dense and inert crystalline material. In case of rapid cooling, its components form an amorphous structure which makes the slag volumetrically unstable or reactive under certain conditions. European Slag Association (EUROSLAG), classifies the slag as: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Blast furnace slag (BFS) also called as iron slag, air-cooled slag and granulated blast furnace slag Basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) Ladle furnace slag (LFS) Electric arc furnace slag from carbon (EAFC) or stainless/high alloy steel production (EAFS) Steelmaking slag (SMS)

In general, BFS and air-cooled slags are termed as “blast furnace slag”, whereas the BOFS, EAF-C, EAF-S, LFS and SMS are termed as “steel slags” (EUROSLAG 2018). The various types of steel slags are shown in Fig. 2.

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a) Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag

b) Electric Arc Furnace Slag (Carbon)

c) Electric Arc Furnace Slag (Stainless Steel)

d) Ladle Furnace Slag

Fig. 2 Types of steel slags a Yildirim and Prezzi (2011) and b, c, d Thomas et al. (2019)

2.1 Blast Furnace Slag Blast furnace slag (BFS) is generated from the blast furnace, in which process the raw iron ore to iron. The BFS can be further divided as air-cooled slag and granulated blast furnace slag based on the rate of cooling. The air-cooled slags are subjected to gradual cooling and therefore, they exhibit good crystalline structure and physicochemical stability. The air-cooled slag has a density of about 2.5 g/cm3 and it can be utilized as aggregates in concrete and also as a subbase in road construction (Liu et al. 2013). The granulated blast furnace slags (GGBFS) are rapidly cooled with water which leads to the formation of vitrified granulates, due to which they exhibit hydraulic properties, they are ground to the particle size lesser than 100 μm to bring out the cementing properties. So, they can be used in cement production as a partial substitute for the Portland cement clinker. The blast furnace slag pellets can also be obtained rapid cooling of slag with air (Liu et al. 2013). The schematic representation of the production of blast furnace slag is shown in Fig. 3. GGBFS has a very wide application in cement producing industry and their influence in fresh and mechanical properties of concretes are almost well known, so the blast furnace slag is not considered in the following technical discussions.

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Fig. 3 Schematic representation of blast furnace slag production

2.2 Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag Basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) is produced when the hot molten metal is converted into steel in a basic oxygen furnace. They are also called as Linz–Donawitz (LD) slag and converter slag. Around 110 kg of BOFS is generated during the manufacture of each ton of converter steel (Nippon Slag). In this process, oxygen is used to treat the hot metal to eliminate carbon and remaining elements which shows a high attraction towards oxygen. Due to its higher Fe content, it shows a higher density of about 3–3.3 g/cm3 . Gradual cooling of the slag leads to the stable crystallization of its components. Owing to its increased skid resistance and better strength compared to natural rocks, BOFS is used in concrete and pavements (EUROSLAG). Schematic view of the production process of BOFS is shown in Fig. 4. Slow cooling and treatment of molten slag with O2 and SiO2 improves the volumetric stability of the slag.

Fig. 4 Schematic representation of basic oxygen furnace slag production

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Commonly observed phases in both BOF and EAF slags are Larnite and wüstite (Motz and Geiseler 2001; Brand and Roesler 2015). Comparing to EAF slags, the free CaO content is higher in BOF, which can be identified in XRD as CaO/CaCO3 . Magnesioferrite is a rarely found phase which is observed in BOF slags and Srebrodolskite can be found only in BOF slags (Brand and Roesler 2015). Dicalcium silicate, dicalcium ferrite, iron oxide, and lime was reported as the major mineral phases in the BOF Slag (Waligora et al. 2010), the presence of tricalcium silicate is majorly influenced by the type of cooling. Since the BOF slags are slowly air-cooled, the tricalcium silicate gets transformed to C2S and lime. Presence of C3S was also reported (Chand et al. 2015; Kourounis et al. 2007). Srebrodolskite and larnite were reported as the major constituent of BOFS (Reddy et al. 2006), it was also stated that on slow cooling three distinct phases were formed such as C2S with dendrite pattern, C2F as matrix and non-uniformly distributed lime particles. Goldring and Jukes (1997) reported the presence of some reactive mineralogical phases such as C2S, C2S, free CaO, and MgO. In XRD patterns, portlandite shows high diffraction intensity when BOF slags are in the particle size of