Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya 303121935X, 9783031219351

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Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya

Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati Department of Geography and Resource Management Mizoram University (A Central University) Aizawl, Mizoram, India

ISBN 978-3-031-21935-1    ISBN 978-3-031-21936-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Forests hold a very important place in Hindu scriptures and culture. The people perform several educational, cultural, and spiritual activities in the forest areas. In ancient India, students received spiritual instructions from their Guru (teacher) sitting beneath the canopy of trees. Similarly, the sages and saints performed penance under trees. Lord Rama and Krishna found shelter in forests. The importance of forests has been stated in the Matsya Purana (verse 512) where Devi Parvati says that those who make a well in dry areas live in heaven for many years as the water drops in it. Ten wells equal a pond, ten ponds equal a lake, ten lakes equal a son, and ten sons equal a tree. Forests have three categories in Hindu tradition. The first one is Shrivan, which means prosperity. Tapovan is the second category, where penance is performed and humans attain enlightenment. The third is Mahavana, where all species of life find shelter. Forests also mean the whole creature. The Upanishads say that teaching begins in the forest. Planting of five trees symbolizes the five primary elements of Earth – water, fire, air, sky, and land. Planting trees in a desert provides salvation to previous and future generations (Shiva Purana, Uma Samhita 11/7). Trees with flowers and fruits make the forest and environment fragrant and heavenly, like a good son to a family (Chanakya Niti Darpan, 3–14). Lord Vishnu always lives nearby the Tulsi Van. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, some forests are named after folk deities, such as Badri Van and Nanda Van. People worship trees on all auspicious occasions and while performing various samskaras. One of the folk deities  – Jungle Devta  – is worshipped by a newly married woman. She offers a goat sacrifice to the Jungle Devta and prays for her well-being. During Dev Avataran, Jungle Devta appeared in a human body and danced. People celebrate a month-long festival, known as Harela, which starts from the first day of the Hindu month Shravan, called Sakranti. During the entire month, people plant trees on the edges of agricultural fields surrounding the villages. The livelihood of rural people largely depends on forest products. Collecting forest products is the subsidiary activity of each household. Forests provide fodder, firewood, food, shelter, and medicine. The local communities, who live in and around a jungle, depend on forest products to sustain their livelihood. The environmental importance of forests is significantly high. Forests v

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keep the climate cool. They help increase rainfall and restore the environment. Forests sequestrate carbon and provide life-supporting air—oxygen—upon which lives on planet Earth sustain. Forests control soil erosion, land degradation, and natural hazards. Forests have a favorable impact on human health. They keep humans healthy. Many diseases can be cured by dwelling in forests, especially respiratory problems. Those who suffer from asthma can take shelter in forest to cure it. Many forest trees restore water and make it available throughout the year. They also purify water. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is known for its three-dimensional vertical landscapes—the river valleys, the middle Himalaya, and the Greater Himalaya. The climate varies accordingly. Both altitude and climate determine the forest landscape—types and species. Uttarakhand has about 63.41% forest areas and about 45% forest cover. The bio-diversity—faunal, floral, and avifaunal—is rich, and the Uttarakhand Himalaya is known as a biodiversity hotspot. It has mainly four forest zones. The first zone is tropical, where monsoon deciduous forests grow and their density and economic value are high. The sub-tropical zone is dominated by pine forests. In many locations, dense pine trees grow. Pine trees are highly inflammable and prone to forest fires. In the meantime, pine trees are used as firewood for cooking food and timber for constructing houses. Their leaves are used as animal beds and for making manure. The third zone is the temperate zone—mixed-oak forests are grown in the lower altitude of the temperate zone and coniferous forests are grown in the upper temperate zone. The alpine pasturelands are found in the fourth zone (cold zone), which are rich in medicinal plants and a variety of flowers. Uttarakhand’s forests are classified into numerous types according to species. The classification of forests is based on their legal status, types, and density. The state government has divided the forests of Uttarakhand into zones and circles. Two major zones are Garhwal and Kumaon and their sub-divisions. These zones are divided into circles to sustainably manage the forests. Van Panchayats are managed by the community people. Nurseries and plantations also play a vital role in forest management. Owing to the abundance of forest resources, many forest areas are declared protected or reserved forests. Within these protected areas, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves, and biosphere reserves are established. These parks and sanctuaries have a rich biodiversity. Many species are endemic and endangered. The Valley of Flowers National Park and the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve are declared heritage sites by UNESCO. These parks and sanctuaries are ecologically fragile. A few parks and sanctuaries are declared eco-sensitive zones by the government. Eco-tourism is practiced in the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Both domestic and foreign eco-tourists visit these parks and sanctuaries. As a result, local people, who are involved in providing services to the eco-tourists, get the opportunity to earn money to run their livelihood. Forests are distributed horizontally and vertically. The forest species and density vary from east to west and north to south. Further, the vertical distribution of forests makes a distinguished forest landscape. The broad forest types are monsoon deciduous, pine, mixed-oak, coniferous, and alpine pasturelands. Within these forests,

Preface

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many sub-types are found. These are very useful forests, and their economic and cultural values are enormous. The altitude varies from 200 m to above 7,000 m, and accordingly, forest types vary from deciduous forests to evergreen forests. In the districts, which are located either in plain regions or close to the Great Himalaya, the forest cover is nominal. The other areas have substantial forests. Forest stock and products are abundant, upon which the livelihood of local people is dependent. Timber and non-timber forest products are economically viable. Wood of eucalyptus is used for making paper. The state has two paper mills where eucalyptus wood is supplied. Furniture is made of wood. Sal, shisham, teak, pine, and deodar trees supply timber. Non-timber forest products are firewood, fodder, fruits, and medicinal plants. Firewood is used for cooking food and keeping houses warm during the winter season. In the rural areas, livestock farming is practiced and fodder is used for stall-feeding. Many wild fruits grow in the forest areas, which are nutritious and used as subsidiary food items. Medicinal plants grow naturally in the alpine pasturelands. They are used in the traditional healthcare system. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has a rich environmental index. It is rich in carbon stock and pool, as the entire land has extensive dense forest areas and large alpine grasslands. The alpine grasslands are the best example of carbon sequestration and contributors to a healthy environment. The wetlands are located at high and low altitudes, providing ample water and support for a healthy ecology and ecosystem. There are hundreds of glacial-fed perennial wetlands in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. India’s biggest river system—the Ganga system—originates and flows from Uttarakhand. The Ganga system comprises sub-river systems and their numerous tributaries. These rivers are glacier-fed and perennial, supporting livelihoods and a healthy ecology. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing huge forest fires, poaching of wild animals, illegal felling of trees, and forestland encroachment. Grazing in alpine pasturelands and mass tourism are the other drivers of forest loss. All these drivers are causing the depletion of forests and forest biodiversity. Further, huge economic losses were noticed due to forest depletion. The dense forest area has been decreasing whereas the open forest area has been increasing. Therefore, the conservation of forests is the need of the hour. The role of the State Forest Department and community people is significant in conserving forests of the degraded Himalayan ecosystems. Owing to the over and underuse of forests, the issue of water, land, and forests is long-lasting between the government and local people. Climate change has had a significant impact on forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Many endemic forest species are extinct and many of them are on the verge of extinction. The river valleys and the middle altitudes are warming, leading to the spanning of forest species towards the higher altitudes. One of the examples is the upward movement of pine forests and decreasing area under mixed-oak forests. Forests are the most vulnerable to climate change because of their locations at different altitudes, which are ecologically fragile. Coping with climate change and sustainable forest management are inevitable. The local people's participation with the State Forest Department can ensure the conservation of forests.

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Forests sustain life by providing oxygen—the life-support system—and regulating climate. Forests provide food, fodder, firewood, timber, and non-timber forest products, upon which life on planet Earth is sustained. The Himalaya has rich biodiversity and is the world’s biodiversity hotspot. The rural people are largely dependent on forest products for sustaining their livelihood. In the meantime, the forest depletion and the quality of forests have reduced from the fragile terrain of the Himalaya. This book, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, presents a comprehensive description of forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It looks into the major drivers of forest depletion and suggests sustainable forest management. The book comprises 13 chapters including the introduction and conclusions. It describes forest land use; forest classification and working circles; national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and conservation reserves; forest diversity and distribution; forest stock and products; environmental index; forests goods and services; drivers of forest degradation and conservation; climate change and forests; and cultural and economic significance of forests, sustainable forest management, and conclusions, in an integrated manner. This study is unique, conducted for the first time for the Himalayan forests. It is useful for students, research scholars, academicians, and policy makers. The book is enriched by 48 tables and 69 color figures. I have published many research papers and books on the different aspects of the Himalaya; however, very few research papers have been published on the Himalayan forests. In the recent period, lots of debates and discussions on the Himalayan forests are going on, in terms of climate change and forest degradation. Therefore, I felt a need to publish a book on forest management in the region. During the second wave of the Covid-19 pandemic in March 2021, I started writing this book. I collected data from the Forest Statistical Book 2016–2017, analyzed them, and described them in this book. Since, I visited the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya several times, my experiences in the forests of the region helped me to compose this book. The literature review also helped me to understand the forests of the Himalayan region, and I could succeed in composing it. My daughter, Engineer Vishwani Sati, now at Northwestern University, Evanston, USA, helped me with editing and correcting grammar. I acknowledge her contribution. Similarly, I acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Saurav Kumar, a PhD scholar from Mizoram University, in editing this book. Now, the book is in your hands. I dedicate this book to my parents, beloved mother Smt. Saradi Devi Sati and father Shri Shiv Dutt Sati, and grandparents, Shri Govind Ram Sati and Smt. Savitri Devi Sati, for nourishing me and blessings. My existence is only after them. Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India  Vishwambhar Prasad Sati October 2022

Glossary and Acronyms:

Badri Van: Badri is a sweet fruit grows in the Badrinath highland pilgrimage. Banj (oak): Banj is very valuable tree, worshipped in various occasions. Bhamora: A tree of wild fruits that grows in the middle altitudes during winter. It produces a sweet and nutritious wild fruit. Bhatmoya: Bhatmoya is a wild fruit tree that grows in the middle altitude. Bheemal: A productive fodder tree that has multiple uses. Bhotiyas: Indo-Tibetan group of people having habitat in the high Himalaya bordered by Tibet. Brahma Kamal: Brahma Kamal is also called Dev Pushp and grows in the high Himalayan region only during autumn. The folks bring the flowers from the highlands to offer the folk deities. Bugyal: Bugyals are alpine grasslands located above 2800 m. Bugyals house many medicinal plants and flowers, and are snow-capped during winters. Gujjars: Gujjars are animal herders who have habitats in the Raja Ji National Park and Corbett National Park. Hainsoli: A scrub of wild fruits that grows between 1200 and 1800 m. Harela: It is a month-long festival celebrated in the Hindu month of Shravan (mid-­ July to mid-August). In entire Uttarakhand, people plant trees in and around the villages and other wasteland areas. Jadhs: A tribal community inhabiting in the upper part of the Yamuna and Bhagirathi rivers. Jungle Puja: Jungle puja is performed by a newly married woman. Kafal: A nutritious wild fruit tree that grows in the middle altitude in summer. Khals, Chals, and Tals: These are the traditional water reservoirs constructed in forest areas to conserve water. Khareek: A fodder tree, grown in the surroundings of villages. Kilmori: A scrub of wild fruits that grows together with Hainsoli. Naag Pushp: A snake-shaped flower that grows in the high Himalaya. Namkaran Ceremony: Name-giving ceremony conducted after 11 days of birth of a baby. Nanda Van: Nanda Van is named after the folk deity Nanda Devi. ix

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Glossary and Acronyms:

Pipal: Pipal is a religious tree, worshipped by folk in various occasions. Rai Sakranti: Rai Sakranti is celebrated on the first day of Shravan month (mid-­ July) for planting trees. Tharus: Tharus are forest dwellers of the eastern part of Uttarakhand bordering Nepal. Tilonj: It is a fodder and firewood tree that grows in the temperate climate with mixed-oak. Van Panchayats: Van Panchayats are the community institutions for sustainable use and conservation of forests. Yagyopaveet Ceremony: It is a ceremony celebrated after 16 years of age. A boy reared a religious tread on his neck.

About the Book

Forests sustain life by providing oxygen—the life-support system—and regulating climate. Forests provide food, fodder, firewood, timber, and non-timber forest products, upon which life on planet Earth is sustained. The Himalaya has rich biodiversity and is the world’s biodiversity hotspot. The rural people are largely dependent on forest products for sustaining their livelihood. In the meantime, the forest density and quality have reduced from the fragile terrain of the Himalaya. This book, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, presents a comprehensive description of forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It looks into the major drivers of forest depletion and suggests sustainable forest management. The book comprises 13 chapters including the introduction and conclusions. It describes forest land use; forest classification and working circles; national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and conservation reserves; forest diversity and distribution; forest stock and products; environmental index; forests goods and services; drivers of forest degradation and conservation; climate change and forests; and cultural and economic significance of forests, sustainable forest management, and conclusions, in an integrated manner. This study is unique, conducted for the first time for the Himalayan forests. It is useful for students, research scholars, academicians, and policy makers. The book is enriched by 48 tables and 69 color figures.

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Contents

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     1 Defining Forest Cover and Forest Area������������������������������������������������������������     3 What Is Forest Cover?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������     3 What Is Forest Area?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     4 Currents Status of Forests��������������������������������������������������������������������������������     4 Objectives of the Study������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     5 Materials and Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     6 Organization of the Study��������������������������������������������������������������������������������     7 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     8  Forest Land Use/Cover Change��������������������������������������������������������������������    11 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    11 Land-Use Patterns��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    12 Land Cover Change ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    12 Altitude-Wise Geographical Area��������������������������������������������������������������������    13 Uttarakhand Forest Statistics ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    13 Forest Land Use: Types and Area��������������������������������������������������������������������    14 Forest Cover ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    15 Forest Cover Changes (2001–2019)����������������������������������������������������������������    15 Changes in Dense and Open Forest Cover������������������������������������������������������    17 Changes in Overall Forest Cover 2001–2019��������������������������������������������������    18 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    18 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    19  Forest Classifications and Working Circles ������������������������������������������������    21 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    21 Forest Classifications ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    22 Forest Classification Based on Legal Status����������������������������������������������������    22 Forest Type Groups According to the Density of Forests��������������������������������    23 Forest Types Based on Major Species ������������������������������������������������������������    23 State Forest Department: Working Circles and Administrative Units ������������    25

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Nurseries and Plantations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    26 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    27 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    29  National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves ����������    31 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    31 National Parks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    32 Wildlife Sanctuaries����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    33 Conservation Reserves������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    34 Case Study of Two Conservation Reserves������������������������������������������������������    35 Asan Conservation Reserve ������������������������������������������������������������������������    35 Jhilmil Tal Conservation Reserve����������������������������������������������������������������    36 Wildlife Population������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    37 Wetlands Inside the Forests������������������������������������������������������������������������������    39 Eco-sensitive Zones ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    40 Bhagirathi Eco-sensitive Zone ��������������������������������������������������������������������    40 Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary Eco-sensitive Zone ��������������������������������������    42 Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary Eco-sensitive Zone��������������������������������������������    43 Nanda Devi National Park Eco-sensitive Zone��������������������������������������������    44 Ecotourism in NPs and WLSs��������������������������������������������������������������������������    46 Minimum, Maximum, and Mean Value of Tourists’ Inflow����������������������������    46 Revenue Earned from Ecotourists��������������������������������������������������������������������    47 Growth in Ecotourists’ Inflow��������������������������������������������������������������������������    47 Tourists’ Inflow in Major NPs and WLSs��������������������������������������������������������    47 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    48 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    50  Forest Diversity and Distribution ����������������������������������������������������������������    51 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    51 Major Forest Types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    52 Biodiversity������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    52 Floral Diversity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    53 Faunal Diversity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    53 The Area Under Forest Species������������������������������������������������������������������������    54 Horizontal Distribution of Forests ������������������������������������������������������������������    55 District-Wise Forest Cover��������������������������������������������������������������������������    55 Forest Cover Change����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    56 District-Wise Scrub Cover ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    58 Forest Cover at Different Slope Classes����������������������������������������������������������    59 Vertical Distribution of Forests������������������������������������������������������������������������    60 Monsoon Deciduous Forests������������������������������������������������������������������������    61 Pine Forests��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    62 Mixed-Oak Forests��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    63 Coniferous Forests ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    63 Alpine Pasturelands ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    63

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Altitude and Forest Density ����������������������������������������������������������������������������    65 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    65 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    67  Forest Stocks and Products ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    69 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    69 Use Pattern of Timber, Firewood, and Forest Products ����������������������������������    70 Year-Wise Use Percentage of Timber, Firewood, and Forest Products ����������    70 Resin: An Important Product ��������������������������������������������������������������������������    71 Production of Sub-minerals in Forest Areas����������������������������������������������������    72 Eucalyptus Production and Revenue Earned ��������������������������������������������������    72 Trends of Eucalyptus Wood Supply and Income Earned��������������������������������    73 Production from Major Forest Species������������������������������������������������������������    74 Circle-Wise Number of Sawmills and Resin Units������������������������������������������    75 Production and Revenue Earned from Medicinal Plants ��������������������������������    77 Timber and Non-timber Forest Products���������������������������������������������������������    78 Case Study on Consumption of Fodder and Firewood������������������������������������    79 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    80 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    82 Environmental Index ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    83 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    83 Carbon Stock and Carbon Pool������������������������������������������������������������������������    85 Length and Flow of Water of Some Important Rivers ������������������������������������    87 Alpine Grasslands��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    87 Wetlands of Uttarakhand����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    89 Wetlands (2500 m)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    90 Roopkund and Satopanth Highland Lakes��������������������������������������������������    92 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������    92 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    95  Ecosystem Goods and Services ��������������������������������������������������������������������    97 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    97 Classification of Ecosystem Goods and Services��������������������������������������������    99 Water Ecosystem Services ������������������������������������������������������������������������������    99 Forest Ecosystem Services������������������������������������������������������������������������������   100 Agroecosystem Services����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   101 Cultural Services����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   102 Tourism Ecosystem Services ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   102 Case Study of the Village Ecosystem Services������������������������������������������������   103 Use Patterns of Ecosystem Services����������������������������������������������������������������   105 Valuation and Payment of Ecosystem Services ����������������������������������������������   108 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������   109 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   111

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Contents

 Drivers of Forest Degradation and Conservation Measures����������������������   115 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   115 Forest Fires and Land Degradation������������������������������������������������������������������   116 Year-Wise Forest Fire-Affected Areas and Estimated Loss����������������������������   117 Trends of Forest Fire-Affected Areas and Estimated Loss������������������������������   118 Forest Fire Zones ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   120 Circle-Wise Forest Fire Areas and Loss����������������������������������������������������������   121 Forest Fire Lines����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   122 Zones and Circle-Wise Illegal Felling of Trees ����������������������������������������������   122 Illegal Felling of Forest Cases ������������������������������������������������������������������������   124 Year-Wise Illegal Felling of Trees ������������������������������������������������������������������   124 Encroachment of Forest Area��������������������������������������������������������������������������   125 Grazing in Alpine Pasturelands������������������������������������������������������������������������   125 Tourism Activities��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   126 Water, Forest, and Land Issues������������������������������������������������������������������������   127 Conservation of Forests ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   129 Uttarakhand Forest Development Corporation������������������������������������������������   129 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������   130 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   131  Climate Change and Forests ������������������������������������������������������������������������   133 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   133 Impact of Climate Change on Forests��������������������������������������������������������������   135 Climate Change Vulnerability��������������������������������������������������������������������������   136 Combating Climate Change����������������������������������������������������������������������������   137 Initiatives to Minimize Climate Change Impact����������������������������������������������   137 Forest Management Under Climate Change����������������������������������������������������   138 State Council of Climate Change��������������������������������������������������������������������   140 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������   141 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   142  Cultural and Socioeconomic Significance of Forests����������������������������������   143 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   143 Cultural Significance of Forests����������������������������������������������������������������������   144 Socioeconomic Significance of Forests ����������������������������������������������������������   146 Medicinal Plants����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   146 Van Panchayats������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   146 District-Wise Number of Van Panchayats ������������������������������������������������������   148 District-Wise Area of Van Panchayats ������������������������������������������������������������   148 Livestock Dependency on Forests ������������������������������������������������������������������   149 Status of Rights and Concessions in Uttarakhand ������������������������������������������   150 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������   151 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   152

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Sustainable Forest Management������������������������������������������������������������������   155 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   155 Significance of Forests������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   156 Taboos and Sacred Groves ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   157 Traditional Indigenous Knowledge of Conserving Forests�����������������������������   159 Sustainable Forest Management����������������������������������������������������������������������   160 Discussion and Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������   162 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   163 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   165 General Observations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   166 Forest Degradation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   167 Policy Intervention for Sustainable Forest Management ��������������������������������   169 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   169 Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   171

About the Author

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati  (b. 1966), DLitt and PhD, Senior Professor of Geography and Resource Management, is currently working at the Mizoram University (A Central University), Aizawl, India. With a teaching career of about three decades, he has served in several higher education institutions within and outside India, some of them being Eritrea Institute of Technology, Asmara, Eritrea (NE Africa); Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chengdu, China; Madhya Pradesh Higher Education; and HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal. In the same field, he has deeply been involved in research, and has worked as a visiting professor and visiting scholar in globally renowned research and academic institutions, including The World Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Indian National Science Academy, Indian Council of Social Science Research, and Indian Institute of Advanced Studies. Besides, he has travelled widely – 36 countries and all over India. He has an impactful expertise in the fields of natural resource management, environment-­ development interface, climate change, rural livelihoods, disaster-related issues, and culture of the Himalayan region. Vishwambhar has developed several models and action plans for environmental conservation and economic development of the fragile Himalayan ecosystems/landscapes. More than a dozen of national individual projects and projects with international collaboration have been conducted by him. With more than 160 research papers and articles, and about 3 dozen books published, his academic contribution is well-documented at national and international levels. xix

Abbreviations

ACR BR BSI BWLS CDRP CFC CFD CNP CR DFO EPA EPI ESI ESZ FAO FCA FD FSD FRI FSI GA GBPIHED GLOF GIS GNP GOI GWLS HFD ICIMOD INCCA

Asan Conservation Reserve Biosphere Reserves Botanical Survey of India Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary Char Dham Road Project Chief Forest Conservator Chakrata Forest Division Corbett National Park Conservation Reserves District Forest Officer Environmental Protection Act Environmental Performance Index Environmental Sustainability Index Ecologically Sensitive Zone Food and Agriculture Organization Forest Conservation Act Forest Department Forest Statistical Diary Forest Research Institute Forest Survey of India Geographical Area Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Geographical Information System Govind National Park Government of India Govind Wildlife Sanctuary Haridwar Forest Division International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment xxi

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IPCC IUCN JTCR KNWLS KTR MDF MAPs MoEFCC NDBCR NDNP NFP NMGI NMHS NMSHE NP NTFP NWLS OF PCR PF PPP RF RFD RJNP SAPCC SCCC RS VDF VFNP VP UECC UF UFDC UNESCO USN WIHG WII WLS ZMP ZSI

Abbreviations

Fourth Assessment Report International Union for Conservation of Nature Jhilmil Tal Conservation Reserve Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary Kalagarh Tiger Reserve Moderately Dense Forest Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Nanda Devi Bird Conservation Reserve Nanda Devi National Park National Forest Policy National Mission for Green India National Mission for Himalayan Studies National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystems National Parks Non-timber Forest Products Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary Open Forest Pawalgarh Conservation Reserve Protected Forests Public Private Partnership Reserved Forests Ramnagar Forest Division Raja Ji National Park State Action Plan on Climate Change State Council for Climate Change Remote Sensing Very Dense Forest Valley of Flowers National Park Van Panchayats Uttarakhand Environment and Climate Change Un-classified Forest Uttarakhand Forest Development Corporation United Nations Educational, Social, and Cultural Organization Udham Singh Nagar Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Wildlife Institute of India Wildlife Sanctuaries Zonal Master Plan Zoological Survey of India

List of Figures

Forest Land Use/Cover Change Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6

Change (%) in forest land use�������������������������������������������������������������� 13 Forest cover in 2019������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 16 Proportion of open and dense forest cover from 2001 to 2019������������ 16 Forest cover change from 2001 to 2019������������������������������������������������ 17 Changes in dense and open forest cover (km2) ������������������������������������ 18 Year-wise percentage share of forest cover and increasing trends�������� 18

Forest Classifications and Working Circles Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Forest classifications based on the legal status of forests �������������������� 23 Class-wise forest cover (% of GA) ������������������������������������������������������ 24 The percentage share of functional and territorial administrative units under circles, divisions, ranges, and beats ���������������������������������� 26

National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7

NPs, WLSs, and CRs in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ���������������������������� 33 The Asan reserve is a suitable habitat for migratory birds. (Photo by Author) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 The Jhilmil Tal conservation reserve is situated in Haridwar Forest Range, within RJNP. (Photo by Author)������������������������������������ 37 A large number of spotted deer is found in the CWLS. (Photo by Author) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39 The Bhagirathi eco-sensitive zone is situated on both sides of the Bhagirathi River, flowing between Dharali and Lanka on the way to Gangotri highland pilgrimage. (Photo by Author)�������������� 42 A perennial wetland is situated inside the core part of the NWLS-ESZ. (Photo by Author)������������������������������������������������������������ 43 An eco-camp is located in the BWLS-ESZ, making a panoramic view. (Photo by Author)������������������������������������������������������ 44 xxiii

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Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11

List of Figures

The NDNP is declared as a World Heritage by UNESCO. (Photo by Author) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45 Ecotourists’ inflow in the NPs and WLSs is showing an increasing trend������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 46 An increasing trend of revenue earned from ecotourists in NPs and WLSs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48 The growth in the number of ecotourists’ inflows in NPs and WLSs�������� 48

Forest Diversity and Distribution Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

The major forest types and area (%) in the Uttarakhand Himalaya������ 53 District-wise forest cover in the Uttarakhand Himalaya in 2019 (percentage of geographical area)�������������������������������������������������������� 56 Forest cover in the 13 districts of Uttarakhand in 2019������������������������ 57 Forest cover change in the districts of Uttarakhand from 2001 to 2019 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57 Forest covers change in the Uttarakhand Himalaya from 2001 to 2019 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58 Forest cover at different slope classes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (% of GA) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60 Vertical distribution of forests in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, altitude ranges from 3000 m �������������������������������������������� 61 (a) Monsoon deciduous forests found in the northern part of Dehradun city near Thano. (b) Dense sal forests lie in the southern part of Dehradun near Manak Siddha Shakti Peeth. (Photo by Author) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62 (a) Dense pine forests are found in the middle altitude of the Garhwal Himalaya and (b) dense pine forests are located close to New Tehri town (1600–1800 m). (Photo by Author)������������������������ 62 Dense mixed-oak forests below Tungnath, Rudraprayag district, grow in the temperate climate zone. (Photo by Author) ���������������������� 63 Three-dimensional forest landscapes between Gangotri and Gaumukh (above 3500 m)—Deodar, alpine pastureland, and the Greater Himalaya. Dense coniferous forests at Bhaironghati, on the way to Gangotri. (Photo by Author)������������������������������������������ 64 Alpine pastureland in Tungnath (above 3000 m) in the Rudraprayag districts of Uttarakhand. (Photo by Author)�������������������� 64 Rich floral diversity in the adjacent areas of alpine pasturelands in Tungnath (above 3000 m) ���������������������������������������������������������������� 66

Forest Stocks and Products Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Use pattern of timber, firewood, and forest products���������������������������� 71 Year-wise use percentage of timber, firewood, and forest products������ 71 Production and revenue earned from resin ������������������������������������������ 72

List of Figures

Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12

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Trends of eucalyptus supply (quantity in cubic meter) to the two paper mills�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74 The trends of earnings from eucalyptus wood supply to two paper mills�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75 Production and price from different forest species in the Uttarakhand Himalaya�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76 Circle-wise number of sawmills and resin units in the Uttarakhand Himalaya (2017–2018)���������������������������������������������������� 76 (a) Resin, an economically viable forest product, is extracted largely from the pine forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (b) resin depot is situated near Jakholi service center in the Rudraprayag district. (Photo by Author)���������������������������������������������� 77 The production and revenue earned from medicinal plants������������������ 77 (a) Ghingaru, (b) kafal, (c) kilmora, and (d) hainsola are wild-grown fruits having high nutritional value. All are grown during the summer season�������������������������������������������������������������������� 78 Buransh flowers used for medicine and juice �������������������������������������� 79 Women carrying fodder from the nearby jungle. (Photo by Author)�������� 81

Environmental Index Fig. 1 Fig. 2

(a) Sattal (1265 m) in Nainital district, (b) Tarakund (2415 m) in Pauri district�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 (a) Roopkund (4763 m) and (b) Satopanth (4359 m) are situated in the Himalaya in the Chamoli district������������������������������������������������ 94

Ecosystem Goods and Services Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Ecosystem services: (a) the mighty Himalaya and highland forests ecosystem services, Kedarnath valley. (b) Water ecosystem services, the Alaknanda valley, near Srinagar Garhwal���������������������� 101 Agroecosystem services (a) wheat and mustard crops are grown as Rabi crops in the Khanda Garh, and (b) paddy is grown as a Kharif crop in the Maletha village, the Alaknanda Basin������������ 103 Unique ecosystem services of the Korba village�������������������������������� 107 (a) Forest ecosystem services and (b) firewood���������������������������������� 107 Goods (tangible) and services (intangible) provided by forests in ICHR���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108

Drivers of Forest Degradation and Conservation Measures Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Forest fires prone classes and area under them ���������������������������������� 117 Degraded pine forests after forest fires between Srinagar and Pauri towns in the lower Alaknanda basin, Garhwal region. (Photo by Author) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 118 Trends of forest fire-affected areas 2000–2018���������������������������������� 119

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Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10

List of Figures

Estimated loss in lakh rupees due to forest fires �������������������������������� 119 Forest fires zones in the Uttarakhand Himalaya �������������������������������� 121 Illegal felling of forest cases 2003–2018�������������������������������������������� 124 Year-wise illegal felling of trees—volume, quantity, and compensation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125 The alpine pastureland below Tungnath highland pilgrimage (3400 m) in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand. (Photo by Author) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 126 Alpine pastureland in Chopta service center is used for camping and tourists’ accommodation. (Photo by Author)���������������� 127 Wood depot at Chandrabani (Dehradun). (Photo by Author) ������������ 130

Climate Change and Forests Fig. 1

Pine forests are invading mixed-oak forests on the east-facing slope near Paukhal village, Tehri Garhwal, due to the warming of river valleys and middle altitudes. (Photo by Author)�������������������� 135

Cultural and Socioeconomic Significance of Forests Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Brahma Kamal grows in the high Himalaya, the Valley of Flowers and Chinap Valley in Chamoli district���������������������������������� 145 District-wise number of Van Panchayat in Uttarakhand�������������������� 148 Van Panchayats in the Uttarakhand Himalaya 149 Area under Van Panchayats at the district level���������������������������������� 149 Percentage change in livestock population ���������������������������������������� 150

Sustainable Forest Management Fig. 1

(a) A sacred thread tied in the Pipal tree in the Narayana temple at Narayan Bagar. (b) Bells are hanging in the Shiva temple at the Parethi village ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 158

List of Tables

Forest Land Use/Cover Change Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5

Land use pattern and change in Uttarakhand (area in 000’ha)���������� 12 Altitude-wise geographical area �������������������������������������������������������� 14 Uttarakhand forest statistics �������������������������������������������������������������� 14 Forest land use: types and area���������������������������������������������������������� 15 Change in forest cover������������������������������������������������������������������������ 17

Forest Classifications and Working Circles Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5

Area under different forest groups as per the density of forests�������� 24 Forest area under major species �������������������������������������������������������� 24 Working circles and administrative units ������������������������������������������ 25 Forest circles and divisions���������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Details of nurseries in different circles���������������������������������������������� 28

National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7

National parks, year of establishment, area, location, and major forest types ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 32 Wildlife sanctuaries���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34 Conservation reserves������������������������������������������������������������������������ 35 Number of important wild animals counted in wildlife census���������� 38 Wetlands inside the recorded forest areas������������������������������������������ 40 Tourists’ inflow in parks and sanctuaries ������������������������������������������ 47 Tourists’ inflow in major NPs and WLSs ������������������������������������������ 49

Forest Diversity and Distribution Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Area under major forest species �������������������������������������������������������� 54 District-wise forest cover (% of geographical area)�������������������������� 55 District-wise scrubs cover (km2)�������������������������������������������������������� 59

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xxviii

Table 4 Table 5

List of Tables

Forest cover at different slope classes (km2)�������������������������������������� 59 Altitude and density wise forest cover in Uttarakhand in km2 ���������� 65

Forest Stocks and Products Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4

Production of sub-minerals in the river banks, located in forest areas������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 73 Eucalyptus production and revenue earned���������������������������������������� 73 Production of forest products (% of total production) and per unit weight average price (% of total rupees)������������������������������ 75 Household involved in per day collection of firewood and fodder������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 80

Environmental Index Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5

Carbon stock and carbon pool in Uttarakhand’s forests�������������������� 86 Length and flow of water of some important rivers �������������������������� 87 Alpine grasslands, their area, and livestock population �������������������� 88 Wetlands (2500 m) �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93

Ecosystem Goods and Services Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6

Major rivers, their length, and annual drainage�������������������������������� 100 Density and distribution of forest cover in Uttarakhand (area in km2) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 101 Agroecological zones and agroecosystem services�������������������������� 102 Tourists/pilgrims’ inflow in the major pilgrimages and tourist places������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 103 General information about the village population, land use, and ecosystem services�������������������������������������������������������������������� 106 Valuation of ecosystem services in ICHR���������������������������������������� 109

Drivers of Forest Degradation and Conservation Measures Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6

Forest fire-prone classes and area in km2 ���������������������������������������� 116 Correlation between forest fire areas and estimated loss����������������� 120 Circle-wise forest fire areas and loss������������������������������������������������ 122 Construction of fire lines in different circles and WLSs������������������ 123 Zones and circle wise illegal felling of trees������������������������������������ 123 Encroachment of forest area (ha) in all forest circles���������������������� 126

Climate Change and Forests Table 1

Climate change impact on forests and adaptation strategies������������ 141

List of Tables

xxix

Cultural and Socioeconomic Significance of Forests Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Major wild fruits of Uttarakhand������������������������������������������������������ 147 Livestock rearing in Uttarakhand 2003–2012���������������������������������� 150 Status of rights and concessions in Uttarakhand during 2017–2018���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151

Sustainable Forest Management Table 1 Table 2

Walnut orchards in Uttarakhand������������������������������������������������������ 160 Forests sustainability assessment ���������������������������������������������������� 162

Introduction

Abstract  Forests of the Himalaya support livelihoods and restore fragile terrain. The rich biodiversity forms panoramic forest landscapes. In this chapter, forest area and forest cover are defined. A brief introduction to the forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is illustrated. The current status of the forests is specifically elaborated. A detailed methodology was provided. In the last paragraph, chapters’ organization is presented. Keywords  Forests · Livelihoods · Fragile landscapes · Biodiversity · Forest distribution · Natural resources · Himalaya The Uttarakhand Himalaya is known as the land of gods and goddesses. As a center for pilgrimages, it has abundant natural resources—land, water, forests, wildlife habitat, and spectacular landscapes. The Yamuna, Ganga, and the Kali are three major river systems of Uttarakhand. These river systems have numerous glacial-fed tributaries, which are the major sources of water. The rivers flow both in the Garhwal and Kumaon regions, respectively. Out of the total geographical area, about 93% is mountainous mainland and about 63.41% is forested area. Meanwhile, the forest covers about 24,295 km2 (45.4%), of which, 4969 km2 is a very dense forest (VDF), 12,884 km2 is a moderately dense forest (MDF), and 6442 km2 is open forest (OF). About 767 km2 area is tree cover and 355 km2 area has water bodies. The Uttarakhand Himalaya obtains a total of 284,664 million tonnes of carbon stock (FSI 2017). The rich cultural heritage, traditions, and community management practices of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are directly linked with the conservation of forests and rich biodiversity. Forest diversity provides important ecosystem services to sustain livelihoods. It also provides intangible services and regulates climate moderation, hydrological regulation, and pollution (LEAD India 2007). Further, forests, and trees contribute to people, earth, livelihood, clean air, and water. Sustainable forest management is a complex, challenging, multidimensional, and dynamic concept. It aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social, and environmental values of forests and to support the needs of present and future generations (FAO 2020). It conserves biodiversity, maintains ecosystems, and responds © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_1

1

2

Introduction

to climate change. Forest management is the process of planning and implementing the suitable use of forests to meet environmental, economic, social, and cultural requirements. It deals with the administrative, economic, legal, social, technical, and scientific aspects of managing natural and planted forests. Meanwhile, forests can be economically, socially, and environmentally viable. Democracy, good governance, and rule of law at national and international levels are vital for sustainable forest management. Proper land-use planning, policies and legislation on forests, effective enforcement, adequate institutional arrangements, and well-functioning markets for forest goods and services are the major aspects of sustainable forest management. The role of forests is immense in keeping the climate cool, improving water, soil, and air quality, providing shelter for wildlife, and increasing recreational opportunities (Oguz et  al. 2020). Forests provide firewood, fodder, food, timber, and non-­ timber forest products (NTFPs) (National Forest Policy 2018). Firewood is one of the major sources of energy in the rural areas of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, used by 90% of households (Baland et al. 2007). Forests are integrated with agriculture and animal husbandry and support agriculture in many ways (Ives and Messerli 1989; Bajracharya 1983a). Several studies have been conducted on sustainable forest management in the Himalaya (Berreman 1989; Guha 1989; Jain 1984; Rangan 1995; Shiva and Bandyopadhyay 1986; Sati 2004, 2006, 2019). Here, forest diversity varies from the valley regions to the high altitudes and according to the climatic conditions (Sati 2006, 2017, 2018; Sati and Song 2012; Sati and Vangchhia 2015). The Uttarakhand Himalaya has five climatic zones—tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, cold, and frigid cold. Owing to the growing population, agricultural land has shrunk and people have moved toward the forestland for converting them into agricultural fields and to meet the food need. It has also been observed that a little area of forest has already been converted into agriculture (Rao and Saxena 1994) during the last 60  years. Frequent forest fires have also caused the depletion of forests (Moench and Bandyopadhyay 1986). Jackson (1983) stated that the increase in human and animal populations has led to the degradation of forests. There are limited awareness programs launched for forest conservation (Rao and Swarup 1993; Ives and Messerli 1989). A total of 15% geographical area and 28.8% of the forest area of the country is possessed by the Himalaya (Chatterjee 1939). Forest degradation was high due to geological, biophysical, and human (socio-economic) processes (Bajracharya 1983b; Carson 1985; Gilmour 1986; Hamilton 1987; Hofer 1993; Mahat et al. 1986, 1987; Thompson et al. 1986; Berreman 1972; Von Furer-­ Haimendorf 1964, 1975). The forests in the surrounding areas of the rural settlements are facing large degradation, which has affected the poor rural people in the forms of health, nutrition, and child education (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988; Cooke 1998; Amacher et al. 2004). In two districts of Uttarakhand—USN and Haridwar— forests have severely deteriorated (Prabhakar et  al. 2006; Myers 1986; Thadani 1999; Foster and Rosenzweig 2003). Community institutions and forest departments can manage forests sustainably (Agrawal 1994; Ballabh and Singh 1988; Somanathan 1989, 1991; Singleton and Taylor 1992; Ostrom et  al. 1994). In

Defining Forest Cover and Forest Area

3

Uttarakhand, the community people manage Van Panchayats, which constitute 11% of the total forest area (Sarkar 2008). Van Panchayats may be a tool for forest management. In this chapter, a review of literature on sustainable forest management has been described. The forest cover and forest area have been defined scientifically, and the major objectives of the study have been presented. The methodology has been explained in detail and a complete organization of the study has been illustrated. Several studies have been conducted on the management of the forests in the Himalaya in general and the Uttarakhand Himalaya in particular. However, this study is unique and quite different because it describes all aspects related to forest studies including their natural, cultural, and economic significance in one go. The forest land use; forest classifications and working circles; national parks (NPs), wildlife sanctuaries (WLSs), and conservation reserves (CRs); forest diversity and distribution; forest stocks and products; environmental index; ecosystem goods and services; drivers of forest degradation and conservation; climate change and forests; cultural and socio-economic significance of forests; indigenous traditional knowledge; assessment of forest sustainability; sustainable forest management; and conclusions and suggestions are illustrated scientifically. This study examines the availability of forest resources, their use pattern, and management in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The scope of the study is limited to the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Meanwhile, the Uttarakhand Himalaya represents the entire Himalayan region in terms of forest types and distribution, their economic values, and use patterns.

Defining Forest Cover and Forest Area What Is Forest Cover? It is inevitable to define forest cover, tree cover, and forest area for a wider understanding of these words. In this book, both forest cover and forest area are used to explain forest management in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. A simple definition is that forest cover comprises the areas covered by the canopy of natural growing forests. In terms of tree cover, it is manmade tree crops and plantations. Natural forests can be distinguished from plantations by interpreting satellite imagery for a small area and then conducting intensive ground verification. A definition of forest cover was given by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) as “all tree canopies that could be delineated and assessed from satellite data is termed as forest cover.” All forests and tree crops, which have more than 1 ha area and which are under any class of forests, land use, and types, are comprised of forest cover. On the other hand, forest cover means forest and tree cover. Owing to lacking technology, forest cover cannot be classified according to forest land use such as natural forests, orchards, tea plantations, public parks, and agroforestry. Meanwhile, these classifications of forests can be assessed by conducting a field inventory.

4

Introduction

What Is Forest Area? Forest can be described as the trees and plants in a large densely wooded area. On the other hand, the land, which is covered by trees and shrubs, is called a forest area. It is a tract of land having a plant community largely consisting of trees and other woody vegetation. As per the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), forest means land occupying a tree canopy cover of more than 10% in above 0.5 ha area where the principal land use is forest. In India, a forest area is defined as a land, which is legally proclaimed to be a forest area by the forest law, i.e., the India Forest Act of 1927. The area is notified as forest by the forest department. It is also termed a recorded forest area. Under this law, the area, which was under forest in the past and now is blank, also comes under forest area. When forest cover is assessed using satellite data such blank areas are classified as non-forest. The state forest department manages, protects, and conserves the forests within recorded forest areas. The recorded forest area is classified as reserved forest, protected forest, and un-classed forest. All types of forests are defined as: 1. Reserved forest a notified area under the India/state forest acts with fully protected and access is prohibited. For any activity, prior permission is required. 2. The protected forest is ruled under the same act, i.e., India/state forest acts with a limited degree of protection. Many activities are permitted. 3. The un-classed forest is a recorded area; however, it does not come under reserved and protected forests. Ownership varies from forest to forest and state to state.

Currents Status of Forests Forest has the highest area in the land use pattern of Uttarakhand, which was 63.41% in 2019. It was followed by the area sown, which was >18% and includes net area sown, current fallow, fallow other than current fallow, and cultivable wasteland. The area not available for cultivation was 7.54%, land under misc. tree crops and groves were 6.47%, and permanent pastures and other grazing lands were 3.21%. These are the major land uses in Uttarakhand. In four categories of land use—such as net sown area, current wasteland, permanent pastureland, and land not available for cultivation—a decrease is noted in the area from 2001 to 2019. Meanwhile, current fallow, fallow other than current fallow, land under misc. tree crops, forestland, and reporting area for land utilization increased substantially. The area under forestland use varies from the useful forest (59%) to the unclassified forest (11.7%). Barren land within the forest area was 21.2%, and plantation forest was 8.1%. It has been noticed that dense forest (DF) in Uttarakhand has decreased whereas open forests (OF) have increased from 2001 to 2019. The overall trend of change in forest cover is increasing in Uttarakhand.

Objectives of the Study

5

Forests are classified based on density, legal status, and species. Based on density, Uttarakhand has very dense forest (VDF), moderately dense forest (MDF), and open forest (OP). In terms of the legal status of forests, there are seven classifications—reserve forest, Panchayat forest, protected forest, civil and soyam forest, private forest, unclassified and vested forest, and non-forest area. Species-wise forest classification includes tropical moist deciduous forest, tropical dry deciduous forest, sub-tropical pine forest, Himalayan moist temperate forest, and plantation forest. Uttarakhand has 6 forest circles and 25 forest divisions. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has six NPs, seven WLSs, and four CRs with rich biodiversity. The total verities of wildlife found in Uttarakhand’s forests are about 145,295. Uttarakhand has about 221 wetlands, which are found in the valleys and the highlands. Out of which, 95 wetlands are natural and 126 wetlands are manmade. The NPs, WLSs, and CRs provide a suitable base for eco-tourism development. Many ecotourists visit these NPs and WLSs every year. In 2018, about 404,306 domestic tourists and about 14,089 foreign tourists visited NPs, WLSs, and CRs. The state earned Rs 1168.1 lakh from ecotourists in 2018 (Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017). Many forest species are found in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The dry alpine scrubs, moist alpine scrubs, Himalayan dry temperate forests, subalpine forests, tropical dry deciduous forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, subtropical pine forests, and Himalayan moist temperate forests are among them. About 4700 flower species, 3748 faunal species, 102 mammal species, 743 birds’ species, 72 reptile species, and 439 butterfly species are found in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Fish constitutes a total of 132 species. Horizontal distribution of forests shows that the Nainital district has the highest forest cover (>70%), followed by Champawat and Pauri districts. The lowest forest cover was recorded in USN (16.99%), followed by Haridwar district. During the past 20  years, district-wise changes in forest cover were observed. Four districts have noted >5% increase in forest covers like Dehradun, Pauri, Almora, and Champawat whereas six districts have recorded a decrease in forest cover. The slope gradient varies from 0–5° to >30°. The highest forest area was noted in the area > 30° slope, and the area between 5° and 10° slope has the lowest forest cover. The vertical distribution of forest in Uttarakhand is influenced by climate, slope aspects, and altitudes, and accordingly forest species vary. Broadly, forest types vary from the plain regions of the state to the river valleys, mid-altitudes, highlands, and alpine pastures with tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine forest types, respectively.

Objectives of the Study The forests of Uttarakhand are unique, distributed along the altitudinal gradients with high biodiversity and economic value. These form a complex system and provide various ecosystem services to the upstream and downstream areas. Several studies have been conducted on the different aspects of forests by scholars working

6

Introduction

in the Himalayan region. However, there is no study conducted comprehensively on the sustainable forest management of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. This book covers all the aspects of forests and suggests measures for sustainable forest management. The main objective of the study was to describe all types of forest resources and their management in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. This study illustrates the various aspects of forests such as classification and working circles of forests in Uttarakhand; forest diversity and distribution; national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves, and biosphere reserves; wetlands; forest stocks and products; environmental index; ecosystem goods and services; drivers of forest degradation and conservation; climate change and forests; cultural and socio-economic significance of forests; indigenous traditional knowledge; assessment of forest sustainability; sustainable forest management; and conclusions. It is a unique study in the field of forest management. It will be useful for all the stakeholders—the state forest department, academicians, researchers, policymakers, and students.

Materials and Methods This study was conducted using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Data were gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were gathered by conducting a case study of 15 villages of 5 districts—3 villages from each district— of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The data were related to the household level consumption of fodder and firewood. Extensive and rapid field visits of the entire Uttarakhand state were conducted from time to time to acquire the ground knowledge of the forest and its management. The field observation has helped to describe data more precisely and scientifically. The state forest department, Dehradun, has published the Forest Statistical Diary in 2018. The data on forest classifications, working circles, major types of forests, distribution of forests, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves, wetlands, timber and non-timber forest products, carbon stock and carbon pool, Van Panchayats, protected and reserved forests, and major species of forests were obtained from the Forest Statistical Diary. Based on the climate and altitudes, the forests of Uttarakhand are distributed horizontally, i.e., at the district level, and vertically from the river valleys to the middle altitudes, highlands, and alpine meadows. The horizontal and vertical distribution of forests were described and presented using maps and diagrams. Data on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and conservation reserves were obtained and described separately. Ecotourism development in the Uttarakhand Himalaya was also illustrated. Data on ecotourists’ inflow was gathered from the Tourism Department of Uttarakhand. The data were analyzed using statistical methods. Graphs and models were prepared for the presentation of forest data. This study frames several policy measures for sustainable forest management.

Organization of the Study

7

Organization of the Study This book contains 13 chapters, which describe sustainable forest management in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The first chapter deals with the introduction. Forest area and cover are defined separately. A review of the literature is included. The current status of forests in Uttarakhand, the objectives of the study, and methods and materials are illustrated in the introduction. Forest land use is elaborated in the second chapter. The chapter comprises general land use and cover change, forest land use and cover change, altitude-wise geographical area, Uttarakhand forest statistics, forest land use types and area, district-wise forest cover, forest cover change, trends of change in dense and open forest cover, and trends in changes in overall forest cover. Forest classification and the working circles are described in the third chapter. This chapter comprises forest classification based on the legal status, forest type groups according to the density of forests, forest types based on major species, and working circles and administrative units. The fourth chapter deals with NPs, WLSs, and CPs and their details. Wildlife population in Uttarakhand, wetlands inside the forests of Uttarakhand, wildlife management, and ecotourism in NPs and WLSs are described in this chapter. The fifth chapter describes forest diversity and distribution. It includes major forest types, biodiversity—floral, faunal, and avifaunal—the area under forest species, horizontal and vertical distribution of forests, and altitude and diversity of forests. Forest stock and products are elaborated in Chap. 6. Timber, firewood, forest products, resin, sub-mineral, eucalyptus production, and medicinal plants and marketing are the major sub-themes of this chapter. The seventh chapter contains an environmental index. Carbon stock and carbon pools, the length and water flow of important rivers, alpine grasslands, and wetlands of Uttarakhand contain subheadings of this chapter. Chapter 8 depicts ecosystem goods and services. It includes introduction, classification of ecosystem goods and services, various tangible and intangible services, case studies for hydrological services, spring management, soil retention services, and discussion and conclusions. Drivers of forest degradation and conservation measures were discussed in Chap. 9. It presents forest fires and degradation; forest fires zones and lines; illegal felling of trees; encroachment of forest area; grazing in alpine pasturelands; tourism activities; water, forest, and land issues; and conservation of forests. Climate change and forests are illustrated in Chap. 10, which comprises the impact of climate change on forests, vulnerability to climate change, combating climate change, forest management under climate change, and the state council of climate change. The cultural and socio-­ economic significance of forests constitutes Chap. 11. This chapter comprises the cultural significance of forests, the economic significance of forests, Van Panchayats, livestock dependency on forests, and status of rights and concessions. Chapter 12 deals with significance of forests, taboos and sacred groves, traditional indigenous knowledge for conserving forests, sustainable forest management, and discussion and conclusions. Finally, Chap. 13 draws conclusions and presents suggestions.

8

Introduction

References Agrawal (1994) Rules, rule making, and rule breaking: examining the fit between rule systems and resource use. In: Ostrom E, Gardner R, Walker JM (eds) Rules, games, and common-pool resources. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, pp 267–282 Amacher GS, Ersado L, Hyde WF (2004) Disease, microdams and natural resources in Tigray, Ethiopia: impacts on productivity and labor supplies. J Dev Stud 40(6):122145 Bajracharya D (1983a) Deforestation in the food/fuel context: historical and political perspectives from Nepal. Mt Res Dev 3:227–240 Bajracharya D (1983b) Fuel, food, or forest? Dilemmas in a Nepali village. World Dev 11:1057–1074 Baland JM, Bardhan P, Das S, Mookherjee D, Sarkar R (2007) Inequality, collective action, and the environment: evidence from firewood collection in Nepal. In: Baland J-M, Bardhan P, Bowles S (eds) Inequality, cooperation, and environmental sustainability. Princeton University Press, pp 246–273 Ballabh V and Singh K (1988) Van (forest) Panchayats in Uttar Pradesh hills: a critical analysis. In: Research paper no. 2. Institute of Rural Management, Anand, India Berreman G (1972) Hindus of the Himalayas: ethnography and change. University of California Press, Berkeley Berreman G (1989) Chipko: a movement to save the Himalayan environment and the people. In: Borden C (ed) Contemporary Indian tradition: voices on culture, nature, and the challenge of change. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC Carson B (1985) Erosion and sedimentation processes in the Nepalese Himalaya. In: Occasional Paper 1. ICIMOD, Kathmandu Chatterjee D (1939) Studies on the endemic flora of India and Burma. J R Asiat Soc Bengal Sci 5:66 Cooke P (1998) The effects of environmental good scarcity on own-farm labor allocation: the case of agricultural households in rural Nepal. Environ Dev Econ 3:443–469 FAO (2020) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Rome FSI (2017) Forest survey of India report. Dehradun, Uttarakhand Foster A, Rosenzweig M (2003) Economic growth and the rise of forests. Q J Econ 118:601–637 Gilmour DA (1986) Reforestation or afforestation of open land—a Nepal perspective. In: Pearse AJ, Hamilton LS (eds) Land use, watersheds, and planning in the Asia-Pacific region, RAPA report. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Region, Bangkok, pp 157–169 Guha R (1989) The unquiet woods: ecological change and peasant resistance in the Himalaya. Oxford University Press, New Delhi Hamilton LS (1987) What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the Ganges-Brahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions and facts. Mt Res Dev 7(3):256–263 Hofer T (1993) Himalayan deforestation, changing river discharge, and increasing floods: myth or reality? Mt Res Dev 13(3):213–233 Ives JD, Messerli B (1989) The Himalayan Dilemma: reconciling development and conservation. Routledge, London Jackson MJ (1983) Livestock in the economy of the Himalayan foothills, Uttar Pradesh, India. In: Paper presented at a conference on Himalayan Environmental Degradation. Nainital, October 1993 Jain S (1984) Women and people’s ecological movements: a case study of women’s role in the Chipko movement in Uttar Pradesh. Econ Polit Wkly 19(41):1788–1794 Kumar SK, Hotchkiss D (1988) Consequences of deforestation for women’s time allocation, agricultural production, and nutrition in hill areas in Nepal, IFPRI, research report 69. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington DC LEAD India (2007) Valuation of ecosystem services and forest governance: a scoping study from Uttarakhand. LEAD, New Delhi, India Mahat TBS, Griffin DM, Shepherd KR (1986) Human impact on some forest of the middle hills of Nepal I. forestry in the context of the traditional resources of the state. Mt Res Dev 6:223–232

References

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Mahat T, Griffin D, Shepherd K (1987) Human impacts on some forests of the Middle Hills of Nepal. Part 3: forests in the subsistence economy of Sindhu Palchok and KabhrePalanchok. Mt Res Dev 7(1):53–70 Moench M, Bandyopadhyay J (1986) People-forest interaction: a neglected parameter in Himalayan forest management. Mt Res Dev 6:3–16 Myers N (1986) Environmental repercussions of deforestation in the Himalayas. J World For Res Manage 2:63–72 National Forest Policy (2018) National Forest Policy. Government of India, New Delhi Oguz H, Uzun A, Kısakurek S (2020) Web-based tree information system: a case study of Kahramanmaras, Turkey. Turk J For Sci 4(1):160–171 Ostrom E, Roy G, James W (1994) Rules, games and common-pool resources. University of Michigan Press, Michigan Prabhakar R, Somanathan E, Mehta BS (2006) How degraded are Himalayan forests? Curr Sci 91(1):61–67 Rangan H (1995) Contested boundaries: state policies, forest classifications, and deforestation in the Garhwal Himalayas. Antipode 27(4):343–362 Rao KS, Saxena KG (1994) Sustainable development and rehabilitation of degraded village lands in Himalaya. Bishen Singh and Mahendrapal Singh, Dehra Dun Rao KS and Swarup R (1993, April 5–7) Energy-efficient technology in Indian Himalaya: An assessment. In: Paper submitted to science and technology in third world development—second triennial conference. University of Strathclyde, Glasgow Sarkar R (2008) Decentralised forest governance in Central Himalayas: a reevaluation of outcomes. Econ Polit Wkly 43(18) Sati VP (2004) Uttaranchal: dilemma of Plenties and scarcities. Mittal Publications, New Delhi Sati VP (2006) Forest resource management in mountain regions: a case for the Pindar Basin of Uttaranchal Himalaya. Lyonia: A J Ecol Appl 11(1):75–84 Sati VP (2017) An assessment of forest cover changes in the Indian Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himal Ecol 25:66–74 Sati VP (2018) Forests of Uttarakhand: diversity, distribution, use pattern and conservation. ENVIS Bull Himal Ecol 26:21–27 Sati VP (2019) Forests of Uttarakhand: diversity, distribution, use pattern and conservation. ENVIS 26:21–27 Sati VP, Song C (2012) Estimation of forest biomass flow in the montane mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Int J For Soil Erosion 2(1):1–7 Sati VP, Vangchhia L (2015) Altitudinal zonation of floral biodiversity and its conservation pattern in Mizoram north East India. In: Singh RB, Prokop P (eds) Environmental geography of South Asia, advances in geographical and environmental sciences. Springerdoi, Japan. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­4-­431-­55741-­8_11 Shiva V, Bandyopadhyay J (1986) The evolution, structure and impact of the Chipko movement. Mt Res Dev 6(2):133–142 Singleton S, Taylor M (1992) Common property, collective action, and community. J Theor Polit 4(3):309–324 Somanathan E (1989) Public forests and private interests: deforestation and forest policy in the central Himalaya. Mimeo, Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi Somanathan E (1991) Deforestation, property rights and incentives in central Himalaya. Econ Polit Wkly 26(4):37–46 Thadani R (1999) Disturbance, micro climate and the competitive dynamics of tree seedlings in banj oak forests of the central Himalaya. Ph.D. Thesis. Yale University Thompson M, Warburton M, Hatley T (1986) Uncertainty on a Himalayan scale. Ethnographica, London Von Furer-Haimendorf C (1964) The Sherpas of Nepal. University of California Press, Berkeley Von Furer-Haimendorf C (1975) Himalayan traders. John Murray, London

Forest Land Use/Cover Change

Abstract  The Uttarakhand Himalaya has 63.41% area under forests, which is the highest proportion among the major land uses. During the past decades, the forest area has increased, mainly the open forest area. However, the dense forest area has decreased. It has been noticed that the increase in the forest area was due to the plantation forests. This chapter describes general land use patterns and forest land use. Land cover change from 2001 to 2019 was also analyzed. Data were gathered from the State Forest Statistical Diary 2018–2019 and analyzed using various statistical methods. Keywords  Forest land use · Cover change · Dense forests · Open forests · Trends · Uttarakhand Himalaya

Introduction Forest land use is one of the important components of the land use pattern in the Himalaya. The area under forests varies from the Western Himalaya to the Indian Central Himalaya and the Eastern Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya occupies 63.41% forestland (FSI 2019). Here, the forest land use varies from tropical monsoon deciduous forests to subtropical pine forests, mixed-oak temperate forests, coniferous forests, and alpine pasturelands. Stony and barren lands also characterize forest areas. Along with the above types of forests, subtropical and alpine grasslands are situated in the middle altitudes and the highlands. The forest land use has been changing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. There are many drivers, which affect the changes in forest land use. One of the drivers of shrinking forestland is the expansion of human habitats toward the mountain niches. Further, the increasing population demanded more arable land (Rawat et  al. 2014; Sati 2019) for practicing agriculture and establishing economic avenues, which has led to encroachment of forestland. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is ecologically fragile. Forest depletion has © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_2

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Forest Land Use/Cover Change

led to more frequent landslides and mass movement hazards. The main objective of this chapter was to examine the land-use pattern in general and the forest land-use pattern in particular. It also aimed to describe the forest land use such as altitude-­ wise, year-wise, district-wise, and types of forests. Forest cover change—dense and open forests—was also assessed. Finally, district-wise forest cover in 2019 and forest cover change from 2001 to 2019 was assessed and described.

Land-Use Patterns Land-use and land cover changes in the Uttarakhand Himalaya were analyzed (Table 1). The highest area falls under forest land, which was 63.41% in 2019. The second category was net area sown (11.68% as per 2019 data). The area not available for cultivation was 7.54%, and the area under misc. tree crops and groves were 6.47%. The cultivable wasteland was 5.29%. The other land use such as permanent pasture, fallow land other than current fallow, and current fallow was  5% increase in forest cover. An increase of 0–5% was noted in Tehri, Chamoli, and Pithoragarh districts. Meanwhile, in all other districts such as Haridwar, USN, Nainital, Uttarkashi, Rudraprayag, and Bageshwar, the forest cover remained stagnant.

Changes in Dense and Open Forest Cover

17

Table 5  Change in forest cover Dense forest Year Km2 % 2001 – – 2005 −625 −3.29

Open forest Km2 % – – +1129 22.97

2011 +531 2.89

−477

2015 −573 −3.03 +317 2019 −504 −2.75 +567

Total Km2 % – – +504 2.12

Reason for change detected assessment – State government policy of plantation and forest conservation −7.89 +54 0.22 State government policy of plantation and forest conservation 5.69 −256 −1.05 The main reason for the decrease in forest cover was rotational felling and diversion of forest land for development activities 9.64 +63 0.26 The main reason for the increase in forest cover in the state was plantation and conservation activities.

Source: By Author

Fig. 4  Forest cover change from 2001 to 2019

Changes in Dense and Open Forest Cover Data on dense and open forest cover were analyzed and changes were noticed. It was noticed that the dense forest cover has been decreasing with a 0.552 R2 value, whereas the open forest cover has been increasing (R2 value 0.583). There has been a decrease of >1000 km2 dense forest cover from 2001 to 2019, while the open forest cover increased by >1200 km2 during the same period (Fig. 5).

18

Forest Land Use/Cover Change

Fig. 5  Changes in dense and open forest cover (km2)

Fig. 6  Year-wise percentage share of forest cover and increasing trends

Changes in Overall Forest Cover 2001–2019 The trends in percentage share of forest cover from 2001 to 2019 are variable but increasing (Fig. 6). In 2001, the percentage share of forest cover was 44.7%, which increased to 45.5% in 2020. It was the highest in 2011 (45.8%) and then in 2005 (45.7%). The linear regression (R2) value was 0.15.

Discussion and Conclusions This study depicts that the forest is the main land use among other land uses, which covers more than 60% area. It is followed by the net area sown, which is below 15%. During the last 20 years, the forest area has increased by more than 9%, which is remarkable. An increase in the forest area shows a good sign for environmental quality and its conservation. This increase was noticed due to the planting of trees

References

19

in Uttarakhand. On the other hand, there was no increase in natural forest area as stated by the “Forest Survey of India.” Practicing agriculture is the main occupation and the major source of livelihood. Meanwhile, the net area sown has decreased by 2%. As a result, the farming community of Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing food insecurity. The local people’s dependency on forest products has also reduced because of India’s Forest Act 1980. Therefore, the quality of life of the local people has also decreased. The other land uses such as wasteland, cultivable wasteland, and others need to be transferred either into arable or forestland to increase their areas. The geographical area in Uttarakhand is the highest between 1000 and 2000  m. Similarly, the forest area is also highest between the same altitudes. Forests have been conserved through NPs, WLSs, and CRs. The Uttarakhand Himalaya obtains rich biodiversity with economically viable trees and a high per capita forest area. Van Panchayats are the traditional village-level institutions that work for sustainable use and conservation of forests. Uttarakhand has about 56.5% useful forest whereas 2.6% are inaccessible forests. It has about 8.1% plantation forests. The plantation campaign in Uttarakhand has led to an increase of 1.4% in forest areas from 2017 to 2019. Three districts Pauri, Nainital, and Champawat have the highest area under forest. The districts, which are either close to the Great Himalaya or located in plain regions, have a very little area under forests. A large part of mountainous districts is covered by snow mountains and pasturelands; therefore, forest areas are less in these districts. The trend of changing forest cover during the last 20 years was analyzed. It has been noticed that the open forest cover has increased whereas the dense forest cover has decreased. However, overall, the forest cover has increased. It has been observed that the forest conditions and quality are quite suitable in the Uttarakhand Himalaya and it has been increasing. The entire landscape of Uttarakhand is ecologically fragile and vulnerable to landslide hazards. Plantation of suitable trees on the degraded land will restore the environment. In the meantime, some forest areas are inaccessible where forest products are unused. These forest products can be sustainably used through proper policy measures. The local people can be given forest rights to use the unused forest products freely and also directed to properly manage them.

References FSI (2019) Forest survey of India report. Dehradun, Uttarakhand Rawat JS, Kumar M, Biswas V (2014) Land use/cover dynamics using multi-temporal satellite imagery: a case study of Haldwani town area, district Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. Int J Geom Geosci 4(3):536–543 Sati VP (2019) Himalaya on the threshold of change. Springer International Publishers, Switzerland, p 250, Advances in Global Change Research, Scopus indexed series

Forest Classifications and Working Circles

Abstract  In Uttarakhand, forests are classified according to the density of forests and types as per the climatic regions. Three types of forests—very dense forests, moderately dense forests, and open forests—are found in all latitudinal gradients. As per the types of forests, they are classified as tropical moist deciduous, tropical dry deciduous, subtropical pine forests, Himalayan moist temperate forests, plantation forests, and alpine grasslands. According to the legal status, forests of Uttarakhand are divided into seven types—reserved, Panchayat, protected, civil and soyam, private, unclassified, and non-forests. The forests are also divided into circles, divisions, ranges, and beats. This chapter examines forest classifications and working circles in Uttarakhand. Data were obtained from the “State Forest Statistical Diary” and described. Keywords  Forest classifications · Working circle · Legal status · Forest density · Forest species

Introduction Uttarakhand, a 27th state of the Republic of India, lies in the north part of India, and the south part of the Himalaya has three-dimension landscapes—the Greater Himalaya (snow-capped), Middle Himalaya, and the Shivalik Ranges and river valleys. It has a lush green forestland, comprised of a diverse range of flora and fauna. The majority of forests are alpine grasslands, temperate, subtropical, and monsoon deciduous. The faunal populations and their diversity are high, mainly found in dense forest areas. The protected forests are declared as NPs, WLSs, and CRs. These protected forests serve as natural habitats for wildlife. These also support tourism activities. The ecotourists visit these parks every year. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is an integral part of the Himalayan biogeography zone, where about 4000 flower species of high economic, medicinal, and aromatic values are found. The endemic plant wealth of Uttarakhand is enormous and forms a large part of the national heritage. Here about 116 plant species of the indigenous group are found. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_3

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Forest Classifications and Working Circles

Many sacred plants are grown, which are offered to the folk deities during performing rituals and customs (Sati 2017). Uttarakhand obtains several classes of forests, classified based on their legality, density, and types. It has many forest working circles as per the altitudes, river basins, and district-wise. The forest types vary from one circle to another. For instance, temperate forests are found in the Bhagirathi forest circle. In the meantime, monsoon deciduous forests are found in the Shivalik forest circle. The forest working circles are managed by the forest department at various levels. In this chapter, forest classifications and forest working circles have been described. The legal status, species types, and density of forests are illustrated suitably.

Forest Classifications Forests are the veins of rural livelihoods in Uttarakhand, upon which a large population is dependent. Here, forests are classified into two groups. The first one is based on the legal status of forests, such as reserve forests, Panchayat forests, protected forests, civil and soyam forests, private forests, unclassified and vested forests, and non-forests. The second forest classification is based on density—VDFs, MDFs, OFs, and scrubs. Both classifications of forests are described below:

Forest Classification Based on Legal Status The Uttarakhand Himalaya is bestowed with rich forest resources. Forests are the major source of livelihoods. Rearing livestock is also dependent on forests. It has an agrarian economy where livestock is the subsidiary occupation. Uttarakhand has nine forest groups and 43 subgroups (Champion and Seth 1968). These forest groups are found in all the altitudinal zones—the highlands, the middle Himalaya, the Shivalik ranges, and the Doon and Tarai plains. The community forest management, which is known as Van Panchayats, is a unique institution that has been run by the community/village people since 1921. There is a total of 12,167 Van Panchayats in Uttarakhand, which possesses 7326.9 km2 (13.7%) forest areas. The state has a total of 38,000 km2 recorded forest area (RFA), of which, 26,547 km2 is reserved forests (RF) (45.40%), 9885 km2 is protected forests (0.18%), and 1568 km2 (2.8%) area is unclassified forests (UF). Forest fires are the major impediments in the state, which occur regularly, mainly during the summer season. Between 2015 and 2019, a total of 28.6  km2 forest land was diverted for non-forestry purposes under the Forest Conservation Act (FCA) 1980 (MoEFCC 2019). Six NPs, seven WLSs, and four CRs are located in the state. These are the PA areas, which covered 3.24% geographical area. Besides these forest types, there are some other forests such as civil and soyam forests (8.92%) and private forests (0.29%). The non-forest area obtains 28.97% of the total geographical area (Fig. 1).

Forest Types Based on Major Species

23

Fig. 1  Forest classifications based on the legal status of forests

Forest Type Groups According to the Density of Forests Forest type groups according to the density of forests are illustrated (Table 1). There are a total of five forest groups. The total forest cover is 24,762 km2, of which the highest forest cover is under the Himalayan moist temperate forests, which is 9090.04  km2, followed by the subtropical pine forest (7111.25  km2) and tropical moist deciduous forests (6330.87 km2). Forest cover by plantation has the lowest area (651.18 km2), followed by the tropical dry deciduous forests (1578.66 km2). The density of forests is classified as VDF, MDF, OF, and scrubs. The highest forest cover is under MDF, which is 58.14%, followed by OF (24.41%), and VDF covers 16.16% area. The scrub covers only 1.29% area. Figure 2 shows class-wise forest cover (percentage of geographical area). The MDF covers 25%, followed by OF, which is 13%. The VDF covers 5% and the scrub has only 1% cover. The non-forest cover is the highest, i.e., 56%. This study reveals that the area under VDF is decreasing. Already the area under VDF is less. On the other hand, the area under open forests is increasing, which shows that the quality forest proportion is decreasing.

Forest Types Based on Major Species There are a total of 11 major forest species found in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The area under each species varies and is shown in ascending order (Table 2). The highest area is under the pine (Chir) forests, which is 28.72% of the total forest area. It is followed by oak (Banj) (14.81%) and Sal (teak) forests (12.10%). Fir and spruce (coniferous) occupy 3.58% area. Sagon (teak) has only 0.78% area. Deodar (coniferous) forests (0.73%), blue pine (Kail) forests (0.72%), sissoo (Shisham), and

Forest Classifications and Working Circles

24

Table 1  Area under different forest groups as per the density of forests Forest groups Tropical moist deciduous forest Tropical dry deciduous forest Subtropical pine forest Himalayan moist temperate forest Plantation forest Total %

VDF 1513.23 81.00 768.67 1612.45 26.65 4002 16.16

MDF 3818.48 851.15 4432.01 5014.49 279.87 14,396 58.14

OF 974.39 568.51 1721.46 2434.98 344.66 6044 24.41

Scrub 24.77 78.00 189.11 28.12 0.00 320 1.29

Total 6330.87 1578.66 7111.25 9090.04 651.18 24,762 100

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

Fig. 2  Class-wise forest cover (% of GA)

Table 2  Forest area under major species S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Species Cypress Catechu Eucalyptus Sissoo Blue pine Deodar Sagon Fir and spruce Sal Oak Pine

Area (ha) 2965 5796 12,411 15,114 18,549 18,783 20,209 92,464 313,054 383,088 394,383

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

Percentage share 0.11 0.22 0.43 0.58 0.72 0.73 0.78 3.58 12.10 14.81 28.72

% 25.57 6.38 28.72 36.71 2.62 100

State Forest Department: Working Circles and Administrative Units

25

eucalyptus have 0.43% area. Catechu (Khair) obtains 0.22% area and cypress (Surai) has 0.11% area. The other mixed-forests/miscellaneous possess 23.77% area, and barren/wasteland has 26.52% area.

 tate Forest Department: Working Circles S and Administrative Units The Uttarakhand Himalaya has a large area under forests. These forests are distributed from the river valleys to the highly elevated mountains. The terrain is rugged and precipitous, and the large forest area is inaccessible. Keeping these situations in mind, the state government of Uttarakhand has made a total of 1924 administrative units—territorial (1836) and functional (88). The forest landscape is divided into 17 circles, 54 divisions, 284 ranges, and 1569 beats (Table 3). The forest circles are very large areas, headed by the six top officials of the forest department. The divisions are headed by the district forest officers (DFOs), and ranges are headed by the rang officers. The lowest administrative unit is beat, which is administered by the forest guards. The functional and territorial circles, divisions, ranges, and beats are analyzed using the percentile method. The functional administrative units are comparatively less than the territorial units. Further, the functional administrative units under beats and ranges are very few. In the circles and divisions, the functional administrative units are substantial (Fig. 3). The forest circles and divisions are presented in Table 4. There are a total of six circles and 25 divisions. The Kumaon Circle is divided into two sub-circles—North Kumaon and South Kumaon with six divisions—Bageshwar, Almora, Civil Soyam Almora, Pithoragarh, Champawat, and Nainital. Nainital division is a part of the South Kumaon Circle. The Western Circle, a part of the Kumaon Himalaya, has five administrative divisions including Haldwani, Tarai East, Tarai West, Tarai Central, and Ramnagar. The Bhagirathi Circle of the Garhwal Himalaya has three divisions such as Tehri, Uttarkashi, and Narendra Nagar. It is one of the biggest forest circles of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The Yamuna Circle includes Mussoorie, Tons, the Upper Yamuna, Barkot, and Chakrata divisions. The Garhwal Circle has three divisions—Pauri, Rudraprayag, and Badrinath. The last circle is called the Shivalik Table 3  Working circles and administrative units Unit Circle Division Range Beat Total

Territorial 11 29 244 1552 1836

Functional 6 25 40 17 88

Source: Chief Forest Conservator, Dehradun (2018)

Total 17 54 284 1569 1924

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Forest Classifications and Working Circles

Fig. 3  The percentage share of functional and territorial administrative units under circles, divisions, ranges, and beats

Circle, which has four divisions—Dehradun, Lansdowne, Soil Conservation Kalsi, and Haridwar. There are eight RF divisions, which are directly under the control of the directors of the RJNP and the CNP. RJNP, Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP), and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KNWLS) are administered by the director of RJNP. Similarly, Kalagarh Tiger Reserve, CNP, Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary (BWLS), Govind Wildlife Sanctuary (GWLS), Sona Nadi Wildlife Sanctuary (SNWLS), and Gangotri National Park (GNP) are administered by the director of CNP. The forest department of the Uttarakhand Himalaya has conducted a wildlife census in 2018. The wildlife population was the highest of leopards (2335), followed by bears (2121) and elephants (1797). Apart from the given population, a small number of tigers (340) was recorded.

Nurseries and Plantations Nurseries and plantations play a significant role in sustainable forest management. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, the increase in forest cover was noticed due to the increase in the plantation of trees during the last decades. From 2017 to 2019, the increase in forest cover was about 1.4% only due to a plantation drive. Table  5 shows details of nurseries in different circles in 2017–2018. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, there are four zones including wildlife conservation and a research unit along with 14 circles where nurseries are established and plants are grown. A total of 541 nurseries, 464.1 ha area and 199.7 lakh plants are available in the region. The Garhwal zone possesses the highest number of nurseries, area, and trees, followed by the Kumaon zone. The number of nurseries and area is very less under WLSs. There are two research centers—Silviculturist Sal, Haldwani, and Silviculturist Hill, Nainital, which are involved in forest research and development. These research centers have 15 nurseries, and the total area under these nurseries is 25.5 ha with 8.3 lakh plants.

Discussion and Conclusions

27

Table 4  Forest circles and divisions Forest circles Kumaon Circle 1. North Kumaon

2. South Kumaon Western Circle

Bhagirathi Circle

Yamuna Circle

Garhwal Circle

Shivalik Circle

RF under the administrative control of director RJNP

RF under the administrative control of director CNP

Seven circles and two reserved forests

Divisions Bageshwar Almora Civil Soyam Almora Pithoragarh Champawat Nainital Haldwani Tarai East Tarai West Tarai Central Ramnagar Tehri Uttarkashi Narendra Nagar Mussoorie Tons Upper Yamuna Barkot Chakrata Pauri Rudraprayag Badrinath Dehradun Lansdowne Soil conservation Kalsi Haridwar RJNP NDNP KNWLS Kalagarh Tiger Reserve Div. CNP BWLS RF under GWLS RF under GNP 25 divisions and 08 RF

Numbers 05

01 05

03

04

03

04

03

05

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

Discussion and Conclusions The forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have been classified into various subclasses based on their nature and legal status. For the protection of forest resources, the large patches of forests have been classified as reserved and protected forests, and these areas are known as NPs, WLSs, and CRs. Van Panchayats are the other

28

Forest Classifications and Working Circles

Table 5  Details of nurseries in different circles Name of zone Kumaon

Shivalik Garhwal

Wildlife conservation

Research

Name of circle North Kumaon South Kumaon Western Circle Total Shivalik Circle Yamuna Circle Bhagirathi Circle Garhwal Circle Total CPN KNWLS GNP (Govind) RJNP NDWLS Total Silviculturist Sal, Haldwani Silviculturist Hill, Nainital Total

Number of Nurseries 118 50 32 200 40 26 128 106 300 1 16 3 1 5 26 3

Area in ha 87.8 49 52 188.9 37 19.4 81 87 224.8 0.1 12.3 3 3.5 5.9 24.8 3

Number of plants (in lakh) 36.6 24.6 10.2 71.43 20.8 3.9 48.9 37 110.8 0.03 6.2 – – 2.9 9.2 2.5

12

22.5

5.8

15 541

25.5 464.1

8.3 199.7

Source: Conservator of Forest Office, Uttarakhand 2018

classified forest areas, owned and managed by the local community people at the village level. These play a significant role in forest use and their conservation. Some forest patches are privately owned, used, and conserved by individuals. The civil and soyam forests are managed by the officials of the forest department. Some forests have been classified as non-forests and vested forests. The forests of Uttarakhand have also been classified into VDFs, MDFs, and OFs. The dense and MDF obtain more than 70% area while the OFs have less than 30% area. Both forests play an important role in forest use and their conservation in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya comprises mainly five forest groups, which make the forest landscape panoramic. Tropical moist and dry deciduous forests, subtropical pine forests, Himalayan moist temperate forests, and plantation forests are the major forest groups. These forest groups are further classified into many sub-forest types. Under these forest groups, there are many types of forest species grown, and therefore the Uttarakhand Himalaya is known as the “biodiversity hotspots.” To manage the vast and diverse forests, the Department of Forest and the Government of Uttarakhand have divided forests into many working circles, which include terrestrial and functional administrative units, along with circles, divisions, ranges, and beats.

References

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The forest department of the state government has suitably planned for the management of forests in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly after the implementation of the “Forest Act of India, 1980.” However, with the increasing human population, illegal felling of trees, poaching of animals, and unused forest resources need to be redefined in the working circles. The forest circles can be divided into micro-circles to monitor and manage the forests. The trained human resource along with community participation in sustainable forest management is inevitable. The trend officials involved in the forest working circles can support the sustainable use of forest resources, particularly in rural areas, where the local people are fully dependent on forest resources to run their livelihood sustainable. It will also support the management of degraded forestland and will help in increasing the forest area.

References Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Government of India Publications, New Delhi. Sati VP (2017) Cultural geography of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow, Printers and Publishers, New Delhi

National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves

Abstract  The Uttarakhand Himalaya represents one of the world’s biogeographical regions with rich biodiversity. To conserve and protect the species—floral, faunal, and avifaunal—the state department of forest established parks and sanctuaries in different locations of the state. These are the major forest-protected areas. Within the forest areas, wetlands are situated, which support forest ecosystems. The primary objective of this chapter is to examine the national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and conservation reserves including the biosphere reserves of Uttarakhand. It also studies the potential of ecotourism in these parks and sanctuaries and describes tourists’ inflows. It has been noticed from this study that the state provides a suitable base for ecotourism development, which leads to enhancing the income and economy of the rural people. In the meantime, the conservation of parks and sanctuaries is inevitable. Keywords  National parks · Wildlife sanctuaries · Conservation reserves · Biodiversity · Uttarakhand Himalaya

Introduction The varied climate and landscape of the Uttarakhand Himalaya result in rich diversity in flora, fauna, and avifauna, spanning from the mountainous mainland to the parts of the plain. Obtaining above 63% forest area with rich biodiversity, a 12% geographical area of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is protected. The protected areas include six NPs, seven WLSs, four CRs, and one biosphere reserve (BR). These NPs, WLSs, and CRs protect some of the rarest species, as the Uttarakhand Himalaya is the home to some endemic rare species of high value. Owing to the abundance of the valuable species, the CNP, the Valley of Flowers National Park (VFNP), and NDNP are declared as UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites. A few species internationally threatened and not recorded elsewhere are found only in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, about 102 mammals, 600 birds, 19 amphibians, 70 reptiles, and 124 fish species are found. Among endangered species © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_4

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National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves

tigers, Asian elephants, Guldars, musk deer, snow leopards, and Monal are prominent. The state forest department has been involved in conserving biodiversity and wildlife within the State. This chapter looks into the NPs, WLSs, and CRs of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It describes these parks and sanctuaries in detail, in terms of their year of establishment, area, location, and major species. Wildlife population, wetlands within parks and sanctuaries, eco-sensitive zones, and ecotourism practices in these parks and sanctuaries are also elaborated in this chapter. The NPs, WLSs, and CRs are shown on the map of Uttarakhand. Suitable graphic representation of data further supports the study.

National Parks The Uttarakhand Himalaya has six major NPs with a total area of 5006.76  km2 (Table 1). These NPs are located in six districts of Uttarakhand. The GNP covers the highest area, which is 2390 km2 (about 47.74%). Established in 1989, it is located in the high Himalaya of the Uttarkashi district, where temperate forests and large alpine grasslands are found. The RJNP, established in 1982, obtains 819.54  km2 areas, which is 16.37% of the total area under NPs. It stretches in Haridwar, Dehradun, and Pauri districts. The monsoon deciduous forests are found in this park. The NDNP (established in 1980) is the third-largest park with 630  km2 (12.58%), located in Chamoli district, where temperate forests—mixed-oak, mixed coniferous, and alpine grasslands—are found. This park is world-famous for endangered musk deer. The GNP (established in 1990) occupies 558.88  km2 areas (11.16%) and lies in the Uttarkashi district. The temperate forests and alpine grasslands are found in this park. The CNP, located in Nainital and Pauri districts, is the Table 1  National parks, year of establishment, area, location, and major forest types Name CNP

Year of establishment 1936

Area km2 520.82

% 10.4

NDNP VFNP

1980 1982

630 87.50

12.58 Chamoli 1.75 Chamoli

RJNP

1983

819.54

GNP (Gangotri) GNP (Govind) Total

1989

2390

16.37 Haridwar, Dehradun, Pauri 47.74 Uttarkashi

1990

558.88

11.16 Uttarkashi

Location Pauri, Nainital

Major forest types Monsoon deciduous forests Temperate forests Medicinal plants and alpine grasslands Monsoon deciduous forests Temperate forests and grasslands Temperate forests and alpine grasslands

5006.76 100

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017; Composed by Author

Wildlife Sanctuaries

33

Fig. 1  NPs, WLSs, and CRs in the Uttarakhand Himalaya

oldest park, having an area of 520.82 km2 (10.4%). The main forest types are monsoon deciduous forests. The smallest NP is the VFNP (established in 1982). Located in the Chamoli district, it is a world-famous park, known for its naturally grown flowers, medicinal plants, alpine grasslands, and beauty. It possesses only 87.5 km2 area (1.75%). Figure 1 shows the NPs, WLSs, and CRs (protected areas) in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. These protected areas are spread in Uttarkashi, Rudraprayag, Chamoli, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, Almora, Nainital, Pauri, Haridwar, and Dehradun districts. The WLSs are located within the NPs. It has been noted from the figure that these NPs, WLSs, and CRs are equally located in the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya with varying areas.

Wildlife Sanctuaries The Uttarakhand Himalaya has seven WLS with a total of 2683.73 km2 areas. Of which, the highest area falls in KWLS with an area of 975.2 km2 (36.34% of the total area under WLS). Established in 1971, this sanctuary stretches in Chamoli, Rudraprayag, and Uttarkashi districts. The second-largest park in the area is the

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National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves

Table 2  Wildlife sanctuaries Area Km2 % 10.82 0.4

Name MWLS

Year of establishment 1993

KWLS

1972

GWLS

1955

36.34 Chamoli, Rudraprayag 481.05 17.92 Uttarkashi

AWLS

1986

599.93 22.35 Pithoragarh

SNWLS 1987 BWLS 1988 NWLS 2012

301.18 11.23 Pauri 45.59 1.7 Almora 269.96 10.06 Nainital, Champawat

Total

Location Dehradun

975.2

Main wildlife Himalayan goat, panther, leopard, deer, and bear Snow leopard, wild boar, musk deer Snow leopard, wild boar, musk deer White capped water redstart, the red-billed blue magpie, musk deer, and the mountain quails Swamp deer, deer, panther Swamp deer, deer, panther Tiger, leopard, elephant, sloth Bear, mahaseer, and great pied hornbill

2683.73 100

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017; Composed by Author

AWLS with an area of 599.93 km2 (22.35%). Established in 1986, it is located in the Pithoragarh district. The GWLS was established in 1955 in the Uttarkashi district and has an area of 461.05 km2 (17.92%). The SNWLS, located in the Pauri district and established in 1987, has an area of about 301.18 km2, which is 11.23% of the total area under WLS. Similarly, the area of the NWLS is 269.96 km2 (10.06%), which is located in Nainital and Champawat districts, established recently in 2021. The BWLS has the lowest area, which is 45.59 km2, representing only 1.7% of the total area under the sanctuary. This sanctuary was established in 1988 in the Almora district. The fauna and avifauna in these wildlife sanctuaries vary from subtropical climate to temperate and cold climate, according to their location. Musk Deer is an endangered species found in NDNP, KWLS, and GWLS. The snow leopard is common in KWLS and GWLS. Different species of deer are found in almost all WLSs. Tiger, leopard, and elephant are found in subtropical WLSs (Table 2).

Conservation Reserves The Uttarakhand Himalaya has a total of four conservation reserves, spread over four districts (Table 3). A rich faunal and floral diversity is found in these conservation reserves. The total area under these conservation reserves is 212.54 km2. The highest area is under the Nainital Forest Division (NFD: Nainital District), which is 111.92 km2 (52.7%), where many fauna and avifauna are found. The famous Nanda Devi Bird Conservation Reserve (NDBCR) is situated in this division. The Ramnagar Forest Division (RFD: Almora District) obtains a second place in the area, which is

Case Study of Two Conservation Reserves

35

Table 3  Conservation reserves Name of division CFD

Name of conservation reserve ACR

HFD

JTCR

RFD

PCR

NFD

NDBCR

Total

04

Area Km2 % 4.44 2.1

Major fauna and avifauna Rich bird and fish diversity: Red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture and Baer’s pochard, red-crested pochard and ruddy shelduck; Putitor mahseer fish 37.84 17.8 Spotted deer, Asian elephant, tiger, leopard, blue bull, wild boar, mongoose Barking deer, hog deer, black bear, sloth bear, crocodile 58.25 27.4 Tiger, elephant, leopard, leopard cat, jungle cat, and Ghoral 111.92 52.7 Cheer pheasant, greater spotted eagle, red-headed vulture, eastern imperial eagle, Himalayan griffon, bearded vulture, hill partridge, black-throated tit, rock bunting 212.54 100

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017; Composed by Author

58.25 km2, about 27.4% of the total area of conservation reserves. The Pawalgarh Conservation Reserve (PCR) lies in this division. Many faunal species are found in this reserve. The third place is possessed by Haridwar Forest Division (HFD: Haridwar district) where Jhilmil Tal Conservation Reserve (JTCR) is situated. It has a 37.84 km2 area (17.8%). Several faunal and floral resources are found in the conservation area. The smallest conservation is Asan Conservation Reserve (ACR) in Chakrata Forest Division (CFD: Dehradun district) is world-famous with a 4.44 km2 area (2.1% of the total area). This reserve receives rich migratory avifauna, mainly during the winter season.

Case Study of Two Conservation Reserves Asan Conservation Reserve The ACR is situated near Dhalipur, 38 km from Dehradun, at the confluence of the Asan River (a seasonal tributary of the Yamuna River) and the Yamuna hydro-canal on the left bank of the Yamuna River (Fig. 2). It makes a natural boundary between Himachal and Uttarakhand states. The famous Guruduara—Ponta Sahib is situated on the right bank of the Yamuna River. The Asan Barrage, which was built in 1967, provides fresh water and bird-friendly habitats to the reservoir. Whenever the water level remains low, the Yamuna canal provides ample water. The reservoir stretches in 444  ha land. 330 species of birds including endangered red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, and Baer’s pochard have habitat in the reservoir. This

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National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves

Fig. 2  The Asan reserve is a suitable habitat for migratory birds. (Photo by Author)

reservoir comprises more than 1% of the bio-geographical populations of two waterbird species—red-crested pochard and ruddy shelduck. The reservoir houses 49 fish species including Putitor Mahaseer is a non-avian endangered species. This reserve provides the best sites for Brahminy Ducks (Kumar and Porwal 1998) and other birds (Gandhi and Singh 1995; Singh 2000). On 12 February 2003, more than 2000 bird species were seen (Singh 2003). Some of the endangered migratory birds such as Brahminy Duck, Pintail, Red Crested Pochard, Gadwall, Common Pochard, Mallard, Coot, Wigeon, Common Teal, Tufted Duck, Shoveller take shelter in the reservoir for about 4 months after traveling from Central Asia. Now, they are listed in IUCN’s Red Data Book. In 2020, the ACR was declared Ramsar site (wetland), the first in Uttarakhand state.

Jhilmil Tal Conservation Reserve Jhilmil Tal, marshy grassland, is situated in the RJNP under Haridwar Forest Division (Fig. 3). It obtains about 3783 ha low-lying area (average 240 m). It is a corridor for transferring animals within the park. Unlike other marshlands of

Wildlife Population

37

Fig. 3  The Jhilmil Tal conservation reserve is situated in Haridwar Forest Range, within RJNP. (Photo by Author)

Uttarakhand, Jhilmil is the most untouched piece of primordial Tarai marshland. It makes a panoramic view, known for swamp deer of Barasingha rarely found in Uttarakhand. The Tarai belt separates the Shivalik Hills and the Gangetic plains. Jhilmil marshy land was declared as a conservation reserve in 2005. The reserve is rich in fauna and flora diversity including five species of deer—Chital, Sambar, barking deer, hog deer, and swamp deer. Elephant, blue buck, common leopard, and tiger are the main fauna. Like the Asan reservoir, migratory birds take shelter in the reserve during the winter.

Wildlife Population The Uttarakhand Himalaya has rich wildlife diversity. As per the wildlife census of 2008, about 24 types of wildlife are found in the major NPs and WLSs (Table 4). The total population of wildlife in the Uttarakhand Himalaya is 145,295, of which, the deer population is 53,386, which is 36.7% of the total wildlife. Wild pig’s population is 32,613 (22.4%). Sambhar (10,888), Barking Deer (10,555), Blue Bull (10,070), and Goral (9803) present an average 7% population each. There are six types of wildlife (leopard, bharal, kite, black bear, thar, and elephants), which have averaged 1% population of the total wildlife population. The other 11 types of wildlife have 30°. The geographical area, and area under VDF, MDF, and OF along with scrubs were obtained. The geographical area is the highest at 0–5° slope and > 30° slope. Similarly, the area under VDF, MDF, and OF is also the highest at >30° slope. The highest area was noticed under MDF, followed by OP. Very dense forests have comparatively less forest area. In terms of scrubs, the area is increasing from 5–10° to >30°.

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Forest Diversity and Distribution

Fig. 6  Forest cover at different slope classes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (% of GA)

Forest cover percentage of the geographical area along the altitudinal gradients was the highest at >30° slope, followed by forest cover in 20–25°, 14–74°, and 25–30° slopes. Forest cover at 0–5° slope is also substantial. The slope between 5° and 15° has a comparatively less forest area (Fig. 6).

Vertical Distribution of Forests The Uttarakhand Himalaya has five climatic zones—tropical, subtropical, temperate, alpine, and cold—and accordingly, the forest types vary (Fig. 7). The forests 4000 m, followed by an altitude of 3000–4000 m. The altitude 4000 Total

VDF 638 1196 1569 1548 106 0 5047

MDF 1636 1865 5165 3099 1.039 1 12,805

OF 620 898 3306 1128 498 5 6451

Total 2884 (11.7%) 3959 (16.29%) 10,040 (41.31%) 5775 (23.76%) 1639 (6.74%) 6 (0.03%) 24,303

Source: SRTM, Digital Elevation Model, 30 m, 2016; FSI 2019

Scrub 0 104 238 20 11 1 383

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Forest Diversity and Distribution

Fig. 13  Rich floral diversity in the adjacent areas of alpine pasturelands in Tungnath (above 3000 m)

district, followed by Haridwar and Champawat districts. Scrubs and bushes are found everywhere horizontally and vertically with small areas, which is changing. The highest area is obtained by MDF, followed by OF and VDF. Slope-wise distribution of forest shows that the highest forest cover is found above 30° slope and the lowest forest cover is found between 05° and 10° slopes. The vertical distribution of forests in Uttarakhand is unique. They are distributed from below 200 m to above 3000 m. The forest types vary accordingly. The monsoon deciduous forest in the plain and valley regions and the pine forest in the subtropical regions are distributed in the middle altitudes. The mixed-oak and coniferous forests in the temperate region and the alpine pasturelands in the cold regions make the vertical distribution of forests unique. The highest forest cover is spanning between 1000 and 2000 m and the lowest forest cover lies above 4000  m. The area above 4000  m remains snow-capped, and thus, the forest cover is just negligible. The above description depicts that the Uttarakhand Himalaya has abundant forests of different types and densities. The forests in different altitudinal gradients are under tremendous pressure in terms of illegal felling of trees and poaching of wildlife. The state forest department should take immediate action on these issues. The degraded forestland can be restored through a massive plantation drive. The rare species of flora, fauna, and avifauna need to be conserved. The role of the forest department and community people is inevitable for the conservation and management of the forests of Uttarakhand.

References

67

References Chapin FS, Walker BH, Hobbs RJ, Hopper DU, Lawton JH, Sola DE, Tilman D (1997) Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystem. Science 277:500–504 Dhar U, Rawal RS, Samant SS (1997) Structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegetation in a protected area of Kumaun Himalaya, India: implications for conservation. Biodivers Conserv 6(8):1045–1062 IUCN (2003) IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN, Glands, Switzerland Khan SM, Page SE, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2013) Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the Western Himalayas as a case study. Ann Bot 112(3):479–501 Khera N, Kumar A, Ram J, Tewari A (2001) Plant biodiversity assessment in relation to disturbances in mid elevational forest of central Himalaya, India. Trop Ecol 42:83–95 Kumar A (2000) Plant biodiversity in forests of middle Central Himalaya in relation to various disturbances. Ph.D. Thesis, Kumaun University, Nainital Samant SS (1998).Diversity, distribution and conservation of fodder resource of west Himalaya, India. In: Misri B (ed), Proceedings of the Third Temperate Pasture and Fodder Network (TAPAFON), Pokhra, Nepal, Rome: FAO, pp 109–28 Samant SS, Dhar U (1997) Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 4:179–191 Samant SS, Palni LMS (2000) Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of essential oil yielding plants of Indian Himalayan region. J Med Aromat Plant Sci 22:671–684 Samant SS, Pant S (2003) Diversity, distribution pattern and traditional knowledge of sacred plants in Indian Himalayan region. Indian J For 26(3):201–213 Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS (1998) Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: diversity distribution potential values. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital Sati VP (2017) An assessment of forest cover changes in the Indian Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himal Ecol 25:66–74 Schulze ED, Mooney HA (1993) Diversity and ecosystem function. Springer, Berlin, Germany Silori CS (2001) Status and distribution of anthropogenic pressure in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve in western Himalaya, India. Biodivers Conserv 10(7):1113–1130 Singh JS (2006) Sustainable development of the Indian Himalayan region: linking ecological and economic concerns. Curr Sci 90(6):784–788 Singh JS, Singh SP (1992) Forests of Himalaya: structure, functioning and impact of man. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India

Forest Stocks and Products

Abstract  Forest stocks and products in the Himalayan region are abundant. These are very useful resources that support rural livelihoods. This chapter deals with various forest products and their use patterns. The major forest products are timber and non-timber forest products—firewood, fodder, wild fruits, resin, sub-minerals, eucalyptus, and medicinal plants. Data on the production of these products were gathered and presented. It has been noticed that the economic valuation and use patterns of forest products are not uniform, vertically and horizontally, in the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya. Further, the conservation pattern is also not uniform. Therefore, this study suggests that for the optimum use of forest stocks and products and their conservation, substantial policy measures are required to be framed and implemented. Keywords  Forest stocks · Products · Timber · NTFP · Sustainable livelihood · Himalaya

Introduction Forests are important and useful resources for sustainable livelihood in the Himalayan region. Their economic, social, historical, cultural, and industrial importance is immense. These are the resources for maintaining ecological balance and repository for biodiversity. Forests, a complete resource base, form the significant segments of terrestrial biogeographical systems. As a natural capital, forests are equated to be the national wealth. These play a multifaceted role such as providing firewood, fodder, timber, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs). These also support industrial and commercial activities, enrich soil quality, maintain the moisture regime, and balance ecology. As one of the life support systems, forests provide food production and health and produce clean air. Forest products are linked with livestock and agriculture, and these intricate each other. However, in and surroundings of settlements, overuse of forests has caused forest depletion/degradation. This has led to the unavailability of fodder and compelled the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_6

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Forest Stocks and Products

rural people either to shift to other occupations or to out-migrate (Verma 2000). The Himalayan forests are the repository of many plants and animal species. The degradation of forests in the altitudinal gradients has also caused the extinction of floral and faunal species. There is a big debate on the degradation of the Himalayan forests. A group of forest experts blames that the poor people are responsible for forest degradation as they cut forests for fodder, firewood, and wild fruits. In the meantime, it has been observed that the impact of poor rural people on forest degradation is nominal. Cutting of forests for commercial use, natural hazards, and changing climate are mainly responsible for forest degradation. The development activities in the forest areas such as the construction of roads, schools, hospitals, houses, the setting up of power plants, and telecommunication networks are causing forest degradation. Timber, paper, and packing are used for industrial activities and these are made from forest products. For the development activities and urbanization, the demand for forest products has increased during the recent past. The depletion of biomass, owing to the overuse of timber, has reduced the quality of life of the rural people (Gadgil 1991). On the other hand, the survival of the rural people depends on increasing biomass and biodiversity. Therefore, forest conservation is the need of the hour to enhance the health and quality of forests and forest products (Down to Earth 2005). This chapter elaborates on forest stocks and types and the use of forest products in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. A detailed description of firewood, fodder, timber, resin, sub-minerals, paper wood and revenue earned, circle-­wise paper mills, and medicinal plants and market facilities is presented. A case study of 15 villages of five districts was conducted on the collection of fodder and firewood.

Use Pattern of Timber, Firewood, and Forest Products The use pattern of timber (cubic meter round), firewood (cubic meter stack), and forest products (cubic meter) in the Uttarakhand Himalaya from 2010 to 2018 was analyzed (Fig. 1). It has been noticed that the use of timber was the highest, followed by forest products and firewood. During the period, the use pattern of all forest products was highly variable. Meanwhile, the trend of use patterns of these forest products was noted to increase. The highest increase in use pattern was registered in forest products, followed by firewood whereas the use pattern of timber increased nominally.

 ear-Wise Use Percentage of Timber, Firewood, Y and Forest Products The year-wise use percentage of timber, firewood, and forest products was analyzed (Fig. 2). The highest use was noted for timber, which averaged 50%, varies from 58% the highest in 2010 to 35% the lowest in 2015. Various forest products have

Resin: An Important Product

71

Fig. 1  Use pattern of timber, firewood, and forest products

Fig. 2  Year-wise use percentage of timber, firewood, and forest products

averaged 42% use with the highest of about 57% in 2013 and about 43% in 2012. The average firewood use was noticed at about 8%, with a maximum of 25% and a minimum of 5%.

Resin: An Important Product Resin has multiple uses, and it occupies an important place in the forest economy. Resin is extracted from pine trees and collected in containers of different sizes. These containers are sent to industries where different products are made. Resin is the main source of the blacktop, which is used for making roads smooth. The Uttarakhand Himalaya possesses about 29% pine forests in the middle altitudes between 800 and 1600 m. It produces resin and exports it to other states. The production of resin and revenue earned from it, from 2010 to 2018, was analyzed (Fig. 3). The production of resin was noted as the highest in 2010 (196,075 quintals) whereas the revenue earned from it was the highest in 2015 (Rs. 727,157). Both the

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Forest Stocks and Products

Fig. 3  Production and revenue earned from resin

production and revenue from the resin were noticed to decrease during the period. The trend of production of resin decreased sharply with high variability. Further, the revenue earned from the resin has also decreased; however, the decrease was almost constant.

Production of Sub-minerals in Forest Areas The rivers, flowing in the forest areas of Uttarakhand, produce sub-mineral materials. The major rivers, where these materials are produced, are Gola Nadi, Kosi Dabka, Nandhaur/Kailash, Sharda, Ganga, and its tributaries—Song, Jakhan, and Manal. The production (cubic meter million) and revenue (million rupees) from sub-minerals (2013–2018) were examined (Table 1). It has been noticed that there were no clear-cut trends in the production of sub-minerals. The highest production (about 12.3 million) was noticed in 2014, and the lowest production was noted at about 5.9 million in 2017. In terms of revenue earned from sub-minerals, it was the highest in 2018 with 2831.8 million rupees and the lowest in 2013 (869.7 million rupees).

Eucalyptus Production and Revenue Earned Eucalyptus plantation in Uttarakhand was initiated in the 1980s mainly in the plain districts along both sides of roads, railways, and other barren lands. There are two major paper mills—Century and Star—in Uttarakhand. The eucalyptus wood is supplied mainly to these paper mills. Data (2010–2018) on the quantity of wood supply (cubic meter) and price (million rupees) were gathered and analyzed (Table  2). The good quality eucalyptus wood was supplied to the Century paper mill, which was 61,803 cubic meters. Consequently, the revenue earned from it was

Trends of Eucalyptus Wood Supply and Income Earned

73

Table 1  Production of sub-minerals in the river banks, located in forest areas Production (cubic meter million) 5.6 12.3 7.5 7.3 5.9 6.1

Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Revenue (million rupees) 869.7 2764.6 1995.9 2338.7 2533 2831.8

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

Table 2  Eucalyptus production and revenue earned

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Total

Century paper mill Quantity (cubic meter) 14,016 8808 8887 2326 4303 5900 10,794 5031 1738 61,803

Price (million rupees) 32.9 240.3 25.6 7.4 14.7 24.7 40.5 8.4 7.2 401.7

Star paper mill Quantity (cubic meter) 9344 8141 3223 2010 3161 4100 5333 2606 3223 41,141

Price (million rupees) 21.9 21.5 9.3 6.4 10.7 17.2 19.9 2.7 13.4 123

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

402 million rupees, which was higher than the Star paper mill. The Star paper mill received about 41,141 cubic meters of eucalyptus wood and earned Rs. 123 million, during the period.

Trends of Eucalyptus Wood Supply and Income Earned The trends of eucalyptus wood supply to the two paper mills were noted. It has been noticed that the wood supply for both mills has been declining (Fig. 4). The trend of declining wood supply to the Century paper mill was higher than the wood supply to the Star paper mill. The author observed that during the recent past, the plantation of eucalyptus trees has decreased. On the other hand, the existing eucalyptus trees have already been harnessed. Therefore, the eucalyptus wood supply to these two plants has reduced largely. The plantation of eucalyptus trees in the Himalayan region is not suitable. Many existing areas of eucalyptus plantations have turned

74

Forest Stocks and Products

Fig. 4  Trends of eucalyptus supply (quantity in cubic meter) to the two paper mills

arid. This is also the reason for the declining eucalyptus plantation in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The Himalayan region already has already high plant diversity, which is best suited to the ecology and ecosystems. The trends of income earned from the eucalyptus wood supply to the two paper mills were assessed (Fig. 5). It depicts that the earnings from the Century paper mill were quite higher between 2010 and 2012 and then the graph was declining. Except for the year 2016, when there was a slight increase in earnings. It was almost stagnant from 2012 to 2018. In terms of the Star paper mill, the earnings were stagnant throughout the assessment period. In both paper mills, the trend of earning money was declining.

Production from Major Forest Species The State of Uttarakhand possesses several forest species, which have high economic value and which can be used for making papers. Some of the important species are sal, sissoo, sagon (teak), catechu, eucalyptus, pine, deodar, blue pine, fir and spruce, and mixed forests (Table 3). The total production from all forest species during 2017–2018 was 210,147 cubic meters, whereas per unit weighted average price was Rs. 195,074. The production of mixed-forests/miscellaneous was the highest (26.8%), followed by 21.4% from eucalyptus. The production of sal trees was 14.2% and pine was 12.6%. The other species have less than 10% production. The highest price per unit was noted 28.6% from catechu (khair), followed by teak (16.1%) and sal (14.4%). Deodar and shisham had 10% per unit price each. The other species have less than 10% price per unit. The detail of the contribution of forest species in terms of production (in cubic meters) and per unit weighted average price (in rupees) is presented using a graph (Fig. 6). It is clearly shown that the mixed-forests, eucalyptus, and sal trees have the highest production; however, the average price was nominal. Meanwhile, per unit

Circle-Wise Number of Sawmills and Resin Units

75

Fig. 5  The trends of earnings from eucalyptus wood supply to two paper mills Table 3  Production of forest products (% of total production) and per unit weight average price (% of total rupees) Species Sal Teak (sagon) Sissoo (shisham) Catechu (khair) Eucalyptus Pine (chir) Deodar Blue pine (kail) Fir and spruce Mixed-forests/miscellaneous Total

Production 14.2 5.3 1.4 7.6 21.4 12.6 5.6 1.4 3.7 26.8 210,147

Per unit weighted average price 14.4 16.1 10.6 28.6 2.8 3.5 10.7 6.5 4.1 2.7 195,074

Source: Forest Statistical Book, Uttarakhand 2016–2017

weighted average price was the highest of khair, teak, sal, and shisham. The mixed-­ oak forests and coniferous forests are remotely located and are mainly unused. Therefore, the production and earnings from these forests are comparatively less. On the other hand, the monsoon deciduous forests grow mainly in the plain regions and these are accessible. Therefore, the output from these forests is substantial.

Circle-Wise Number of Sawmills and Resin Units The circle-wise number of sawmills and resin units in the Uttarakhand Himalaya in 2017–2018 is illustrated (Fig. 7). Uttarakhand has a total of 393 sawmills and 120 resin mills. Out of which, the highest sawmills were noted in the Shivalik Circle (180), followed by Western Circle (134). The Yamuna Circle has 32 sawmills, and the north Kumaon Circle has 27 sawmills. The other forest circles have less than 27

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Forest Stocks and Products

Fig. 6  Production and price from different forest species in the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 7  Circle-wise number of sawmills and resin units in the Uttarakhand Himalaya (2017–2018)

sawmills. The forests of the Shivalik and the Western circles are accessible and the most valuable. The wood of these forests is used for making furniture; therefore, the number of sawmills is the highest in these forest circles. In terms of resin units, the highest units are noted in the north Kumaon Circle (73), followed by the Western Circle (30). The Bhagirathi and south Kumaon circles have eight resin units. These four circles obtain a large area under pine forests. Thus, these circles have several resin units. Figure 8 shows that resin is extracted from the pine trees near New Tehri town. It further shows that the resin depot is situated near the Jakholi service center in the Lastar Gad, Rudraprayag district. Tarpin oil, bijora, koltar, paint, and oil for furniture and glass are the major products of resin. The resin is collected in containers and then transported to the regional centers where furnished products are made and sold. These regional centers are located in Rudraprayag and Rishikesh towns. Pine forests cover about 29% area in Uttarakhand. Therefore, the production of resin is the highest, which is exported to the other states of India.

Production and Revenue Earned from Medicinal Plants

77

Fig. 8 (a) Resin, an economically viable forest product, is extracted largely from the pine forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (b) resin depot is situated near Jakholi service center in the Rudraprayag district. (Photo by Author)

Fig. 9  The production and revenue earned from medicinal plants

Production and Revenue Earned from Medicinal Plants The forest development corporation (FDC) of Uttarakhand produces, collects, and sells medicinal plants. Data on the marketing of medicinal plants by FDC from 2013 to 2018 was examined. The production of medicinal plants and revenue earned from their selling is presented (Fig. 9). It depicts that both production and revenue from medicinal plants have increasing trends with high variability in growth. Both production and revenue earned from medicinal plants were the highest in 2015. In 2013, 2014, and 2016, the production and revenue earned from medicinal plants were less. After 2016, production and revenue have been increasing. The author observed that the potential of medicinal plants in the economic development of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is enormous. Meanwhile, the market facilities to sell the products of medicinal plants are inadequate. Often, the marginal farmers are unable to sell the products of medicinal plants and seldom they do not get even the input cost. Therefore, the role of the state government is crucial in the development of medicinal plants.

78

Forest Stocks and Products

Timber and Non-timber Forest Products Besides the abovementioned forest stocks and products in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, wild fruits, fodder, firewood, bamboo, Bhabhar grass, Baint, and Chhilka Guliya are the main non-timber forest products. Some of the delicious and nutritious wild fruits (Fig.  10) are Kafal, Hansole, Kilmore, Ghingaru, and Bhamore, which ripen both during the summer and winter seasons and are consumed locally. The timber of pine and deodar trees is highly valuable and available. In rural areas, timber is used for making houses. Buransh (Rhododendron) is widely grown in the temperate region of the Uttarakhand Himalaya along with mixed-oak forests. The flowers blossom during the spring season, which have high medicinal value. The flowers are used for making juice, which has high medical and market value (Fig. 11).

Fig. 10 (a) Ghingaru, (b) kafal, (c) kilmora, and (d) hainsola are wild-grown fruits having high nutritional value. All are grown during the summer season

Case Study on Consumption of Fodder and Firewood

79

Fig. 11  Buransh flowers used for medicine and juice

Case Study on Consumption of Fodder and Firewood A case study of 15 villages of 5 districts—3 villages from each district—was conducted from July to October 2021 (Table  4). These districts are Pauri, Tehri, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Rudraprayag. The villages were selected based on their locations—the river valleys, middle altitudes, and the highlands. The altitudes of these villages vary from 450 m of Janasu village, Pauri district, to 2650 m of Purali village of the Uttarkashi district. Firewood from pine trees is largely available in these villages, which are located below 1600  m whereas, in the villages located above 1600 m, the firewood is mainly obtained from mixed-oak forests. In terms of fodder, the grasses are collected from the subtropical and alpine pastureland and oak and Tilonj trees. Bhimal and Khadik are the two useful fodder trees, grown in the surroundings of the villages. The data were gathered on per day collection and consumption of fodder and firewood at a household level, and then the data were summed-up at village level. The households involved in the collection of fodder and firewood vary from village to village. In the past, every household was involved in the collection of fodder and firewood. However, the number of households involved in these activities has reduced significantly. The author observed that households, who are capable of buying cooking gas, have left the practice of collecting firewood. Further, in many villages, the livestock population has reduced and several households do not rear livestock. It has also been noticed that the number of people involved in the collection of fodder and firewood is highest in the highland villages because a large number of people are still involved in practicing livestock farming. Out-migration from these villages is less. Similarly, these villages are located remotely, where the cooking gas supply is not proper. Therefore, a large number of households are dependent on firewood, which is easily available. Data show that the

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Forest Stocks and Products

Table 4  Household involved in per day collection of firewood and fodder

Village Janasu Rampur Kulyani Koti Kwanli Watkhem Kafalkhet Srikot Tugasi Nirakot Pale Dhauntri Purali Thapla Nehra Tarsali Total

District Pauri Pauri Pauri Tehri Tehri Tehri Chamoli Chamoli Chamoli Uttarkashi Uttarkashi Uttarkashi Rudraprayag Rudraprayag Rudraprayag

Altitude (m) 450 1100 1850 800 1250 1825 950 1150 2425 1320 1600 2650 815 1200 1800 1412 (average)

HHs involved in per-day fodder and HHs firewood collection 59 15 25.4% 65 7 10.8% 45 30 66.7% 95 4 4.2% 29 10 34.5% 41 27 65.9% 35 15 42.9% 39 18 46.2% 43 31 72.1% 23 17 73.9% 34 24 70.6%

Firewood collection (kg) 11 13 25 08 2 27 32 12 43 15 12

Fodder collection (kg) 46 69 37 42 28 59 54 66 152 27 110

52 22 18 23 623

17 12 29 17 275

57 56 33 130 966

45 12 11 14 280

86.5% 54.5% 61.1% 60.9% 44.9

Source: By Author

highest number of households, who are involved in the collection of fodder and firewood, is from Purali village (86.5%), followed by Nirakot village (73.9%). Meanwhile, the lowest number of households is from Koti village (4.2%), followed by Rampur village (10.8%) and Janasu village (25.4%). As a whole, about 44.9% of households are involved in the collection of firewood and fodder. The per-day firewood collection from all villages is less (275 kg) than the fodder collection (966 kg). Figure 12 shows women carrying green grasses to stall feeding their animals. The women travel kilometers to the jungle, cut the grasses, and carry them back to their cowsheds where they keep them to feed animals on day-to-day basis. Leafy grasses (broadleaf) from oak and other mixed-oak plants are collected from the jungle at higher altitudes (temperate climate) during the winter season. During the monsoon season, green grasses (needle-shaped) grow in the jungle of middle and lower altitudes. These grasses are also used for stall feeding.

Discussion and Conclusions Forest stocks and products are immense in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The main stocks and products are timber, firewood, fodder, and wild fruits. Timber is obtained from tropical deciduous monsoon forests such as sal, teak, and Shisham; subtropical

Discussion and Conclusions

81

Fig. 12  Women carrying fodder from the nearby jungle. (Photo by Author)

forests—pine trees, and temperate forests; and spruce, fir, cider, birch, and deodar. These are economically valuable timber. Fodder is extracted from mixed-oak forests and subtropical and temperate grasslands. Pine and oak woods are the major firewood widely used in Uttarakhand. The timber of pine and coniferous forests is also used for the construction of houses. Firewood, fodder, timber, and NTFP are among the major sources of livelihood of the Himalayan people. Many of them are fully dependent on forest-based products. The wild fruits are nutritious and abundant and used in the traditional health care system. Medicinal plants grow in all the altitudinal gradients abundantly. They are widely used for food by the local people, and their medicinal value is high. Paper mills are dependent on the wood of eucalyptus. A case study of 15 villages reveals that the number of households has decreased in consumption of fodder and firewood. The major reasons noticed were decreasing number of livestock and increasing cooking gas facility. Despite having extensive and dense forests with high biodiversity and high environmental and economic values, the optimum use of forest products is inadequate. However, in and surroundings of the settlements, forest products are overused. Difficult terrain, inaccessibility, and remoteness of most of the forest areas do not permit optimum use of all forest products. The huge forest products are destroyed without use. Along with an increase in forest area, forest products are also increasing. In the meantime, the reduction in livestock number and the facility of cooking gas has also reduced the use of forest products. However, many highland villages are still dependent on the forests for their multiple uses. One of the reasons for increasing forest products is out-migration. The author observed that in the districts,

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Forest Stocks and Products

where the rate of out-migration is high, the availability of forest products is also high and vice versa. The forest products can sustainably be used by establishing small-scale forest industries at the village level. This will help in increasing the income level of the rural people and reducing the rate of out-migration.

References Down To Earth (2005) Estimates based on the per hectare total economic value. International Institute of Environment and Development Gadgil M (1991) Traditional resource management systems. Res Manag Optim 18:127–141 Verma M (2000) Himachal Pradesh forestry sector review report annexes- economic valuation of forests of Himachal Pradesh. International Institute of Environment and Development

Environmental Index

Abstract  The Himalayan region obtains a suitable quality of the environment. The snow-capped mountains, glaciers, glacial-fed perennial rivers, wetlands, grasslands, and forests with rich biodiversity enhance the environmental quality and sustainability index. It has a huge carbon stock and pool. In this chapter, all parameters of the environmental index are described. Data were gathered and analyzed, and environmental quality was obtained. A large part of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is snow-­ capped. The three northern districts—Uttarkashi, Chamoli, and Pithoragarh—have more than 16% geographical area under snow-capped. Many glacial-fed rivers originate from the Himalaya and supply pure and ample water. The ecosystem services are immense in the form of clean air, pure water, dense forests, and panoramic landscapes. However, the people living in the upstream river basins are not benefiting from these services. Many ecosystem services are unused. This study suggests a sustainable use and conservation of forest resources. Keywords  Environmental index · Himalayan region · Perennial rivers · Wetlands · Biodiversity · ESI

Introduction The environmental sustainability index (ESI) depicts the general environmental conditions of an area or region including innate resources and policy achievements. It compares the assessment of environmental achievement, challenges, and priorities. The indicators of ESI include water, air, land, and forests. It also assesses the impact of the environment on human health and ecosystems. Policy measures along with community efforts for environmental conservation are ways to improve environmental quality. ESI provides insight to protect the environment and maps the environmental policies with various dimensions. A composite index of 40 key environmental indicators constructs ESI. ESI is a combination of stock (historically endowed resources) and flows (environmental services). It includes the present state of the environment, environmental degradation, pollution, and impacts on the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_7

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Environmental Index

ecosystem and human health. Out of the total 40 key environmental indicators, important ones are air quality and pollution, water quality and availability, land use, and agriculture, forest and biodiversity, waste management, and availability. The other indices of ESI are management, health impact, population pressure, and environmental budget. These indicators are grouped and analyzed and then ESI is observed. ESI is also known as the environmental performance index (EPI). EPI provides data-driven environmental sustainability, using 32 performance indicators across 11 issues. A total of 180 countries were ranked on environmental health and ecosystem vitality using EPI. EPI also provides a way for establishing environmental policy targets and inspires countries to move forward toward a sustainable future. India ranks 180th with 18.90 EPI score, the lowest position among 180 countries of the world. The combination of multiple sources of information such as ecological indicators, environmental systems, stream processes, ecological processes, species richness, riparian, and vegetation is called environmental indices. The objective of the environmental indices is to provide and compare the overall features of the environmental systems. Defining a theoretical framework for supporting indicator selection, data preparation, and weighting and aggregation of the individual indicators are important aspects of the construction of environmental indices. The ecological performance indicators support quantitative metrics for assessing environmental performance in various policy categories. The score ranges from 0 to 100. The environmental quality can be referred to as air and water quality, noise pollution, and access to open space. It is also related to the physical and mental health of humans. Uttarakhand topped the list of best-performing states and union territories in terms of environmental performance as per the EPI released by Niti Aayog as it scored 0.8123 EPI. Uttarakhand is also a leading state of India, in terms of forest conservation and expansion of green cover. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has suitable environmental quality. Fresh air, pure water, fertile land, and high diversity in floral and faunal resources make environmental quality suitable. It provides a feasible climate in summer. The snow-clad mountain ranges provide ample fresh water to the numerous rivers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The Ganga and its numerous tributaries originate and flow through the Uttarakhand Himalaya, supporting suitable environmental quality. It has sufficient carbon stock and a carbon pool. The glacial-fed and natural highland and lowland wetlands are many, situated in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. In this chapter, the environmental index in the Himalayan region, especially in the Uttarakhand Himalaya has been described using carbon stock and carbon pool, length and flow of water, and alpine grasslands, which are known as Bugyals, and wetlands—highlands and lowlands. The Himalayan region has a high environmental sustainability index, which varies from the Western Himalaya to the Central Himalaya, the Eastern Himalaya, and the Eastern Extension of Himalaya. All parameters of the environmental index provide immense ecosystem services and a healthy environment. The key environmental indicators, which are abundant in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, are described in the following paragraphs.

Carbon Stock and Carbon Pool

85

Status of Ecosystem Health Healthy ecosystems harbor natural habitats that provide a combination of basic resources such as food, water, and other environmental conditions. It promotes occupancy by the population of native fauna. Several factors of the habitat such as primary productivity, vegetation structure, contiguity, and trophic structure reflect the functioning of ecosystems, which in turn reflect their health (Ashrafi et al. 2022). The Uttarakhand Himalaya has rich ecosystem health. The faunal and floral resources are distributed according to altitude from subtropical climate zones (5000 m). Human settlements, agricultural land, large and small water reservoirs, rivers, streams, and wetlands are located along subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine eco-zones including arid zones of trans-Himalayan cold deserts. Similarly, the vegetation in the basin ranges from subtropical forests (broadleaved and needle-leaved), montane broadleaved and conifer forests, subalpine broadleaved and conifer forests, moist alpine meadows and scrub, and dry alpine meadow and scrubs. Similarly, the Uttarakhand Himalaya is divided into five ecoclimatic zones, viz., subtropical (elevation >1500 m), montane (1500–3000 m), subalpine (3000–3500 m), moist alpine (3500–4500 m), and Trans-Himalaya or cold desert (4500–5500 m). The majority of forests distributed in the middle and higher altitude show good health. However, the forests located at the lower altitude have moderate ecosystem health. In terms of the ecosystem health category (area %), 2.12% area has poor status, 13.67% area has moderate status, 55.63% has a good status, and 28.58% is nearly natural. These forests are providing natural habitats to the Himalayan wildlife. The NPs, WLS, and CRs are many in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, which enrich the ecosystem health. Mammal species, fish species, and amphibian species have good ecosystem health. Recently, the human influence on ecosystem health was observed more in the dense human settlement areas. The development of infrastructural facilities in the highland forest areas also affected ecosystem health in recent times. Although India stands the lowest in EPI, yet, the Himalayan region in general and the Uttarakhand Himalaya, in particular, provide good ecosystem health with rich biodiversity—faunal and floral. The rich ecosystem health of the Himalayan region can improve India’s EPI.

Carbon Stock and Carbon Pool Forest types, density, area (km2), carbon pool (000’ tonnes), and carbon stock (ha tonnes) in Uttarakhand were analyzed (Table 1). There are a total of six forest types with varying densities such as VDF, MDF, and OF. Besides, plantation forests are also found here. Tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical dry deciduous forests, subtropical pine forests, montane moist temperate forests, subalpine dry temperate forests, and alpine scrubs are prominent. All these six types of forests are described in terms of their density—VDF, MDF, and OF.  The area under these forests is

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Environmental Index

Table 1  Carbon stock and carbon pool in Uttarakhand’s forests Forest types Type 1 Tropical moist deciduous forests Tropical moist deciduous forests Tropical moist deciduous forests Type 2 Tropical dry deciduous forests Tropical dry deciduous forests Tropical dry deciduous forests Type 3 Subtropical pine forests Subtropical pine forests Subtropical pine forests Type 4 Montane moist temperate forests Montane moist temperate forests Montane moist temperate forests Type 5 Subalpine dry temperate forests Subalpine dry temperate forests Subalpine dry temperate forests Type 6 Alpine scrubs Alpine scrubs Alpine scrubs Type 7 Plantation Plantation Plantation Total

Area Density (km2) VDF 99.95

Carbon stock (ha tonnes) 11,038

Carbon pool (000′ tonnes) 1104

MDF

82.53

23,160

2.806

OF

55.34

3959

715

VDF

167.53

1357

81

MDF

152.64

12,991

851

OF

66.59

3785

568

VDF MDF OF VDF

155.76 120.57 91.56 172.83

11,973 53,437 15,761 27,867

768 4432 1721 1612

MDF

138.34

69,371

5014

OF

94.27

22,955

2435

VDF

181.34

6998

385

MDF

152.69

13,465

881

OF

103.52

2148

207

VDF MDF OF VDF MDF OF

202.34 84.37 65.91 73.51 64.83 43.70 24,432

462 1100 338 196 1814 1506 11,334 (mean)

22 130 51 26 279 344 285,681

Source: Forest Statistical Book 2016–2017

sufficient, varying from 43 km2 lowest to 202 km2 highest. Carbon pool and carbon stock also vary from one type of forest to another and from VDF to MDF and OF.  The highest area is under subalpine dry temperate forests, while the highest carbon stock and pool are the highest in montane moist temperate forests.

Alpine Grasslands

87

Length and Flow of Water of Some Important Rivers The length and flow of water of some important rivers are elaborated (Table 2). The Kali River has the highest length (252  km), followed by the Bhagirathi River (205  km). The Alaknanda, Kosi, Ramganga, Tons, Saryu, and other rivers have lengths from 195  km to 87  km. In terms of water flow, it is the highest of the Alaknanda River (5342 million cubic meters), followed by the Tons River, and the Bhagirathi River. It has been noticed that there is no relationship between the length of rivers and water flow. For instance, the Kali River has the highest length, and the water flow is the highest of the Alaknanda River. The Tons River has 148 km in length whereas its water flow is 4844 million cubic meters. The other rivers have similar situations. Most of these rivers are glacier-fed. Only three rivers, Nayar, Kosi, and Ramganga, are non-glaciated; therefore, the water flow in these rivers is less in comparison to their length. The high water flow is an indicator of healthy ecosystems, and, therefore, the environmental quality in the Uttarakhand Himalaya is suitable. Recently, the flow of rivers has decreased because of the construction of hydroelectricity power projects. It has led to a decrease in the environmental and ecosystem quality of downstream rivers.

Alpine Grasslands Uttarakhand has 15 regions where more than 100 alpine pasturelands, locally known as Bugyals, are situated. These regions are spread over 4305 km2 areas. A total of 157,300 goats and sheep and 7900 cows and buffaloes are reared in these alpine pasturelands. The biggest region is Johar, which has 750  km2 areas, followed by Gangotri/Nilang regions with over 680  km2 areas. These alpine pasturelands are located above 3000 m and remain snow-capped during 6–8 months of winter. The other regions also have a substantial area under alpine pasturelands. In terms of goats and sheep, the highest numbers are found in GWLS (35,000), followed by Niti Table 2  Length and flow of water of some important rivers River Tons Yamuna Bhagirathi Alaknanda Nayar Kosi Saryu Ramganga Kali

Source Har Ki Doon Yamunotri Gaumukh Alkapuri Dudhatoli Kosani Tung Bhadra Dudhatoli Kalapani

Source: Sati (2019)

Nature Glacial-fed Glacial-fed Glacial-fed Glacial-fed Non-glacial-fed Non-glacial-fed Glacial-fed Non-glacial-fed Glacial-fed

Length (km) 148 136 205 195 87 168 146 155 252

Flow (million cubic meter) 4844 1651 2533 5342 1626 1870 1355 972 2387

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Environmental Index

Ghamsali (18,500). In the other pasturelands, the number of goats and sheep is substantial. Cows and buffaloes are found almost equally in these pasturelands. Meanwhile, their number is highest in the alpine pasturelands, which are easily accessible. The alpine pasturelands of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable to climate change and the occurrence of natural hazards. In the meantime, these alpine pasturelands provide plenty of ecosystem services in the form of freshwater and medicinal plants. These pasturelands also support livestock farming and provide ample fodder. The rural people have their summer dwelling in the alpine pasturelands, where animals are reared. Every year, for about 4  months of the summer, they migrate to these pasturelands with their animals (Table 3). Table 3  Alpine grasslands, their area, and livestock population Livestock population

S. No. Region 1 Byans

2

Malla Dharma

3

Panchuli

4

Ralam

5

Johaar

6

Girthi Ganga and Rimkhim

7

Niti Ghamsali

8 9

Pindari NDNP

Cow and Area Sheep km2 and goat buffalo Bugyal (altitude m) 365 15,000 250 Panang Gad, Kuti (3929), Chiyaalekh (3350), Gabaryang (3200), Kalapani (3400), Nabi Dhang (4110), Jiokingkong (4595), Lipu Lekh (5200), Nampa (3788), Sela Yanti (3933) 185 12,500 400 Bedang (3985), Daav, Bon, Dugtu (3726), Sipu (3677), Nahadevkhola (3900), Lisar Ghati 145 1500 100 Balchi Dhura, Chipla Gwar, Shyama Molpani, Kot, Dhunkhan, Primula Ghati, Khalia, Rurkhan 75 3500 250 Ralam (3640), Dudu-Marjhali, Kalvillan, Rajrambha, Yachari, Sibugwar, Rajthod (4361) 750 8000 400 Milam (3524), Lwa, Vilju, Mapa (3306), Ganghar (3832), Pachu, Burfu (3300), Tola Bhindal Gwar (3248), Salang (3950), Sumtu, Khilanch, Laspa-pontig, Martoli (3574) 485 12,000 350 Tapidhunga (4525), Lapthal (4604), Salsal (4704), Chayudhang, Sangchamalia, Kyogad, Chujan, Rimkhim (4452), Chotahoti, Barahoti 280 18,500 350 Charhoti, Kaljowar, Niti (4000), Malari, Timar, Seri, Dhamanpayar, Gothing, Gyaldung 125 2000 600 Sunder Dhunga, Pindar, Kafni, Namik 215 4500 500 Dharansi, Bhirartoli, Sarson, Paatal Bedini-Auli (3354) (continued)

Wetlands of Uttarakhand

89

Table 3 (continued) Livestock population Cow and Area Sheep S. No. Region km2 and goat buffalo Bugyal (altitude m) 10 Badrinath 220 4800 300 Satopanth (3935), Dhanu Payar, Valley Semkharak, Devwan, Khiron, Ghati, Neelkanth Adhaar, Valley of Flowers, Rajkharak, Kakbhusandi 11 KWLS 235 14,000 150 Rudranath, Tungnath, Visuri Tal, Manini, Kham, Madhyamaheshwar, Kedarnath (3200), Vasuki Tal (4000) 12 Bhilangana and 125 3500 1500 Khatling (3704), Chauki, Panwali, Kantha Bal Ganga UV (3400-3800), Sahastratai, Kayarki (3850), Kuskalyani (3768), Chuli (3626), Abderban 680 15,000 50 Tapovan, Bhojwasa, Jadung, Neelapani, 13 Gangotri/ Nilang Rudugera 14 Bandarpooch 170 7500 750 Kayarkoti, Bhu, Kandara, Gidara, Dayara (3950) 15 GWLS 250 35,000 2000 Seema Bugyal, Har Ki Doon, Swarga Rohini, Ruisera Tal, Changsheel, Kedarkantha Total 4305 157,300 7900 In all Bugyals Source: Forest Statistical Book 2016–2017

Wetlands of Uttarakhand There are a total of 1439 glaciers with 4060 km2 areas and 127 glacial-fed lakes identified in Uttarakhand by the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG) and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) (Campbell 2005). These glacial-fed lakes are large and located near huge glaciers. The other lakes—small supraglacial lakes—are impractical to count because of the constant movement of the glaciers. In Uttarakhand, the slope gradient is relatively steep, and the valleys are narrow, which are not suitable for the formation of very large lakes. The climate history and geology of the region also depict that the formation of glacial lakes is not suitable. It has been noted that glacier formation is dynamic. The lakes, which were mapped earlier, are not seen now. As per the Space Application Centre, Dehradun, a total of 1039 km2 area is covered by wetland in Uttarakhand. Although, the wetlands of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly the glacier-­fed highland ones, are not much suitable, owing to the fragile landscape, these wetlands are very useful for water supply, dwellings of avifauna, and tourists’ attractions. These wetlands also support a healthy ecology and ecosystem. In this section, the wetlands of Uttarakhand situated at   2500  m are described.

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Environmental Index

Wetlands (3500 m, and many of them are situated at >5000  m. The Rudraprayag district has three lakes, situated between 3800 and 4700 m. There are a total of seven highland lakes located >4000 m in the Tehri district. In Uttarkashi district, 13 highland lakes are situated at >4000 m. The Pithoragarh district possesses 11 lakes mainly in the areas, which are situated >4000 m. As a whole, a total of 49 lakes are located in five districts of Uttarakhand. All these districts have large snow-capped areas. The lakes are glacial-fed and a source of major rivers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

Wetlands of Uttarakhand

91

Table 4  Wetlands (2500 m) District Chamoli

Rudraprayag

Tehri

Uttarkashi

Name of wetland Bedni Kund Roopkund Homkund Bhekal Tal Brahma Tal Hemkund Sahib Bara Dhara Sem Complex Satopanth Tara Tal Complex Dev Tal (Shahi Kund) Dooth Tal Raat Pathar Tal Vasudhara Tal Complex Gyaldhung Tal Nandi Kund Chaurabari Tal Basuki Tal Paiya Kund Miali Tal Masuri Tal Kush Kalyan Tal Lingam Tal Shastru Tal Maati Tal Lamb Tal Bharadhsar Kanasar Gugui Kanasar Sari Tal Bakri Tal Kama Tal Manera Tal Maldharu Tal Ruinsara Tal Bali Kind Saptrishi Kund I Saptrishi Kund I Dodi Tal

Altitude (m) 3556 4763 5617 3053 3235 4204 4032 4359 5473 5532 5484 5641 4691 4914 4369 3850 4231 4910 4771 4735 3100 4321 4605 4409 4317 4270 4400 4307 4139 4183 4308 4136 4380 3604 4774 4697 4712 3077

Location (river basins) Nandakini Nandakini Nandakini Pindar Nandakini Bhiundar and Alaknanda Bhiundar and Alaknanda Alaknanda Saraswati and Alaknanda Saraswati Saraswati and Alaknanda Saraswati Raikana-Dhauli Ganga Dhauli Ganga Madhyamaheshwar Mandakini (KWLS) Basuki Ganga (KWLS) Basuki Ganga (KWLS) Bhilangana Bhilangana Bal Ganga (KWLS) Bal Ganga (KWLS) Bal Ganga (KWLS) Bal Ganga (KWLS) Bal Ganga (KWLS) Supin Supin Supin GWLS GWLS GWLS GWLS Supin Supin GWLS GWLS GWLS Asi Ganga (continued)

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Environmental Index

Table 5 (continued) District Pithoragarh

Name of wetland Khera Tal West Khera Tal East Sat Tal Kedar Tal Chipla/Kedar Kund Kakrauli/Asura Kund Patauti Kund Gauri Kund Parvati Kund Hardeo Kund Thamri Tal

Altitude (m) 3450 3442 3018 4723 4240 4323 4236 4611 4507 4359 2776

Location (river basins) Dingarh Dingarh Bhagirathi Kedar Ganga (GNP) Gori Ganga Gori Ganga Gori Ganga Kutiyangti Kutiyangti Gori Gori

Source: Forest Statistical Book 2016–2017

Fig. 2 (a) Roopkund (4763 m) and (b) Satopanth (4359 m) are situated in the Himalaya in the Chamoli district

Water flow is immense in the forest areas. A large part of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is snow-capped, which is about 16% of the total mountainous mainland. The rivers and streams are glacial-fed perennials that provide ample water to forests and crops. A large part of the three northern districts of the Uttarakhand Himalaya has snow-­ capped mountains with many glaciers, which feed the highland lakes. Therefore, there are manly highland lakes in these northern districts. Similarly, the middle altitude regions of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have dense and large forest cover, representing >40% of the total forest area. Water vapor present in the atmosphere throughout the year supports ecosystem services. The subtropical and alpine grasslands are distributed in all parts of Uttarakhand, which provide fodder to animals for grazing and stall feeding. The alpine grasslands are home to numerous medicinal plants, which are used in the traditional healthcare system. However, the alpine grasslands are ecologically fragile landscapes, which need protection. The Uttarakhand Himalaya possesses many wetlands, which are situated in the

References

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highlands and the river valleys. The wetlands situated in the highland areas, located close to the Greater Himalaya, are glacial-fed. It has been noticed that the number of glacial-fed wetlands has increased in the Uttarakhand Himalaya owing to the warming of the region. Most of them are feeding the major rivers of the Ganga system and supporting livelihoods for about 600 million populations of upstream and downstream river valleys. The wetlands of the middle altitudes and the river valleys are the source of water for human habitats in the surrounding areas. These wetlands provide shelter for avifauna. The birds migrate from the north and take shelter in these wetlands such as the Siberian crane. The Asan Barrage, constructed on the Yamuna River in Dehradun district and the Jhilmil conservation reserve in Haridwar district, are the prominent wetlands for Siberian cranes. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has rich environmental conditions. The forests, rivers, fresh airs, and fertile land provide immense ecosystem services. This leads to a high environmental sustainability index and quality. The environmental conditions and natural and cultural landscapes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya attract tourists and pilgrims from within and outside India and support the environmental and cultural services. In the meantime, the degradation of forestland has reduced the environmental index. The entire Himalaya is prone to geo-hydrological hazards of high frequency and intensity. The area is remotely located. The terrain is rugged and precipitous, and human habitats are sparsely distributed. As a result, the economic use of most environmental services is inadequate. Framing policies and implementing them for the conservation of forests, landscape management, and sustainable use of environmental services are inevitable for the wider benefit of people.

References Ashrafi S, Kerachian R, Pourmoghim P, Behboudian M, Motlaghzadeh K (2022) Evaluating and improving the sustainability of ecosystem services in river basins under climate change. Sci Total Environ 806:150702 Campbell G (2005) Regulation of gene expression in the distal region of the drosophila leg by the Hox11 homolog, C15. Dev Biol 278(2):607–618 Sati VP (2019) Himalaya on the threshold of change. Springer International Publishers, Switzerland, p 250

Ecosystem Goods and Services

Abstract  This chapter examines ecosystem goods and services in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The ecosystem services are interlinked with the highlands (providers) and the lowlands (beneficiaries) and provide livelihoods to the large populations. Forests cover about 63% and water resources are abundant. About 42% of the national water need is met by the Ganga River having about 30,000 MW hydroelectricity generation capacity. The environmental sustainability index is high, agro-­ biodiversity is substantially high, and therefore, several crop races/cultivars grow here. These ecosystem goods and services can be sustainably utilized for the sustainable livelihood of rural people. Keywords  Ecosystem services · Valuation · Payment · Biodiversity resources · ICHR

Introduction Ecosystem services are very comprehensive for sustaining life and livelihoods and can be defined in various ways. Further, its payment is an important tool for the management of natural resources and sharing of its benefits to all the stakeholders (Uniyal et al. 2020). Singh (2002) defined it as the result of interactions between living and nonliving components of ecosystems. According to Daily (1997), ecosystem services are the conditions and processes, which sustain and fulfill human life. They are the components of nature, enjoyed and consumed/used for sustainable livelihoods. Ecosystems are natural capitals/assets that provide numerous services. These services maintain life and livelihoods, enhance the economy, control floods and diseases, and provide opportunities for recreation (MEA 2005). However, increasing demand for these services in the recent past has put pressure on natural resources and diminished ecosystem capacity (MEA 2005). Meanwhile, ecosystem productivity is comparatively lower in plains than in mountain regions (Zobel et al. 2001) although there is still limited knowledge on managing ecosystem services (Kremen 2005). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8_8

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The ecosystems provide two types of services—tangible and intangible. They are also called goods and services, respectively, which are a total of 17 in number, identified by Costanza (1997). Regulation and supportive services are intangible; they do not have an explicit market value because they do not receive due importance in policy decisions (Costanza et al. 1997; TEEB 2010). Timber, non-timber forest products including firewood, fodder, and food are tangible services, which are directly extracted from the ecosystems. Clean water is also a tangible ecosystem service, which is obtained due to complex interactions between the ecosystem components—forests, soils, water, and microorganisms (Daily 1997). Moreover, the benefits from the ecosystem services that people obtain are not fully understood. Therefore, the ecological and economic aspects of ecosystem services require valuation, which may depend upon the nature of the goods and services and the type of benefits that are being measured. Further, evaluation and assessment of intangible benefits of ecosystem services is a major concern and for that, some methods can be framed and implemented (NEP 2006). The upstream people are providers of ecosystem services, and the downstream people are the beneficiaries. The scheme of payment for ecosystem services will provide justice and equity to the poor mountain people. This can be done through optimal investment in the conservation and management of ecosystems; otherwise, it will lead to the deterioration of ecosystem services (MeA 2005). The Himalayan ecosystem is diverse with the highest diversity of flora and fauna, and it provides ecosystem services to a quarter of the world’s population (Xu et al. 2019; Chaudhary et  al. 2017). Similarly, the Indian Central Himalayan region (ICHR) is endowed with rich ecosystem services of global importance, gene pools, species, and a storehouse of biological diversity, which is a priority region in global conservation agendas (Brooks et al. 2006). Due to varying temperatures and altitudes, the Uttarakhand Himalaya obtains rich biodiversity (Sharma 2020). Oak forests, largely found in the temperate region, have high ecological and sociocultural significance and provide substantial ecosystem services (Naudiyal and Joachim 2021). It has 8 out of the 16 forest types existing in India (Champion and Seth 1968), and it is a part of four global biodiversity hotspots (Chettri et al. 2008). The value of these forests is Rs. 500/t of fuel/fodder with approximate Rs. 300,000 million values per annum (MoEF 2005). These forests also have altruistic and ethical values (Agrawal 1992), which play an important role in protecting the environment and in providing livelihoods to a vast population of its neighboring countries (Eriksson et al. 2009). Freshwater, which is used by more than 200 million people living in the region and 1.3 billion people living in downstream river basins, is one of the most important ecosystem services (Schild 2008). Agroecosystem services are abundant, used traditionally, and sustain the livelihoods of a large population. Similarly, livestock is the most productive livelihood option, in which productivity is dependent largely on the availability of fodder—grasses and green leaves (Verma 2000). The Himalaya has extensive grasslands—subtropical and alpine and, therefore, livestock production are substantial. Recently, the Himalayan ecosystems are being degraded mainly due to anthropogenic factors such as the mounting population, haphazard infrastructure development,

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unsustainable use and poor management, and low investment in conservation (Xu et  al. 2008; GOI 2009; Sharma et  al. 2009; Tse-Ring et  al. 2010; Maharana et  al. 2000; Baral et al. 2007, 2008; Badola et al. 2010; Chen and Jim 2010). On the other hand, many critical conservation areas are inaccessible and dynamic where ecosystem services are unutilized largely and their valuation and assessment are a herculean task. The local communities living in these fragile areas have limited livelihood options, often receiving little benefit from the ecosystem services. Further, variation in temperature and moisture is large with a high degree of heterogeneity (Sati 2014; Ring et al. 2010). The Himalayas are highly vulnerable to natural disasters mainly landslides, flash floods, and climate change, which have highly influenced ecosystem services. Therefore, the challenge is to assign a value to multifunctional mountain ecosystems and determine threshold values (Ring et al. 2010). Very few empirical studies have been conducted on the economic valuation of ecosystem services in the Himalayan region. However, some studies have been conducted on the recreational and aesthetic value of the protected areas (Maharana et al. 2000; Baral et al. 2008). This chapter examines the availability and the use pattern of various types of ecosystem services mainly forests, water, farming, climate, and landscape in ICHR. It further assesses and values ecosystem services for their payments to rural people so that livelihood sustainability can be attained.

Classification of Ecosystem Goods and Services The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) has identified four main categories of ecosystem services provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services. The provisioning services include food (fruits, vegetables, trees, fish, and livestock), drinking water, timber, and fuelwood. The regulating services make the ecosystem clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient to change, which include pollination, decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood control, carbon storage, and climate regulation. Cultural services are nonmaterial benefits, which contribute to the development and cultural advancement of people. The last ecosystem service is supporting services such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, the creation of soils, and the water cycle (Adams et al. 2000). In this paper, provisioning services and cultural services in ICHR are described. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has rich ecosystem services in the forms of water, forests, and land, which are described in the following paragraphs.

Water Ecosystem Services The ICHR is the home of the world’s biggest river system—the Ganges system, which has further three subsystems—the Yamuna-Tons, the Bhagirathi-Alaknanda, and the Kali systems (Table 1). The Pawar, Rupin, Supin, and many other perennial

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Table 1  Major rivers, their length, and annual drainage Name Yamuna Kali Bhagirathi Alaknanda Ramganga (W)

Outlet Yamunotri Kalapani (Nepal) Gaumukh Alkapuri Bank Dudhatoli Mountain

Inlet Dhalipur Ghagara River (UP Devprayag Devprayag Ganga River (UP)

Length in km 284 km 220 km 205 km 195 km 155 km

Annual drainage* (crore cubic m/s) 649.5 730 253.3 534.2 500

Note: Data was gathered from the “Survey of India Toposheeds” and *the Central Water Commission of India, Report, 2010, New Delhi; Sati (2019)

streams are the sub-tributaries of the Yamuna-Tons sub-systems. The Bhagirathi-­ Alaknanda is the biggest subsystem, which has the major sub-tributaries such as Bhillangana and Balganga: Saraswati, Dholi Ganga, Vishnu Ganga, Nandakini, Pindar, and Mandakini rivers along with small to big perennial streams, respectively. In the Kali subsystem are Gomati, Saryu, Koshi, Ramganga (E and W), Dhauli (E), and Gori Ganga and their numerous tributaries flow. All rivers and most of their tributaries are glacial-fed and provide water to millions of people in upstream and downstream areas. Besides, natural lakes and springs are widely spread all over the region, supplying drinking and irrigation water to the inhabitants. The Yamuna River is the biggest in length (284 km), followed by the Kali River (220 km), the Bhagirathi River (205 km), the Alaknanda River (195 km), and the Ramganga (W) (155 km). In terms of annual drainage, the highest is in the Kali River (730 crores cubic m/s), followed by the Yamuna River, which is 649.5 crore cubic m/s. The Alaknanda River has 534.2 crore cubic m/s annual drainage, and the Ramganga (W) has 500 crore cubic m/s annual drainage. The lowest annual drainage is of the Bhagirathi River, which is only 253.3 crores cubic m/s (Fig. 1).

Forest Ecosystem Services ICHR has 63% forest cover, of which 14% is under protected areas. There are a total of six national parks and six wildlife sanctuaries with a 6951 sq. km area. The upper reaches are snow-clad (16% of the total mountainous region), and the lower areas are fertile plains and the river valleys, which cover a total of 7% of the geographical area. Forests are spread in the plains regions, the Shivaliks and the river valley regions, the middle Himalaya, and the highlands. Rich forest diversity is found in ICHR, which varies from 1000, 500–1000, 1000 Van Panchayats. Five districts—Champawat, Almora, Bageshwar, Rudraprayag, and Uttarkashi—have 500–1000 Van Panchayats. Dehradun and Nainital districts have 50% of India’s forest cover and 40% of the endemic species. The Himalayan forests are very diverse and extended horizontally and vertically from the west to the east and from the river valleys to the highlands. These forests have a traditional management system to meet a range of social, economic, and environmental needs, providing other ecosystem systems and raw materials for paper and pulp industries, bioenergy, sawmilling, panels, and packaging. The Himalayan forests support rural livelihood and economy. However, large patches of forests are unused because of their remoteness. These forests need to be utilized sustainably so that rural livelihoods can be enhanced. Uttarakhand is a mountainous state where about 93% of areas are mountainous (ISFR 2019). The local community is dependent on the extraction of forest products for their livelihoods (Gururani 2000; Saxena 1987).

Significance of Forests The virgin forests of Uttarakhand are believed to be pre-Vedic in origin (Khan et al. 2008). The concept of forest management is very old in Indian traditions. The people perform all educational, cultural, and spiritual activities in the forest areas. In ancient India, the students received spiritual instruction from their guru (teacher) while sitting beneath the canopy of trees. Similarly, the sages and saints performed penance under trees. Lord Rama and Krishna got shelter in the forests. The importance of forests is referred to in the Matsya Purana (verse 512) when Devi Parvati says that those who make a well in dry areas live in heaven for many years as the drops of water in it. Ten wells equal a pond, ten ponds equal a lake, ten lakes equal a son, and ten sons equal a tree. Forests have three categories in Hindu tradition. The first one is Shrivan, which means prosperity. Tapovan is the second category, where penance is performed and humans attained a form of sage. The third is Mahavana means where all species of life find shelter. Forests also mean the whole creature. The Vedic teaching of the Upanishad says that the teaching begins in the forest.

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Planting five trees symbolizes the five primary elements of the earth—water, fire, air, sky, and land. It gives salvation to previous and future generations (Shiva Purana, Uma Samhita 11/7), who plant trees in the desert areas. Trees with flowers and fruits make the forest and environment fragrant and heavenly, like a good son to a family (Chanakya Niti Darpan, 3–14). Lord Vishnu always lives nearby the Tulsi Van. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, some forests are named after folk deities such as Badri Van and Nanda Van. The people worship trees on all auspicious occasions and during performing various Samskaras. One of the folk deities—Jungle Devta—is worshiped by a newly married woman. She offers a sacrifice of a goat to the Jungle Devta and prays for her well-being. During Dev Avataran, Jungle Devta appeared in a human body and danced. People celebrate a month-long festival, known as Harela, which starts from the first day of the Hindu month Shravan, called Sakranti. During the entire month, the people plant trees on the edges of agricultural fields and surrounding the villages. The livelihood of rural people largely depends on forest products. Collecting forest products is the subsidiary activity of each household.

Taboos and Sacred Groves Taboos are the orally transmitted and unwritten traditional and social rules that regulate human behavior (Banjo et  al. 2006). These are associated with the sacred groves that grow in various places of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The people who live in these areas follow these taboos. Women are prohibited from entering the areas where sacred groves grow. From the Mahabharata period, women, and the Scheduled Castes people were prohibited from fetching and collecting fodder and firewood from these groves. The people believe that using a knife and a sickle to cut the plants near the temples and sacred places is not good because the folk deities become angry and curse the people. The area may get disasters. Another taboo is that if a guest uproots medicinal plants, it is treated as an evil act and can bring acute problems to the villagers. Using medicinal plants for the health care system is the culture and customs developed over time (Kala et  al. 2006). These plants have high religious values (Silori and Badola 2002). Sacred groves are woven by the fabric of sociocultural values, customary taboos, and sanctions. Pipal and banyan trees are worshipped due to their cultural and natural values. These trees are considered family members. Many rituals are performed in the areas where these groves grow. People tie the holy thread and hang bells in the pipal and banyan trees to get their wishes fulfilled (Fig. 1). Trees are manifested as gods and goddesses and representatives of stars and planets. These are the sources of energy, water, and air. Trees are worshipped on various occasions and during performing rituals and customs. In the Himalaya, the plants, animals, lakes, and rivers are considered sacred, and therefore, people conserve them. For example, the highland lakes, located close to the Himalaya such Dodital, Deoria Tal, Roopkund, Hemkund, and Homkund, are believed to be sacred lakes.

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Fig. 1 (a) A sacred thread tied in the Pipal tree in the Narayana temple at Narayan Bagar. (b) Bells are hanging in the Shiva temple at the Parethi village

The people of the Himalayan region conserve forest by worshipping nature and through sacred groves. Conservation of nature and natural resources has been an important part of cultural ethos, mainly in remote rural and indigenous communities. People live in harmony with nature and play an important role in biodiversity conservation (Kandari et al. 2014). Some patches of forests are dedicated to gods, goddesses, and ancestral spirits (Hughes and Chandran 1997). Sacred groves directly help in the conservation of biodiversity as they house birds and mammals (Islam et al. 1998). Sacred groves are forest areas, protected due to social taboos, and dedicated to deities or spirits. Worshipping nature is a cultural practice in the Himalaya. People worship rivers—the Ganga and Yamuna; mountain peaks, Nanda Devi, Chaukhamba, Trishul, and the Himalaya as a whole; lakes, Roopkund, Homkund, Hemkund, Kedar Tal, and many more; and forests and sacred groves. In India, approximately 13,720 sacred groves are listed. The people of Uttarakhand have a symbiotic relationships with nature. Besides depending on forests for firewood, fodder, and food, the people have full faith and belief in sacred groves. Some of the sacred groves of the Himalaya are not documented; therefore, they are not protected. Meanwhile, these sacred groves can be documented and protected. A new tradition is that when a village girl gets married, the married couple has to plant a tree in the bride’s house. Planting trees is a mark of respect. Now, it has become momentum. There are many nongovernmental organizations including Maiti Andolan working on the large-scale plantations. This is a new and novel approach for biodiversity conservation in the hilly region through the plantation, where the occurrence of landslides and natural hazards are more frequent. The world-famous Chipko movement was started in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, which has led to the conservation of economically and naturally valuable forests of the Himalaya.

Traditional Indigenous Knowledge of Conserving Forests

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Traditional Indigenous Knowledge of Conserving Forests The traditional indigenous knowledge of the local people, for conserving and sustainable use of forests, is centuries-old, which is reflected in cultural practices. The forests have high economic value. However, they never think about the illegal cutting of timber. Rather, the rural people extract non-timber forest products from the forest areas for their livelihood. Owing to the abundance of wild edibles, deadwood, and leaf litter, there is no restriction to collecting them. Loping, grazing, and utilization of forest products such as medicinal plants and bamboo are the traditional ways of using forest products. The people lived in harmony with nature and conserved its valuable natural resources. Worshiping trees shows the symbiotic relationship between human beings and nature. Owing to a large scale of forest degradation, the conservation of forests has become a global issue (Ramakrishnan 1998). Many floral species of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have been declared sacred groves and therefore conserving them is of cultural significance. It is believed that folk deities reside in the sacred groves and thus people are afraid of cutting trees. The traditional knowledge system of conserving forests is eco-friendly, sustainable, and labor-­ intensive rather than capital intensive. It does not have any adverse impact on forest conservation. Van Panchayat is one of the forest management practices in Uttarakhand. These are related to livelihood improvement activities such as community development activities and income generation activities. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) grow extensively in the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya. It has a rich diversity, and therefore, the state is declared an “herbal state.” The traditional healthcare system in Uttarakhand Himalaya is dependent on the MAPs, which grow wild in tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine climates. This system is an integral part of the Uttarakhand Himalaya since time immemorial. Out of the total geographical area, the Uttarakhand Himalaya is blessed with approximately 65% forest area and 12% area of it comes under the protected area network. Therefore, the prospects of MAPs are immense. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is the home of world-famous national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves. The NDBR, declared a world heritage site, is the repository of rare and endangered MAPs. There are a few cities such as Haridwar, Ramnagar, Tanakpur, and Rishikesh, which have huge markets of MAPs. MAPs have a high potential in enhancing rural livelihoods, and thus, the forest department can play a crucial role. Climatic conditions and topography are well suited for the cultivation of fruits mainly in temperate and subtropical regions. Walnut is an important fruit cultivated and wildly grown in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The economics of walnut production in suitable agroclimatic conditions is substantial in the state. India exported 2191.21 MT of walnut in 2016–2017 which cost Rs. 5527.23 lakh. Uttarakhand has >17,260 ha area utilized for walnut cultivation. It is the second-highest state of India after Jammu and Kashmir in area and production. However, it contributes only 8.47% of the total production in India. In 2016–2017, walnut production in Uttarakhand was 19,340 MT.  Major walnut-producing districts are Almora,

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Table 1  Walnut orchards in Uttarakhand Name of the forest division Soil conservation forest division, Ranikhet Soil conservation forest division, Nainital

Mussoorie forest division, Mussoorie Garhwal forest division, Pauri Pithoragarh forest division, Pithoragarh Total

Location Soni Silalekh, Lamahanga Ria Moriana Magra Thalisain Listia Berinag

Area (ha) 3 1 1 1 3 0.75 1.5 1.5 1.5 14.25

No. of plants 750 250 50 70 30 70 125 150 125 1890

Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Pauri, and Dehradun. The temperate regions of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have much potential to grow walnut (Table 1). Raja Ji National Park, situated in the Shivalik foothills and the vast upper Gangetic plains, is an important repository for the wild flora and fauna. Gujjars, a transhumant pastoral community, reside in this park. They have their habitats located near perennial water sources. They keep these sources clean and meet drinking and cooking requirements. Gujjars are also involved in making water troughs with the help of the trunk of trees and storing groundwater into them for cattle. The troughs are also helpful in the collection of rainwater. This practice can be done in high-altitude areas, which face water scarcity during dry seasons. The Gujjars protect the forests through various methods. They shift their habitats and grazing land from time to time for better growth of plants and trees. They change the trails and never use vehicles to go toother places. Their habitats are mainly made of grasses and soils.

Sustainable Forest Management Sustainable forest management (SFM) is involved in the development of a new integrated tool, based on the four key concepts. Forest-wood chains can be described as chains of processes from the forest to the consumption and end of life of wood products; sustainability impacts along the chain can be assessed by analyzing indicators of sustainability that characterize processes in the chain; overall sustainability is quantified by multiplying the relative sustainability indicator impacts of a production process by the amount of material that is handled in this production process; sustainability indicator results are then aggregated for individual segments or the whole chain. SFM is also associated with all aspects of the conservation and use of forests, such as the administrative, legal, technical, economic, social, and environmental aspects. It deals with degrees of human intervention, ranging from actions aimed at safeguarding and maintaining forest ecosystems and their functions. Forest

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products—timber and non-timber provide important ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and the protection of water resources. In the Himalayan region, forests and woodlands are not managed sustainably, and these forests are underused, mainly the temperate forests, which grow in remote areas. Lacking appropriate forest legislation, regulation, and incentives to promote sustainable forest management are the other issues, which are not taken properly here. Funding resources, mechanisms, and planning are inadequate. In the middle altitudes and river valleys, where human settlements are situated, forest resources are overused. This leads to forest degradation. Forest and Agricultural Organisation support SFM. It provides information and policy advice through institutional and technical capacity development. In the Indian Himalaya, Forest Research Institutes, GBP National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Wildlife Institute, and Department of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change provide support for SFM. Climate change has become a burning issue for the degradation of the Himalayan forests. Restoring degraded ecosystems is the main goal of the forest-related agencies. Forest-positive policies and actions can provide non-carbon benefits, food security, poverty alleviation, health, enhanced biodiversity, improved governance, and the protection of ecosystem services. Innovative technology and increased capacity may support the positive differences in tackling land use and forest cover change. National forest monitoring is the key component to providing transparent and accurate information on the status and trends of forests and land cover. It is fundamental to achieve climate goals. Assessment of Forest Sustainability The indicators of monitoring forest sustainability are economic, environmental, and social. Cost-effectiveness and sustainable use of forest resources are the other indicators. Identifying local-level sustainability criteria and evaluating management schemes in a participatory decision environment appear to be effective tools to address forest resource management. Adequate environmental knowledge and raising local awareness about forest sustainability will lead to future sustainability. The key aspects of sustainable forest management are grouped into six themes—the extent of forest resources, biological diversity, forest health and vitality, productive functions of forest resources, and socioeconomic functions. The Uttarakhand Himalaya occupies five vertical layers of forests. Monsoon deciduous broad-leaf teak forests—Sal, Shisham, and Sagon—have high economic value. The wood of these forests is used for making furniture, houses, and railway treks. Since these forests are situated in the river valleys and plain regions of Uttarakhand mainly, Tarai, Bhabar, Doon, and Dwar regions, the use of these forests is high. In many locations, these are overused and depleted. As a result, their future sustainability is at risk. The second zone is pine forests, distributed in the upper parts of the river valleys and the Middle Himalaya. The wood pine is used for firewood and timber mainly in rural areas. However, pine trees are not sustainable. These forests are prone to forest fires and warming. Pine trees are invasive species. The sustainability of pine forests is adverse. The third forest zone is mixed-oak, situated in the temperate climatic zone. The mixed-oak forests are environmentally

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Table 2  Forests sustainability assessment Forest types Monsoon deciduous forests Pine forests Mixed-oak forests Coniferous forests Alpine grasslands

Forest characteristics High economic viability and rich biodiversity

Future sustainability Future sustainability is at risk because of overexploitation

Poor biodiversity, fire-prone, and the major driver of climate change High sustainability, economic viability is high, rich biodiversity, EPI is high and underused High EPI, high sustainability, rich biodiversity, high economic viability, and underused Ecologically fragile, remained snowcapped during winter, rich in naturally grown medicinal plants

Pine forests are harmful to the entire ecosystems Future sustainability is high

Future sustainability is high

High future sustainability

Source: By Author

friendly and rich in biodiversity. Their present and future sustainability are high. They keep the climate cool and provide suitable environmental conditions with high economic viability. However, mixed-oak forests are largely unused in many locations because of their inaccessibility. The fourth zone is temperate to cold where the forest type is coniferous. Forest diversity is rich. These forests are located above 2400 m, and their economic viability is very high. These forests are also unused largely because of their location in remote areas. However, their future viability is high. Alpine grasslands are situated above coniferous forests. These areas are ecologically fragile and known for flowers and medicinal plants. The Uttarakhand Himalaya possesses many alpine types of grassland. The Uttarakhand Himalaya presents high sustainability in forest diversity and use. However, future sustainability varies from one forest zone to another. Table 2 shows forests sustainability assessment in the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

Discussion and Conclusions The livelihood of rural people and forest conservation can go knick and knick. While extracting biodiversity resources from the forest areas, if the local people conserve ecosystems sustainably, the goal of sustainable forest management can be achieved. Good governance is the need of the hour. People’s participation and government role will lead to sustainable forest management. In Uttarakhand, as per the government policy, protected areas have been increased and as a result, the people have lost their traditional forest rights. In many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries—NBSR, GWLS, and KWS—the conflict between forest rights and conservation issues have tightened. Some of the large protected areas have been declared as

References

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eco-sensitive zones, under which the territory of several villages is being affected. The increasing number of wildlife is another issue. The wild animals kill the rural people and damage the existing crops. It has become a big issue. Many people have out-migrated because of the fear of wild animals. The local people are fighting against the government for their rights. These issues are needed to be addressed by the government. On the other hand, the role of government should be fixed on conservation and people’s rights issues. A rationale between the conservation and livelihood of rural people should be found, and it should be given priority. A large-scale forest in remote areas is unused while their economic viability is high. As a result, Uttarakhand has been losing forest wealth every year. To sustainably use them, a suitable policy is required in which people’s forest rights and conservation of forests will go knick and knick. Uttarakhand Himalaya has eight forest types out of the total 16 types in India. About 90% of the rural population is fully or partially dependent on the forest for fuel and other forest products. These communities run their livelihoods on the collection of forest resources. The forest-dwelling people of Uttarakhand are eco-­ friendly. They follow traditional knowledge to conserve forests. As a result, even with a high dependency on forest resources, the forest area in Uttarakhand is about 64%. Uttarakhand has an agricultural economy. About 70% of people are dependent on practicing agriculture. Forest provides energy supply to agriculture. Firewood for humans, fodder for livestock, and soil fertility in the form of leaf litter and animal manure. The author observed that agriculture practices in this region require massive consumption of forest resources. About 6  ha of good quality forest is needed to support 1 ha of agriculture in the hills on a sustainable basis. However, agricultural practices have declined in the past because of exodus out-migration. Recently, the increase in forest area was due to out-migration. Forest absorbs excess water during the rainy season, prevents run-offs, and releases it in the post-monsoon period. Forest helps rain, stores water, and controls soil erosion. Thus, forest performs a great economic function. On the other hand, deforestation creates a shortage of firewood and fodder and reduces the quantity and quality of drinking water. Drying natural springs, high soil erosion, and increased run-off are the causes of deforestation.

References Agrawal A (2007) Forests, governance, and sustainability: common property theory and its contribution. Int J Commons 1:111–136 Banjo AD, Otufale GA, Abatan OL, Banjo EA (2006) Taboo as a means of plant and animal conservation in South-Western Nigeria: a case study of Ogbe river and its basin. World Appl Sci J 1:39–43 Bonan GB (2008) Forests and climate change: forcing, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 320:1444–1449 Canadell JG, Raupach MR (2008) Managing forests for climate change mitigation. Science 320:1456–1457

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Chhatre A, Agrawal A (2009) Trade-offs and synergies between carbon storage and livelihood benefits from forest commons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:17667–17670 Gururani S (2000) Forests of pleasure and pain: gendered practices of labor and livelihood in the forests of Kumaun Himalaya, India. Gender, place and culture 9(3): 229243. Himalaya: dry matter dynamics. Ann Bot 62:397–411 Hughes DJ, Chandran SMD (1997) Paper presented in the workshop on the role of sacred groves in conservation and management of biological resources. KFRI, Peechi, India ISFR (2019) Indian State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun, pp 36–39 Islam AK, Islam MA, Hoque AE (1998) Species composition of sacred groves, their diversity and conservation in Bangladesh. In: Ramakrishnan PS, Saxena KG, Chandrashekara UM (eds) Conserving the sacred for biodiversity management. UNESCO and Oxford-IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India, pp 163–165 Kala CP, Dhyani PP, Sajwan BS (2006) Developing the medicinal plants sector in northern India: challenges and opportunities. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2:32 Kandari LS, Bisht VK, Bhardwaj M, Thakur AK (2014) Conservation and management of sacred groves, myths and beliefs of tribal communities: a case study from North-India. Environ Syst Res 3(1) Khan ML, Khumbongmayum AD, Tripathi RS (2008) The sacred groves and their significance in conserving biodiversity an overview. Int J Ecol Environ Sci 34(3):277–291 Paivinen RM, Lindner KR, Lexer MJ (2012) A concept for assessing sustainability impacts of forestry-wood chains. Eur J For Res 131:7–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-­010-­0446-­4 Rametsteiner E (2001) SFM indicators as tools in political and economic context: actual and potential roles. In: Raison RJ, Brown AG, Flinn DW (eds) Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. The International Union of Forestry Research Organizations Research Series 7. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp 107–130. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851993928.0107 Ramkrishnan PS (1998) Ecology and traditional wisdom, the cultural dimensions of ecology. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts 1, C.V. Mess, Janpath, New Delhi Saxena NC (1987) Commons, trees and the poor in the Uttar Pradesh hills. Network Paper, Overseas Development Institute, London Schanz H (2004) Sustainable Forest management. In: Burley J, Evans J, Youngquist J (eds) Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam Silori CS, Badola R (2002) Medicinal plant cultivation and sustainable development: a case study in the buffer zone of the Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Western Himalaya, India. Mt Res Dev 20(3):272–279 Siry JP, Cubbage F, Potter KM, McGinley K (2018) Current perspectives on sustainable forest management: North America. CFR 4:138–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-­018-­0079-­2

Conclusions

Abstract  Forests play a significant role in regulating climate and supporting rural livelihoods. The rural people not only use forest products but also worship trees for their well-being in the Himalayan region. In the past decades, forests have depleted due to mounting population and overuse of forest products, mainly in the surroundings of settlements. However, at different levels, sustainable forest management programs have already been launched. All these aspects of forests are synthesized and described in the conclusion. Major drivers of forest depletion and policy intervention in sustainable forest management in the Uttarakhand Himalaya are elucidated. Keywords  Forest depletion · Forest management · Policy intervention · Uttarakhand Himalaya

Forests have natural, cultural, and socioeconomic importance in the Himalayan region, which find an important place in the society and day-to-day life of the rural people. On the one hand, forests provide firewood, fodder, fruits, timber, NTFPs, fresh air, and water, help raining and keeping the climate cool. On the other, forests have cultural, medicinal, and aesthetic values. It houses flora, fauna, and avifauna, pasturelands for animals, and recreational centers for tourists. In the past decades, the population has increased multifold, causing large-scale forest degradation. The conversion of forestland into agricultural land and human habitats has shrunk forests in many patches within the Himalaya. The degradation of dense forests was noticed as enormous. Frequent and intensive natural hazards have also caused large-­ scale forest degradation. In the meantime, valuable forest products are unused in forest areas, which are situated in remote and inaccessible areas. In this chapter, a comprehensive description of forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is presented keeping sustainable forest management in view.

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General Observations The forests of Uttarakhand are rich in biodiversity. They form spectacular forest landforms from the plain and valley regions to the middle altitudes, highlands, and alpine pasturelands. The collection of forest products is one of the livelihood options of rural people. The state forest department manages about 70.05% of forests, the revenue department has 13.76%, and Van Panchayats obtain 15.72%. A few governments and private agencies such as municipalities and cantonments manage only 0.47% of forest areas. In terms of circle-wise forest management, the Garhwal zone controls about 53% of forests and the Kumaon zone controls only 24.81%. It is mainly that the Garhwal region obtains a high geographical area. The rest of the forest areas are kept for wildlife conservation. The forests of Uttarakhand supply a wide range of ecosystem services to upstream and downstream areas as it has two major biodiversity hotspots as the Garhwal-Kumaon and Shivalik ranges. It has six national parks, seven wildlife sanctuaries, four conservation reserves, and one biosphere reserve. The NDBR and the VOFNP are declared World Heritage, and two wildlife sanctuaries are elephant ranges. Most of the forests are remotely located—inaccessible, barren, and degraded forest areas; therefore, the forest products are unutilized. Only 62.23% of forest area is accessible. Some of them are overutilized forest areas. The plantation drive by the state forest department has led to an increase in forest areas. The main forest resource is timber, which includes teak, sal, shisham, eucalyptus, and poplar, which grow in plain regions. NTFPs from these forests include resin from pine, bamboo, firewood, fodder, and wild fruits. The forest department has planted Jatropha curcas to produce petroleum. Mining of minerals, stones, and sands within the forest areas, mainly along the rivers, are other resources. The forests have aesthetic values. The people of Uttarakhand worship trees. Ecotourism, an important form of tourism practiced in the NPs and WLSs of Uttarakhand, is a source of revenue generation. However, the ecotourists’ inflow is less. Community-based eco-tourism can be developed in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The state has many ideal locations for ecotourism development. Further, ecotourism has the potential to augment jobs and general income. Finally, carbon sequestration is one of the ecosystem services. Although forests contribute to the economy and ecological systems of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, their recognition in state domestic products is insufficient. It contributed 27,013 crore rupees (1.2%) to India’s gross domestic products during 2002–2003. In terms of India’s net domestic products, forestry, and logging contributed 1.6 and 1.3%, respectively, during the same period. Being the provider of rich ecosystem services and life support systems, the forests of Uttarakhand contribute only 3.5% of the state domestic products (SDPs). Only, a few goods and services are marked and accounted for SDPs. Industrially, the state is lagging, having only a few factories. Meanwhile, the small-scale household industries are many in all districts. Although the forest area in Uttarakhand is 63.41% yet, forest cover is only 45.8%. The canopy density of the forest area was less than 40% over 5411 ha. The maintenance of forest cover is thus very important. The forest cover needs to be

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maintained to the desired level for an eco-friendly relationship between people and forests. Already there are two institutions—Van Panchayats and Joint Forest Management—working for forest management in Uttarakhand. The management committees of both include women. The protected areas network constitutes about 69% of the forest area. The eco-development committees also play an equal role in the protected areas. There has been a separate board established for the cultivation of bamboo and Jatropha (a biofuel) in 2004–2005. The forest department receives fewer funds for forest-related activities than for the other sector outlays, which is highly disproportionate.

Forest Degradation Over extraction, livestock grazing, forest fires, climate change, natural calamities, encroachment, illicit felling of trees, and pouching are the major drivers of forest degradation in Uttarakhand. Between 2013 and 2015, forest cover decreased by 268 km2. Five districts of Uttarakhand such as Uttarkashi, Nainital, USN, Haridwar, and Bageshwar have received a decrease in forest cover. The main reasons were noticed as rotational felling and diversion of forestland for development activities. Prabhakar (2006) reported that about 78% of the forest area was degraded in the Almora district. The rate of species loss has also been increasing. On the other hand, there is a large increase of invasive species such as Eupatorium and Lantana camara in the natural forests, posing a competitive impact on existing species. The Pithoragarh district registered net deforestation of 0.13% and 0.52% gross deforestation between 1976 and 2006 (Munsi et al. 2009). Similarly, a net deforestation rate of 0.48 was also noticed in the Kuchgad micro-watershed of the Almora district between 1967 and 1997 (Wakeel et al. 2005). The increasing deforestation rate in these districts was noticed due to the mounting human population and development activities. Climate regulates the ecology of the region (Faisal 2008). The slight changes in climate such as the warming of river valleys and middle altitudes have significantly altered the survival and distribution of species in the ecosystems and the altitudinal gradients (Leemans and Eickhout 2004). IPCC (2001) stated that forest ecosystems are the most vulnerable to climate change. The entire Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing climate change. A study depicted that rainfall has sharply been declining over the last 100 years (Mishra 2014). All the factors such as an increase in temperature, rapid deforestation, habitat destruction, change in vegetation, scarcity of water, and corridor fragmentation have led to the extinction of flora and fauna (Negi et  al. 2012). In Uttarakhand, these factors are directly or indirectly affecting forest species in terms of growth and regeneration. Several plant species—monsoon deciduous and mixed oak—are highly dependent on monsoon rainfall and any variation in rainfall pattern will affect their regeneration, flowering, and fruiting (Khanduri et al. 2008; Negi et al. 2012). The shifting of plant species toward higher altitudes is a

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consequence of global warming. The pine forests are monoculture forests spanning upward due to the warming of the valleys (Sati 2015; Kumar et al. 2012). Climate change has been seen as the major factor in natural disasters, which has led to the depletion of forests on the fragile slopes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. There are several incidences when large dislocation of trees is seen during landslides, mass movements, debris flows, and flood flash events. Forest fires are common mainly during the summer season. Monsoon deciduous and pine forests are more prone to forest fires. Both cover about 61% of forests. These forests are located in the river valleys and at middle altitudes. If the fire is controlled, it is good for removing dry litter and allowing the new growth of plants. On the other hand, uncontrolled fire leads to the huge degradation of forests. In pine forests, all fires are manmade. About 63% of fires in Uttarakhand were intentional whereas 37% were accidental (Tiwari et al. 1986). Forest fires have a huge impact on the natural landscape and economy. It changes species composition and loss of microfauna, flora, habitats of particular species, and microclimate. Migration of species, soil desiccation, and soil erosion are the other consequences of forest fires. On the economic front, huge losses occur in the form of plant species, timber, fodder, and wild fruits. Encroachment of forest areas and illicit felling of trees are also the factors of forest depletion in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Forest encroachment leads to forest degradation and thus forest productivity decreases. The rural people are blamed for the encroachment of forests and illicit felling; however, the author observed that there is a nexus among institutions, money, and mussels for forest encroachment. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, by 31 March 2017, about 9647  ha of land had been encroached. There is an urgent need to frame and implement strategies for controlling illicit felling and encroachment on forests. The diversion of forest land for the construction of infrastructural facilities such as the construction of roads, railways, pipelines, and electricity lines is enormous in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It has led to biodiversity loss and forest degradation. Although the construction of infrastructural facilities is essential for the economic development of rural areas yet, we need a sustainable approach that will lead to economic development and environmental conservation. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is characterized by over and under uses of forest products. As the rural people are dependent on the collection of firewood, fodder, and fruits to carry their livelihood sustainable, the forests surrounding the rural settlements are overused. On the other hand, forest products are underused in inaccessible areas. A holistic approach is required for the sustainable use of forest products in both areas. Microeconomic policies, agriculture, mining, and infrastructure development are the major outside drivers, which impact forests. Further, growing land-use pressure on natural resources has a significant impact on forest management. Therefore, strengthening governance will be necessary to address the complex linkages and competition among the various land-use sectors.

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Policy Intervention for Sustainable Forest Management The Uttarakhand Himalaya is bestowed with an abundance of natural resources— forests, glaciers, rivers, wildlife, minerals, livestock, and agro-climate. These resources are both over and underused, depending upon their locations. These need to be sustainably used. In some pockets of the state, the loss of natural forests and biodiversity is enormous. In some areas, agricultural lands are increased and subtropical and alpine pastures are decreased (Rao 2001). This situation also needs to be evaluated with a valuation of the forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Policy and decision-making require mainstreaming natural capital and ecosystem services for a better understanding of the sustainable use of forest products (Maes et al. 2014). Wide-ranging evidence exists which shows the ecosystem valuation has greatly enriched the public policy design. The cost component must be identified for policymaking while evaluating the benefit of ecosystem services (Thompson et  al. 2011). The economic valuation of ecosystem services can contribute to developing conservation strategies at the regional level (Kumar and Kumar 2008). Therefore, the valuation and mapping of ecosystem services are required for the making and implementation of environmental law (Maes et al. 2014). It can be used to identify priority areas for green infrastructure development, habitat restoration, and conservation. The forests of Uttarakhand have already been classified as reserved or protected forests, civil and soyam forests, and Van Panchayats. The state forest department has control over the first two types of forest, and the latter one is controlled by the village community. The reserved forests are in a better position. More forestland can be converted into protected land and Van Panchayats. This will support people’s livelihoods and the conservation of forests. The UN sustainable development goal 15 refers to protecting, restoring, and promoting the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably managing forests, combating desertification, and halting biodiversity. It has a significant role in reducing deforestation and degradation, reducing the impact of invasive alien species, combating poaching, and trafficking of protected species. The State of World’s Forests 2020 stated that forests and trees help to achieve sustainable development (WWF 2018).

References Faisal AM (2008) Climate change and phenology. New Age. (2015) State of Forest Report Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment & Forests) Dehradun. http://fsi.nic.in/details. php?pgID=sb_62 IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. In: McCarthy JJ, Canziani OF, Leary NA, Dokken DJ, White KS (eds) Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK Khanduri VK, Sharma CM, Singh SP (2008) The effects of climate change on plant phenology. Environmentalist 28:143–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-­007-­9153-­1

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Kumar M, Kumar P (2008) Valuation of the ecosystem services: a psycho-cultural perspective. Ecol Econ 64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.05.008 Kumar RK, Mishra SS, Arya JC, Joshi GC (2012) Impact of climate change on diversity of Himalayan medicinal plant: a threat to Ayurvedic system of medicine. IJRAP 3(3):327–331 Leemans R, Eickhout B (2004) Another reason for concern: regional and global impacts on ecosystems for different levels of climate change. Glob Environ Change 14:219–228. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.04.009 Maes J, Teller A, Erhard M, Murphy P, Paracchini M, José B, Grizzetti B (2014) Mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services: indicators for ecosystem assessments under action 5 of the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020. Publications office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2779/75203 Mishra A (2014) Changing climate of Uttarakhand, India. J Geol Geosci 3:163. https://doi. org/10.4172/2329-­6755.1000163 Munsi M, Malaviya S, Oinam G, Joshi PK (2009) A landscape approach for quantifying land-use and land-cover change (1976–2006) in middle Himalaya. Reg Environ Chang 10:145–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-­009-­0101-­0 Negi GCS, Samal PK, Kuniyal JC, Kothyari BP, Sharma RK, Dhyani PP (2012) Impact of climate change on the western Himalayan mountain ecosystems: an overview. Trop Ecol 53(3):345–356 Prabhakar R (2006) How degraded are Himalayan forests? Curr Sci 91(1):61–67 Rao KS (2001) Sustainable development and rehabilitation of degraded village lands in Himalaya. Dehradun, BSMPS, pp 301 Sati VP (2015) Climate change and socio-ecological transformation in High Mountains: an empirical study of Garhwal Himalaya. Change Adapt Socio Ecol Syst 2(1):45–56. https://doi. org/10.1515/cass-­2015-­0005. ISSN: 2300-3669 Thompson ID, Okabe K, Tylianakis JM, Kumar P, Brockerhoff EG, Schellhorn NA, Nasi R (2011) Forest biodiversity and the delivery of ecosystem goods and services: translating science into policy. Bio Sci 61(12):972–981. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.12.7 Tiwari SC, Rawat KS, Semwal RL (1986) Forest fire in Garhwal Himalaya: a case study of mixed forests. JOHSARD 9–10:45–56 Wakeel A, Rao KS, Maikhuri RK, Saxena KG (2005) Forest management and land use/cover changes in a typical micro water- shed in the mid elevation zone of central Himalaya, India. For Ecol Manag 213:229–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.061 WWF (2018) Special forest issue ‘the role of forests for achieving the sustainable development goals’. Forest Sector SDG Roadmap

Index

A Altitudes, 2, 5–7, 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 38, 40, 41, 51, 52, 60–63, 65, 66, 71, 79, 80, 85, 90–95, 98, 101–104, 106, 109, 111, 116, 120, 125, 130, 134–136, 138, 141, 144, 145, 161, 166–168

E Ecosystem services, 1, 5, 84, 88, 92, 94, 95, 97–111, 133, 134, 144, 161, 166, 169 Environmental index, 3, 6, 7, 84, 92, 95 Environmental sustainability index (ESI), 83, 84, 95, 105

B Biodiversity, 1, 5, 7, 28, 32, 51–53, 69, 70, 81, 84, 92, 98, 108, 109, 115, 117, 136–141, 155, 156, 158, 161, 162, 166, 168, 169 Biodiversity resources, 51, 138, 139

F Floral diversity, 34, 52, 53, 60, 65, 66, 109, 137 Forest classifications, 5–7, 22–23 Forest degradation, 2, 3, 6, 7, 57, 70, 115–131, 159, 161, 165, 167–168 Forest density, 65 Forest depletion, 11, 57, 69, 116, 125, 168 Forest distribution, 65, 140, 141 Forest diversity, 1–3, 6, 7, 51, 52, 100, 162 Forest fires, 61, 62, 115–122, 130, 131, 137–141, 144, 161 Forest land use, 3, 7, 11, 13–15 Forest management, 2, 3, 6, 7, 22, 116, 121, 128, 131, 137–140, 142, 155–163, 166–168 Forest products, 7, 19, 41, 43–45, 49, 69–71, 75, 77, 81, 82, 128, 129, 133, 144, 152, 156, 157, 159–161, 163, 165, 166, 168, 169 Forest resources, 3, 6, 22, 27, 29, 41, 61, 105, 115, 121, 131, 133, 134, 139, 144, 155, 161, 163, 166

C Climate change, 2, 3, 6, 7, 40, 51, 88, 99, 110, 115, 133–141, 155, 161, 162, 167, 168 Conservation reserves, 3, 6, 31–49, 95, 166 Cover changes, 7, 11–19, 55–59, 65, 161 Culture, 45, 129, 144, 157 D Dense forests, 1, 4, 5, 15–17, 19, 21, 59, 63, 81, 92, 127, 142, 165 Distribution, 3, 5–7, 51–66, 101, 111, 118, 141, 167 Drivers, 3, 6, 7, 115, 116, 130, 131, 141, 162, 167, 168

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Sustainable Forest Management in the Himalaya, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21936-8

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172 Forest species, 5, 7, 23, 28, 54–55, 65, 74–76, 92, 100, 103, 167 Forest stocks, 3, 6, 7, 70, 78, 80 Forests, 1, 11, 21, 31, 51, 69, 83, 98, 115, 133, 143, 155, 166 Fragile landscapes, 41, 89, 94, 152 H Himalayan region, 3, 6, 38, 51, 60, 69, 73, 74, 84, 85, 99, 110, 127, 136, 138–141, 146, 158, 161, 165 Himalayas, 2, 3, 11, 19, 21, 22, 25, 32, 38, 39, 41, 51, 55, 60, 62, 64, 65, 84, 90, 92, 94, 95, 98–101, 103, 109, 110, 120, 128, 130, 134, 136, 137, 139, 141, 145, 146, 156–158, 161, 165 Horizontal, 5–7, 52, 55–56, 101 I Illegal felling, 7, 29, 43, 66, 115, 116, 122–125, 128, 129, 131, 137 Indian Central Himalayan region (ICHR), 98–102, 105, 106, 108–110 L Legal status, 5, 7, 22–23, 27 Livelihoods, 1, 19, 22, 29, 40, 41, 43–45, 49, 52, 81, 95, 97–99, 102, 104, 105, 109–111, 115, 128, 131, 133, 134, 138–141, 143–146, 150–152, 155–157, 159, 162, 163, 166, 168, 169 M Mixed oak forest, 43, 52, 60, 63, 75, 78, 79, 81, 92, 105, 135, 136, 161, 162 N National parks, 3, 6, 15, 26, 31–33, 41, 44–45, 60, 100, 159, 160, 162, 166 Natural resources, 1, 134, 135, 140, 155, 158, 159, 168, 169 Non-timber Forest Products (NTFP), 2, 6, 69, 78–79, 81, 98, 104, 108, 109, 134, 150, 159 O Open forests, 1, 4, 5, 7, 12, 15, 17–19, 92

Index P Payment, 97, 98, 108–109, 111 People’s participation, 111, 131, 162 Perennial rivers, 128 Pine forests, 5, 23, 28, 52, 54, 60, 62–63, 66, 71, 76, 77, 85, 86, 90, 116–118, 120, 130, 131, 135, 136, 141, 144, 161, 162 Policy intervention, 169 Products, 3, 6, 7, 69–81, 104, 144, 150, 160, 166 R Rich biodiversity, 1, 5, 19, 31, 44, 48, 65, 85, 92, 98, 116, 133, 136, 139, 162 S Socio-economy, 143–152 Sustainable forest management, 1–3, 6, 7, 26, 29, 52, 128, 131, 135, 156, 160–162, 165, 169 Sustainable livelihoods, 49, 69, 97, 108, 139, 140 T Timbers, 2, 6, 7, 51, 62, 63, 69–71, 78–81, 98, 99, 104, 108, 109, 122–124, 129, 134, 139, 140, 143, 150, 151, 159, 161, 165, 166, 168 Trends, 4, 18, 19, 29, 46–48, 70, 72–75, 77, 118–120, 124, 130, 136, 161 U Uttarakhand himalaya, 1–3, 5–7, 11, 12, 15, 19, 21–23, 25–29, 31–34, 37, 46, 48, 49, 51–54, 56, 58, 60–66, 70, 71, 74–78, 80, 84, 85, 87–90, 92, 94, 95, 98, 99, 116, 117, 121, 122, 125–129, 131, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139–141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 157–163, 165–169 V Valuation, 98, 99, 108–111, 169 Vertical, 5–7, 52, 60–66, 101, 161 W Wetlands, 5–7, 32, 36, 39–40, 43, 48, 52, 53, 84, 85, 89–95, 128, 137, 139, 140 Wildlife sanctuaries (WLSs), 3, 6, 26, 31–49, 100, 159, 162, 166 Working circles, 3, 6, 7, 21–29