Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts: Proceeding of the First International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus ... in Science, Technology & Innovation) 3030760804, 9783030760809

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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Essam Heggy · Veronica Bermudez · Marc Vermeersch Editors

Sustainable EnergyWater-Environment Nexus in Deserts Proceeding of the First International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Desert Climates

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Editorial Board Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy Dean Hawkes, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Nabil Mohareb, Faculty of Architecture - Design and Built Environment, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology, Egypt Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of la Rochelle, La Rochelle, France Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Egypt Anand Nayyar

, Graduate School, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam

Series Editor Mourad Amer, International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange (IEREK), Cairo, Egypt

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books based on important emerging research that redefines the current disciplinary boundaries in science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for sustainable development. It not only discusses the progress made towards securing more resources, allocating smarter solutions, and rebalancing the relationship between nature and people, but also provides in-depth insights from comprehensive research that addresses the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) as set out by the UN for 2030. The series draws on the best research papers from various IEREK and other international conferences to promote the creation and development of viable solutions for a sustainable future and a positive societal transformation with the help of integrated and innovative science-based approaches. Including interdisciplinary contributions, it presents innovative approaches and highlights how they can best support both economic and sustainable development, through better use of data, more effective institutions, and global, local and individual action, for the welfare of all societies. The series particularly features conceptual and empirical contributions from various interrelated fields of science, technology and innovation, with an emphasis on digital transformation, that focus on providing practical solutions to ensure food, water and energy security to achieve the SDGs. It also presents new case studies offering concrete examples of how to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues in different regions of the world. The series is intended for professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry, and government and international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the Springer ASTI series will acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable development. ASTI series has now been accepted for Scopus (September 2020). All content published in this series will start appearing on the Scopus site in early 2021.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15883

Essam Heggy • Veronica Bermudez Marc Vermeersch

•

Editors

Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts Proceeding of the First International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Desert Climates

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Editors Essam Heggy Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) Hamad Ben Khalifa University Doha, Qatar

Veronica Bermudez Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) Hamad Ben Khalifa University Doha, Qatar

Marc Vermeersch Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) Hamad Ben Khalifa University Doha, Qatar

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic) Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development ISBN 978-3-030-76080-9 ISBN 978-3-030-76081-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

About the Conference Steering Committee

Conference Chair Dr. Veronica Bermudez, Senior Research Director, Energy Center, QEERI

Conference Co-chairs Mohammed Ayoub, Senior Research Director, Environment and Sustainability Center, QEERI Dr. Huda Al Sulaiti, Senior Research Director, Water Center and Senior Research Director, Natural and Environmental Hazards Observatory, QEERI Dr. Antonio Sanfilippo, Research Program Director, Energy Management, QEERI

Special Advisors Dr. Nabil Khelifi, Senior Editor, MENA region, Springer, a part of Springer Nature, Heidelberg, Germany Prof. Vincenzo Naddeo, Ph.D., Director of Sanitary Environmental Engineering Division (SEED), General Chair of Water Energy NEXUS, Founder and CEO of SPONGE srl, Sanitary Environmental Engineering Division (SEED), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, Italy Dr. Navid Saleh, Associate Professor, University of Texas at Austin, USA Dr. Jenny Lawler, Assistant Professor, Dublin City University, Ireland

Publications Co-chair Dr. Essam Heggy, Research Program Director, Earth Sciences Program, QEERI

Communications and Outreach Co-chair Dilraz Kunnummal, PR, Communications and Outreach Specialist, QEERI

Sponsorships Co-chair Fathima Mona Thowfeek, Senior IP and Business Development Specialist, QEERI v

Preface

At the time these lines are being written, the whole world is struggling against the most threatening and widest pandemic of the past hundred years. While we face several outbreak waves and multiple variants of this virus, with every individual experiencing some degree of stress associated with the pandemic conditions and social constraints, we have become painfully aware of the fragility of our societies and their economies, focused as they are on short-term profit and brought, by far, insufficient importance on human as a society priority in terms of social cohesion and global welfare. Indeed, short-term focus is definitely today a main characteristic of our societies, and the lack of tangible, long-term actions against the too often hushed climate change crisis is no exception to this observation. Facts, figures and repeated crisis events, as well as major warning messages from various scientific and NGO fronts, clearly highlight and document a threat to mankind that may be unprecedented in amplitude, consequences and duration, and may even leave the COVID-19 pandemic as an epiphenomenon of a much broader and irreversible transformation. On a more positive note, this epiphenomenon has suddenly brought under the spotlight—and in doing so drastically enhanced the public and collective awareness at all levels of our societies and their institutions—the unprecedented, unbearable and life-threatening stresses exerted by anthropic activities on our environment and the multiple ecosystems it is made of. More interestingly, it increased global awareness of our own belonging to these ecosystems, bringing up the hypothesis such sudden virus surge could simply be one of the many more crises to come due to the disappearance or weakening of several of these ecosystems. In terms of excessive pressure exerted on ecosystems and the potentially irreversible nature of the new point of equilibrium to be reached, there is no shortage of examples and their expected impacts on land degradation, deforestation and warming of the permafrost and other large-scale alterations. These irreversible changes are associated with diverse impacts on humanity and its economies, food security, water security, poverty. They challenge the ability (1) of less developed countries to adapt to unprecedented living conditions and (2) of developed countries to welcome in a sustainable and humanitarian way massive influxes of populations displaced by the degradation or disappearance of their habitat. There is growing consensus on the complexity and in-depth transformation happening to our home, planet Earth. While anthropogenic activities have been undoubtedly a major trigger to this transformation, we must unfortunately admit the limitation of our understanding and of our ability to identify efficient levers to guaranty in a reasonable timeframe a “safe landing point.” It is clear, however, that a systemic approach is more than ever necessary to contribute significantly and positively to limiting the impact of climate change on our civilization and adapting as best as possible to new living conditions. At the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), part of Hamad Bin Khalifa University and of Qatar Foundation, our mandate is to bring such awareness at the national level and to work on supporting stakeholders in the decision-making process. QEERI’s mandate is indeed to support Qatar tackle challenges related to energy, water and environment—three major intertwined features of our modern societies. In line with the Qatar National Vision 2030, and the fact that Qatar is vii

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Preface

a signatory of the Paris Agreement, our primary goal is to perform research, development and innovation related to climate change—through exploring sustainable energy, water desalination and treatments, air quality and corrosion, among others. Under this framework, in order to address such challenges and work on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, we decided to organize a biennial basis international conference of the energy–water–environment nexus, for desert and arid regions, QEERI’s flagship conference, The International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus In Desert Climate (IC-SEWEN). This international event is also relevant to the vast majority of regions where land is degraded in the desertification process and their populations facing similar challenges. IC-SEWEN aims to provide the ideal forum for experts in search for high-level and fruitful scientific exchanges in these matters, while aiming for concrete, operational-level solutions for a better and more sustainable life. I remember the speech by the French President Jacques Chirac to the plenary session of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, September 2, 2002): “Our house is burning down and we’re blind to it (…).” At QEERI, we are convinced IC-SEWEN will contribute to bringing institutions’, scientists’ and decision-makers’ attention to the urgency of the situation, the crises to come and the need for such systemic approach on energy, water and environment. I take this opportunity to express my sincere and deep gratitude to the conference attendees, the organizing committee, our stakeholders and partners in the State of Qatar. The IC-SEWEN19, and this book, would have not been possible without the continuous support from the Qatar Foundation, the Hamad Bin Khalifa University and the Qatar National Research Fund. Marc Vermeersch, Ph.D. Executive Director Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected]

About the Conference

Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) is organizing a specialized conference in December 2019 to address the challenges and opportunities in the Energy–Water– Environment (EWE) nexus, in particular the research and technology development requirements for EWE nexus in harsh desert climates. Over 200 researchers, scientists, engineers and stakeholders are expected to attend the four-day event, which will be held at Qatar National Convention Centre from December 2 to 5, 2019.

Goals and Objectives The main goal of this conference is to bring together international experts from academia and industry—as well as relevant stakeholders—to share latest research, technology and innovation developments. Attendees will aim to promote a better understanding of the links between energy, water and environment in order to develop key priority areas for human development and environmental sustainability. One important outcome of this conference will be the impact of the EWE nexus on food security. The conference will help to enhance understanding and find solutions to the specific challenges faced by the intrinsic EWE nexus in harsh desert climates, such as in Qatar. Experts will also discuss how energy and water utilization within the region can be maximized to address water, energy and food security challenges, while fostering a technological environment leading to value creation and impact in society and economy. The conference also aims to bridge the gap between research and industry and will provide a platform for interdisciplinary dialogue among scientists, researchers, industry partners and policymakers. The conference is in line with QEERI’s vision and mission of making the institute a reference center at national, regional and international levels in the field of energy, environment and water research and technology development, especially for Qatar and the MENA region.

Specific Aims • To identify areas of collaboration on EWE nexus issues on a regional and international scale and associated technology development and innovative approaches. • To understand the challenges and barriers and to develop potential solutions for relevant issues in the implementation of research in the area of energy, water and environment. • To exchange ideas and share knowledge with experts and policymakers from around the world. • To bridge the gap between research and industry and address socio-economic impacts. • To highlight the research capacity and capabilities relevant to Qatar and the region on the international stage. ix

Introduction

Arid areas represent 20% of the Earth’s continental surface, but they remain some of the least understood environments on our planet, having a unique response to climatic and environmental changes that result in an imbalance in their energy–water–environment (EWE) nexus. To many, the phrase “arid areas” is often synonymous with areas of high-energy production potential—with few if any noteworthy natural changes to be observed from the hydrological or environmental perspective. In addition, research organizations based in these arid areas are often perceived as ones of lower scientific and administrative maturity, compromising the publication of their results, as well as prospects for international collaboration. These erroneous perceptions have contributed to a sizable portion of the science community having ignored scientific questions regarding arid areas and a subsequently poor understanding of the physical and socioeconomic drivers behind severe imbalances in the EWE nexus. The lack of published peer-review records that document the in situ state of knowledge of this nexus imbalance in arid areas has also resulted in difficulties experienced by the regional research institutes in exchanging their observations and lessons learned to build efficient mitigation strategies. To address this deficiency, at the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, we decided to call a conference that would gather international experts and decision makers with the aim of finding a sustainable approach to address the origins, evolution, challenges and mitigations strategies associated with this growing EWE nexus imbalance in harsh arid climates. This book is the tangible deliverable of this International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus 2019 that was held in December of 2019 at the Qatar Foundation in Education City, Doha, followed by one year of remote exchanges of ideas, data, lessons and reviews that have led to the preparation of this manuscript. This book consists of three main chapters, each describing case studies and progress on water, energy and environmental questions and a fourth chapter on policies and community outreach on the nexus’ three main elements. Among the 272 proceedings received in the International Conference on Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus 2019 (ICSEWEN19) conference, we have selected 112 proceedings to be published based on their significant contribution to advancing knowledge of the complexity of the imbalanced energy– water–environment nexus in arid areas. The content of this book is of particular importance to graduate students, researchers and decision makers interested in understanding water, energy and environmental challenges in arid areas. The observations and lessons learned summarized in this book are applicable to other arid areas outside North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, such as central Australia, the southwest of the USA and central Asian deserts. The chapter dedicated to water—as the largest chapter of this book—is divided into four subsections covering groundwater studies, water quality, advances in desalination and water resources. This chapter provides case studies on modeling and assessing groundwater dynamics in different arid areas such as Algeria, Qatar, Tunisia, Nigeria and Iran. Concerns for water quality, water treatment and contaminations with organic and non-organic pollutants are also addressed. Advances in desalination methods are a substantial part of this chapter as it is the primary source of freshwater in the Arabian Peninsula and where most of the regional

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research institutes invest significant resources toward making desalination more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. Finally, the water resources section provides discussions of case studies with new methods addressing droughts and water stress in arid areas. The chapter on energy is the second chapter and is divided into two main subsections on energy conversion and energy conservation. This chapter provides rich insights into the promising applications of solar photovoltaics (PV) in the agricultural sector in the MENA region, from both a technological and technoeconomic point of view. Advances in knowledge of the EWE-food nexus is also a substantial part of the chapter, including the coupling of solar-driven desalination with storage technology solutions and cooling alternatives in a reliable, economic and efficient way. Reliability and durability issues or challenges associated with solar technologies are highlighted, and specific solutions based on machine learning algorithms—to better assess solar resources and manage the energy system—are provided for specific use cases in the region. Energy conversion technologies other than solar, such as marine power, road heat harvesting, biomass and others, are analyzed, providing a clear understanding of potential alternative resources in the region. Finally, an important part of the energy chapter is devotedto the importance of energy conservation and energy efficiency guidelines toward eco-friendly solutions for arid areas. The environmental chapter is divided into two sections. The first provides case studies on the magnitude of the environmental impact of industrial and agricultural activities in several arid areas—in particular, the alarming regional increase in CO2 emissions, the environmental hazards associated with shale gas production methods, land degradation, soil erosion and other observed environmental deteriorations that arise from the rapid industrial developments observed in several arid areas. The section provides suggestions for implementing more eco-friendly solutions for irrigation, wastewater treatment and other key industrial activities. The second section suggests advances on the sustainability of water and energy resources as well as agricultural, farming and industrial practices that can provide a path toward a more circular economic development in arid areas. The fourth and last chapter provides an overview of the suggested policies and community outreach methods for tackling water stress, renewable energy and environmental and climatic changes in arid areas. The chapter provides case studies on establishing comprehensive policies to optimize the water–energy–food nexus in Qatar and Iran, as well as drought management in Jordan under different socioeconomic and geopolitical constraints. Moreover, the chapter examines the perceptions of the public and policy makers on the nexus and the need to improve public awareness to address its vulnerability to societal water, energy and food consumption patterns. Finally, insights are given on outreach methods that include lessons learned from the region’s history toward addressing the current imbalance in the EWE nexus. One of the primary conclusions of this work is the need for more and persistent efforts to optimize the energy–water–environment nexus in arid areas, on both research and policy levels. This can only be achieved through more case studies that enable a more quantitative understanding of the physical drivers governing the nexus in these specific harsh arid environments and hence will generate more realistic policies that will need to be urgently enforced. There is no question that the energy–water–environment nexus is a key element not only for the sustainability of arid areas, but also for its future socioeconomic and political stability— and for an unfortunately increasing number, growing in size, of such arid regions. Unlike any other area on our planet, harsh arid conditions aggravate the imbalance of what is already a highly vulnerable nexus. Today, while water, energy and environmental questions are perceived as grand challenges in most arid areas by policy makers, the scientific community is still awaiting the appropriate level of commitment to build the tools that will address these

Introduction

Introduction

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challenges in a sustainable manner. The COVID-19 pandemic has certainly contributed to creating a general sense of awareness of the importance of energy, water and environmental drivers in containing the spread, but that have somehow failed in several other aspects. One must remember that unlike the COVID-19 virus, there is no vaccine to address our Earth’s energy, water and environmental problems; only sustained progress and awareness can do so. This book would have not been possible without the support of the Qatar Foundation and that of the Qatar National Research Fund. Essam Heggy Veronica Bermudez Marc Vermeersch

Contents

WATER: Groundwater Studies Modeling the Effect of the Pumping Variations on the Groundwater Quality in the Semiarid Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohammed Seyam

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Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact from Artificial Lagoons and the Reuse of Wastewater in Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hayat Al-Jabiry, Scott D. Young, and Elizabeth H. Bailey

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Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction Using Multivariate Geostatistics: A Case Study from Sfax Superficial Aquifer (Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibtissem Triki, Nadia Trabelsi, Imen Hentati, and Moncef Zairi

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Integration of Electromagnetic Method and Resistivity Depth Sounding in the Evaluation of Groundwater Potentials of Araromi Phases 1 and 2, Akungba-Akoko, Southwestern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olumuyiwa Odundun and Ayomide Ademujimi

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Contribution to the Study of Fluoride Ion Concentrations in Groundwater and Its Impact on the Desert Areas of Southeastern Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AbdelAziz Kadri, Samir Kateb, Kais Baouia, and Saber Kouadri

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Groundwater Stability Assessment with Geospatial Modeling Using GIS: A Case Study of Illizi Town, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saber Kouadri and Samir Kateb

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Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy AHP in Suitability Mapping for Artificial Recharging (Case Study: South of Kashan Basin, Isfahan, Iran) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zahra Feizi

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WATER: Water Quality Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ahmed Douaik, Soumia Ramdani, Hakim Belkhalfa, and Khaldoun Bachari Research on Innovative Materials and Technologies for Water Treatment and Water Desalination: A Conceptual Analysis from 1969 to 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . Nadia Karina Gamboa-Rosales, Andrea Castorena-Robles, Manuel Jesús Cobo, and José Ricardo López-Robles

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The Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis and Treatment of Groundwater of South Punjab, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abdul Majid Khan, Muhammad Tahir Waseem, Ghulam Sarwar, Muhammad Ameen, Rana Manzoor Ahmad, Farwa Rasool, Rabia Muneer, and Sidra Javed

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Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water Using Advanced Oxidation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Saad Jasim, Merih Uslu, Rajesh Seth, Nihar Biswas, and Jayaprakash Saththasivam Microplastic Detection and Analysis in Water Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Jan Bauer, Paul-Tiberiu Miclea, Ulrike Braun, Korinna Altmann, Marko Turek, and Christian Hagendorf Column Adsorption Studies of Phenolic Compounds on Nanoparticles Synthesized from Moroccan Phosphate Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Rabia Benaddi, Faissal Aziz, Khalifa El harfi, and Naaila Ouazzani Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment of Contaminated Water Using Non-fouling Super Hydrophilic Functionalized Ceramic Membranes . . . . . 121 Darren L. Oatley-Radcliffe and Andrew R. Barron Preliminary Study for Phosphate Recovery from Starch Factory Wastewater Using Porous Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Mokhtar Guizani, Jinglei Guo, Miyu Tagawa, Ryusei Ito, and Toshikazu Kawaguchi Removal of Organic Compounds from Olive Mill Wastewater by Flotation–Anaerobic–Aerobic Processes and Lime Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Safaa Khattabi Rifi, Anas Aguelmous, Mohamed Hafidi, and Salah Souabi Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies for Appropriate Agriculture Use in Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Noama Shareef WATER: Advances in Desalination Study of Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Processes of Seawater by Laâyoune Desalination Plant Under Desert Climate Southern Morocco . . . . . . 153 Ifakkou El Ismaili, Mohamed Najy, Isslam Belhaili, Ayoub El Atmani, Khadija El Kharrim, and Driss Belghyti Water Desalination for Environment-Friendly Cities Using Clean and Green Renewable Energy-Based Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Aref Maalej and Hatem Ben Taher The Prototype Development of Cost-Effective Water Purification System for Remote Areas and Its Efficiency Against Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Abdul Majid Khan, Muhammad Tahir Waseem, Farwa Rasool, Ghulam Sarwar, Ayesha Iqbal, Muhammad Ameen, and Rana Manzoor Ahmad Emulsion Transport Through Graphene Oxide Modified Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Rasha Fakhri, Mohsen Vazirian, Kangsheng Liu, and Martin Tillotson

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Experimental Study of Solar Water Desalination Using Evaporative Cooling (ICSEWEN19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Khaled Asfar, Ashraf Keewan, and Abdalhadi Shkokany Heat Transfer Performance of Falling Film Evaporators Used in Multi-effect Desalination (MED) Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Furqan Tahir, Abdelnasser Mabrouk, and Muammer Koç Recent Advances in the Physical Methods to Combat Membrane Fouling: An Emphasis on the Periodic Feed Pressure Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Mohamed Echakouri, Mohamed Zoubiek, Amgad Salama, Amr Henni, and Hassan Elgharbi Novel Thin Film Composite Polyamide Membrane Incorporated with Acacia Gum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Yehia Manawi, Muataz Ali Atieh, and Viktor Kochkodan Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Low Pressure Evaporators for Adsorption Water Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Ibrahim Albaik, Raya Al-Dadah, Saad Mahmoud, and Ashraf Hassan Thermally Enhanced Polyethylene Nanocomposites for Polymer Heat Exchanger Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Chaudhry Usman, Abdelnasser Mabrouk, and Ahmed Abdala Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling of Falling Film Heat Transfer Over Horizontal Tube for Multi-effect Desalination (MED) Evaporator . . . . . . . . 233 Furqan Tahir, Abdelnasser Mabrouk, and Muammer Koç WATER: Water Resources Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 C. R. Shashi Kiran, M. E. Gowtham Prasad, K. Ashwin Thammaiah, Shrithi S. Badami, H. G. Shruthi, and M. C. Sampathkumar Coupling of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling in Management of an Urban Water Distribution Network—A Case Study of Tlemcen (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Yacine Abdelbasset Berrezal, Chérifa Abdelbaki, and Mohamed El Amine Benabdelkrim Modeling of Water Erosion Using USLE in the Wadi El Malleh Catchment Area—Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Nouhaila Mazigh, Abdeslam Taleb, and Ali El Bilali Hydro-geochemical Signature in the Thermal Waters in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Hichem Chenaker, Belgacem Houha, and Mohamed Rida Mohmadi SMART Irrigation System (SMARTIS)—Desert Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Mohamed Nadhir Abid and Khadija Abid Feasibility of Water Reuse for Agriculture—Case Study of Ain Temouchent (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Rokiatou Haidara, Chérifa Abdelbaki, and Nadia Badr

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Water Footprint Assessment of the Tichi-Haf Dam Waters (Soummam Valley, Bejaia, Algeria) According to ISO 14044 and ISO 14046 Under the 6 and 12 UN-SDGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Hafed-Eddine Mansouri H-E.M, Fatima Belaitouche, Nadir Ben Hamiche, Saliha Arbaoui, Abdelghani A, Amir Aieb, Tahar Aouchiche, Moura Atmaniou, Sofiane Khenteche, and Khodir Madani Study of Storage Tanks (Majels and Fesguia) of Rainwater in the Matmata Mountains (Tunisia) and Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Habib Lamourou and Mohamed Moussa Not What Nature Can Do for the City but What the City Can Do for Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Justyna Karakiewicz, Jose Holquin, and Thomas Kvan Agricultural Waste-Based Alternative Adsorbents for the Remediation of Organophosphate Pesticide from Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Siham S. Hassan, Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti, Mohammad Abu-Dieyeh, and Gordon McKay ENERGY: Energy Conversion Insights on Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical and Biological Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Sravanthi Veluturla, Saddam Sharieff, N. Ashwini, K. V. Apoorva, Afnan Shariff, and Rahul Singhvi Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case Study for Qatar Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Sertac Bayhan and Ali Elrayyah Improved Performance of PV Cells/Modules Through the Inverse Problem Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Mohamed Rezki, Samir Bensaid, and Hamza Houassine Use of Marine Renewable Energy in Ports of Middle East: A Step Toward Sustainable Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Dilba Rayaru Kandiyil Solar Radiation Variability Between Coastal and Inland Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Daniel Perez-Astudillo, Dunia Bachour, Antonio Sanfilippo, and AbdulAziz Ahmad Al-Mahmoud Challenges Related to the Optimal Performance of PV Modules for Algerian Desert Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Nabil Kahoul, Hocine Cheghib, Mariano Sidrach-de-Cardona, Zoubida Kherici, and Mohamed Younes Sustainable Energy Harvesting System for Roads in Desert Climate . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Ahmed Abotaleb, Dema Almasri, Ali Elrayyah, Mohammed Al-Kuwari, and Abdulkarem Amhamed Exploring the Limits of Machine Learning in the Prediction of Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Giovanni Scabbia, Antonio Sanfilippo, Daniel Perez-Astudillo, Dunia Bachour, and Christos Fountoukis

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Water Treated Promoted Catalysts for the Conversion of Ethanol to Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Yusuf Makarfi Isa, Usman Aliyu Mohammed, Ronald Musamali, and Ifeanyi Michael Anekwe Comparative Study of Titanium Dioxide Thin Films Deposited by Spray Pyrolysis and Dr. Blade Method for Solar Cells Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Ali Faddouli, Bouchaib Hartiti, Mehmet Masat, Mehmet Ertugrul, Salah Fadili, and Hicham Labrim Sunflower Seeds Liquefaction for Bio-char Production: Parametric Optimization via Full Factorial Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Loubna Hadhoum, Khaled Loubar, Maria Paraschiv, Sary Awad, and Mohand Tazerout Thermal Performance Analysis of Trombe Wall for Passive Solar Building with Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Maher Dhahri, Hana Aouinet, and Habib Sammouda Monitoring of Different Technologies of Photovoltaic Module at STC Conditions in Algeria’s Sahara (ICSEWEN19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Amira Balaska, Ali Tahri, and Amine Boudghen Stambouli Techno-economic Analysis of PV-Battery-Diesel Generation System for Qatari Remote Desert Farm Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Mohd Zamri Che Wanik, Ali Elrayyah, and Abdullah AbdulJabbar Optical Efficiency of Semi-parabolic Linear Fresnel Reflector System “SPLFR” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Youssef Drira, Nadim Fakhfakh, Hatem Bentaher, Ilyes Benhassine, and Lotfi Ammar Study and Characterization of ZnO Thin Films Deposited by Sol–Gel Method Associated With Dip Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Modou Pilor, Bouchaib Hartiti, Allé Dioum, Hicham Labrim, Youssef Arba, Amine Belafhaili, Mounia Tahri, Salah Fadili, Bassirou Ba, and Philippe Thevenin Comparative Study Between Fuzzy Logic and PI Controller in Vector-Controlled Asynchronous Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Fatiha Bekraoui, Abdelkader Harrouz, Fadila Tahiri, Kaddouri Nourdine, and Ibrahim Boussaid ENERGY: Energy Conservation Analyses of the Long-Term Energy Demand of Vienna City and Modelling Related-Key Food-Water-Energy Nexus Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Ali Hainoun and Wolfgang Loibl Optimization of Energy in Seawater Desalination Plants (Case: Palm Beach Desalination Plant, Algiers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Loughraichi Yazid and Bouziane Mohamed Tewfik Investigation of Novel Anion Exchange Membranes Based on Poly-TetraAryl-Phosphonium Ionomer for Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Muthumeenal Arunachalam, Farida Aidoudi, Stephen E. Creager, Rhett Smith, Ahmed Sodiq, Fathima Fasmin, and Belabbes Merzougui

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The Influence of Cooling System on LNG Storage Tank Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Mohamed Haddar, Moez Hammami, and Mounir Baccar A Redox-Active Ionic Liquid for Potential Energy Storage Applications . . . . . . . . 483 Farida Himeur Aidoudi, Muthumeenal Sundarapandian, Fathima Fasmin, and Belabbes Merzougui Aerosol Optical Depth Estimation in Doha Using a Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Dunia Bachour, Daniel Perez-Astudillo, and Antonio Sanfilippo Hybrid Anti-Islanding Protection for Grid-Connected Inverter-Based Residential Microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Fethi Akel, Mohammed Laour, and Douadi Bendib Evaluation of Oxygen and Steam Fed Biomass Gasification Within Energy, Water, and Food Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Ahmed AlNouss, Gordon McKay, and Tareq Al-Ansari Transfer of Ecology Approach in Ground Photovoltaic Engineering Design to Support Ecosystem Services like Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Teodoro Semeraro, Roberta Aretano, Amilcare Barca, Alessandro Pomes, Cecilia Del Giudice, Marcello Lenucci, and Alessandra Scognamiglio Control of Photovoltaic Water Pumping System at the Algerian Sahara . . . . . . . . 521 Amina Bekraoui, Mohammed Yaichi, and Malika Allali Sustainable Energy Solutions: Design Customization to Achieve Eco Friendly Qatar Power Transmission System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Irshad Hussain and Abdulla Qahtani Insulation Based Models and Financial Analysis of Photovoltaic Installations in Three Localities in Burkina—Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Ladifata Mogmenga, Adama Ouedraogo, Nebon Bado, Bouchaib Hartiti, Thierry Sikoudouin Maurice Ky, Joseph Dieudonné Bathiebo, Salah Fadili, and Philippe Thevenin Energy Trading Blockchain Framework Agents Modeling Approach . . . . . . . . . . 543 Ameni Boumaiza, Mazhar Sajjad, Antonio Sanfilippo, and Nassma Mohandes ENVIRONMENT: Environmental Impacts The Impact of Economic Growth on CO2 Emissions and Energy Consumption (In the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Noura El-Agouz Shale Gas in Algeria: The Future Environmental Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Omar Ben Mya Radiation Pollution in the Waters of the Middle Reach of the River Yenisei (Russian Federation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Lydia Bondareva Soil Erosion by Wind in Southern Tunisia Cultivated Lands and Rangelands: Experiments and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Mohamed Taieb Labiadh Research on Personnel Location Method in Harsh Smoke Environment . . . . . . . . 587 Zheng Tao, Hang Li, Xiang Li, and Wen-yi Tan

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Wastewaters Treatment and Algal Biomass Production by Using Innovative Multitrophic Airlift Raceway Reactor (MA2R) Without O2 Supply and CO2 Release (ICSEWEN19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Moktar Hamdi Limitation of Environmental Impact by Reuse of Waste Materials (Algeria) . . . . 597 Adel Djellali, Behrooz Saghafi, Fella Zenati, and Mouna Djellali Use of Electrical Resistivity Tomography to Study the Impact of Long-Term Application of Sewage Sludge: Case Study of Oued Souhil Experimental Station, Nabeul (Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Sarra Hechmi, Manel Ghorbel, Hajer Azaiez, Chiraz Babbou, Mohamed Naceur Khelil, Rim Ghrib, Helmi Hamdi, Hakim Gabtni, and Naceur Jedidi Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater Treatment Station in a Desertic Area, Case Study In Guezzam (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Yacine Berrah, Serhane Brahmi, Illimane Msalem, Nouar Charef, and Abderrahmane Boumezbeur Stone Crusher Dust and Its Impact: Accumulation Efficiency of Some Woody Tree Species Around the Stone Crusher Plant (SCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Jitin Rahul Effect of Foliar Application of Micronutrients on Durum Wheat in Salted and Calcareous Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 Boutheina Miloudi and Ali Masmoudi Multiple Genes (SOS, HKT, TVP) Expression in Two Contrasting Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), Cultivars on In Vitro Saline Stress Conditions . . . . . . . . . 635 Laid Benderradji, Noura Messaoudi, Lydia Elhadef Elokki, Mouloud Ghadbane, Samir Medjekal, and Faiçal Brini Effect of Irrigation Water Salinity on Wheat (Triticum durum) Stem Height in the Presence of Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Afaf Masmoudi, Ali Masmoudi, and Boutheina Miloudi High-Performance Au Nanorods as SERS Substrates for Environmental Monitoring Facilitated by the Organizing Power of Nanocellulose from Agave Palm Leaves, a Bio-Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Hasna M. Abdul Hakkeem, Aswathy Babu, and Saju Pillai ENVIRONMENT: Environmental Sustainability A Conceptual Geographic Information System Development Using Remote Sensing and Conventional Data Collection for Sustainable Arid Land Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Pahala Kumar Family Stability and Environmental Sustainability: An Interdependent Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Ahmed Aref Use of Solar Energy in the Sustainable Development of Agriculture in the Saharan Regions of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Mabrouka Oustani, Farida Tadjine, and Smail Mehda

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A Circular Economy Centered on Microalgae: Moving Toward Economic Commercial-Scale Recycling of Industrial, Agricultural, and Domestic Waste for a Sustainable Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Darren Lee Oatley-Radcliffe, Alla Silkina, and Andrew Ross Barron GO-NGO Partnership and Sustainability of Climate Change Adaptation . . . . . . . 695 M. Anwar Hossen Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste Management and Treatment Systems in the Arab Gulf States (With the Potential to Benefit from Global Experiences) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 Amar Houtia and Fatima Zohra Houtia Family Farms Sustainability in Rural Semi-arid Areas: Case of Bargou-Siliana in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 Jamel Ben Nasr, Chaima Snoussi, and Hatem Chaar Enviro-Safe Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil—Experimental Study with Optimal Proportion of Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 K. Ashwin Thammaiah, H. G. Shruthi, M. E. Gowtham Prasad, C. R. Shashi Kiran, Shrithi S. Badami, and M. C. Sampathkumar Supercritical Water and Hydrothermal Technologies: Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Fatemeh Saberi and Omid Tavakoli Biochemical and Physicochemical Mechanisms Involved in Fusarium-Date Palm Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Souad Lekchiri, Hakim Taoufik, Abdeslam Jaafari, Hafida Zahir, Kaoutar El Fazazi, Redouane Benabbes, Mostafa EL Ouali, and Hassan Latrache Implementation of a Process for the Treatment of Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soil Using Petroleum Produced Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 Wajdi Ibn Haj Ali, Hassan El Gharbi, Fatma Aloulou, Subrata Borgohain Gogoi, and Monem Kallel Policies and Community Outreach A Governance Framework to Adapt WEF NEXUS in Decision Making: A Case Study of the Water Sector n the State of Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Maha Al-Matwi Water, Energy, and Food Nexus Approach: Kashafrood River Basin Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753 Vahideh Safaee, Kamran Davary, and Yavar Pourmohamad Drought Management Policies and Institutional Mandate in Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Tala H. Qtaishat, Emad K. Al-Karablieh, Haitham AlAdaileh, and Mohammad Samir El-Habbab Sustainable Energy Policies in Qatar: On the Green Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 Riad Abadli and Chokri Kooli Food and Water Security in Qatar: Current Challenges Caused by the Blockade and Proposed Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Abedalkader Alkhouzaam, Yousuf Rebeeh, Omar Elhafez, and Elsadieg Elhadi

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Roadmap for Future Food Systems and Smart Cities: Making the Ecosystem Contentious and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 Sima Hamadeh Including Sustainable Architectural Design in the Teaching Pedagogy: A District Adapted to the Desert Climate of the Oasis of Nafta–Tunisia . . . . . . . . 789 Nour El Houda Jouini, Fakher Kharrat, Mouldi Chaabani, and Kaouther Zair History of Desalination Technology in Libya in Sixty Years (1959–2019) . . . . . . . 795 Bashir Brika Local Community Perceptions Towards Water-Energy-Food Nexus Resources: A Perspective on Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Zinabu Wolde, Wei Wu, and Wang Kunpeng Investigating a Monotonic Relationship Between Bank Liquidity Risk and Financial Technology Adoption Among the BRICS Economies . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Tochukwu Timothy Okoli and Devi Datt Tewari Pioneering Global Leaders for Tackling Global Food Land Water Crises . . . . . . 817 Mokhtar Guizani, Seiji Takeda, and Takashi Inoue Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According to Contract Type in Water Megaprojects in Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Ayman Mashali, Emad Elbeltagi, Ibrahim Motawa, and Mohamed Elshikh Road to Academic Research Excellence in Gulf Private Universities . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Chiraz Zidi, Chokri Kooli, and Ahmad Jamrah Historical Water Systems in the Arab Tradition: Al-Andalus, Oman, and New Mexico: A Documentary Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Thomas Glick, Shobuz Ikbal, and Paxton Farrar

About the Editors

Dr. Essam Heggy is Chief Scientist of Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute at Hamad Ben Khalifa University in Qatar Foundation and Program Research Director of its newly established Earth Sciences Program. He is also Research Scientist at the Viterbi School of Engineering in the University of Southern California and Affiliate of the Radar Science and Engineering Section, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He obtained both M.Sc. and Ph.D., respectively, in 1999 and 2002 with distinguished honors from the Sorbonne University in Paris, France. His research interests in space and planetary geophysics aim to understand subsurface water and ice occurrence and distributions in Earth’s arid regions, Mars, the Moon, Jovian Icy Moons and near-Earth objects using radar techniques. He works in a wide range of space exploration projects including with the Mars Express orbiter, the Chandrayaan-1, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the Dawn mission, the Rosetta mission and ESA ExoMars Rover. He is also contributing Scientist to several NASA and ESA proposed planetary and terrestrial radar imaging and soundings experiments including the RIME radar on the JUICE mission to Jupiter and Envision radar for Venus. He is also tenured Associate Professor at the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris in France and served in several advisory roles for international agencies supporting educational and scientific reforms in the MENA area. He authored more than 80 peer-review scientific papers in the top-tier journals in Earth and Planetary Sciences including Science and Nature and more than 200 proceedings and abstracts in international conferences with peer-review committees.

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About the Editors

Prof. Veronica Bermudez is Senior Research Director at Qatar Environment Research Institute (QEERI) where she is Director of the Energy Center and leads the efforts in research, technology development and innovation in energy. Under her leadership, QEERI works in energy management (smart grids, EV, demand-response, power management, etc.), energy storage (high-capacity concepts and outdoor test and reliability), energy conversion (mainly downstream PV and adaptability and durability to harsh climates), energy efficiency and sustainable development, catalysis and process technologies for added value products and disruptive technologies (mainly solar rectennas and sensors). Prior to joining the organization in 2018, she was Acting General Manager of the Technology Division of the Atsugi Research Center at Solar Frontier KK in Japan. She has also hold a position of Principal Scientist at EDF R&D, Senior Scientist at NEXCIS (start-up, where she took part of the founding team) and Head of the Optoelectronic Characterization Laboratory at IRDEP (EDF) in France, between others. And, it is in the Advisory Board of a number of entities. She has a Ph.D. in Physics from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain) and holds a number of international awards for her research activity. She is Associate Editor in Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy and acts as independent expert for a number of international funding agencies as the European Commission and European National funding bodies. She is also the author or co-author of more than 120 scientific papers in renown journals, including Nature, Nature Energy and Science, has deliver a large number of invited and keynote talks in several international conferences, as well as has a relevant patent portfolio. She has extensive experience in laboratory to industry research and technology transfer in the field of renewable energy, in almost the whole value chain, from materials development to grid integration for generation, storage and energy management solutions. She is IEEE Senior Fellow and is actively engaged in promoting science among the youth, with a focus on STEM for women. Her research interests include sustainable energy solutions including PV alternative applications and its integration in residential and added value markets, supported by battery deployment and energy management systems in smart grids opening the door to future clean transportation.

About the Editors

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Dr. Marc Vermeersch is Executive Director of the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI). He is leading scientific and technology research, development and innovation at QEERI, to tackle Qatar’s Energy and Water Security Grand Challenges, and Environmental issues, while also addressing the impact of climate change on the State of Qatar and the region. During the last three years, he has transitioned the institute mandate from pure academic into a market-driven, applied research business unit, contracting key, strategic partnerships with highly ranked partner institutions and initiating financial sustainability through revenue generation from contracted services. With more than 25 years of experience in research and innovation, he has joined Qatar Foundation (QF) with first-hand knowledge in research, development and deployment (RD&D), as well as technology transfer and manufacturing. Prior to his appointment at QF, he worked at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST—2014) as Professor of Practice and as Managing Director of the Solar Center. Before joining KAUST, he has been working for more than eight years for the French oil and gas company TOTAL (2006), where he initiated the R&D in solar energy and triggered the Group’s business in sustainable energy sources. He started his industrial career with the French Group SAINT-GOBAIN (1995) where he occupied several positions (11 years) in technology transfer and product development, as well as support to business deployment and quality management. Professionally, he is a strong team builder, integrator and federative in challenging environments. His vast experience in management and executive leadership, built on industrial, technological and scientific knowledge at the international level, reaffirms his conviction that innovation is a culture necessary for the sustainable progress of companies and institutions, as well as for the balanced and harmonious development of humans.

WATER: Groundwater Studies

Modeling the Effect of the Pumping Variations on the Groundwater Quality in the Semiarid Aquifers Mohammed Seyam

Abstract

The groundwater quality in semiarid aquifers can deteriorate very rabidly, due to many factors. The most important factor affecting the quality of groundwater quality in Gaza Strip aquifer is the excess pumping due to the high population density in the area. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of pumping on groundwater salinity using artificial neural networks (ANNs)-based model. For detailed study of the impact of pumping on chloride concertation, hypothetical cases of input variables have been assumed to study the influence of the pumping on the chloride concertation. The developed model with three levels of uncertainty has generated these cases. Results proved that groundwater salinity would be improved if the pumping rate is reduced. Based on the results of this study, an urgent calling for developing other drinking water resources to secure the water demand is the most effective solution to decrease the groundwater salinity. Keywords

Groundwater quality Semiarid aquifers

1




Salinity




Water resources




Introduction

The knowledge of the occurrence, replenishment and recovery of potable groundwater assumes special significance in quality-deteriorated regions, such as Gaza Strip, because of scarce presence of surface water. In addition, the unfavorable climatic conditions, i.e., low rainfall with M. Seyam (&) Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Durban University of Technology, Durban, 4001, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

frequent occurrence of dry spells, and high evaporation, etc., on the one hand and an unsuitable geological setup on the other, aa definite limit on the effectiveness of surface and subsurface reservoirs. Various processes may cause salinization of the groundwater including seawater intrusion, movement of saltwater from the deeper layers of the aquifer, contribution from discharges from older formations surrounding the coastal aquifer and dissolution of soluble salts in the aquifer and may cause salinization of groundwater. In addition, potential man-induced (anthropogenic) sources include agricultural return flows, wastewater seepage and disposal of industrial wastes (CAMP 2000). The most important factor that affects the quality of groundwater of the Gaza Strip is the excessive pumping which speeds up the salinization rates in the groundwater. The importance of this article consists of developing empirical model using artificial neural networks (ANNs) to study the effect of the over pumping and pumping variations on groundwater salinity using hypothetical cases with three different levels of uncertainty. Understanding the relations between pumping and salinity of groundwater can contribute in water resources’ management. Modeling groundwater salinity using traditional modeling software consumes a lot of efforts and requires a large amount of data, while ANNs can provide an easy and efficient tool for groundwater salinity modeling and other hydrological modeling (Seyam and Mogheir 2011a; Yevenes et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2014; Taravat et al. 2016). A comprehensive literature review about the applications of ANNs in hydrology and water resources’ engineering has been discussed with the Task Committee on Application of Artificial Neural Networks in Hydrology by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE 2000a, b). The application of ANNs in engineering modeling has received gradually growing attention during the latest decade or so. There are numerous applications of ANNs in many fields of water quality and hydrology (ASCE 2000c; Kalteh et al. 2008; May et al. 2008a;

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_1

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M. Seyam

Iliadis and Maris 2007; Dellana and West 2009; Lin et al. 2008; Maier and Dandy 2000; Torres et al. 2011; Astray et al. 2010; Sunlu et al. 2009; Araujo et al. 2011; Seyam and Othman 2014; Seyam et al. 2017a; Bowes et al. 2019; Miao et al. 2019).

2

Study Area Description

Gaza Strip is a narrow strip of land on the Mediterranean coast. It is part of Palestine with about 365 km2 area and around 40 km length (UNEP 2003). Figure 1 shows the regional map and location map of the Gaza Strip. The Gaza Strip is an area where the pumping levels exceed the carrying capacity of the water and land resources, which are under high pressure and subject to over exploitation, pollution and degradation. The salinity of the groundwater is a main difficult issue in the Gaza Strip. The aquifer is extremely exposed to contamination. The drinking water has started to become more saline, and the chloride concentrations of in many areas of Gaza strip are about 500 mg.l-1 or more. Most of the water supply wells do not meet the terms of the World Health Organization (WHO) standards (Seyam and Mogheir 2011b; Shomar 2011). It is clearly noticed that the chloride concentration increases significantly all over the Gaza Strip, especially in the south eastern and the middle areas. Figure 2 presents the average chloride concentration of pumped groundwater of the Gaza Strip for the years 2002 and 2014, respectively.

Fig. 1 Regional map and location map of Gaza Strip (UNEP 2009)

Detailed pumping records from groundwater have not been documented for years prior to 1996. Based on Israeli reports from 1970s on pumping capacities, as well as information on typical pumping hours by season, it is estimated that municipal abstraction has increased from about 20 MCM in 1967 to 35 MCM in 1990 and 50 MCM in 1998. The number of municipal supply wells has also increased from about 40 in 1973 to 56 in 1993 to 100 wells in 2000. In the year 2000, municipal abstraction totaled about 54 MCM/y. Almost 50% of municipal abstraction take place in Gaza City and Jabalia. The over pumping is leading to the depletion of groundwater reserves, with the groundwater level in the coastal aquifer reaching 19 m below sea level. The amount of water extracted from the coastal aquifer for domestic use was 178.7 million cubic meters (MCM) in Gaza Strip in 2017. This quantity is obtained via unsafe pumping that jeopardizes sustainability of the source knowing that the basin sustainable yield should not exceed 50–60 MCM a year (Water Information System 2018).

3

Methodology

3.1 Modeling Technique ANNs is an advanced data-driven modeling technique with a flexible mathematical topology making it skillful in modeling the nonlinear and complex relations among the observed data sets without the need to fully physically recognize the

Modeling the Effect of the Pumping Variations …

5

systems. ANNs has the capability to learn and generalize from historical data and previous examples to create meaningful explanations to problems (Jain et al. 2004; May and Sivakumar 2009). The structure of ANNs, as shown in Fig. 3, entails three or more layers: one input layer, one or more hidden layer(s) and one output layer. The role of the input layer is to send the input data pattern to the neurons of the first hidden layer. The output layer produces an output of the neural network to a particular input. The intermediate hidden layers, which may be only one hidden layer, receive the input data from the first layer. These act as a collection of feature detectors in many ways based on the activation function and network architecture. Selecting suitable neural network architecture is the most essential and challenging task in the ANNs-based model building process. The modeler should choose an efficient testing means, applicable to a large number of options, to keep the model within manageable scales. The main assumptions to be defined are network topology, training algorithm and input selection (Anctil et al. 2004).

3.2 Data Collection In order to model the groundwater salinity in the Gaza Strip using ANNs, it is necessary to collect data for training purposes. The required data were collected mainly from the domestic wells in the Gaza Strip because it usually has a quality test twice a year, in February and October periodically. The quality test includes the chloride concentration test which gives us an opportunity to monitor groundwater salinity in the Gaza Strip, and it changes twice a year. The previously assumed variables were gathered, studied, validated and rearranged to create training data matrix that

Fig. 2 Average chloride concentration of pumped groundwater of Gaza Strip in 2002 and 2014 (PWA 2003; CMWU 2007)

natural systems (Adamowski and Sun 2010). The fundamental premise of ANNs is derived from the analogy of extremely simplified mathematical models of biological neural networks and is inspired by the brain’s learning

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of ANN's architecture

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M. Seyam

should have enough number of cases, each containing values for input and output variables (Lin et al. 2008). There are approximately 4000 wells in the Gaza Strip. Almost all of these wells are privately owned and used for agriculture. About 100 wells, owned and operated by municipalities, are used for domestic supply. The data were collected from 56 wells, most of which are municipal wells, and they almost cover the total area of the Gaza Strip as presented in Fig. 4. The choice of these wells depends only on the availability of required data. Hydrogeologically, and depending on the case study conditions, the change of the chloride concentration (salinity) was assumed to be affected by many variables such as infiltration, pumping, time duration of pumping from aquifer, aquifer depth and aquifer thickness (Seyam and Mogheir 2011a). The modeling data were extracted mainly from 56 domestic wells in the Gaza Strip since they usually have records of the chloride concentration twice a year, in February and October periodically. Many data sources were neglected because of the deficiency of complete required data. Therefore, detailed pumping records were not obtained for years prior to 1996. The period of the model that includes the modeling and calibration starts from 1997 and ends in 2006 (Seyam and Mogheir 2010). The training data must include enough number of cases for modeling. Each case should contain values for input and output variables. The first decisions taken were to select the variables to use and to determine the number of cases to collect. The variables’ selection was directed by intuition. Understanding and knowledge in the modeling domain and conditions provide primary ideas of which variables are expected to be influential. In ANN, variables can be selected and deselected. ANN can also experimentally determine

# S # S # #S S

# SS # S# # # S# S# S # S S # S # S S# # S S# S# # SNorthern # # S# S S # S # S # # S S # # S # # SS#S # S S # S # S # S S ## S

Gaza

N

Deir al-Balah W

S ## S

# S # S # S Yunis Khan # S S # # S# S # S # S S # S# # S # S

Rafah

E S

# S

Study wells Deir al-Balah Gaza Khan Yunis Northern Rafah

Fig. 4. Study wells’ spatial distribution in Gaza Strip

useful variables (Jiang and Cotton 2004). As an initial modeling trial, all variables which could have an impact on groundwater salinity were included in the initial studies. The selection of appropriate model inputs is extremely important. The problem definition was achieved by specifying the input (independent) and the output (dependent) variables for the ANN model. There are six input variables: initial chloride concentration (Clo); recharge rate (R); pumping rate (Q), which represents the total pumping quantities for each study well for 6 months, collected from Palestinian Water Authority’s data bank, and then calculated for each time phase of 6 months and the hourly rate. The pumping average rate of area (Qr) was calculated for each governorate in Gaza Strip separately by summation of all municipal abstraction quantities and dividing it to each governorate area for each time phase of six months. Lifetime (Lt) was the total operation duration in years for each well. The aquifer thickness (Th) represents the saturated aquifer thickness. Monthly pumping rates for the study well were collected from Palestinian Water Authority’s data bank. The pumping average rate was calculated for each governorate in Gaza Strip by summation of all municipal abstraction quantities and dividing it to the each governorate area for each time phase (Seyam and Mogheir 2011a; Seyam 2009).

3.3 Model Building The practical steps in construction and using ANN model vary according to the tool used in building ANN models. Using statistica neural networks (SNN), the procedural steps involved the following procedures: Data importation: It includes feeding data matrix for SNN to train the network by “inserting” or by the data entry process. The data must be arranged in a suitable format such as spreadsheet. The input data were the cases that the network used to train itself. Network design, training calibration and testing: The type of data and the problem determine the appropriate architecture of network among the available networks. After many trials, multilayer perceptron network (MLP) has been selected due to its abilities to simplify the problems inundated with complexity and nonlinearity. Once the type of network has been selected, the conditions to stop training processes were set before the network was trained. Training is controlled by some conditions such as the maximum number of iterations, target performance which specifies the tolerance between the neural network prediction and the actual output, the maximum run time and the minimum allowed gradient. A network was non-stop trained in order to make the model perform the best on the training set. However, after some time, it is very possible for the network to “memorize” the training set instead of learning it. To avoid

Modeling the Effect of the Pumping Variations …

the risk of memorization, calibration is used. Calibration is a step, which shows that the network has been trained enough, thus ending the iteration. The arrangement of ANN's model data is required to construct hundreds of data cases which include input and output variables. These cases construct data matrix. Data organizing was carried out using the Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access software. The data matrix is considered as raw material for the ANN model. The selection of appropriate model inputs is extremely important. Problem definition was achieved by specifying the input (independent) and the output (dependent) variables for the ANN model. There are six input variables: initial chloride concentration (Clo), recharge rate (R), pumping (Q), pumping average rate of area (Qr), lifetime (Lt) and aquifer thickness (Th). The output is final chloride concentration (Clf). Extraction of the training, calibration and test set: In SNN, the test set extraction was about 50% of cases for training, 25% for calibration and 25% for testing. They were randomly selected (May et al. 2008b). Test set provides a means by which the network knows when to stop training and start using calibration and testing (Seyam et al. 2017a, 2017b; Seyam and Mogheir 2010; Seyam and Othman 2017).

3.4 Performance Evaluation Regression analysis is used to measure the degree of correlation between the actual output and the network output. Correlation factor (r) of 1 gives an indication of a perfect model while an (r) of 0 indicates a very bad model. Mathematically, the values of (r) represented in Eq. (1). P P P n xy  ð xÞð yÞ r ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ P P P ffiqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi P nð x 2 Þ  ð x Þ 2 nð y 2 Þ  ð y Þ 2 where n is the number of pairs of data, x is the actual output and y is the model output. After the network has been trained and tested, it is then exanimated against a set of cases withheld from it during its training session. The ANN is then ready to be applied to any other case of variables (Alagha et al. 2012, 2017).

4

Results

After many training trials, the best neural network was determined to be multilayer perceptron network (MLP). It consists of four layers: an input layer with six neurons, a first

7

hidden layer with ten neurons, a second hidden layer with seven neurons and an output layer with one neuron. The six input neurons were initial chloride concentration (Clo), recharge rate (R), pumping rate or abstraction rate (Q), pumping average rate of area (Qr), well’s life time (Lt) and aquifer thickness (Th). The output neuron gave the final chloride concentration (Clf). It is obvious that there is a high correlation between the observed and the predicted values of chloride concentration, where the correlation coefficient (r) between the predicted and the observed output values of the ANN model was 0.9848. The simulated chloride concentrations using ANN model and the observed chloride concentration are illustrated in Fig. 5. Response graph displays the effect of adjusting input (independent variables) on the output variable prediction. The ANN model, chloride concentration, was utilized to study the influence of the pumping rate on the output variable. Figure 6 shows that chloride concentration, nonlinearly, increases as the pumping rate increases. For detailed study of the impact of pumping variations on chloride concentration, hypothetical cases of input variables were assumed to study the influence of the pumping variations on the chloride concentration. Three levels of uncertainty were assumed: The first one was fixing the values of other variables on the mean value and changing the value of pumping gradually from minimum value to maximum value in the range of input variable. The second level of uncertainty was fixing the values of abstraction average rate and life time on the mean plus the value of standard deviation, while fixing the values of recharge rate and aquifer thickness on the mean subtracting the value of standard deviation which produces conditions leading to increase chloride concentration in groundwater. The third level of uncertainty was fixing the values of abstraction average rate and life time on the mean subtracting the value of standard deviation and fixing the values of recharge rate and aquifer thickness on the mean plus the value of standard deviation which produces conditions leading to decrease chloride concentration in groundwater. To obtain the values of gradual changing for input variable from minimum value to maximum value in the range of input variable, the range was divided to ten steps, and the value gradually was increased from the minimum value to the maximum value in the range as shown in Table 1. Hypothetical values of the input variables for the three analysis conditions have been calculated as explained above, and they are presented in Table 1. Results of the three conditions (normal, increasing and decreasing) were presented in Fig. 7 and Table 2.

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M. Seyam 1800

Simulated chloride concentration

1600 1400

Cls = 0.9653Clob+ 15.064 r2 = 0.9698

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Observed chloride concentration

Fig. 5 Comparison of simulated chloride concentration using ANN and the observed chloride concentration

Fig. 6. Response graph of Qr on groundwater salinity

1800

2000

Modeling the Effect of the Pumping Variations …

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Table 1 Hypothetical values of input variables for the three analysis conditions Clo (mg/L)

R (mm/m2/month)

Q (m3/h)

Qr (mm/m2/ month)

Lt (year)

Th (m)

Min.

28.00

0.00

0.00

11.37

0.00

30.00

Max.

1412.00

83.07

254.94

33.94

60.00

124.00

Mean

333.07

18.19

105.55

22.50

22.02

64.17

S.D.

253.94

24.44

57.99

5.80

13.94

27.25

M + S.D.

587.01

42.64

163.54

28.30

35.95

91.41

M − S.D.

79.13

− 6.25

47.56

16.70

8.08

36.92

Normal condition

330.00

18.00

105.00

22.00

22.00

65.00

Decreasing condition

330.00

0.00

164.00

29.00

36.00

40.00

Increasing condition

330.00

43.00

47.00

16.00

8.00

91.00

Table 2 Results of hypothetical cases studied the effect of abstraction on chloride concentration

5

Q (m3/s)

Clf (mg/L)

Clf (mg/L)

Clf (mg/L)

Decreasing

Normal

Increasing

1

0.00

299.29

335.6

350.68

2

25.00

298.00

335.1

351.47

3

50.00

297.08

335.0

352.75

4

75.00

296.49

335.4

354.47

5

100.00

296.19

336.0

356.55

6

125.00

296.11

337.0

358.93

7

150.00

296.20

338.1

361.53

8

175.00

296.39

339.5

364.29

9

200.00

296.61

340.9

367.13

10

225.00

296.78

342.3

369.97

11

250.00

296.83

343.7

372.74

Discussion

It was noted that increasing abstraction from 0 to 250 m3/h results in a noticed influence in final chloride concentration. In the normal conditions, when the initial chloride concentration = 330 mg/l, recharge rate = 18 mm/m2/month, abstraction average rate = 22 mm/m2/month, life time = 22 years and aquifer thickness = 65 m. Final chloride concentration increases from 335.6 to 343.7 mg/l. In the increasing conditions, when the initial chloride concentration = 330 mg/l, recharge rate = 0 mm/m2/month, abstraction average rate = 29 mm/m2/month, life time = 36 years and aquifer thickness = 40 m. Final chloride concentration decreases from 350.68 to 372.74 mg/l. In the decreasing condition, when the initial chloride concentration = 330 mg/l, recharge rate = 43 mm/m2/month, abstraction average rate = 16 mm/m2/month, life time = 8 years and aquifer thickness = 91 m. Final chloride concentration stays almost steady at 297 mg/l which means that in good condition of small value of abstraction

average rate and life time and large value of recharge rate and aquifer thickness, increasing abstraction does not affect the chloride concentration, and it decreases about 33 mg/l which is good result.

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Conclusions

Based on the results obtained from this study, a new empirical model for groundwater salinity in the Gaza Strip utilizing ANNs was successfully developed and applied. This empirical model provided very accurate prediction, where the correlation coefficient (r) between the observed and predicted output values of the model was 0.985. It was proven that the chloride concentration in groundwater was proportional to the pumping rate. The results proved that chloride concentration in groundwater is directly affected by abstraction (Q). The study implied that the improvement rate of chloride concentration requires reducing the abstraction rates from the aquifer. Based on the results of this study, an

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M. Seyam

Fig. 7 Effect of pumping variations on chloride concentration

urgent calling for developing other drinking water resources to secure the water demand is the most effective solution to decrease the groundwater salinity.

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Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact from Artificial Lagoons and the Reuse of Wastewater in Qatar Hayat Al-Jabiry, Scott D. Young, and Elizabeth H. Bailey

Abstract

Qatar relies on groundwater for farming activities. Animal fodder crops are irrigated during summer, and different types of vegetables are grown in winter. Qatar has been using lagoons in different parts of the country to dispose of treated wastewater. Some of those lagoons are near farms and residential areas. Thus, understanding the groundwater quality and the lagoons’ impact on them is important for future human and environmental health. Lagoons (n = 14) and wells (n = 56) were sampled in both summer and winter of 2018/2019. A good correlation between Cl−, Na+, Li+, SO42−, S, Sr2+ and Ca2+ suggests salinization of the aquifers. Gypsum dissolution is active in the Qatar aquifers and lagoons system during both summer and winter. A few elements in groundwater exceeded the Qatar irrigation guidelines, indicating a degradation of groundwater quality. Lagoon water was found to be similar to groundwater but with lower values of salinity. General linear model analysis shows a correlation between lagoon proximity to the wells and the concentrations of elements in the groundwater. Isoconcentration maps visualize marine intrusion and the impact of lagoons on groundwater quality. Increasing concentrations of nitrate and decreasing chloride and sulphate concentrations were observed in the groundwater in winter, indicating recharge following winter rainfall. Keywords















Groundwater quality Lagoon Treated wastewater Water management Wastewater treatment Qatar Arid Wetlands




H. Al-Jabiry (&) Qatar University, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected] S. D. Young
E. H. Bailey School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Highlights • Seawater intrusion causing salinization is the biggest threat to the groundwater reservoirs. • Gypsum dissolution is the dominant geochemical process in both lagoon and groundwater systems. • General linear model test shows a positive correlation between groundwater contaminant level and the proximity of groundwater to the lagoons.

1

Introduction

Qatar has a desert climate with an average temperature of 37 °C, reaching over 40 °C during summer. Precipitation is uncommon and mostly occurs in winter. Qatar depends on desalination to produce drinking water (GSDP 2011). Groundwater and recycled water are used for irrigation. Water consumption and network leakage per capita in Qatar are amongst the highest in the world; reuse of treated wastewater is extremely limited with around 14% of being used for irrigation (Qatar Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics 2015). This has led to the country disposing of unwanted water in artificially constructed surface lagoons across the country causing concern over the possibility of environmental pollution (Qatar Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics 2015; Jasim et al. 2016; Al-Mohannadi 2004). While lagoons are common in developing countries as a treatment step (Vázquez et al. 2013; Kivaisi 2001; Ávila et al. 2013), most lagoons in the Gulf region store treated wastewater (Adel et al. 2016). In Qatar, recycling of wastewater is extremely limited because of cultural perceptions that it is not clean (Al-Mohannadi 2004). This has led to the storage of a large quantity of treated wastewater in surface lagoons, which is subject to evaporation or infiltration into the groundwater in Qatar. Globally,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_2

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most studies on treated wastewater discuss the suitability of using it for irrigation instead of disposal in lagoons (Al-Mohannadi 2004; Stuart and Milne 2001; Sameh and Amawi 2014). Studies also compare the environmental impact of using groundwater for irrigation compared to the direct irrigation with treated wastewater (Candela et al. 2007). Qatar water resources management is unusual in that the surplus of treated wastewater stored causes flooding issues and a high pressure on groundwater resources from over-extraction (Al Mamoon et al. 2015). Therefore, the present study aims to understand the impact of the quality and quantity of treated and untreated wastewater storage lagoons on groundwater resources in Qatar.

2

Materials and Methods

Lagoons (n = 14) and groundwater wells (n = 56) were sampled during both summer and winter in 2018 and 2019 (Fig. 1). Sterilized universal tubes were used to collect samples that were then syringe-filtered (< 0.22 µm). Tubes were filled to the top leaving no air gap to avoid loss of CO2 and kept at 4 °C during transportation and storage. Physical analyses (pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and temperature) were done on-site using a Hanna HI-98130 m; all other analyses were done at the University of Nottingham. Water samples were analysed for multiple elements by ICP-MS (Ag, Al, As, Ba, Be, Cd, Ca, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, S, Se, Sr, Tl, U, V and Zn), using calibration in the range 0– 100 µg L-1 (0, 20, 40, 100 µg L−1). Iodine was determined after TMAH stabilization (Zheng et al. 2012). Organic and inorganic carbon were measured using a CN analyser (Shimadzu), and major anions (chloride, sulphate, nitrate, phosphate and fluoride) were determined by ion chromatography. Isoconcentration maps were constructed using inverse distance weighing (IDW) in ArcGIS 10.6. Another option was kriging, but since it requires two variables to be correlated, IDW was chosen as it does not require this; thus, maps for independent variables could be produced. Winter maps cover a larger area in Qatar because a greater number of wells were sampled in the winter. PHREEQC was used to calculate saturation indices for gypsum, calcite, aragonite and anhydrite (Appelo and Pstma 2005). Multivariate statistical analysis was performed using Minitab 17.2.1 to produce cluster analysis and a correlation matrix using Spearman's correlation as a nonparametric method since the hydrogeological data was not normally distributed (Hauke and Kossowski 2011; Reimann and Filzmoser 2000). A general linear model test with Box–Cox transformation was used with to determine the associations between groundwater quality and groundwater proximity to both the lagoons and the coast.

Fig. 1 Groundwater wells and lagoon sample locations within Qatar ( source Esri. Digital globe, made with ArcGIS)

3

Results and Discussion

1. Groundwater characteristics. Groundwater characteristics are shown in Table 1. The pH ranged from 6.0 to 8.5 regardless of the season. Total dissolved solids (TDS) increased in winter suggesting rainfall infiltration causing transfer of dissolved solids into the groundwater (Appelo and Pstma 2005). Total organic carbon (TOC) was greater in summer, which may be due to salinization since it is positively correlated with Cl and Na (p < 0.05). Both Cl and Na increased in summer because of the lack of rainfall recharge and extraction of groundwater encouraging seawater intrusion (Souid et al. 2018; Mahlknecht et al. 2017). While the overall concentrations of both Fe and Mn were below the Qatar irrigation guidelines, some of the wells showed noticeably high levels (4 out of 56), and, as expected, Fe and Mn were positively correlated (p-value < 0.05). Because Fe and Mn were not correlated with TOC or NO3, we suspect the high values were due to

Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact …

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Table 1 Water quality of sampled groundwater wells and lagoons (min: minimum, max: maximum)

Groundwater

Summer (n = 56)

Winter (n = 58)

Lagoon

Summer (n = 13)

Winter (n = 12)

pH

TDS (mgL−1)

TOC (mgL−1)

Iodine (µgL−1)

SO4−S (mgL−1)

NO3-N (mgL−1)

Na (mgL−1)

B (mgL−1)

Mn (µgL−1)

Fe (µgL−1)

Se (µgL−1)

Mo (µgL−1)

Min.

6.0

0.5

0.3

30

170

0.0

120

0.5

0.0

0.0

0.7

8.0

Max.

7.5

2.0

28

180

1500

40

4500

3.0

25

800

35

100

Mean

6.9

1.5

9.0

90

530

9.0

800

1.30

2.0

20

8.0

25

Min.

7.0

0.9

1.0

1.0

75

0.0

80

0.45

0.0

0.5

0.0

0.0

Max.

8.0

11

6.0

150

720

36

3000

2.6

14

600

32

340

Mean

7.0

3.5

3.0

10

450

10

670

1.3

2.0

24

7.0

34

Min.

–

0.3

1.0

3.0

32

0.0

80

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.5

Max.

–

9.0

35

330

630

21

2200

2.3

0.6

0.6

0.6

19

Mean

–

2.0

9.0

50

210

3.5

600

0.7

0.2

0.2

0.2

6.0

Min.

7.0

0.7

4.0

3.0

13

0.00

110

0.2

1.0

0.6

0.2

0.8

Max.

9.6

5.0

100

100

1700

11

920

1.0

310

36

0.8

15

Mean

8.0

2.0

Qatar drinking water guidelines

6.5– 8.5

1000

Qatar crop irrigation guidelines

6–9

2000

Mineral make-up of seawater (Stanford University 2018)

−

34,481

16

40

−

−

75 −

−

50

390

3.4

350

0.6

38

10

0.4

6.0

250

50

200

0.5

100

300

10

70

−

−

1.5

50

100

−

−

0.7

10,561

4.6

10

20

4.0

2.0

400 2648.6

point source contamination in the sampled wells, not due to reducing conditions in the groundwater (Johannesson and Tang 2009). Molybdenum concentrations have been previously reported as high in Qatar compared to other regions (Kuiper et al. 2015). This is in alignment with this study where Mo concentrations in some of the wells were above Qatar drinking guidelines of (70 µg/L) and with an overall mean value higher than the FAO irrigation guidelines of 10 µgL−1 (Ayers and Westcot 1994). The elevated Mo concentrations are thought to arise as a consequence of the toxic alkaline conditions in Qatar aquifers, resulting in demineralization, as well as anthropological contamination (Kuiper et al. 2015; Smedley and Kinniburgh 2017). Evidence of salinization of the groundwater is shown in Table 2 with good correlations between Cl−, Na+, Li+, SO4−2, S, Sr2+ and Ca2+ (p < 0.05) (Souid et al. 2018; Mondal et al. 2011; Zghibi et al. 2013; Zaidi et al. 2015; Adimalla and Venkatayogi 2018). Associations between heavy metals were also observed for Ni, Cu, Ag, V, Cr, Mo and Cd which may be due to contamination from anthropological activities such as wastewater disposal or spread of contaminated dust being carried with rainfall infiltration (Machiwal and Jha 2015). However, lagoon water infiltration may be the main reason which will be discussed later on. Both Ca2+ and Mg2+ are positively correlated with Cl− and not with HCO3− which indicates their concentration is

related to seawater intrusion causing the release of Ca2+ and Mg2+ due to cation exchange with Na+ from NaCl (Mahlknecht et al. 2017), rather than rock weathering in the system if correlated with HCO3 (Boerner and Gates 2015). The geochemical model PHREEQC was used to determine gypsum saturation using ion activities for Ca2+ and SO42−. Results show that gypsum dissolution dominates in both summer and winter groundwater aquifers (Appelo and Pstma 2005). Figure 2 shows the system is approaching the gypsum saturation point (4.6), in agreement with previous groundwater research done in the area (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2017; Al-Kaabi et al. 2016). A Piper diagram showing the hydrochemical facies of the groundwater in the Qatar aquifer system (see Fig. 3) illustrates that the groundwater system is of a saline type as well as a Ca2+, Cl− and SO42− type. In Fig. 3, the points represent each well sampled during both summer and winter. Few are either fresh or saline, but the majority fall between those classifications showing wells of freshwater mixed with intruded seawater. This indicates that the groundwater system in Qatar is controlled by gypsum dissolution and marine salinization (Appelo and Pstma 2005; Zghibi et al. 2013). To better understand the water chemistry in both groundwater and lagoons, a Gibbs plot was used (Fig. 4). Figure 4 uses TDS versus Na+/(Na+ + Ca2+) representing cations and Cl−/(Cl− + HCO3−) as anions, to demonstrate

16

Fig. 2 Wells and lagoons gypsum ion activity product log (IAP) versus Ca2+

EC

Chloride

TOC

Sulphate

Fe

0.504

–

–

-

-

IC

0.032

–

0.617

-

-

Chloride

0.95

–

0.486

-

-

Nitrate

0.346

0.288

–

-

-0.337

Sulphate

0.734

0.698

0.243

-

-

B

0.709

0.687

0.389

0.503

-

Na

0.947

0.958

0.481

0.599

-

Mg

0.923

0.859

0.523

0.766

-

K

0.704

0.734

0.421

0.569

0.342

Ca

0.723

0.592

0.313

0.78

-

Li

0.895

0.816

0.449

0.707

-

Pb

0.752

0.775

0.427

0.595

-0.27

Sr

0.801

0.739

0.453

0.605

Mn

–

–

–

–

TOC

0.447

7 -log(IAP) gypsum

Table 2 R values from the correlation matrix showing salinization process in the groundwater (all the values are significantly correlated (p < 0.05); the closer the value to 1, the higher the correlation)

H. Al-Jabiry et al.

Well

6.5

Lagoon

6 5.5 5 4.5 4

Gypsum saturation 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

(Ca2+) Ion activity x 10-3

the mechanisms dominating the water system (Marandi and Shand 2018). Gibbs plots illustrate three main processes: rock–water interaction caused by rock weathering, evaporation/salinization and precipitation of rainfall recharge. Figure 4 shows that for groundwater, evaporation/ salinization was the dominant water system in both winter and summer, with the slight difference that water in summer was more salinized. For rock–water weathering, the results are in alignment with gypsum dissolution for both summer and winter as the system is dominated by rock weathering. For both summer and winter, the nitrate concentration was below the Qatar crop irrigation guidelines (50 mgL−1). Maps produced by IDW showed an increasing level of nitrate in the groundwater in winter compared to summer (Fig. 5) signifying the application of fertilizers in winter (Zghibi et al. 2013; Lorite-Herrera and Jiménez-Espinosa 2008) since most of the agricultural activities happen in winter for climatic reasons. Sulphate concentrations decreased in winter, with aquifer recharge from rainwater. However, they were still above the Qatar crop irrigation

guideline (40,050 mgL−1). Calcium concentrations increased in winter, indicating the changing of rock–water interaction in the aquifers (Machiwal and Jha 2015). This is also seen in the Gibbs plot where the system is controlled by a solubility process introducing water with CO2 for rock weathering (Boerner and Gates 2015). Maps produced by IDW showed an increasing concentration of nitrate in the groundwater during winter and decreasing chloride (Fig. 6) and sulphate concentrations (Fig. 7), indicating a recharge effect after winter rain events (Machiwal and Jha 2015). The chloride map shows that concentrations decreased in winter compared to summer, reflecting pressure on groundwater from over-extraction during summer; there would also be less marine intrusion since farmers use less groundwater in winter. Nevertheless, the concentration of Cl is still much greater than the Qatar guideline (25,050 mgL−1) with average chloride concentrations of 79,050 mgL−1 in winter and 118,050 mgL−1 in summer.

Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact …

17

Fig. 3 Piper plot showing the composition of Qatar groundwater (blue) and lagoons (red) for summer and winter, displaying cation exchange

2. Lagoon Characterization The pH of the lagoon water samples reached a maximum of 9.5 and an average of 8.0, consistent with their location in a limestone basin (Kuiper et al. 2015; Al-Kaabi et al. 2016). The lagoons were similar to the wells in that the water chemistry was dominated by both salinization and gypsum dissolution. Figure 3 shows that lagoons are similar to groundwater in terms of gypsum dissolution and that is supported by the Gibbs plot (Fig. 4) showing that the dominant process was rock weathering for both summer and winter. Although some elements in the groundwater exceeded Qatar irrigation standards, this was not the case for the lagoons water samples. However, lagoon water did exceed the standards in terms of pH and TOC. 3. Impact of the Lagoons on Groundwater While arsenic concentrations were not at an alarming level (maximum of 10 µgL−1) and were below Qatar crop irrigation guidelines (100 µgL−1), the As concentration in groundwater was found to significantly correlate with the

lagoon locations (p-value < 0.05) and not to coastal proximity. This can be seen in the IDW maps (Fig. 8). Arsenic is present in most groundwater globally, and the concentration is crucial. However, the apparent association with lagoon location may be a problem requiring future investigation. It was mentioned above that certain wells had both Fe and Mn levels above Qatar irrigation guidelines, and both those elements were correlated with the wells proximity to the lagoons. But lagoon water only exceeded the Mn standard alone, suggesting the correlation could be due to the lagoons increasing TOC. Increasing TOC in groundwater causes reducing condition, thereby mobilizing Mn, Mo and Fe (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2017). Iodine was also found to be affected by lagoon locations rather than proximity to coast. It may be that the medical use of iodine product contributes to iodine in sewage entering the lagoons (Smith et al. 2008; Al-Otoum 2014). Iodine is not suspected to be from marine intrusion since the average iodine concentration in the sea is around 50 µgL−1, which is less than both lagoons and wells (Table 1). Other groundwater elements are found to be associated with lagoon location rather than coastal proximity including U,

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Evaporaon

Evaporaon

Rock weathering

Rock weathering precipitaon

precipitaon

Evaporaon

Evaporaon Rock weathering

Rock weathering precipitaon

precipitaon

Evaporaon

Evaporaon Rock weathering

precipitaon

Rock weathering precipitaon

Evaporaon

Evaporaon

Rock weathering

Rock weathering precipitaon

precipitaon

Fig. 4 Gibbs plot showing the dominant factors controlling the groundwater chemistry in the study area (above is summer, below is winter)

Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact …

19

Fig. 5 Nitrate isoconcentration maps (left: summer, right: winter)

Pb, Cs, Se, Co and V. Those elements are reported to be common in treated wastewater from anthropological activities (Candela et al. 2007; Lapworth et al. 2012; Foster and Chilton 2004; Assubaie 2015). Those same elements did not show significant association with seasonality, indicating they are not affected by rainfall recharge, but rather by water infiltrating from the lagoons. In conclusion, in terms of

chemical and physical characteristics, the lagoon water fell closer to the Qatar irrigation standards than the groundwater wells, but further study is required to understand the biological characteristics of the lagoons and the groundwater as faecal bacteria and E. coli can have significant effect on lagoon water usage.

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Fig. 6 Chloride isoconcentration maps (left: summer, right: winter)

6

Conclusion(s)

Chloride, sulphate and a few other elements in sampled groundwater wells exceeded the Qatar crop irrigation guidelines in both winter and summer. There was a significant difference between summer and winter values for the different parameters. While both the lagoon and the well water showed the same results, the lagoons conformed more closely to Qatar biological irrigation standards than the wells. However, there may be other contaminants in the

lagoon waters that have not been tackled by this research and should be investigated in future studies, including persistence pharmaceutical residues and antibiotic residues. Moreover, analysis is planned to show if faecal bacteria from lagoons are similar to the ones in the aquifers. To further confirm that, the lagoons are currently impacting on groundwater aquifers. In addition, a social study will be conducted to investigate stakeholder perspectives on the usage of lagoon water, public perceptions on lagoon impact on the environment and public health in Qatar.

Assessment of Groundwater Aquifer Impact …

Fig. 7 Sulphate isoconcentration maps (left: summer, right: winter)

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Fig. 8 Arsenic isoconcentration maps (left: summer, right: winter) Acknowledgements This research was supported by Ashghal, KAHRAMAA and the Ministry of Municipality & Environment. We thank Ashghal’s Quality and Safety Department for their assistant with sample collection and analysis.

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Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction Using Multivariate Geostatistics: A Case Study from Sfax Superficial Aquifer (Tunisia) Ibtissem Triki, Nadia Trabelsi, Imen Hentati, and Moncef Zairi

Highlights

Abstract

Predictive modeling of the spatiotemporal behavior of groundwater level is important in quantitative water management, especially in arid areas. However, in practice, groundwater monitoring data are often characterized by sparse sampling in both temporal and spatial dimensions, which causes erroneous prediction of the groundwater reserves. This study proposes multivariate geostatistical techniques for the estimation of missing values of monthly piezometric recordings made at four observation wells, located in an unconfined coastal aquifer in Sfax (Tunisia) from 1997 to 2006. First, the cokriging (OCK) was used to estimate the missing monthly piezometric records at observation wells, which are temporally cross-correlated. Then, experimental cross-variograms between times can be computed for records from observation wells in order to obtain an estimation of the water table for periods without measurements. Second, OCK method was benchmarked against inverse distance weighting method (IDW) and ordinary kriging method (OK), which use only each time series separately. The prediction performance of each method is evaluated through cross-validation. Results indicate that cokriging clearly outperforms kriging and inverse distance weighting method. Thus, this study demonstrates the usefulness of cokriging as data reconstruction method. Keywords





Missing groundwater levels data Cokriging Inverse distance weighting Uncertainty




Kriging

I. Triki (&)
N. Trabelsi
I. Hentati
M. Zairi Laboratory 3E, Sfax National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, PB 1173 3038 Sfax, Tunisia I. Triki
I. Hentati Faculty of Science of Gafsa, Gafsa, Tunisia




(1) We compare three methods (IDW, OK and OCK) to reconstruct historical water levels for more than 9 years. (2) Four groundwater level time series containing missing values are reconstructed. (3) The results prove the superiority of the cokriging method.

1

Introduction

Groundwater is one of the major sources of drinking and domestic-designated water, especially in arid and semiarid regions (Mirzavand and Ghazavi 2015). Therefore, monitoring water level fluctuations in observation wells considered the principal source of information on the hydrologic stresses on a groundwater system. Both short-term and long-term records are invaluable in understanding the state of the groundwater system and in addressing problems that might develop in response to groundwater abstraction and changes in land use (Winter et al. 2000; Ahmadi and Sedghamiz 2007). In practice, due to aspects of time and cost, data monitoring of water levels is seldom carried out. This lack of data is the major cause of hydrogeological uncertainty. Hence, it is more realistic to focus on perfecting the method used to process data with missing elements before using them for further analysis, particularly for numerical groundwater flow modeling applications (Semiromi and Koch 2019). The techniques of missing data estimation can be grouped in deterministic methods and stochastic methods (Lepot et al. 2017). The deterministic methods include the simple arithmetic averaging (Sattari et al. 2017) method based on distance weighting (Teegavarapua and Chandramouli 2005; Khosravi et al. 2015) and methods based on signal analysis (Semiromi and Koch 2019; Plazas-Nossa and Torres 2014). The stochastic methods include regression methods (Sattari et al. 2017; Xia et al. 1999), autoregressive methods (Mirzavand and Ghazavi

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_3

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I. Triki et al.

2015; Choubin and Malekian 2017), artificial neural networks (ANN) (Maiti and Tiwari), tree approaches (Perez-Valdivia and Sauchyn 2001) and a method based on kriging (Kumar and Ahmed 2008; Dowdall et al. 2003; Farmer 2016; Cornacchiulo and Bagtzoglou 2004; Chung et al. , 2019). Among the methods known in literature, kriging could be a very useful tool for time series reconstruction (Kumar and Ahmed 2008). A major advantage of kriging over other techniques, besides providing a measure of estimation uncertainty (kriging variance), is that it makes an estimation of the unknown value at time t using data observed before and after the time point t, even without any explicit modeling or assumption on the probability of distribution of the process (De Iaco et al. 2013). In the reconstruction of missing data, multivariate geostatistical algorithms are frequently seen to be more advantageous than univariate ones. The main attribute can be estimated from measures of itself (primary information) and additional correlated secondary information (Boezio et al. 2006). The secondary information can be incorporated using temporal ordinary cokriging (OCK) (Boezio et al. 2006; Solow and Gorelick 1986; Krajewski 1987; Baea et al. 2018), kriging with an external drift (KED) (Barabás and Goovaerts 2004) and multi-dimensional space–time approaches (Rouhani and Wackernagel 1990; Cheng et al. 2007; Hoogland et al. 2010). Multivariate geostatistical algorithms differ in the way the secondary variable is used. In KED and kriging with unknown mean, data on the secondary variables need to be available at the prediction points (Delbari et al. 2013; Adhikary et al. 2017). However, in cokriging, data on the secondary variables do not need to be available at the prediction points. In this study, OCK can be successfully used for restoring missing data, since an estimation of a primary variable can be calibrated without having a secondary variable at all grid nodes. The objective of this paper is to evaluate two geostatistical interpolation methods (ordinary kriging [OK], ordinary cokriging [OCK]) and a deterministic method (inverse distance weighting [IDW]) to yield better predictions of missing values of monthly piezometric records at four observation wells located in an unconfined coastal aquifer in Sfax (Tunisia) from 1997 to 2006.

2

Study Area

The study area, located in eastern Tunisia around Sfax city (Fig. 1), shows a semiarid climate with an annual precipitation mean of 230 mm, an average annual temperature of 20 °C and a potential evapotranspiration of 328 mm/year. Furthermore, relative humidity ranges between 55% in summer and 67% in autumn (Dahech 2012). The superficial aquifer, object of this study, covers an area of 8500 Km2. It is limited to the east by the

Mediterranean Sea, the N–S axis mountain chain west, the Korj, Bouthadi, Chorbane, Zeramdine and Djemmel Hills north, and Mezzouna Mountain to the south. A number of sebkhas (salt plain) are spread west. The geologic formations of the studied aquifer belong to the Mio-Pliocene and Quaternary layer system and they are composed of alternations of sandy clay and sandy layers.

3

Groundwater Level Datasets

The groundwater constitutes the main source for both domestic and industrial water supply in the region of Sfax. However, groundwater levels showed a secular decline in water tables caused by pumping for various water uses and scarce recharge by rainfall infiltration. In 1983, the Tunisian water resources authority (DGRE) has established a monthly piezometric monitoring network to monitor fluctuations in groundwater levels. The number of groundwater wells increased from 33 in 1998 to 85 in 2005 (Fig. 1). In practice, due to the high cost of hydrological management practices, observation wells were not monitored during some months. This lack of frequent and regular data measurement in consecutive years is not suitable for understanding the dynamics as well as the stress–strain behavior of the aquifer. Thus, we want to reconstruct the piezometric time series in order to obtain the water table values for each month.

4

Methodology

The applied methodology adopted in this study (Fig. 2) considers various interpolation techniques (OK, OCK and IDW) for filling in missing piezometric data. First, inverse distance weighting (IDW) was chosen for its simplicity. Then the one-dimensional (1D) kriging interpolation in time is performed separately for each well. Finally, cokriging was used to predict missing values of monthly piezometric records at four observation wells, assuming that the degree of temporal correlation within the data sets is high. A brief description of these methods (IDW, OK and OCK) is presented in this section, and further details are given in textbooks (Chiles and Delfiner 1999; Journel and Huijbregts 1981; Kitanidis 1996; Isaaks and Srivastava 1989) or papers (Polus et al. 2011; Rouhani and Wackernagel 1990; Cheng et al. 2007). Inverse Distance Weighting The inverse distance (reciprocal distance) weighting method (IDW) is the most used for estimating missing data (Sattari et al. 2017). This method assumes that each observation

Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction …

27

Fig. 1 Geographical distribution of the piezometric wells in in the Sfax superficial aquifer

point has local influence that diminishes with distance. IDW assigns greater weights to observation points near to the target location, and the weights diminish as a function of distance (Delbari et al. 2013). The estimation by IDW can be written as follows: Z  ðs0 Þ ¼

n X i¼1

ki Z ð s i Þ

where

P ki ¼ dio =

Xn i¼1

P dio ð1Þ

where Z*(s0) is the estimated value at desired location s0, Z (si) is the Z value at location si, ki is the weight assigned to observation points, di0 is the distance between the sampling point at locations si and s0, n is the number of sampling points, and p is a power, which is referred to as a control parameter (Delbari et al. 2013). In this study, p was set to 1. Theory of Kriging and Cokriging Kriging is a technique that enables prediction of a temporal process based on a weighted average of the observations. In case of an intrinsically stationary process with constant unknown mean, we use the ordinary kriging method (Ahmadi and Sedghamiz 2007). The multivariate version of kriging is cokriging, which consists in estimating Z1 from measurements of Z1 and Z2. Let us assume that c12 6¼ 0 and thus that Z1 and Z2 are

temporally cross-correlated. If Z2 is denser than Z1, then data of Z2 can be used to interpolate the missing values of Z1, with respect to the probabilistic relationship between Z1 and Z2. The minimization of the estimation error variance under non-bias conditions leads to a linear system that involves simple and cross-variograms of the different variables: c1(s), c2(s) and c12(s) (Rouhani and Wackernagel 1990). The cross-variogram describes the joint variability of two variables Z1 and Z2. It is defined as half the covariance of increments according to the time interval Ʈ (Rouhani and Wackernagel 1990): c12 ðsk Þ ¼

Tk 1 X f½Z1 ðti þ s0 Þ  Z1 ðti Þ  ½Z2 ðti þ s0 Þ  Z2 ðti Þg 2Tk i¼1

ð2Þ where c12(s) is the experimental cross-variogram between Z1 and Z2, s′ is the time lag belonging to a class of lag sk(h), and Tk represents the number of increment pairs in this class (Cheng et al. 2007). Of course, the direct and cross-variogram models should satisfy the non-negative definite conditions (Chiles and Delfiner 1999). The linear model of co-regionalization, in terms of variogram, is defined as a linear combination as shown in Eq. 2. However, cross-variogram model parameters

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I. Triki et al.

Fig. 2 Methodological framework adopted in this study

were selected with additional criteria of satisfying the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality as follows (Kitanidis 1996): 1

c12 ðsÞ6½c11 ðsÞc22 ðsÞ2

ð3Þ

where c12(s) is the cross-variogram model and c11(s) and c22(s) are the direct variogram models for primary and secondary variables, respectively. This can be considered as a necessary and sufficient condition for the positivity of the matrix of a linear model of co-regionalization (Journel and Huijbregts 1981). Cokriging consists in estimating the value of variable Z1 at the instant t0 thanks to the experimental values of Z1 and to another variable Z2 correlated with Z1 (e.g., Z2 denser sampled than Z1). The cokriging of Z1 by Z2 at an instant t0 is written as given in Eq. 4 (Cornacchiulo and Bagtzoglou 2004). X X Z1 ðt0 Þ ¼ k1a Z1 ðt1a Þ þ k2a Z2 ðt2a Þ ð4Þ R

a S1

Cokriging system and its estimated variance are expressed as follows (Cheng et al. 2007): r2k ¼

na N X X a¼1 l¼1

  kla cib t0  tj þ lb

for

j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; nb ;

b ¼ 1; 2; . . .:N ð5Þ where N denotes the number of random variables, na represents the number of the observed value of the ath variable, and k1a are weightings for the ath variable measures at time tl (Cheng et al. 2007). In this study, variogram models fitting as well as IDW and geostatistical interpolation are performed using the Isatis® software (Geffroy et al. 2001). Assessment of Interpolation Methods

R

a S2

where Z1* (t0) is the estimated value of primary variable at target unsampled time t0 and k1a and k2a are weights associated with Z1 and Z2, respectively. The weights k1a and k2a are obtained by minimizing the estimation error variance under non-bias conditions.

The performance of different interpolation methods (OK, OCK and IDW) used in this study is evaluated and compared through cross-validation process. The cross‐validation is a simple leave-one-out validation procedure (Dowdall et al. 2003; Cheng et al. 2007) in which observations are removed one at a time from the data set and then

Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction …

29

re-estimated from the neighboring points using the model. Cross-validation provides important evidence of the performance measures for the interpolation methods (Delbari et al. 2013; Adhikary et al. 2017). The mean error (ME) and root mean-squared error (RMSE) were adopted to evaluate the performance of predicted errors in a cross-validation procedure for kriging and cokriging and defined as follows (Bourennane et al. 2000): ME ¼

n 1X ðZ  ðxi Þ  Z ðxi ÞÞ N i¼1

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi n 1X ðZ  ðx i Þ  Z ðx i ÞÞ2 RMSE ¼ N i¼1

ð6Þ

ð7Þ

The terms Z*(xi) and Z(xi) are the observed and predicted values at points xi; N is the sample size. The ME should be close to zero for unbiased methods, and the RMSE should be small for an accurate prediction (Bourennane et al. 2000). The method that yields the smallest value of ME and RMSE is considered as the best fitted one (Ahmadi and Sedghamiz 2007; Rouhani and Wackernagel 1990; Cheng et al. 2007).

5

Result and Discussion

In this study, the pattern of groundwater level fluctuations is investigated, for four monitoring wells numbered 16, 17, 18 and 29, recorded from 1997 to 2006 and located in an unconfined coastal aquifer in Sfax (Tunisia). These wells were not always collected in the same months and contain 52, 68, 66 and 47 samples, respectively. The hydrographs (water level vs. time) for the observation wells (16, 17, 18 and 29) from 1997 to 2006 generally have a low fluctuation and indicate a steady water level decrease in the water table at an average rate of 0,2 m/ year (Fig. 3a, b). They are characterized by several missing values over the time series. Table 1 provides summary statistics for the studied groundwater wells and indicates that piezometers 17 and 29, located 42 km apart, have the maximum and the minimum number of gaps in their data series, respectively. The coefficients of variation are about 20% and 44% for piezometers 16 and 17, reflecting the temporal variation of groundwater level in this locality. To assess the use of cokriging for reconstructing groundwater levels, Pearson’s r correlation coefficient values were carried out based on simple bivariate correlations between groundwater data sets. One can see from Table 2 that there are strong correlations (r > 0.9) between the studied groundwater level time series. Then, cokriging can be made between short groundwater level time series of piezometer 29 (primary variable) and long groundwater level

time series for piezometric stations (16, 17 and 18), as auxiliary variables. However, due to low correlation coefficients between the prediction variable (monthly piezometric records) and the co-variables (rainfall and air temperature records), interpolation using cokriging cannot be used to infer missing groundwater level data (Triki et al. 2014). To study the cross-correlation effect between the selected groundwater level time series, the experimental variograms for the available data at the time as well as the cross-variogram were computed. The variogram is a useful graphical tool for assessing stationarity and periodicity in time series analysis (De Iaco et al. 2013). In this case study, due to the presence of a long-term trend in the original groundwater level time series, experimental variograms were only computed for lags unaffected by this trend (lag equal to 15 months). All direct variograms c(Ʈ) ascend in a linear manner but do not increase more rapidly than Ʈ2, then intrinsic stationarity is admissible. Moreover, these variograms have a small component of the nugget effect. Thus, we note that the groundwater level fluctuation of each well is severely time correlated and depicts a strong temporal structure. Moreover, the experimental cross-variograms indicated generally a positive temporal cross-correlation (Fig. 4). The next step consists of fitting to the experimental variograms and cross-variograms analytical models. The hulls, limiting values of model that would hold if correlation was perfect, are also reported (Kitanidis 1996). The best-fit variogram models of these groundwater levels time series were a combination of two basic structures: a nugget effect with an intrinsic power model, which can be used for the solution of interpolation problems. The derived equation that represents the power model with a nugget component C0 is as follows (Kitanidis 1996):  C0 þ hg s [ 0 ð8Þ cð sÞ 0; s¼0 with nugget component C0  0, the coefficient Ɵ > 0 and the exponent 0 < η < 2. Figure 4 shows the simple and cross-experimental variograms with the fitted models. It is seen that the cross-variograms models are generally quite close to the upper dotted lines of maximum correlation. For the reconstruction of the groundwater levels, OK, OCK and IDW interpolation methods are conducted on the subset 16, 17, 18 and 29. Figure 5a–d shows the interpolated series, obtained by kriging, cokriging and IDW. The distributions of data interpolated by IDW are rather spiky, which might not reflect reality, but those interpolated by kriging are clearly smoothed. However, estimated values obtained with cokriging follow the trend of the observed groundwater

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I. Triki et al.

a

well 29

b

well 18

Groundwater level (m)

130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90

Fig. 3 a Hydrographs of observation wells 16 and 17 containing missing values represented by discontinuous time series. b Hydrographs of observation wells 18 and 29

Table 1 Statistics of the selected piezometric stations and the percentage of missing data for each piezometer Well No.

Installation date

Missing value (%) (1997– 2006)

Average annual water level fluctuation (m/year)

Min. (m)

16

1983

52

− 0.27

2.2

5.1

3.9

20

17

1983

38

− 0.19

− 2.3

− 0.4

− 1.1

44

18

1997

40

− 0.17

119

122.2

121

0.4

29

1999

57

− 0.21

107

108.8

108

0.3

Max. (m)

Mean (m)

CV (%)

Max. maximum; Min. minimum; CV coefficients of variation

Table 2 Pearson correlation matrix for selected piezometric stations

Well No.

16

17

29

16

1

17

0.98

1

29

0.97

0.96

1

18

0.93

0.92

0.95

18

1

Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction …

31

Fig. 4 Experimental and the fitted temporal simple and cross-variograms of monthly measured groundwater levels by wells 16, 17, 18 and 29

levels in a more realistic fashion. Furthermore, cokriging method can be applied to the estimation of data sets with large proportions of missing values. For instance, at the beginning of the time series of well 29, missing segment of data was identified from January 1997 to April 1999. The cokriging predicted missing values of well from optimal consideration of the pattern of auto and cross-correlation among measurements of wells 16, 17 and 18, which are better sampled.

Moreover, the cokriging prediction standard deviation shows an average of 0,04 m, 0,03 m, 0,02 m and 0,03 m, respectively, at the wells 16, 17, 18 and 29. In addition, the cokriging standard deviation associated with each predicted missing value can be used as an indicator to identify potentially poor estimates (Fig. 5). It is clear that the reliability decreases gradually as the missing rate increases. In addition to visual examination of the reconstructed time series for wells 16, 17, 18 and 29, the different

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Fig. 5 Comparison of the reconstructed groundwater levels using IDW kriging and cokriging for wells 16 (a), 17 (b), 18 (c) and 29 (d)

cokriging standard deviaon Observed groundwater level Reconstructed groundwater level using Cokriging Reconstructed groundwater level using Kriging Reconstructed groundwater level using IDW

(a) 0.4

4 0.2

3

0

Cokriging Standard deviaon (m)

2

0.6

(b) 0.4 0.2 0

122

0.6

(C) 0.4

122 121

0.2

121 120

0

Groundwater level (m)

109 109

0.6

(d)

108 108 107

0

Cokriging standard deviaon (m)

Groundwater level (m)

123

Cokriging standard deviaon (m)

Groundwater level (m)

Groundwater level (m)

5

cokriging standard deviaon (m)

0.6

6

Temporal Groundwater Level Prediction … Table 3 Results of the cross-validation method applied for IDW, kriging and cokriging

Well No.

33 ME (m) IDW

OCK

IDW

OK

OCK

16

0.006

− 0.002

0.001

0.107

0.100

0.098

17

0.002

0.001

− 0.0009

0.152

0.134

0.078

18

− 0.010

0.001

0.0009

0.129

0.118

0.055

29

− 0.006

0.003

− 0.001

0.088

0.075

0.069

interpolation techniques are quantitatively compared through cross-validation (Delbari et al. 2013). Two error measures, namely ME and RMSE, are used to identify the best interpolator for each well. As shown in Table 3, for wells 16, 17, 18 and 29, the ME indicated the OCK was less biased than OK and IDW. In addition, values of the RMSE, when predicting by OCK, are smaller than prediction values using the OK and IDW. The results show that OCK was the most accurate prediction method.

6

RMSE (m) OK

Conclusion(s)

In this study, a groundwater monitoring network is already designed, but the monthly water level measurements obtained from the monitoring wells are not sufficiently dense in time. Accordingly, different univariate (inverse distance weighing and ordinary kriging) and multivariate (ordinary cokriging) interpolation methods are used for the estimation of missing monthly groundwater levels at four observation wells. Primarily, the groundwater levels at the selected sites were analyzed to observe the variation of the cross-variograms. Thus, variography revealed the absence of temporal periodicities such as periodic seasonal cycles, climatic and monthly cycles. However, a high temporal correlation between groundwater level fluctuations can be observed at the selected wells. Then, the application of temporal cokriging to the under sampled time series allows us to reduce the uncertainty of the groundwater level estimation. The different interpolation techniques are compared through cross-validation, according to ME and RMSE calculation. Results indicate that the geostatistical methods (kriging, and cokriging) outperform the deterministic methods in reconstruction of groundwater level data. Results also indicate that among the geostatistical methods, the OCK had a better performance for predicting missing groundwater levels data. Thus, incorporation of the secondary information into the temporal interpolation of groundwater levels at the wells causes both an improved estimate and a reduction in the uncertainty.

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Integration of Electromagnetic Method and Resistivity Depth Sounding in the Evaluation of Groundwater Potentials of Araromi Phases 1 and 2, Akungba-Akoko, Southwestern Nigeria Olumuyiwa Odundun and Ayomide Ademujimi

Abstract

Highlights

Two geophysical techniques, the electromagnetic (EM) and vertical electrical sounding (VES), were employed in Araromi area of Akungba-Akoko with an aim of delineating the subsurface units and evaluating the groundwater potential of the area. Geonics EM 34-3 was used for the electromagnetic profiling. Vertical electrical sounding was conducted with the ABEM Terrameter SAS 1000C using the Schlumberger array. A total of 11 electromagnetic profiles of length 1.3 km were traversed, and 11 vertical electrical soundings were established. The interpretation of the electrical sounding data was quantitative. It involved partial curve matching and computer iteration techniques using WinResist software. Three to four distinct subsurface geologic layers were identified from the geoelectric layers. These include lateritic clay/sandy topsoil, clayey weathered layer, partially weathered/fractured basement, and the fresh basement. The layers have resistivity and thickness values of 42–1493 Ω-m and 0.3–1.5 m, 65–564 Ω-m and 0.8– 5.0 m, 170–2690 Ω-m, and 1.3 m to infinity, 1497 Ω-m to infinity, and 0.2 m to infinity, respectively. The depth to bedrock varied from 0.6 to 5.4 m. Bedrock relief was generally uneven, with elevations that varied between 324 and 336 m above sea level. The thickness of the overburden showed generally thin overburden (< 5.4 m). Groundwater resource development is considered feasible in few places in the study area with considerable depth of weathered/fractured zone.

• Provision and accessibility of groundwater using geophysical techniques in low-water supply regions • Lithological and structural information from geophysical survey

Keywords

Depth




Electromagnetic




Groundwater




Schlumberger

O. Odundun (&) Department of Earth Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria A. Ademujimi Hensek Integrated Services Limited, Uyo, Nigeria

1

Introduction

The springing up of new houses, estates, and other urban settlements across Nigeria calls for individual development of water supply. Moreover, Akungba-Akoko is an area with a shortage of surface water. This is even more pronounced during the dry seasons. Groundwater, which is found to exist below the surface within soil pores, fractures of rocks, and other weak geological features or zones, has become an essential source of potable water for both domestic and industrial uses. The location of the water (beneath the earth surface) makes it safe from pollution and evaporation. The importance of the knowledge of aquifer characteristics has been studied (Bello et al. 2019) and found helpful in determining depth to bedrock, natural flow, availability, quantity, and quality of the groundwater. Combination of electrical and electromagnetic methods is valuable in groundwater studies basically because the geologic properties that are critical to hydrogeological studies can be correlated with signatures derived from electrical resistivity (Jika and Mamah 2014). The study area takes part of the Pre-Cambrian Basement Complex of Nigeria and is believed to have been affected by various geological events such as deformation, metamorphism, and remobilization among others (Rahaman 1988). The basement rock exposures are however found as low lying outcrops at few places in the surveyed area particularly where basement is shallow and erosional activities are active. Moreover, references (Rahaman 1988; Rahaman and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_4

35

36

O. Odundun and A. Ademujimi

Kogbe 1976) and (Ogunyele et al. 2019) show that the area is underlain by Migmatite–Gneiss–Quartzite complex with granite gneiss being the major rock unit (Fig. 1). The minor units include mafic, pegmatite, biotite gneiss, charnockite, garnet–sillimanite gneiss, and quartzite. The study area is sandwiched between two parallel prominent east–west ridges/inselbergs of granite gneiss composition found at the northern and southern parts. The feature creates a broad valley for groundwater resource development.

2

Materials and Methods

Geophysical data was acquired using the combined application of electromagnetic and electrical resistivity methods. The electromagnetic method, with the aid of EM 34-3 equipment, was used to delineate fractures and contact zones (i.e., the points with the highest conductivity values) in each traverse, which were marked for further probing by electrical resistivity method. A total of eleven (11) traverses were established. The electrical resistivity survey in the form of the vertical electrical sounding (VES) was acquired using Schlumberger array. A total of eleven (11) VES stations were occupied across the study area. The electrode spacing varied between 1 and 50 m with a maximum spread length of 100 m. The Abem SAS 1000 resistivity meter was used to

Fig. 1 Map of study area showing rock distribution and cross section (Ogunyele et al. 2019)

acquire the field data. The resistivity data was presented as field curves (by plotting the apparent resistivity (qa) against AB/2 or half the spread length on a bi-logarithmic paper). The data was interpreted qualitatively by visual inspection of the field curves and further interpreted quantitatively by partial curve matching (Koefoed 1979) using master curves and auxiliary point charts of (Zohdy 1965; Orellana and Mooney 1966; Keller and Frischnecht 1966) to obtain initial estimates of resistivity and thickness of the various geoelectric layers at each VES location. Based on the method of Vander-Velpen (2004), these geoelectric parameters were used as starting model for a fast 1-D computer-assisted interpretation. The program took the manually derived parameter as a starting geoelectric model, successively improved on it until the error was reduced to an acceptable level (RMS of less than 10%). The improved geoelectric parameters were used to generate geoelectric cross section.

3

Results

The electromagnetic data are presented as profiles of apparent conductivity against station position while the results of the vertical electrical sounding (VES) measurements are presented in form of tables, VES curve types,

Integration of Electromagnetic Method and Resistivity …

37

geoelectric sections, and maps for evaluating the groundwater potential of the study area. However, the qualitative interpretation applied to the quantitative interpretation results of the depth sounding curves enabled the classification of the VES data into curve types. The classification ranged from simple three electrical layers to four-layered curves arising from the layer resistivity combinations.

8.26 and 9.50 m mhos/m with an average value of 8.86 m mhos/m. The field curves obtained within the study area are the H, A, K, HA, KH, and HKH types. KH has the highest percentage: 27.272%. H, A, and K curve types have the occurrence of 18.182%, while HA and HKH have the least occurrence of 9.091%. Figure 3 shows a typical HKH curve type which suggests subsurface geoelectric configuration favorable for groundwater accumulation. Geoelectric and lithological characteristics

4

Discussion

EM profiles and field curves Eleven (11) electromagnetic (EM) profiles were established in the study area. The points with high conductivities were marked for further probing using electrical resistivity (Schlumberger array) method. An example of such profile is shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2 shows the profile of conductivity against station along traverse 2. The EM traverse was carried out on a profile length of 85 m and on a bearing of 118° from the True North. Measurements are carried out at a station interval of 5 with 20 m coil spacing. It was observed from the profile that the curves of both the horizontal dipole (HD) and vertical dipole (VD) modes behaved unevenly. However, the results of the HD mode show higher conductivity than that of the VD mode almost along the whole of the profile indicating a general decrease in weathering with depth along the profile except at station 5, 10, and 35 m along the profile. The station (5 m) having the highest VD value along the profile was selected for VES investigation. The apparent conductivity along the traverse ranges between

Apparent Conductivity (m mhos/m)

VES2 9.6 9.4 9.2 9 8.8 8.6 8.4 8.2 8

The VES interpretation results were used to present 2-D geoelectric sections displayed in Fig. 4. Four geoelectric layers were delineated which are topsoil, weathered layers, fractured basement, and fresh basement. The topsoil thickness has values ranging between 0.3 and 0.8 m, and resistivity values ranging between 42 and 461 Ωm. These indicate that the topsoil is composed of clay, clayey sand, and sand formation. The geoelectric section delineated a second layer beneath VES 2 location. The layer has a thickness of 5 m and resistivity value of 564 Ωm which is an indication of sandy formation. The third layer is the fractured basement which spreads only beneath VES 10 location: It has a thickness of 1.3 m and a layer resistivity value of 170 Ωm. The fourth layer is composed of fresh basement rock. For VES locations 4, 5, and 8, four geoelectric layers were delineated and these are topsoil, weathered layer, fractured basement, and fresh basement. The topsoil thickness has values ranging between 0.4 and 0.8 m and resistivity values ranging between 86 and 467 Ωm. These indicate that the topsoil is composed of clay, clayey sand, and sand formations. The geoelectric section delineates a second layer beneath VES 4 location which has a thickness of 2.4 m and resistivity value of 86 Ωm indicating clay formation. The third layer is the fractured basement which underlies VES 8 location. It has a layer thickness of 20.2 m and layer resistivity value of 564 Ωm. The fourth layer is composed of fresh basement rock. This layer has a resistivity value tending to infinity. The depth of the top layer of the fresh basement ranges between 0.4 and 3.1 m. Thickness of layers

0

20

40

60

80

Station (m) VD probing 30 m depth HD probing 15 m Depth

Fig. 2 EM terrain conductivity profile along traverse 2

100

The thickness of the topsoil ranges from 0.3 to 1.5 m with the highest thickness values observed at the central part of the study area. This indicates that the topsoil is generally thin with virtually no hydrogeological significance. The thickness of the weathered layer ranges from 0.8 to 5.0 m. This indicates that the area generally has thin weathered layer. The largest thickness was observed at the

38

O. Odundun and A. Ademujimi

Fig. 3 HKH curve type from the study area

Fig. 4 Geoelectric section connecting VES 10, 7, and 2 along the NW–SE direction

northwestern to the southwestern flank of the study area. The thin nature of the weathered basement layer across the zones and the considerable amount of clay make the potentials of groundwater low at those points. Overburdens, which are the loose soil, sand, and gravel lying above a fresh bedrock, include the total depth from the surface to the top of bedrock at each of the VES stations (Oyedele et al. 2013). The depth-to-bedrock varies from 0.4 to 5.3 m. Generally, the study area is covered by thin overburden. The thickest overburden was observed at the southwestern and northwestern flanks of the study area. It can be inferred that the bedrock exhibit an undulating topography. The thin overburden which characterizes most of the study area depicts that drilling of borehole will not pose a lot of challenges to the drillers, as the few areas with very thick overburden may require casing work early enough to prevent a cave-in.

The bedrock relief map of the study area Figure 5 shows a bedrock relief map of the study area, illustrating topographic elevations of the bedrock obtained by removing the overburden thickness from the surface elevations at the respective VES stations. The map delineates a series of bedrock ridges and depressions (northeastern flank) within the surveyed area. The bedrock ridges are increasing toward the southern, southwestern, and southeastern flanks of the study area (up to 336 m). Whereas the bedrock ridges are also decreasing toward the northern flank of the study area (326–324 m). These bedrock ridges are areas of relatively thin overburden cover which reveal that the area is of low groundwater potential. The only depression (northeastern flank) encountered at the study area shows promising groundwater potential zone because it will serve as groundwater collection center.

Integration of Electromagnetic Method and Resistivity …

39

Fig. 5 Bedrock relief map of the study area

Groundwater potential evaluation

5 The groundwater evaluation of the study area is based on the thickness of the overburden, the resistivity of the weathered layer, and the resistivity (with the depth) of the fracture zones. This is because the nature of the weathered layer and its thickness is important parameters in groundwater potential evaluation of a basement complex terrain (Clark 1985; Bala and Ike 2001). The groundwater potential map (Fig. 6) of the study area is produced so as to draw final conclusion from the evaluated maps of the area. The study area is generally classified to be of low groundwater potential due to the relatively thin overburden and varied resistivity with high clay (which is only porous and not permeable) content. Nevertheless, zones of considerable depth in which fractures (which harbor the main aquifer unit) are detected and are found to be more than 20 m deep with low clay content (i.e., average resistivity values ranging between 564 and 671 Ωm) are considered to be an aquifer with medium groundwater potential (VES 8 and 9).

Conclusion(s)

The results of this study have been useful in showing the geoelectrical and hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifer present in the study area. It has also proved to be quite successful for mapping outcrop types, bedrock reliefs, formation, and fractures which would not have been at the surface. Feasible groundwater pockets like weathered zones and fractured zones were delineated in the study area. The bedrock relief map delineated a series of bedrock ridges which is covered by relatively thin overburden. The bedrock ridges are observed to be variably fractured. The only visible depression was at VES 8 signifying zone of groundwater accumulation. Additionally, the relatively low resistivity weathered/fractured basement constitutes the main aquifer. Generally, the area was zoned to contain low groundwater potential. However, the productive zones in the study area which is rated to be of average groundwater potential

40

O. Odundun and A. Ademujimi

825550 21

825500

18

825450

15 12

825400 9

4

825350

6

5

1

3

8

3

825300

0

2

825250

6

825200

1

9

7

825150

825100

1

LEGEND VES Point

Roa

825050

Goelectric Section Lines EM Traverses

825000

Medium groundwater potential zone

824950

824900 801400

Low groundwater potential zone

801450

801500

801550

801600

0

801650

801700

100

801750

801800

801850

801900

801950

802000

802050

802100

802150

Fig. 6 Groundwater potential map of the study area

zones are found around VES stations 8 and 9 due to the considerable depth of the fracture zone (greater than 20 m). As a result of these, the water in the aquifer can only be used for domestic purposes. The method of study is a cost-effective approach as the integration of both methods, for a more reliable result, would require only 200–300 USD. 2500 USD may still be required (depending on the depth to fracture) for the “after-survey” water borehole drilling, pump installation, and testing. The

latter is based on the provision that some residents within the study area may be willing to overlook the low groundwater potential result in their own zone. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Dr. O. Akintorinwa and Mr. A. D. Adebiyi of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, for their technical input in this work. Field assistances, rendered by Adedibu Sunny Akingboye and Olusegun Ololade, are very much appreciated. Special gratitude also goes to the reviewers for the suggestions and constructive comments.

Integration of Electromagnetic Method and Resistivity …

41

Appendix

VES No.

Layers

Resistivity (Ωm)

Thickness (m)

Depth (m)

Variation in layers resistivity (Ωm)

Curve type

Inferred lithology

1

1 2 3

132 65 100,000

0.7 2.5 –

0.7 3.2 –

q1 > q2 < q3

H

Topsoil Weathered layer Fresh basement

2

1 2 3

42 564 100,000

0.3 5.0 –

0.3 5.4 –

q1 < q2 < q3

A

Topsoil Weathered layer Fresh basement

3

1 2 3

132 110 120 17,618

0.9 1.0 1.9 –

0.9 1.9 3.8 –

q1 > q2 < q3 < q4

HA

Topsoil Weathered layer Weathered layer Fresh basement

4

1 2 3

467 86 100,000

0.7 2.4 –

0.7 3.1 –

q1 > q2 < q3

H

Topsoil Weathered layer Fresh basement

5

1 2

86 55,706 100,000

0.4 0.2 -

0.4 0.6 -

q1 < q2 < q3

A

Topsoil Fresh basement Fresh basement

6

1 2 3

129 5553 2690

1.5 0.3 –

1.5 1.9 –

q1 < q2 > q3

K

Topsoil Fresh basement Fractured basement

7

1 2 3

296 6624 2464

0.8 2.0 –

0.8 2.8 –

q1 < q2 > q3

K

Topsoil Fresh basement Fractured basement

8

1 2 3 4

734 38,728 564 100,000

0.8 0.5 20.2 –

0.8 1.3 21.5 –

q1 < q2 > q3 < q4

KH

Topsoil Fresh basement Fracture basement Fresh basement

9

1 2 3 4

1493 298 1497 671 100,000

0.6 0.8 1.7 17.5 –

0.6 1.3 3.1 20.5 –

q1 > q2 < q3 > q4 < q5

HKH

Topsoil Weathered layer Fresh basement Fractured basement Fresh basement

10

1 2 3 4

461 4030 170 100,000

0.6 0.2 1.3 -

0.6 0.8 2.1 -

q1 < q2 > q3 < q4

KH

Topsoil Fresh basement Fractured basement Fresh basement

11

1 2 3 4

227 5601 1980 99,044

0.5 79.3 12.5 –

0.5 79.7 92.7 –

q1 < q2 > q3 < q4

KH

Topsoil Fresh basement Fractured basement Fresh basement

42

References A.E. Bala, E.C. Ike, The aquifer of the crystalline rocks in Gusau area, Northwestern Nigeria. J. Mining Geol. 37(2), 177–184 (2001) H.I. Bello, U.D. Alhassan, K.A. Salako, A.A. Rafiu, A.A. Adetona, J. Shehu, Geoelectrical investigation of groundwater potential at Nigerian Union of Teachers housing estate, Paggo, Minna, Nigeria. Appl. Water. Sci. 9(52), 1–12 (2019) L. Clark, Groundwater abstraction from basement complex areas of Africa. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 18, 25–35 (1985) H.T. Jika, L.I. Mamah, Application of electromagnetic method and electrical resistivity sounding in hydrogeological studies, a case study of Vandeikya area, central Nigeria. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 3 (2) (2014) G.V. Keller, F.C. Frischnecht, Electrical Methods in Geophysical Prospecting (Pergamon Press, Oxford U. K, 1966) O. Koefoed, Resistivity Sounding Measurements (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., New York, 1979) A.C. Ogunyele, O.A. Oluwajana, I.Q. Ehinola, B.E. Ameh, T.A. Salaudeen, Petrochemistry and petrogenesis of the Precambrian

O. Odundun and A. Ademujimi basement complex rocks around Akungba-Akoko, southwestern Nigeria. Mater. Geoenviron. 66(3), 173–184 (2019) E. Orellana, H.M. Mooney, Master tables and curves for vertical electrical sounding over layered structure, in Interciencia Costanilla de Los Angeles (Madrid, Spain, 1966), pp. 15 E.A.A. Oyedele, T. Oyedele, K. Oyedele, Geoelectrical data analysis to demarcate groundwater pockets in Ado-Ekiti, southwest Nigeria. Int. J. Water Resour. Environ. Eng. 5(11), 609–615 (2013) M.A. Rahaman, Review of basement geology of southwestern Nigeria, in Geology of Nigeria. ed. by C.A. Kogbe (Elizabethan Publication Co., Lagos, 1976), pp. 41–58 M.A. Rahaman, Recent advances in the study of basement complex of Nigeria, in 1st Symposium: Precambrian Geology of Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, pp. 11–41, 1988 B.P.A. Vander-Velpen, RESIST Version 1.0. M.Sc. Research Project, ITC, Delft, Netherlands, 2004 A.A.R. Zohdy, The auxiliary point method of electrical sounding interpretation and its relationship to dar Zorrouk parameters. Geophysics 30, 644–650 (1965)

Contribution to the Study of Fluoride Ion Concentrations in Groundwater and Its Impact on the Desert Areas of Southeastern Algeria AbdelAziz Kadri, Samir Kateb, Kais Baouia, and Saber Kouadri

Abstract

1

Dental fluorosis is one of the most common health problems in North Africa. In southeastern Algeria, we are witnessing a “silent” fluorosis among citizens, considering that underground water is the only source for drinking. However, the concentration of fluorine ion exceeds the value allowed by the World Health Organization (1.5 ppm). For the temperate areas, dental fluorosis occurs when the concentration of fluoride in water exceeds 1.5–2 ppm. For this reason, we wish to present this work consisting of definition and mapping of a fluorosis risk in this region to identify the spots with the highest concentration in fluoride. The main objective of this study is to determine the fluoride tenure in water. The results indicate that 100% of the water wells of Pliocene aquifer are characterized by excessive levels of fluoride and more than 40% of the wells of the Senonian aquifer. These are the waters of the Albian and Lower Devonian aquifer level with values below the recommended standard. The high fluoride concentrations in water can be linked to volcanic activities, the presence of thermal waters especially those with high pH, gases emitted from earth’s crust, and granitic and gneissic rocks, whereas anthropogenic sources of fluoride in water are mainly pesticides and industrial waste. Therefore, more efforts should concentrate on finding appropriate defluoridation techniques to be applied while considering the cost of operation, efficiency, practicability, easy application, and environmental impact. Keywords




Fluoride Water Concentration




Health




Fluorosis




South




A. Kadri (&)
S. Kateb
K. Baouia
S. Kouadri Laboratory of Water and Environment Engineering in Saharan Environment, Ouargla, Algeria

Introduction

A considerable increase in population and an economic and social development has been achieved in Algeria during the last two decades, accompanied by the need for water treatment projects to make the water potable or suitable for industrial use. But, what distinguishes the desert regions of the south, despite its size, is the scarcity of rainfall and surface water resources. Also, the considered groundwater is the only source for most of the southern regions, whether urban or industrial. In some cases, groundwater is not directly admitted for human consumption because of concentrations of certain ions exceeding Algerian standards for drinking water quality such as fluorides. Due to the importance of the topic, many researches were conducted dealing with methods of removing or reducing fluorine (Bannoud and Darwich 2003) In fact, scientific research were conducted on the distribution of fluorine concentrations in groundwater (Lachouri 2009) and in the most important foods in the region (Amar 2007). This paper contributes to studying the distribution of concentrations in the various wells and hydrogeological layers exploited with geospatial modeling using GIS. 1. Study Area This study contributes to highlighting the southeastern slope of Algeria, in particular, Ouargla and Ilizi, as they are the two largest Algerian Desert Cities in terms of industrial energy activity and in terms of urbanization and also, as numerous physiochemical analyses of groundwater prove that there are concentrations of fluorine that attract attention, especially since the only source of water supply is this groundwater that is often polluted by fluoride (Fig. 1). 2. The Presence of Fluoride Ions in Water: Fluorine is the most passive and least electronegative

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_5

43

44

A. Kadri et al.

Fig. 1 Geographical localization

element in nature. Coincident with the fluorescent state CaF2 fluorinated apatite Ca10F2 (PO4) 6 and cryolite Na3AlF6. Fluorine, a gas at normal temperature, is slightly yellowish, very effective. Countries and organizations depend on the amount of fluoride in drinking water on the process of the food system, temperature, humidity, and the amount of water consumed to determine the amount of fluoride in drinking water. The World Health Organization has determined the concentration of fluorine in terms of average air and water to be between 0.8 and 1.5 mg/l. The presence of fluoride ions in groundwater often comes from the dissolution of rocks. Fluoride contents can extend

more than tens of mg/l in water taken essentially from areas with volcanic activity, or containing significant proportions of phosphates (Bannoud and Darwich 2003). 3. Effects and Nuisances Most foods contain fluoride, mainly fish and tea, but the water consumed is the main carrier of fluoride intake. Fluoride ion is incorporated into teeth and bones. Low-dose fluorides prevent tooth decay; the minimum effective concentration being 0.5 mg/l. At concentrations > 1.5 mg/l, the fluorine ion promotes dental fluorosis, often in the form of a change in tooth enamel causing dental fluorosis (yellow or brown spots on the enamel), or a chalky opaque appearance with streaks or

Contribution to the Study of Fluoride Ion Concentrations …

45

Fig. 2 A sample of dental fluorosis Table 1 Adverse effects of fluoride ions (Potalier 1997)

Dose (mg/L)

The effects

< 0.5 0.5/1.5 1.5/4 >4

Fluoride deficiency to prevent tooth decay The optimal dosage to prevent cavities Risk of poisoning on the dental port Risk of bone intoxication (bone and joint pain with deformities)

pitting. Water with a fluoride concentration between 3 and 6 mg/l can cause skeletal fluorosis (bone and joint pain with deformities) (Patrick 2003). The fluoridation of water is advisable because it can lead to an overall excess of fluorine ingested through water, food, and also through the use of certain hygiene products (fluoride toothpastes) (Table 1). 4. Algerian Norms According to Algerian standards, fluorides depend on the ambient temperature since the consumption of drinking water increases with the increase of the ambient temperature. The admissible concentration at low temperatures is 1.5 mg/l, but for a high ambient temperature (> 25 °C) the admissible concentration becomes 0.5 mg/l (Potalier 1997).

2

samples of groundwater were collected in the upper aquifer of the plain of Ouargla and Illizi from drilling that covers the majority of the aquifer. Samples taken from groundwater were stored in 250 ml plastic bottles. Before sampling, the bottles are rinsed with water from the borehole. There are several methods of fluoride analysis in drinking water, such as spectrophotometric methods. Spectrophotometry is a quantitative analytical method that consists of measuring the absorbance of a chemical substance. The closer the sample is, the lighter it absorbs and the greater the absorbance is. To measure the absorbance, which contains information on the concentration of a chemical species, a spectrophotometer is used. The measurement of the influx concentration was carried out at the Laboratory of Water and Environmental Engineering in the Saharan Region and the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Kasdi Merbah-Ouargla University.

Materials and Methods

The analysis of water chemistry is an essential supplement to the hydrogeological study of groundwater, subsequently the management of water resources. It allows providing extensive information of the aquifer, the nature of the banking, power and circulation areas, and the portability of the water (Nabbou et al. 2018). The study of chemical analysis concerning the concentration of fluoride is based on a companion sampling conducted between January and February 2019. A total of 41

3

Results and Discussion

The water studied was bottled from 41 wells, with fluorine concentrations ranging from 0.35 to 4 mg/l. These natural concentrations are probably due to the characteristic solubility of fluorine, which is the geological composition of underground reservoirs. The geology of the water source, the flow rate of water in underground reservoirs (Smith and Martell 1976), the solubility of fluorinated compounds

46

(Gupta et al. 2005), the chemical capacity of water to melt fluorine (Livingstone 1963), with the reaction temperature between water and rocks (Marutatmaja Rao and Mohan Rao 1988), and the nature of the rocks that make up the water reservoir, depth of water is used (Kim and Jeong 2005; Bhagavan and Raghu 2005). The water from the wells of the two layers of Mio-Pliocene (Fig. 3) and Senonian (Fig. 4), which are the most used in the region, has the highest concentration. The results of the water analyzes showed that 60% of the exploited wells exceed the fluoride ion concentration of the World Health Organization standards (1.5 mg/l), and we also record that all the wells of the Mio-Pliocene layer (Fig. 3) exceed the concentration of fluorine ions of the World Health Organization standards for health, while more than 42% of the well water of the Senonian layer (Fig. 4) increases its fluorine concentration to the allowable concentration, knowing that a percentage greater than 57%, with a concentration greater than 1.5 mg/l of fluoride ion being previously recorded in the region (Lachouri 2009; Amar 2007; Djellouli 2005; Safer 2006; Zobeidi 2010). While well water from the Albian layer (Fig. 5) and Lower Devonian layer exploited in Illizi in particular (Fig. 6), its fluorine ion concentration is below the permissible concentration (1.5 mg/l). This is due to the effect of the water temperature and the deposition of fluorine ions with the

Fig. 3 Iso-content maps of fluorine ion (F−) in Mio-Pliocene layer

A. Kadri et al.

carbonate. At the temperature of alpine water (55–60 °C), bicarbonate (HCO3−) is converted into carbonate (CO32−), according to the following reaction: 2 2HCO2 3 ! CO3 þ CO2 þ H2 O

As for the fluoride ion (F−), it is deposited by absorbing it on the surface of calcium carbonate particles (CaCO3) whose properties are that the dominant charge on its surface is positive; therefore, the fluorine ion is absorbed and deposited according to the following reaction: Ca2 þ þ CO2 3 ! CaCO3ðsÞ Table 2 summarizes the most important statistical properties of the fluoride concentrations in the various exploited layers of the study area. On the other hand, a study included the IGRAC project (www.igrac.nl/and/orUnicef), (http://www.unicef.org/wes/ fluoride.pdf) where high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater were reported. Additional regions were identified as potential sources of fluoride-rich groundwater on the basis of a geological map of the world as shown on the map of the African continent. These areas are interpreted as a potential fluoride-rich environment, based on their climate and geology, and often also based on neighboring fluoride contaminated countries

Contribution to the Study of Fluoride Ion Concentrations …

47

Fig. 4 Iso-content maps of fluorine ion (F−) in Senonian layer

with comparable climate and geology with a high probability due to the geological formation of a subterranean region contaminated with fluoride. It is located in a very dry or arid region (Fig. 7). In Algeria, the endemic fluorosis was first reported by Vincent at the Pasteur Institute in 1936. Subsequently, various epidemiological studies (Azout and Abraham 1978; Poey 1976; Salah and Arab 2007) showed that the highest incidence of chronic fluoride intoxication was in the northeastern Sahara and was largely of hydrogeochemical origin. Fluoride ions can be combined in many minerals such as fluorite, cryolite, or fluoroapatite, and some mica in the composition of clays (Achour and Youcef 2014).

4

Conclusion and Recommendation

The study showed that the fluorine ion concentration in the potable water in the region of southeastern Algeria fluctuates between 0.35 and 4 mg/l; and that 60% of the used Mio-Pliocene and Senonian wells have higher concentrations than the WHO standards. These wells require taking procedures that reduce the excess fluoride. If we take into account the conditions of the region and data, we recommend using the simplest method which is diluting this water with water containing less fluoride ions (Raymond 1990). This method is considered as one of the low-cost and

48

A. Kadri et al.

Fig. 5 Iso-content maps of fluorine ion (F−) in Albian layer

Fig. 6 Iso-content maps of fluorine ion (F−) in Lower Devonian layer

Table 2 Main statistical parameters (ppm)

Layer

Max.

Mean

Min.

Rang.

SI

Mio-Pliocene

4

2.12

1.62

2.38

1.22

Senonian

1,60

1.43

1.23

0.37

0.50

Albian

0,96

0.84

0.70

0.26

0.43

Lower Devonian

1

0.51

0.35

0.65

0.20

Contribution to the Study of Fluoride Ion Concentrations …

49

Fig. 7 Fluoride distribution in African groundwater. Figure reproduced with permission of IGRAC

sustainable defluoridation techniques, either at communal level or at the point-of-use (Onipe et al. 2020).

References S. Achour, L. Youcef, Defluorination of Algerian drinking water by precipitation and adsorption methods. Appl. Mechan. Mater. 641– 642, 365–370 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ amm.641-642.365 M. Amar, Fluoride Contents in Ground Waters and the Main Consumed Foods (Dates and Tea) in Southern Algeria Region, pp. 122–101, 2007 B. Azout, J. Abraham, Annals of National Agronomy Institute of Algiers, vol. 8 (1978), p. 5 A. Bannoud, Y. Darwich, Elimination des ions fluorures et manganèses contenus dans les eaux par nanofiltration. Deslalination 206(2007), 449–456 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.02.071

S.V. Bhagavan, V. Raghu, Utility of check dams in dilution of fluoride concentration in ground water and the resultant analysis of blood serum and urine of villagers, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ. Geochem. Health 27, 97–108 (2005) H.M. Djellouli, S. Taleb, D. Harrache-Chettouh, S. Djaroud, Physicochemical quality of drinking water in Southern Algeria: study of excess mineral salts. Sante 15, 109–112 (2005) S.K. Gupta, R.D. Deshpande, M. Agarwal, B.R. Raval, Origin of high fluoride in groundwater in the North Gujarat-Cambay region, India. Hydrogeol. J. 13, 596–605 (2005) K. Kim, G.Y. Jeong, Factors influencing natural occurrence of fluoride-rich groundwaters: a case study in the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula. Chemosphere 58, 1399–1408 (2005) A. Lachouri, Distribution des ions fluorures dans les eaux et les principaux alimentes. Evaluation du risque de la fluorose dans deux communautés du Sud-Est Algérien (Ouargla et El-Oued) (Thèse de Magister, Université de Ouargla, 2009) D.A. Livingstone, Chemical composition of rivers and lakes, Geological Survey (U.S.), pp. 52–61, 1963

50 P.L.K. Marutatmaja Rao, N.V.R. Mohan Rao, Studies on distribution of fluoride in water sources of Hyderabad, AP. (India). J. Fluorine Chem. 41(1), 9–1 (1988) N. Nabbou, M. Belhachemi, T. Merzougui, Y. Harek, B. Nasri, I. Mokadam, Caractérisation de la qualité des eaux souterraines dans le sud de l'Algérie (région de Tindouf), in Excess Fluorine. Dans. Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions. EMCEI 2017. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development), eds. by A. Kallel, M. Ksibi, H. Ben Dhia, N. Khélifi (Springer, Cham, 2018) T. Onipe, J.N. Edokpayi, J.O. Odiyo, A review on the potential sources and health implications of fluoride in groundwater of Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1080/10934529.2020.1770516]

A. Kadri et al. S. Patrick, Guide des analyses de la qualité de l'eau. Edition technique, Chapitre Fluorures, pp. 100–101, 2003 J. Poey, Eur. J. Toxicol 9, 179 (1976) P. Potalier, Mechanisms for the selective rejection of solutes in nanofiltratin mem- brane. Separation Purif. 12, 175–181 (1997) D. Raymond, le traitement des eaux, 2émé édition, pp. 231–235 (1990) M.C. Safer, Le Fluorure Dans Les Eaux Souterraines Du Sud Est Algérien (Thèse de Magister, Université de Ouargla, Bilan Chimique, Problèmes Engendrés et Procédé de Défluorisation, 2006), p. 2006 H. Salah, N. Arab, J. Nuclear Radiochem. Sci. 8(1), 31 (2007) R.M. Smith, A.E. Martell, Critical Stability Constants, vol. 1–4 (Inorganic Ilgands. Plenum Press, New York, 1976) A. Zobeidi, Distribution des ions fluorures dans les eaux et les principaux alimentes consommées dans wilaya El-Oued (Université de Ouargla, Thèse de Magister, 2010)

Groundwater Stability Assessment with Geospatial Modeling Using GIS: A Case Study of Illizi Town, Algeria Saber Kouadri and Samir Kateb

Abstract

1

This paper presents a study of the influence of groundwater quality on supply network pipes in Illizi town, southeast of Algeria by assessing 5 parameters (pH, TDS, TH, TAC, and temperature) from 10 existent wells. All of the wells are used for drinking water supply from the lower Devonian layer. The influence of groundwater on the supply network was assessed by the calculation of Langelier stability index “LSI,” Ryznar stability index “RSI,” and aggressivity index “AI.” The results show that all 10 samples are characterized by a under saturated waters. LSI ranged from – 0.38 to – 0.83, RSI range from 7.34 to 8.33 and AI range from 10.66 to 11.27 which means that the groundwater of the lower Devonian, theoretically, is moderately aggressive. The spatial distribution of Ryznar index was realized using ordinary kriging as a method of interpolation. The map shows that as we move to the ZHUN 103 well, the groundwater’s under saturation increases, although the calculation classified the groundwater as moderately aggressive. But, the presence of iron ions and oxidation process in water plays an opposite role by scaling Fe3+ on interior surfaces of metallic accessories. Keywords





Illizi Lower Devonian index Water stability




Ryznar index




Langelier

S. Kouadri (&)
S. Kateb Laboratory of Water and Environment Engineering in Saharan Environment, University of Kasdi Merbah-Ouargla, PB 147 RP, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria S. Kouadri
S. Kateb Research Laboratory in Exploitation and Development of Natural Resources in Arid Zones, University of Kasdi Merbah-Ouargla, PB 147 RP, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria

Introduction

Groundwater is used for domestic, industrial, and irrigation water supply all over the world. Illizi is located within the arid zone of North Africa where the only source of freshwater is the underground layers. Depending on chemical characteristics, water acquires the capability of either to dissolve or deposit minerals. We call this ability water stability. Water which has the property of dissolving minerals is considered corrosive, and water that tends to deposit minerals is considered scaling. Lead, copper, calcium, and magnesium can be dissolved by aggressive water, while the presence of film of minerals on the interior walls of pipes is an indicator of scaling water. This film could prevent the water supply system from corrosion. On the other hand, the high scaling disposition can be harmful and can clog pipes and damage appliances existing in the water supply system. Therefore, the most desirable water is one that is just slightly scaling (Qasim et al. 2000; Organization 2004; Edwards 2004). Corrosion, which is the process of dissolving materials into the solution, is an etiology of reducing the durability of tanks, reservoirs, pipelines, valves, and pumps. It can also be the cause of water leakage, as well as reducing the chemical and microbial quality of drinking water. Sediment forming and the occurrence of metallic taste in the drinking water are also other consequences of the corrosion (Hiscock 2005; Abbasnia et al. 2018; Khademian et al. 2016). This paper aims to (1) evaluate the stability of the groundwaters of the lower Devonian in Illizi county by calculating three indexes: Langelier saturation index (LSI), Ryznar stability index (RSI), and aggressivity index (AI); (2) modeling the spatial distribution of stability indexes in the study area using GIS; and (3) investigate its influence on water supply system of the city by conducting a system state check.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_6

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52

2

S. Kouadri and S. Kateb

Materials and Methods

Illizi county is located in the extreme southeast of Algeria (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 284,618 km2 and is bordered by three countries on a border of about 1200 km: Tunisia to the northeast, about 25 km, Libya to the east, about 1000 km, and Niger to the south, about 102 km. Inside the borders, the country is limited by Tamanrasset to the west and the county of Ouargla to the north (Baouia et al. 2018). It is divided into six municipalities, Bordj Omar Driss, Deb Deb, In Aménas, Illizi, Djanet, and Bordj El Houes. In this study, we focus on Illizi town which is considered as the administrative capital of the county with an area of 40 km2. According to the national agency of hydrographic network (A.N.R.H), the city of Illizi is built on a plateau land consisting of the lower Devonian clay-sandstone and Emsian clay-sandstone soils and Quaternary. To the north, about 12 km outcrops the middle to upper undifferentiated

Fig. 1 Study area and samples locations

Devonian layers. These are overcome much further north by upper Devonian to Carboniferous layers formed mainly by the Khenig sandstone, upper Famennian at Tournaisien, with average coastlines of 550–650 m which may have peaks exceeding 700 m. This difference in elevation gives rise to a landscape of canyons favoring the runoff of water and the acceleration of flows (Mirzabeygi et al. 2016). Lower Devonian aquifer is recognized in Illizi and its surroundings, particularly in the north, by exploitation from 250 to 1450 m in the regions of Illizi and El Adeb Larach, respectively. The static level relative to the ground varies from one region to another: It is a few centimeters to a few meters in the high areas. On the other hand, water is springing north and east of Illizi. The groundwater of this layer is characterized with the presence of iron (Fe2+) (Mirzabeygi et al. 2015; Alidadi et al. 2015). In the current cross-sectional study, ten (10) samples were totally collected from all over the existent wells of the lower

Groundwater Stability Assessment with Geospatial …

Devonian in the study area. 1.5-L plastic bottles were used in the sampling operation where every bottle has washed with tap water of sample itself. A cool box was used to conserve samples during the period of sampling and transport to the laboratory of “génie de l’eau et de l’environment en milieu saharian, Ouargla.” The experiments were carried out to measure the parameters including temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, total alkalinity (TAC), and total hardness (TH). To do the necessary analysis, we relied on flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), the material referencing under “Analytik jena, novAA 350,” while the physical parameters (pH, TDS and °C) were measured on the field using a multi parameter referencing under “HANNA HI9829.” Langelier stability index (LSI), which is an equilibrium model of water saturation with respect to calcium carbonate, is used to predict the water stability (Asgari et al. 2015). Langelier stability index (LSI) takes the form: LSI ¼ pHs  pH where pHa pHs

the measured water pH the pH at which water with a given calcium content and alkalinity is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate pHs ¼ ð9:3 þ A þ BÞ  ðC þ DÞ

where A ¼ ½log10 ðTDSÞ  1=10 B ¼ 13:12  log 10ð C þ 273Þ þ 34:55 C ¼ log 10 ðCa as CaCO3 Þ0:4 D ¼ log 10 ½alkalinity as CaCo3  Ryznar index is considered as an empirical method to predict water tendencies scaling. John Ryznar in 1944 used Langelier index to develop a new stability index called Ryznar index (Amouei et al. 2017). The Ryznar index is used to predict the scaling or corrosion tendencies of water and expressed as follows: RSI ¼ 2pHspH ¼ pHs  LSI The aggressivity index (AI), originally developed for monitoring water in asbestos pipe, is sometimes substituted for the Langelier index as an indicator of the corrosivity of water (Water Service Ltd. 2004; Bourgeois et al. 2004). AI ¼ pH þ C þ D

53

where C ¼ log 10ðCa as CaCO3 Þ0:4 D ¼ log 10½alkalinity as CaCo3  Table 1 summarizes the criteria used to give an indication of the stability indexes Geographic coordinates of well sites were taken directly from Google Earth. Figure 1 shows the sampling locations. ArcGis 10.2.2 software is used based on ordinary kriging as a method of interpolation to display the severity of corrosion in different regions and analyze results, respectively. Finally, a visit to the existent iron removal station in the city was programmed for the aim of investigating the state of equipments and accessories and evaluating the influence of groundwater before and after the iron removal operation.

3

Results

The properties of drinking water are presented in Table 2. Also, Table 3 shows the water stability indexes in the study area. Three (3) maps (Fig. 2) describe the spatial distribution of Langelier index (LSI), Ryznar stability index (RSI), and aggressivity index (AI) in the study area. The spatial analysis helps to determine how the studied element or parameter is distributed in the study area. Also, it helps in detecting suitable sub-areas to avoid the studied problem. While visiting the iron removal station of Illizi town, we found a precipitation in the interior surface of accessories (Fig. 3) including the flowmeter (Fig. 4).

4

Discussion

Groundwater characteristics Illizi town has an acid groundwater according to the pH analysis results. With a minimum of 6.56 and a maximum of 8.67, all water samples are respecting the guidelines. TDS represents, in the first place, minerals contained in samples, which makes it strongly correlated with conductivity (Ferguson et al. 1995). The study area is characterized with weak levels of total dissolved salts varying from 170.8 to 486 mg/l, respecting the guidelines’ boundaries (1000 mg/l). Total hardness (TH) varies between 330 mg/l as CaCO3 and 650.30 mg/l as CaCO3 with a mean of 455 mg/l as CaCO3. Three samples, ZHUN 103, Ain El Kours, and Tintourha, are above the guideline value. The concentrations of calcium and magnesium control the hardness of water.

54 Table 1 Summary of water stability indices

Table 2 Properties of drinking water

Table 3 Water stability indices

S. Kouadri and S. Kateb Index value

Water condition

LSI > 0

Water is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and scale forming and CaCO3 precipitation may occur

LSI = 0

Water is considered to be neutral. Neither scale forming nor scale removing. Saturated, CaCO3 is in equilibrium. Borderline scale potential

LSI < 0

Water is under saturated with respect to calcium carbonate. Under saturated water has a tendency to remove existing calcium carbonate protective coatings in pipelines and equipment. No potential to scale, the water will dissolve CaCO3

RSI  6

Supersaturated, tend to precipitate CaCO3. The scale tendency increases as the index decrease

6 < RSI < 7

Saturated, CaCO3 is in equilibrium. The calcium carbonate formation probably does not lead to a protective corrosion inhibitor film

RSI  7

Under saturated, tend to dissolve CaCO3. Mild steel corrosion becomes an increasing problem

AI > 12

Water is non-aggressive

10 < AI < 11.9

Water is moderately aggressive

AI < 10

Water is very aggressive

Well

pH

TDS (mg/l)

T (C°)

TH (CaCO3)

TAC (CaCO3)

ZHUN 101

6.56

230

32.6

450

100

ZHUN 102

6.67

177.8

34

330

100

ZHUN 103

6.64

170.8

33.7

510

90

Zone activ

6.6

170.9

34.1

450

80

Ain El Kours

6.58

181.5

32

650

80

Takbalt

6.58

190.4

30.6

430

130

Tintourha

6.59

486

30.8

650

90

Sidi Bouslah

6.57

228

29.7

500

140

Tinemri

6.61

252

32.7

450

130

Belbachir

6.64

235

30.5

460

110

Well

LSI

RSI

AI

ZHUN 101

− 0.70

7.96

10.79

ZHUN 102

− 0.83

8.33

10.66

ZHUN 103

− 0.58

7.80

10.91

Zone active

− 0.60

7.79

10.89

Ain El Kours

− 0.53

7.64

10.95

Takbalt

− 0.61

7.80

10.88

Tintourha

− 0.38

7.34

11.27

Sidi Bouslah

− 0.65

7.87

10.85

Tinemri

− 0.38

7.37

11.24

Belbachir

− 0.62

7.88

10.88

Water–rock interactions Water-type or categories form the basis for one common classification scheme for natural waters. Lithology, solution kinetics and flow patterns of the aquifer control the

hydrochemistry of any facies (Nemčić-Jurec et al. 2019; Kouadri and Samir 2020). Iron presence in groundwater of the lower Devonian justifies the presence of an iron deposit in the geology of the study area. The isolation of

Groundwater Stability Assessment with Geospatial … Fig. 2 Spatial distribution of groundwater stability indexes

55

56

S. Kouadri and S. Kateb

Geospatial analyzes The geospatial distribution of water stability indexes studied in this paper show that the more we move to the point named (ZHUN 103), the more the groundwater of the lower Devonian are predicted to be less saturated, which means a corrosive water threat to the pipelines and any other accessories.

Fig. 3 Replaced valve

Fig. 4 Flowmeter

groundwater from surface exchange does not promote the oxidation of dissolved iron (from Fe2+ to Fe3+), which make their waters ferruginous (Mekhloufi et al. 2020).

Water system supply state check The visit to the iron removal station revealed that even the groundwater of the lower Devonian is moderately aggressive, but the state of accessories proves that the water is scaling. Figure 5 shows the layers formed by groundwater flowing inside a metallic valve. After the visual analyze, we find that the precipitate has a black and rusty red color. The extended aeration of water can promote the hydrolysis reactions of metals (iron, etc.) and thus reduce their solubility in water to promote a better precipitation of these metals (Kouadri and Samir 2020; Mekhloufi et al. 2020). Aeration may also lead to the flotation of particles, in particular iron, by coupling bubble particles, which can further concentrate the particles in the form of larger flocs (Graeme and Jameson 1999). We suggest that the turbulent flow in the pipelines leads to the oxidation of iron ions (Fe2+ to Fe3+). Figure 6 shows the flowmeter used in the station. The flowmeter consists of a magnetic detector for measuring the flow passing through the adduction pipes. The main issue is the formation of a thin layer on the detector’s surface which stops the measuring processes.

5 Groundwater stability As seen in Table 3 and based on Langelier stability index (LSI), we find that 100% of samples where under saturated waters with a tendency to remove existing calcium carbonate protective coatings in pipelines and equipment. According to Ryznar stability index (RSI) all of samples are categorized as under saturated (tend to dissolved CaCO3) and mild steel corrosion becomes an increasing problem. Aggressivity index (AI), with a range between 10.66 and 11.27, indicates that the water is moderately aggressive. The differences between LSI and RSI shown in Table 3 (indicating corrosive or scale forming) can be according to: LSI measures only the directional tendency or driving force for CaCO3 to precipitate or dissolve. It cannot be used as a quantitative measure, as two different waters one with low hardness (corrosive) and the other of high hardness (scale forming) can have the same LSI. On the other hand, RSI makes it possible to distinguish between the two types, as RSI is based on the actual operating results with waters having various saturation indexes (Graeme and Jameson 1999), so it is more reliable.

Conclusion

Through this study, we find that the lower Devonian in Illizi town is characterized with an acid and very hard groundwater, where all pH values are under 7 and the total hardness values range from 330 mg/l as CaCO3 to 650 mg/l as CaCO3. Theoretically and based on the calculations of Langelier saturation index, Ryznar saturation index, and aggressivity index, the groundwater is classified as under saturated (corrosive). A geospatial analysis has been conducted to figure out the distribution of calculated indexes. This part of the study shows that the more we move toward well ZHUN 103, the more the groundwater becomes under saturated. On the other hand, the most suitable groundwater was found in the northwest subarea of the study area (Tintourha and Tinemri). • The visit of iron removal station shows that although the groundwater is classified as under saturated and corrosive water, there is the presence of a precepted layer inside the interior walls of some accessories. We suggest a deeper investigation to discover the main source of this deposit.

Groundwater Stability Assessment with Geospatial … Acknowledgements Our special gratitude and many thanks are forwarded to “Dr. Belmaabedi, Dr. Zegait Rachid, Dr. Mekhloufi Nabil, and all hydraulic Ph.D. Students in Kasdi Merbah-Ouargla” for their support and encouragement.

References A. Abbasnia, M. Alimohammadi, A.H. Mahvi, R. Nabizadeh, M. Yousefi, A.A. Mohammadi et al., Assessment of groundwater quality and evaluation of scaling and corrosiveness potential of drinking water samples in villages of Chabahr city, Sistan and Baluchistan province in Iran. Data Brief 16, 182–192 (2018) H. Alidadi, S. Ghaderifar, E. Ahmadi, S. Bakhti, Comparison of chemical quality of water wells around the Mashhad’s old landfill site in 2014. Journal of TorbatHeydariyeh University of Medical Sciences. 3(2), 37–43 (2015) A. Amouei, S.H. Fallah, H. Asgharnia, A.R. Yari, M. Mahmoudi, Corrosion and scaling potential in drinking water distribution of Babol, Northern Iran based on the scaling and corrosion indices. Arch. Hygiene Sci. 6(1) (2017) G. Asgari, B. Ramavandi, M. Tarlaniazar, Z. Berizie, Survey of chemical quality and corrosion and scaling potential of drinking water distribution network of Bushehr city. J. South Med. 18(2), 353–361 (2015) K. Baouia, R. Zegaite, N. Mekhloufi, S. Kateb, Experimental Study Iron Removal Groundwater South of Algeria (ILLIZI). Res. J. Pharm. Biol. Chem. Sci. 9(2) (2018) J.C. Bourgeois, M.E. Walsh, G.A. Gagnon, Comparison of process options for treatment of water treatment residuals streams. J. Environ. Eng. Sci. 3(6), 477–484 M. Edwards, Controlling corrosion in drinking water distribution systems: a grand challenge for the twenty-first century. Water Sci. Technol. 49(2), 1–8 (2004) C. Ferguson, G.S. Logsdon, D. Curley, Comparison of dissolved air flotation and direct filtration. Water Sci. Technol. 31(3–4), 113–124 (1995)

57 J. Graeme, J. Jameson, Hydrophobicity and floc density in induced-air flotation for water treatment. Colloïdes Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 30(2–3), 269–281 K.M. Hiscock, Hydrogeology: Principles and Practice (Wiley, New York, 2005), p. 389. ISBN: 978019857634 M. Khademian, M. Zamani, F. Ghafari, M.R. Rahmi, S. Mohammadpour, Evaluation of Corrosion and precipitation potential in Ghaemshahr, s Village Drinking Water. J. Human Environ. 14(4), 1–7 (2016) S. Kouadri, K. Samir, Hydro-chemical study with geospatial analyzis of groundwater quality in ILLIZI region, south-eastern of Algeria. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE) (2020) N. Mekhloufi, S. Kateb, K. Baouia, R. Zegait, Study of the physico-chemical quality of the groundwater of the lower Devonian aquifer in the illizi region (Algeria). J. Fundam. Appl. Sci. 12(1S), 378–391 (2020) M. Mirzabeygi, J. Salimi, H. Biglari, M. Naji, A.H. Mahvi, Evaluation of corrosion and scaling potential in water distribution system of Torbat Heydariyeh City in 2012. J. Torbat Heydariyeh Univ. Med. Sci. 3(1), 15–18 (2015) M. Mirzabeygi, M. Naji, A. Abbasnia, Evaluation of corrosion and scaling indices of drinking water in the villages of Khorasan Razavi province. J. Res. Environ. Health 2(1), 60–70 (2016) J. Nemčić-Jurec, K.S. Sudhir, J. Anamarija, K.G. Sandeep, K. Ivan, Hydrochemical investigations of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigational purposes: two case studies of Koprivnica-Križevci County (Croatia) and district Allahabad (India). Sustain. Water Resour. Manage. 5(2), 467–490 (2019) W.H. Organization, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations, vol. 1 (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2004) S.R. Qasim, M.M. Edward, Z. Guany, Planning, Design, and Operation (Prentice Hall PTR. Upper Saddle River, NJ07458, 2000) Water Service Ltd., Indexes for Calcium Carbonate (2004). http:// [email protected]

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy AHP in Suitability Mapping for Artificial Recharging (Case Study: South of Kashan Basin, Isfahan, Iran) Zahra Feizi

Abstract

Shortage of rainfall and also relatively high-intensity precipitations are characteristics of arid regions. Water scarcity will cause fragile living conditions in these areas. Therefore, it is essential to reduce runoff rates using dam construction or artificial recharge techniques. In this study, seven parameters, namely slope, surface permeability, transmissibility in alluvium, alluvial quality, land use, runoff volume, and thickness of the unsaturated layer were evaluated, and site selection for flood spreading and artificial recharge in the south of Kashan plain (Isfahan province in Iran) was determined using weight and rating coefficients of each parameter. Models used in this study were AHP and fuzzy AHP. Both models indicated that the land-use criterion with the greatest weight was determined as the site selection priority for flood spreading. Keywords








GIS Multicriteria decision Suitable location mapping AHP Fuzzy AHP

1




Introduction

Floodwater spreading is a logical action that improves groundwater reserves and degraded lands due to suspended load in flood (Dahmardeh Ghaleno et al. 2012). Flood water spreading caused desert communities to become self-sufficient in water, food, forage, and energy (Amiraslani and Dragovich 2011). However, if harnessed, these floods can bring life back to the desert. Therefore, it is essential to upgrade the status of floods from a curse to a blessing and ameliorate drought conditions with floodwaters’ Z. Feizi (&) Kashan University, Kashan, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

wise use. Some searches illustrate this fact. For example, (Skotie Skuee et al. 2002) studied the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen in Azarbayejan-Poldasht for four years and found an increase of about %1.29 and % 0.34 compared to the first year (Funseca 2003). The sediment left from the flood had a high fertility index, and that the amount of nitrogen, phosphor, and potassium in the flooded area was much more than the rest. (Ghaemie 2004) Studies in Poldasht's flood control base in Western Azarbayejan showed that the overall crest vegetation in the flooded area has an increase of %4.5, and the reproduction of permanent types also increased compared to the areas that were not affected by the flood (Failed 2006). The composition of carbon in vegetation and topsoil in Garbaygan is studied and is concluded that the amount of organic carbon in the flooded soil was increased and a considerable difference of %5 (Mohamadian and Karamian 2009). The effects of flood dispersion in David Rashid flood dispersion base in Kuhdasht (Iran) are studied and are reported that the increase of useable organic matter, overall nitrogen, phosphor, and potassium was considerable at the %5 level and that it results in infertility and causes some changes in physical and chemical features of the soil and improves the vegetation. Dahmardeh Ghaleno et al. (2012) studied the effects of floodwater spreading on changes of topsoil and vegetation in Hamun Region in Sistan and Baluchestan (Iran) and concluded that floodwater spreading has a considerable effect on vegetation crest percentage and the amount of plant production but based on the statistics. Also, statistics show that floodwater spreading has a considerable effect on the percentage of organic matter, overall nitrogen percentage, acidity decrease of the soil, and electrical conductivity. One factor that is highly important to the successful recharge of groundwater and improves soil fertility is determining the most suitable areas for floodwater spreading. In this regard, a large number of factors play a role in the site selection, such as geology, geomorphology, soils, hydrology, and socioeconomic aspects (Das and Pal 2019; Gavahi et al. 2018; Failed 2005).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_7

59

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Z. Feizi

Geographical information system (GIS) is the most (2) The comparison of the results of both methods valuable tool to find proper solutions by integrating various (3) The mapping of optimal locations for artificial recharge in the south of Kashan plain influencing factors (Das and Pal 2019; Malczewski and Rinner 2015; Malczewski 1999). Many methods have been used for locating the most suitable sites for floodwater spreading. These methods include Boolean logic, index overlay, fuzzy logic, analytic hierarchy process (AHP), 2 Materials and Methods fuzzy AHP, and fuzzy logic (Gavahi et al. 2018). Several researchers that have identified the groundwater recharge The study area is in the Kahan Basin located in the east of potential zones through GIS approach such as (Maleki et al. Iran, between 51º 32′ 47 and 52º 07′ 08 E longitude and 33º 2009; Kardan Moghaddam et al. 2017; Krishnamurthy and 37′ 18 and 34º 37′ 18 N latitude. The total area is 1900 km2. Srinivals 1996; Moradi Dashtpagerdi et al. 2013; Servat There are waste pits in the south of the plain. The study area has an average annual rainfall of 122 mm, with an average et al. 2013; Feyzi et al. 2016, 2017). Kardan Moghaddam et al. (2017) have been paid to annual temperature of 18 °C. According to Domarton's efficiency assessment of AHP and fuzzy logic methods in method of climate classification, study area is located in an suitability mapping for artificial recharging in Sarbisheh arid region. This place is a free aquifer and lacks a permanent river. basin (Southern Khorasan, Iran). Parameters such as land slopes, infiltration rate, depth of water table in aquifers, Dunes and clay sheet is observed in the eastern north and quality of alluvial sediments, land use, landowner density, north of the case study, and there is a low and dense meadow geological consideration, and water quality and quantity are in the south. Anthropogenic actions such as agricultural applications considered in their study. According to the results, and uncontrolled water discharge have caused a deficit of employing AHP, fuzzy methods, and Boolean are compatible with the proper location, and this compatibility proves surface and groundwater in the basin. Also, unplanned usage the goodness of the results. The results indicate that AHP and global climate change negatively affected the sustainable and fuzzy logic are reasonably suitable, and the AHP is usage of water (Figs. 1 and 2). better than fuzzy for practical purposes. Focused on the groundwater potential mapping in Bey- Methodology In this study, seven factors, namely slope, surface perşehir Lake Basin according to fuzzy-analytic hierarchy process and GIS (Şener et al. 2018), they used seven meability, transmissibility in alluvium, alluvial quality, land parameters: lithology, lineament, drainage density, land use, use, runoff volume, and thickness of the unsaturated layer, slope, soil type, and rainfall. The groundwater potential map were applied to determine suitable areas and site selection demonstrates that the high groundwater potential area is for flood spreading and artificial recharge in the south of located around the lakeshore, in the alluvium and limestone Kashan plain (Isfahan province in Iran). Different thematic fields because high permeability rates depend on soil type, maps were prepared from existing maps and datasets, low slope, karstic structure, and agricultural activities in remote-sensing images, and field investigations to determine the most suitable locations for artificial recharge. Thematic these regions. The groundwater recharge potential zones in layers for these parameters were prepared, classified, groundwater-stressed Goghat-II block are studied using the weighted, and integrated into ArcGis9.3. The procedure for fuzzy AHP technique (Das and Pal 2019). Criteria such as the preparation of each layer is described below. geology, geomorphology, slope, soil texture, land use, and land cover (LULC), pond frequency, and net recharge have 1. Runoff: runoff volume is calculated using soil conservation service method (SCS) according to below been considered for this study. The result showed that almost equations: %43.56 of the area is under shallow and low recharge potentiality zones, whereas high and very high zones cover (1) Q = (P − 0/2)2/(P + 0/8S) %22.93 area. The result has been validated with the (2) S = (25,400/CN) – 254 post-monsoon groundwater depth for checking the applied (3) q = Q * A approach's appropriateness, which shows that this approach where Q (mm) is the direct surface runoff, P (mm) is the is suitable for this study. rainfall, S (mm) is the potential maximum retention, and CN The present paper mainly focused on: is a curve number and showed basin properties, especially (1) Application of AHP and fuzzy AHP methods in site infiltration. CN determined according to land uses. After calculating Q, multiply by watershed area to get volume selection for groundwater artificial recharging

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy …

61

Fig. 1 Case study (south of Kashan plain, Isfahan Province, Iran)

Fig. 2 Case study classification according to the land use criterion

runoff (GhermezCheshmeh et al. 2006; Lal et al. 2016). The area was classified into four classes based on experience in Iran (Table 1). 2. Slope: Slope is one of the major factors that directly control the recharge rate. Generally, the slope and infiltration rate has an inverse relation. Flat surface areas with gentle slope are favorable for recharge as it holds the

water for a long time, whereas relatively steep slope decreases the infiltration rate by increasing the runoff (Das and Pal 2019; Feizi et al. 2017). The digitized 1/25,000 scale topographic map (contour interval of 10 m) was used to generate the case study's digital elevation model (DEM) to obtain the slope map. On the slope map, slopes were classified into four classes (Table 1).

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Table 1 Criteria classification for artificial recharging Classification Criteria

Inappropriate 3

Moderate

Appropriate

Runoff (m )

< 1620

1620–3160

3160–4700

Slop (%)

>8

5–8

0–2

Very appropriate > 4700 2–5

Thickness of the unsaturated layer (m)

< 10

10–40

40–80

> 80

Permeability (%)

< 15

15–25

25–45

> 45

> 4000

2000–4000

1000–2000

< 1000

EC (ml/cm) Land use Transmissibility (m3/s)

Good rangfarm land-road-settle land < 300

3. Surface permeability: Infiltration capacity will directly influence surface runoff and the hydrological regime of rivers. Alluvial size and its channels are the parameters that affect infiltration the most (Yazdanimoghadam 2012; Feizi et al. 2017). This study's infiltration coefficient is provided based on FAO (1979) and the relationship between soil texture and permeability. The soil texture map was obtained from the Water and Soil Research Department of Isfahan province. Permeability map based on guide 205 water and soil research institute divided into four classes. Table 1 shows an area to be classified into four infiltration classes. 4. The thickness of the unsaturated layer: It is one of the influential factors in groundwater recharge. Theoretically, the thickness of the layer directly relates to the amount of water storage (Feizi et al. 2017); for this purpose, we studied the depth of wells during two recharge and discharge seasons using the Kriging method in ArcGIS9.3 based on the least RMSE (Nagalakshmi et al. 2016; Mahmood Sadat Noori et al. 2013). The area was put into four sets based on the unsaturated layer's thickness (Table 1). 5. Alluvial quality: To determine the quality of alluvium, groundwater quality is monitored. Groundwater quality determines the amount of chemical and biological of alluvium. Hydraulic conductivity in qualitative analysis water is used more often. In this research, in order to draw a quality map, we used data of 72 wells in a case study within a 10-year period (2001–2011) for two seasons of recharge and discharge. Salinity classification was used to divide the area into four classes based on electric conductivity (Table 1). 6. Land use: Land use is one of the dominant factors behind groundwater recharge. Major land use such as cultivated land, vegetative zones, built-up areas, and water bodies causes restrictions in floodwater spreading (Yazdanimoghadam 2012; Feizi et al. 2017). Land-use maps were prepared from satellite images with the help of remote sensing methods that were used to prepare the

Poor range bare land 300–600

600–900

> 900

map of current land use in which two land types were distinguished 7. Transmissibility in alluvium: Transmissibility showed water movement in porosities and has a direct relation with infiltration, porosity, water supply (Farajisabokbar et al. 2012; Feizi et al. 2017). To investigate the transmission coefficient, the 91 wells’ data by drilling logs piezometers dug by Isfahan regional company water was used. Transmissibility in alluvium volume was classified into four classes (Table 1). In this study, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy AHP were used for site selection artificial recharge to identify suitable places. These two methods are a multicriteria analysis technique that provides an appropriate tool to accommodate the conflicting views of various stakeholder groups and allows the users to assess the relative importance of multiple criteria (or multiple alternatives against a given criterion) intuitively (Qureshi 2003) and are based on a pairwise comparison matrix. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) The AHP process involves pairwise comparisons between alternative that was suggested by Saaty (1980) and is known as one of the multicriteria decision-making methods (MCDM) (Nooramin et al. 2012; Leal 2020). AHP structure is an upside-down tree where the main goal is placed on top (Leal 2020). These judgments are generally expressed in ordinal values. The linguistic variables used to make the pairwise comparisons were associated with the standard 9-unit scale (Chang Tang and Beynon 2005). The results of such comparisons are used to produce a matrix (Naderi et al. 2011). Fuzzy AHP Fuzzy AHP is a generalized type of AHP. In this method, triangular fuzzy numbers (m, u, l) are used to compare criteria, and geometric averaging is used to obtain preferences. A fuzzy set is a class of objects with a membership function

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy …

ranging between zero and one (Chatterjee and Mukherjee 2010; Torabi-Kaveh et al. 2016). A comprehensive system evaluation method based on a fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (fuzzy AHP) balances out the influence of the different experts’ subjective opinions and the one-sidedness of objective data. This method is summarized below (Failed 2014; Yazdanimoghadam 2012): (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Creating a hierarchical structure The pairwise comparison of the hierarchy criteria Establish the judgment matrix for the hierarchy Calculate relative and final weights Consistency test Computation of normalized principal priority vector.

Consistency ratio (CR) This index indicates the degree of accuracy of the pairwise comparisons and must be less than 0.1. CR is expressed as follows: (4) CI = (ƛmax − n)/n − 1 (5) CR = CI/RI where ƛmax is the maximum eigenvalue, and n is the dimension of the judgment matrix. The random index (RI) is obtained by computing the consistency index (CI) and consistency rate (CR). Normally, RI is fixed values that exist in the literature and are associated with the judgment matrix's size. For this study, n = 7 and RI is 1.32 (Feyzi et al. 2016, 2017). Results Pairewise Comparisons According to expert opinion, seven criteria and their priorities contribute to site selection of artificial recharge in the first step in this study. The second step criteria classification is based on the previous study defined (Table 1) and then ordinary maps for each factor are in the case study (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11). In the third step, AHP and fuzzy AHP methods are employed for multicriteria decision artificial recharge. Those ratios are used in the pairwise comparison, a reciprocal matrix) Chang 1996) (Tables 2 and 3). Finally, weighted maps were determined. In this study, based on the calculations, the consistency ratio of the paired comparison matrices was 0.07 for AHP and 0.09 for fuzzy AHP (less than 0.1), so the judgments made are consistent, and their use in the selection process is still permissible. The relative importance of Arc GIS's criteria and abilities, relative importance maps of the mentioned criteria, and

63

overlaying these maps, the suitable locations of flood spreading and artificial recharges were determined. In order to draw weighted maps, weights normalized for each criterion are added to raster map of each criterion used spatial analyst tools in ArcGis9.3 and finally after combining weight map the area's talent for artificial recharge is divided into four classes inappropriate, moderate, appropriate, and very appropriate (Figs. 11 and 12; Table 4).

3

Discussion

Historically, flood control and artificial recharge are among the most important acts in arid and semi-arid regions. Therefore, determining suitable locations for floodwater spreading systems based on different criteria and indicators is of great importance. In this study, seven information layers were combined in GIS using fuzzy AHP and AHP models, and weights of each factor were determined based on each responsible factor's membership function. Consistency ratio was calculated to assure certainty of accuracy of AHP and fuzzy AHP outputs. Different weight values are observed for the first-level parameters, and the maps were weighted and eventually suitable for artificial recharge. The result of overlaying the maps of all parameters and areas suitable for artificial groundwater recharges using AHP and fuzzy AHP is shown in Figs. 11 and 12. According to both models, Figs. 11 and 12 areas’ talent for an artificial recharge was not different. Land use is the most criterion in floodwater spreading. Flood plain was classified into four classes of very appropriate (1), appropriate (2), moderate (3), and inappropriate (4) for artificial groundwater recharge plans.

4

Conclusion

Parameters considered in the selection of groundwater artificial recharge locations are diverse and complex. To identify artificial recharge sites in a semi-arid aquifer in the south of Kashan Basin in the west part of Iran, in this study, seven layers (slope, surface permeability, transmissibility in alluvium, alluvial quality, land use, runoff volume, and thickness of the unsaturated layer) were combined in GIS using fuzzy AHP and AHP models, and weights of each factor were determined based on membership function of each responsible factor. According to this investigation, the more part of the case study (%86 based on fuzzy AHP and %76 based on AHP) is appropriate for flood water spreading unless most part in western north (Figs. 11 and 12). According to weight criteria and priority land-use factor as showed inappropriate site for artificial recharge is located in the north where there are dunes.

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Fig. 3 Case study classification according to permeability criterion

Fig. 4 Case study classification according to runoff criterion

In this paper, the evaluation of logistics site selection is handled. AHP methodology is structured here that AHP results in weights as input weights. Then a numerical example is presented to show the applicability and performance of the methodology. Also, a sensitivity analysis holds to discuss and explain the methodology results. AHP is one

of the most convenient methodologies in order to site selection. It can be said that using linguistic variables makes the evaluation process more realistic because evaluation is not an exact process and has fuzziness in its body. Here, the usage of fuzzy AHP weights makes the application more realistic and reliable.

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy … Fig. 5 Case study classification according to slop criterion

Fig. 6 Case study classification according to alluvial quality in recharge season criterion

65

66 Fig. 7 Case study classification according to alluvial quality in discharge season criterion

Fig. 8 Case study classification according to transmissibility in alluvium criterion

Z. Feizi

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy … Fig. 9 Case study classification according to the thickness of unsaturated zone in recharge season criterion

Fig. 10 Case study classification according to the thickness of the unsaturated zone in discharge season criterion

67

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Z. Feizi

Fig. 11 Areas suitable for artificial groundwater recharge using AHP

Table 2 Comparison matrix and significance weighting values of criteria in fuzzy AHP Criteria

Runoff

Slop

Thickness of the unsaturated layer (m)

Permeability

Alluvial quality

Land use

Transmissibility

Runoff

1, 1, 1

5.2, 2, 3.2

2, 3.2, 1

3.2, 1, 1.2

2, 3.2, 1

1, 2.3, 1.2

2, 3.2, 1

Slop

2.3, 1.2, 2.5

1, 1, 1

2, 3.2, 1

2, 1, 2.3

3.2, 1, 1.2

2.3, 1.2, 2.5

2, 1, 2.3

Thickness of the unsaturated layer (m)

1, 2.3, 1.2

1, 2.3, 1.2

1, 1, 1

2, 1, 2.3

2, 3.2, 1

2.3, 1.2, 2.5

2, 1, 2.3

Permeability

2, 1, 2.3

3.2, 1, 1.2

3.2, 1, 1.2

1, 1, 1

2, 3.2, 1

1, 2.3, 1.2

2, 3.2, 1

Alluvial quality

1, 2.3, 1.2

2, 1, 2.3

1, 2.3, 1.2

1, 2.3, 1.2

1, 1, 1

2.3, 1.2, 2.5

3.2, 1, 1.2

Land use

2, 3.2, 1

5.2, 2, 3.2

5.2, 2, 3.2

2, 3.2, 1

5.2, 2, 3.2

1, 1, 1

5.2, 2, 3.2

Transmissibility

1, 2.3, 1.2

3.2, 1, 1.2

3.2, 1, 1.2

1, 2.3, 1.2

2, 1, 2.3

2.3, 1.2, 2.5

1, 1, 1

Table 3 Comparison matrix and significance weighting values of criteria in AHP Criteria

Runoff

Slop

Thickness of the unsaturated layer (m)

Permeability

Alluvial quality

Land use

Transmissibility

Runoff

1

4

6

5

8

3

7

Slop

0.25

1

3

2

5

0.25

4

Thickness of the unsaturated layer (m)

0.17

0.33

1

0.33

4

0.17

2

Permeability

0.2

0.5

3

1

4

0.2

4

Alluvial quality

0.125

0.2

0.25

0.25

1

0.125

0.5

Land use

0.33

4

6

5

8

1

9

Transmissibility

0.14

0.25

0.5

0.25

2

0.11

1

Efficiency Assessment of AHP and Fuzzy …

69

Fig. 12 Areas suitable for artificial groundwater recharge using Fuzzy AHP

Table 4 Final criterion weights for artificial recharge Criteria

Land use

Runoff volume

Transmissibility in alluvium

Slope

Thickness of unsaturated zone

Alluvial quality

Surface permeability

Weight in AHP

0.39

0.27

0.04

0.12

0.06

0.03

0.1

Weight in FUZZY AHP

0.223

0.175

0.106

0.127

0.123

0.096

0.15

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WATER: Water Quality

Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Water Quality Ahmed Douaik, Soumia Ramdani, Hakim Belkhalfa , and Khaldoun Bachari

Abstract

Both quantity and quality of water are important. Regarding quantity, water is becoming scarce due to increasing domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses. This water scarcity is exacerbated by the climatic change. As a consequence, water quality is deteriorating. Information on water quality and its evolution is important for the implementation of sustainable water resource management strategies. Water quality is evaluated by measuring physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Since it is impossible to measure these parameters for the whole water bodies, observations are made at a fixed number of sampling points at different spatial sites and/or different temporal occasions. Any inferences drawn from data are uncertain and statistical methods handle this uncertainty both during sampling design and data analysis. Therefore, it is essential to develop an appropriate statistical methodology in designing sampling and analyzing water quality data to draw valid conclusions and provide useful advices in water management. In this contribution, the main statistical methods for the analysis of water quality data were reviewed and their main principles were shortly discussed. Keywords





Descriptive statistics Exploratory data analysis Graphical tools Multivariate analysis




A. Douaik (&) Research Unit on Environment and Conservation of Natural Resources, Regional Center of Rabat, National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA), Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] S. Ramdani
H. Belkhalfa
K. Bachari Scientific and Technical Research Center in Physico-Chemical Analyses (CRAPC), Ouargla, Algeria S. Ramdani
H. Belkhalfa
K. Bachari Scientific and Technical Research Center in Physico-Chemical Analyses (CRAPC), Bou Ismail, Algeria

Highlights Water quality involves a huge amount of spatial and temporal data which are multi-dimensional and are difficult to present, handle, and interpret. Statistics helps in design sampling and analyzing water quality data to draw valid conclusions and provide useful advices in water management. Multivariate statistical methods allow determining driving background processes and identifying groups of similar sampling points.

1

Introduction

Water is the base of life on earth since it is necessary to all living beings. Both its quantity and quality are important. Water quality is influenced by several factors like aquifer lithology, climate, saline water intrusion, surface water recharge, topography, and human activities. These natural and anthropogenic processes may have a significant impact on the quality of water and further limit its use as water supply. As these factors vary in space and time, to monitor the evolution of water quality, networks of observation stations have been set up. In these stations, samples are periodically collected for physical, chemical, and, eventually, biological and bacteriological analyses. Any statistical study aims to extract, from a limited image of the population called sample, information over this population. It is, therefore, essential to ensure the representativeness of the sample in order to infer on the population. So the first contribution of statistics to water quality data analysis is sampling: planning where, when, and how to sample in addition to how many samples to collect and to optimize the observation network (Baalousha 2010; Guigues et al. 2013). Before any formal statistical analysis, water quality data should be subjected to exploratory data analysis (EDA) using univariate and bivariate descriptive statistics and graphical tools with the aim of summarizing their main characteristics

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_8

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and seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling or hypothesis testing task (Tukey 1977; Vega et al. 1998). However, since water quality data are inherently multi-dimensional (spatial and/or temporal with many variables), multivariate statistical techniques have become a powerful tool to handle and reduce their large volume in order to determine the driving background processes, identify groups of similar sampling points and understand how they are distinguished (Guler et al. 2002; Bierman et al. 2011; Song et al. 2011). These multivariate statistical methods can help in identifying spatial and temporal variations in water quality and sources of contamination (natural and anthropogenic) by analyzing similarities/dissimilarities among the sampled sites (Andrade et al. 2008). Examples of needs for statistical analysis of water quality data are: determine mean level of a water quality parameter with a specified precision; identify temporal trend with a fixed probability and forecast it in the future; verify whether a standard has been met at least a critical proportion of the time, with a specified level of confidence; combine different water quality parameters into a single number called water quality index. The objective of this research work was to present, succinctly, the contribution of statistics to the analysis of water quality data with the successive steps of exploratory data analysis using graphical tools and descriptive statistics and multivariate statistics. To keep the paper of acceptable length, sampling and network optimization, geostatistical methods as well as time series methods and sophisticated statistical approaches were not discussed here.

2

perform a quality review of the dataset, compare datasets, validate statistical findings, identify outliers and extreme values, and better understand the behavior of the data. Graphical tools help in getting an idea of what the data ‘look like’ (Tukey 1977). There are many options for plotting data to get an idea of their form: box–whisker plot, histogram, stem-and-leaf display, probability plot, scatterplot, etc.

2.1.1 Box–Whisker Plot The box-and-whisker plot (Tukey 1977) displays the summary overview of data in the form of median (Q2), first and third quartiles or hinges (Q1 and Q3), and two extremes (Fig. 1). The interquartile range (IQR) defines the height of the box, while the median is shown as a line within the box. This plot illustrates the location or central tendency, spread or dispersion, and skewness of the sample data; shows the symmetry and length of the tails of the distribution; and helps identification of outliers. It is even possible to assess whether the data are symmetric (values seem to be similarly dispersed above and below the median) or are ‘skewed’ (there is a long tail toward high or low values). Box–whisker plots are even more useful in comparing these attributes among several datasets. 2.1.2 Histogram Histogram (Fig. 2) shows the general shape of the distribution. It is one of the oldest classical representations of grouped frequency distributions. The vertical axis represents the class frequency, and the class widths are plotted on the horizontal axis. It is quite useful for depicting large differences in shape or symmetry, such as whether a dataset appears symmetric or skewed.

Exploratory Data Analysis

The goal of statistics is to gain information from data. The first step is to display the data in a graph so that our eyes can take in the overall pattern and spot unusual observations. Next, we often summarize specific aspects of the data, such as the average of a value, by numerical measures. As we study graphs and numerical summaries, we keep firmly in mind where the data come from and what we hope to learn from them. Graphs and numbers are not ends in themselves, but aids to understanding (Moore and McCabe 1993). So, the first step in statistical analysis of water quality data should begin with some graphical displays followed by some descriptive statistics.

2.1 Graphical Tools Plotting techniques can be used to visually evaluate data. They do allow for easy and simple inspection of datasets, identify characteristics to select appropriate statistical tests,

2.1.3 Stem-and-Leaf (SL) Display The stem-and-leaf (SL) display is like a histogram turned on their side, with data magnitudes to two significant digits presented rather than only bar heights. Individual values are easily found. The SL profile (Fig. 3) is identical to the histogram and can similarly be used to judge shape and symmetry, but the numerical information adds greater detail. One SL could function as both a table and a histogram for small datasets. 2.1.4 Probability Plot To assess if a dataset is approximately normally distributed, one can use a graphical technique called the normal probability plot (Fig. 4). The data are plotted against a theoretical normal distribution, and if the former is normal, the points should form an approximate straight line. Departures from normality are indicated by departures from this straight line. The probability plots can be used also to determine if data follow other theoretical distributions such as the lognormal or exponential distributions.

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Fig. 1 Examples of box-and-whisker plot [from Kovács et al. (2012)]

set of bivariate data (two variables), usually drawn before obtaining a linear correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line. It illustrates the relationship between two variables. Of usual interest is whether that the relationship appears to be linear or curved, whether different groups of data lie in separate regions of the scatterplot, and whether the variability or spread is constant over the range of data.

2.2 Univariate and Bivariate Descriptive Statistics

Fig. 2 Example of histogram [from Li and Migliaccio (2011)]

Mostly, when we want to analyze data, we should first describe and summarize them in a way that their important characteristics are easily conveyed. The most important data characteristics are descriptive statistical parameters that can be either univariate or bivariate. The univariate descriptive statistical parameters belong to three different groups of parameters: measures of location or central tendency (mean and median), measures of spread or variability (variance and interquartile range), and measures of symmetry of data distribution (skewness). The bivariate descriptive statistical parameters are either measuring the strength of a relationship (correlation), or allowing the prediction of a dependent variable from an independent one (regression).

2.2.1 Univariate Descriptive Statistics Fig. 3 Example of a stem-and-leaf display

If probability plots do not exhibit a linear pattern, their nonlinearity will indicate why the data do not fit the theoretical distribution. This is additional information that hypothesis tests for normality, like Shapiro–Wilk or Kolmogorov–Smirnov, do not provide. Three typical conditions resulting in deviations from linearity are asymmetry or skewness, outliers, and heavy tails of the distribution.

2.1.5 Scatterplot The scatterplot (Fig. 5) is one of the most familiar graphical methods for data analysis. It is a very useful summary of a

Measures of Location The frequently used measures of location are the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, and the median. a. Arithmetic mean The arithmetic mean is the first statistical moment; it gives an idea about a typical value of a sample and is computed as the sum of all data values divided by the sample size. It is not resistant to changes in the presence, or to changes in the magnitudes of a few outlying observations; the latter can substantially influence the mean.

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Fig. 4 Example of normal probability plot (from Ali et al. 2012)

number of observations is odd, the median is defined as the data point which has an equal number of observations both above and below it. In contrast, if the number of observations is even, it is computed as the average of the two central observations. The median is weakly affected by the magnitude of a single observation so it is resistant to the effect of a change in value or presence of outlying observations; this is often a desirable quality for a statistical parameter and makes the median preferable to the mean. Measures of Spread The range, the variance, the standard deviation, and the interquartile range are examples of measures of spread. One of these measures should always be carried out with one of the measures of location or central tendency. The variability in data will be quantified by using one of the measures of spread. Fig. 5 Example of a scatterplot [from Fu and Wang (2012)]

a. Range b. Geometric mean Alternatively, the geometric mean, the antilogarithm of the mean of the logarithms of the data value, can be computed instead of the arithmetic mean. However, geometric mean can be calculated only when all data values are greater than zero, which is most often the case for water quality. Geometric mean values are often used in water quality standards for bacteria. The geometric mean may be selected to describe data if the dataset includes a wide range of values with very low numbers and/or very high numbers to reduce the influence of these outliers. c. Median When the data are ranked in ascending or descending order of magnitude, the median is the central value of the distribution such that 50% of the observations are lower than it, and 50% of the observations are higher than it. If the

The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest sample values. It is sensitive to outliers and extreme values. It is a good and simple measure of the dispersion of the sample data, but it is not really useful in describing the corresponding population because its magnitude is a function of both of the actual dispersion of the population and the size of the sample. b. Variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation The variance is the second statistical moment and is computed as the mean of the squared deviations of data from their arithmetic mean. Its value increases as the spread or range of the dataset increases. Its square root gives the standard deviation which has the same unit as the arithmetic mean. Both the variance and the standard deviation are strongly influenced by outlying values like the arithmetic mean. The coefficient of variation (CV) is defined as the

Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Water Quality

ratio of the standard deviation to the arithmetic mean. It is the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the sample mean. It is always unitless. It is useful because it is a measure of relative variability. c. Interquartile range The interquartile range (IQR) is an alternative way to compute the sample range and is resistant to outliers and extreme values. It is the frequently used resistant measure of spread. It is defined as the 75th percentile minus the 25th percentile. The 75th percentile (P75) or 3rd quartile (Q3), called the upper quartile, is a value which exceeds no more than 75% of the data and is exceeded by no more than 25% of the data. The 25th percentile (P25) or 1st quartile (Q1), called lower quartile, is a value which exceeds no more than 25% of the data and is exceeded by no more than 75%. Recall that the median, a measure of location, is the 50th percentile (P50) or the 2nd quartile (Q2). The three percentiles (P25, P50, and P75) or the three quartiles (Q1, Q2, and Q3) split the data into four equal-sized quarters. Measures of Symmetry Skewness refers to how data are organized around the mean. A dataset that follows the well-known bell-shaped pattern has a symmetric distribution. A dataset that is skewed does not have a symmetric distribution around the mean or median. Most of the hydrologic data are skewed which means that they lack symmetry around the mean or the median (they are asymmetric), with extreme values extending out longer in one direction. The density function for a lognormal distribution is a typical example illustrating the skewness. The data are said to be positively skewed or skewed to the right when extreme values extend the right tail of the distribution. In contrast, they are said to be negatively skewed or skewed to the left when the tail extends to the left (Fig. 6). Skewed data have a mean that is different from the median since it is pulled toward the tail of the distribution. Consequently, for negative skewness, the mean is lower than the median; while for positive skewness, the mean is higher than the median. The standard deviation is also inflated by data in the tail. For these reasons, summary statistics should

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include not only mean and standard deviation, but also some resistant counterparts like the median and the interquartile range. Skewed data pose serious problems to the application of standard parametric hypothesis tests which assume a normal distribution for data, whereas skewed data are neither normal nor symmetric. Outliers and Data Transformation Outliers refer to data points outside the expected range of data. Outliers could be very small or very large numbers. They can be due to a measurement or recording error, an observation from a population not similar to that of most of the data, or a rare event from a single population that is quite skewed. The graphical methods like boxplot or Q-Q plot can help in finding out outliers. If data are naturally skewed, a data transformation like logarithm can make the data more symmetric, more linear, and more constant in variance. If it is still not the case even after data transformation, nonparametric statistical methods should be used instead of parametric ones.

2.2.2 Bivariate Descriptive Statistics Correlation Correlation is a measurement of the relationship or the strength of association between two continuous variables. It is generally represented by Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). The range of r is between (− 1) and 1: the greater the absolute value, the stronger the relationship or correlation. A positive r indicates that if one variable increases (or decreases) so does the second one. A negative r value indicates an inverse relationship, so that when one variable increases the other decreases. Before any computation of the correlation coefficient, one should first plot the data on a scatterplot to get a visual insight because, for a given correlation coefficient, we can have many different patterns, and similar strengths of relationships can give different coefficients. When one variable is a measure of time or location, correlation becomes a test for temporal or spatial trends. The significance of the correlation coefficient should be tested in order to determine whether the observed pattern

Fig. 6 Example of positive skew (left) and negative skew (right) [from Li and Migliaccio (2011)]

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differs from what is expected entirely due to chance. The significance of r can be tested by determining whether r differs from zero. A test statistic is computed and compared to a theoretical value from a table of the t distribution. Two other measures of correlation are Spearman's rho and Kendall's tau. They are based on ranks, and measure all monotonic relationships (generally the dependent variable increases or decreases as the independent variable increases). They are also resistant to effects of outliers. The more commonly used Pearson’s r is a measure of linear correlation, one specific type of monotonic correlation. Spearman’s rho is the linear correlation coefficient computed on the ranks of the data. Kendall’s tau is well-suited for variables which exhibit skewness around the general relationship and measures all monotonic correlations (linear and nonlinear). Pearson's r is not as resistant to outliers as are Spearman’s rho and Kendall’s tau because it is computed using nonresistant measures (means and standard deviations). It assumes that the data follow a bivariate normal distribution. This assumption rules out the use of r when the data have increasing variance. Skewed variables often demonstrate outliers and increasing variance. Thus, r is often not useful for describing the correlation between untransformed hydrologic variables. Linear Regression The relationship between two or more continuous variables is to be investigated. Simple or multiple linear regressions are very important tools for the statistical analysis of water resources’ data. It is used to describe the covariation between some variable of interest (dependent or response variable) and one or more other variables (independent or explanatory variables). Regression is performed to: • learn something about the relationship between the two or more variables, or • remove a portion of the variation in one variable (a portion that is not of interest) in order to gain a better understanding of some other, more interesting, portion of the variation, or estimate or predict values of one variable based on knowledge of another variable, for which more data are available. Since regression is a parametric method, the assumption of a normal distribution has to be checked. In fact, this assumption is required only for testing; for example, if the slope coefficient is significantly different from zero. In this case, the normality is not required for the response and explanatory variables, but for the residuals from the regression model and should be checked by a box plot or probability plot. The regression line is sensitive to the presence of outliers in the same way as the sample mean.

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3

Multivariate Statistics

The water quality database involves a huge amount of spatial and temporal data. These data are multivariate by nature and are often difficult to present, handle, and interpret (Chapman 1992; Dixon and Chiswell 1996). Univariate and bivariate statistical methods as well as graphical tools can help in extracting some information from these complex data. However, in order to extract as much information as possible, the application of multivariate statistical methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), discriminant analysis (DA), and others can be of great help. They were used to check spatial and/or temporal variations that were due either to natural or anthropogenic causes (Qadir et al. 2007; Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Singh et al. 2005). PCA has the aim to reduce the dimension of the data matrix and to determine the background processes that explain most of the original dataset’s variance. CA is used when there is a need to reveal similarities between sampling points considering many water quality parameters. DA allows confirming the results of CA by distinguishing between the classes and identifying the most discriminant water quality parameters. Before application of PCA and CA, water quality data should be standardized by using a z-scale transformation (subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation) in order to eliminate the influence of different units of measurements and render the data dimensionless (Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Liu et al. 2003; Singh et al. 2004), whereas DA can be applied on the raw data.

3.1 Principal Component Analysis The water quality parameters are correlated. The principal component analysis (PCA) allows describing the observed parameters with fewer hypothetical variables, called principal components (PCs) without any significant information loss in the original data. The PCs are uncorrelated and carrying decreasing levels of information so that most of the information is in the first PC, followed by the 2nd PC, and so on. Mostly, only the few first PCs are retained. The factor loadings are defined as the correlation between the original water quality parameters and the new PCs. They explain the weights of the original parameters in the PCs. PCA can be applied on either the covariance matrix or the correlation matrix. However, in order to reduce the influence of the order of magnitude of the measurements of the parameters, it is highly recommended to use the correlation matrix since this one uses standardized data, whereas the covariance matrix uses the raw data.

Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Water Quality

The PCA technique extracts the eigenvalues and eigenvectors from the correlation matrix of the standardized original water quality parameters. The characteristic root (eigenvalues) of the PCs is a measure of associated variances and the sum of the eigenvalues is equal to the total number of variables (Razmkhah et al. 2010). Each PC is obtained by multiplying the original correlated variables with the eigenvector. The latter is a list of coefficients (loadings or weightings). Correlation of PCs and original variables is given by loadings, and individual transformed observations are called scores (Wunderlin et al. 2001) (Fig. 7). This is the reason why the PCs are considered as weighted linear combinations of the original water quality parameters. PCA is a powerful technique for pattern recognition that attempts to explain the variance of a large set of inter-correlated water quality parameters and transform them into a smaller set of independent (uncorrelated) variables (principal components) (Singh et al. 2004; Jianqin et al. 2010). Not any water quality dataset is suitable to PCA. To check the usefulness of PCA for a given dataset, one should

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compute two indicators by performing two statistical tests: the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's sphericity test (Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Varol and Sen 2009). KMO is a measure of sampling adequacy that indicates the proportion of variance that is common, i.e., variance that may be caused by underlying factors. A high value (close to 1) generally indicates that PCA may be useful. Bartlett's test of sphericity indicates whether a correlation matrix is an identity matrix, which would indicate that variables are unrelated. The significance level (less than 0.05) indicates that there were significant relationships among the water quality parameters. PCA generates as many PCs as there are original water quality parameters; however, only the first few PCs are relevant since they carry most of the information. So, one should have an indicator of how many PCs to keep for further analysis. In this way, there are some statistical rules that can be helpful. A first criterion is to keep only PCs that have eigenvalues higher than one. Another one is the use of a scree plot (Vega et al. 1998), which is a graphical representation of the eigenvalues (on y-axis) as function of the order of the PCs (on the x-axis). The rule consists of keeping the first PCs just before the scree plot shows a change of slope and presents an inflexion in the curve. Each PC explains a given percentage of the total variance in the original water quality data. The third criterion for keeping the PCs is to consider a given percentage, for example, 75%, and keep the first PCs that their contributions together amount to this threshold. To facilitate the interpretation, PCs are most of the time subjected to some kind of rotation; the commonly used one is the varimax. A rotation of PCs can achieve a simpler and more meaningful representation of the underlying factors by decreasing the contribution to PCs of variables with minor significance and increasing the more significant ones (Vega et al. 1998; Helena et al. 2000; Morales et al. 1999; Simeonov et al. 2003). Also, (Liu et al. 2003) classified the factor loadings as ‘strong,’ ‘moderate,’ and ‘weak,’ corresponding to absolute loading values of > 0.75, 0.75–0.50, and 0.50–0.30, respectively. So factor loadings for PCs with values higher than 0.75 are considered to be strongly correlated with the original water quality parameters, and this makes the interpretation of the PCs easy. As a result, the loadings can offer more information to track the sources that are responsible for the similarities of water quality collected samples.

3.2 Cluster Analysis

Fig. 7 Example of PCA loading and score plots [from Singh et al. (2005)]

Cluster analysis (CA) is a group of multivariate statistical techniques that have as a main goal assembling individual samples based on their characteristics (Kaufman and

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Rousseeuw 1990; Gordon 1999; Everitt et al. 2001). It is an unsupervised pattern recognition technique which allows revealing the intrinsic structure of a dataset without making priori assumptions about the data to classify the samples into categories or clusters based on their nearness or similarity (Vega et al. 1998). It is, in fact, a kind of coding in which a certain sampling location, originally described with many parameters, is now described with only one value: its group code (cluster number). In clustering, the distinct groups can reveal either the interaction among the variables (R-mode) or the interrelation among the samples (Q-mode). There are many ways to form the clusters or groups of similar samples. The similarity can be measured by assigning a distance (metrics) between each pair of samples. If this distance is small, then they are highly similar to each other and would belong to the same cluster; otherwise, they are dissimilar and should belong to two different clusters. It is clear that choosing the right distance is of paramount importance. Also, the user has to choose the clustering algorithm, a measure of similarity, and the type of clustering. Basically, there are two types of clustering: the hierarchical CA (HCA) and the non-hierarchical or k-means CA (KMCA). In HCA, one has to determine the groups after obtaining the dendrogram, the graphical output of the CA, whereas in KMCA, one has to predetermine how many groups are required; this is why this approach is frequently suggested to be used with large datasets. HCA is the most commonly used approach and can be performed based on two different strategies. In the divisive HCA, one group is divided into many more and so on. Its opposite is the agglomerative HCA where the number of groups is reduced during the analysis. The hierarchical relationships between objects are commonly displayed graphically in a dendrogram or tree diagram (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 Example of dendrogram showing clustering of monitoring periods [from Varol and Sen (2009)]

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Examples of distances used in CA are the conventional Euclidian distance, cubic Euclidian distance, etc. For measures of similarity, one can choose Ward’s method, complete linkage, the unweighted pair-group average, etc. Ward’s method uses the analysis of variance approach to evaluate the distances between clusters while attempting to minimize the sum of squares of any two clusters that can be formed at each step. The linkage distance is reported as Dlink/Dmax, which represents the quotient between the linkage distances for a particular case divided by the maximal distance, multiplied by 100, as a way to standardize the linkage distance represented on the y-axis (Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Singh et al. 2004; Simeonov et al. 2003).

3.3 Discriminant Analysis Discriminant analysis (DA) can be used to check the accuracy of the cluster analysis (CA) results. DA can address a number of research questions including, but not limited to, determining whether statistically significant differences exist between two or more known groups, determining which independent variables account for the majority of the differences between groups, and establishing procedures for classifying objects into groups (Hair et al. 1995). DA is used to determine the variables, which discriminate between two or more naturally occurring groups (Fig. 9). It operates on raw data and the technique constructs a discriminant function for each group (Singh et al. 2004; Wunderlin et al. 2001; Johnson and Wichern 1992). It shows to what extent the planes separating the groups can be distinguished by building a predictive model for group membership. The model is composed of a discriminant function (for more than two groups a set of discriminant functions) based on linear combinations of the predictor variables that provide the best discrimination between the groups. The functions are generated from a sample of cases for which the group membership is known; the functions can then be applied to new cases that have measurements for the predictor variables but their group membership is as yet unknown (Afifi et al. 2004). There are three approaches in DA: standard, forward stepwise, and backward stepwise. In the standard DA, the calculation of the discriminant function can be achieved via a simultaneous method, where all independent variables are considered at once. In contrast, in stepwise DA, variables are considered sequentially. The simultaneous method is used when the analyst wants to include all the independent variables and is not interested in intermediate results to determine the most discriminating variables. The stepwise method can be either forwards, starting with the best discriminating variable and including variables until all the variables which prove useful in discriminating between

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Fig. 9 Example of plot from discriminant analysis [from Gonzalez et al. (2011)]

groups are chosen, or backwards, whereby variables are eliminated starting with the least significant first. After the verification of the cluster groups, the role of each parameter should be analyzed in determining the formation of the cluster groups using Wilks’ k distribution which will assign a Wilks’ k quotient to every water quality parameter. The value of k is the ratio of the within-group sum of squares to the total sum of squares. It ranges from 0 to 1. If k = 0, then that particular parameter affected the formation of the cluster groups the most. If k = 1, then the mean of the discriminant scores is the same in all groups and there is no inter-group variability; so, in our case, the parameter did not affect the formation of the cluster groups (Afifi et al. 2004; Landau and Everitt 2004). The smaller the quotient is, the more it determines the formation of the cluster groups. The accuracy of the discriminant function may be assessed using independent data, such as a subset of the original data (the hold out group), and when used in a predictive sense, the discriminant function can be used to classify new samples. However, studies involving the application of DA to water quality are limited and are less common than CA.

4

Water Quality Index

Since it is difficult to assess water quality from a large number of parameters, there have been trials to develop a synthetic water quality index (WQI) that allows the easy compilation and reporting of complex water quality datasets in a consistent manner to all stakeholders, including the

general public. It gives a global vision on the spatial and temporal changes of the water quality. WQI is basically designed using the following four steps: (1) selecting the water quality variables; (2) transforming the variables to a common scale; (3) weighting the significant variables; and (4) computing the overall water quality index (Abbasi and Abbasi 2012; Liou et al. 2004; Aslhashemi and Taghipour 2010). The first step in developing a WQI is to choose an appropriate set of variables. Principal component analysis (PCA) has been suggested as a better approach for selecting variables to include in an index (Lohani and Todino 1984; Jolliffe 2005). Artificial neural networks (ANN) may also be explored for selecting variables to use in indices (Maier and Dandy 2000; Singh et al. 2009). These techniques have been reported to be highly accurate for learning data and thus could be useful in variable selection (May et al. 2011). The second step, called normalization, allows moving from different units and scales for water quality parameters to a common dimensionless scale. This is achieved using data transformation (Boyacioglu 2007; Dzwairo et al. 2012). The third step allows assigning a weight to each variable taking into account its relative importance in defining water quality. There are mainly two methods for this aim: Delphi and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) (Kodikara et al. 2010; Sutadian et al. 2017). Finally, water quality indices are usually obtained by assigning a suitable weight to each water quality parameter index and averaging them using some type of average functions. There are different methods of aggregation of the water quality parameters to define a WQI: weighted arithmetic mean, weighted geometric mean, unweighted

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harmonic square mean, minimum operator, etc. (Abbasi and Abbasi 2012; Kachroud et al. 2019).

5

Conclusion(s)

Statistical methods are important in water quality analysis because much of what is known about water quality comes from a small sample deemed representative of the whole population and also because water quality data are numerical datasets. To infer about population from sample data, statistical methods are used. Some of them are based solely on graphical tools to display data and help in finding some characteristics of the data. Others are based on exploratory data analysis for describing and summarizing the data using, for example, univariate and bivariate statistical parameters. However, to extract the full information from water quality data, multivariate statistical methods are used like principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), and discriminant analysis (DA). Also, to better use the temporal component of water data quality, statistical methods of time series taking into account the temporal autocorrelation can be used to make forecasting in the future. In addition, the spatial component of water quality data can be considered in the statistical analysis by using spatial statistical methods like geostatistics to evaluate and model the spatial variation and to interpolate to the unsampled locations for establishing spatial maps for the whole study area. Moreover, statistical methods can be used to optimize a network of monitoring stations of water quality and consequently reduce the time and the cost of these stations. Finally, more sophisticated statistical and data mining methods can be used to explore the ever more complex water quality data using, for example, artificial neural networks (ANN), fuzzy logic, random forests, and support vector machines (SVM).

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Research on Innovative Materials and Technologies for Water Treatment and Water Desalination: A Conceptual Analysis from 1969 to 2019 Nadia Karina Gamboa-Rosales, Andrea Castorena-Robles, Manuel Jesús Cobo, and José Ricardo López-Robles

Abstract

Today, all industries, especially the chemical industry, are faced to find new technologies that help us to reduce the human impact on the environment and promote global sustainable development. These solutions must consider aspects such as economic feasibility, sustainability, and social equitability. As a result of this need, there is a wide innovative technologies portfolio that seeks to become the core technology, one of the most representative being technologies for water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD). In this way, the aim of this contribution is to develop a bibliometric analysis that evaluates the evolution of the intellectual and cognitive structure of WT&WD that supports communities to identify, improve, and reach the research about these technologies. To do that, 737 documents from 1969 to 2019 related to WT&WD (46 open access) were retrieved from Scopus and analyzed using bibliometric techniques and technologies. Keywords










Water treatment technologies Water desalination technologies Strategic intelligence Competitive intelligence Sustainable development SciMAT

N. K. Gamboa-Rosales CONACYT—Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Av. Ramón López Velarde No. 801. Centro, 98000 Zacatecas, Mexico A. Castorena-Robles Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Epigmenio González 500, San Pablo, 76130, Queretaro, México M. J. Cobo
J. R. López-Robles (&) University of Cadiz, Av. de la Universidad 10, 11519 Cadiz, Spain J. R. López-Robles Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Av. Ramón López Velarde No. 801. Centro, 98000 Zacatecas, Mexico

Highlights (i) Water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) have a strong impact on the environment and climate change protection. (ii) The protection of the environment must be a central part of any sustainable inclusive growth technology. (iii) Water treatment and water desalination technologies will help us reduce the human impact on the environment.

1

Introduction

Nowadays, chemical companies, public organizations, research centers, and universities are focusing their efforts on improving and reaching the materials and technologies for water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD). Due to the fast development of the chemistry industry and the technologies that enable it, we need special tools and techniques that allow us to analyze and visualize which topics the researchers are focusing on, and therefore, to detect the gaps that must be explored to develop and advance in this evolution (Wang et al. 2013; Subramani and Jacangelo 2015; Gamboa-Rosales et al. 2019a, b; Zyoud and Fuchs-Hanusch 2015; Dai et al. 1985; Jiang et al. 2018). Keeping it in mind, the aim of the present research is to analyze and illustrate the evolution of the WT&WD field and its research themes using bibliometric techniques [8; 9]. To do that, the main indicators related to performance are quantified, and the evolution of the WT&WD field is analyzed using a bibliometric analysis software based on a bibliographic network (López-Robles et al. 1984, 2019a, 2020; Zhao et al. 2020). To identify the main research themes related to WT&WD and its evolution, a bibliometric approach is proposed based on the analysis of the main performance indicators and the scientific map between 1969 and 2019. To this purpose, the documents and their bibliographic information available in Scopus (considered as one of the main scientific and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_9

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academic databases) have been compiled and subsequently processed with SciMAT (Cobo et al. 2012, 2011a) The collected information facilitates the analysis of the main performance indicators: productivity of authors in terms of publications and citations, countries, and journals. This first part of the analysis has also been evaluated using h-index and H-Classics, thus homogenizing the indicators presented by each of the authors and the main publications (Martínez et al. 2014).

2

Methodology and Dataset

Bibliometric methods include one of the most common and accepted techniques for analyzing the output of basic research. Such methods are increasingly valued as a tool for measuring scientific quality, productivity, and evolution (Moed et al. 1995; López-Robles et al. 2019b). SciMAT provides four phases to analyze the water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) within a specified period: Research themes detection, visualizing research themes and thematic network (He 1999), discovery of thematic areas, and performance analysis (Cobo et al. 2011b). Moreover, this analysis applied the H-Classics to determine the most cited publications. In addition, the developed scientific maps have made it possible to visualize the evolution of the WT&WD in an agile and clear way, delimiting the areas of research and time and capturing its conceptual and cognitive structure. Before the scientific map, each period is characterized as a thematic network and is represented as a set of themes classified and positioned in a 4-quadrant plane divided into four categories, called a strategic diagram. These categories are: Motor themes (themes well developed and relevant for the structuring of a research field), highly developed and

isolated themes (themes well developed with internal ties but which are isolated from the rest of the themes, and which have a marginal role in the development of the field), emerging or declining themes (themes weakly developed), and basic or transversal themes (important themes for the development of the scientific field but which are not developed) (Fig. 1). The scientific map collects each strategic diagram and relates its evolution over time. Finally, the bibliometric performance analysis and conceptual evolution analysis made it possible to understand the research field. In this way, the publications related to water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) have been collected to analyze the bibliometric performance and science mapping. Consequently, the research publications dedicated to fuel cell technologies were downloaded from Scopus using the following advanced query: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“water treatment” AND “water desalination”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“water treatment and water desalination”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“water desalination and water treatment”) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “cp”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “re”)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2020)). This query helped retrieve 737 publications from 1969 to 2019. The citations of these publications were also used in this work; these were collected until October 1, 2019. A de-duplicating process was also applied to improve data quality by grouping those meanings and concepts that represent the same notion (i.e., “WATER TREATMENT,” “WATER TREATMENTS,” AND “WATER TREATMENT (WT)” were merged as “WATER-TREATMENT”). As a second step, and to avoid flatness of the data, the years, as a whole, were split into consecutive periods. While periods are frequently used to cover the same period, given the low number of publications in the early years, the best

Fig. 1. Structure of the a strategic diagram, b thematic network, and c evolution map

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Fig. 2. Distribution of publications and cites related to water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) retrieved by year

option in the present analysis was to divide the period into three comparable periods: (i) 1969–1989, (ii) 1990–2009, and (iii) 2010–2019.

3

Results and Discussion

The following section analyzes the bibliometric performance of water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) literature in terms of productivity, quality, and impact. The bibliometric performance analysis is structured into four subsections: (i) whole production and impact of published documents; (ii) production of authors, countries, and organizations; (iii) H-classic and h-index analysis; and (iv) analysis of the content of the documents published. First, Fig. 2 shows the distribution of publications and cites related to water treatment and water desalination fields retrieved by year. Since the first publication, three milestones in the development of the WT&WD field could be highlighted. The first and second milestones consider the first and second historical maximum in terms of annual

production, respectively, (1991 and 2004). The third milestone corresponds to the longest growth period (2011). Nonetheless, WT&WD publications show a pattern of growth that is expected to continue in the coming years. In this way, the citation distribution exposed a positive developmental trend from 1969 to 2019. During this period, a total of 13.837 citations (including self-citations) were recorded and the total number of cites (cited references) not including self-citations is 11.216. Finally, the average citation per cited article is 18.77. Second, to understand the WT&WD field evolution, it is also important to know which are the most productive and cited authors, sources, countries, and organizations. Table 1 shows the most productive authors, countries, organizations, and most cited authors during the period 1969–2019. There was a tie in some positions between various authors, countries, sources, or organizations; thus, all of them have been included in alphabetical order. It is important to mention that only two of the most cited authors are not among the most productive authors: Hilan,

Table 1 Most productive authors, organizations, countries, and sources and most cited authors

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N. and Biesheuvel, P. M. This situation reflects a coherence between the impact and productivity of the WT&WD field. In terms of internationalization, the WT&WD field has the participation of 64 countries from the five continents. Among the most productive countries, a balance can be observed between American, European, and Asian countries, strengthening the international interest to the WT&WD field. This fact also coincides with the performance presented by the most productive organizations. In terms of quantity and quality, the WT&WD field is still growing and consolidating as a referent research area. Third, the H-classics method (Martínez et al. 2014) based on the well-known h-index (Hirsch 2005), serves as an impartial criterion to systematize the identification of the classic papers of any research field. This method is used to discover the core paper in the WT&WD field, and therefore, identify the authors, countries, and organizations that have contributed more. The search query used in the database Scopus has an h-index of 60. Using the h-index value as reference, the core publications and its citations (including average per year) are presented in Fig. 3. Considering it, the main authors are Biesheuvel, P. M. with three publications and Choi, J. H., El-Deen, A. G., Emadzadeh, D., Ghanbari, M., Hilal, N., Ismail, A. F., Kalogirou, S., Lau, W. J., Lee, H. J., Mahmoud, K. A., Matsuura, T., Mohammadi, T., Moon, S. H., Strathmann, H., Van Der Wal, A., and Zhao, R. with two publications. In this way, the most productive and cited authors and the most relevant authors are consistent in both sections. In terms of the countries production, the United States with eleven publications, Australia with six publications, and China, Iran, Netherlands and South Korea with five publications are the most productive countries in terms of most relevant publications. On the other hand, the most productive organizations identified in this section are Wageningen University and Research Centre with four publications and Wetsus, Centre for Sustainable Water Technology, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, and Khalifa University of Science and Technology with three publications.

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Fourth, following the above-described methodology, Figs. 4, 5, and 6 provide an overview of the science mapping, its performance and the relations between main themes in the WT&WD field from 1969 to 2019. According to the strategic diagrams, for the first period (Fig. 4), the research pivoted on six themes: REVERSEOSMOSIS-TECHNOLOGIES, WATER-TREATMENTPLANTS, WATER-DESALINATION, SOLAR-ANDWIND-ENERGIES, WASTEWATER-MANAGEMENT, and HEAT-TRANSFER-PROCESS. For the second period (Fig. 5), the research pivoted on twelve themes: DESALINATION-PROCESSES, FOULING-CONTROL, ION-EXCHANGE-PROCESS, MASS-TRANSFER ADSORPTION-TECHNOLOGY, SOLAR-AND-WIND-ENERGIES, GROUNDWATER-RESOURCES, OSMOSISTECHNOLOGIES, WATER-MANAGEMENT, ELECTRICPOWER-PLANTS, WASTEWATER-RECLAMATION, and NANOFILTRATION-TECHNOLOGIES. Finally, in the third period (Fig. 6), the research pivoted on fifteen themes: MICROBIAL-DESALITANTION-CELLS, WATER-MANAGEMENT, DISTILLATION-PROCESS, SOLAR-AND-WIND-ENERGIES, BRACKISH-WATER, ION-EXCHANGE-PROCESS, WATER-FILTRATION, INTERFACIAL-POLYMERIZATION, GRAPHENE-APPLICATIONS, CAPACITIVE-DEIONIZATION, WATERQUALITY, and WATER-TREATMENT-PLANTS. Considering the results of analyzing the content of the published documents for each period, a second analysis focusing on the conceptual evolution of the main themes was carried out. In this way, two thematic areas were recognized: (i) Renewable energies and (ii) water treatment and water desalination and (iii) neural networks. These thematic areas consolidate the main themes and research areas within the WT&WD field (Fig. 7). The first one includes three themes, and it accounts 148 documents, 3.045 citations, and 22 documents highly cited according to the h-index. The second thematic areas within twenty-four themes, and it covers 1.985 documents, 50.394 citations, and 47 documents highly cited.

Fig. 3. H-Classics of water treatment and water desalination (WT&WD) field (h-index = 60)

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Fig. 4. Strategic diagram and performance from 1969 to 1989 a Thematic network b REVERSE-OSMOSIS-TECHNOLOGIES, c WATER-TREATMENT-PLANTS, d WASTEWATER-MANAGEMENT,

4

Conclusion(s)

The current research presents a bibliometric study about research on innovative materials and technologies for water treatment and water desalination, identifying the main themes and related research fields. More than 746 original research articles have been analyzed and processed using SciMAT. The evolution of the water treatment and water desalination field is positive since its beginning. Moreover, given the large volume of publications and citations received, as

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e SOLAR-AND-WIND-ENERGIES, f WATER-DESALINATION, and g HEAT-TRANSFER-PROCESS

well as the research themes identified and their evolution in the main databases, it is expected that the scientific community interest for the journal continues or even keeps growing over the coming years. According to the conceptual analysis developed using SciMAT tool, two main research themes’ groups are identified. The first group is the themes considered as a core for their contribution to the growth of the field and are related to Reverse Osmosis Technologies, Water Treatment Plants, Water Desalination, Wastewater Management, Desalination Processes, Groundwater Resources, Fouling Control, Wastewater Reclamation, Osmosis Technologies, Ion

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Fig. 5 Strategic diagram and performance from 1990 to 2009 a Thematic network, b DESALINATION-PROCESESS, c SOLARAND-WIND-ENERGIES, d WASTEWATER-RECLAMATION, e GROUNDWATER-RESOURCES, f ION-EXCHANGE-PROCESS, g

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FOULING-CONTROL, h NANOFILTRATION-TECHNOLOGIES, i OSMOSIS-TECHNOLOGIES, j WATER-MANAGEMENT, k ADSORPTION-TECHNOLOGY, l ELECTRIC-POWER-PLANTS, and m MASS-TRANSFER

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Fig. 6 Strategic diagram and performance from 2010 to 2019 a Thematic network, b WATER-FILTRATION, c MICROBIAL-DESALITANTION-CELLS, d WATER-MANAGEMENT, e DISTILLATION-PROCESS, f SOLAR-AND-WIND-ENERGIES, g BRACKISH-

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WATER, h ION-EXCHANGE-PROCESS, i INTERFACIAL-POLYMERIZATION, j GRAPHENE-APPLICATIONS, k CAPACITIVEDEIONIZATION, l WATER-QUALITY, and m WATER-TREATMENT-PLANTS

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Fig. 7. Evolution map and thematic performance from 1969 to 2019

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Exchange Process, Nanofiltration Technologies, Water Management, Water Filtration, Distillation Process, Brackish Water, Graphene Applications, Water Quality, and Microbial Desalination Cells. The second one is related to emerging or parallel themes such as Solar and Wind Energies, Heat Transfer Process, Electric Power Plants, Adsorption Technology, Mass Transfer, Capacitive Deionization, Interfacial Polymerization, Heavy Metal Removal, and Metal–Organic Framework. On analyzing these themes and their relationship, the research finds that the development of water treatment and water desalination field will mainly support the following areas: Material Science, Chemistry, Environmental Sciences, energy and Biochemistry, Chemical Engineering, Genetics, and Molecular Biology. Finally, some future works could be addressed. First, a global analysis could be carried out considering a wider period and enriching the query with more search terms. Second, the evolution of the research themes could be studied across the consecutive periods for the main sectors in the transport field. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the support by the CONACYT-Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (Mexico) and COZCyT-consejo Zacatecano de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (Mexico) to carry out this study. Additionally, this work has been supported by the FEDER funds (TIN2016-75850-R).

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93 biomass: a bibliometric analysis of the research published during the 1979–2019 period, in VII Symposium on Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Advanced Batteries (HYCELTEC 2019), Barcelona (Spain), 2019, pp. 172–174. http://hdl.handle.net/10760/39667 P. Glenisson, W. Glänzel, F. Janssens, B. De Moor, Combining full text and bibliometric information in mapping scientific disciplines. Inf. Process. Manage. 41, 1548–1572 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ipm.2005.03.021 Q. He, Knowledge discovery through co-word analysis. Library Trends 48, 26 (1999). http://hdl.handle.net/2142/8267 J.E. Hirsch, An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102, 16569–16572 (2005). https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.0507655102 L. Ji, C. Liu, L. Huang, G. Huang, The evolution of resources conservation and recycling over the past 30 years: a bibliometric overview. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 134, 34–43 (2018) M. Jiang, Y. Qi, H. Liu, Y. Chen, The role of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies in wastewater treatment: a bibliometric analysis. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 13, 233 (2018) J.R. López-Robles, J.R. Otegi-Olaso, I. Porto-Gómez, H. Gamboa-Rosales, N.K. Gamboa-Rosales, Understanding the intellectual structure and evolution of competitive intelligence: a bibliometric analysis from 1984 to 2017. Technol. Anal. Strategic Manage. 2019, 1–16 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09537325. 2019.1686136 J.R. López-Robles, M. Rodríguez-Salvador, N.K. Gamboa-Rosales, S. Ramirez-Rosales, M.J. Cobo, The last five years of big data research in economics, econometrics and finance: identification and conceptual analysis. Proc. Comput. Sci. 162, 729–736 (2019a). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.12.044 J.R. López-Robles, J.R. Otegi-Olaso, I. Porto-Gómez, M.J. Cobo, 30 years of intelligence models in management and business: a bibliometric review. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 48, 22–38 (2019b). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.01.013 J.R. López-Robles, J.R. Otegi-Olaso, I. Porto-Gómez, H. Gamboa-Rosales, N.K. Gamboa-Rosales, La relación entre Inteligencia de Negocio e Inteligencia Competitiva: un análisis retrospectivo y bibliométrico de la literatura de 1959 a 2017. Revista Espanola De Documentacion Cientifica 43, e256 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3989/redc.2020.1.1619 M.Á. Martínez, M. Herrera, J. López-Gijón, E. Herrera-Viedma, H-Classics: characterizing the concept of citation classics through H-index. Scientometrics 98, 1971–1983 (2014). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11192-013-1155-9 H.F. Moed, R.E. De-Bruin, T.N. Van-Leeuwen, New bibliometric tools for the assessment of national research performance: database description, overview of indicators and first applications. Scientometrics 33, 381–422 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02017338 A. Subramani, J.G. Jacangelo, Emerging desalination technologies for water treatment: a critical review. Water Res. 75, 164–187 (2015) P. Wang, J. Ma, F. Shi, Y. Ma, Z. Wang, X. Zhao, Behaviors and effects of differing dimensional nanomaterials in water filtration membranes through the classical phase inversion process: a review. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52, 10355–10363 (2013) L. Zhao, T. Dai, Z. Qiao, P. Sun, J. Hao, Y. Yang, Application of artificial intelligence to wastewater treatment: a bibliometric analysis and systematic review of technology, economy, management, and wastewater reuse. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 133, 169– 182 (2020) S. Zyoud, D. Fuchs-Hanusch, Estimates of Arab world research productivity associated with desalination: a bibliometric analysis. IDA J. Desalination Water Reuse 7, 3–16 (2015)

The Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis and Treatment of Groundwater of South Punjab, Pakistan Abdul Majid Khan, Muhammad Tahir Waseem, Ghulam Sarwar, Muhammad Ameen, Rana Manzoor Ahmad, Farwa Rasool, Rabia Muneer, and Sidra Javed

Abstract

Highlights

The availability of clean water is one of the pivotal objectives toward sustainable growth of any country. Pakistan, as a developing country, is facing the problem of bad water quality for decades and purification of groundwater has always been a problem. Thus, the present study aims to give a realistic picture of microbial contamination of groundwater of the two districts of the Province Punjab, Pakistan. Furthermore, we treat groundwater in our newly built robust water purification system which is cost-effective to check the efficiency of this system against microbial contaminations. Microbial contamination may lead to many water-borne diseases. The higher rates of microbial contamination including the levels of coliform, heterotrophic plate count and E. coli are found in 38 samples collected across different sites of the study area. Furthermore, we have treated these contaminated water samples by using a newly developed indigenous water purification system which is highly cost-effective and easy to use. All the contaminants were found below the WHO limit after treatment. Thus, we recommend the use of this robust water purification system which may help us to resolve the water crisis in an economically stressed country like Pakistan.

• The assessment of microbial contamination and elevated levels of two districts of South Punjab, Pakistan, has been done and the levels of microbial contamination in groundwater were found above the WHO limit. • A robust cost-effective water purification system was designed and tested for the purification of water. • The newly built system works on gravity flow principle and found to be highly effective in the purification of water as the treated water samples showed the values of microbial contamination below the WHO limit.

Keywords




E. coli Coliform Water quality




Microbial count




Rural areas

A. M. Khan (&)
M. T. Waseem
G. Sarwar
M. Ameen
R. M. Ahmad
F. Rasool
R. Muneer
S. Javed Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] R. M. Ahmad Department of Zoology, University of Okara, Okara, Punjab, Pakistan




1

Introduction

The groundwater quality depends upon the factors affecting the water along with the depth of the water while the quality of water may vary from place to place (Reid et al. 2003). Naturally, it is found in sterile conditions and accounts safe for drinking purposes (World Health Organization 2004). But in the past few decades, the quality of groundwater of the Punjab, Pakistan, has been compromised due to industrial growth, solid waste disposal, agricultural seepage and sewage disposal (Mondal et al. 2008; NEQS 2002). A higher microbial load in drinking water is an emerging problem which has contaminated the groundwater of the Punjab which mainly is served as the drinking water in many areas (Hassan and Nawaz 2014; Shahid et al. 2015). Various microbial and physical parameters such as fecal coliform, total coliform, pH, electrical conductivity and turbidity have been considered as important quality indicators of groundwater which is often used as drinking water (WHO 1986; Tumwine et al. 2002; Babiker and Mohamed 2014). South Punjab has been reported to have significantly higher levels of microbial load in the groundwater, which have serious health implications (Longe and Balogun 2010).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_10

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Typically, if the dissolved minerals exceed 1000 mg/L, water is considered unsafe for drinking purposes (World Health Organization 2004). Such minerals can have deleterious effects on human health. Groundwater is generally considered as a “safe source” of drinking water because it is abstracted with low microbial load with little need for treatment before drinking (PCRWR 2016). However, groundwater resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality. The population in South Punjab is facing the economic crisis due to which availability of clean water is problematic in such remote areas. Thus, this study presents an assessment of microbial and physicochemical qualities of borehole water in the rural areas of South Punjab Province, Pakistan, and estimates that how this water can be purified by developing a cost-effective water purification system. Furthermore, we have developed a robust water purification system and estimated its efficiency against microbial and physicochemical water contaminants. Such a system has been built as the cost-effective and organic unit, which may help to provide clean water to the economically stressed regions.

2

(Association 2005). Portable kits were used to measure the conductance and pH while further analysis was done at Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR), Lahore.

2.2 Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis The microbial and physicochemical parameters were measured according to American Public Health Association (APHA) (APA, 2005). Turbidity, pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured using Multi-purpose Conductivity Meter PCE-PHD 1. Strong Acid titration method was used to measure alkalinity. The study aimed at determining levels of microbial (both fecal and total coliform bacteria) contaminants in drinking water. All the analysis was done by PCSIR and the same samples were then run through the water purification system, which was developed by our team. The purification system utilizes a gravity flow setting with two upside-down containers having subsequent layers of sand, purified charcoal powder and iron chips with muslin layers at both ends. A third container collects the purified water.

Materials and Methods

2.1 Sample Collection Samples were collected from two districts of South Punjab (Multan and Layyah) during the March–April 2017 (Fig. 1), where a higher microbial load was reported in these two districts (Hassan and Nawaz 2014). All samples were collected in glass Schott bottles (1L). The samples were further divided in triplicates to counter the analysis bias Fig. 1 The map along the sampling sites of the study area

2.3 Construction of Robust Water Purification System Three-chambered pot was prepared by using mud and clay in which at the end of the first two pots, a small hole was made. After making holes, a piece of muslin was placed in the pot that it lined the pot from inside and it could be drawn out easily. On muslin, a layer of fine sand was made. Sand

The Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis …

97

pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity, salinity and TDS are 1.3, 0.9, 0.7, 0.9, 0.6, 0.9, 2.3, 5, 0.8, 1.5, 3.30 and 0.9, respectively (Table 1). When the samples were treated by using the indigenous water purification system, a significant decrease was noted in microbial contamination. We observed heterotrophic plate count, total coliform, fecal coliform and E. coli levels before treatment as 3.06  107 cfu/ml,  1600 MPN/100 ml,  1600 MPN/100 ml,  1600 MPN/100 ml (Table 2) and 79 cfu/ml, 7.9 MPN/100 ml, 2.0 MPN/100 ml and 2.0 MPN/ 100 ml after treatment, respectively. The statistical analysis revealed that the differences observed were significant (p < 0.05).

4

Fig. 2 The sketch of newly developed indigenous water purification prototype

should be appropriately washed for removal of extra pollutants. Above the layer of sand, a piece of muslin was placed in a similar manner as earlier. At the top of this piece, layer of iron chips was placed. Now, the second pot was placed at the top of both, as shown in Fig. 2. After making a small hole as in a first pot, the second pot was lined with muslin from inside as earlier. Then, a layer of fine wood charcoal was made on it. Another piece of muslin was placed on it and coarse sand was layered at the top (Fig. 2).

3

Results

Results are analyzed by using General Linear Model (Multivariate) by SPSS version 16.00. There was no significant difference found in the following parameters in groundwater of both the districts: lead (p = 0.676), chromium (p = 0.56), cadmium (p = 0.266), conductivity (p = 0.171), TDS (p = 0.561), turbidity (p = 0.609), HPC (p = 0.53), total coliform (p = 0.75) and fecal coliform (p = 0.49), while on the other hand, significant difference is found in following parameters in both the cities: temperature (p = 0.000), pH (p = 0.04) and salinity (p = 0.009). The p value of cadmium, chromium, lead, HPC, total coliform, fecal coliform,

Discussion

Multiple colonies of various types of microbes grow on sand particles and make a biofilm. With the downward movement of water through sand, flocs and aggregates move downward and settle in the bottom (Rehman et al. 2009). In addition, to trickle inorganic and organic particles, the slow movement of water through sand beds also coagulates pathogenic microorganisms. Viruses are also reported to be removed through sand filtration (UNESCO 2015). The present research is reiterating the same outcome where not a single sample is safe enough to meet the water quality standards of WHO. The major contaminating indicators are heterotrophic plate count, fecal coliform, total coliform, iron (Fe) and conductivity. Further analysis reveals that 100% of the samples have values of conductivity beyond the permissible limits. Some samples have a value of lead as high as 0.562. In the case of turbidity, 8 samples have values beyond safe level. When water passes through sand, its small pore size accumulates floc along with some organic and inorganic impurities. After passing through sand, water passes by the muslin. Most of the filtration takes place until this step. Black carbon (BC) is believed to be an important adsorbent of organic pollutants (UNESCO 2015). Such processes are conducted on a large scale for the remediation of pollutants (Smeldy and Kinniburgh 2002). Wood charcoal adsorbs the organic substances, whereas the iron chips are responsible for the transformation of arsenite into arsenate which is a less damaging form of arsenic (Mahmood et al. 2011; Grace et al. 2016). Slow water filtration through sand is dependent on both physical and chemical mechanisms. Arsenic is mainly removed by oxidation by the ferric ions of iron chips present in the setup. Finally, water moves through the sand and then muslin which removes the remaining particles and then water collects in water collector. Among technologies, membrane filtration/nano-filtration is considered as most acceptable technology for removal of

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A. M. Khan et al.

Table 1 Physicochemical attributes of water samples taken from Multan and Layyah #

Temperature (°C)

pH

Conductivity (uS/cm)

Salinity (mg/L)

T.D.S (mg/L)

Turbidity (NTU)

Iron (mg/L)

L1

21.6

6.96

1038

514

668

10.55

01

L2

20.6

7.17

855

418

547

2.55

Less than 1

L3

20.8

7.32

620

300

396

0.687

Less than 1

L4

20.8

7.57

1192

584

763

2.52

Less than 1

L5

20.4

7.52

990

488

633

2.36

01

L6

20.5

7.57

1162

580

741

1.20

Less than 1

L7

20.6

7.54

465

223

298

1.20

Less than 1

L8

20.9

7.09

1175

585

753

L9

20.8

7.63

369

176

236

0.508

Less than 1

L10

20.9

7.40

864

422

553

5.34

Less than 1

L11

20.8

7.56

482

231

309

0.399

Less than 1

L12

20.4

7.25

1001

497

646

5.08

Less than 1

L13

20.6

7.30

1139

563

729

6.30

Less than 1

L14

20.8

7.08

1751

875

1123

0.236

01

L15

21.1

7.71

296

141

189

0.544

Less than 1

L16

21.1

7.62

605

298

395

0.938

Less than 1

L17

20.7

7.60

592

286

379

0.632

Less than 1

L18

20.8

7.61

598

290

381

0.272

Less than 1

M19

20.8

7.64

498

239

319

1.03

Less than 1

M20

20.8

7.96

587

284

376

0.222

Less than 1

M21

20.9

7.60

971

478

621

1.30

Less than 1

M22

20.9

7.57

734

359

472

1.22

Less than 1

M23

21.1

7.55

824

402

527

0.901

Less than 1

M24

21.3

7.85

609

294

390

0.496

Less than 1

M25

21.3

7.38

1314

647

841

1.94

Less than 1

M26

21.3

7.44

1240

610

794

M27

21.2

7.82

543

263

349

M28

21.4

7.74

517

249

331

M29

21.3

7.39

1166

575

745

M30

21.1

7.71

538

260

344

1.12

Less than 1

M31

21.3

7.50

1212

771

595

0.882

Less than 1

M32

21.5

7.71

968

618

475

1.44

Less than 1

M33

21.5

7.61

1104

706

546

1.81

Less than 1

M34

21.4

7.61

1367

875

673

M35

21.4

7.65

1602

1027

798

3.82

Less than 1

M36

21.5

7.73

1185

758

587

0.653

Less than 1

99.8

18.4 0.600 1.46 20.3

17.0

04

02 Less than 1 Less than 1 04

Less than 1

L = Samples collected from Layyah M = Samples collected from Multan

arsenic from drinking water. But the World Health Organization (World Health Organization 2004) emphasized that simple, suitable and cheap interventions at communal and domestic levels are effective to improve water in respect of microbial quality. It reduces the risks of diseases related to the alimentary canal. Nowadays, major research work is

being carried out to find an economic and cost-effective way to purify water which could be affordable by everyone in society. Future needs require a method with the lowest treatment cost and easy to use (Chen et al. 2007). Thus, the use of gravity flow mechanism is assessed for its efficiency in order to provide a setup of easy access and

The Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis … Table 2 Microbial analysis of groundwater of Multan and Layyah districts (before treatment)

99

#

Lead (mg/L)

Chromium (mg/L)

Cadmium (mg/L)

Heterotrophic plate count (Cfu/ml)

L1

0.000

0.009

0.017

1.79  102

L2

0.306

0.008

0.017

2.04  10

L3

0.000

0.007

0.016

1.23  102

Total coliform (MPN/100 ml) < 1.8

Fecal coliform (MPN/100 ml) < 1.8

3

33

14

11

4.5

L4

0.045

0.006

0.013

9.5  10

< 1.8

< 1.8

L5

0.000

0.010

0.015

1.01  102

< 1.8

< 1.8

1

L6

0.118

0.008

0.017

2.74  10

L7

0.000

0.008

0.014

1.19  102

3

920 < 1.8

L8

0.000

0.007

0.014

2.18  10

L9

0.022

0.007

0.016

2.74  105

> 1600

2

2

47

39 < 1.8 33 920

L10

0.030

0.007

0.012

1.15  10

< 1.8

< 1.8

L11

0.562

0.006

0.015

8.10  101

< 1.8

< 1.8

2

L12

0.000

0.007

0.017

1.82  10

< 1.8

< 1.8

L13

0.000

0.007

0.014

1.51  102

< 1.8

< 1.8

< 1.8

L14

0.000

0.008

0.012

1.49  10

L15

0.204

0.007

0.017

2.44  105

L16

0.000

0.007

0.014

1.81  103

L17

0.000

0.007

0.016

6.40  101

2

> 1600 220 < 1.8

< 1.8 140 39 < 1.8

L18

0.000

0.009

0.015

1.08  10

M19

0.000

0.007

0.015

2.71  102

14

4.5

M20

0.000

0.008

0.014

1.66  103

350

70

M21

0.000

0.007

0.015

2.04  104

47

17

2

< 1.8

< 1.8

M22

0.000

0.007

0.014

2.33  10

1600

40

M23

0.000

0.010

0.013

2.44  104

350

39

M24

0.080

0.003

0.014

2.61  104

79

14

M25

0.000

0.007

0.015

2.74  102

13

4.5

4

350

33

240

17

5

M26

0.000

0.008

0.015

2.75  10

M27

0.000

0.006

0.016

1.88  105

M28

0.004

0.005

0.013

1.99  10

M29

0.270

0.110

0.012

1.50  102

6

> 1600 < 1.8

M30

0.000

0.006

0.014

2.22  10

M31

0.000

0.006

0.014

1.88  102

4.5 23

4

M32

0.000

0.009

0.014

2.50  10

M33

0.002

0.007

0.014

1.13  102

2

170

< 1.8

47 < 1.8 14 < 1.8 7.8 < 1.8

M34

0.019

0.009

0.014

2.85  10

110

22

M35

0.000

0.006

0.015

1.69  102

21

4.5

0.016

1.60  10

170

14

M36

0.000

0.007

4

5

L = Samples collected from Layyah M = Samples Collected from Multan

economic feasibility. A significant difference in pre- and post-treatment values can be seen, which shows the efficiency of this simple method (Table 3). The mechanism of this setup involves the following phenomenon which helps in purification of water.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Role of sand High adsorption power of iron chips Naturally occurring adsorbent exopolymers Filtration by muslin Catalytic oxidative powers of wood charcoal

100

A. M. Khan et al.

Table 3 The microbial analysis before and after treatment Sample

Microbial analysis Heterotrophic plate count (cfu/ml)

Total coliform MPN/100 ml  1600

Fecal coliform MPN/100 ml  1600

E. coli MPN/100 ml  1600

Before treatment

3.06  107

After treatment

79

7.8

2.0

2.0

WHO standards

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

Water passes through sand by gravity. The microbial mechanism is also involved. Water is purified mostly by two mechanisms. 1. Flocculation 2. Coagulation Colloids in water comprise polysaccharides projected from cells and consequently become separated. These are called exopolymers. These exopolymers are known to be highly adsorptive in nature (Daus et al. 2004). Thus, flocculation means the association of constituents by exopolymers. Coagulation is the phenomenon in which components are attached with charges on their surface (Podgorski et al. 2017). It has been verified that organic carbon in colloidal form is bioreactive when conjoining with aggregates, whereas it is usually unreactive when not linked with aggregates. Fecal pellets, intricate groups of microorganisms, are said to have properties like aggregates. They serve as points of biological activity and they are known as adsorptive in nature (Hall et al. 2014; Haydar et al. 2009). Multiple colonies of various types of microbes grow on sand particles and make a biofilm. With the downward movement of water through sand, flocs and aggregates move downward and settle in the bottom (Joel et al. 2017). In addition to trickle inorganic and organic particles, slow movement of water through sand beds also coagulates pathogenic microorganisms. Viruses are also reported to be removed through sand filtration. When water passes through sand, its small pore size accumulates floc along with some organic and inorganic impurities. After passing through sand, water passes by muslin. Most of the filtration takes place until this step. Then, wood charcoal comes for adsorption of most of the organic pollutants. Black carbon (BC) is believed to be an important adsorbent of organic pollutants (Kapaj et al. 2006). Wood charcoal provides the greater surface area for

catalytic oxidation. Catalytic oxidation is the process that oxidizes compounds due to the iron chips present in the pitcher. Such processes are conducted on a large scale for the remediation of pollutants (Karim 2011). After this step, water moves toward the next pot and passes through the iron chips which easily oxidize the arsenite into arsenate. Slow water filtration through sand is dependent on both physical and chemical mechanisms. Arsenic is mainly removed by adsorbing on the ferric ions of iron chips present in setup. Removal methods of arsenic are usually coagulation with ferric ions and adsorption (Khan et al. 2000, 2013; Mahmood et al. 2011). Finally, water moves through the sand and then muslin which removes the remaining particles; and then, water is collected in the water collector. This purifying method is most affordable with a certain reliability because it demands little monitoring. It is a simple and nature-based method that can be implemented on a large scale. Huge potential of drinking water purification lies in this method.

5

Conclusion

The groundwater of Punjab is at great risk due to high microbial contamination. Many factors are responsible for threatening the condition of drinking water quality which includes heavy industrialization trends. Due to agricultural background of Punjab, water contamination can also be associated with the runoffs from fields including fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides. Pure sewage system and no maintenance attitude are causing the high microbial contamination. This all in turn causes severe health risks. Based on this research work, we recommend the use of our indigenous setup for purification of water at household level. Moreover, government should introduce this setup at a larger scale to provide the basic need, the good quality drinking water. This method is economical as well as easy to handle.

The Microbial and Physicochemical Analysis …

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Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water Using Advanced Oxidation Processes Saad Jasim, Merih Uslu, Rajesh Seth, Nihar Biswas, and Jayaprakash Saththasivam

Abstract

Highlights

The efficiency of ozone treatment on the removal of three cyanotoxins in simulated Qatar tap water was evaluated. The reactivity of cyanotoxins with ozone followed the order as microcystin-LR (MLR) > cylindrospermopsin (CYN) > anatoxin-a (ANA). Approximately 70% of MLR, CYN and ANA were oxidized with an applied ozone dosage of 0.04 mg/L, 0.085 mg/L and 0.26 mg/L, respectively. Increased ozone dose greatly improved the oxidation efficiency, and a complete removal was achieved for all cyanotoxins. The level of pH affected the removal differently; highest removal rates were obtained at pH 5, pH 10 and pH 7.2 for MLR, ANA and CYN, respectively. There was no obvious effect of hydrogen peroxide addition on ozone treatment efficiency. Based on the calculated pseudo first order rate constants, the estimated ozone doses required for the 99.5% removal of 0.2 mg/L MLR, CYN and ANA were 0.12 mg/L, 0.22 mg/L and 1.3 mg/L, respectively.

• Ozone effectively oxidizes all tested cyanotoxins, MLR, ANA and CYN, in simulated tap water even at a very low dose. • The effect of pH on ozonation efficiency was different for each cyanotoxin. Highest cyanotoxin removals were obtained at pH 5, 7.2 and 10 for MLR, CYN and ANA, respectively. • Experiments with different ozone doses showed that the required ozone doses to oxidize MLR, CYN and ANA under 1 µg/l are 0.17 mg/L, 0.25 mg/L and 0.73 mg/L, respectively.

Keywords

Cyanotoxins water




Ozone




Advanced oxidation




Drinking

S. Jasim (&) SJ Environmental Consultants (Windsor) Inc., Windsor, ON N9G 2W3, Canada M. Uslu
R. Seth
N. Biswas Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B3P4, Canada J. Saththasivam Qatar Environment & Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, 34110 Doha, Qatar

1

Introduction

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue green algae, are naturally present in source waters all around the world. Among these, combined effect of anthropogenic input of excess nutrients and increased temperature can sometimes cause excessive proliferation of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs) (Chorus and Bartram 1999). Algal blooms can create hypoxic conditions by depleting oxygen which in turn causes massive fish kills (Carmichael and Boyer 2016). However, most challenging outcome of the harmful algal blooms is the production of highly toxic compounds known as cyanotoxins which are linked to several cases of human and animal poisoning as well as fish, aquatic and terrestrial organisms (Chorus et al. 2000; Rastogi et al. 2014). Cyanotoxins of concern are mainly classified based on their toxicological effects, such as hepatotoxins and neurotoxins affecting the liver system and nervous system, respectively. The most prevalent cyanotoxins in the environment threatening the human and animal health are microcystins, nodularin, cylindrospermopsin of hepatotoxin group, anatoxin-a and saxitoxin of the neurotoxin group (Merel et al. 2010; Codd et al. 2005).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_11

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Human exposure to cyanotoxins can occur in many ways. Ingestion of contaminated drinking water, dermal contact via recreational activities and renal dialysis are among the most commonly reported pathways responsible for serious health problems for humans. Giannuzi et al. (2011) reported an acute poisoning of a man who got accidentally immersed in a dam reservoir which was contaminated with high level (48.6 µg/L) of MLR, result of an intense Microcystis spp. bloom. Two hours of exposure to the contaminated water resulted in a gastrointestinal symptom including nausea, abdominal pain and fever, which were followed by respiratory distress and finally hepatotoxicosis. In addition to gastrointestinal problems, other symptoms like skin rashes, mouth ulcers, eyes’ and ear irritations have also been reported after dermal contact with contaminated water as a result of recreational activities (Pilotto et al. 1997). A fatal incident had occurred at a Brazilian hemodialysis center where cyanotoxin contaminated water was used for the treatment of patients causing acute liver failure and more than 50 deaths (Azevedo et al. 2002). In another case, hospitalization of more than 100 children in Australia was attributed to Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii bloom in a drinking water reservoir and its subsequent treatment with copper sulfate (Chorus and Bartram 1999; Chorus et al. 2000). In addition to acute toxicity, chronic low-level exposure to cyanotoxins through contaminated drinking water has also been linked to increasing cancer rates in China (Yu 1995). Considering the adverse health effects of cyanotoxins, World Health Organization (WHO) established a provisional guideline value of 1 µg/L in drinking water for MLR (WHO 1998). Due to the lack of toxicological data, no guideline values have yet been set for other concerned cyanotoxins in drinking water. The presence of cyanotoxins has been reported all around the world in source as well as in finished drinking waters. Microcystins (MCs), nodularin (NOD) and CYN, up to 36 µg/L, were found in reservoir waters in Taiwan while CYN was also detected at a high concentration in tap water samples (Yen et al. 2011). The presence of MCs and CYN together with saxitoxin (SAX) was also reported in water reservoirs in Australia (up to 17 µg/L) (Hoeger et al. 2004). However, the concentrations of these cyanotoxins in finished tap waters were below 1 µg/L. Burns (2005) also detected MC, ANA and CYN in Florida waters at concentrations of 100–150 µg/L, as well as in the treated drinking water of up to 10 µg/L MC and ANA and 100 µg/L CYN. More recently, following a harmful algal bloom in Lake Erie, MCs were detected in finished drinking water at higher than 1 µg/L, which led to a temporary drinking water ban in Toledo, OH (International Joint Commission’s Health Professionals Advisory Board (HPAB) 2017). Cyanotoxin contamination is also an issue for arid countries such as Qatar, which relies on seawater desalination for drinking

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water. Water samples from urban and rural impoundments in Qatar, which originated from desalination plants and groundwater wells, were reported to be contaminated with microcystin-LR exceeding 1 µg/L in 30% of the urban water tanks (Chatziefthimiou et al. 2016). Even though, the conventional treatment processes such as coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation and filtration have been found to be effective for the removal of cyanobacterial cells from source waters, they do not remove extracellular cyanotoxins efficiently. Moreover, lysing of cyanobacterial cells can occur during the conventional treatment processes leading to the release of toxins (Hitzfeld et al. 2000). Adsorption using powdered (PAC) and granulated (GAC) activated carbon has also been evaluated for their capacity to remove cyanotoxins from drinking water. They have been found to be effective for MCs, ANA and CYN, though adsorbent type and dose played an important role on their removal (Hall et al. 2000; Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Delgado et al. 2012). However, because of the high dose requirements and cost, activated carbon by itself is not suggested for complete cyanotoxin removal in drinking water treatment plants (Merel et al. 2013). Depending on pH, dissolved organic carbon content and oxidant dose, chlorination has been reported to be efficient in removing MCs and CYN, but inefficient for ANA (Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Delgado 2012; Merel et al. 2013; Rodríguez et al. 2007), while permanganate has been efficient for MLR and ANA oxidation (Hall et al. 2000; Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Delgado 2012; Merel et al. 2013; Rodríguez et al. 2007) and inefficient for CYN (Rodríguez et al. 2007). Another oxidation-based treatment, ozonation of cyanotoxin in pure water and natural waters, has been studied mostly for MLR (Hall et al. 2000; Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Hoeger et al. 2002; Shawwa and Smith 2001; Al Momani and Jarrah 2010; Rositano et al. 1998, 2001; Onstad et al. 2007). Complete oxidation of MLR was achieved in various waters with different DOC values. Increase in DOC content of water required higher ozone doses because of the competition reactions with ozone. Oxidation efficiency improved with decreasing pH (Shawwa and Smith 2001; Al Momani and Jarrah 2010). Reactivity of ANA with ozone was relatively lower compared to MLR and required higher ozone doses for complete oxidation (Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Delgado 2012; Merel et al. 2013; Rodríguez et al. 2007). The impact of DOC on ANA removal was similar to that of MLR (Hall et al. 2000; Newcombe and Nicholson 2004; Delgado 2012; Merel et al. 2013; Rodríguez et al. 2007; Hoeger et al. 2002; Shawwa and Smith 2001; Al Momani and Jarrah 2010; Rositano et al. 1998, 2001), however unlike MLR, ANA oxidation improved with increasing pH (Al Momani 2007). Existing literature on ozone treatment of CYN and the impact of water characteristics on its efficiency is limited (Onstad et al. 2007; Al

Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water …

Momani 2007; Cheng et al. 2009; Yan et al. 2016). Combination of ozone with hydrogen peroxide has been studied on cyanotoxin removal efficiency mainly in pure water (Al Momani 2007; Cheng et al. 2009; Yan et al. 2016; Al Momani et al. 2008; Bober et al. 2008) and also in natural water (Alvarez et al. 2010). This research is related to water security aspects of Qatar National Research Strategy (QNRS) objectives. One of the strategic objectives for water security in QNRS emphasizes the importance of sustainable water supply in Qatar, where cyanotoxins are an issue. In response, a research project “Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water Using Advanced Oxidation Processes” was awarded under the National Priorities Research Program (NPRP) of the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) (Jasim and Saththasivam 2017). The NPRP program is intended to support the overarching goal of Qatar National Research Fund in fostering research aimed at producing drinking water that is safe. This study is part of the research project and led by SJ Environmental Consultants (Windsor) Inc., Windsor, ON, Canada. The experiments were conducted in the laboratories of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada. The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of ozone-based treatment (O3, O3/H2O2 and O3/OH−) technologies in oxidizing cyanotoxins, MLR, ANA and CYN, in drinking water with characteristics similar to those of Qatar drinking water. The outcome of this study would not only help with the development of treatment strategies for the removal of cyanotoxins in Qatar drinking water, but also advance research knowledge in screening, monitoring and removing cyanotoxins from other drinking water sources.

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials MLR with  95% purity was obtained from Cayman Chemical, USA at a concentration of 1 mg/mL in ethanol. ANA with  98% and CYN with  95% purity were obtained from Enzo Life Sciences, USA. The stock solutions of ANA and CYN were prepared in Milli-Q water at 1 mg/mL and 0.1 mg/mL concentrations, respectively. All toxins were stored at -20˚C. The chemical structures of cyanotoxins are presented in Fig. 1. Hydrogen peroxide (30%) was bought from ACP Chemicals, Canada.

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Fig. 1 Molecular structures of cyanotoxins a Microcystin-LR; b Anatoxin-A; c Cylindrospermopsin

generator (Ozonia Triogen, LAB2B), through approximately 1500 mL of cold ultrapure water. The container was immersed in an ice bath to keep the solution temperature low and preventing ozone from degradation. After 30 min of running ozone generator, the ozone concentration of stock solution was measured using Indigo trisulfonate method (APHA 2005).

2.3 Simulated Qatar Water Simulated Qatar water was prepared by adjusting the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and alkalinity of bottled water which was produced using reverse osmosis technology. The water quality of simulated Qatar water is given in Table 1. Simulated Qatar water was fortified with the cyanotoxins at 0.2 mg/L concentration. Spiked MLR solution was evaporated using nitrogen gas and then dissolved in simulated Qatar water while ANA and CYN stock solutions were directly added to the solution.

2.4 Ozonation Fortified water samples were added to a series of glass bottles. For the evaluation of pH effect, pH of simulate Qatar water was adjusted to 5 and 10 using diluted HCl and NaOH

Table 1 Water quality parameters Simulated water

2.2 Ozone Stock Solution Ozone solution was produced by passing ozone gas, generated from high purity oxygen by a bench scale ozone

Qatar tap water

pH

7.2–7.3

6.5–8

DOC (mg/L)

0.3–0.4

0.2–0.4

Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3)

50–55

40–60

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solutions, respectively. For those which were subjected to combined H2O2 and O3 treatment, the ratios of H2O2–O3 (w/w) were 0.1 and 0.3, respectively. Finally, calculated volumes of ozone stock solution were added to achieve desired ozone dose. The final volumes were 50 mL for MLR and ANA and 20 mL for CYN contaminated water samples. Solutions were mixed vigorously for 5 min, and samples were either transferred to vials for direct HPLC injection or subjected to solid phase extraction after 60 min. Triplicate analysis was done for each ozonated sample.

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phase was water containing 0.2% phosphoric acid (v/v) and acetonitrile, and the ratio was 60:40 for MLR, 98:2 for CYN and 96:4 for ANA. The injection volume of the sample was 100 lL, and the column temperature was set at 50˚C. Quantification of cyanotoxins in water samples was made by external calibration. Standard cyanotoxin solutions were prepared in Milli-Q water at the concentration range of 0.01– 0.2 mg/L.

3

Results

2.5 Solid Phase Extraction

3.1 Effect of Ozone Dose

In order to achieve concentrations higher than the detection limit, solid phase extraction (SPE) was carried out to ozonated MLR, ANA and CYN samples whenever necessary. Method suggested by Zervou et al. (2017) was used for SPE procedures with modifications. The Oasis HLB (200 mg, 6 mL, Waters) cartridges were used for MLR and ANA toxins. For MLR, cartridges were preconditioned with 5 mL methanol followed by 10 mL of water. Then, 50 mL of samples was loaded into the cartridges and washed with 4 mL of 20% methanol solution. Elution of MLR was accomplished with 4 mL of methanol. The extracts were evaporated to about 0.3 mL under a nitrogen stream and made to 1 mL with Milli-Q water. For ANA, cartridges were preconditioned with 5 mL of methanol and 5 mL of water at pH 11. The pH of samples was adjusted to 11 before loading them into the cartridges. Elution of ANA was achieved with 5 mL of methanol. The extracts were evaporated to dryness and reconstituted with 1 mL of water. HyperSep Hypercarb PGC (200 mg, 3 cc, Thermo Scientific) cartridge was used for CYN extraction. Cartridges were conditioned with 6 mL dichloromethane, 6 mL methanol and 6 mL water. Then, 50 mL of samples were loaded into the cartridges. Elution of CYN was accomplished with a mixture of 6 mL dichloromethane: methanol (40:60) containing 0.5% formic acid. The extracts were evaporated to dryness under a nitrogen stream and reconstituted with 1 mL of Milli-Q water. These methods allowed quantifying cyanotoxin concentrations lower than 1 µg/L which is a maximum allowable concentration for MLR in drinking water (WHO 1998).

Experiments were conducted in simulated Qatar tap water at five different ozone doses for each cyanotoxin. Figure 2 shows the decrease in cyanotoxin concentration with respect to applied ozone dose. Ozone was found to be highly effective in the removal of all the cyanotoxins studied from simulated Qatar water at ozone doses of < 1 mg/L. At the applied ozone dose of about 0.17 mg/L, the removal rates of ANA and CYN were 42% and 98%, respectively, while the MLR was not observed in simulated Qatar water at that ozone dose. Concentrations of CYN and ANA in treated samples were below quantification level at the ozone doses of 0.25 mg/L and 0.73 mg/L, respectively.

3.2 Effect of pH The pH of simulated Qatar water was around 7.2. In order to investigate the effect of pH on the oxidation of cyanotoxins in this simulated water, several experiments were conducted. Three levels of pH (5.0, 7.2 and 10.0) were selected prior to ozonation. These samples were also subjected to three different levels of ozone dose. The applied ozone dose for each

2.6 Analysis An HPLC (Dionex Ultimate 3000), equipped with a quaternary pump and a Photodiode Array Detector (PDA), was used for the analysis of toxins. Detection wave lengths were 238 nm, 227 nm and 262 nm for MLR, ANA and CYN, respectively. Toxins were analyzed with Zorbax SB C18 (4.6  150 mm, 5 lm) (Agilent, USA) column. The mobile

Fig. 2 Cyanotoxin reduction in simulated Qatar water with respect to applied ozone dose

Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water …

of the three cyanotoxins was different and was adjusted to obtain approximately an oxidation level of 20–80% of that of the simulated water with pH of 7.2. The pH effect on the removal of each cyanotoxin is illustrated in Fig. 3. As can be seen from Fig. 3, the response of each cyanotoxin to pH change was different. A significant decrease in the MLR removal was observed as the pH was increased from 5 to 10. The reduction in removal was less than 10% when pH was increased from 5 to 7.2, but the results were more drastic when pH was increased from 7.2 to 10. In contrast to MLR, ANA removal significantly increased under alkaline conditions. At ozone dose of 0.17 mg/L, the removal in simulated Qatar water was similar at both pH = 5 and pH = 7.2 (37 versus 42%) but increased to 78% at pH = 10. The removal of CYN improved as the pH increased from 5.0 to 7.2 and further increase of pH to 10 significant decrease was detected in CYN removal.

Fig. 3 Effect of pH on the cyanotoxin removal in simulated Qatar water by ozone

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3.3 Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen peroxide’s effect on the ozone efficiency in simulated Qatar water was evaluated at two different H2O2/O3 ratios (0.1 and 0.3) for each cyanotoxin, and the results are presented in Fig. 4 at three applied ozone doses. There was no clear effect of hydrogen peroxide addition on the ozone oxidation of cyanotoxins. However, in general, negative effect of hydrogen peroxide was more prominent than its positive effect. At low applied ozone dose, the removal rate of cyanotoxins either remained constant or changed within 5%, and at higher ozone doses a general decrease in the removal rates was observed, up to about 15%, with the addition of hydrogen peroxide.

Fig. 4 Effect of hydrogen peroxide on the cyanotoxin removal in simulated Qatar water by ozone

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3.4 Kinetic Evaluation The reactivities of three cyanotoxins, MLR, ANA and CYN with ozone were compared in simulated Qatar water. For this purpose, oxidation of cyanotoxins was modeled as a pseudo first order reaction in ozone concentration using Eq. 1 as described by the report published by Water Research Foundation (Bober et al. 2008).   1 C O3 ¼   ln ð1Þ kd C0 where kd C C0 O3

pseudo first order oxidation coefficient (L/mg) final cyanotoxin concentration (mg/L). initial cyanotoxin concentration (mg/L). transferred ozone dose (mg/L).

For the determination of reaction rate constant of CYN, MLR and ANA in simulated Qatar water, ln(C/C0) versus ozone dose was plotted between the applied doses of 0– 0.36 mg/L (Fig. 5). Among the tested cyanotoxins, MLR had the highest reactivity with ozone followed by CYN and ANA (Fig. 5). Other researchers also reported same order of reactivity with ozone in natural waters (Onstad et al. 2007).

4

Discussion

4.1 Effect of Ozone Dose An increase in the applied ozone dose significantly enhanced the oxidation efficiency for all investigated cyanotoxins. Similar to previously reported studies, the reactivity of ANA with ozone was observed to be considerably lower than CYN and MLR, (Rodríguez et al. 2007; Hoeger et al. 2002; Shawwa and Smith 2001; Al Momani and Jarrah 2010;

Fig. 5 Determination of pseudo first order rate constants in simulated Qatar water

Rositano et al. 1998, 2001; Onstad et al. 2007). Consistent with our results (Fig. 2), previous studies did not detect MLR, CYN and ANA in water samples (DOC = 0– 1.6 mg/L) treated with 0.2 mg/L, 0.4 mg/L and 0.8 mg/L ozone doses, respectively (Shawwa and Smith 2001; Momani and Jarrah 2010; Rositano et al. 1998, 2001; Onstad et al. 2007). On the other hand, Al Momani et al. (2007) were only able to remove 50% of 0.5 mg/L ANA in buffered pure water even at 2 mg/L ozone dose probably due to higher cyanotoxin concentration.

4.2 Effect of pH Similar to our findings (Fig. 3), significant reduction in MLR removal under alkaline pH conditions has been previously observed in other studies as well (Al Momani and Jarrah 2010; Rositano et al. 1998). Decreased ozonation efficiency at high pH values was explained by the lower oxidation potential of ozone under alkaline conditions (1.24 V) compared with under acidic conditions (2.07 V) (Rositano et al. 1998). In addition, increased decomposition of ozone by hydroxyl ions under alkaline conditions lowers the availability of molecular ozone for microcystin-LR degradation (Rositano et al. 1998). Contrary to MLR, oxidation efficiency was increased with increasing pH of simulated Qatar water (Fig. 3). More efficient removal of ANA at alkaline pH values was also reported at buffered pure water (Al Momani 2007). This could be attributed to more efficient reaction of ANA with hydroxyl radical than with ozone at basic pH. In addition to the possible formation of more reactive hydroxyl radicals, higher removal rates at pH 10 compared to those at pH 5 and 7.2 could also be explained by the structure of ANA. The ANA molecule has two sites that ozone can react with; one is the double bond and the other is secondary amine. At pH values lower than the pKa of secondary amine (pKa = 9.36), ozone can only react with double bond, as the reaction between protonated amine and ozone is negligible (Onstad et al. 2007). At higher pH, however, neutral amine starts to dominate. Neutral amine has higher reaction rate with ozone (* 8.7  105 L mol−1 s−1) compared to the reaction rate of double bond (2.8  104 L mol−1 s−1) (Onstad et al. 2007). Extremely low removals (< 5%, Fig. 3) of CYN at pH 5 can be explained by its structure. The reaction of ozone with CYN mainly occurs at the double bond of uracil moiety (Onstad et al. 2007). At low pH, CYN is in neutral form and has very low reaction rate constant with ozone (kneutral * 40 L mol−1 s−1) (Onstad et al. 2007). Therefore, significantly low removal rates (  7%) were obtained at acidic pH at all the tested ozone dosages (Fig. 3). As the deprotonation of cylindrospermopsin (pKa = 8.8) takes place with increasing

Removal of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water …

pH (kdeprotonated * 2.5  106 L mol−1 s−1) (Onstad et al. 2007), removal rate improved to 73% in simulated Qatar tap water at an applied ozone dose of 0.085 mg/L. Despite the expected high reaction rate between CYN and ozone at pH = 10, a significant decrease was observed in CYN removal, especially at lower ozone doses. It is possible that increased decomposition of ozone by hydroxyl ions under alkaline conditions lowers the availability of molecular ozone for cylindrospermopsin degradation as found by researchers in the case of MLR (Al Momani and Jarrah 2010; Rositano et al. 1998). The increase in the removal of CYN increased with higher ozone doses and was the highest at pH 7.2, consistently.

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dose for simulated Qatar water is approximately 0.12 mg/L based on the kd of 46.41 L/mg. Value was calculated as 0.22 mg/L and 1.3 mg/L for CYN and ANA, respectively. These estimated ozone dose values for 99.5% cyanotoxin removal are in good agreement with the measured ones for MLR and CYN. However, in case of ANA, more than 99.5% removal was achieved at an applied ozone dose of 0.73 mg/L, experimentally. The similar approach was used for the determination of reaction rate constants between ozone and cyanotoxins in natural water with a DOC value of 2 mg/L. In comparison with simulated Qatar water, the obtained rate constants were much lower especially for MLR and CYN, and therefore, the calculated ozone doses required for 99.5% removal of cyanotoxins were higher in natural water (data not shown).

4.3 Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Based on the results obtained so far, it is obvious that all three cyanotoxins are susceptible to ozonation, and high degradation rates were observed even at low doses. In this case, addition of hydrogen peroxide to produce reactive hydroxyl radicals did not increase ozone efficiency; it actually decreased it because of decreased ozone exposure. Researchers have reported inconsistent results on the effect of hydrogen peroxide addition on the cyanotoxin ozonation efficiency. Some researchers (Bober et al. 2008; Alvarez et al. 2010) reported that presence of hydrogen peroxide did not change or decrease the efficiency of MLR removal in Milli-Q (H2O2/O3 > 5) and natural water (H2O2/ O3 = 0.8) by ozonation at near neutral and alkaline pH values. Other researchers (WQTS 2015) also found a noticeable decrease in the ANA and CYN removal with the combination of hydrogen peroxide and ozone (H2O2/O3 = 1) at pH 6.5 compared to plain ozonation. On the other hand, addition of hydrogen peroxide resulted in more than 50% enhancement on MLR (H2O2/O3  0.1) and ANA (H2O2/O3  0.01) removal in buffered Milli-Q water at pH = 7 (Al Momani 2007; Cheng et al. 2009; Yan et al. 2016; Al Momani et al. 2008). An enhancement on MLR removal with ozone combined with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2/O3 = 0.5), at pH = 7 has also been reported (Rositano et al. 1998).

4.4 Kinetic Evaluation Using the pseudo first order oxidation coefficient values, it is possible to estimate necessary ozone dose for a given level of cyanotoxin oxidation which could be used for the design of the ozonation system (Alvarez et al. 2010). For example, in order to decrease the MLR concentration from 200 to 1 µg/L (99.5% removal), which is the limit for drinking water set by World Health Organization, the required ozone

5

Conclusion(s)

Ozone efficiently oxidized the target cyanotoxins, microcystin-LR, anatoxin-a and cylindrospermopsin in simulated Qatar water at near neutral pH. The removal of cyanotoxins improved with the increase in applied ozone dose. The oxidation of microcystin-LR and anatoxin-a with ozone was enhanced at acidic and alkaline pH, respectively, while cylindrospermopsin was oxidized at near neutral water pH more efficiently. Presence of hydrogen peroxide did not significantly affect the ozone efficiency. The calculated pseudo first order reaction rate constants between cyanotoxins and ozone at near neutral pH indicated that microcystin-LR has the highest reactivity with ozone followed by cylindrospermopsin then anatoxin-a. Acknowledgements This publication was made possible by NPRP grant #NPRP9-159-2-087 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The contents of this article are solely the responsibility of the author[s].

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110 S.M. Azevedo, W.W. Carmichael, E.M. Jochimsen, K.L. Rinehart, S. Lau, G.R. Shaw, G.K. Eaglesham, Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru–Brazil. Toxicology 181–182, 441–446 (2002) B. Bober, K. Pudas, Z. Lechowski, J. Bialczyk, Degradation of microcystin-LR by ozone in the presence of Fenton reagent. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 43, 186–190 (2008) J. Burns, Cyanohabs—the Florida experience, in International Symposium on Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms (Durham, NC. 09/6–09/10, 2005) W.W. Carmichael, G.L. Boyer, Health impacts from cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: implications for the North American Great Lakes. Harmful Algae 54, 194–212 (2016) A.D. Chatziefthimiou, J.S. Metcalf, W.B. Glover, S.A. Banack, S.R. Dargham, R.A. Richer, Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins are present in drinking water impoundments and groundwater wells in desert environments. Toxicon 114, 75–84 (2016) X. Cheng, H. Shi, C.D. Adams, T. Timmons, Y. Ma, Effect of oxidative and physical treatments on inactivation of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and removal of cylindrospermopsin. Water Sci. Technol. 60(3), 689–697 (2009) I. Chorus, J. Bartram, Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water. A Guide to Their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1999) I. Chorus, I.R. Falconer, H.J. Salas, J. Bartram, Health risks caused by freshwater cyanobacteria in recreational waters. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 3, 323–347 (2000) G.A. Codd, J. Lindsay, F.M. Young, L.F. Morrison, J.S. Metcalf, Harmful cyanobacteria: from mass mortalities to management measures, in Harmful Cyanobacteria. ed. by J. Huisman, H.C.P. Matthijs, P.M. Visser (Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 2005), pp. 1–23 L.F. Delgado, P. Charles, K. Glucina, C. Morlay, The removal of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceutically activated compounds and cyanobacterial toxins during drinking water preparation using activated carbon—a review. Sci. Total Environ. 435, 255–509 (2012) L. Giannuzi, D. Sedan, R. Echenique, D. Andrinolo, An acute case of intoxication with cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in recreational water in Salto Grande Dam, Argentina. Mar. Drugs 9, 2164–2175 (2011) T. Hall, J. Hart, B. Croll, R. Gregory, Laboratory-scale investigations of algal toxin removal by water treatment. J. Chartered Inst. Water Environ. Manage. 14, 143–149 (2000) B.C. Hitzfeld, S.J. Hoeger, D.R. Dietrich, Cyanobacterial toxins: removal during drinking water treatment, and human risk assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(1), 113–122 (2000) S.J. Hoeger, D.R. Dietrich, B.C. Hitzfeld, Effect of ozonation on the removal of cyanobacterial toxins during drinking water treatment. Environ. Health Perspect. 110, 1127–1132 (2002) S.J. Hoeger, G. Shaw, B.C. Hitzfeld, D.R. Dietrich, Occurrence and elimination of cyanobacterial toxins in two Australian drinking water treatment plants. Toxicon 43, 639–649 (2004) International Joint Commission’s Health Professionals Advisory Board (HPAB), Human Health Effects of Cyanobacterial Toxins in the Great Lakes Region: A Science and Monitoring Assessment (2017)

S. Jasim et al. S.Y. Jasim, J. Saththasivam, Advanced oxidation processes to remove cyanotoxins in water. Desalination 406, 83–87 (2017) S. Merel, M. Clement, O. Thomas, State of the art on cyanotoxins in water and their behavior towards chlorine. Toxicon 55, 677–691 (2010) S. Merel, D. Walker, R. Chicana, S. Snyder, E. Baures, O. Thomas, State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins. Environ. Int. 59, 303–327 (2013) G. Newcombe, B. Nicholson, Water treatment options for dissolved cyanotoxins. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. AQUA 53, 227–239 (2004) G.D. Onstad, S. Strauch, J. Meriluoto, G.A. Codd, U. von Gunten, Selective oxidation of key functional groups in cyanotoxins during drinking water ozonation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41(12), 4397– 4404 (2007) L.S. Pilotto, R.M. Douglas, M.D. Burch, S. Cameron, M. Beers, G.R. Rouch, P. Robinson, M. Kirk, C.T. Cowie, S. Hardiman, C. Moore, R.G. Attwell, Health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) due to recreational water-related activities. Austr. New Zealand J. Publ. Health 21, 562–566 (1997) P.R. Rastogi, R.P. Sinha, A. Incharoensakdi, The cyanotoxinmicrocystins: current overview. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 13, 215–249 (2014) E. Rodríguez, G.D. Onstad, T.P.J. Kull, J.S. Metcalf, J.L. Acero, U. von Gunten, Oxidative elimination of cyanotoxins: comparison of ozone, chlorine, chlorine dioxide and permanganate. Water Res. 41, 3381–3393 (2007) J. Rositano, B.C. Nicholson, P. Pieronne, Destruction of cyanobacterial toxins by ozone. Ozone-Sci. Eng. 20(3), 223–238 (1998) J. Rositano, G. Newcombe, B. Nicholson, P. Sztajnbok, Ozonation of NOM and algal toxins in four treated waters. Water Res. 35, 23–32 (2001) A.R. Shawwa, D.W. Smith, Kinetics of Microcystin LR oxidation by ozone. Ozone Sci. Eng. 23, 161–170 (2001) WHO, Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2nd edn, in Addendum, vol. 2, Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1998) WQTS, Bench Scale Evaluation of the Potential Destruction of Cyanotoxins with Treatment Technologies Applied to South Bay Aqueduct Water. Technical Report (Water Quality and Treatment Solutions, INC, Los Angeles, California, 2015) S. Yan, A. Jia, S. Merel, S.A. Snyder, K.E. O’Shea, D.D. Dionysiou, W. Song, Ozonation of Cylindrospermopsin (Cyanotoxin): Degradation mechanisms and cytotoxicity assessments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50(3), 1437–1446 (2016) H.K. Yen, T.F. Lin, P.C. Liao, Simultaneous detection of nine cyanotoxins in drinking water using dual solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Toxicon 58, 209–218 (2011) S.Z. Yu, Primary prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 10(6), 674–682 (1995) S.K. Zervou, C. Christophoridis, T. Kaloudis, T.M. Triantis, A. Hiskia, New SPE-LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of multi-class cyanobacterial and algal toxins. J. Hazard. Mater. 323, 56–66 (2017)

Microplastic Detection and Analysis in Water Samples Jan Bauer, Paul-Tiberiu Miclea, Ulrike Braun, Korinna Altmann, Marko Turek, and Christian Hagendorf

Abstract

Microplastic detection in water samples becomes important for tracing microplastic sources. Microplastic may harm desalination facilities by blocking filters and disturbing the marine food chain. Thermoanalytical methods, such as aspyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectroscopy and spectroscopic methods like (micro) Raman spectroscopy or (micro) Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, in combination with appropriate filters and sample preparation are suitable for analyzing microplastics on a scale from to 1000 µm: fast and unambiguous. While the thermo analytical methods are suitable for larger sample volumes, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy are able to detect and analyze single microplastic particles, for instance in bottled water. Machine learning algorithms ensure a reliable classification of different plastic materials.

1

Introduction

Plastic material life-cycle analysis data of the year 2015 shows that only a minor part of 9% of the produced plastics is reused or recycled, and 12% is combusted (Geyer et al. 2017). The major part of the produced plastics is determined in permanent application, but still gaps exists. Due to environmental conditions, i.e., wind, rain, and solar irradiation, especially thermoplastics are broken down to small pieces

J. Bauer (&)
P.-T. Miclea
M. Turek
C. Hagendorf Fraunhofer Center for Silicon Photovoltaics CSP, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany e-mail: [email protected] U. Braun
K. Altmann Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM), 12205 Berlin, Germany

and turn into microplastics (MP). MP are particles in the scale of 1–1000 µm (ISO). These particles are found nearly everywhere in the environment. Within aqueous environments, MP particles exhibit an extraordinary long life-time due to an enhanced UV absorption of the surrounding water that prevents further degradation and mineralization. Especially in oceans, MP are accumulated (Andrady 2011; Auta et al. 2017) and may enrich in desalination facilities as well as in the human food chain, e.g., fishery products or drinking water. Therefore, analytical techniques for detection of MP in the environment will become an issue of global importance. MP control in the food chain and in drinking water is of particular interest with regard to the wide range of particle sizes down to nm regions and its impact on human health. But also larger MP are of interest for identification of relevant sources, occurrence, and the fate of these particles. In this paper, two experimental approaches for MP detection are presented which can be implemented for standardized routine testing. Thermoanalytical methods are applicable for quantitative, high-throughput MP mass fraction analytics in environmental samples. Spectroscopic methods can be applied for particle size sensitive MP analysis together with automated peak detection algorithms. Examples are presented from waste water influents and drinking water analysis.

2

Method

Various methods for MP analysis have been investigated in previous scientific studies (Elert et al. 2017). However, they can be used for routine environmental laboratory analysis under certain conditions only. In this paper, approaches for MP analysis are presented in a way that should be implemented in standardized lab procedures regarding different tasks and sorts of MP. A major challenge is to keep sample preparation for these methods as efficient as possible.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_12

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The occurrence of MP in environmental samples depends on the sampled media and the expected pollution with MP as well as the particle size. In general, regarding the fragmentation process of MP formation, only few large particles and lots of small particles exist. For representative sampling, a very large water volume has to be analyzed to catch a representative amount of large particles, while only a small volume is required when small particles are addressed (Bannick et al. 2019). Thermoanalytical Methods In thermoanalytical methods, the sample is heated up under inert conditions, and the specific decomposition products of MP can be detected by use of GC-MS system. A common tool is pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (Py-GC-MS), and a new development is the thermoextraction desorption gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (TED-GC-MS) (Dümichen et al. 2017), which allows investigation of higher sample masses. Using TED-GC-MS is fast and results in the determination of MP mass fraction in environmental media, the imported value for monitoring. Determining the mass fraction, hence, the volume property of MP in TED-GC-MS systems means that a few larger particles contribute more to the result than a lot of small particles. So far, as only a few or small particles in the sample are present, the result will not exceed the limit of detection for the method. Therefore, this method is well applicable for samples with high expected MP loadings (e.g., waste water treatment plans, surface water). Spectroscopic methods Micro-spectroscopic methods are common in MP analysis. Here, the polymer particles are identified by their specific spectral features. Spectroscopic methods yield particle numbers in environmental samples and information about size, form, and aging status. For extended measurement time, small particles at low concentrations can be found in the sample. Spectroscopic methods are applicable for samples with low expected MP loadings (e.g., drinking water, ground water) or when only a limited volume of analysis sample is available (e.g., bottled water). The disadvantage for conventional spectroscopic methods is the time-consuming sample preparation as the environmental matrix must be removed. This is achieved in various steps of handling and final transfer to the sample holder where each step includes the risks of sample loss or pollution. In our novel approach, we use silicon wafer as filter materials (Lastname et al. 2018). The wafers are perforated by high precision laser processing or electro-chemical etching, which allows a wide range of pore diameters and distances.

J. Bauer et al.

3

Results

The influent of a waste water treatment plant (WWTP) was exemplary sampled (1 m3) at two days using fractionated filtration to avoid filter blockade by filter cake formation (Bannick et al. 2019). The characteristic decomposition product markers were identified. Mass fraction was calculated using one-point calibration. The filtrated samples were dried and measured as received. The TED-GC-MS results are summarized in Fig. 1. Unambiguous polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) were identified as synthetic polymer as well as styrene-butadiene-rubber (SBR) as component from tire abrasion. A Si wafer filtration experiment with subsequent spectroscopic analysis was performed with a test MP water sample. The test MP water sample was prepared as follows: 0.5 l deionized (DI) water was mixed with 1 mg polyethylene (PE) and 1 mg PS MP. Subsequently, 3 ml of the MP solution have been dissolved in 1.5 l DI water. This diluted MP water sample was passed through the filter and dried at 40 °C for 6 h. In Fig. 2a, a Si filter with 100 µm pore diameter after filtration of a MP water sample is shown. The micrograph exhibits a MP particle (marked by the red circle). The corresponding Raman spectrum is presented in Fig. 2b. The particle is identified as PS by comparing the Raman shift spectrum with Raman spectra measured at reference MP samples. In addition to the identification of individual peaks of the spectra, supervised machine learning algorithms are applied

Fig. 1 Exemplary TED-GC-MS result of a MP analysis of solids from influent of a waste water treatment plant

Microplastic Detection and Analysis in Water Samples Fig. 2 a Microplastic particle on a Si filter with 100 µm diameter pores (black holes) after filtration, b Raman spectra revealing the PS fingerprint of the marked MP particle (exclusive PS peaks are marked by arrows)

a)

to the spatially and spectrally resolved data. For the dimensionality reduction, we have applied combinations of principal component analysis (PCA) together with linear discriminant analysis (LDA). A subsequent application of a support vector machine (SVM) algorithm resulted in a classification model which can distinguish six most frequent types of plastics with over 99% correct classification rate.

4

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Summary

MP contamination in urban water management systems’ samples can be detected using TED-GC-MS by filtration of large water volumes. This allows a fast and simple determination of MP occurrences. An analysis of individual MP particles on Si filter substrates is possible with Raman spectroscopy and FTIR (not shown here). Supervised machine learning algorithms of Raman MP fingerprints open an efficient way to automatically classify MP particles with respect to future standards in environmental MP analytics.

b)

3053 1/cm 1001 1/cm

621 1/cm

1602 1/cm

Acknowlegement The authors thank the BMBF for financial support RUSEKU, as well as the H. Steinmetz, C. Scheid, A. Abusafia and the city Kaiserslautern for providing the sample from WWTP.

References A.L. Andrady, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62(8), 1596–1605 (2011) H.S. Auta, C.U. Emenike, S.H. Fauziah, Environ. Int. 102, 165–176 (2017) C.G. Bannick, R. Szewzyk, M. Ricking, S. Schniegler, N. Obermaier, A.K. Barthel, K. Altmann, P. Eisentraut, U. Braun, Water Res. 149, 650–658 (2019) E. Dümichen, P. Eisentraut, C.G. Bannick, A.-K. Barthel, R. Senz, U. Braun, Chemosphere 174, 572–584 (2017) A.M. Elert, R. Becker, E. Duemichen, P. Eisentraut, J. Falkenhagen, H. Sturm, U. Braun, Environ. Pollut. 231, 1256–1264 (2017) R. Geyer, J.R. Jambeck. K.L. Law, Sci. Adv. 3, e1700782 (2017) Hagendorf et al., FiltersubstratzurFilterung und optischenCharakterisierung von Mikropartikeln, VerfahrenzurHerstellung des Filtersubstrates und Verwendung des Filtersubstrates, DE10 2018 205 529 A1, pat. pending

Column Adsorption Studies of Phenolic Compounds on Nanoparticles Synthesized from Moroccan Phosphate Rock Rabia Benaddi, Faissal Aziz, Khalifa El harfi, and Naaila Ouazzani

Abstract

In this study, the elimination of phenol compounds from phenolic solutions by adsorption method in column was studied. The adsorbent is a polymer’s bead which is synthesized from an apatite by a method based on cross-linking process. Studies showed that the synthesized adsorbent (Pap) can retain phenol with a high adsorption capacity (about 244 mg/g of apatite) and a slow reaction kinetics (about 4 h), which can be described by an equation corresponding to a pseudo second order. The exploitation of the adsorption isotherm indicates that the best fit is obtained with the Freundlik model. Results of regeneration of phenol show that adsorbed phenol remains almost unstable and can be desorbed using only distilled water. Keywords






Adsorption Desorption Polymer’s bead Phenolic solution reusability




Apatite




Highlights • Synthesized adsorbent can retain phenol molecules with a high adsorption capacity • Adsorption of phenol is very slow and fit the second-order model and Freundlick isotherm

R. Benaddi (&)
K. E. harfi Laboratoire Des Procédés Chimiques Et Matériaux Appliqués (LPCMA), Faculté Polydisciplinaire de Béni-Mellal, Université Sultan Moulay Slimane, BP 592 23000 Béni-Mellal, Maroc R. Benaddi
F. Aziz
N. Ouazzani Laboratory of Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Université Cadi Ayyad, BP 2390 Marrakech, Maroc

• Results of regeneration of phenol show that phenol can desorbed using only distilled water.

1

Introduction

Phenol is mainly used as an extracting solvent in petroleum refining, resin, and plastics. So, phenols and its derivatives are present in wastewater of various industries (Cordova Villegas et al. 2016). They are harmful to micro-organisms at low concentrations and at high concentrations. Phenols affect the health of human beings by denaturing proteins and destroying cell walls (Jakobek 2015). Various processes have been used by several works to remove phenol from wastewater (Sacco et al. 2018; Nuhu et al. 2017). Recently, there has been an increasingly large amount of literature devoted to the study of removal of aqueous organic species, such as phenols and its substitutes using adsorbents (Achak et al. 2009; El-Naas et al. 2017). Investigations were toward treatment processes using new materials, natural, and less expensive (Villar da Gama et al. 2018). This study is part of this perspective, considering as adsorbent apatites, available locally, for the retention of phenols in aqueous solutions. The effectiveness of this adsorbent in depollution processes has been very successful, especially for heavy metals (Saoiabi et al. 2016), but its use is sometimes limited for organic pollutants. As well as its finely divided particles generate separation difficulties with respect to the treated water. Encapsulation within biopolymer beads makes it possible to overcome this problem, while retaining their adsorption properties after use and saturation. We studied the possibility of developing a composite material based on apatites immobilized by encapsulation in an alginate gel for the elimination of phenolic compounds in aqueous solution.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_13

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Materials and Methods

2.1 Adsorbent Natural phosphate rock (NP) was collected from Khouribga phosphate mine (Morocco) which is considered as the most important phosphate productive region in the world. The sample is pre-treated to remove impurities associated with phosphate minerals. After washing, phosphate particles whose diameter ranged between 100 and 400 µm have been chosen. Particles of phosphate were dried at 100 °C and sieved to reduce the granulometry to less than 200 µm. The chemical composition of SP is P2O5 (27.8%), CaO (51.9%), SiO2 (2.70), F (6.08%), Na2O (0.47%), Fe2O3 (0.19), Al2O3 (0.35%), MgO (0.68%), SO3 (1.67%), and K2O (0.048%) (Benaddi et al. 2020). The apatite (Ap) was synthesized by a principle based on dissolution of natural phosphate in the nitric acid (Asri et al. 2009). A mass of 30 g of natural phosphate was introduced into a 2 L reactor containing a volume of 500 mL of distilled water and 20 mL of nitric acid solution (65%). The reaction mixture was kept under continuous stirring using a magnetic agitation for a period of 24 h at pH = 2 and at room temperature. After dissolution of natural phosphate, the obtained mixture was filtered under vacuum. The filtrate was then neutralized with a volume of 200 mL of ammonia (25%). The pH value of the mixture was adjusted at pH = 10 to avoid the formation of Hydrogen phosphate. The precipitate formed is allowed to mature with stirring for 72 h. At the end of the maturation period, the filtered precipitate was washed with distilled water and then dried at 100 °C overnight. Polymer’s beads (Pap) were prepared via cross-linking process. Briefly, 1 g of sodium alginate (SA) was dissolved in 50 mL of distilled water to produce a viscous solution after stirring at 25 °C. Around 0.125 g of powdered hydroxyl apatite, previously synthesized, was added into the corresponding SA solution under constant stirring during 2 h until the production of a homogeneous dispersion. Under magnetic stirring, the mixture solution was introduced drop by drop using a 10 mL syringe into 50 mL of calcium chloride solution (1 g /L), and the solution was sealed in the shade to solidify (during 24 h). The coagulated beads were then washed several times with distilled water and stored in distilled water until use. Another polymer (P) was prepared without adding apatite to the SA solution step in order to be able to evaluate the effect of hydroxyl apatite itself in the adsorbent structure (Aziz et al. 2019). The used phenol (Sigma–Aldrich, purity  99%) is not subject to any prior treatment. The phenol stock solution (1 g L−1, pH = 6.20) is prepared using distilled water for each procedure.

2.2 Materials Characterization Scanning Electron Microscopy analyses were carried out by an apparatus type “Tescan Vega 3.” The adsorbent was previously metalized with carbon to ensure electrons conditions and also to avoid the effects of charge. The structure of the adsorbent was determined using “X-ray powder diffractometer Rigaku” with an analysis time of 85 min at room temperature. Infrared specters of adsorbents were obtained by Fourier transform spectrometer Vertex 70, and the pellet is obtained by crushing 0.001 g of sample with 0.099 g of KBr.

2.3 Sorption Experiments

Experiment studies were carried out in a column made of Pyrex glass of 4 cm internal diameter and 20 cm length. The column was filled with 3 g of adsorbent. Aqueous phenolic solution containing known phenol concentration (100 mg/L) was filled in the reservoir of 250 ml, so that the change in the volume of the liquid level was negligible during the experiment. Due to the negligible change in the volume of the liquid level, the flow rate remains constant. The influent solution was allowed to pass through the bed at constant flow rate of (1.7 10–3 l/s), in down flow manner with the help of a fine metering valve. All experiments were carried out at room temperature. The effluent solution was collected at different time intervals from reservoir until the equilibrium is reached. The determination of the residual concentration of each sample after filtration is carried out by spectrophotometer (M501 Camespec) at a wavelength k max = 270 nm. The adsorption capacity of phenol was obtained at different cycles using the equation: qe ¼ V m

ðc0  ce ÞV m

volume of solution (mL). mass of adsorbent (g).

ð1Þ

Column Adsorption Studies of Phenolic Compounds …

C0 Ce

117

initial concentration of phenol in solution reservoir (mg L−1). equilibrium concentration of phenol in solution reservoir (mg L−1).

After the column was exhausted, it was drained off the remaining aqueous solution by pumping air. The adsorbent column was washed with distilled water to remove phenol from the column. Desorption of phenol from loaded adsorbent was carried out by distilled water as solvent. The solvent was pumped into the column, maintained at constant temperature at a fixed flow rate (1.7  10−3 l/s). The effluent solution was collected at different time intervals from the reservoir until total desorption of phenol. Desorption capacity of phenol was obtained at different cycles using the following equation: qe ¼ V m Ce

3

Ce V m

ð2Þ

volume of solution (mL). mass of adsorbent (g). equilibrium concentration of phenol in solution reservoir (mg L−1).

Results

The synthesized adsorbent is not well crystallized, and it has an X-ray diffraction spectrum with little peak and with low resolution. Thus, due to structure of adsorbent which is semi amorphous, Fig. 1 shows the IR spectrum of adsorbent.

Fig. 1 Infrared spectrum of the adsorbent (Pap)

We note the presence of the bands due to vibrations of phosphate groups PO43− toward 1031 cm−1 characteristic of apatitic environments. The general surface of adsorbent appears porous with surface deformations of different sizes (Fig. 2). We note that the grains constituting the adsorbent have a spherical shape strongly deformed. This deformation may be due to an entanglement of the macromolecular chains following the insertion of apatite during the preparation of the adsorbent. Spectrums of adsorbent show presence of P which characterize apatitic environments in addition to Ca and O, which are the major elements that also constitute the structure of polymer. The presence of Na and Cl is due to the use of sodium alginate and calcium chloride during the step of preparation of adsorbent. • Effect of pH The effect of pH on phenol removal by adsorbent is a very important parameter. The results displayed in Fig. 3 show a low adsorption value at pH = 3. This is due to the low number of phenolate ions at this pH. It has also been found that the adsorption capacity increases as the value of pH increases to the value of pH = 6.4; above this value, the adsorption capacity decreases progressively with increasing of pH value. This can be attributed to the dependency of phenol ionization on the pH value, in acid state, positive charge is dominant on adsorbent surface (pH of zero charge of adsorbent equal to 6), and thus, a high electrostatic attraction exists between positive charges of adsorbent surface and negative charges of phenolates formed, which

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Fig. 2 SEM images coupled energy-dispersive X-ray analysis of the adsorbent (Pap)

promotes the adsorption phenomenon. In the basic state, dominant charge of adsorbent surface is negative, and phenol, as a weak acid with pKa = 9.89, is dissociated at pH > pKa. Therefore, the adsorption decrease at high pH values is due to the electrostatic repulsions between the negative surface charge and the phenolate anions carrying the same charge as the surface of the adsorbent. It could also be the electrostatic repulsion between phenolate ions (Margarita et al. 2014). • Adsorption isotherms Adsorption isotherms are essential for the description of how phenol ions interact with adsorbent and are useful to optimize the use of these materials as adsorbents. Figure 4 gives the evolution of the amount of adsorbed phenol as a function of concentration of phenol at equilibrium. According to the classification of Giles et al. (1960), the isotherm obtained is of type C. The linearity shows that the number of sites for adsorption remains constant; it means that the more the

Fig. 3 Effect of pH of solution on the adsorption capacity (phenol initial concentration = 100 mg/L)

solute is adsorbed, the more sites must be created. It has also been found that the adsorption capacity increases progressively with initial concentration of phenol which is due to the increase in the collision between phenol molecules and

Column Adsorption Studies of Phenolic Compounds … Table 1 Characteristic parameters of phenol adsorption according to the simple model of Langmuir and Freundlich

119

Langmuir isotherm

Freundlich isotherm

qe(mg/g)

b

R2

n

KF

R2

3334

0.0008

0.08

1.06

1.68

0.99

adsorbents surface, and same result was found by Oumani et al. in the study of removal of Cr3+ from tanning effluent by adsorption onto phosphate mine waste (Oumani et al. 2019). Linear representations of experimental values of adsorption capacity of phenol on the adsorbent according to Langmuir and Freundlich models give straight lines whose constants are grouped in Table 1. Based on the correlation coefficient (R2) of the lines obtained by these models, we can conclude that Freundlich model is the most likely to characterize the adsorption of phenol on the adsorbent. The value of 1/ n close to 1, which confirms that the isotherm is of type c. • Adsorption kinetics studies The results for the adsorption of phenol onto adsorbent as a function of time are shown in Fig. 5. The examination of the obtained curve shows that the kinetic of adsorption of phenol is very slow compared to adsorption of phenol from aqueous solutions by other adsorbents (Mihoc et al. 2014). Indeed, the adsorption reaction appears to be a two-step process. In the first hour, the adsorption capacity increased rapidly (78%). After this initial fast adsorption period, the uptake of phenol by adsorbent reaches the adsorption equilibrium in about 4 h. This slow kinetic can be due to the structure of adsorbent which is constituted of many pores and

deformations due to entanglement of the macromolecular chains following the insertion of apatite during the preparation of the adsorbent. Kinetic models of pseudo first order, second order, and pore diffusion were investigated. Results show that the adsorption of phenol on the adsorbent can be described by an equation corresponding to the pseudo second-order model. The adsorption kinetics parameters were calculated from the curves and are summarized in Table 2. The correlation coefficient value (R2) for the pseudo second-order model is higher than this for the first-order kinetic and pore diffusion. The theoretical value of amount of adsorbed phenol at equilibrium (q(e,cal)) is close to the experimental value q(e,exp) (Table 2). • Adsorption–regeneration Results for desorption of phenol from the tested adsorbent as a function of time are shown in Fig. 6. The analysis of curve shows that desorption of phenol appears to be a two-step process like adsorption process. In the first hour, the desorption capacity increased rapidly (64%). After this initial fast desorption period, the regeneration of phenol reaches the desorption equilibrium in about 4 h, which show a high reversible for adsorbent).

4

Fig. 4 Influence of the initial concentration of phenol on the amount of phenol adsorbed on the adsorbent (pH = 6.20 at room temperature)

Conclusion(s)

In conclusion, we herein reported the successful synthesis of a green and efficient adsorbent (Pap) of apatite through cross-linking process. The resulting adsorbent was characterized by SEM and FTIR showing its interesting proprieties. In addition, adsorption experiments confirmed that the adsorption of phenol onto Pap was highly dependent on initial phenol concentration, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 244 mg/g at 25 °C and pH equal 6.4. The exploitation of the adsorption isotherm indicates a best fit with the Freundlich model, and kinetic investigations demonstrated that the adsorption data correlated with a pseudo second-order model. Finally, results of regeneration

120 Table 2 Characteristic parameters of the phenol adsorption phenol according to the pseudo second-order model, the pseudo first-order model and pore diffusion

R. Benaddi et al. Pseudo first-order model

Pseudo second-order model

Pore diffusion model

Q(e, exp) (mg/g)

k1(1/h)

q(e, cal)(mg/g)

R2

k2(g/mg. h)

q(e, cal)(mg/g)

R2

D

R2

244

0.52

10

0.92

0.012

256

0.99

67.7

0.92

Fig. 5 Effect of contact time on adsorption of phenol by the adsorbent (phenol initial concentration of = 100 mg/L at pH = 6.20 and room temperature)

Fig. 6 Effect of contact time on adsorption of phenol by adsorbent (phenol initial concentration of = 100 mg/L, pH = 6.20, at room temperature)

of phenol show that adsorbed phenol remains almost unstable, and it can be desorbed using only distilled water. .

References M. Achak, N. Ouazzani, L. Mandi, Treatment of modern olive mill effluent by infiltration-percolation on a sand filter. J. Water Sci. Technol. 22, 421–433 (2009) S. El Asri, A. Laghzizil, A. Saoiabi, A. Alaoui, K. El Abassi, R. M’hamdi, T. Coradin, A novel process for the fabrication of

nanoporousapatites from Moroccan phosphate rock. Colloids Surf. Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 350, 73–78 (2009) F. Aziz, M. El Achaby, A. Lissaneddine, K.H. Aziz, N. Ouazzani, R. Mamouni, L. Mandi, Composites with alginate beads: a novel design of nano-adsorbents impregnation for large-scale continuous flow wastewater treatment pilots. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. (2019). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.11.019 R. Benaddi, K. El Harfi, F.Aziz, F. Berrekhis, N. Ouazzani, Removal of phenolic compounds from synthetic solution and oil mill waste water by adsorption onto nanoparticles synthesized from phosphate rock. J. Surface Sci. Technol. 36(1–2), 01–05 (2020). https://doi. org/10.18311/jsst/2020/23780 L.G. Cordova Villegas, N. Mashhadi, M. Chen, D. Mukherjee, K.E. Taylor, N. Biswas, A short review of techniques for phenol removal from wastewater. Water Pollut.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-0160035-3 M. El-Naas, M.A. Alhaija, S. Al-Zuhair, Evaluation of an activated carbon packed bed for the adsorption of phenols from petroleum refinery wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2017). https://doi. org/10.1007/s11356-017-8469-8 C.H. Giles, T.H. Macewan, S.N. Nakhwa, D. Smith, A system of classification of solution adsorption isotherms, and its use in diagnosis of adsorption mechanisms and in measurement of specific surface areas of solids 786, 3973–3993 (1960) L. Jakobek, Interactions of polyphenols with carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Food Chem. 175, 556–567 (2015) L.C. Margarita, S.R. Eduardo, B. Refugio, R. García, C.C. Felipe de Jesús, C.G. María Teresa, A.R. MónicaMaría, D.G. Nancy Elizabeth, Adsorption and desorption of phenol onto barley husk-activated carbon in an airlift reactor. J. Desalination Water Treat. 1, 1–16 (2014) G. Mihoc, R. Ianoş, C. Pacurariu, Adsorption of phenol and p-chlorophenol from aqueous solutions by magnetic nanopowder. Water Sci. Technol. 69, 385–391 (2014) D.M. Nuhu, J. Nabeel, Z. Mukarram, A. Omar, Removal of phenolic compounds from water using sewage sludge-based activated carbon adsorption: a review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 14(10), 1094 (2017) A. Oumani, L. Mandi, F. Berrekhis, N. Ouazzani, Removal of Cr3+ from tanning effluents by adsorption onto phosphate minewaste: key parameters and mechanisms. J. Hazardous Mater. 378, 120718 (2019) O. Sacco, V. Vaiano, C. Daniel, W. Navarra, V. Vincenzo Venditto, Removal of phenol in aqueous media by N-doped TiO2 based photocatalytic Aerogels. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 80, 104– 110 (2018) S. Saoiabi, A. Gouza, H. Bouyarmane, A. Laghzizil, A. Saoiabi, Organophosphonate-modified Hydroxyapatites for Zn(II) and Pb(II) adsorption in relation of their structure and surface properties. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4, 428–433 (2016) B.M. Villar da Gama, G.L. Elisandra do Nascimento, D.C. Silva Sales, J.M. Rodríguez-Díaz, C.M. Bezerra De Menezes Barbosa, M.M. Menezes Bezerra Duarte, Mono and binary component adsorption of phenol and cadmium using adsorbent derived from peanut shells. J. Clean. Prod. 201, 219–228 (2018)

Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment of Contaminated Water Using Non-fouling Super Hydrophilic Functionalized Ceramic Membranes Darren L. Oatley-Radcliffe and Andrew R. Barron

Highlights

Abstract

Chemical functionalization with super hydrophilic substituents (e.g. cysteic acid) has been shown to increase the flux of fresh water and brine through membranes. As a consequence, lower trans-membrane pressures are required, reducing the cost (due to the use of lowpressure pumps and polymer plumbing). The super hydrophilic nature of the membrane surface also lowers the propensity for fouling. This combination allows microfiltration ceramic membranes to be employed for a variety of wastewater treatments, where ceramic membranes are typically blocked. Field trials have demonstrated (a) the removal of bacteria and suspended solids from highly contaminated water, (b) pre-treatment of water for reverse osmosis desalination and (c) removal of organics from produced and flowback waters from oil and gas wells. Keywords





Membrane Super hydrophilic Hydrocarbon Bacteria




Alumina




D. L. Oatley-Radcliffe
A. R. Barron (&) Energy Safety Research Institute, Swansea University, Bay Campus, SwanseaWales, S1 8EN, UK e-mail: [email protected] A. R. Barron Department of Chemistry and Department of Materials Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam Arizona Institutes of Resilience, University of Arizonai, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

Super hydrophilic functionalized membranes operate with a higher flux at lower pressure, leading to reduce fouling. Deployment demonstrated in scales from a single-membrane demonstration unit to multi-membrane commercial systems. Produced water treatment at less than 0.05 USD per barrel (159 L).

1

Introduction

Water security has been identified as one of the priority challenges for Qatar vision 2030 (Qatar National Vision 2020). Qatar’s main natural internal water resource is provided by recharge of groundwater from rainfall, including lateral recharge through a shared artesian aquifer from Saudi Arabia. Qatar’s most significant groundwater resources are the Rus and Umm erRadhuma aquifers (UN-ESCWA and BGR 2013). However, water withdrawal from these sources far exceeds their recharge rates and has led to a lowering of the water table, causing deterioration in the water quality and greater saline intrusion (Ismail 2015). The depletion of natural renewable resources has led Qatar to heavily rely on desalination for its water supply. Exacerbating the problem is that Qatar has one of the highest domestic water consumption rates in the world (430 L/day per household), and Qatar’s overall demand of 1.4 billion L/day is planned to increase to 2.2 billion L/day by 2022. This target will necessitate either desalination from additional sources (the sea and/or higher brine aquifers). Unfortunately, an over-reliance on desalinated water comes with its own risks since 25% of the world’s oil supply passes through the Persian Gulf meaning that the area is susceptible to oil spills that could disrupt the desalination process. Although the reverse osmosis (RO) process for desalination is globally adopted, the vital step (removal of soluble

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_14

121

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salts) is hampered since the deployed thin-film-composite membranes are subject to fouling by suspended materials that are present in seawater. Typical species that cause RO fouling are listed in Table 1 along with traditional treatments (Reverse Osmosis Pre-treatment). One issue with the pre-treatment systems is that multiple steps are required, and sometimes one process requires an additional one to reduce the side effects of the first one. For example, chlorination is commonly employed to kill bacteria; however, the chlorine must be then removed before the treated water is introduced to the RO column. In addition, the estimated costs associated with pre-treatment for desalination will typically range from $0.13 to $0.40 per L/day; a significant fraction of the overall operating costs (Seawater Desalination Costs 2012). It would be of benefit if the whole pre-treatment process could be replaced with a single process step, especially if this obviated the use of chemicals. Desalination of water is not the only issue related to water security within Qatar. Petroleum and natural gas are the cornerstones of Qatar’s economy and account for more than 70% of total government revenue, more than 60% of gross domestic product (GDP) and roughly 85% of export earnings. Produced water (PW) is the largest waste stream generated in oil and gas industries in Qatar. The key challenge facing the gas industry is reducing PW volumes injected in disposal wells by a target of 50% to ensure long-term reservoir sustainability. In order to meet this challenge, it is necessary to develop new treatment methods to achieve a zero harmful discharge in oil and gas production and to enable cost-effective reuse of PW generated during the field operations. Produced water contains natural organic matter as well as high levels of bacteria and thus represents a challenge not unlike desalination pre-treatment, and similar processes are often deployed. Recyclability of industrial wastes has been undertaken using ceramic filtration membranes for many years (Handbook of Membrane Separations 2015), primarily for their robust nature and the ability to have selected pore sizes with narrow distributions (Abbasi et al. 2011; DeFriend et al.

2003). Unfortunately, their ability to purify or otherwise separate material has many drawbacks, such as membrane fouling leading to low permeate flux. These drawbacks have previously proven to be especially uneconomical for the petroleum and natural gas industries (Munirasu et al. 2016). Separation using a typical microfiltration membrane (0.1– 10 lm pore size) is FDA approved for bacteria removal from water, but hydrocarbons (even high molecular weights) pass through such membranes. Although oil emulsions are generally removed by microfiltration, it represents a challenge with regard to fouling: natural organic matter requires ultrafiltration membrane (0.005–1.0 lm pore size), while solubilized hydrocarbon chemicals pose an issue for efficient separation since their molecular weights are much lower and require nanofiltration membrane (0.5–5 nm pore size). What is needed is a process to remove hydrocarbons and emulsions at the same time as bacteria and particulates. The ability of traditional ceramic membranes to reject undesirable molecules from a sample has relied on pore size: the smaller the pore size, the smaller the molecule that can be screened. However, a smaller pore size in its turn represents a myriad of operational technicalities, such as higher operating pressures, lower flux and membrane fouling, thus the need for maintenance which all multiply into substantial costs of operation. Due to fouling by biological matter (viruses and bacteria) and high molecular weight organics and emulsions, ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes are not suitable in the treatment of such contaminated waters without pre-treatment. If a membrane could be synthesized that could negate these issues, then filtration could become cost effective for both PW treatment and as a pre-treatment for RO desalination. The interaction between membrane surfaces and solutes plays an important role in determining the extent of membrane fouling, explained by the mechanisms of pore blocking, cake formation or hydrophobic interaction (Scholtz and Fuchs 2000; Judd and Till 2000). Of the aforementioned mechanisms, hydrophobic interaction between solutes and membrane material is frequently accepted as one of the

Table 1 Common fouling mechanisms and appropriate pre-treatments for reverse osmosis desalination Fouling

Cause

Appropriate pre-treatment

Biological fouling

Bacteria, microorganisms, viruses, protozoan

Chlorination

Particle fouling

Sand, clay (turbidity, suspended solids)

Filtration

Colloidal fouling

Organic and inorganic complexes, colloidal particles, micro-algae

Coagulation + filtration; flocculation/sedimentation

Mineral fouling

Calcium, magnesium barium or strontium sulphates and carbonates

Antiscalant dosing; acidification

Oxidant fouling

Chlorine, ozone, KMnO4

Oxidant scavenger dosing; sodium bisulphite; granulated activated carbon

Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment …

predominant mechanisms. Therefore, membrane fouling is expected to be less severe with hydrophilic than hydrophobic membranes (Mohammad et al. 2015). There have been numerous ways in which the ceramic membranes have been altered to a more hydrophilic nature providing significant antifouling properties, such as surface segregation, surface coating, surface graft polymerization, and metal substitution (DeFriend et al. 2003). However, the alumina composition of the majority of ceramic microfiltration membranes offers the ability to create direct functionalization of the surface without changing pore size or membrane stability. Previous work has shown that carboxylic acids are ideally suited for highly stable functionalization of alumina surfaces (Bethley et al. 1997). Furthermore, the use of different functional groups on alumina surfaces allows for changes in the wettability of the surface (Maguire-Boyle et al. 2012). Cysteic acid functionalization shows the lowest contact angle (ca. 5°), i.e. forming a super hydrophilic surface (Maguire-Boyle and Barron 2011). Functionalization of the surface of a ceramic membrane also controls the flux rate through the membrane: generally, the more hydrophilic a surface is the higher the flux of water is (DeFriend et al. 2003; Maguire-Boyle and Barron 2011). In 2011, we reported that commercial alumina cross-flow microfiltration membranes may be functionalized with carboxylic acids, such as cysteic acid, to create a superhydrophobic membrane with increased flux and superior separation results for hydrocarbons without fouling associated with their unfunctionalized homologs (Barron 2014). This has led to a series of field trials to demonstrate the efficiency of these functionalized membranes in a range of water treatment systems. Herein, we summarize the results from these field trials and discuss the potential application of superhydrophobic membranes to contribute to meeting the challenge at the water-energy-environmental nexus as it relates to the challenges faced in Qatar and the Region.

2

Materials and Methods

Unmodified alumina membranes were purchased from Pall Corporation (0.22 lm nominal pore size) and AtechInnovations GmbH (0.2, or 0.1 lm nominal pore size) with support and active layer manufactured from alpha alumina. The reaction of the alumina membranes with cysteic acid was performed using a variation of previously reported procedures (DeFriend et al. 2003; Maguire-Boyle and Barron 2011; Vogelson et al. 2003). In a suitable reaction vessel, each membrane was covered in a 1 M aqueous solution of cysteic acid and placed under vacuum until the membrane stopped effervescing. The solution was heated to reflux for 2 days. The membrane was then allowed to return to room temperature, removed from the solution and washed

123

with water. This process was repeated three times, or until the water displayed pH = 6. The membranes were then stored in original packaging under ambient conditions. Filtration experiments were conducted employing single pass-closed loop batch systems as reported previously (Maguire-Boyle et al. 2017; Ainscough et al. 2017). The scale of the test unit varied from a single-membrane unit (Guatemala, Galveston trails and laboratory-produced water tests), eight membranes (Pakistan trail) and 240 or 480 membranes (the USA produced water trials). The membranes were subjected to filtration of the appropriate raw water. The flow rates of permeate and concentrate as well as assembly pressures and substituent temperatures were monitored. Sampling of the raw water, permeate and the concentrate was taken at specified times. These samples were analysed for carbon content, conductivity, elemental composition and finally molecular composition (Maguire Boyle 2012; Maguire-Boyle and Barron 2011, 2014).

3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Guatemala City Trials The goal was to investigate the application of the super hydrophilic ceramic membrane (in combination with a metal adsorbent technology (DRR-Team Mission Report 2017) for the treatment of highly polluted water from the Rio Las Vacas in Guatemala [23]. The challenge was to produce water that meets the WHO drinking quality from water taken from one the tributaries of the Rio Las Vacas that passes through the Guatemala City dump (Fig. 1). The city dump is notorious for unauthorized dumping of hazardous and toxic materials (Maguire Boyle 2012). In addition, the raw sewage stream that forms part of the Rio Las Vacas tributary is eroding the cliff edge. As recently as May 2015, a large mudslide carried 18 tombs from the edge of the cemetery, located directly above the dump, into the dump. Some 7000 workers or “Guajeros” (including 1000 children) spend their lives collecting plastic, metal and old magazines out of the trash heap to sell to recyclers. Although locals understand that high levels of bacterial and heavy metal contaminants (Maguire Boyle 2012) mean that the water is not suitable for consumption, local residents and children of Barrios (an area downstream) regularly play and wash laundry in the contaminated waters. The single 0.22 lm membrane filtration platform trial was conducted over a 3 day period at the start of the dry season in Guatemala (early November 2015), see Fig. 2. Throughout the trial period, the membrane flux performance was recorded as similar to that observed for clean water flux in the laboratory. Reduction in flux was only reduced by 30% of the original clean water flux at the end of the trial period without any membrane backwashing. Due to the short

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Fig. 3 Photograph showing opacity difference between feed sample (left) and post-filter (right) during trials at the Rio Las Vacas (2015)

Fig. 1 Photograph showing the tributary of Rio Las Vacas River running through Guatemala City dump (2015)

Fig. 4 Photograph showing visual bacteria test of feed sample (left) and 0.2 lm membrane permeate (right) after 1 day for water during the trials at the Rio Las Vacas (November 2015)

Fig. 2 Photograph showing the filtration system deployed during trials at the Rio Las Vacas (2015)

duration of the trial, the unit was not set up to allow backwashing. Nevertheless, the results illustrated that the super hydrophilic surface functionalization assisted in the reduction of fouling of the membrane surface. An initial visual result from the water production system is presented in Fig. 3. The difference in opacity is clear, with

the final product (post-filtration and adsorption) is transparent, whereas the feed (river water) is clearly translucent. An on-site bacteria screening test (Watersafe®) was conducted for the feed and membrane permeate. As shown in Fig. 4, the permeate sample remains a strong purple colour after 48 h (indicating bacteria content within EPA guidelines), while the feed sample has noticeably changed in comparison within 12 h, consistent with significant bacteria levels (Maguire Boyle 2012).

3.2 Desalination Pre-treatment Initial studies were aimed at treatment of typical waters that would be used as a source of raw water for desalination.

Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment …

125

Table 2 Rejection coefficient (r) for total carbon (TC), non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC) and total inorganic carbon (TIC) for various raw water samples purified using a cysteic acid functionalized 0.20 l alumina membrane Source

TC

NPOC

TIC

Galveston bay seawater

0.621

0.866

0.268

Laundry wastewater

0.937

0.997

0.769

Industrial run-off pond water

0.999

0.999

0.998

Using a single cysteic acid functionalized 0.22 lm alumina membrane system (Maguire-Boyle and Barron 2011; Maguire-Boyle 2012), water from Galveston Bay (Texas), industrial drainage ponds in Houston (Texas) and laundry wastewater were purified. The latter was chosen as a model industrial wastewater that is commonly discharged into drainage systems. As may be seen from Table 2, the rejection coefficient (R, Eq. 1, where Cp = permeate concentration and Cr = retentate concentration) for inorganic carbon varies considerably; however, the non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC) shows excellent rejection.
ð1Þ R ¼ 1  Cp =Cr Based upon this data, a subsequent trial was designed to run in parallel to a commercial desalination plant in Karachi (Pakistan). The current system treats 350 m3/h with ca. 45% recovery of clean water. A schematic of the current process is shown in Fig. 5. One of the major issues with the existing plant design is particulates passing the media filters, resulting in constantly having issues with the media filters and replacing the polishing filters. The operators are currently happy with the RO plant, although the production rate (ca. 157 m3/h) is lower than what should be expected. The pilot system was designed such that it replaces both the media and polishing filters, as well as chemical treatments that are performed at each stage and prior to reverse osmosis. A P&I diagram is shown in Fig. 6, while a photograph of the membrane housing system is shown in Fig. 7. The system used eight cysteic acid functionalized 0.1 lm alumina membranes. Initial trials using model feed water showed acceptable performance (Fig. 8). Current studies are concentrated on improved rejection ratio and optimization of flow rates.

3.3 Produced and Frac Flowback Water Trials After extensive laboratory testing in 2011 on produced water and frac flowback water from a range of sources from Marcellus, Barnett, Eagle Ford, Scott Sugg, Humble, Roosevelt and Bennie wells [21, 24], field trials of the super hydrophilic cysteic acid membranes were initially undertaken with the assistance of Molecular Filtration Inc. and Lance Energy Services; subsequent work is in support of work by Apache Corporation. In our first field trial, a trailer-based unit (Fig. 9) was located adjacent to a frac pond in Bluebell (Utah). A frac pond is a type of retention pond, often used to store produced water or flowback from the well, or a mixture during the course of wellsite development. Commercially, produced water, from nearby well sites, is brought by tanker and pumped into the frac pond where it is allowed to evaporate. The subsequent oil residue is skimmed and recovered when possible. No attempt is made to reuse the water. During the trial, either produced water was pumped into the frac tank from a tanker (Fig. 10) or the high organic content of the frac pond was pumped into the frac tank. In either case, the contaminated water was then pumped through the membrane system, with the concentrate being returned to the frac tank and the cleaned water (permeate) discharged into the frac pond, retained for analysis, or used. Typical analyses of the produced water and frac pond water are shown in Table 3. As expected, the hydrocarbon content of the waste frac pit is significantly higher than that of the produced water from local wells. Figure 11 shows a typical sample of produced/frac flowback water treated in the study, along with a sample of permeate and retentate (concentrate). As may be clearly seen, the turbidity of the produced water (>1000 NTU) is dramatically decreased after membrane treatment (18.8 NTU). Table 4 provides a summary of the removal performance (%) defined as Eq. 2, where Cp = permeate concentration and Cf = feed concentration. 
 RP ¼ 1  Cp =Cf  100 ð2Þ

Fig. 5 Simplified schematic representation of the current reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant in Karachi (Pakistan) with approximate values of residence time (RT), pressure and flow rates (m3/h)

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Fig. 6 A piping and instrumentation (P & I) diagram for the eight super hydrophilic membrane filtration system to replace the function of the media filters and polishing filters the current reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant, see Fig. 5

Fig. 7 A photograph of the eight super hydrophilic 1 lm membrane filtration system (Fig. 6) prior to instillation

The super hydrophilic membrane system with a 0.2 lm membrane allows for near-complete removal of organics and total removal of petroleum hydrocarbons as well as bacteria. The bacteria content of the produced water was in the range of 1105–1106 bacteria/mL. There is a significant removal of iron, chloride and sulphates presumably due to their association with biological matter, while the removal of

Fig. 8 Example of feed (left) and permeate (right) from the eight 0.1 lm super hydrophilic membrane filtration system

bicarbonates is possibly due to insolubility; however, soluble cations remain in the permeate. Using 240 membranes, the permeate volume treated varied from 2000 to 3500 barrels/day using a trans-membrane pressure of 0.5 to

Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment …

127 Table 4 Removal performance range for treatment of produced water and frac flowback water functionalized using cysteic acid 0.20 l alumina membrane Species

Max. (%)

97.8

99.6

Organics (TOC-NPOC)

98.3

100.0

C6-C12

99.5

99.5

> C12-C28

99.6

99.6

> C28-C35

100.0

100.0

Bacteria

99.9

99.999

0.9

2.3

K

6.1

8.7

Na

1.3

2.1

Ca

− 5.1

4.7

Mg

− 0.6

2.8

Ba

− 4.3

2.5

Sr

3.3

3.3

Fe

71.0

100.0

Cl

− 4.1

33.5

TDS (total dissolved solids)

Fig. 9 Photograph showing a trailer-mounted super hydrophilic membrane filtration system (right), next to a frac tank for intermediate storage (centre) and an evaporation pit (behind) during trials at the Bluebell (Utah) site (2012)

Min. (%)

Total carbon (TC)

SO4 HCO3

1.5

29.0

14.6

25.0

Fig. 10 Photograph showing production water being transferred into the frac tank (left) prior to treatment at the Bluebell (Utah) field trial site (2012)

Table 3 Typical total carbon (TC), non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC) and inorganic carbon (IC) of water from the Bluebell (Utah) field trial site Water sample

TC (ppm)

NPOC (ppm)

IC (ppm)

Produced water

6028

356

5672

Frac pond

36,692

2496

34,196

0.75 bar (1 barrel = 42 US gallons = 159 L; 1 bar = 1  105 Pa = 14.5 psi). Currently, commercial treatment is being conducted in West Texas by Apache Corporation (Fig. 12). In addition, plans are in place for additional field units to be constructed for testing in Qatar also for treatment of produced water.

Fig. 11 Photograph showing typical produced/frac flowback water (left), the retentate (centre) and permeate (right) as treated at the Bluebell (Utah) field trial site (2012)

4

Conclusions

We have demonstrated field studies with 1, 8 and 480 membrane systems for a range of water sources. The membrane housings and system design use proven “off the shelf” pumps, instrumentation and controls. Furthermore, the use of commercial membranes allows for scalability, while

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D. L. Oatley-Radcliffe and A. R. Barron

Fig. 12 Photograph showing one of the authors with Apache personnel in front of the commercial produced/frac flowback water treatment system in West Texas (2019)

the addition of patented nano-chemistry to the membranes generates the filtration performance and differentiates them from the commercial base membranes. The combination of the superhydrophilic treatment to commercial membranes results in cost-effective field application. Due to the low pressures required (95% hydrocarbon after treatment of produced and frac flowback water at the Bluebell (Utah) field trial site (2012)

to introduce the first field unit in Qatar in 2020 for the treatment of oil field-produced water with the goal of developing local technology development and manufacturing. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the work of Samuel J. Maguire-Boyle for his discovery of the super hydrophilic treatment in 2010 and John J. Allen for the initial tests on cross-flow alumina membranes in 2011. The Guatemala City and Karachi units were designed and constructed by Thomas J. Ainscough, while Andrius Stanulis developed the scalable membrane treatment. Cal Cooper and Ty Hanna (formally of Apache Corporation) are acknowledged for support and joint development of clean-in-place processes. Saad Audeh (Worldwide Eco-Corporation) is acknowledged for support and making possible the Karachi trial.

References M. Abbasi, M.R. Sebzari, A. Salahi, S. Abbasi, T. Mohammadi, Flux decline and membrane fouling in cross-flow microfiltration of oil-in-water emulsions. Desalin. Water Treat. 28, 1–7 (2011) T.J. Ainscough, P. Alagappan, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, A.R. Barron, A hybrid super hydrophilic ceramic membrane and carbon nanotube adsorption process for clean water production and heavy metal removal and recovery in remote locations. J. Water Process. Eng. 19, 220–230 (2017) A.R. Barron, The interaction of carboxylic acids with aluminium oxides: journeying from a basic understanding of alumina nanoparticles to water treatment for industrial and humanitarian applications. Dalton Trans. 43, 8127–8143 (2014) C.E. Bethley, C.L. Aitken, Y. Koide, C.J. Harlan, S.G. Bott, A.R. Barron, Structural characterization of dialkylaluminum carboxylates: models for carboxylate alumoxanes. Organometallics 16, 329–341 (1997)

Summary of Field Trial Results of the Treatment … K.A. DeFriend, M.R. Wiesner, A.R. Barron, Alumina and aluminate ultrafiltration membranes derived from alumina nanoparticles. J. Membrane Sci. 224, 11–28 (2003) Expert advice on dealing with pollution in the rivers Las Vacas and Motagua in the vicinity of Guatemala City, Guatemala. DRR-Team Mission Report Guatemala, DRR217GT04, 2017 [Online]. Available https://www.drrteam-dsswater.nl/wp.../ToR-Scoping-missionGuatemala-15-aug.pdf Handbook of Membrane Separations, 2nd ed., in eds. by A.K. Pabby, S.S.H. Rizvi, A.M. Sastr (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2015) Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia. UN-ESCWA and BGR (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia; Bundesanstalt fürGeowissenschaften und Rohstoffe), Beirut, 2013, Ch. 15 H. Ismail, Food and Water Security in Qatar: Part 2—Water Resources (Future Directions International, Dalkeit, Australia, 2015) S. Judd, S.W. Till, Bacterial rejection in crossflow microfiltration of sewage. Desalination 127, 251–260 (2000) S. Maguire Boyle, Fabrication of petrochemical and viral resistant membranes, MS. Dissertation, Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, 2012 S.J. Maguire-Boyle, A.R. Barron, A new functionalization strategy for oil/water separation membranes. J. Membrane Sci. 382, 107–115 (2011) S.J. Maguire-Boyle, M.V. Liga, Q. Li, A.R. Barron, Alumoxane/ ferroxane nanoparticles for the removal of viral pathogens: the importance of surface functionality to nanoparticle activity. Nanoscale 4, 5627–5632 (2012)

129 S.J. Maguire-Boyle, J.E. Huseman, T.J. Ainscough, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, A.A. Alabdulkarem, S.F. Al-Mojil, A.R. Barron, Superhydrophilic functionalization of microfiltration ceramic membranes enables separation of hydrocarbons from frac and produced water. Sci. Rep. 7, 12267 (2017) S.J. Maguire-Boyle, A.R. Barron, Organic compounds in produced waters from shale gas wells. Environ. Sci. Processes Impacts 16, 2237–2248 (2014) A.W. Mohammad, Y.H. Toew, W.L. Ang, T. Chung, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, N. Hilal, Nanofiltration membranes review: recent advances and future prospects. Desalination 356, 226–254 (2015) S. Munirasu, M.A. Haija, F. Banat, Use of membrane technology for oil field and refinery produced water treatment—a review. Process Saf. Environ. 100, 183–202 (2016) Qatar National Vision 2030, General Secretariat for Development Planning, July 2008 [Online]. Available https://www.gco.gov.qa/ wp-content/uploads/2016/09/GCO-QNV-English.pdf Reverse Osmosis Pretreatment. Lenntech [Online]. Available https:// www.lenntech.com/ro/ro-pretreatment.htm W. Scholtz, W. Fuchs, Treatment of oil contaminated wastewater in a membrane bioreactor. Water Res. 34, 3621–3629 (2000) Seawater Desalination Costs, Water Reuse Association, Alexandria, VA, 2012 C.T. Vogelson, A. Keys, C.L. Edwards, A.R. Barron, Molecular coupling layers formed by reactions of epoxy resins with self-assembled carboxylate monolayers grown on the native oxide of aluminium. J. Mater. Chem. 13, 291–296 (2003)

Preliminary Study for Phosphate Recovery from Starch Factory Wastewater Using Porous Aluminum Mokhtar Guizani, Jinglei Guo, Miyu Tagawa, Ryusei Ito, and Toshikazu Kawaguchi

Abstract

Highlights

Resources-oriented wastewater management is a new trend in water management driven by the need to close the loop and ensure resources’ sustainability. Phosphate is one of the non-renewable fossil resources of worldwide concern, particularly in Japan. Indeed, Japan is a net importer of phosphate-based fertilizers, and phosphate recovery from liquid waste streams is urgently needed. In this paper, we attempt phosphate recovery from starch factory wastewater using porous aluminum in a two-step procedure. Phosphate was first adsorbed into the porous aluminum matrix, then after the addition of potassium hydroxide, the compound potassium phosphate was recovered. The systems showed an efficiency of 22% which could be significantly increased by the implementation of electrochemical adsorption.

• Porous aluminum was proposed to recover phosphate from starch factory wastewater. • Posphorus recovery from discharged water was possible through an adsorption desorption process. • Desorption amount was limited to 20% of the initial amount trapped in the matrix. • Adsorption efficiency was improved significantly by the use of electrochemical adsorption reaching up to 97%.

Keywords











Phosphate fertilizer Potassium phosphate Starch factory Porous aluminum Electrochemical adsorption

M. Guizani (&)
R. Ito Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan e-mail: [email protected] M. Guizani
T. Kawaguchi Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8589, Japan J. Guo Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0810, Japan M. Tagawa Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan T. Kawaguchi Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0810, Japan

1

Introduction

Phosphorus is an important element as one of the nutrients for the vegetation. Phosphate rocks are the sole phosphorus source for fertilizers worldwide. Production amounts of phosphate rocks in 2014 were about 220 million tons around the world (U.S. 2015). Reports claim that 90% of the reserves were used for fertilizers (U.S. 2015). Japan for instance has limited phosphate reserves, and it depends heavily on imports, while the demand for phosphorus is increasing (Yokoyama and Kubo 2009). On the other hand, excess phosphorous also can cause environmental pollution and eutrophication. Furthermore, for the fourteenth target of sustainable development goals, it is important to keep the balance of the hydrosphere. Given that, recovery of phosphate from liquid waste stream is crucial. Food processing industries are rich in nutrients and present a good spot for nutrients recovery. In northern Japan (Hokkaido Island), starch production is an important part of Hokkaido's agriculture, where 17 potato starch factories are in operation. The liquid waste streams of these starch factories are rich in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, and suspended solids. It offers a good spot for phosphate recovery. It is estimated that 90 to 500 kg day-1 of phosphate can be recovered from Shihoro’s Japan

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_15

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Agricultural cooperative wastewater treatment plant alone. Hence, the objective of this research is to recycle the phosphate from potato starch factories. However, phosphate recovery is not new and many recovery techniques are available. There are currently 70 full scale P-recovery plants in Europe and many more across East Asia. Plants that utilize struvite precipitation, for example, are able to recover up to 85% of phosphorus. Unfortunately, each of the existing recovery techniques suffers from many disadvantages as exemplified by the large sludge volumes from biological treatment and coagulation, chemical precipitation (e.g., HAP, MAP), clogging, nitrogen oxide generation, chemical addition, poor recovery efficiency, and reduced cost efficiency, among others. Struvite (MgNH4PO4
6H2O) precipitation is one of the most commonly used phosphate recovery techniques, strongly depending on magnesium and alkali solutions addition for optimal recovery (Dockhorn 2009; Kataki et al. 2016; Marti et al. 2010). These additions contribute with up to 75% of the struvite precipitation (Campos et al. 2019). These disadvantages render phosphate recovery not very attractive. In order to overcome this problem, we would like to propose a more affordable and a cost-effective phosphate recovery technique from starch factory processing wastewater. Adsorption is believed to be a cost-effective method, even at low concentration. Adsorption to metals such as iron and aluminum is a technique used to restore lakes and prevent eutrophication. Phosphate recovery by adsorption to aluminum has several advantages over the use of other metals, being light, cheap, and requires no reagents to add. Furthermore, a high recovery rate of phosphorus is expected and for its implementation large equipment is unnecessary. Moreover, porous aluminum is a waste material of several industries and need to be valued, and its use for phosphate recovery is one option. This paper proposes the use of porous aluminum for phosphate recovery from starch factory wastewater by adsorption and desorption concept as illustrated in Fig. 1.

2

Approach and Methods

As shown in JA Shihoro starch factory wastewater treatment plant (Fig. 2), solid protein is first removed with a pressure flotation device in two stages, then pH is adjusted, and then organic matter is decomposed in a UASB methane fermentation tank. After that, nitrification denitrification is carried out and released into the river through the MF membrane. The phosphorus contained in the wastewater is collected with the sludge. However, some phosphorus creates MAP crystals in the methane fermenter and clogs the piping. MAP

is a crystal formed by the reaction of phosphate ions in water with magnesium ions in the presence of ammonium ions. In order to prevent clogging of the piping, we suggest that it would be possible to recover phosphorus at a stage before the methane is fermented. Adsorption desorption tests were conducted as shown in Fig. 3. In adsorption test, 100 ml of standard phosphate solution was kept for one hour in a column containing 10 g of porous aluminum. After reaction time, the solution was drained via a valve located on the bottom of the column. The porous aluminum was then reacted for one hour with 100 ml of 0.01 M potassium hydroxide solution for phosphate desorption. During this phase, aluminum containing the phosphate can react with KOH solution to form potassium phosphate KH2PO4. Phosphate concentrations PO43- in the solutions were then measured UV-vis spectrophotometer and Molybdenum blue colorimetric method and adsorption desorption rates were calculated. Some of the experiments were repeated several times to assess the reusability of the porous aluminum for the adsorption-desorption of phosphate and the repeatability was confirmed. In a second experiment, an electrochemical method was used to study if we can improve the adsorption of phosphate by porous aluminum. Electrochemical method is not new and has been widely used for water and wastewater treatment (Kalaruban et al. 2017). Indeed, phosphate recovery from human waste using electrochemical techniques has been successfully tested (Clément et al. 2018). Figure 4 illustrate the experimental set-up.

3

Results and Discussions

Phosphate concentration in the wastewater from JA Shihoro starch factory wastewater after each treatment process is shown in Fig. 5 revealing the presence of high phosphate concentration in discharged water. The Si represents the sampling locations shown in plant layout (Fig. 2). Samples collected from feed water are labeled S1, S2, and S3 denote samples taken from the effluent of protein removal stages, respectively. S4 denotes samples taken after pH adjustment. Samples taken from the supernatant of USAB fermenter are labeled S5 and S6, relative to the sample taken from the discharged water. The results of molecular weight fractionation (Fig. 6) indicate that when blocking molecules of 10,000, 30,000, 50,000, 100,000 Da, or more, the total phosphorus concentration remained almost unchanged. This shows that there is no phosphorus with a large molecular structure of 10,000 Da or more. Therefore, the difference between total phosphorus and phosphate concentration in the graph is considered to be polyphosphoric acid. XPS results illustrated in Fig. 7 show that 41% of the phosphate is PO3 while the rest is P2O5.

Preliminary Study for Phosphate Recovery …

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Fig. 1 Proposed scheme for phosphate recovery by adsorption desorption using porous aluminum

Fig. 2 Plant layout

These findings show the richness of potato starch factories wastewater in phosphate after anaerobic digestion. Indeed, the anaerobic digestion removes carbon and the nitrogen and phosphate remains intact (Kalaruban et al. 2017). In the following section, we discuss the results of phosphate recovery from phosphate standard solution using porous aluminum. Results from real wastewater will be reported in another paper. Phosphate concentration left in the phosphate standard solution after adsorption tests showed that porous aluminum absorbed more than 22% of the initial amount of phosphate present in the initial solution (Fig. 8.). This amount decreased as the initial concentration increased showing a good affinity of the adsorbate (aluminum oxide) to the phosphate as shown in Fig. 8. Saturation was reached at

around 12 mmo/L. Data were checked for Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and were found to better fit the Langmuir model (Fig. 9 and Table 1). XRD examination (not shown) of the porous aluminum confirmed the presence of phosphate in the aluminum matrix. Furthermore, cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis of porous aluminum (not shown) indicated oxidation currents at the first cycle. However, it became small at the second and third cycles. The results suggest that the matrix was a mixture of alumina and pure aluminum. With respect desorption tests, potassium phosphate was recovered as indicated by phosphate concentration data and XRD analysis of the recovered powder after dehydration. However, it should be mentioned that desorption amount was limited to 20% of the initial amount trapped in the

134 Fig. 3 Adsorption-desorption experiment set-up

Fig. 4 Electro-chemical adsorption experiment set-up

Fig. 5 Phosphate concentration in starch factory wastewater treatment plant

M. Guizani et al.

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Fig. 9 Phosphate adsorption isotherm Table 1 Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm parameters Angmuir

Freundlich 2

Q0 (mg/g)

KL (L/mg)

R

RL (L/mg)

n

Kf

R2

3.04

3.4

0.99

0.05

1.98

-0.99

0.92

Fig. 6 Phosphate characterization by molecular weight cut-off

Fig. 7 Characterization by XPS

Fig. 8 Phosphate adsorption to porous aluminum

matrix. Desorption test at different experimental conditions is needed to find the optimum. It was also confirmed that reuse of the porous aluminum matrix for adsorption desorption tests did not affect its efficiency, proving the long-term use of the same matrix for phosphate recovery. As aforementioned, adsorption of phosphate into the porous aluminum matrix is in the order of 22% in its highest efficiency. In order to improve the adsorption efficiency, an electrochemical adsorption test was conducted using porous aluminum as electrodes. Results showed that adsorption of phosphate into porous aluminum was improved significantly and reached nearly 97% at 50 min test (Fig. 10). The limits of aluminum electrodes are surface oxidation (anodization) which will stop the current flow. Indeed, aluminum is an excellent conductor of electricity, but aluminum oxide is not. Since this type of electrodes is depleted by oxidation and needs to be replaced on a regular basis, further studies need to focus on the evaluation of different operational conditions to find the best conditions that allows its longer usage. One technique that is commonly used is using a low pH solution, which tends to dissolve some of the oxide and neutralize some of the formed OH−, leaving pores in the oxide layer through which the ions can travel and continue to react. It is also possible to consider doping selective ion resin inside the pores to increase its adsorption capacity. Moreover, it should be noticed that, preliminary experiments were also conducted using real wastewater from JA Shihoro potato starch factory showing promises of the proposed adsorption desorption technique. However, due to limited data, this paper focuses only on results from standard solution. Further studies should be conducted using real wastewater from potato starch factory.

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Our study helps solve the problem of food safety, by recovery a precious nutrient from food processing wastewater using a cost-effective technique. Acknowledgements This work is supported by Japan Agricultural cooperative Shihoro and Hitachi group.

References

Fig. 10 Phosphate electrochemical adsorption to porous aluminum

4

Conclusions

In this study, we proposed the use of a porous aluminum to recover phosphate from starch factory wastewater as a cheap and affordable material for this recovery. This study showed the possibility to recover phosphate using porous aluminum. Recovering phosphorus from discharged water was possible through an adsorption desorption process. The porous aluminum can be reused many times without a drop in its adsorption efficiency. Electrochemical adsorption tests using porous aluminum showed that adsorption efficiency can be improved significantly. This study showed that phosphate in food processing wastewater is found to contain orthophosphate and polyphosphate (ratio 1:1), and future focus is on how to recover polyphosphate for better economic benefits.

J.L. Campos, D. Crutchik, Ó. Franchi, J.P. Pavissich, M. Belmonte, A. Pedrouso, A. Mosquera-Corral, Á. Val del Río, Nitrogen and phosphorus recovery from anaerobically pretreated agro-food wastes: a review. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. (2019).https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fsufs.2018.00091 A. Clément, Y. Qu, M.R. Hoffmann, Design and preliminary implementation of onsite electrochemical wastewater treatment and recycling toilets for the developing world. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 4, 1439–145 (2018) T. Dockhorn, About the economy of phosphorus recovery, in International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams (IWA Publishing, London, 2009) M. Kalaruban, P. Loganathan, J. Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, Submerged membrane adsorption hybrid system using four adsorbents in removing nitrate from water. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2017) S. Kataki, H. West, M. Clarke, D.C. Baruah, Phosphorus recovery as struvite from farm, municipal and industrial waste: feedstock suitability, methods and pre-treatments. Waste Manage. 49, 437– 454 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.01.003 N. Marti, L. Pastor, A. Bouzas, J. Ferrer, A. Seco, Phosphorus recovery by struvite crystallization in WWTPs: influence of the sludge treatment line operation. Water Res. 44, 2371–2379 (2010). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.043 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2015 K.M. Yokoyama, H. Kubo, A material flow analysis of phosphorus in Japan. J. Indust. Ecol. 13, 687–705 (2009)

Removal of Organic Compounds from Olive Mill Wastewater by Flotation–Anaerobic– Aerobic Processes and Lime Treatment Safaa Khattabi Rifi, Anas Aguelmous, Mohamed Hafidi, and Salah Souabi

Abstract

1

Olive oil extraction processes generate two types of residues: pomace and olive oil mill wastewater (OMW). Hence, OMW’s direct discharge affects the environment by altering soil quality, pollution of natural water, inhibition of grain germination, and olfactory nuisances. This work aims to contribute to solving the problem generated by olive oil discharge. Indeed, we have proposed the possibility of treating raw wastewater from upstream oil mills by a combined flotation–aerobic– aerobic process followed by precipitation with lime. The physicochemical analysis results showed that the physically and biologically treated samples have a chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 95 g of O2/L, an acid pH (4.95), the turbidity of 1293 NTU, a polyphenol concentration of 2.02 g/L, and phosphorus of 173.7 mg/L. The proposed strategy using lime treatment reduces 56.8% COD, 92.94% turbidity, 91% polyphenols, and 95.4% phosphorus. Keywords




Anaerobic Aerobic mill wastewater




Precipitation




Lime




Olive oil

S. K. Rifi (&)
S. Souabi Laboratory of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Hassan II University, Mohammedia, Morocco A. Aguelmous National High School of Chemistry, University Ibn Tofail, Kenitra, Morocco M. Hafidi Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnologies, Agrosciences, and Environment, Faculty of Science Semlalia, University Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco

Introduction

Recently, olive oil production has increased in Morocco, thanks to the country’s encouragement actions and support for the development of the olive sector. Morocco is on track to have 1.2 million hectares of cultivated area and an annual production of about 2,500,000 tons of olives in 2020 (MAPM 2019). The oil mill’s liquid waste is the most polluting effluent due to its high content of organic matter, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and tannins (Karaouzas et al. 2011; García and Hodaifa 2017; Varricchio et al. 2019). These pollutants generate emissions of gases such as phenols, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, causing serious odor and health problems. The high phosphorus composition accelerates algae’s growth and causes eutrophication and discoloration of aquatic environments (Souilem et al. 2017). OMW treatment techniques can be classified as biological (anaerobic and aerobic) (Hajjouji et al. 2014; Gonçalves et al. 2012), physical (filtration) (Zirehpour et al. 2012), physicochemical (coagulation, flocculation, evaporation) (Jarboui et al. 2010; Pelendridou et al. 2014), and chemical (advanced oxidation) (Ivanov et al. 2019). These treatment methods aim to reduce the pollutant load of OMW effluents to reuse the treated effluents. However, OMW can be used for the preparation of soil fertilizing composts (Chehab et al. 2019). Researchers have recently carried out studies on the recovery of polyphenols by membrane processes intending to reuse them in the food, cosmetic, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries (Sygouni et al. 2019). Anaerobic treatments can remove organic matter with low sludge production, low energy consumption, low nutrient requirements, and significant production of renewable energy in the form of methane (El Felsa et al. 2019; Aziz et al. 2019). Aerated treatment techniques use air to increase microorganisms’ growth, which use organic matter as a nutrient source to reduce harmful pollutants in wastewater. They can be used for drip irrigation to a field drain or a

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_16

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surface receiving stream (Tittlebaum and Tucker 2019). In this context, Kissi et al. (2001) demonstrated that lime has advantages as an efficient coagulant to eliminate a considerable part of the water supply’s pollution with the low-cost. In this work, OMW’s degradation was studied through the combination of treatments constituted by flotation–anaerobic–aerobic, followed by precipitation using lime. This work’s main objective is to evaluate the performance of a combined treatment, anaerobic–aerobic biodegradation, and lime precipitation.

2

Materials and Methods

are carried out once a week. After a flotation-anaerobic– aerobic treatment, precipitation tests were carried out at room temperature. Lime was added in a series of nine one-liter beakers containing 500 mL of the OMW stirred at a relatively high stirring speed (130 rpm) for a short period (10 min) to ensure good dispersion of the lime, after which the suspension was mixed slowly for 30 min. After 24 h of settling, The supernatant was siphoned off for analysis. The quantities of lime used vary from 8 to 12 g/L. The treatment’s efficiency was assessed visually by monitoring the rate of reduction of phenols, COD, coloration, nitrate, and phosphorus.

2.1 Oil Extraction Process 2.4 Analytical Methods The OMW used in this study was produced by the discontinuous process (pressing) type three phase. In this process, the olives are washed and crushed using stone rollers in the presence of hot water, and then the olive paste produced is stacked on discs before being placed in the press. The discs used to be made of coconut or hemp fibers, but nowadays, they are based on synthetic fibers to make maintenance and cleaning easier and avoid increasing the oil’s acidity. The pressure is applied to the discs, which is to compact the solid phase of the olive paste and percolate the liquid phase (oil and OMW). Finally, the wastewater from the oil mill is separated from the oil by decantation.

2.2 OMW Samples The OMW samples were collected in the three-phase process located in the Casablanca-Settat region (Morocco) between October and January 2018–2019. The effluents were collected in a 30-L plastic container. The physicochemical analysis was carried out as described by the standard method.

2.3 Treatment Procedure The olive OMW used for this study was stored in a 30-L polyethylene leak-proof container with a screw cap and sealing washer to avoid air contact. The fat was removed by flotation. The duration of the anaerobic treatment was 8 weeks. During this period, the physicochemical analysis was carried out once a week with float oil extraction. The same effluent was then treated aerobically using a pump that supplies the reactor with oxygen at a rate of 3.5 L/min. The aeration was maintained discontinuously, and the temperature stabilized at the ambient value of 25 °C. The duration of the aerobic treatment is 8 weeks; physicochemical analyses

The (pH) of the solutions was measured by a pH meter type, “Accumet Basic AB15 pH meter.” Turbidity was measured using a turbidity meter, according to NF EN ISO 7027 March 2000 (T 90-033). The chemical oxygen demand (COD) has been determined according to the standard method AFNOR (NF T90-101 February 2001 (T90-101)) by oxidation of the organic matter contained in the sample by an excess of potassium dichromate at 148◦C, in the presence of silver sulfate as catalyst and mercury sulfate. Polyphenols were determined by the colorimetric method using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (Macheix et al. 1990). According to EN ISO 78-90 January 1997 (T 90-045), the nitrate was determined by the spectrometric method in the presence of sulfosalicylic acid. The determination of total phosphorus was performed by the spectrometric method according to NF T 90-023 January 1997. The spectrophotometric method indophenol blue performed the determination of the NH4+ according to AFNOR NF T 90-015 January 1997.

3

Results

The effluent’s physicochemical characterization was carried out just after anaerobic and aerobic treatment to assess the effects of biological treatment on pollution reduction. Table 1 presents the physicochemical characteristics of oil mill wastewater after anaerobic–aerobic treatment.

4

Discussion

4.1 OMW Characterization After flotation– Anaerobic–Aerobic Treatment Analysis of OMW’s physicochemical characteristics treated by flotation, anaerobic, and aeration show that these

Removal of Organic Compounds from Olive Mill Wastewater … Table 1 Characterization of olive OMW after flotation– anaerobic–aerobic treatment

139

Parameter

OMW treated by flotation and anaerobic–aerobic process

pH

4.95

Turbidity (NTU)

1293

Polyphenols (g/L)

2.02

NH4+

5.06

(mg/L)

COD (g/L)

95

Nitrate (g/L)

0.11

Phosphorus (mg/L)

173.7

discharges are always acidic (4.95), which can be explained by the abundance of organic acids (Table 1). The treated OMW’s turbidity remains high, which means that a large part of the suspended matter is still present in the effluent. The COD is very high compared to municipal wastewater even after treatment (Kimura et al. 2017). These discharges are also characterized by the predominance of phenolic compounds, which are difficult to remove by physical or biological treatment.

4.2 Lime Treatment Flotation–anaerobic–aerobic treatment trials were carried out to increase the efficiency of organic matter removal by physicochemical treatment. The use of lime at different rates was studied, ranging from 8 to 25 g/L. Figure 1 shows that the progressive addition of lime to treated OMW causes a significant increase in pH from 4.95 to stabilize afterward at 12. The addition of 7.5 g/L of lime adjusted the acidic pH 4.6 to a basic pH 10 (Alaoui et al. 2016). Generally, treatment with lime improves the sludge’s stability, which can increase the dry solids (El-Gohary and Tawfik 2009). The lime treatment has a positive economic impact in terms of cost and energy requirements.

Figures 2 and 3 show a strong reduction in turbidity and COD at a concentration of 20 g/L with yields of 92.94% and 56.8%, respectively. However, the pH value was relatively high (10.7). Turbidity removal also shows that much of the suspended colloidal matter has been removed. The removal of turbidity is strongly dependent on alkaline pH. Generally, turbidity is caused by suspended solids, such as organic matter, inorganic matter, soluble color, and other microscopic organisms (Altaher and Alghamdi 2011). These results are probably explained by the effect of the pH and the precipitation of the particles that allowed the removal of COD and other pollutants from the OMW. Zhang et al. (2013) showed the influence of pH on turbidity through acidification and wastewater samples’ alkalization. The results show low turbidity removal in an acidic environment. While on alkaline pH, turbidity removal was high. These results show that the combined treatment removed a significant portion of the pollutants. Figure 4 and 5 show a reduction of phenolic compounds and phosphorus at a concentration of 20 g/L with removal efficiencies of 91% and 95.4%, respectively. A concentration of 22 g/L showed a phosphorus removal rate of 99.7%. The absorption of phenolic compounds explains these results by the lime and organic matter sedimentation. According to Boukhoubza et al. (2009), lime affects the polymerization

1400

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1200

8

1000

Turbidity(NTU)

pH

12

6 4 2

800 600 400 200

0

0

0

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Fig. 1 Effect of lime on pH variation

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Fig. 2 Effect of lime on turbidity variation

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Fig. 5 Effect of lime on phosphorus variation Fig. 3 Effect of lime on COD variation

and precipitation of phenolic compounds according to their types catchline phenol types can be degraded, and vanillic, syringic acid can be partially affected. In contrast, lime does not affect tyrosol phenol types and veratric acid. A concentration of 15 g/L of lime removes 65% of polyphenols and only 28% of volatile phenols (Aktas et al. 2001). Phenol removal efficiencies in this study are high compared to those found by Achak et al. (2008) with 75% efficiency at a concentration of 20 g/L. This is probably due to the removal of part of the phenolic compounds by a flotation–anaerobic– aerobic process. Other studies have investigated the effectiveness of using lime in the removal of phenolic compounds from OMW. The results showed that the phenolic content decreases significantly, with 67% at a pH of 11.4 and 60 g/L of lime (Ginos et al. 2006). The high phosphorus removal in this study is probably due to the pre-nitrification carried out upstream of the process by biological treatment. A study suggested that for easy phosphorus removal from effluents, a pre-nitrification step should be carried out to reduce lime consumption and avoid ammonia losses due to increased pH (Suzin et al. 2018).

2.5

Polyphenols (g/L)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0

4

8

12

16

Lime (g/l)

Fig. 4 Effect of lime on polyphenols variation

20

24

The phosphorus removal efficiency is very high due to the chemical reactions between this chemical and the precipitates (Montalvo et al. 2011). Lime is effective for phosphorus removal and has recently been extended in other studies to remove phosphorus from an aqueous solution (Krishna et al. 2017).

5

Conclusion(s)

OMW is produced in a limited period and in large quantities, which leads to negative environmental impacts. The effects of lime precipitation as a treatment were studied in this work. The lime application led to the removal of turbidity, COD, polyphenols, and phosphorus in 92.94%, 56.8%, 91%, and 95.4%, respectively. Lime is an effective waterfront treatment element due to its efficiency in treatment, low treatment cost, and availability.

References M. Achak, N. Ouazzani, A. Yaacoubi, L. Mandi, Caractérisation des margines issues d’une huilerie moderne et essais de leur traitement par coagulation-floculation par la chaux et le sulfate d’aluminium. Rev. Des Sci. L’eau/journal Water Sci. 21(1), 53–67 (2008) E.S. Aktas, S. Imre, L. Ersoy, Characterization and lime treatment of olive mill wastewater. Water Res. 35(9), 2336–2340 (2001) N.S. Alaoui, A. El Laghdach, M. Stitou, A. Bakkali, Treatment and valorization of olive mill wastewaters. Mediterr. J. Chem. 5(3), 458–464 (2016) H. Altaher, A. Alghamdi, Enhancement of quality of secondary industrial wastewater effluent by coagulation process: a case study. J. Environ. Prot. (Irvine, Calif) 2(09), 1250 (2011) N.I.H.A. Aziz, M.M. Hanafiah, S.H. Gheewala, A review on life cycle assessment of biogas production: challenges and future perspectives in Malaysia. Biomass Bioenerg. 122, 361–374 (2019) F. Boukhoubza et al., Application of lime and calcium hypochlorite in the dephenolisation and discoloration of olive mill wastewater. J. Environ. Manage. 91(1), 124–132 (2009) H. Chehab et al., Effects of compost, olive mill wastewater and legume cover crops on soil characteristics, tree performance and oil quality

Removal of Organic Compounds from Olive Mill Wastewater … of olive trees cv. Chemlali grown under organic farming system. Sci. Hortic. (amsterdam) 253, 163–171 (2019) L. El Felsa, et al., Fenton oxidation using Fe2+/Fe3+/H, 2019 H. El Hajjouji, et al., Evaluation of anaerobic treatment for olive mill wastewater detoxification. Environ. Technol. 35(24), 3052–3059 (2014) F. El-Gohary, A. Tawfik, Decolorization and COD reduction of dispersing and reactive dyes wastewater using chemical-coagulation followed by sequential batch reactor (SBR) process. Desalination 249(3), 1159–1164 (2009) C.A. García, G. Hodaifa, Real olive oil mill wastewater treatment by a photo-Fenton system using artificial ultraviolet light lamps. J. Clean. Prod. 162, 743–753 (2017) A. Ginos, T. Manios, D. Mantzavinos, Treatment of olive mill effluents by coagulation-flocculation–hydrogen peroxide oxidation and effect on phytotoxicity. J. Hazard. Mater. 133(1–3), 135–142 (2006) M.R. Gonçalves, J.C. Costa, I.P. Marques, M.M. Alves, Strategies for lipids and phenolics degradation in the anaerobic treatment of olive mill wastewater. Water Res. 46(6), 1684–1692 (2012) M. Ivanov et al., Advanced oxidation treatments of olive mill wastewater. Inženjerstvo Okoliša 6(2), 71–78 (2019) R. Jarboui, F. Sellami, C. Azri, N. Gharsallah, E. Ammar, Olive mill wastewater evaporation management using PCA method: a case study of natural degradation in stabilization ponds (Sfax, Tunisia). J. Hazard. Mater. 176(1–3), 992–1005 (2010) I. Karaouzas, N.T. Skoulikidis, U. Giannakou, T.A. Albanis, Spatial and temporal effects of olive mill wastewaters to stream macroinvertebrates and aquatic ecosystems status. Water Res. 45(19), 6334– 6346 (2011) K. Kimura, D. Honoki, T. Sato, Effective physical cleaning and adequate membrane flux for direct membrane filtration (DMF) of municipal wastewater: up-concentration of organic matter for efficient energy recovery. Sep. Purif. Technol. 181, 37–43 (2017) M. Kissi et al., Roles of two white-rot basidiomycete fungi in decolorization and detoxification of olive mill waste water. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 57(1–2), 221–226 (2001) K.C.B. Krishna, M.R. Niaz, D.C. Sarker, T. Jansen, Phosphorous removal from aqueous solution can be enhanced through the

141 calcination of lime sludge. J. Environ. Manage. 200, 359–365 (2017) J.J. Macheix, A. Fleuriet, J. Billot, Phenolic compounds in fruit processing. Fruit Phenolics 1, 295–358 (1990) MAPM, Ministère de l'agriculture et des pêches maritimes, filière oléicole, royaume du maroc, 2019. [Online]. Available: www. agriculture.gov.ma/pages/acces-fillieres/filiere-oleicole S.J. Montalvo, L.E. Guerrero, Z. Milán, R. Borja, Nitrogen and phosphorus removal using a novel integrated system of natural zeolite and lime. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. Part A 46(12), 1385–1391 (2011) K. Pelendridou, M.K. Michailides, D.P. Zagklis, A.G. Tekerlekopoulou, C.A. Paraskeva, D.V. Vayenas, Treatment of olive mill wastewater using a coagulation-flocculation process either as a single step or as post‐treatment after aerobic biological treatment. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 89(12), 1866–1874 (2014) S. Souilem, A. El-Abbassi, H. Kiai, A. Hafidi, S. Sayadi, C.M. Galanakis, Olive oil production sector: environmental effects and sustainability challenges, in Olive Mill Waste (Elsevier, 2017), pp. 1–28 L. Suzin, F.G. Antes, G.C. Bedendo, M. Bortoli, A. Kunz, Chemical removal of phosphorus from swine effluent: the impact of previous effluent treatment technologies on process efficiency. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 229(11), 341 (2018) V. Sygouni et al., Treatment of two-phase olive mill wastewater and recovery of phenolic compounds using membrane technology. Membranes (basel) 9(2), 27 (2019) M. Tittlebaum, G. Tucker, Aerobic wastewater treatment system. Google Patents, 28 Mar 2019 E. Varricchio et al., Influence of polyphenols from olive mill wastewater on the gastrointestinal tract, alveolar macrophages and blood leukocytes of pigs. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 18(1), 574–586 (2019) Y.L. Zhang, Z.Z. Huang, M.M. Zhou, Influence of influent pH on ceramic printing wastewater treatment. Appl. Mech. Mater. 260, 1074–1078 (2013) A. Zirehpour, M. Jahanshahi, A. Rahimpour, Unique membrane process integration for olive oil mill wastewater purification. Sep. Purif. Technol. 96, 124–131 (2012)

Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies for Appropriate Agriculture Use in Jordan Noama Shareef

Abstract

Jordan faces chronic water scarcity due to the very limited water resources and increasing water demand. Also, increasing the energy cost of wastewater treatment raises the need to think about sustainable energy-waterenvironment nexus in a dry climate. Moreover, wastewater treatment near to the generation place and reusing it in the same area is needed. This decreases the energy demand, saves the cost, and protects the environment. In addition, the innovations in decentralized wastewater technologies in Jordan aiming not only to treat the municipal wastewater but also to recycle water, energy, and nutrients again. Laboratory-analysis shows extremely high treatment efficiency that can be achieved by the studied technologies to reduce BOD5 to 98.8%, COD to 96.5% and achieve high nitrification rate and reduce the TSS, NO3, TN, and E. Coli parameters, to meet the Jordanian standards for reuse.

1

Introduction

Jordan is one of the driest countries in the world, which is impounded within arid and semi-arid climate (Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) 2019). The annual rainfall in Jordan ranges from less than 50 mm in the desert regions to about 600 mm in the western mountainous highlands. It is obvious that more than 90% of Jordan’s land area receives less than 200 mm/year, whereas the relatively high annual precipitation, i.e., more than 300 mm rainfall, is confined to only 4% of the Jordan’s area (Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) 1918). However, 37% of the Jordanian N. Shareef (&) Senior Wastewater Engineering, International Center of Migration and Development, Berlin, Germany N. Shareef Al Balqa Applied University, As-Salt, Jordan

population are not connected to the sewer network, where the only mean of sanitation is cesspit permitting the huge amounts of septic wastewater to strategy (Jordan Water Authority (JWA) 2019); and about 64% of freshwater is used for agriculture purposes, while 75% of the available water resources in Jordan is used for irrigation purposes (Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) 1918; Jordan Water Authority (JWA) 2019). In many developing countries, because of water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater is needed to be reused many times, according to WHO recommendations (Zhao et al. 2005). Reuse of treated water for many purposes, especially for irrigation, is an economical choice to reduce the impact of water scarcity and to create an alternative sustainable water source for irrigation uses (Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) 2019; Friedler and Galil 2003). Therefore, the decentralized system can be a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment in rural areas. In Jordan, because of the geographic and topographic nature as a small community (Mohsen 2007; Shareef 2019), centralized treatment plants are not sustainable solutions for rural areas. This makes the cost of collection systems much higher in addition to the high cost of operation and maintenance. Therefore, decentralized wastewater treatment represents the most efficient sanitation principle for rural areas. Easy adaption of decentralized systems in many urban conditions makes it more flexible to grow with the community as its population increases (Jhansi and Mishra 2013). Responding to the above challenges, the importance of adapting new IWRM strategies is to reduce the gap between water supply and water demand (Wolf and Hoetzl 2011; Libralato et al. 2012). As a result, integrated water resources management has emerged as a new approach to implement the best management practice of the available water resources. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the application of several low-cost wastewater treatment technologies, to test its treatment efficiency and to provide some benefits such as reuse water, energy, and nutrient (this is depending on the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_17

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local context), which are urgent needs in dry climate countries. Therefore, test series with well-defined wastewater treatment parameters were conducted over the study period.

2

Materials and Methods

This study is a novel study at the demonstration site of SMART project in Fuhies as one of a potential decentralized system that can be used for on-site treatment of municipal wastewater. The on-site study of wastewater treatment pilot plants at Fuhies (located 17 km south Amman) accommodates various wastewater pilot plants (tow modified septic tanks, sequencing batch reactor, continuous batch reactor, bioreactor, sludge dewatering reed bed, and two different wetlands vertical systems). Fuhies site also contains three irrigation fields (plots), where reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation can be tested. All existing on-site-pilot plants receive municipal wastewater from a centralized treatment plant near the on-site pilots, directly after screening and distribute it into each technology by pumps from collection tank with a rate of 10 m3/day. Inflow and discharge for every technology are controlled by using flow meters. The treated effluent from each technology is collected in a separate tank to be tested for safe reuse. For the technologies whose treated effluents are not meeting the Jordanian irrigation standards JS 893/2006 (Jordanian Institute of Standards and Metrology 2006; World Health Organization (WHO) 2006), the effluent is pumped back to the centralized wastewater plant. All wastewater samples in this study were collected weekly from experimental on-site wastewater pilot plants. Field measurements were conducted directly after sampling in the on-site laboratory for the parameters: EC, pH, and temperature. Subsequently, NH4+–N, NO2–N, NO3–N, analyses. COD, TN, NH4-N, TP and PO4, TP, TN, BOD5TSS and turbidity were analyzed. Microbial Analysis for E. coli were measured et al. Balqa Applied university laboratory (Fig. 1).

2.1 Multi-stage Vertical Filter (ECO-2) This system, Wetland-1, consists of a septic tank as pre-treatment and two vertical filters in series (Fig. 2). The single-pass filter is designed in a passive structure to provide the VFs with inflow by gravity to minimize energy consumption. The second filter is planted with Phragmites to improve E. coli removal. This system is designed to treat 3.2 m3/day (approx. 40 PE). The first bed is designed with a surface area of 40 m2 (5  8), whereas the second bed was designed with a larger surface area of 57 m2 (6.2  9.2) for pathogen reduction and further polishing.

2.2 Recirculating Vertical Filter (ECO-1)Wetland2 A recirculation vertical flow system (R-VF) has been designed to reduce the surface area by using the role of recalculation to treat municipal wastewater inflow 2160 l/d (approx. 25 PE) with 108 l/m2 hydraulic load in a surface area of 20 m2 (4  5) and 1 m depth. R-VF system consists of a septic tank, recirculation tank, and unsaturated vertical flow filter and flow-splitting box (Fig. 3). The recirculation ratio is 3:1. This means 25% of the effluent goes to the irrigation tank, where the 75% flows back to the recirculation tank. Effluent and influent are controlled by a flow meter. In this novel study, the tow wetland systems are filled with filter material zeotuff gravel media; which is a local natural material from south Jordan (Fig. 4) used along with selected wetlands plant species to increase treatment efficiency and plants treatment capacity.

2.3 Modified Septic Tanks Two modified septic tanks are designed to treat 2 m3/day for each system in different treatment processes using suspended (BS) and attached bacteria systems (BA), Fig. 5. Each modified septic tank was designed as one tank that entails series of anaerobic treatment chambers, followed by the aerobic section, where treated water flows into aerobic chamber by gravity for further treatment. Attached growth septic tank system is filled with fixed bed plastic media from GEA-Germany in anaerobic and aerobic sections in order to test the effect of fixed film on the treatment efficiency.

2.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Three SBR technologies (UV, suspended, and attached bacteria) were installed by ATB German Company as a commercially municipal treatment solution. It is a discontinuously operated fill draw activated sludge process. Each SBR system consists of two chambers in which all treatment processes (aerobic and anaerobic) occur. The first part receives raw wastewater from the inlet tank as a preliminary treatment unit, and the second chamber receives pre-treated wastewater as a secondary treatment unit (Fig. 6).

2.5 Sludge Treatment Unit The sludge treatment type at Fuhies site is reed bed which is an eco-technology system designed to treat sludge collected

Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies for Appropriate …

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Fig. 1 Research and demonstration facility for decentralized wastewater treatments in Fuhies; Jordan

Fig. 2 Layout of multi-stage vertical filter plant at Fuhies

Fig. 3 Layout of recirculation vertical filter plant at Fuhies facility

from all pilot technologies that exist on-site at Fuhies. This is necessary not only to treat the sludge, but also to save sludge transport and disposal cost. The applications of reed-bed technology as low-cost sludge treatment processes were implemented at Fuhies to achieve reduction of sludge volume, mineralization of municipal sludge, and store it for a designed period. Reed-bed sludge technology is considered the first application in Jordan (Shareef 2016).

3

Results and Discussion

To evaluate the treatment efficiency of several on-site pilot plants, raw wastewater specifications and characteristics were considered in the design and operate the on-site pilot plants at Fuhies in Jordan. Because of very low water consumption per capita per day in Jordan compared to EU and

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USA-countries (90 L/day/Capita in Jordan compared to 150 L/day/Capital in Germany), the Jordanian wastewater is very strong (high organic load: BOD5 is 600–800 mg/l) (World Health Organization (WHO) 2006).

3.1 Performance of Various Pilot Plants at Fuhies

Fig. 4 Zeotuff gravel media-filter material in wetland at Fuhies (Shareef 2016)

Fig. 5 Layout of modified septic tank at Fuhies site

The average reduction of BOD5 and COD for various wastewater treatment units during the study period shows a high reduction rate of BOD5 from 590 mg/l, COD 900 mg/l into all pilot plants to very low rates in outlet, see Figs. 7 and 9. Therefore, the data in Figs. 8 and 10 clearly demonstrate the fact that despite the high organic load in the inflow

Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies for Appropriate …

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Fig. 6 Layout of SBR technology at Fuhies facility ATB (Mueller 2011)

Fig. 7 BOD loading rates versus BOD elimination for pilot plants at Fuhies

BOD mg/l in outlet of WWTPs at Al Fuhies Site

700 600

BOD mg/l

500

BOD IN/mg.l

400

BOD Out/ mg.l

300

Reuse Jordan standard

200 100 0

wetland 1

wetland 2

wastewater, the pilot plants were able to remove the organics in high rate efficiency of BOD5 up to 98.7% and of COD up 98.2%) (Fig. 9).

SPR 1

SBR 2

S.T 1

S.T 2

systems was clear. In addition, NO3-N concentrations in the effluent of wetlands meet the JS 893/2006 standard. Figure 11 shows the loading rate of ammonia and nitrification rate in all other pilot plants to meet the JS 893/2006.

3.2 Nitrogen Transformations/Elimination 3.3 TSS Reduction Table 1 shows very good nitrification rates in two wetlands systems, reducing the inflow rate of NH4-N from 69 mg/l to 1 mg/l in the effluent. Therefore, the high removal efficiency of NH4 (up to 98.2%) and TN (up to 51.9%) in two wetland

All pilot plants achieved TSS reduction from 400 mg/l up to 40 mg/l in the effluent to meet JS 893/2006 standard (Fig. 12).

3.4 Microbial Analysis E. coli analysis was conducted on the effluent of all pilot plants, to meet the Jordanian standards. Only the E. coli test in tow modified septic tanks did not meet the irrigation standards. The attached bacteria BA system achieved approximately 2.1 log 10 E. coli and 3.1 log 10 was achieved throughout suspended bacteria BS system. Effluent E. coli concentrations were not compatible with the JS 893/2006 (Jordanian Institute of Standards and Metrology (JISM) 2006). Therefore, it has to be pumped back to the Fig. 8 Overall percentage removal of BOD for pilot plants at Fuhies

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Fig. 9 COD loading rates versus COD elimination for pilots at Fuhies

COD mg/l in outlet of WWTPs at Al Fuhies Site 1000 900 800

COD mg/l

700

COD IN/mg.l

600

COD Out/ mg.l 500

Reuse Jordan standard

400 300 200 100 0 wetland 1

wetland 2

Treatment Efficency % of COD reduction - WWTPs at Al Fuhies site. Treatment Efficency % 98.2

98

97.8

97.9 97 96.5

wetland 1

wetland 2

SPR 1

SBR 2

S.T 1

S.T 2

Fig. 10 Overall percentage removal of COD for pilots at Fuhies Table 1 Monitoring parameters at wetlands treatment efficiency (average)

SPR 1

SBR 2

S.T 1

S.T 2

central wastewater treatment plant. This shows that the modified septic tank, because of the short time treatment, could not remove the E. coli. Therefore, it needs to be combined with other treatment technologies to increase the treatment efficiency of E. coli removal. To compare the outlet quality of above-decentralized wastewater treatment plants with the outlet of other centralized four wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, it was found that none of the four centralized wastewater treatment plants has met the outlet quality in respect to local standards for reuse purposes in agriculture. None of these four treatment plants meet the JS 893/2006 (Table 2) which shows

Parameter

Inlet (mg/l)

Septic-out (mg/l)

Wetl-1 mg/l out

Wetl-2 mg/l out

Removal efficiency % up to (%)

TN

107

101

16

17

51,9

NH4-N

69

73

1

1

98,2

NO3-N

1

1

31

30

Fig. 11 Nitrogen elimination for the pilot plants et al. Fuhies site

Total Nitrogen NO3-N(mg/l)

NH4-N(mg/l)

NO2-N(mg/l)

NO2-N(mg/l), (BA), 3 NO2-N(mg/l), RAW, 0

NO2-N(mg/l), (BS), 6 NO2-N(mg/l), (SBR-UV), 1 NO2-N(mg/l), (CBR), 0 NH4-N(mg/l), (CBR), 4 NH4-N(mg/l), (BS), 30

NO2-N(mg/l), (SBR), 3 NH4-N(mg/l), (BA), 65

NH4-N(mg/l), RAW, 65

NH4-N(mg/l), (SBR-UV), 60 NH4-N(mg/l), (SBR), 31

NO3-N(mg/l), (CBR), 48

NO3-N(mg/l), (BS), 29

NO3-N(mg/l), RAW, 0

NO3-N(mg/l), (BA), 1

NO3-N(mg/l), (SBR), 8 NO3-N(mg/l), (SBR-UV), 1

Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies for Appropriate … Fig. 12 Removal of TSS for all pilot plants et al. Fuhies site

149

TSS mg/l in outlet of WWTPs at Al Fuhies Site 450 400

TSS mg/l

350 300

TSS IN/mg.l

250

TSS Out/ mg.l

200

Reuse Jordan standard

150 100 50 0 wetland 1

Table 2 Quality of effluents from four treatment plants (Jordan Water Authority (JWA) 2019)

Effluent source

wetland 2

SPR 1

SBR 2

S.T 1

S.T 2

Parameters TSS

T-N

Cl

Na

HCO3

E. coli (MPN/100 ml)

(mg/l) WWTP 1

113

79

285

193

651

1.7  104

WWTP 2

207

158

271

226

997

3.3  106

WWTP 3

24

51

248

156

467

1.2  105

WWTP 4

71

48

464

277

577

4.3  103

Ref. limits

JS 893/2006 (discharge-to-wadi limits) 400

103

60

test results for some parameters (as average) for treated effluent from four treatment plants which do not fully realize its requirements, namely Irbid (WWTP 1), Kufranja (WWTP 2), Al-Salt (WWTP 3), and Jerash (WWTP 4) in comparison with the JS 893/2006 standard.

4

Conclusion(s)

Several parameters were analyzed during the study period in order to investigate the performance of the mentioned decentralized units. On average, the removal efficiency for BOD, COD, TSS, NH4+, and TP were 98.8%, 98.2%, 87%, and 98%, respectively. This shows high removals of target pollutions. Therefore, effluent quality from the pilot plants is accepted for reuse according to JS 893/2006 excluding the septic tanks technologies because of E. coli. The study reports the growth of E. coli in tow septic tanks under typical weather in Jordan. It was recommended that septic tanks technology can be combined with other technologies to improve E. coli reduction to meet the JS 893/2006. On the other hand, the study shows the enhancing of high E. coli reduction for all other pilots at Fuhies in addition to achieving good treatment efficiency concerning the physical,

70

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chemical, and biological treatment. Innovations in the pilot plants at Fuhies enable Al Balqa Applied University to use the site as a research/training center to support the decision makers in the national strategy and framework for decentralized wastewater management in Jordan. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the water laboratory of al Balqa Applied University and Master Students at the agriculture department for their efforts during the field and laboratory work. Also many thanks to the SMART project at Fuhies location (funded by UFZ-Germany) for providing on-site laboratory and material support for physicochemical and biological wastewater analysis.

References E. Friedler, N.I. Galil, Domestic greywater characterization and its implication on treatment and reuse potential. Chapter 7, 535–544 (2003) Jordanian Institute of Standards and Metrology JISM, Jordanian Standards and Guidelines for Reuse in Irrigation in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman, July 2006 S.C. Jhansi, S.K. Mishra, Wastewater treatment and reuse: sustainability options, Cons.: J. Sustain. Dev. 10(1), 1–15 (2013) Jordan Water Authority WAJ, Decentralized wastewater management in Jordan. Annual report, Dec 2019

150 G. Libralato, A.V. Ghirardini, F. Avezzù, an overview of the most recent trends in wastewater treatment management, centralize or decentralize. J. Environ. Manage. 94(1), 61–68 (2012) Ministry of Water and Irrigation MWI, National Water Strategy of Jordan, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Dec 1918 Ministry of Water and Irrigation MWI, Decentralized Wastewater Management Policy DWWM Policy, National Water Strategy of Jordan, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 2019 M. Mohsen, Water strategies and potential of desalination in Jordan. Desalination 203(1–3), 27–46 (2007) R.A. Mueller, Technologies—managing wastewater for reuse. SMART IWRM: Integrated Water Resource Management at the Lower Jordan Valley, Chapter 5, Project Report Phase 1, L. Wolf and H. Hoetzl, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing, 2011, pp. 136–159

N. Shareef N. Shareef, Training tools in decentralized wastewater treatment. Al Balqa Applied University, Jordan, Oct 2016 N. Shareef, Waste Management in the MENA region Book, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, ISBN: 9783030183493, Chapter 15, July 2019, pp. 295–312 World Health Organization, WHO, Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater excreta and greywater, vol. 1. World Health Organization, Dec 2006 L. Wolf, H. Hoetzl, SMART—IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management at the Lower Jordan Valley, Project Report Phase 1, Karlsruhe, KIT Scientific Publishing, 2011 J. Zhao, W. Liu, H. Deng, The potential role of virtual water in solving water scarcity and food security problems in China. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 12(4), 419–428 (2005)

WATER: Advances in Desalination

Study of Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Processes of Seawater by Laâyoune Desalination Plant Under Desert Climate Southern Morocco Ifakkou El Ismaili, Mohamed Najy, Isslam Belhaili, Ayoub El Atmani, Khadija El Kharrim, and Driss Belghyti

Abstract

1

The Laâyoune desalination plant was installed in 1995 to solve the problem of supplying drinking water and to avoid the exploitation of small and traditional reservoirs (Matfias) which are subject to pollution. This desalination plant is characterized by the application of reverse osmosis process of seawater to produce drinking water with acceptable quality. The physicochemical analysis were carried out in the laboratory of the desalination plant and regional laboratory of Laâyoune during the years 2016–2017, with the aim of monitoring the quality of desalinated water in accordance with the standards in force. These analyzes show that the average values of T°, pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, TAC, Ca2+, TH, SO42−, Cl− and the boron of the seawater are, respectively, of the order (21.61 ± 0.37); (7.98 ± 1.36); (0.61 ± 0.48) NTU; (1035.14 ± 108.79) lS/cm; (0.53 ± 0.23)meq/l; (6.07 ± 2.33) mg/L; TH (0.46 ± 0.13) mg/L; (2.31 ± 0.18) mg/L; (364 ± 12.39) mg/L and (2.21 ± 0.18) mg/L. The obtained results are in accordance with the Moroccan and WHO standards with the exception of Bore (2 mg/l) which exceeds the values required by the standards (0.3 mg/l for the Moroccan standard and 0.5 mg/l for the WHO). Keywords











Desalination Atlantic Seawater Reverse osmosis Drinking water Quality Laâyoune Morocco

I. E. Ismaili
M. Najy
I. Belhaili
A. E. Atmani
K. E. Kharrim
D. Belghyti (&) Laboratory of Agro-Physiology, Biotechnology, Environment and Quality, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University IbnTofail, BP133, 14000 Kenitra, Morocco




Introduction

Today, countries are facing a water shortage due to the lack or insufficiency of fresh water resources, climatic aridity and demographic growth, especially at the coastline where more than 40% of the total population live within 100 km of coastline (Castaing 2011; Salomon 2002). However, the production of drinking water, in sufficient quantity and quality, constitutes one of the major (primordial) concerns for human beings (Lebleu 2007). Faced with these serious shortages, Morocco has envisaged numerous strategies for the diversification of drinking water sources. In particular, the desalination of seawater has become a necessity at both national and international levels. Water is considered potable when it is free from chemical and biological elements likely to harm human health and when it complies with the standards in force. Consequently, the implementation of specific treatments is necessary in order to meet the regulatory requirements established by public health organizations (Lebleu 2007). In 2008, the amount of fresh water produced was around 60 million m3 every day by 17,000 installations in 120 countries in coastal areas. This represents only 1% of the water consumed on our planet. At the current rate of population growth, this quantity could reach more than 120 million m3/d in 2025 (Salomon 2002) with a production close to 400 million m3/year by 2030. Desalination processes are mainly derived from two technologies: thermal processes and membrane processes. Ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes are porous with a pore diameter of 50 and 5000 nm, respectively (Judd 2010). However, they allow the production of seawater free of microalgae without modifying the salinity (Castaing 2011), in contrast to dense membranes for nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) with a pore diameter between 2 and 50 nm (Judd 2010). Reverse osmosis membranes eliminate divalent and monovalent ions

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_18

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such as sodium chloride by applying a pressure gradient greater than its osmotic pressure (Alex 2017). Thus, the water flows in the opposite direction of the natural flow through the membrane, leaving the dissolved salts behind with an increase in the salt concentration (Dach 2008) which causes the separation between a fraction of pure water and a concentrated fraction. To this end, the pressure required for separation is estimated to be around 20 bars for brackish water. Most RO membranes are composite thin film membranes and the membranes are generally configured as spiral wound modules. The salt rejection rate can reach up to 99% under certain conditions. About 50% of desalination plants are reverse osmosis worldwide. The objective of this study is to both assess the physicochemical and metallic quality of raw and desalted seawater by reverse osmosis intended for human consumption and contribute to the optimization of its quality.

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Geographic Laâyoune Desalination Plant The Laâyoune desalination plant is located at the entrance of the center of IS Marsa about 25 km from Laâyoune city (Fig. 1). It started its operations in 1995, with a capacity of 7000 m3/d, and in 2005, its capacity increased to 13,000 m3/d.

Fig. 1 Geographic location of the study area

Today, the plant richness capacity, at 26,000 m3/d (Elismaili et al.), is supplied by water from the Atlantic Ocean which comes from sixteen coastal wells with an average depth of 20 m, equipped with centrifugal pumps (4 submerged pumps and 5 shaft line pumps). These submerged pumps pump water with an average unit flow of 38 l/s and a pressure of 2 bars to two tanks (1500 m3-1600 m3) (Fig. 2). Seven freshwater wells (Fig. 1) are pumping water to the reservoir of the Carrefour recovery station, at a flow rate of up to 70 l/s. Two brackish water boreholes near the Carrefour reservoir (Fig. 1) for a flow rate of 31 l/s (15 + 16 l/s) also are pumping back to the reservoir at the crossroad recovery station. The five main stages of the desalination plant process are illustrated in (Fig. 3) (Zidouri 2000). The seawater to be treated is first pretreated by chlorination with sodium hypochlorite, then the addition of coagulant (aluminum salts) followed by a flocculant is carried out in order to neutralize and agglomerate the particles in suspension in the form of flocs (Najy et al. 2019a, 2019b) and allow their decantation in a lamellar decanter. Decanted water passes through the sand filters to remove suspended particles. Residual chlorine is removed by sodium bisulfite dechlorination, thereby protecting microfilters, high pressure pumps and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. In order to avoid precipitation of the salts on the surfaces of the membranes, an injection of hydrochloric acid is carried out.

Fig. 2 Pumps immersed 20 m deep

Study of Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Processes …

155

Fig. 3 Seawater treatment process at Laâyoune station (Zidouri 2000)

The acidified water undergoes a prefiltration on microfiltration with a cartridge of 5 lm in order to retain the colloidal particles. The pretreated water arrives at the reverse osmosis system to reduce the salinity of the water. The last step in the treatment chain includes disinfection with chlorine and correction of the pH.

2.2 Laâyoune Desalination Plant 2.2.1 Osmosis Systems • Train TP N°5 This train includes 65 TPs; each one contains 7 polyamide membranes (module) of the “spiral” type and of the “Hydranautics” brand. These pressure TPs are arranged in 8 rows of 8 TPs and a single row of two TPs (i.e., 8  8 + 1). For the configuration of each train, the TP of a train will be mounted in parallel and in a single stage with 7 membranes/tube.

Fig. 4 New station train (2010)

• Lasted Train This train ensures a flow rate of the order of 326 m3/h (or 247,824 m3/d) of desalinated water at a conversion rate of 50%, which will include 105 pressure tubes (PT). Each of these PTs will contain 7 spiral membranes (or elements) of the “hydranautics” brand. To ensure the above-mentioned production, this train will be independent of train n° 5 and directly supplied by a flow rate of 652 m3/h of seawater pumped in from the raw water tank via pumping, sand filters and microfilters (Fig. 4). The new desalination plant (NDP) includes two trains or reverse osmosis units, each of which consists of 72 TPs (agencies in 12  6) or 144 TP for the two trains. Each TP contains 7 membranes (module) in polyamide composite of the “spiral” type and of the “Filmtec” brand. The model for these membranes is the SW30XLE-400i. Once the pressure drop threshold has been reached due to clogging of the TP membranes, or if the conductivity of the desalinated water exceeds the set value, the operator proceeds to chemical cleaning of the entire train (of the 72 TPs) with the reagent solution recommended by Filmtec (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Trains of the new Station 2010

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2.2.2 Re-mineralization Station The re-mineralization of desalinated water is ensured by injection of lime so that it is brought back to its calcium-bicarbonate equilibrium (to be neither aggressive with respect to limestone nor not corrosive with respect to metals). This reagent is produced by a lime saturator which is only a decanter intended to produce limpid saturated lime water from a mixture of clear osmosis water and lime milk from the solubility of the flower of soft lime in the dilution tank. The only correction of the quality of desalinated water is the increase of its pH by injection of soda. The use of the latter reagent probably reduces the aggressive and corrosive nature of desalinated water but does not bring it back to its calco-carbonic equilibrium. • In order for it to be balanced, desalinated and re-mineralized water must have the following parameters: hardness (TH) > 8°f • Total alkalinity titration (TAC) > 1.6 méq/l • 8 < pH < 8.5 • −0.2 < Is < 0.2 (Is: Langelier saturation index). Re-mineralization acts mainly on alkali metric titration (TA) and total alkalinity titration (TAC) and also on CO2 which combines with water to form carbonic acid H2CO3, which is the essential agent of the aggressiveness of water.

3

Results

The results of the physicochemical analysis of raw water and treated water carried out in the old desalination plant in Laâyoune during the year (2016) are presented in Tables 1, 2 and figures below. Measuring pH is an important consideration in determining the corrosive action of water and evaluating water treatment practices in industrial processes. The pH of natural waters is linked to the nature of the land crossed. It usually varies between 4.5 and 8.3. The results illustrated in Fig. 6 show that the pH at the entrance Table 1 Characteristics of the feed water

of the station varies between 7.24 and 7.67, and as for the output, it varies between 6.5 and 7.65. These values tell us that the treated water complies with the quality standards for water intended for human consumption.

3.1 Hydrometric Titer The hydrometric title indicates the overall content of water in calcium salts Ca2+ and magnesium Mg2+ which make the water “hard” (encrusting salts). According to the obtained results, it is noted that the water quality is hard but remains compliant with the standards. This hardness is linked to the nature of the ground crossed by the water, whether limestone or gypsum may present a risk of scaling of the pipes (Fig. 7).

3.2 Alkali Metric Titer (TAC) From the results illustrated in Fig. 8, we note that the values obtained for parameters (TA, TAC) on the different samples of process water comply with the standards set by the company. The raw water TAC during our study (2016) varies between a minimum of 2.3 meq/l and a maximum of 2.95 meq/l with an average 2.72 meq/l (Fig. 8). On the other hand, the TAC of the treated water is characterized by values between a minimum of 0.6 meq/l and a maximum of 1.4 meq/l with an average of about 0.96 meq/l. The obtained values are generally stable and lower than the maximum admissible value which is around 50 meq/l.

3.3 Turbidity It characterizes the clarity of water or its opalescence by the Tyndall effect. It expresses the amount of suspended solids (microorganisms, algae, and organic macromolecules) that are at the origin of the water disturbance (Najy et al. 1980).

Parameters

Standards French

Moroccan

WHO

T C°

25

25

25

pH

6.5–8.5

6.5–8.5

6.5–8.5

EC(µs/cm)

2500

2700

2500

Turbidity (NTU)

5

5

5

TH (°f)

50

250

50

SO42−

250

400

250

Cl− mg/l

mg/l

250

750

250

Boron mg/l

0.5

0.3

0.5

Study of Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Processes … Table 2 Physicochemical characterization of the raw water from the old Laâyoune desalination plant during the year 2016

157

Ca2+ (mg/l)

pH

Tur (NTU)

CE (µS/cm)

TAC (méq/l)

TH (°f)

SO42− (mg/l)

Boron (mg/l)

Cl− (mg/l)

May

520

7.32

0.35

47,400

2.8

720

2875

5.97

20,800

Jun

540

7.22

0.32

47,185,71

2.84

710

2769

5.96

20,200

July

560

7.25

0.25

46,875

2.95

660

2833

4.61

21,600

Aug

520

7.31

0.36

46,600

2.8

700

2769

5.43

21,700

Sept

540

7.66

0.56

51,500

2.3

700

2812

4.16

20,945

Oct

520

7.32

0.26

46,000

2.8

660

2846

5.2

21,300

Nov

540

7.4

0.31

45,300

2.7

720

2796

5.23

20,945

Dec

520

7.33

0.49

47,000

2.6

680

2875

5.11

20,768

raw water treated water

raw water treated water

7,7

3,0

7,6

2,5

TAC (mg/l)

7,5

pH

7,4 7,3 7,2

1,5 1,0

7,1 7,0 6,9

2,0

0,5 May

Jun

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

May Jun

July

Aug

Sept Oct

Nov

Dec

Dec

Fig. 8 Monthly variation of TAC Fig. 6 Monthly variation of the pH of raw and desalinated water

raw water treated water

800

raw water treated water

2,5

700 2,0

600

Tur (NTU)

TH (F)

500 400 300

1,5

1,0

200 0,5

100 0 May

Jun

July

Aug

Sept Oct

Nov

Dec

0,0

May

Jun

July

Aug

Sept Oct

Nov

Dec

Fig. 7 Monthly variation monthly of the HT of raw and desalinated water

Fig. 9 Monthly variation of Turbidity

The turbidity of raw water is generally characterized by acceptable values. It varies between a minimum of 0.25 NTU and a maximum of 0.56 NTU with an average of 0.36 NTU.

As for the treated water, it varies between 0.28 NTU and 0.54 NTU. These values remain in conformity with the maximum admissible values which is around 5 NTU (Fig. 9).

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3.4 Sulfate (SO42−)

raw water treated water

22000 20000 18000 16000

Cl (mg/l)

The results of the descriptive analysis show that the monthly concentrations of SO42− at entry fluctuate between 2769 mg/l and 2875.88 mg/l, with an average of 2821.88 mg/l (Fig. 10). Thus, the contents at the outlet are between 2.4 mg/l and 5.30 mg/l, with an average of 192.7 mg/l. The difference between the values in SO42−, at the inlet and at the outlet via the desalination processes which constitute the treatment station, tell us about the abatement rate which reaches 53.85%. On the other hand, these recorded values of SO42− at the exit comply with the specific limits for human consumption.

14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 May

Jun

July

Aug Sept Oct

Nov

Dec

Fig. 11 Monthly variation of Cl−

3.5 Chloride

3.6 Electrical Conductivity (CE)

raw water treated water

55000 50000 45000 40000

EC (5S/cm)

From the obtained results, it can be seen that the chloride contents at the entrance to the unit exceed the required standard (99%, and all chemicals were used as received.

The Malvern Zeta Sizer Nano ZS was used to measure the stability and size distribution profile of the oil droplets. The equilibration time was set to ten seconds at room temperature, and fifty measurements were recorded over five runs. Thirty measurements were consecutively recorded before the sealed cuvette was shaken. Afterward, the remaining results were immediately recorded and the sample was undisturbed for ten minutes.

2.2 Methods

2. Surface Wettability and Morphology

2.2.1 HD-SDS-W Emulsion Preparation 125 mg SDS diluted in 250 mL of deionized water was added to 250 ppm HD. The emulsion was prepared by sonication (Fisher brand Sonicator) with a half-inch probe. The amplitude was set to 90%, and the processing time was 2 min with pulse on-off alternating times of 30 s and 5 s, respectively. Only the tip of the probe was immersed to reduce oil droplets forming on the surface. The emulsion was left to settle for 20–30 min to reduce volume expansion.

Before and after filtration, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM, Hitachi TM3030 Plus) and KSV Pendant Drop Contact Angle (LOT-Quantum Design) were used to characterize water contact angles (WCA) and GO coatings. WCA was measured in 3 different locations on the surface of the modified and unmodified membranes, similar to McCoy et al. (2019).

2.2.2 GO Membrane Modification 0.01 mg/mL GO solution was prepared by dissolving 0.5 mL GO solution (10 mg/ml) obtained from William Blythe in 499.5 mL deionized water. Next, GO solutions were homogenized in an ultrasonic bath for one hour. GO thicknesses of 7.5 nm, 15 nm and 30 nm were used to coat on 0.22 µm hydrophilic PVDF membranes, according to G2O Water Technologies Ltd. Patent Technology No. WO2019106344A1. The modified membranes were dried for one hour in a non-vacuum glass desiccator with active orange silica gel. 2.2.3 Membrane Operation Microfiltration experiments were carried out in a 47 mm dead-end cell with an active permeation area of 12.6 cm2 at a constant transmembrane pressure of 1 bar. The emulsion was poured into the assembled batch system and was placed at the center of a magnetic stirring plate, with medium stirring speed. After 120 min elapsed, 6 mL filtrate samples were collected at the midpoint of 50 mL falcon tubes. The experiments were repeated three times on random dates to prevent bias; and the permeate flux (J) was measured according to:     L Volume J 2 ¼ ð1Þ m h Areaeffective  time

3. HD Rejection The oil rejection was approximated by equation two and a calibration curve formed on the Attenuated Total Reflectance Infrared Spectrum (ATR-FTIR, Perkin Elmer Spectrum). HD was clearly defined at 2925 cm−1 on the ATR-FTIR spectra. Thus, due to the diluted concentration of HD in the emulsion (0.0011 M < 0.01 M), the Beer–Lambert Equation was applied to quantify HD removal. At a constant wavelength of 2925 cm−1, the concentration versus absorbance plot, yielded a linear regression line y = −5254.1x + 250.49 with R2 = 0.9196.   COilContentPermeate ðppmÞ Rð % Þ ¼ 1   100% ð2Þ COilContentFeed ðppmÞ

3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Emulsion Characterization The size distribution profile of the HD-SDS-W emulsion is shown in Fig. 1, which ranges between 122 and 342 nm with a Z-average (d50.nm) of 190.1 nm. Similar to the studies conducted by Tanis-Kanbur et al. (2018) and Tummons et al. (2016), HD droplets are stabilized by SDS in the emulsion coalesce during the experiment. It is signified in the expansion of the two short peaks from 3 to 38 and a slight shift to the right. However, five of the seven curves

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Fig. 1 Size distribution profile of HD-SDS-W emulsion

overlapped precisely despite disturbing the emulsion, which is an indication of stability. While operating in dead-end mode with no backwashing, it is expected that the membranes would foul due to HD coalescence, which is non-ideal for experiments. Nevertheless, this simulated a worst-case scenario and provided industrial relevance for commercial upscale.

3.2 Surface Wettability WCA signifies the presence of GO on the surface, and the results are summarized in Table 1. With increasing thickness of GO coating, the recorded WCA of 15 nm and 30 nm GO-PVDF decreased by 8° and 15.5°, respectively, suggesting that the GO layers were compacted below the membrane surface. Hence, the hydrophilic property of the membrane improved. In comparison, the WCA of the 7.5 nm GO-PVDF membrane increased by 28.6°. However, the membranes exhibited hydrophilic properties (WCA < 90°) after filtration, the measurements of the uncoated and 15 nm GO-coated PVDF membranes increased by 3.3° and 5.5°, respectively, after filtration. In contrast, the WCA decreased by 34.3° and 8.4° for the thinnest and thickest coatings, respectively. Except for the 7.5 nm GO-PVDF-coated membrane, the contact angle measurements of the modified and unmodified membranes demonstrated hydrophilic properties. A reduction in wettability may be due to the inhomogeneity of the produced GO nanosheet, which alters the surface topology. It may crumble or wrinkle and create a defect that alters the gross chemical functionality and, hence, hydrophilicity (Xu et al. 2018).

Table 1 The performance of the modified membranes (nm) in comparison to the unmodified membranes in terms of wettability (°) and oil rejection (%)

Thus, GO reduces the hydrogen bond interactions between oxidized groups and water molecules (McClements and Jafari 2018). On their basal planes, hydrophobic areas underwent hydrophobic interactions resulting in a water contact angle of 91°. The sodium ions embedded within the interlayer spacing were generated from 1.7 mM anhydrous negatively charged SDS surfactant. A 7.5 nm GO coating similar to the 7.5 nm GO-PVDF membrane, was applied to a PES membrane. After filtration, an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) confirmed the presence of sodium ions attributed to the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of SDS and the autocatalysis of the dodecane tail. The CMC was below 8.3 mM, and the molar Gibbs energy of micellization was significantly negative such that Na+ dissociated into the bulk phase (Dickhout et al. 2018). Whereas, the autocatalysis of the dodecane tail produced minute amounts of dodecanol in the solution (Bethell et al. 2001; Dickhout et al. 2019). After filtration, the surface wettability decreased because the unmodified and 15 nm GO modified PVDF membranes experienced membrane fouling (more details in the Membrane Fouling section). The improvement in wettability was due to the increased oxygen content, as referenced in Dickhout et al. (2019) and Wei et al. (2014). This increase is further explained in the next subsection.

3.3 Unwetted 7.5 nm GO-PVDF Membrane Surface Chemistry Only one 7.5 nm GO-PVDF membrane was unwetted to determine if wetting GO with deionized water was a significant step before filtration. Cracking and corrosion

Membrane thickness

Uncoated

7.5

15

30

Contact angle before filtration

62.4

91.0

54.4

46.9

Contact angle after filtration

65.7

56.7

59.9

38.5

Oil rejection

64.0

73.0

56.3

65.4

Emulsion Transport Through Graphene Oxide Modified …

177

Fig. 2 Comparison of the images of filtered 7.5 nm GO-PVDF membrane after a) filtration, b) drying for one hour and c) left in storage for 16 h

occurred on the surface of the modified wetted and unwetted membranes, which was unexpected. It was more apparent on the unwetted membrane and Fig. 2a–c. After 16 h in storage, the membrane changed from opaque and white to colorless and transparent. The cracks are more detectable in Fig. 2c. Directly following filtration, it was observed that HD creamed on the surface, which was expected in dead-end mode. Nonetheless, as the best performing modified membrane, it demonstrated the antifouling properties of GO after drying for one hour in the desiccator, although subliminal cracks were formed in the center. Conversely, a visible translucent dot formed on the center and at the cracks of the circumference of the 40 mm coating. Overnight, the entire membrane turned colorless. This phenomenon is attributed to the chemistry and acidic properties of GO. By C-C cleavage and deprotonation of a hydroxyl group, the epoxide ring was opened and partially or fully oxidized from dodecanol to either dodecanone (a ketone) or dodecanoic acid (a saturated fatty acid). Besides the transparent dot along the center of the coating, the level of oxidation did not occur among other membranes. This is primarily because each water molecule needs time to penetrate through the microstructure of GO, and sodium ions may have expedited the chain of chemical reactions. When the membrane was placed in the SEM, the oxidized membrane was reduced, and the color was restored. The proposed chemical reaction further supports the claims made in Iakunkov et al. (2019) and Dimiev et al. (2012), and should account for the increase in the oxygen content in Sect. 3.2. With a time constraint and the aim of this paper in mind, the proposed mechanism remains an assumption. Further surface characterization studies should be performed by ATR-FTIR or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to confirm this hypothesis.

3.4 Membrane Fouling The graphene oxide-nanosheets-inhomogeneity characterized the surface of the membrane in Fig. 3a. GO flakes were densely coated at the center and a few agglomerated toward

the left. At the same time, black regions on the right side remained uncoated. Figure 3b, c illustrates the impact of anhydrous SDS and HD on the filtered 7.5 nm GO-coated PVDF membrane. Sodium ions dissociated from the 4.11 µm free-floating SDS and light gray oil droplets ranging from 1.07 to 3.82 µm deposited on the surface. An agglomeration of gray droplets is observed in Fig. 3b within the intersection of the 1.07 µm, 2.86 µm and 3.82 µm HD droplets. In Fig. 3c, they were embedded within the randomly interconnected pores of the membrane. The spongy structures’ perimeter was highlighted with luminous white, indicating that a single coating graphene oxide had prevented membrane fouling. The increase in surface tension may be attributed to two factors. First, with the dissociation of sodium ions, dodecanol formed. Consequently, HD became positively charged and the electrostatic repulsions between the dodecane tail and HD droplet decreased. Thus, membrane fouling occurred due to the attractive forces between HD and a negatively charged hydrophilic membrane, which is analogous with the results shown in Fux and Ramon (2017). In contrast to the results found by Sun et al. (2012) and Sun et al. (2014), sodium and sulfate ions (SDS constituents) were not detected at 2960–2880 cm−1 and 1110 cm−1 in the ATR-FTIR. Thus, it may be inferred that they have not permeated. It is also unlikely that they interacted with the oxygenated groups. Based on the concentration impact and potential zeta studies on GO by sodium ions performed by Baskoro et al. (2018), only a concentration 99%); despite that, there are few drawbacks which need to be addressed in order to reduce the footprint of desalination industry. The main drawbacks encountered in TFC PA RO membranes desalination are: susceptibility to chlorine attack, membrane fouling and low water permeability. Chesters et al. (2017) conducted an autopsy study of seawater RO membranes which failed at seawater RO desalination plants. A breakdown of the main reasons behind the membrane failure shows that the two main causes are: biofouling and oxidation by 28% and 18%, respectively. Biofouling and oxidation are interlinked as trying to solve one problem will result in worsening the other one. Chlorine attack is one form of membrane oxidation at which chlorine

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_25

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alters the physicochemical properties of the membrane and reduces its performance. It was reported that TFC RO membranes show significant drop in their performance after their exposure to 1000 ppm h of chlorine (Gohil and Suresh 2017). At low level of chlorine degradation, two of the most important properties of the membranes, elasticity and permeability, are affected, whereas at high level of exposure, some membrane material were reported to be lost and observable cracks were formed. This resulted in significantly dropping performance of the membrane such salt rejection below 90%. Hence, in desalination and water treatment industry, chlorine must be removed from water just before RO desalination. Normally, chlorine and chloramine are added to feed water to disinfect it and the removal of chlorine from water (to protect the membrane from chlorine attack) will neutralize the disinfection effect just when its needed the most and increase the activity and presence of microorganisms on top of the membrane surface which leads to both reversible and irreversible membrane biofouling. Biofouling can be explained as the adhesion of microorganisms and their proliferation on the surface of the membrane which results in the formation of biofilm that causes adverse effect on its performance (Al Ashhab et al. 2017). Membrane biofouling cost desalination plants tremendous amounts of money annually and causes production interruption during the membrane replacement. Before membrane failure due to biofouling, membranes performance gradual drop in their product flux which further reduces the rated production flux of RO membranes. Hence, the development of novel high performance TFC RO membranes with enhanced chlorine resistance and superior fouling resistance is highly desirable for the sake of reducing the environmental and economic footprint of desalination. Such membranes will lower the rate of membrane replacement by 10–30%, drop the pretreatment cost, increase the overall productivity of the process and reduce the water cost (Gohil and Suresh 2017). In order to do that, the addition of various additives during the interfacial polymerization process of polyamide TFC membranes was broadly cited in literature (Farahbakhsh et al. 2017; Inukai et al. 2015; Chan et al. 2016; Li et al. 2017; Song et al. 2020; Wanga et al. 2017). For example, Inukai et al. (2015) and Farahbakhsh et al. (2017) prepared novel TFC PA RO membranes by incorporation with CNTs. The modified membranes showed salt rejection of about 90% with water flux around 70.8 l/m2 h when tested with 3.5% NaCl solution after being exposed to 200 ppm chlorine solution for 24 h. Similarly, Kim et al. (Liu et al. 2020) used graphene oxide coated tannic acid to enhance the chlorine resistance of PA RO membranes. The modified membrane exhibited higher salt rejection (about

Y. Manawi et al.

90%) when compared with bare membranes (salt rejection of 25%) after being exposed to 35,000 ppm h of chlorine. Despite their advantages, the use of nanomaterials in freshwater production for human consumption has always been a health concern due to the toxicity of such materials and the possibility of reaching into human body by leaching from the membrane. Hence, there is a need to enhance the membrane properties by the incorporation of safe additives that will not pose any risk on human during the desalination process. Therefore, the aim of this work is to incorporate acacia gum into the preparation process (interfacial polymerization) of TFC PA RO membranes for the sake of enhancing its properties and performance. Acacia gum (AG) is the natural gum that is obtained from hardened sap of some acacia trees (Li et al. 2020). AG is an amphiphilic gum that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends. The hydrophilic part of the gum is attributed to the presence of polysaccharides, while the hydrophobic part is attributed to the existence of proteins in the gum. As a result of that, AG has been widely used in various applications in industry for a long time. Known as E414, AG is currently utilized in food industry as an edible stabilizer/emulsifier/ surfactant due to its high solubility, non-toxicity, containment of high emulsifying properties and wide availability (Seyyed Shahabi et al. 2020). The above-mentioned amphiphilic nature of AG is accountable for the employment of AG to stabilize oil droplets in water by the attachment of the hydrophobic part in AG with the hydrophobic part in the oil droplet. AG was tested in the membrane fabrication field when added to the dope solution of PES before the casting of PES membranes by phase inversion method (Feng et al. 2020). The PES/AG membranes were found to be more hydrophilic, bore high negative surface charge and demonstrated greater fouling resistance. Unlike the previous study on the PES membranes (Feng et al. 2020), in the present work, the novel additive, AG, will be added to the skin layer of the TFC RO membrane prior to the interfacial polymerization process taking place on top of the microporous support. A full investigation on the impact of the incorporation of AG on the properties of the fabricated TFC PA RO membranes (hydrophilicity, surface charge, fouling and chlorine resistance) and performance (filtration of synthetic NaCl solutions and seawater) will be investigated here.

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials The following chemicals were used for synthesis and testing of PA/AG membranes:

Novel Thin Film Composite Polyamide Membrane Incorporated … Chemical name

Supplier

Sodium alginate

Sigma Aldrich (USA)

N-hexane

Sigma Aldrich (USA)

Sodium hypochlorite

Merck (Germany)

1,3 phenylenediamine (MPD)

Merck (Germany)

1,3,5- Benzentricarboxylic acid chloride (TMC)

Acros (Germany)

The microporous support of the TFC PA RO membranes was purchased from SEPRO Membranes (USA) which is labeled with polysulfone ultrafiltration membrane (PS-20 UF) that has a 20 kilo Dalton molecular weight cut-off. Additionally, the filtration performance of the synthesized PA/AG membranes was compared with 2 commercial TFC RO membranes, namely SW30HR from Dow and AD Osmonics membranes.

2.2 Methods The experimental preparation technique of the TFC PA RO membrane followed in this work is depicted in Fig. 1.

2.3 Characterization of the Membranes 2.3.1 Surface Topography and Porous Structure of the Membranes The morphology and surface structure of the prepared membranes were studied via field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) from Gemini. FESEM was used to characterize the top surface of the membranes in addition Fig. 1 The experimental preparation of the TFC PA/AG membranes

211

to the membrane’s cross section by breaking the membrane after dipping in liquid nitrogen for couple of minutes.

2.3.2 Hydrophilicity of the Membranes The surface hydrophilicity of the prepared membranes was characterized by figuring out the water contact angle with the membrane surface using the standard contact angle goniometer from Ramé-hart (USA). 2.3.3 Surface Charge of the Membranes The surface charge of the membrane surface was characterized by determining the zeta potential value of the membranes using the electro kinetic analyzer Sur Pass 3 from Anton Paar KG. In addition to the neutral pH values, the electro kinetic analyser was also used to estimate the zeta potential at acidic/basic conditions by adjusting the solution’s pH value by the addition of HCl and NaOH. 2.3.4 Filtration Experiments of Membranes The filtration tests of the membranes were conducted using the dead-end stainless steel filtration cell from Sterlitech (USA) which was run by a source of compressed gas (nitrogen). The cross section area of the membranes was 14.6 cm2. The flux (J) in liter per meter squared per hour (LMH) was estimated as shown below: J¼

V A:t

ð1Þ

where V is permeate volume, A is membrane’s crosssectional area and t is filtration time. The salt rejection experiments were carried out both with NaCl model solutions and real seawater. NaCl solutions of

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2000 ppm concentration and pH of 6.5 were filtered at a transmembrane pressure of 15 bars using the Sterlitech cell. The same cell was used to filtrate real seawater at salinity level of 45,000 ppm, pH of 8 and at 54 bars pressure. Seawater desalination tests were conducted for 48 h. The degree of recovery of permeate was estimated at about 60%. After the end of each desalination experiments, the membranes must be washed with deionized water (DW) for 15 min prior to the start of the next filtration test. Equation (2) is used to estimate the salt rejection (R) of the membranes:   cp Rð%Þ ¼ 1   100 ð2Þ Cf

difference in membrane properties such as salt rejection/ permeability of the membrane was then calculated using Eq. (4):   SRf  SRi SRDð%Þ ¼  100 ð4Þ SRi

where SRf and SRi stands for the salt rejection/permeability after and before the chlorine exposure, respectively.

3

Results and Discussions

3.1 Surface Topography and Porous Structure of the Membranes where Cf and Cp: salt concentration in feed and permeate solutions, respectively. The concentration of NaCl in the feed and permeate solutions was estimated using a laboratory conductivity meter probe.

2.3.5 Fouling Experiments of Membranes The fouling resistance and antifouling behavior of the membranes were evaluated by calculating the normalized flux after filtering 100 ppm sodium alginate solutions at 15 bars pressure of. With the aim of carrying out the fouling experiments, membranes were first filtered with pure water for 15 min and the corresponding flux was calculated (Ji). Next, another filtration experiment was conducted by the filtration of sodium alginate solution (100 ppm) for 2 h before rinsing the membranes with DW. Finally, the last filtration experiment was conducted by the filtration of DW for 15 min, and the final water flux (Jf) was calculated. Equation (3) was used to calculate the normalized flux as shown below: Jn ¼

Jf Ji

ð3Þ

2.3.6 Chlorine Resistance In this work, chlorine resistance experiments were completed by keeping fabricated membranes in 24,000 ppm h of chlorine. The membranes were immersed in a 1000 ppm NaOCl (or sodium hypochlorite) solution for 24 h. In order to quantify the change in the performance of the membrane after the exposure to chlorine, the permeability in addition to the salt rejection of modified membranes was evaluated before and after the chlorine immersion for 24 h. After the immersion in chlorine solution and just before measuring their corresponding permeability in addition to the salt rejection, the membranes were washed with DW. The

FESEM was used to analyze the top/cross section of the synthesized membranes as well as the commercial membranes. As depicted in Fig. 2, the top view of the membranes showed smooth surfaces with no defects or difference between the fabricated membranes and the commercial ones. Likewise, the cross section image of the modified membranes showed the inner structure of the membranes (upper skin layer and lower microporous support layer).

a

b

0.1 wt.% AG

c

Commercial Membrane

0.2 wt.% AG

d

0.1 wt.% AG

Fig. 2 a–c FESEM images showing the top view of the fabricated PA/AG membranes with 0.1 and 0.2 wt% AG in the casting solution along with the tested commercial membrane from AD Osmonic. d FESEM image showing a cross section view of the PA/AG (0.1 wt%) membrane (modified after Manawi 2019)

Novel Thin Film Composite Polyamide Membrane Incorporated …

3.2 Membrane Hydrophilicity The incorporation of the AG during the interfacial polymerization and the formation of the top selective layer was found to enhance the membrane hydrophilicity. This was observed by measuring the water contact angle with membrane surfaces. As depicted in Fig. 3, the introduction of AG to TFC PA RO membranes was observed to lower the water contact angle significantly. All of the modified membranes had contact angles lower than that of the pristine membrane. The water contact angle of the membrane containing 0.07 wt % AG was the lowest with 54° and 45% drop in contact angle when compared to the plain PA membrane. The enhancement in the surface hydrophilicity of the fabricated membranes by the addition of AG is attributed to the presence of polysaccharides (hydrophilic part) and proteins (hydrophobic part) in the additive AG. The hydrophobic part of this amphiphilic material is thought to arrange itself to attach to the hydrophobic part of the PA backbone during the interfacial polymerization process which will force the hydrophilic part of the AG to face the water and hydrophilize the membrane surface. TFC PA RO membranes containing AG concentration higher than 0.07 wt% were found to have reduced surface hydrophilicity because of the possible agglomeration of AG in TMC solution above that loading preventing AG from fully hydrophilizing the membrane surface. The increase in hydrophilicity of the membrane surface will result in reducing the membrane fouling rate by reducing its contact with hydrophobic foulants; hence, increasing its antifouling resistance. The hydrophilization of membranes which are used for water desalination and treatment will enable them to form hydrogen bonds with water and repel the hydrophobic foulants which is reported in literature to lower membrane fouling (Wang et al. 2020).

Fig. 3 Contact angle of TFC PA RO membranes at several AG (wt%) concentrations in casting solutions

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The hydrophilization of the membrane surfaces by the addition of AG was found to be more effective than the addition of some additives. For instance, Li et al. (2017) synthesized hydrophilic TFC PA RO membranes by the addition of 0.01–0.08 wt% of the hydrophilic nanocarbon dots (CDs) into the top polyamide layer. The optimum membrane in terms of properties and performance was found to be that containing 0.02 wt% CDs. The hydrophilicity of that membrane was found to be 63.2°. Similarly, Wanga et al. (2017) synthesized TFC membrane with improved hydrophilicity by the incorporation of 0.004–0.012 wt% modified graphene oxide into the skin layer (polyamide) for the sake of improving its performance. The optimum membrane with lowest contact angle had a contact angle of 55°. Moreover, Song et al. (2020) fabricated a thin film nanocomposite membrane with 0.045, 0.090, 0.135 and 0.180 wt% of the hydrophilic amino-functional mesoporous polymer nanosphere in order to enhance the contact angle and separation performance of the membrane. The membrane with lowest contact angle had a contact angle of 72°.

3.3 Surface Charge Membrane’s surface charge is one of the key properties in the determination of the interaction between the membrane surface and foulants. The surface charge of modified membranes was found to increase along with the rise in the pH value of the medium. For example, the surface charge of PA membrane containing 0.2 wt% AG gradually increased by absolute value from +9.6 to −50.1 mV, when feed pH changed from 3.2 to 8.5, respectively. This can be attributed to the change in the concentration of H+ ions in the membrane surface. Solutions with high pH values (above 7) were prepared by the addition of NaOH solution. This causes the carboxylic groups dissociation and amino groups deprotonation which are present in AG. This will lead to a decrease in its overall charge. This behavior of dissociation of carboxylic groups of AG and its bearing of a negative surface charge at high pH values was observed and reported in literature (Kim et al. 2016). Moreover, the rise in the overall negative charge of the bare membrane along with the pH value of the medium was observed to be in good agreement with the work published in literature (Manawi et al. 2018, 2017; Daoub et al. 2018). Conversely, at acidic conditions, the surface charge values of the modified membranes were positive. In conducting the zeta potential tests at acidic conditions, low pH values (below 7) were created by the addition of HCl solution which dissociates into H+ cations. These cations will help in the protonation process of the amino groups in AG as well as the R–C=O–NH–R functional groups present in PA membranes.

214

3.4 Filtration Experiments The filtration experiments of the fabricated membranes were carried out using the dead-end Sterlitech filtration cell at 15 bars. The water fluxes of the TFC PA RO membranes with DW and with 2000 ppm NaCl solutions are depicted in Fig. 4. As a result of the improvement in the membrane properties (such as surface charge and hydrophilicity), modified membranes incorporated with AG showed larger water flux in comparison with pristine membrane. The improvement in the permeate flux might be related to the increased miscibility between both aqueous and organic phases upon the introduction of amphiphilic surfactant AG during the membrane synthesis. The addition of nanoadditives in the interfacial polymerization step has been reported in literature to play a key role in developing a less cross-linked PA skin layer (Hilal et al. 2004; Niu et al. 2014). Also, the introduction of some nanomaterials during interfacial polymerization of PA layer was found to increase the viscosity of the solution which lowered the diffusivity of phenylenediamine in the TMC/n-hexane phase. A result, a membrane with less cross-linked PA layer was formed. The reason behind the drop in water flux along with the rise in AG loadings beyond 0.07 wt% is due to drop in hydrophilicity of the membrane which was caused by the aggregation of AG above AG loading of 0.07 wt% as explained earlier. Moreover, the addition of AG during the interfacial polymerization of the PA membranes raised pure water flux and permeate flux while filtering 2000 ppm sodium chloride solutions by 120% and 260%, respectively. As seen in Fig. 5, the salt rejection tests have showed that the improvement in the permeability of PA/AG membranes did not practically reduce their salt rejection. Thus, the introduction of AG to TFC PA RO membranes resulted in the enhancement of produced flux while maintaining the salt

Fig. 4 Fluxes of PA/AG membranes with pure water and model solutions (2000 ppm sodium chloride) at a pressure of 15 bars

Y. Manawi et al.

rejection above 96%. This enhancement in membrane performance (flux and rejection) was in accordance with what is reported in literature when nanomaterials were added to TFC RO membrane fabrication process (Bellona et al. 2004; Childress and Elimelech 2000; Bellona and Drewes 2005; Hirose et al. 1996; Kwak et al. 1999).

3.5 Fouling Experiments As discussed above, the antifouling property of the membranes was analyzed by calculating normalized flux by filtering 100 ppm sodium alginate solution based on the permeate flux before and after the filtration. As depicted in Fig. 6, incorporation of AG to TFC PA membrane increased antifouling behavior of membranes by up to 44%. Owing to the improvement in surface charge and hydrophilicity, the interaction of hydrophobic and negatively charged foulants was reduced; hence, the PA/AG membranes exhibited larger water flux after filtration with sodium alginate solutions. These findings were found to be in good agreement with what was reported in literature (Hilal et al. 2004; Niu et al. 2014; Baroña et al. 2013).

3.6 Chlorine Resistance Membranes with high chlorine resistance are highly important for the filtration of water containing chlorine for disinfection purposes. In this work, chlorine resistance experiments were carried out by exposing the prepared membranes to 24,000 ppm h of chlorine. The membranes were immersed in NaOCl solution (1000 ppm) for 24 h. The change in salt rejection as a result of chlorine attack on PA/AG and AD commercial membranes were 1.8% and 3.8%, respectively. PA/AG membranes exhibited superior

Novel Thin Film Composite Polyamide Membrane Incorporated …

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Fig. 5 Salt rejection of TFC PA RO membranes at several AG concentrations while filtering model solutions (2000 ppm sodium chloride) at a pressure of 15 bars

against chlorine attack which extends the lifetime of RO membranes.

3.7 Seawater Filtration

Fig. 6 Fouling test plot showing the normalized flux of TFC PA/AG RO membranes at different AG concentrations. Membranes were tested by dead-end filtration with 100 ppm sodium alginate for 2 h at a pressure of 15 bars (modified after Manawi 2019)

chlorine resistance when compared to commercial AD membranes due to the presence of AG which is thought to play a role in the protective shielding of PA backbone and stop the cleavage of amide bond. Normally, when NaOCl is added to water, it is broken down into its constituting ions Na+ and OCl−. It was found that the exposure of PA to membrane to the oxidizing agent hypochlorite (OCl−) is responsible for formation of carboxylic groups on top of PA membrane surface due to the hydrolysis of amide bonds (C (O)–N) (Jeong et al. 2007). Due to the presence of considerable amount of amide bonds in AG (in its protein chains and polysaccharides) (Seyyed Shahabi et al. 2020; Rajaeian et al. 2013), AG will act as a sacrificial hydrolysis source by exposing its amide bonds to the free hypochlorite ions in water plummeting the effect of chlorine on structure of PA membranes; hence, reducing the change in its salt rejection. This chlorine resistance can also be attributed to the increase in the viscosity of TMC solution at high AG loading (0.2 wt %) which results in changing the thermodynamic balance and forming PA layer with more cross-linked structure. This cross-linked skin layer has higher chemical stability

In order to test the performance of PA membranes containing AG, the membranes were tested by filtration of real seawater without any pretreatment. PA/AG membrane with 0.2 wt% was used for filtration experiments which lasted for 48 h continuously at 54 bars pressure. The total dissolved solids of feed seawater was 45,000 ppm whereas that of the permeate was 1400 and that of the brine at the end of the first day of filtration was 70,000 ppm. As seen in Fig. 7, the performance of PA/0.2 wt% AG membrane in terms of salt rejection and normalized produced flux was superior when compared to that of AD Osmonic and SW30HR Dow commercial membranes (Fig. 8). The normalized flux of PA/AG membrane after filtration for 1 day and 2 days were 0.38 and 0.4 whereas that of AD Osmoincs were: 0.09 and 0.13, respectively. The decline in flux of the PA/AG membrane over time, which was observed to be less compared to commercial membrane, maybe attributed to the enhancement in the afore-mentioned PA/AG properties of membrane (hydrophilicity, surface charge and fouling resistance.)

4

Conclusion

In this paper, an experimental investigation into the potential use of AG as an additive to enhance TFC PA RO membrane properties and performance was highlighted. In this work, the improvement in properties and performance of the developed TFC PA RO/AG membranes was discussed. It was observed that PA membranes containing AG were more hydrophilic

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Fig. 7 Salt rejection (%) and normalized flux of TFC PA RO membrane containing 0.2 wt% AG membrane for 48 h at a pressure of 54 bars. Total dissolved solids of the feed solution is 45,000 ppm (modified after Manawi 2019)

Fig. 8 Salt rejection (%) and normalized flux of commercial membranes (AD Osmonic and SW30HR Dow) for 48 h at a pressure of 54 bars. Total dissolved solids of the feed solution is 45,000 ppm

and bore more negative surface charge in comparison with pristine PA membrane. The performance of blended PA/AG membranes was also tested by dead-end filtration of NaCl solutions (2000 ppm) and real Qatari seawater (45,000 ppm). It was shown that the modified membranes exhibited higher salt rejection, reduced flux decline over filtration time and superior chlorine resistance compared to AD Osmonics commercial membrane. The enhancement in the blended PA/AG membrane’s properties and performance in this work can be applied to improve the overall performance of commercial RO membranes with the aim of extending their lifetime and reduce their replacement frequency.

Acknowledgements The authors of this manuscript express their gratitude to the core laboratory members at QEERI, Dr. Said Mansour and Dr. Atef Zekri for their help with the characterization.

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Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Low Pressure Evaporators for Adsorption Water Desalination Ibrahim Albaik, Raya Al-Dadah, Saad Mahmoud, and Ashraf Hassan

Din F gc hi ho kl Nu Psat Pr P Q_ e R Re t1 t2 Tsat DT LMTD U V q qv ql b r l k

Abstract

The low-pressure evaporator is a major component in the adsorption desalination system that can produce fresh water and a cooling effect under vacuum conditions (17– 25 mbar) and low saturation temperatures (20–30 °C). This paper, theoretically and experimentally, investigates the effect of evaporator water height on the overall heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator and the daily water production. Theoretical calculations for one plain copper pipe showed that as the water height increases above the pipe, the overall heat transfer coefficient decreases until it reaches a specific height where the heat transfer coefficient will be no longer effective. The CFD analysis showed there is an optimum percentage of the water level to cover part of this pipe. The experimental work was carried out as an application of the hydrostatic effect theory by using five stages of wire finned stainless steel coils. The results showed that high heat transfer coefficient of 2800 W/(K m2) and high daily water production of 77 L/day were obtained when the water level covers the coils of the flooded evaporator by 25 mm above the upper coil. Keywords








Flooded evaporator Heat transfer coefficient Hydrostatic pressure Adsorption desalination

Inner pipe diameter (m) Heat flux (W/m2) Unit conversion factor (m/N/s2) Inner heat transfer coefficient (W/K/m2) Outer heat transfer coefficient (W/K/m2) Thermal conductivity of the water (W/m/K) Nusselt number (-) Saturation pressure (Pa) Prandtl number (-) Vapour partial pressure (Pa) Evaporation rate (KW) Universal gas constant (J/mol/K) Reynolds number (-) Initial half cycle time (s) Final half cycle time (s) Saturation temperature (K) Logarithmic mean temperature (-) Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/K/m2) Chilled water velocity (m/s) Water density (kg/m3) Vapour density (kg/m3) Liquid density (kg/m3) Accommodation coefficient (-) Surface tension (N/m) Dynamic viscosity (Pa s) Latent heat of evaporation (J/kg)

Abbreviations

Ai Ao Cp

Internal surface area (m2) External surface area (m2) Specific heat of the water (J/kg/K)

I. Albaik (&)
R. Al-Dadah
S. Mahmoud University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK e-mail: [email protected] A. Hassan Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar

1

Introduction

Desalination technologies have significantly improved in the last three decades and can be classified into four main technologies; (I) thermally activated, (II) pressure activated (III) chemically activated and (IV) adsorption technology (Youssef et al. 2014; El-Dessouky and Ettouney 2002). Youssef et al. (2014) have recently shown that adsorption technology with water as the refrigerant is an efficient

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_26

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Fig. 1 Adsorption desalination process

desalination technology in terms of electricity consumption, higher input salinity (>65,000 ppm) and better fresh water output quality (around 10 ppm salinity). Adsorption technology consists of an adsorption bed, a desorption bed, an evaporator and a condenser as shown in Fig. 1. Several studies were carried out to improve the output and the efficiency of the adsorption technology (Youssef et al. 2015; Thu et al. 2013; Kyaw et al. 2016). Different adsorbent materials were studied, and their performance is mainly dependent of the isotherm shape and kinetic behaviour (Teo et al. 2017; Youssef et al. 2017a, b; Chua et al. 2002). The evaporator is one of the main components of the adsorption system. However, limited studies were carried out to investigate the optimum type of the vacuum-operated evaporator with a high heat transfer coefficient (U) and a compact design (Yan et al. 2015). Such low pressure (LP) evaporators can be classified into three main types; (i) falling film evaporator (ii) flooded evaporator and (iii) capillary-assisted evaporator. Falling film evaporator has a low footprint as a result of the high U that can be obtained by spraying the water to cover the pipes outer surface (Thimmaiah et al. 2016). However, the main challenge in this type is to deliver a design that is capable of spraying water over the entire outer surfaces of the pipes. As for the flooded evaporator, Thimmaiah et al. (Wang et al. 2011) and Florine et al. (Poovanna et al. 2017) investigated the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the boiling heat transfer and showed that the hydrostatic pressure will significantly affect the saturation vapour pressure of the evaporator which will decrease U. They also found that the optimum water height is equal to 80% of the pipe diameter, which will provide the maximum evaporation rate and cooling power. However,

this study considered only the water height at a specific arrangement of the coils and specific pipe diameter. Thimmaiah et al. (Wang et al. 2011) used the advantages of the capillary-assisted pipes to maintain the water height at a certain level to get a consistent evaporation rate over half the cycle time and increased the outer heat transfer coefficient. This paper theoretically and experimentally investigates the effect of water height on U and the daily water production. The experiments were carried out using wire-finnedhelically-coiled stainless-steel tubes, while the theoretical analysis and CFD simulation were based on the plain copper tubes to investigate the hydrostatic pressure effect in LP flooded evaporator for adsorption desalination application.

2

Theoretical Analysis

The evaporator of an adsorption system operates during the adsorption process where the refrigerant water boils at low pressure (98/1 and surface area of 260–350 m2/g from The Sixth Element Inc, China, expanded graphite (EG) with an average particle size of 200 µm from SGL Carbon, Germany (Supplied by Qatar University) and graphite natural flakes (GF) grade 3061 + 300 µm particle size (  80%) from Asbury Carbon were procured and used as supplied. Melt blending (200 C, 10 min) was used for the fabrication using Xplore MC-15 micro-compounder with different volume ratios of graphene and graphite hybrid filler, followed by hot pressing using Craver hot press. The filler-oriented nanocomposites were prepared by aligning the fillers through hot pressing of individual sheet, followed by hot pressing of multi-sheet structure. The thermal diffusivity (d) of neat polymer and composite was obtained using Linseis LFA 500 Xenon flash. The j of the neat LDPE and the nanocomposites can be related to d using equation: j = d cp  q where cp is specific heat capacity and q is the density. Multiple readings were taken on three different samples to estimate the experimental uncertainty. Heat transfer experiments were carried out using test rig as shown in Fig. 1, with varying Reynolds number (350–4000 hot side) using plate type water-to-water plastic heat exchanger. The active heat transfer area of the cell was 17.5 cm2. Temperatures on hot and cold sides were kept at 65 °C and 25 °C, respectively.

3

Results

The j of the LDPE-hybrid filler are shown in Fig. 2. As expected, compared to the neat LDPE, addition of hybrid fillers led to higher jc. The effect of hybrid filler can be seen clearly as the jc exhibited a gradual increase with increased vol.% of GF in hybrid system and showed a maximum at equal vol.% for each filler.

Thermally Enhanced Polyethylene Nanocomposites for Polymer …

229 1.00

0.83

0.90 0.78

0.80

0.71

0.73

κ, [ W/m.K]

0.70 0.58

0.60

0.57

0.50 0.40 0.31

0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 Neat LDPE

15G-0GF

10G-5GF

7.5G-7.5GF

5G-10GF

2.5G-12.5GF

0G-15GF

Fig. 2 Thermal conductivity of LDPE and 15 vol.% G-GF hybrid filler-based nanocomposites

Fig. 1 Test rig and heat transfer cell used to carry out heat transfer studies

Next, we investigated the effect of filler orientation on jc as shown in Fig. 4. For this purpose, LDPE-hybrid filler nanocomposites were generated using 21 vol.% of total hybrid filler, whereas the fillers were oriented in the direction of heat flow. The jc of the nanocomposites containing aligned hybrid fillers was excellent regardless of the graphite

type. In this study, both the bulk and aligned filler jc were enhanced when EG was used and showed an increase by *31% when EG was used. The SEM images of fractured surfaces obtained by fractured in liquid nitrogen are shown in Fig. 3. The incorporation of 21 vol.% has changed the surface morphology significantly. However, folding or roll-up of fillers was hardly seen in the both cases. The images also confirm the vertical orientation of the fillers to the direction of the thickness. Due to high-filler concentration and vertical pressure during pressing, the distance between the adjacent filler platelets becomes smaller resulting in a large number of inter-connections among them can be seen. The nanocomposites filled with G-EG hybrid also exhibited finer morphological feature of nanocomposites. The measured thermal conductivities and SEM of LDPE containing aligned and nonaligned hybrid fillers are shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that graphite particulates are perfectly arranged parallel to the direction of heat flux resulted improved j of the composites compared to nonaligned filler at same loading. Moreover, the samples with hybrid EG-G exhibited higher j compared to G-GF hybrid in both cases. The modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and elongation at break of neat LDPE and nanocomposites with hybrid

Fig. 3 SEM images of fractured cross section for 21 vol.% of hybrid aligned fillers filled LDPE nanocomposites (left) 5G-16GF, (right) 5G-16EG. Red arrow directs the thickness direction of nanocomposites

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Fig. 4 Effect of filler orientation on thermal conductivity of LDPE and 21 vol.% hybrid-based nanocomposites and SEM images of fractured cross section for 21 vol.% (5G-16EG) aligned (top) and unaligned fillers (bottom) in the direction of heat flow

Fig. 6 Water drop contact angle of neat LDPE and 21 vol.% of hybrid fillers filled LDPE nanocomposites (5G-16GF and 5G-16EG)

G-EG and G-GF at loading level of total 21 vol.% are shown in Fig. 5. For Young’s modulus, both E-EG and G-GF have higher modulus than neat LDPE. Although tensile strength of all nanocomposites was marginally lower than neat polymer. However, the elongation at break of all nanocomposites was drastically reduced. Figure 6 shows the comparison of the water contact angles of the LDPE nanocomposites. It can be seen that the contact angle of neat LDPE decreases after addition of fillers. Water contact angle was lowest for nanocomposites containing EG. Figure 7 shows the plot between U and Reynolds on hot side. The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, was calculated using the following equation q ¼ U:A:LMTD

Fig. 5 Mechanical properties of 21 vol.% of hybrid fillers filled LDPE nanocomposites (5G-16GF and 5G-16EG)

where A is defined as active heat transfer area of sheet, q is heat transfer rate and LMTD is log-mean temperature difference which is the logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the two streams. An unfilled PE polymer

2

overall heat trasnfer cofficient (U), kW/m .K

Thermally Enhanced Polyethylene Nanocomposites for Polymer … 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

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2D/3D carbon materials, and they lead to composites with significant difference between the in-plane and throughplane jc as indicated by the composites prepared in this work. The significant reduction in the elongation of LDPE upon adding high concentration of hybrid fillers can be attributed to the irregular shape of particles consisting of many sharp edges acting as stress concentrators. The presence of these fillers also supports the initiation of crack formation resulting poor elongation and reduced tensile strength. Further, the addition of 21 vol.% filler decreased the water contact angle consequently increased the hydrophilicity of LDPE. However, even high-filler loading has not showed much effect on LDPE wettability.

Reynold # hot Fig. 7 Heat transfer studies of Neat PE and 21 vol.% of hybrid aligned fillers filled LDPE nanocomposites

with a thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/m K yields a transfer rate of 0.20 kW/m2 K for cold water side, while for a thermally enhanced LDPE with a thermal conductivity around 5 W/m K, the heat transfer rate was more than triple at low flow rates. Further increases in the flow rates yield significant improvements in heat transfer rate for nanocomposites. The plot also shows that above Re# around 1400, the U reaches a plateau at a value of round 1.0 kW/m2 K for nanocomposites, while no improvements were observed in neat PE.

4

Discussion

The higher jc containing hybrid filler are mainly attributed to the formation of thermally conductive networks inside the nanocomposites and low-interfacial thermal resistance between the large lateral size of graphite and matrix. Kim et al. reported that optimum filler size plays key role in improving the jc (Kim et al. 2016). Moreover, the use of hybrid filler also played a vital role in improving jc. In these types of composites, large-size filler act as backbone whereas the small-size filler represented the branches (Liu et al. 2018). Also, in hybrid filler containing nano and micro scale filler such as graphene-graphite, the nano scale filler adheres to the micro flakes and provide “fin-like” structure to the surface of the graphite, providing a larger contact area and additional thermal paths (Mahanta et al. 2015) by creating thermal paths parallel to the heat flux is the most important parameter for thermal conductivity enhancement. Indeed, the composites containing aligned fillers showed anisotropic features and exhibited large increase in jc than in the bulk direction because graphene/graphite particles are

5

Conclusion

Using hybrid and aligned fillers, we fabricated LDPE nanocomposites with high jc. We also demonstrated that orientation of hybrid filler provides efficient thermal conduction pathways as indicated by the very high jc. Meanwhile, jc is also affected by the GF loading and particle size. Finally, with a loading of 16 vol.% of aligned EG and 5 vol. % of G, jc enhancement of *2000% over the neat LDPE was achieved. Addition of 21 vol.% of graphite-graphene to polyethylene has increased the modulus by over 750%. The heat transfer performance of LDPE nanocomposites (21 vol. % G-EG aligned) compared to neat PE exhibited superior heat transfer coefficients at different flow rates. The heat transfer results show that the overall heat transfer coefficient of LDPE nanocomposite plate containing hybrid aligned filler was 3–4 times higher to that of neat LDPE at different Reynolds number. Thus, the melt blended hybrid filler reinforced PE nanocomposites with improved thermal conductivity and mechanical properties could expand the area of thermally conductive polymers, replacing metals and ceramics in heat transfer devices and equipment, leading to energy saving. Acknowledgements This research was supported by NPRP grant # NPRP10-0205-170349 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a constituent member of the Qatar Foundation).

References A. Chaudhry, V. Mittal, M. Hashmi, A quick review for rheological properties of polyolefin composites. Sindh Univ. Res. J.-SURJ (Sci. Ser.) 44(1) (2012) A.U. Chaudhry, S.P. Lonkar, R.G. Chudhary, A. Mabrouk, A.A. Abdala, Thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties of highly filled HDPE/graphite nanoplatelets composites. Mater. Today: Proc. (2020)

232 X. Chen, Y. Su, D. Reay, S. Riffat, Recent research developments in polymer heat exchangers—a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60, 1367–1386 (2016a) H. Chen, V.V. Ginzburg, J. Yang, Y. Yang, W. Liu, Y. Huang, L. Du, B. Chen, Thermal conductivity of polymer-based composites: fundamentals and applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 59, 41–85 (2016b) O.A. Hamed, Saline Water Conversion Corporation, Saline Water Desalination Research Institute (SWDRI): Evolution of Thermal Desalination Processes. 2013. Available from http://www.sawea. org/pdf/waterarabia2013/Session_A/Evolution_of_Thermal_ Desalination_Processes.pdf Z. Han, A. Fina, Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites: a review. Prog. Polym. Sci. 36(7), 914– 944 (2011) H.S. Kim, H.S. Bae, J. Yu, S.Y. Kim, Thermal conductivity of polymer composites with the geometrical characteristics of graphene nanoplatelets. Sci. Rep. 6, 26825 (2016) Z. Liu, R. Tu, Q. Liao, H. Hu, J. Yang, Y. He, H. Bian, L. Ma, W. Liu, High thermal conductivity of flake graphite reinforced polyethylene composites fabricated by the powder mixing method and the melt-extruding process. Polymers 10(7), 693 (2018) A.A. Mabrouk, K. Bourouni, H.K. Abdulrahim, M. Darwish, A.O. Sharif, Impacts of tube bundle arrangement and feed flow pattern on the scale formation in large capacity MED desalination plants. Desalination 357, 275–285 (2015) N.K. Mahanta, M.R. Loos, I. Manas Zlocozower, A.R. Abramson, Graphite-graphene hybrid filler system for high thermal conductivity of epoxy composites. J. Mater. Res. 30(7), 959–966 (2015) V. Mittal, A.U. Chaudhry, Effect of amphiphilic compatibilizers on the filler dispersion and properties of polyethylene—thermally reduced graphene nanocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 132(35) (2015)

C. Usman et al. V. Mittal, A.U. Chaudhry, Polyethylene-thermally reduced graphene nanocomposites: comparison of masterbatch and direct melt mixing approaches on mechanical, thermal, rheological, and morphological properties. Colloid Polym. Sci. 294(10), 1659–1670 (2016) V. Mittal, A.U. Chaudhry, M.I. Khan, Comparison of anti-corrosion performance of polyaniline modified ferrites. J. Dispersion Sci. Technol. 33(10), 1452–1457 (2012) H. Rahman, S.J. Zaidi, Desalination in Qatar: present status and future prospects. Civ. Eng. Res. J. 6(5), 1–7 (2018) K.R. Reddy, K.-P. Lee, A.I. Gopalan, A.M. Showkat, Synthesis and properties of magnetite/poly (aniline-co-8-amino-2-naphthalenesulfonic acid) (SPAN) nanocomposites. Polym. Adv. Technol. 18(1), 38–43 (2007a) K.R. Reddy, K.-P. Lee, A.G. Iyengar, Synthesis and characterization of novel conducting composites of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and sulfonated polyanilines. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 104(6), 4127–4134 (2007b) K.R. Reddy, K.-P. Lee, J.Y. Kim, Y. Lee, Self-assembly and graft polymerization route to monodispersed Fe3O4@SiO2—polyaniline core–shell composite nanoparticles: physical properties. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 8(11), 5632–5639 (2008) K.R. Reddy, W. Park, B.C. Sin, J. Noh, Y. Lee, Synthesis of electrically conductive and superparamagnetic monodispersed iron oxide-conjugated polymer composite nanoparticles by in situ chemical oxidative polymerization. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 335 (1), 34–39 (2009) S.-Y. Yang, Y.-F. Huang, J. Lei, L. Zhu, Z.-M. Li, Enhanced thermal conductivity of polyethylene/boron nitride multilayer sheets through annealing. Compos. A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 107, 135–143 (2018)

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling of Falling Film Heat Transfer Over Horizontal Tube for Multi-effect Desalination (MED) Evaporator Furqan Tahir, Abdelnasser Mabrouk, and Muammer Koç

Abstract

Highlights

Horizontal-type falling film evaporators are commonly used in multi-effect desalination (MED) plants, refrigeration, air conditioning and waste heat recovery application. In falling film evaporators, a thin liquid film covers the tube, and heat is transferred from the heating medium inside the tube to the thin film. The heat transfer in falling films is governed by the film hydrodynamics, temperature gradient and tube material. In order to analyze film heat transfer at microscopic level, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool is implemented in this work. A 25.4 mm horizontal tube with an impingement height of 5 mm is selected as the computational domain. Water enters at 65 °C that is the top brine temperature of MED plant. The liquid load and temperature difference varied from 0.01 kg/(m s) to 0.09 kg/(m s) and from 2 °C to 10 °C, respectively. It is found that the heat transfer coefficient is very high at the stagnation point and then decreases, as the flow moves along the tube surface. The recirculation in the film enhances the heat transfer. Furthermore, increasing liquid load from 0.01 to 0.09 kg/(m s) with DT = 5 °C, increase the heat transfer coefficient by 231%.

• A CFD model to estimate heat transfer coefficient is developed and validated. • The heat transfer coefficient increases with the liquid load. • The temperature difference has minimal effects on heat transfer coefficient.

Keywords








CFD Falling film Heat transfer coefficient Horizontal tube Numerical model




F. Tahir (&)
M. Koç Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, P.O. Box 34110 Education City, Qatar e-mail: [email protected] A. Mabrouk Qatar Environment & Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University, P.O. Box 34110 Education City, Qatar

1

Introduction

Horizontal falling film evaporators are a special type of shell and tube heat exchangers, in which a thin liquid film is formed outside the tube. The flow inside the tube transfers heat to the liquid film that covers the tube from the outside resulting in required heat and mass transfer (Fernández-Seara and Pardiñas 2014). These kinds of evaporators exhibit high-heat transfer coefficient over small temperature difference and low-mass flow rates as compared to submerged/flooded heat exchangers (Ribatski and Jacobi 2005; Zhao et al. 2018). Numerous efforts were made to enhance falling film evaporator performance in the desalination sector, such as new evaporator design, fouling effects and vapor compression integration (Tahir et al. 2019; Mabrouk et al. 2017; Shahzad et al. 2015). Any augmentation in evaporator efficiency may lead to decrease footprints and energy consumption, which is needed for sustainable development (Tahir et al. 2020a). In order to enhance falling film efficiency, in-depth analysis is required for better understanding and room for improvements. Substantial experimental and numerical works were carried out to characterize falling films (Tahir et al. 2018a, 2020b; Narváez-Romo and Simões-Moreira 2017; Yang et al. 2016; Christians and Thome 2012). Nusselt (1916) developed an empirical correlation to estimate falling film thickness, d as a function of angular position, h

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_28

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around the horizontal tube. Hu and Jacobi (1997, 1998, 1996) and Roques et al. (2002) Roques and Thome (2003) investigated the flow transitions of falling film and recognized different flow regimes such as droplet, jet and sheet modes. The falling film evaporators usually operate from droplet to jet mode that corresponds to low-liquid loads (Hosseinnia et al. 2017; Mabrouk et al. 2015). Tahir et al. (2020) numerically investigated the effects of thermophysical properties on film thickness and conduction thermal resistance. Yang et al. (2016) studied microscopic heat transfer mechanism in the falling films using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). They found improved heat transfer because of turbulence inside the film, which was distinguished by laminar sub-layer. Zhou et al. (2017) numerically analyzed coupled heat transfer and concluded that the increasing liquid load has a positive effect on falling film heat transfer coefficient. Zhao et al. (2018) developed heat transfer coefficient correlation from regression analysis of CFD results. They used constant heat flux q source and inlet temperature and liquid load were varied, in their numerical experiments. Qi et al. (2016) performed numerical analysis of falling films, for circular and elliptical tubes. They observed that the falling film thickness around the elliptical tube is smaller than that of the circular one. In addition, the heat transfer coefficient of elliptical tube was found to be 20– 22% higher than that of the circular tube. As many of the numerical studies were focused on analyzing the heat transfer coefficient for higher liquid loads and constant heat flux, the falling film evaporators in multi-effect desalination (MED) plant work at low-liquid loads and the tubes are at constant temperature as the steam condenses inside the tube and the heat transfer is mainly due to the phase change process. There are limited studies, which incorporated these conditions in numerical analysis. The CFD analysis gives freedom to analyze fluid flow and heat transfer at smaller scale for better depiction and with conditions that are difficult to implement in the experiments. Present work focuses on quantifying the heat transfer coefficient variation along the tube surface at top brine temperature (TBT), i.e., 65 °C. The effects of liquid load and temperature difference between the tube wall and the inlet temperature on heat transfer coefficient are analyzed and discussed. In addition, the temperature distribution within the liquid film is examined.

surface by a thin liquid film. The heat will be transferred from tube wall to liquid by means of conduction and convection heat transfer modes. The water detaches at the bottom and falls on the next tube. As the flow is symmetric along the y-axis, only half of the physical domain is considered for numerical analysis as shown in Fig. 1. The mathematical model consists of mainly conservation of mass, momentum and energy as in (1)–(3). Conservation of mass:
* @q þr
qV ¼ 0 @t

ð1Þ

Conservation of momentum:
*
* * @ qV *   * þ r
q V V ¼ rP þ r: s þ q g þ F ð2Þ vol @t Conservation of energy:   @ ðqT Þ k * þr
q V T ¼ rðrT Þ @t qCp

where q is density, V is velocity, t is time, P is pressure, s is *

tensor, g is gravitational acceleration, F is volumetric force, vol

T is temperature, k is thermal conductivity, and Cp is specific heat. The nature of the problem is multiphase, with water as liquid and water vapors as gaseous phase. The volume of fluid (VOF) model developed by Hirt and Nichols (1981) is employed as in (4). The VOF model is used, where liquid, l/gas, g interface is distinct (Tahir et al. 2018b; Baloch et al. 2018). The Brackbill model (Brackbill et al. 1992) (also known as continuum surface force model) in (5) is used to estimate volumetric force by surface tension, r.

Fig. 1 Computational domain of a single 25.4 mm tube

1 mm orifice

5 mm

D = 25.4 mm tube wall

2

ð3Þ

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Numerical Model

The computational domain is comprised of a single 25.4-mm diameter tube with an impinging height of 5 mm. A 2 mm liquid inlet through orifice is provided at the top of the tube, for water entrance. The breadth of the domain is 16.5 mm. The water falls on the tube at 65 °C and covers the tube

y

16.5 mm

x Pressure outlet

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling of Falling Film …

*

F ¼ rKral 1 

vol

2

ði ¼ g or lÞ

q  ql þ qg

ð4Þ ð5Þ

where a is volume fraction and K is curvature. It is assumed that the thermo-physical properties do not change in the domain and are calculated based on inlet temperature, i.e., 65 °C. The dispersion of fluid in z-direction is negligible. The wall contact angle hw = 0° to guarantee complete wetting (Khan et al. 2019). The tube wall temperature is constant. The system is adiabatic, and there is no evaporation. The problem is symmetric along the vertical direction; therefore, to minimize computational time, only half of the domain is considered for calculations. The boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 2a. The differential equations are approximated in to algebraic expressions using finite volume method in Ansys fluent v18.0. SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations) and PRESTO (Pressure Staggering Option) algorithms are used for pressure-velocity coupling and pressure interpolation, correspondingly. The second-order upwind scheme is employed to discretize conservation of momentum and energy. The transient modeling is carried out by first-order implicit scheme. For phase tracking, geo-reconstruct scheme is implemented. The iterations per time step are set to 40, to ensure converged solution. The water enters the domain at 65 °C which reflects top brine temperature of the MED _ plant. The liquid load C1/2, which is mass flow rate, m=2 on either side of tube per unit length L as in (6), is varied from 0.01 to 0.09 kg/(m s). The temperature difference DT between wall temperature Tw and inlet temperature Ti is changed from 2 to 10 °C for C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s). The domain is meshed with quadrilateral dominant elements as shown in Fig. 2b. Fine boundary layers are used adjacent to tube surface for accurate estimation of liquid-gas interface.

Fig. 2 a Boundary conditions and b meshed domain

Heat transfer coefficent, h (W/m2-K)


 * @ ðai qi Þ þ r
ai qi Vi ¼ 0 @t

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Angular Posion, θ (°) Fig. 3 Comparison of CFD model results with Parken et al. (1990) experimental data

m_ C1=2 ¼ ð6Þ 2L Three different mesh sizes, i.e., 21,800; 29,400 and 36,100 elements are selected for dependence test. 29,400 elements are opted for simulations, as the difference in results for 29,400 and 36,100 meshes is negligible. In a similar way, the time step is chosen as variable, i.e., 5–10 ls.

6.3 mm. The water falls on the tubes with a liquid load of 0.168 kg/(m s) and with the temperature of 82 °C. The tube was set as a constant heat flux source of 43.7 kW/(m2 K). The comparison is made for CFD model and experimental data as shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that CFD model predicts heat transfer coefficient around the tube wall with good accuracy. The maximum error between experimental data and CFD results is found to be 12.6%.

3

4

Validation of the CFD Model

In order to ensure the accuracy of the CFD model, an experimental study by Parken et al. (1990) is selected for validation purposes. They conducted experiments on 25.4-mm diameter tubes with an impingement height of

Results and Discussion

4.1 Film Thickness Distribution The liquid film enters from the orifice and falls on the tube. As it impinges at the top, the liquid then spreads around the

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Fig. 4 Volume fraction contours for C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s)

3

Film thickness, δ (mm)

0.01 kg/(m-s) 0.05 kg/(m-s)

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Fig. 6 Film thickness distribution with respect to liquid load

and the CFD results are found to be in good agreement for the region of h from 20° to 150°. The inertial effects are neglected in Nusselt solution; because of that it suggests symmetric film distribution. sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3ll C1=2 3 d¼ ð7Þ ql ðql  qg Þg sin h

0.8 CFD

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Fig. 5 Comparison of film thickness distribution at C1/2 = 0.01 kg/ (m s) with Nusselt solution (Nusselt 1916) and CFD results

circumferential direction forming a thin liquid film. The volume fraction contours displaying film formation for liquid load C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s) is shown in Fig. 4. The blue region represents the liquid phase (water) around the tube, and the red region shows water vapors. The film thickness distribution at C1/2 = 0.01 kg/(m s), along the tube surface is shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the thicknesses at the top and bottom regions, from the CFD results are of high values, which is due the impingement and recirculation at the top, and detachment region at the bottom, respectively. The film thickness starts with the thicker film and then decreases with the angular position until it reaches the minimum value that lies between h = 80° and h = 90°, after it increases again till the bottom of the tube. The film thickness variation is also compared with the Nusselt solution (Nusselt 1916) as in (7),

Figure 6 shows the effect of liquid load on the film distribution. The rise in liquid load causes thicker liquid film. However, the rise in the top of the tube is more significant than the lower part of the tube. The recirculation increases with the liquid load which results in higher film thickness at the top angular position, i.e., h between 0° and 30°. In addition, for the liquid load range C1/2 = 0.01–0.09 kg/ (m s), the film thickness for most of the region ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. This thin film exhibits lower thermal conduction resistance and results in higher heat transfer rate as compared to the flooded type heat exchangers.

4.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient The heat transfer is calculated from (8), the heat flux is computed from Ansys fluent v 18.0, and the temperature difference is constant for particular case. Figure 7 shows the heat transfer coefficient distribution along the tube circumference. The heat transfer coefficient is the highest at h = 0° (impact point), which is 15,197 W/(m2 K) due to high-temperature gradient and stagnation. The heat transfer coefficient then decreases sharply to a lower value. However, in the region h = 12° to h = 20°, the heat transfer coefficient increases again. This rise in the heat transfer is mainly due to the recirculation in this region as shown in Fig. 8. The recirculations result in better mixing and improve the convection heat transfer. The higher value of heat transfer

16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0

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Angular posion, θ (°)

237 Ins. heat transfer coefficient, hins (W/m2·K)

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Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling of Falling Film … 4500

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Fig. 7 Instantaneous heat transfer coefficient along tube surface for C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s) and DT = 5 °C

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Fig. 9 Instantaneous heat transfer coefficient with time for C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s) and DT = 5 °C

time. The variation in film thickness also affects the heat transfer mechanism. Therefore, the average instantaneous heat transfer coefficient is recorded with time as displayed in Fig. 9. For comparison purposes, the average heat transfer coefficient is computed based on (9). P hins h¼ ð9Þ N where N is number of points.

4.3 Effect of Liquid Load on Heat Transfer

Fig. 8 Recirculations present in the top region of liquid film

coefficient at the top improves the average heat transfer coefficient around the tube. After that heat transfer coefficient decreases till the bottom of the tube. For C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s), the heat transfer coefficient slightly rises near the detachment zone. This is because of film thinning or neck formation as shown in Fig. 6. The thinner film lowers the thermal resistance, therefore enhances heat transfer. h¼

q DT

ð8Þ

The falling films are transient at low-liquid loads (Tahir et al. 2020b), which means the film thickness changes with

The effect of liquid load on heat transfer coefficient is shown in Fig. 10. The heat transfer coefficient rises as the liquid load is increased from 0.01 to 0.09 kg/(m s) with constant temperature difference of 5 °C. The heat transfer coefficient at 0.01 kg/(m s) is 1152 W/(m2 K), which raises to 2589 W/ (m2 K) at 0.03 kg/(m s) showing an increase in 124,7%. However, the relation is not linear, and the percent increase in the heat transfer decreases with the liquid load. From liquid load of 0.07 to 0.09 kg/(m s), the percent rise in heat transfer coefficient is found to be 4.6%. This trend shows that liquid load enhances heat transfer up to a certain limit. After that the increase in liquid load might not augment the heat transfer by considerable amount. At low liquid load, the film thickness is small which reflects lower thermal conduction resistance. However, the heat transfer coefficient is found to be small at 0.01 kg/(m s). The heat transfer depends on many factors such as film thickness, flow velocity (participates in convection), mass transfer/evaporation (neglected in this study) and temperature gradient. At low flow rates, the conduction mode is

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4.4 Effect of Temperature Difference Figure 12 shows the influence of temperature difference on heat transfer coefficient for the fixed liquid load of

Temperature rise, ΔT (°C)

dominant because of low-velocity field. In addition, the liquid attains tube wall temperature rapidly which deteriorates heat transfer as there is no evaporation. In case of evaporation, the heat transfer coefficient is expected to be higher. For temperature gradient, temperature distribution in the film thickness at different angular positions, for liquid loads 0.01 kg/(m s) and 0.05 kg/(m s) at DT = 5 °C, are shown in Fig. 11a, b, respectively. The temperature of film adjacent to the tube wall is approximately equal to tube wall temperature, and the temperature decreases within the film. For 0.01 kg/(m s), the liquid gains the heat quickly and reaches to tube wall temperature in a shorter distance. The temperature gradient becomes small after h = 60° that results in sharp decline of heat transfer making the average heat transfer coefficient low. For 0.05 kg/(m s), the temperature gradient is high at h = 5° near top which significantly improves the heat transfer coefficient. As the fluid travels further around the circumference, the temperature gradient decreases causing the heat transfer coefficient to decrease. However, the temperature gradient does not drop considerably, allowing heat transfer to take place all around the tube. Thus, the heat transfer coefficient at 0.05 kg/(m s) is better than that of low liquid load, i.e., 0.01 kg/(m s). Furthermore, at higher liquid loads, because of steep temperature gradient, better heat transfer can be expected. However, the thermal resistance also increases which limits the heat transfer rate.

0.6

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(b)

Fig. 11 Temperature distribution at different angular position for DT = 5 °C and a C1/2 = 0.01 kg/(m s) and b C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s)

0.05 kg/(m s). The inlet temperature is kept constant, and the tube wall temperature is altered such that the temperature difference varies from 2 to 10 °C. It is evident that temperature difference has minimal effects on heat transfer

Heat transfer coefficent, h (W/m2-K)

Fig. 10 Instantaneous heat transfer coefficient with time for C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s) and DT = 5 °C

0.4

Dimensionless film thcikness, η

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Temperature difference, ΔT (°C) Fig. 12 Effect of temperature difference on heat transfer coefficient at C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s)

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling of Falling Film …

coefficient. Since the tube wall is kept at constant temperature, the heat flux varies with the temperature difference keeping the heat transfer coefficient to approximately the same value. In case of evaporation, the situation might differ and need to be investigated.

5

Conclusion

A two-dimensional CFD model is developed to characterize film thickness and heat transfer for falling film over horizontal tube used in MED application. The CFD model is validated with the experimental data available in the literature and found to be in good agreement. It is observed that heat transfer coefficient varies with time because of transient nature of falling film. The stagnation point has the highest heat transfer coefficient. It is 15,197 W/(m2 K) for h = 0° and C1/2 = 0.05 kg/(m s). The recirculations in the liquid film enhance the heat transfer. In addition, the liquid load increment is found to have constructive effects on heat transfer coefficient, which is up to a certain limit. Upon increasing the liquid load of 0.07 to 0.09 kg/(m s), the heat transfer coefficient changes from 3656 to 3823 W/(m2 K) reflecting a 4.6% change. For low-liquid load (0.01 kg/ (m s)), the temperature gradient after h = 60° becomes very small which reduces the heat transfer significantly and lowers the average value. From 0.01 kg/(m s) to 0.09 kg/ (m s), the heat transfer is enhanced by 231%. Furthermore, temperature difference has minimal effects on heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, the heat transfer mainly depends on film thickness, liquid load and temperature gradient. In case of evaporation, the film thickness may become thin due to the mass transfer, which changes the film thickness distribution and the associated thermal resistance. In addition, researchers are trying to broaden the operating temperature limit of MED plants, i.e., from 85 to 5 °C (Tahir et al. 2019). Thus, the heat transfer performance in the presence of evaporation and different operating temperatures needs to be investigated. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar for the resources and support.

Conflict of Interest None.

References A. Baloch, H. Ali, F. Tahir, Transient analysis of air bubble rise in stagnant water column using CFD, in ICTEA: International Conference on Thermal Engineering, vol. 2018, 2018 J. Brackbill, D. Kothe, C. Zemach, A continuum method for modeling surface tension. J. Comput. Phys. 100(2), 335–354 (1992)

239 M. Christians, J.R. Thome, Falling film evaporation on enhanced tubes, part 2: prediction methods and visualization. Int. J. Refrig. 35(2), 313–324 (2012) J. Fernández-Seara, Á.Á. Pardiñas, Refrigerant falling film evaporation review: description, fluid dynamics and heat transfer. Appl. Therm. Eng. 64(1–2), 155–171 (2014) C. Hirt, B. Nichols, Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. J. Comput. Phys. 39(1), 201–225 (1981) S.M. Hosseinnia, M. Naghashzadegan, R. Kouhikamali, CFD simulation of water vapor absorption in laminar falling film solution of water-LiBr—drop and jet modes. Appl. Therm. Eng. 115, 860–873 (2017) X. Hu, A.M. Jacobi, Flow characteristics of liquid droplets and jets falling between horizontal circular tubes, in Experimental Heat Transfer, FLuid Mechanics and Thermodynamics. PISA: Edizioni ETS, 1997, pp. 1295–1302 X. Hu, A.M. Jacobi, Departure-site spacing for liquid droplets and jets falling between horizontal circular tubes. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 16 (4), 322–331 (1998) X. Hu, A.M. Jacobi, The intertube falling film: part 1—flow characteristics, mode transitions, and hysteresis. J. Heat Transfer 118(3), 616–625 (1996) S.A. Khan, F. Tahir, A.A.B. Baloch, M. Koc, Review of micro-nanoscale surface coatings application for sustaining dropwise condensation. Coatings 9(2), 117 (2019) A. Mabrouk, et al., HP MED Plants, Part II: Novel Integration MED-Absorption Vapor Compression, in IDA 2017 World Congress on Water Reuse and Desalination, 2017 A.A. Mabrouk, K. Bourouni, H.K. Abdulrahim, M. Darwish, A.O. Sharif, Impacts of tube bundle arrangement and feed flow pattern on the scale formation in large capacity MED desalination plants. Desalination 357, 275–285 (2015) B. Narváez-Romo, J.R. Simões-Moreira, Falling liquid film evaporation in subcooled and saturated water over horizontal heated tubes. Heat Transf. Eng. 38(3), 361–376 (2017) W. Nusselt, Die oberflachenkondensation des wasserdamphes. VDI-Zs 60, 541–546 (1916) W.H. Parken, L.S. Fletcher, V. Sernas, J.C. Han, Heat transfer through falling film evaporation and boiling on horizontal tubes. J. Heat Transfer 112(3), 744 (1990) C. Qi, H. Feng, H. Lv, C. Miao, Numerical and experimental research on the heat transfer of seawater desalination with liquid film outside elliptical tube. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 93, 207–216 (2016) G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi, Falling-film evaporation on horizontal tubes —a critical review. Int. J. Refrig. 28(5), 635–653 (2005) J.-F. Roques, J.R. Thome, Falling film transitions between droplet, column, and sheet flow modes on a vertical array of horizontal 19 FPI and 40 FPI low-finned tubes. Heat Transf. Eng. 24(6), 40–45 (2003) J.F. Roques, V. Dupont, J.R. Thome, Falling film transitions on plain and enhanced tubes. J. Heat Transfer 124(3), 491–499 (2002) M.W. Shahzad, K. Thu, Y. Kim, K.C. Ng, An experimental investigation on MEDAD hybrid desalination cycle. Appl. Energy 148, 273–281 (2015) F. Tahir, A.A. Mabrouk, M. Koc, CFD analysis of spray nozzle arrangements for multi effect desalination evaporator, in Proceeding 3rd Therm. Fluids Eng. Conf., 2018a, pp. 935–941 F. Tahir, A. Mabrouk, M. Koc, CFD analysis of falling film wettability in MED desalination plants, in Qatar Foundation Annual Research Conference Proceedings, vol. 2018, no. 1, 2018b, p. EEPD650 F. Tahir, A. Mabrouk, M. Koc, Review on CFD analysis of horizontal falling film evaporators in multi effect desalination plants. Desalin. Water Treat. 166, 296–320 (2019) F. Tahir, A.A.B. Baloch, H. Ali, Resilience of desalination plants for sustainable water supply in Middle East, in Sustainability

240 Perspectives: Science, Policy and Practice, Strategies for Sustainability, ed. by P.A. Khaiter, M.G. Erechtchoukova (Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020a), pp. 303–329 F. Tahir, A. Mabrouk, M. Koç, Impact of surface tension and viscosity on falling film thickness in multi-effect desalination (MED) horizontal tube evaporator. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 150, 106235 (2020b) F. Tahir, A. Mabrouk, M. Koç, CFD analysis of falling film hydrodynamics for a lithium bromide (LiBr) solution over a horizontal tube. Energies 13(2), 307 (2020)

F. Tahir et al. L. Yang, Y. Liu, Y. Yang, S. Shen, Microscopic mechanisms of heat transfer in horizontal-tube falling film evaporation. Desalination 394, 64–71 (2016) C.Y. Zhao, W.T. Ji, Y.L. He, Y.J. Zhong, W.Q. Tao, A comprehensive numerical study on the subcooled falling film heat transfer on a horizontal smooth tube. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 119, 259–270 (2018) Y. Zhou, Z. Cai, Z. Ning, M. Bi, Numerical simulation of double-phase coupled heat transfer process of horizontal-tube falling film evaporation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 118, 33–40 (2017)

WATER: Water Resources

Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study C. R. Shashi Kiran, M. E. Gowtham Prasad, K. Ashwin Thammaiah, Shrithi S. Badami, H. G. Shruthi, and M. C. Sampathkumar

Abstract

1

Agriculture drought is deemed one of the most horrible phenomena that mankind has been facing. In a nation like India, dry spells are causing such vulnerability due to the inconsistency of precipitations. Administrative bodies are saving energy and cash for the potential dry seasons, yet this procedure is a tedious and testing. Favorable position of geospatial technology is useful to comprehend the dry season inclined territory and its seriousness level through satellite pictures. In the present study, we are working on the Ayacut of Hemavathy river basin, which is located in the southern part of Karnataka, India. The study is mainly about assessing the risk of agricultural drought by using satellite images and meteorological data. Analytical processing of data and preparing maps of NDVI, LULC, rainfall, slope, and drainage was carried out. The study was done using the Landsat 7 images of the decocainizing years. The results indicated that a drought occurred in 2002. Keywords

Landsat (NDVI) images








Normalized difference vegetation index Land use and land cover (LULC) Satellite

C. R. Shashi Kiran (&)
M. E. Gowtham Prasad
K. Ashwin Thammaiah
S. S. Badami Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering (R V College of Engineering), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India H. G. Shruthi ATME College of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India M. C. Sampathkumar BMS College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Introduction

Human perceptions of climate, its variability, and its potential change have become a serious challenge in understanding climate–society interactions, as more attention is given to studies of human adaptation to climate change. People's subjective observations of climate may be confirmed by statistical data, but extreme events may sometimes be interpreted as a confirmation of ongoing human-induced climate change. Perceptions of climate change could also be affected by the overlooking of other social and environmental factors such as deforestation, population growth, or soil erosion (Yao et al. 2018). This would result in ascribing specific impacts to climatic causes instead of actual causes, which are often a combination of climatic, environmental, and social factors (Foztaine and Steinemann 2009). Drought is essentially a cataclysmic event coming about by inadequate precipitation in some random area, bringing about deficiency in the water supply. There are numerous zones in the nation that confronted dry spells every year, while a portion of the territories confronted unpredictably. A dry spell is brought about by different parameters, such as deforestation, precipitation insufficiency, environmental change, a worldwide temperature alteration, disintegration and human exercises, dry season, and insufficient surface water. Dry spells have a serious impact on society generally and on individuals in particular. It also devastates harvests, causes monetary loss, increment in cost, soil debasement, agribusiness misfortunes, and expansion timberland fires amid dry season. Indian meteorological department pronounced some regions face dry spell each year such as Rajasthan, few regions of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, different localized spots like Saurashtra and Kachchh—Gujarat, Tirunelveli locale (Maity et al. 2013). Dry season inclined territories in Karnataka are Kalburgi, Raichur, Haveri, Gadag, Yadgir, Bidar, and so forth. Drought risk assessment plays a vital role in drought management as it helps in collection, analysis, and generation of report with data

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_29

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pertaining to develop the information regarding risk prone areas. These inputs are important parameter for the computing models used in drought forecasting (Shruti and Mohammad Aslam 2015; Mallya et al. 2013).

The present study was restricted to an Ayacut of Hemavathy stream bowl, situated in southern part of Karnataka, India. It covers the regions of four locale, in particular, Hassan, Mandya, Chikmagalur, Kodagu. The Hemavati Waterway begins in the Western Ghats at a rise of around 1219 m close Ballala Rayana Durga in the Chikmagalur Region of the territory of Karnataka, India. It courses through Hassan Region where it is joined by its main tributary, the Yagachi Waterway, and afterward into Mandya locale before joining the Kaveri close Krishnarajasagara. It is roughly 245 km long and has a seepage region of around 5410 km2. A dam built over the waterway Hemavati was finished in 1979, above Goruru in Hassan locale, and downstream from the Yagachi conversion. The dam is 58 m in stature, and 4692 m in length, appropriating a repository of 8052 ha (Fig. 1).

lives and jobs (Anderson et al. 2000). Notwithstanding, it gave data about the minerals, vitality, water, and other characteristic assets. US of topographical overview comprise of noteworthy science disciplines concerning hydrology, topography, and geology (Rulinda et al. 2012). It gives the landsat pictures. The present examination depends on the information given via Landsat 7, which has 8 unearthly groups with spatial goals in the scope of 15–60 m. Pictures via landsat are separated into scenes for simple downloading. Each landsat scene is around 115 miles in length and 115 miles wide or 185 km long and 185 km wide. The landsat 7 pictures comprises of seven groups with goals of 30 m for groups 1–5 and 7 for the band 8 (panchromatic) is 15 m. For the examination, October month was picked for the years recanalizing so as to evaluate changes in vegetation spread due to this month is viewed as development month for vegetation. For evaluation of vegetation of the zone, landsat 7 topical mappers + (ETM+) of October were downloaded from USGS. Because of issue of absence of cloud free pictures and issue of information accessibility just for deconning pictures were chosen. Band 3 band 4 topical mapper gives information to dry spell examination utilizing NDVI (Harshad et al. 2008; Karamouz et al. 2004).

3

3.2 NDVI Calculation

2

Study Area

Methodology

Table 1 illustrates the procedure adopted in the undertaking. It incorporates extraction of satellite pictures and extraction of information from pictures and figuring the standardized distinction in vegetation record esteems and contrasting and the standard NDVI values, gathering of precipitation information and breaking down the territories which are influenced by dry spell (Riadbalaga et al. 2018; Hayes et al. 2004).

For the assurance of change in green space territories, the satellite pictures were filtered utilizing the Arc GIS programming 10.3. After extracting the landsat pictures, the groups of band 1 to band 7 was obtained. These separated bands were transferred to Arc GIS Software, subsequent to transferring, the picture was exposed to pre-processing, for example, band stacking, dimness, and commotion evacuation and change of advanced number (DN) to reflectance esteems (RV) (Fig. 2).

3.1 Agriculture Drought Analysis Where Collection of satellite image: Gathering of satellite picture from United States Geological Survey (USGS), which gives information about the common dangers is that compromise

NIR

RED

Fig. 1 Study area

the measure of close infrared light reflected by the vegetation, what is more, caught by the satellite sensor. the measure of red light in the noticeable range reflected by the vegetation and caught by the satellite sensor (Fig. 3).

For deciding the thickness of vegetation on a fixed land, unmistakable shades of noticeable and close infrared wavelength are reflected by the plants when the daylight strikes the item (Chen and Guo 2013). Explicit wavelengths of the range are watched, and different wavelengths are reflected. The chlorophyll substance of plant leaf emphatically assimilates the obvious light (from 0.4 to 0.7 lm) utilized for photosynthesis. Then again, cell structure of the leaves

Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study Table 1 Flow chart of methodology adopted

Fig. 2 Pre-processing of Landsat images

Fig. 3 NDVI Value

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Fig. 4 NDVI Map of study area

and the greatest esteem indicates 0.415584. Essentially, in 2010, the base NDVI esteem is −1, and the most extreme is +1. From the subsequent above NDVI values, we can evaluate the vegetation's wellbeing. From this, NDVI examines it is plainly seen that 2010 gives the most extreme sound state of vegetation thought about 2002. In 2002, NDVI values are −0.511811 to 0.415584, which demonstrates that vegetation wellbeing condition is seriously influence additionally show plainly in the NDVI guide of 2002. In 2010, NDVI values −1 to +1, which demonstrates that the vegetation condition sound. As the NDVI esteems expands, the vegetation soundness likewise increases as we had seen the from NDVI map (Son et al. 2012).

4.2 Rainfall Analysis Seasonal Characteristics

Fig. 5 NDVI Map of study area

emphatically reflect close infrared light (from 0.7 to 1.1 lm); more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light influenced, individually. Hence, vegetation seems diverse at unmistakable and close infrared wavelength.

4

Results and Discussion

4.1 NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) LANDSAT 7 ETM+ and TM information are utilized for calculation of NDVI for two unique years that speaks to the sound state of vegetation appeared in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. NDVI values are the great pointer for the evaluation of dry season. NDVI values differ at from −1 to +1. Low estimations of NDVI (−0.1 and beneath) compare to fruitless zone of shake, sand, or urban/developed. Zero demonstrates water spread. Moderate esteem low thickness of vegetation (0.1–0.3), high qualities (0.6–1) show thick vegetation. NDVI is vegetation prompt. It has been seen that in the time of 2002, the base NDVI esteem is −0.511811,

Rain is fluid water as beads with consolidated from environmental water vapor and afterward accelerated, i.e., become sufficiently overwhelming to fall under gravity. Downpour is a noteworthy segment of the water cycle and is in charge of keeping the vast majority of the crisp water on the earth. It gives appropriate condition to numerous kinds of biological systems, just as water for hydroelectric power plants and yield water system. Downpour checks measure precipitation at individual focuses. In any case, numerous hydrological applications require the normal profundity of precipitation happening over a zone which can then be contrasted straight forwardly and overflow from that region. India gets a large portion of its precipitation (73%) from the southwest storm, i.e., (the precipitation got among June and September). The southwest storm sets in amid the primary seven-day stretch of June in the southwest corner of India and bit by bit continues toward the northwest locale covering the whole nation continuously seven-day stretch of July. The withdrawal of the rainstorm begins in the main seven-day stretch of September from the west and north and gets from most piece of the nation constantly end. Notwithstanding when the general precipitation in the nation was held the huge varieties are seen crosswise over locales inside states and some of the time, even inside areas.

4.3 Monthly Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall The area under consideration is the Hemavathy river basin. For rainfall analysis, the data from Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Center (KSNDMC) was procured between 1990 and 2014; this included depth of rainfall values collected from 11 rain gauge stations located across the Hemavathy river basin. Seasonal rainfall contribution is shown in Figs. 6 and 7.

Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study

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Fig. 6 Seasonal normal rainfall of Hemavathy river basin

Fig. 7 Seasonal rainfall contribution in Hemavathy river basin

Fig. 8 Pre-monsoon rainfall pattern

4.4 Pre-monsoon Normal Rainfall Pattern Pre-monsoon rainfall is from March to May. The present study area receives the least rainfall in pre-monsoon compared to the SW-monsoon and NE-monsoon. Pre-monsoon rainfall contributes 10% of total annual rainfall. Pre-monsoon rainfall maps of the recanalizing year are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.

4.5 Southwest Monsoon Normal Rainfall Pattern The southwest seasons starts from June to September. It contributes 64% of normal annual rainfall of the Hemavathy river basin. Most amount of annual rainfall is received in the southwest monsoon season. Figures 10 and 11 give the rainfall map of the study area.

Fig. 9 Pre-monsoon rainfall pattern

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4.6 Northeast Monsoon Normal Rainfall Pattern The Northeast monsoon season is from October to December, and it contributes around 26% of the yearly average rainfall of the Hemavathy river basin. Figures 12 and 13 give a rainfall map of the recanalizing years.

Fig. 13 North east monsoon rainfall map

4.7 Annual Normal Rainfall Pattern

Fig. 10 Southwest monsoon rainfall map

The average annual rainfall in the study area is about 1281.17 mm—Hemavathy river basin under semi-arid region. Holenarsipur taluk receives the lowest rainfall of 484.3 and 1092.6 in 2002 and 2010, whereas Mudigere taluk receives the highest rainfall of 1600.17 mm 2682 mm in the year 2002 and 2010, respectively. Figures 14 and 15 show annual rainfall maps. Figure 16 gives the comparison of annual rainfall of the study area in the years 2002 and 2010. Figure 17 shows the trend analysis of the Hemavathy river basin.

4.8 Land Use and Land Cover Map

Fig. 11 Southwest monsoon rainfall map

When the context of agrarian action is concerned, land use design is a significant factor that impacts horticultural creation and efficiency. The land use/land spread guide had been set up for two unique rezoning years by utilizing ArcGIS 10.3 programming (Bellamy et al. 2013). The land

Fig. 12 North east monsoon rainfall map

Fig. 14 Annual rainfall map

Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study

Fig. 15 Annual rainfall map

Fig. 16 Comparison of rainfall

Fig. 17 Trend analysis of annual rainfall of Hemavathy river basin

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spread information records the amount of a district is secured by woodlands, wetlands, impenetrable surfaces, horticulture, and other land, and water types. Water types incorporate wetlands or vast water. Land use indicates how individuals utilize the scene—regardless of whether for advancement, protection, or blended employments. The breaking down satellite pictures of land spread maps give data which help to comprehend the present scene. To see a change after some time, land spread maps for a few unique years are required, in the LULC map 2002 greatest zone is secured by infertile soil. The present study areas indicate agriculture is depending on the rainfall in relation to the occurrence of agricultural drought. By observing the LULC map of two different years 2002 and 2010, it was understood that in the year 2002 there was low rainfall as compared to 2010. This shows that in 2002, drought had occurred. Land use and land cover map of 2002 and 2010 are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. Pie chart shown in Figs. 20 and 21 gives the percentage of individual land use/land cover classes of each sector is covering how many areas within the entire area. From this Figure, it is clearly observed that barren soil and dry vegetation are covering the maximum portion of the total sector, 57%, and 18%, respectively (Smart 1983). Nevertheless, the other classes (water bodies, healthy vegetation, forest) are covering very less portion of the total area in the year of 2002. In 2010, area covering water and healthy vegetation are increased compared to 2002.

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Fig. 18 Land use land cover map

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Fig. 21 Graphical representation of land use and land cover areas (in %)

5

Fig. 19 Land use land cover map

Fig. 20 Graphical representation of land use and land cover areas (in %)

Conclusions

It is foreseen that the future will observe expanded elements in hydro-meteorological factors the world over which will prompt developing water requests will intensify continuous dry seasons whose effects. A dry season is a multivariate occasion. The target of the present investigation was to distinguish dry spell seriousness level utilizing satellite-based dry season markers and to perceive how suitably dry season chance territories can be recognized by combination of satellite pictures, meteorological and auxiliary information. Farming stays by a wide margin the most helpless and touchy division that is truly influenced by the effects of atmosphere fluctuation and environmental change generally showed through precipitation inconstancy and dry season. Precipitation is one of the climatic factors that to a great extent decide the event of dry season and furthermore impacts the development and improvement of vegetation, which is reflected by NDVI. In this investigation, the rural dry spell inclined regions in the Hemavathy waterway bowl were distinguished by utilizing remote sensing, and GIS innovation, and dry spell chance territories were recognized by combination of satellite pictures, meteorological data. It additionally demonstrates and legitimizes the value of remote detecting and GIS procedure for recognizing dry season related worry in downpour encouraged harvests. Dissimilar to the meteorological information accessible from meagerly conveyed meteorological stations, remote detecting based vegetation lists like NDVI can be effectively utilized for recognizing the spatial-worldly degree of horticultural dry season. The records are utilized to distin-

Drought Risk Assessment Using NDVI—A Case Study

guish the transient and spatial dry season designs, as got from the investigation of a 16-year timeframe. Meteorological dry season lists and vegetative dry files had been utilized to gauge the dry spell risk wonder. Topical layers like drainage, slope, and precipitation map were mulled over to play out the investigation. The land use/land cover maps over the years showing the basic LULC types, patterns, and temporal variation over the years due to the impact of drought and NDVI maps are showing the vegetation conditions, healthiness, and variation due to the severity of drought, remote sensing and GIS is the best tool to temporally and quantitatively analyze the drought severity over the agriculture and assessment. Rainfall analysis for the Hemavathy river basin comprising total area of 5410 km2 and annual average rainfall are 1281.17 mm for 1990–2014 (16 years). The total rainfall, the southwest monsoon contributes 64%, the pre-monsoon contributes about 10%, whereas northeast monsoon contributes 26%. The average annual rainfall for 1990–2014 indicates that the highest average rainfall of 1281.17 mm for the Hemavathy river basin. The study areas in the years 2000, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2014 have the highest rainfall. Whereas 2002, 2003, and 2012 received less rainfall compared to the annual average rainfall for 16 years. Holenarasipur taluk received the lowest rainfall of 765.54 mm, whereas Mudigere taluk received the highest rainfall 2565.1 mm. The examination was done to survey the horticulture dry season by utilizing vegetation actuate, and meteorological instigate. The investigation had completed by utilizing the landsat 7 pictures of the year 2002 and 2010. NDVI values change from −1 to +1. Low estimations of NDVI (−0.1 and beneath) relate to desolate region of shake, sand, or urban/developed. Zero demonstrates water spread. Moderate esteem low thickness of vegetation (0.1–0.3), while high qualities (0.6–1) demonstrate thick vegetation. NDVI map for 2002 is prepared, given the NDVI value, of minimum −0.5118 and maximum is +0.4155. NDVI values for the year 2010 minimum is −1 to +1. By comparing the NDVI values, of reckoning years clearly indicate that in 2002, vegetation is low. Land use land cover maps are also prepared for the recanalizing year. LULC map for the year 2002 gives that barren land is 55% and water is only

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6%, and in the year 2010 barren land is 24%, and water cover is 26%. The above values clearly indicate that in the year 2002, drought had occurred.

References M.L. Anderson, M. Levant Kavas, M.D. Mierzwa M.ASCE, Assessing hydrologic drought risk using simplified climatic model, vol. 5, 2000, pp. 393–401 R. Balaga, B. Cychon, H. Eexens, M. Jlibene, Empirical regression models using NDVI, rainfall, and temperature data for the early prediction of the wheat grains, 2018, pp. 438–452 J. Bellamy, G. Tootle, S. Hazurbazar, L. Pochop, A. Bermett, Case study on drought frequency and risk analysis In the upper green river basin Wyoming. J. Hydrol. Eng. (ASCE) 18(7), 888–896 (2013) L. Chen, F. Shenglian Guo, A.K. Mishra, J. Guo, Drought analysis using copula. Hydrol. Eng. 18(4) (2013) M.M. Foztaine, A.C. Steinemann, M.ASCE, Assessing Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: impact-based Method and Application to Drought in Washington State, vol. 10, 2009, pp. 11–18 S. Harshad, S. Murid, M. Reza Mobashri, M. Agha Alikha, Moders University, Development of agricultural drought risk assessment models for Kermansham Provinens using satellite data and intelligent methods, vol. 80, 2008, pp. 303–310 M.J. Hayes, O.V. Wilhelmi, C.L. Knutson, Reducing Drought Risk: Bridging Theory and Practice, vol. 5, 2004, pp. 106–113 M. Karamouz, F.ASCE, S. Torabi, S. Araghinejad, Analysis of hydrologic and agricultural droughts in Central Part of Iran. J. Hydrol. Eng. 9(5), 402–414 (2004) R. Maity, A. Sharma, D. Nagesh Kumar, M.ASCE, K. Chand, Characterizing drought using the reliability-resilience-vulnerability concept. J. Hydrol. Eng. 18, 859–869 (2013) G. Mallya, S. Tripathi, S. Kirshner, R.S. Govindaraju, Probabilistic assessment of drought characteristics using hidden Markova model. J. Hydrol. Eng. (ASCE) 18(7), 834–845 (2013) C.N. Rulinda, A. Dilo, W.W. Bijker, A. Stein, Characteristic and quantifying the vegetative drought in east Africa using fuzzy modelling and NDVI data, vol. 78, 2012, pp. 169–178 S. Shruti, M.A. Mohammad Aslam, Agricultural drought analysis using NDVI and LST, vol. 4, 2015, pp. 1256–1264 G.M. Smart, Drought analysis and soil moisture prediction. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 109(2), 251–261 (1983) N.T. Son, C.F. Chen, C.R. Chen, V.Q. Minh, Monitoring the agricultural drought in the lower Mekons basin using MODIS. NDVI & LST data, vol. 18, 2012, pp. 417–427 J. Yao, Y. Zhao, Y.C. Xioagingyu, R. Ghang, Institute of desert meteorology “Multi-scale assessment of drought” vol. 630, 2018, pp. 444–452

Coupling of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling in Management of an Urban Water Distribution Network—A Case Study of Tlemcen (Algeria) Yacine Abdelbasset Berrezal, Chérifa Abdelbaki, and Mohamed El Amine Benabdelkrim

Abstract

1

Increases in the growth of urban regions along with climate change have contributed to a scarcity in water resources. For arid regions, this problem may be aggravated by inadequate management plans and a lack of proper data collection related to the geographical location of water distribution networks. A possible solution is the use of geographical information system (GIS) as a tool in decision-making process in the field of water distribution management. Coupling external hydraulic calculation models with GIS can further enhance this management tool. The current study used these tools in assessing the performance of a drinking water distribution network of an urban cluster in Tlemcen Algeria. A methodology was developed by coupling GIS to a hydraulic calculation model (Mike Urban). The results showed that it is possible to obtain an alphanumeric description of the pipes, tanks, and all the accessories constituting the network. Design irregularities in the Tlemcen urban cluster’s network were identified. The approach adopted in this work effectively contributes to the management of water distribution networks using GIS. Keywords




GIS Management network




Modeling




Water distribution

Y. A. Berrezal (&)
C. Abdelbaki
M. E. A. Benabdelkrim Department of Hydraulics, Faculty of Technology, University of Tlemcen, P.B. 230 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria Y. A. Berrezal
C. Abdelbaki
M. E. A. Benabdelkrim EOLE Laboratory, University of Tlemcen, P.B. 230 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria C. Abdelbaki Institute of Water and Energy Sciences (Including Climate Change) PAUWES, 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria

Introduction

As with other technical networks, water distribution systems belong to an urban and peri-urban environment in which they act and interact with other networks (Blindu 2004). The operator of a water distribution network is usually faced with the difficulty of trying to understanding the network, given its diversity (Abdelbaki et al. 2019). To streamline the management of a water distribution network, it is necessary to precisely know all the relevant elements or components, in order to be able to prevent incidents and have a diagnostic tool to remedy incidents as quickly as possible. Thus, it is essential to keep track of what has been done so as to build a “memory” of milestones to best target programming and investment decisions (Blindu 2004). Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is information about a physical object that can be represented by numerical values in a geographic coordinate system. GIS provides a consistent environment for viewing of the display model and the input/output data results. This ability is very useful in the decision-making process. In the field of urban hydraulics for instance (Blindu 2004; Abdelbaki et al. 2014), demonstrated that the use of GIS allows for a more thorough awareness of a water distribution network, thus, making it easier to update a system after a change. According to Tabesh et al. (2010), the development of a GIS model combined with the generation of information required for effective water services management is time-consuming and expensive. It has become clear that all desired management goals cannot be reached in the application of GIS in water distribution systems without a link to hydraulic simulation models. Additionally, coupling GIS to external models enhances the overall management efficiency of water delivery systems (Yu et al. 2010). The aim of the current study was to develop a more effective management system for a water distribution network in an arid area by coupling ArcGis (https://learn.arcgis. com/fr/arcgis-book/) software with a hydraulic model (Mike

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_30

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Urban) (MIKE Urban Tutorials 2017) and then applying it to a case study region, Tlemcen, situated in the North-West of Algeria. Specifically, network modeling was used to analyze and to better comprehend the functioning of the distribution network in terms of diagnosing problem areas such as pressure, leakages, and replacement of worn-out pipes.

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tanks. The primary network performance is 53%, and the linear loss index is in the range of 14 m3/day/km (ADE 2017). The average consumption rate is 300 m3/h. The average flows of each district are given in Fig. 2. The ratio between outflows and mean flow gives the consumption coefficients. Figure 3 shows that consumption increased from 11 am to 15 pm, this is explained by the fact that it is a peak period.

Methodology

2.1 Case of Study The urban group or cluster of Tlemcen Algeria contains the communities of Tlemcen, Chetouane, and Mansourah. It is located in the West of Algeria and occupies approximately 112 km2 constituting the inner basin of Tlemcen. The study area (Fig. 1) is located in the South of the urban group of Tlemcen covering an area of 3.4 km2. The terrain of the study area is too rugged. The nature of the soil is semi-rocky and has steep slopes with a drop between 800 and 1100 m.

2.2 Description of Tlemcen Water Distribution Network Water distribution network is provided for the population in the Tlemcen urban group from three sources: underground water through 17 drills at three sites, surface water from two dams and desalination plants at Honaine and Souk Thelatha (Abdelbaki et al. 2019). It is interconnected with branched extensions and serves 6625 subscribers (ADE 2017). The studied network length (main pipes) is 65 km with the pipe diameter varying between 40 and 600 mm (steel and galvanized steel). The water is distributed by gravity using 11

Fig. 1 Study area—Southern part of the Tlemcen urban group

2.3 The GIS of Tlemcen Water Distribution Network The establishment of GIS for the Tlemcen water distribution network was motivated by the fact that it allows spatial analysis by combining layers of information stored in the database. Figure 4 summarizes the global adopted methodology. The Mike Urban (MIKE Urban Tutorials 2017) model used ESRI technology to manage its database and Epanet (Rossman 2000) as a modeling tool, with a few additional modules such as the module for water hammer analysis. The Mike Urban tool makes it possible to carry out, from the results of simulations, all kinds of thematic maps related to networks. The hydraulic analysis methodology is given in Fig. 5.

2.4 Creation of the Distribution Zones The creation of the distribution zones aims to divide the water distribution network into smaller sub-networks called sectors in order to control the inflow counting at the entrance of each sector (Burrows et al. 2000). The division into

255

70 60 50 40 30 20

Hartoun

Riadh H.

Bel Air

Sidi Tahar

Kelaa 2

Birouana

S.Boumedien

Riadh

Sidi Chaker

0

Kelaa 1

10 Boudghen

Daily consumption(m3/h)

Coupling of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling in Management …

Districts Fig. 2 Average flow consumed for each district

Fig. 5 Hydraulic analysis methodology used by Mike Urban

network (southern part). 08 sectors have been created; they are given in Table 1. Figure 6 shows the spatial distribution of the sectors.

Fig. 3 Daily profile curve

Implementation of GIS for the Tlemcen Water Distribution Network

Repartition of the network of Tlemcen in distribution zones

Import Tlemcen network under Mike Urban and complete loading data (make corrections if necessary)

Start simulations for each zone and make the necessary corrections (calibration)

Perform various thematic analyzes according to the distribution of pressures and velocities of Tlemcen Fig. 4 Methodology flowchart

sectors consists of studying the mode of supply from the main pipes and the storage structures so as to define the different pressure stages of Tlemcen’s water distribution

2.5 Water Distribution Network Modeling Network modeling was employed to analyze and to simulate the Tlemcen network (South part) using GIS (ArcGis https:// learn.arcgis.com/fr/arcgis-book/). Specific problems were diagnosed such as leakages and worn-out pipes. Mike Urban (MIKE Urban Tutorials 2017) was chosen for the simulation of the distribution of pressures. It offers many advantages compared to traditional modeling tools such as standard data formats, the integrated interface under GIS, and its calculation engine used for modeling is EPANET (Rossman 2000).

3

Results and Discussion

According to Mike Urban network analysis of the pressure distribution, it was found that 13% of the demand nodes have pressures greater than 6 bar (Fig. 7). This signifies that the network nodes may have serious leakage problems. Unacceptable noise inside the customers’ houses was also reported (Burrows et al. 2000). 69% of the nodes had a pressure lower than 1 bar, suggesting that these nodes may have broken pipes. It can be argued that subscribers of these regions are not properly served. Furthermore, 18% of the nodes had a pressure between 1 and 6 bar. This means that these nodes were in the standard range and were working

256 Table 1 Network distribution sectors

Y. A. Berrezal et al. N° of sectors

Name of sector

1

Maliha

2

Sidi Chaker

3

Sidi Boumediene

4

Sidi Tahar

5

Kalaa 2

6

Boudghen

7

Mansourah

8

Birouana

Fig. 6 Spatial distribution sectors

properly as proposed by Dupont (1979) and Bonin (1986). Inadequacy of water distribution systems to satisfy demand and pressure is usually a result of population increase, which is mainly caused by rapid urbanization (Awe et al. 2020). The overall analysis indicated that the Tlemcen (South part) water distribution network is not well functioning. Several actions are required to improve the performance and to reduce the rate of leakage in the network.

Fig. 7 Pressure distribution on the nodes

Updating of the network should take into consideration the operating conditions (i.e., pressure, soil characteristics). Some suggestions are to be considered, (1) Add a break tank to reduce the pressure in the network in order to correct the pressure problem; (2) Add two gate valves and pressure regulating valve, its implantation position is given in Fig. 8. These valves are installed at every major junction; (3) Add the data logger, it is the effective solution for monitoring

Coupling of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling in Management …

257

Fig. 8 Changes made on Birouana network

Fig. 9 Simulation results after modifications

networks because it gives the possibility of controlling flow and pressure, remote reading of network meters and controlling consumption, controlling pressure regulation valves. It is noted that after making the changes, the pressure has increased, and it varies during the day depending on demand. During peak periods, consumption is high so the pressure will decrease but it remains within distribution standards, and the results are given in Fig. 9. It is important to note that the storage and updating of operations’ data allows the operators and managers to access the history of operating problems of specific parts of the network (Abdelbaki 2014). Knowing where breaks have occurred and where renewals have been made, for instance, is very useful for predicting future interventions in the network and thus for budgeting purposes.

4

Conclusion(s)

This work consisted in the establishment of a methodology for managing drinking water supply network in the South zone of the city of Tlemcen urban clusters using the

geographic information system ArcGIS and Mike Urban calculation model. The adopted approach contributes to the enhanced management of water distribution networks and offers operators of such networks a tool that permits a better understanding of how a network functions by knowing, for instance, the state of a particular point or node. The coupling of GIS with a model provides an operating tool that allows managers and operators to diagnose their networks and to plan for future situations (Abdelbaki 2014; Abdelbaki et al. 2019). While the advantages of such systems are well established, data collection and data entry require a considerable amount of work; however, once completed, the stored information proves for effective and improved management of the water distribution network. In addition, multi-objective optimization methods as developed by Huang et al. (2020) will be developed for this network in order to have an optimal water distribution network. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the staff of the Operations Department of the Algerian water-Unit (Algérienne des Eaux de Tlemcen) for their help and cooperation.

258

References C. Abdelbaki, Modélisation d’un réseau d’AEP et contribution à sa gestion à l’aide d’un SIG - Cas du Groupement Urbain de Tlemcen, Doctoral thesis, Hydraulics Department, University of Tlemcen— Algeria, 2014 C. Abdelbaki, B. Touaibia, H. Mahmoudi, S.M. Djelloul Smir, M.A. Allal, M. Goosen, Efficiency and performance of a drinking water supply network for an urban cluster at Tlemcen Algeria. Desalin. Water Treat. 52(10–12), 2165–2173 (2014). https://doi.org/10. 1080/19443994.2013.870497 C. Abdelbaki, B. Touaibia, A. Ammari, H. Mahmoudi, M. Goosen, Contribution of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling to the Management of Water Distribution Network, ed. by K. Koutsopoulos, R. de Miguel González, K. Donert, Geospatial Challenges in the 21st Century. Key Challenges in Geography (EUROGEO Book Series) (Springer, Cham, 2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04750-4_7 ADE, Rapport interne, Division d’exploitation, 2017, p. 39 ArcGis, GIS Provides a Common Visual Language Transforming our understanding of the world, p. 684, https://learn.arcgis.com/fr/ arcgis-book/ O.M. Awe, S.T.A. Okolie, O.S.I. Fayomi, Analysis and optimization of water distribution systems: a case study of Kurudu post service housing estate, Abuja, Nigeria. Results Eng. 5, 100100 (2020). ISSN 2590-1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2020.100100

Y. A. Berrezal et al. I. Blindu, Outil d’aide au diagnostic du réseau d’eau potable pour la ville de Chisinau par analyse spatiale et temporelle des dysfonctionnements hydrauliques. Thèse de doctorat, Ecole nationale supérieure des mines de Saint-Etienne, France (2004), p. 304 J. Bonin, Hydraulique urbaine appliquée aux agglomérations de petite et moyenne importance, Edition Eyrolles, 1986, p. 228 R. Burrows, G.S. Crowder, J. Zhang, Utilisation of network modelling in the operational management of water distribution systems. Urban Water 2, 83–95 (2000) A. Dupont, Hydraulique urbaine, Tome 2. Edition Eyrolles, France, 1979, p. 484 Y. Huang, F. Zheng, H. Duan et al., Multi-objective optimal design of water distribution networks accounting for transient impacts. Water Resour. Manage. 34, 1517–1534 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11269-020-02517-4 MIKE URBAN Tutorials, Step-by-Step Training Guide, 2017, p. 232 L. Rossman, Epanet 2 User’s Manual, Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, USA, 2000. http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/wswrd/ epanet.html M. Tabesh, M.R. Delavar, A. Delkhah, Use of geospatial information system based tool for renovation and rehabilitation of water distribution systems. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7(1), 47–58 (2010) G.T. Yu, M. Liya, L. Xiaohui, J. Yunzhong, Construction of water supply pipe network based on GIS and EPANET model in Fangcun District of Guangzhou, in Second IITA International Conference on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 2010

Modeling of Water Erosion Using USLE in the Wadi El Malleh Catchment Area—Morocco Nouhaila Mazigh, Abdeslam Taleb, and Ali El Bilali

Abstract

1

Water erosion remains a difficult problem to apprehend in Morocco. It is a complex phenomenon which is the principal cause of the silting up of reservoirs, leading to a loss of storage capacity of up to 75 million m3 per year, a total cumulative loss of 1750 million m3 out of the 17.5 billion m3 of total reservoir storage capacity, according to the latest figures from the Water Department besides the chemical degradation of water. This study aims the modeling of soil water erosion using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) to quantify and map water erosion processes at the El Malleh watershed (Casablanca-Settat region), which has a surface area of 3127 km2 and classified among the 22 priority basins to be developed at the national scale. The annual loss is evaluated of about 88 t/ha/year, and 90% of the surface of the study area is characterized by low erosion risk rates (about 5 t/ha/year). Keywords

Water erosion




USLE




ArcGIS




Morocco

Highlights • Prediction of potential soil erosion areas using the USLE approach and GIS techniques. • 90% of the study area has a soil loss of 5 t/ha/y. • Agriculture land and bare soil show severe erosion (88 t/ha/y).

N. Mazigh (&)
A. Taleb
A. El Bilali Faculty of Science and Technology of Mohammedia, Process and Environmental Engineering, University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco

Introduction

Water erosion has become a relevant issue, reducing the productivity of agricultural land (Parveen and Kumar 2012) and decreasing water availability (Adongo et al. 2014). In Morocco, water erosion has increased dramatically during the recent decades, affecting about 40% of the land (Chevalier et al. 1994). It has a higher impact on diffuse pollution in rivers, on the silting up of dams and hydraulic infrastructures. For example, in the mountainous areas of the Moroccan Rif, erosion rates are estimated to be around 45 (t/ha/year) (Ait Fora 1995), causing significant siltation of large dams in Morocco, estimated about 50 million tons of sediment per year (Merzouki 1992), resulting in a reduction in water storage capacity of around 0.5% per year (Tahri et al. 1993). Oued El Malleh watershed, located in the CasablancaSettat region, covers an area of 312,700 ha (Fig. 1). It is characterized by a semi-arid Mediterranean climate, disturbances often associated with intense rainfall in winter, favored by the geomorphological conditions of the said watershed and anthropic pressure, making it subject to significant soil losses. The objective of this work is to evaluate and map the erosion risk areas, using a scientific GIS/USLE approach (Wischmeier and Smith 1960) at the basin scale and to decide on the development and erosion control interventions.

2

Materials and Methods

The use of the USLE model, originally developed by Wischmeier and Smith (Wischmeier and Smith 1960) and adapted by Renard et al. (1995), for the quantitative assessment of erosion remains the most widely used method (Wischmeier and Smith 1978).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_31

259

260

N. Mazigh et al.

estimated the K-factor using the Wiliam equations (Williams 1995). Subsequently, the topographic factor has been calculated according to (Bizuwerk et al. 2003). Thereby, the extraction of the slope class map (in degrees) and the flux accumulation map from the DEM (Digital Elevation Model). At last, the NDVI was determined from the overlay classification of the Landsat 8 OLI satellite image, which allowed us to calculate the C factor, according to the formula of Van der Knijff (Knijff et al. 2000). In the case of the Oued EL Malleh basin, slope management is almost absent, due to the absence of cultivation techniques such as contour plowing, as the type of crops grown in the study area is mainly cereals. The P factor has assigned a value of 1 over the entire area of the basin (Wischmeier and Smith 1978).

3

Fig. 1 Location map of the Oued El Malleh watershed

The USLE-based model is a function that integrates five main factors that control water erosion. It is expressed in the following equation: A ¼ R  K  LS  C  P

ð1Þ

where A R K LS C P

average soil loss in (t ha−1 yr−1); precipitation intensity factor in (MJ mm ha−1 h−1 yr−1); soil erodibility factor in (t ha h ha−1 Mj−1 mm−1); topographic factor (dimensionless); the vegetation cover factor (dimensionless); prevention practices factor (dimensionless).

The approach adopted for this work consisted first of calculating the factor R, according to the Arnoldus formula (Arnoldus 1980) to estimate the values of weather stations for the hydrological years 2000–2019 and interpolating their results to obtain the erosivity map. Afterwards, we have been extracted the agricultural map from the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Then, we have been

Results

R-factor values in the Oued El Malleh watershed range from 33 to 142 MJ mm ha−1 h−1 yr−1, with intense erosivity upstream of the basin, which varies between 100 and 142 MJ mm ha−1 h−1 yr−1 and occupies 22% of the total area of the study area. The values of the erodibility factor K are between 0.0139 and 0.0183 t ha h/ha MJ mm. The results obtained show that 59% of the Oued El Malleh watershed presents the most erodible soils (0.0183 t ha h/ha MJ mm), compared to 17% of the area of the basin presenting the most resistant soils (see Table 1). The majority of the studied area presents low values of LS which vary between 0 and 2, i.e., 96% of the surface area of the basin. This is due to the relatively flat topography of the Oued El Malleh catchment area. Almost 1% has a high value of 18.52 coincides with the river El Malleh. The value of factor C of the study area is between 0.07 and 0.98 with 70% of the total area of the basin having values between 0.07 and 0.6, indicating that the area has a good vegetation cover, and 30% have a very depressed vegetation cover rate against erosion.

4

Discussion

Cross-referencing the maps of the main factors involved in water erosion provides a map of soil losses at any point in the watershed (Fig. 2). Soil losses in the Oued El Malleh watershed, for the hydrological years 2000–2019, vary from 0 to 88 t. ha−1. yr−1, i.e., 95% of the territory shows low erosion against only 2% showing high to very high erosion. Indeed, the most severe erosion risk classes are vigorous on steep slopes of more than 15 degrees, mainly along the El Malleh River.

Modeling of Water Erosion Using USLE in the Wadi El Malleh … Table 1 Variation of erodibility according to soil type

261

Soil sample

Fcsand

F cl-si

F orgc

F hisand

K usle

K

Eutric Planosols

0.2

0.7,817,833

0.9,896,235

0.8,502,063

0.13,156

0.01,733

Chromic luvisols

0.2

0.7,246,153

0.9,777,019

0.9,830,338

0.13,929

0.01,834

Vertisols

0.20,137

0.6,085,515

0.9,727,176

0.9,999,959

0.1192

0.0157

Calcic cambisols

0.2

0.7,406,298

0,990,605

0.718,479

0.10,543

0.01,388

Luvic Phaeozems

0.200,191

0.7,783,258

0.8,189,478

0,9,999,076

0.12,759

0.0168

5

Conclusion(s)

This study demonstrated the veracity of water erosion in the Oued El Malleh watershed between 2000 and 2019. Indeed, 80% of the total surface area of the watershed constitutes the backbone of agricultural activity; it is basically concentrated in the central and downstream parts of the basin. This shows that cropland and timber harvesting are potentially the main sources of soil degradation. To remedy this problem, mitigation measures were taken, based on the correction of gullies using gabion and dry stone weirs. This scientific approach demonstrated that the ArcGIS software allows the precise determination of the spatial distribution of USLE parameters on a large scale, providing important assistance to decision-makers and planners to simulate scenarios for the evolution of the region and plan erosion control interventions. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the River Basin Agency of Bouregreg and Chaouia (ABHBC) for their support and cooperation in providing all the required data for this study.

References

Fig. 2 Estimated USLE average annual soil loss map of Oued El Malleh watershed

The results show that the percentage of degraded land is continuously increasing. In areas with high vegetation cover, erosion is low (less than 5 t ha−1 yr−1). However, the areas with a high risk of erosion (20–88 t ha−1 yr−1) are located in bare land and badlands, which are mainly concentrated at the level of wadi banks and rough terrains. Soil degradation at the level of Oued El Malleh watershed is explained by non-directed land use, following the intense demographic evolution of the population, but also by anthropic pressure [the subsistence of the local population depends on forest products (wood, overgrazing, and agriculture)] which increases the vulnerability of the land to erosion.

T.A. Adongo, J.X. Kugbe, V.D. Gbedzi, Siltation of the reservoir of Vea irrigation dam in the Bongo District of the Upper East Region, Ghana. Int. J. Sci. Technol. 4, 2224–3577 (2014) A. Ait Fora,Modélisation spatiale de l'érosion hydrique dans un bassin versant du roc marocain: validation de l'approche géomatique par la sédimentologie, les traceurs radio-actifs et la susceptibilité magnétique des sédiments. Ph.D. Thesis (Sherbrooke University, Quebec, 1995) H.M.J. Arnoldus, An approximation of the rainfall factor in the universal soil loss equation, in Assessment of Erosion (Wiley, New York, 1980), pp. 127–132 A. Bizuwerk, G. Taddese, Y. Getahun, Application of GIS for modeling soil loss rate in Awash river basin, Ethiopia, in International Livestock Research Institue (ILRI) (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2003) pp. 1–11 J.J. Chevalier, J. Pouliot, K. Thomson, M.R. Boussema, Systèmes d’aide à la planification pour la conservation des eaux et des sols (Tunisie), in Systèmes d’information géographique utilisant les données de télédétection. (Actes du colloque scientifique international, Hammamet, Tunisie, 1994 Novembre 1–2), pp. 4–12.

262 T. Merzouki, Diagnostic de l’envasement des grands barrages marocains. La Revue Marocaine Du Génie Civil 38, 46–50 (1992) R. Parveen, U. Kumar, Integrated approach of universal soil loss equation (USLE) and geographical information system (GIS) for soil loss risk assessment in Upper South Koel Basin, Jharkhand. J. Geograph. Inf. Syst. 4(6), 588–596 (2012) K.G. Renard, S.U. d’America, *Department of *agriculture A. Research Service, Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1997) M. Tahri, A. Merzouk, H.F. Lamb, R.W. Maxted, Etude de l’Erosion Hydrique dans le Plateau d’Imelchil dans le Haut Atlas Central. Utilisation D’un SIG. Geo Observateur 3, 51–60 (1993)

N. Mazigh et al. J.M. Van der Knijff, R.J.A. Jones, L. Montanarell, Soil erosion risk: assessment in Europe, in EUR 19044 EN, vol. 34 (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2000) J.R. Williams, The EPIC model, in Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology (1995), pp. 909–1000 W.W. Wischmeier, D.D. Smith, A universal soil-loss equation to guide conservation farm planning. Trans. Int. Congr. Soil Sci. 1, 418–425 (1960) W.H. Wischmeier, D.D. Smith, Predicting rainfall erosion losses: a guide to conservation planning, in United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) Handbook No. 537 (United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC., 1978)

Hydro-geochemical Signature in the Thermal Waters in Algeria Hichem Chenaker, Belgacem Houha, and Mohamed Rida Mohmadi

Abstract

The application of geochemical, isotopic and geothermical techniques in North-Eastern Algeria is an important tool for understanding the chemical composition, origin, chemical processes, subsurface history and estimation of subsurface reservoir temperatures. To improve our understanding of the origin of thermal water from NorthEastern Algeria, hydrochemical facies and isotopic characteristics where used to identify the major geochemical processes that affect water composition. For this purpose, a multidisciplinary approach was adopted, including hydrogeochemistry, stable isotopes hydrology, IRRG method (International institute of geothermal research) and principal component analysis (PCA). Eleven samples were collected during the period between November 2013 and April 2015 to identify the origin of the thermal groundwater and for the evaluation of the reservoir temperature in the geothermal systems. Keywords




Algeria Geochemistry Thermal waters

1




Hydrology




Stable isotopes




Introduction

Hydrothermal systems can be found in various geological settings and are hosted in different types of wall-rocks (Zhu et al. 2011), but generally they are found in high heat flow and volcanic regions associated with tectonic plate H. Chenaker (&)
B. Houha Laboratory of Water, Energy and Sustainable Development, University Abbas Laghrour, Khenchela, Algeria

boundaries, and/or in areas with sedimentary rocks of high porosity and permeability, the water in the sediments being heated by the regional heat flow (Fridleifsson and Freeston 1994). There are more than 200 thermal springs in the Algerian territory, situated in different areas with complex geological structures (Polvêche 1960). The paper aims to examine the hydrogeochemistry and geothermometry of thermal waters of northeastern Algeria to provide an overall assessment of: (i) the origin of the thermal groundwater, (ii) determine the chemical processes controlling the composition and circulation of these fluids giving rise to the salinities of these waters and (iii) estimation of the subsurface reservoir temperatures characterized by the presence of many groups of thermal water. In order to reach this aim, a combination of physically and hydrogeochemically based tools including isotope, geochemistry and conventional chemical geothermometers are used to understand the functioning of the hydrothermal system. The chemical and isotopic composition of the geothermal fluids provides information about their origin (Houha 2007), recharge areas and flow patterns (Mutonga et al. 2010). The Northeastern part consists of young mountains formed during the Tertiary by the Alpine orogeny. Alpine Algeria consists of a number of structural-sedimentary units from north to south (Askri et al. 1993). Due to its geographical position and climatic characteristics, Algeria is highly vulnerable to climate changes (Sahnoune et al. 2013). Eleven samples were collected during the period between November 2013 and April 2015. To identify the origin of the thermal groundwater and for the evaluation of the reservoir temperature in the geothermal systems, the following data were used: concentrations of major chemical constituents, stable isotope ratios (dD and d18O), saturation indexes and chemical geothermometer temperatures.

M. R. Mohmadi Department ofGeology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_32

263

264

2

H. Chenaker et al.

Materials and Methods

The study area is located in Northeastern Algeria, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Northwestern part of Algeria to the west, The Saharan Platform to the south, and the Tunisian border to the east. At all sampling points, physicochemical parameters of the waters, such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH and temperature were measured using a portable hand-held digital multi-meter. Chemical and isotopic (d18O and d2H) analysis was carried out at the Laboratory of Hydrogeology of University of Avignon (France). Anion species were analyzed using a Dionex Ion Chromatograph equipped with an automatic sampler with a precision better than ±5%. Silica (SiO2) was analyzed using colorimetric methods; Cation species were analyzed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer and for d18O and d2H, isotope analyses an isotopic ratio mass spectrometer was used (Fig. 1).

3

Results

The different water samples have been classified according to their chemical composition using the Piper diagram (Piper 1944) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area and distribution of sampling points

Fig. 2 Piper diagram showing the chemical facies and variability of samples from the study area

Figure 3 shows that all waters in the study area plot close to the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) and far from the Mediterranean meteoric water line (MMWL) indicating a

Hydro-geochemical Signature in the Thermal Waters in Algeria

265

Fig. 3 Oxygen-18-deuterium plots for thermal waters together with GMWL (Craig 1961) and MMWL (Gat 1980)

meteoric origin, which may be at a higher altitude with increasing temperature.

4

Discussion

The physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH and electric conductivity) were measured in-situ. The temperature of the thermal water samples varied from 38 to 96 °C, the pH value of these springs is slightly acid to neutral with high electrical conductivities up to 4500 lS/Cm. Piper diagram highlighted two major hydrochemical facies namely sodium chloride (Na–Cl) and calcium sulfate (Ca–SO4). The mineral composition of the thermal waters reflects the geological formations found in the deep origin reservoir and chemical changes in the fluids were highly influenced by water–rock interaction. The thermal waters from the study area are depleted in 18O and D and plot on the global meteoric water line (GMWL). Their deep-circulating meteoric origin shows that most thermal waters plot on or near the meteoric water line, with some exceptions due to Mediterranean precipitation, probable water–rock isotope exchange or mixing taking place between the ascending geothermal water and shallow colder groundwater. The subsurface reservoir temperatures were calculated using different solute geothermometers and computation of saturation indexes for different solid phases has been done. The highest estimated reservoir temperatures are indicated by the cation composition geothermometer (CCG) and the Na–K–Ca geothermometer, with local geothermal gradients ranging from 25 to 45 °C/km. In order to know the state of fluid-mineral equilibrium, saturation index (SI) was used; most of the thermal waters have Chalcedony and quartz near or slightly above the

saturation limit for equilibrium. In this present study, multivariate statistical method, Principal component analysis (PCA), is used; PC1 (41%) explains the mineralogy (ionic composition), for which temperature is of secondary importance PC2 (18%). In terms of these physicochemical properties, thermal waters of eastern Algeria are highly effective for the treatment of various diseases, in particular respiratory and rheumatic diseases.

5

Concluding Remarks

Eleven samples were collected during the period between November 2013 and April 2015. Chemically, the thermal waters are of Na–Cl and Ca–SO4 facies, which confirms the influence of the geological formations dominated by Tertiary, carbonate and evaporate rocks, attributable to the variability of the lithological composition and relating to different hydrogeological systems. The high Na, K, Ca, Cl, SO4 and SiO2 concentrations in thermal waters are attributed to a prolonged interaction between water and its wall rock during a long subsurface circulation and cation exchange in the carbonate and evaporate host rocks. Water–rock interaction at high temperatures in geothermal reservoirs is responsible for the hydrochemical composition of thermal water, as the dissolution of anhydrite, gypsum and dolomite controls the water chemistry. The reservoir temperatures of Algerian geothermal fields can be assessed using a number of chemical geothermical techniques. The highest estimated reservoir temperatures are indicated by the CCG geothermometer, whereas silica (quartz and chalcedony) geothermometers gave the lowest

266

temperatures, associated with the estimated high geothermal gradients ranging from 25 to 45 °C/km, giving valuable information about what is happening in the reservoir. The d18O–d D ratios of the waters indicate a meteoric origin as they plot on the Global Meteoric Water Line GMWL.

References H. Askri, A. Belmecheri, B. Benrabah, A. Boudjema, K. Boumendjel, M. Daoudi, M. Drid, T. Ghalem, A.M. Docca, H. Ghandriche, et al., Geology of Algeria (Contribution from SONATRACH Exploration Division, Research and Development Centre and Petroleum Engineering and Development Division, 1993) H. Craig, Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science 1702–1703 (1961) I.B. Fridleifsson, D.H. Freeston, Geothermal energy research and development. Geothermics 175–214 (1994)

H. Chenaker et al. J.R. Gat, The isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in precipitation, in Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry, vol. 1, ed. by P. Fritz, J.Ch.,Fontes, (1980), pp. 22–48 B. Houha,. Etude du fonctionnement hydrogéologique et salin d'un bassin semiaride. Rémila –Khenchela. PhD Thesis, faculty of Earth Sciences (University of Annaba, Algeria, 2007), 181 p M.W Mutonga, A. Sveinbjornsdottir, G. Gislason, H. Armansson, The isotopic and chemical characteristics of geothermal fluids in Hengill Area, SW-Iceland (Hellisheidi, Hveragerdi and Nesjavellir Fields), in Proceedings World Geothermal Congress (Bali, Indonesia, 2010) J. Polvêche, Contribution à l’étude géologique de l’Ouarsenis Oranais. (Publications du service de la carte géologique de l’Algérie, 1960), Tome I et II. Bulletin No. 24 F. Sahnoune, M. Belhamel, M. Zelmat, R. Kerbachi,. Climate change in Algeria: vulnerability and strategy of mitigation and adaptation, in Energy procedia, TerraGreen 13. International Conference 2013— Advancements in Renewable Energy and Clean Environment, vol. 36 (2013), 1286–1294 Y. Zhu, F. An, J. Tan, Geochemistry of hydrothermal gold deposits: a review. Geosci. Front. 23, 175–214 (2011)

SMART Irrigation System (SMARTIS)—Desert Areas Mohamed Nadhir Abid and Khadija Abid

Abstract

SMARTIS is an innovative solution and an optimized system that can help farmers in their irrigation tasks. It aims to irrigate smartly to save water and to provide an easy intelligent system. In this study, different technologies were used such as Artificial Intelligence, the Internet of Things and Cloud computing. SMARTIS is based on received information from sensors such as weather conditions, soil moister and irrigation conditions of the plant. The system uses an intelligent agent. The agent later decides the time and the duration of the irrigation. SMARTIS is also enabled with a manual control option that works in real time with time scheduling possibility. Keywords













Farmers Desert Irrigation Water saving Real time Sensors detecting IoT Cloud computing

1




Introduction

One of the best innovations that human made is agriculture. That innovation is based on one important condition which is irrigation. This process was changed and developed step by step from period to period. Adopting several solutions from handy solutions to mechanical ones, it ends with the automatic solutions today. Most of the proposed irrigation systems have been dedicated to the irrigation task only. Neglecting other serious

M. N. Abid (&) El Oued University, El Oued, Algeria K. Abid Laboratory of Automation and Production, Batna University, Batna, Algeria

factors and tasks. Like making the irrigation process easier for us and taking care of the corps and plantations. Based on the technological progress, we can find several technological solutions and propositions for automatic irrigation (Venkatapur and Nikitha 2017). Today’s solutions were not always enough even with the enormous and huge technological development. There are some performing solutions; but in each, there is always a lacking whether it is their high price or their poor adaptability or neglect of water saving. Some of those solutions, such as Arduino and Raspberry Pi3 using IoT and KNN (K Nearest Neighbor) (Shekhar 2017), proposed an automatic system that uses M2M communication and sends data server using the Core Network. Another proposed solution is a smart sensor array for measuring soil moisture and soil temperature (Vellidis et al. 2008). It was developed for scheduling irrigation in cotton. The array consists of a centrally located receiver connected to a laptop computer and multiple sensor nodes installed in the field. The data are transmitted using Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID). One more solution uses IR thermal camera (Pushpavel and Saravanan 2015); the system captures thermal images; and the gotten images are divided into four parts, and then, the algorithm is applied on each part separately to identify temperature. Based on the obtained values, the soil is irrigated. In the previous works, other water-saving problem was not solved and many other questions have to be answered in this context as: What time should the irrigation be? How much time should it take? How can we save water? In summary, the major contributions of the paper are: • Proposing a smart irrigation system that answers the previous questions, • providing an irrigation program that allows us to optimize the time and the area of irrigation in the defined crops, • presenting a hybrid algorithm based on artificial intelligent techniques.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_33

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The importance of this study resides in merging nowadays technologies in the agriculture field and applying it in the deserted region as a solution to improve the overall process in this area such as long locomotion distance, soil nature, hot weather and time and water consumption. In our work and starting from the previous criteria, we decided that the system should be: firstly intelligent, secondly remote and finally energy saver. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: The second section introduces system architecture. In Sect. 3, we talk about our algorithm. Section 4 presents the proposed scenario. In Sect. 5, we show the system implementation and the used materials. Finally, the sixth section presents our experimental results and comparisons.

2

B. Environment The environment is the space where the agent updates its status from the sensors and interacts with that space using its actuators. The pieces of information the agent gets from the environment are weather conditions and soil moister. C. Sensors and Actuators The sensors are the tools used by the agent to explore the environment and gather new information. The gathered data are temperature, humidity, soil moisture and light. The actuators are also used tools by the agent to apply action and to interact with the environment, based on the gathered data by the sensors.

System Architecture D. Irrigation Agent

To realize our platform, we proposed our system must contain several elements presented in Fig. 1. To identify the system and the way it works, we are going to go through the general architecture. The general architecture is composed of four parts: interface, environment, sensors and actuators and the irrigation agent. Those parts can communicate with each other at different levels. A. Interface The interface allows the interaction between the user and the agent. The user interacts in two ways: first by determining time scheduling which is represented in start time and end time of irrigation and second by turning the automatic mode on or off (in real time). The only interaction that the agent makes with the user is updating the status of the sensors.

The agent interacts with the environment by its sensors (see previously). The obtained information is transmitted and compared with the database and rule base, allowing the agent to create a situation. Each situation drives to a rule transmitted into action in the end. The action is executed by the actuators influencing the environment. Then, the sensors gather newly updated information starting the same process again. These processes are handled by the algorithm in Fig. 2

3

Algorithm

The proposed algorithm is shown as a diagram in Fig. 2. In the beginning, the sensors transfer the temperature, humidity, moisture of the soil and if it is raining or not in a particular area. Based on the obtained values, the agent decides to irrigate or not, going through the steps in Fig. 2. After that, the status is updated in the cloud and gets updated automatically in the user monitor. Another available option in the system is the schedule. E. Perception This step is the first step of the agent, generated by the sensors. The perception is getting temperature, humidity, soil moister, light and all the other needed environment variables. This step creates the interaction between the environment and the agent, and then, the agent transfers the information to the next step (Data Processing).

Fig. 1 System architecture

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Fig. 2 Algorithm

Fig. 3 Situation

F. Data Processing After the perception step, the information is processed and compared with the gathered data from the database. Then, those values get transmitted and stored for exploitation in the next step. G. Situation The gathered information is exploited to provide a situation. This later is formed from the information gathered and the data stored in the database. Each sensor is considered as an element in the situation. Also, each information from the database will be considered as an element in the situation.

The database contains the months of irrigation, the days, hours and minutes (Fig. 3). H. Rule Choosing This process has two inputs: The first one is the generated situation as a result of perception and database and the second one is the rule base; it is a database that contains several rules, and each rule fires an action. In this step, we compare the situation with the output of the giving rule base. If the rule does not exist, the system returns to the first step, which is the perception.

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I. Real-time System The system works in real-time data sharing and sensors status, remote controlling and remote monitoring.

connection. Also, we can consider turning on and off the water pump as another type of output. (4) Sensors

(1) Real-time data sharing: The controller uploads all received data to the cloud and the application downloads it in the same moment. (2) Real-time remote controlling: The system beside the automation can be controlled from distance via Wi-Fi. The control is in real time. (3) Real-time remote monitoring: The information generated from the sensors and the status of those sensors are shown on the interface (phone) (see above), also the status of the water pump, all in real time and at the same moment.

Electronic parts detect temperature and humidity. They also detect soil moisture, rain and light.

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(7) Action

Scenario

Figure 4 shows the structure of the system. In the first side, the inputs (sensors) transfer the data and information to the controller. On the other side, the outputs are divided into two means: the first one, via the phone through the cloud and the second one, via the LCD and actions via the water pump. The first output via phone goes through the cloud and needs an Internet connection to show the statics and sensor’s status in real time. The second output LCD shows also statics and sensors status, but with no need for Internet Fig. 4 System structure

(5) Micro-controller The motherboard manipulates and controls input/output signals. (6) Input/Output Inputs are the feedback or the signals that come from the sensors to the motherboard. Outputs are the operation taken by the motherboard; also, the results are shown in the LCD.

The action to turn the irrigation on or off.

5

Material and Implementation

After going through the algorithm and the scenario, we are going through the used platform, the electronic sensors and the motherboard. Also, we are going to present the different parts of our system: manual/automatic.

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(8) Platforms

(b) Soil Moisture

To realize any system, we must choose the right platform and we have chosen:

It is a simple sensor to measure the availability of water in the soil, and it only needs to be provided by power.

(a) Arduino IDE

(c) Rain sensor

Arduino, besides the boards, provides the software to develop it, which is the Arduino Integrated Development Environment—or Arduino Software (IDE). This makes it easy to write codes and upload it to the board. It runs on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The environment is written in Java, based on processing and open-source software.

This sensor is an analog liquid sensor and depends on changing the voltage coming out from it with the change of how much the liquid fills it.

(b) MIT App Inventor App Inventor allows us to develop applications for Android phones using a Web browser and test the applications using the phone or emulator. The App Inventor servers store your work and help you keep track of your projects. (9) Motherboard The system runs in a Node MCU (Node Micro-Controller Unit) ESP8266 Wi-Fi System-on-a Chip (SOC) with the next features: • Processor: L106 32-bit RISC microprocessor core-based on the Tensilica Xtensa Diamond Standard 106 Micro running at 80 MHz • Memory: – 32 KiB instruction RAM – 32 KiB instruction cache RAM – 80 KiB user data RAM – 16 KiB ETS system data RAM • IEEE 802.11 b/g/n Wi-Fi • 16 GPIO (General-Purpose Input–Output) pins • Models & Sensors

(d) Relay Relay is an electronic switch used to control high voltage loads and transfer it to low voltage signals generated by a control panel such as the ESP8266. (e) I2C The screen operator reduces the number of legs used by the controller (ESP8266) to operate a character display from 6 to 2 feet, allowing the connection of more sensors, motors and other features without the need to add a second panel. (f) LCD The 2004 A module is designed to display letters, numbers and symbols in a bitmap way. It can display four lines, each containing 20 characters. These screens support data reception 4 bits or 8 bits. It generates the characters through the memory that has built-in forms of characters and draws in the framework of a dot matrix size 7 * 5. (g) Light Sensor Light-dependent resistance (LDR) is simply a variable resistance depending on its value according to the light.

Before going any further, we will explain the models and (11) Wiring sensors that we used. Models and sensors are linked to each other: The next figure shows how each sensor is wired. In this figure, the red wire expresses the (+) and the black expresses (a) Humidity/Temperature the (−). Figure 5 (a) shows soil moister sensor wiring, (b) the wiring of the DHT 11, (c) rain sensor and This sensor is used to measure digital temperature and (d) I2C LCD wiring. All of those models were made by humidity DHT11, which is a calibrated measurement unit Fritzing software. that measures both temperature and humidity.

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Figure 6 shows all the parts wired up together and the schematic of the wiring. J. Algorithm Implementation (1) Connecting To Wi-Fi In the next algorithm, we have to use these libraries in Arduino IDE, #include , #include < ES 8266HTTPClient.h> .

M. N. Abid and K. Abid

second value is writeAPIKey; this value changes by the change of the user or the channel, and it is responsible for making the writing in the cloud secure. The other one is request-string which contains the whole request, and it is combined of thing speak address and the key. The last part is the values of the sensors it comes like that: ThingspeakAddress&writeAPIKey& field1 = temperature& field2 = humidity&….field n = value n. This process happens on the loop procedure, and every 30 s, it is repeated.

(3) JSON list The algorithm above shows how the system connects to the Wi-Fi network. WIFI.Begin() is a predefined function that takes two variables. The first is SSID and the second is the password of the network. Then, we go to the while loop that takes the condition if Wi-Fi status is not well connected then wait 3 s and write “….” If the condition is not acquired, first break the loop and then write connected and local IP. All of these processes happen in the setup procedure.

Now that all the values are uploaded to the cloud, the next and last step of this part is showing it the phone application. To download those values and show them in the app, we need first of all the ThingSpeakAddress and ReadAPIKey. Then, the cloud returns the results as a JSON list shown in Fig. 7. (4) Download Data

(2) Sending data to the cloud To use this next algorithm in a program in Arduino IDE, you need to declare this next library # include < ThingSpeak.h>

As shown above to download the values from the cloud, we need the variables (String ThingspeakAddress, ReadAPIKey, results …Float temperature, humidity, soil, rain,

This algorithm describes the process of sending data from the system to the cloud. This process needs four string variables (ThingspeakAddress,writeAPIKey,request-string). ThingspeakAddress takes the value “http://api.thingspeak. com/update?”. This value usually does not change. The

light….List request…Timer clock). ThingSpeakAddress, as explained before, takes the value https://api.thingspeak.com/ channels/457187/feeds.json?. The next string takes ReadAPIKey which is changeable by the change of the channel or the user, the same as the write key. The last string is results

SMART Irrigation System (SMARTIS)-Desert Areas

which take a number “1,″ and the number defines how much results you want to get from that field. For example, 1 means the last result, 2 means the last two results and so on. Each of the float variables takes its value from the request list segmentation. Listrequest takes the response from the cloud which comes as a JSON list. The list gets segmented by field names and the length of the value. After that, the values get displayed on the phone screen. This process happens in a loop repeated every 10 s, and this is the value of the clock (as seen in the following algorithm).

Table 1 shows some rules and the action of each rule. Those rules are taken from real-life situations based on the case we handled in realizing our project.

Fig. 5 Sensors’ wiring with the motherboard

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In Table 1, we show some rules and the actions generated from it. But, the action comes as a result of the comparison step when we search for a situation match in the Rule Base. (5) Manual In this part of the system, the user has full control in scheduling the irrigation. This part is not 100% manual because the perception part is always ON and it is automatic. The work is demonstrated in Fig. 8 In Fig. 8a, the user clicks on the start button and a clock shows up (b) to choose the time. Then, he clicks Ok to confirm the chosen time. After that, the chosen time appears on the label beside the button as shown in Fig. 8c. The label at the bottom of the screen with the title “Time to start” shows the countdown between the chosen time and the phone time (Fig. 8c). To choose the end time, you need to click on the end button as shown in Fig. 9a. Then, a window with a clock pops up giving you the right to choose time, also shown in Fig. 9b. After the confirmation with the Ok button, a notifier shows up with the duration of the irrigation selected by the user. The label “time chosen” shows the chosen time. Another function that the user can manually do is turning ON and OFF the pump without a schedule. Once the button is clicked, it turns the pump on and lunches a counter of 30 s. The button will be disabled once the counter ends, the button will be enabled again, and the text will turn yellow. The same thing happens in off situation.

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Fig. 6 System wiring

• Propose a smart irrigation system that answers the questions: “What time should the irrigation be?”, “How much time should it take?” and “How we can save water?”. • provide an irrigation program that allows us to optimize the time and the area of irrigation in the defined crops, • present a hybrid algorithm based on artificial intelligent techniques.

Fig. 7 JSON list Table 1 Rules and actions Rule

Action

If is month() and is day() and is hour and is minute and temperature high() and soil dry() and !is rain() and at night()

912 min

If is month() and is day() and is hour and is minute and temperature high() and soil bit wet() and !is rain() and at night()

713 ms

If is month() and is day() and is hour and is minute and temperature high() and soil bit wet() and !is rain() and at day()

No action

If is month() and is day() and is hour and is minute and temperature high() and soil bit wet() and !is rain() and at day()

No action

The operation mentioned above can be done using a more creative way using a voice recognizer (Fig. 10).

6

Results

The desired objectives were to:

The real-time monitoring is presented in the sensors block in the app interface as shown in Fig. 11, and the real-time control was shown in the sections above with time schedules. The values shown are uploaded to the cloud and represented there as graphs and charts. Each of those values is represented in a field as shown in Fig. 12. Those values change every 30 s from the system, and the phone app downloads it from the cloud every 30 s. The previous explanation serves the software part. Now for the hardware part, we also got satisfying results. We implemented a system with different sensors, and the capacity to power on and off an irrigation pump based on the weather condition, and predefined times in a database. Some of the decided goals we achieved are: • • • • • • • •

Real-time monitoring, Real-time control, The ability to change from manual to automatic, Time scheduling, Mobility, Low price, Adaptability, Precision in time,

SMART Irrigation System (SMARTIS)-Desert Areas Fig. 8 Time scheduling (start)

Fig. 9 Time scheduling (stop)

Fig. 10 Speech recognizer turn system on/off

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Fig. 11 Cloud charts

Fig. 12 Monitoring

• Precision in the environment variables, • Water saving. A lot of other advantages, besides all of these results, were achieved. Finally, each type of system whether soil based or plant based has advantages and disadvantages. Our system uses both soil parameters such as soil moister and plant properties contained in the database. The proposed system uses different

sensors such as soil moister, temperature, humidity and light. The agent takes the values obtained from the sensors and combines it with the data from the database. Then, he decides whether to irrigate or not. He can also decide the duration of irrigation. The system was implemented in an ESP8266 connected to the Wi-Fi allowing the agent to communicate with the phone application and the cloud. The implemented system achieved a satisfying result compared to the traditional irrigation ways saving about 92% of used water.

SMART Irrigation System (SMARTIS)-Desert Areas

References S. Pushpavel, P. Saravanan, Raspberry Pi using IR thermal camera in agriculture farm for smart irrigation system. IRJET 2(8) (2015) Y. Shekhar, E. Dagur, S. Mishra, R.J. Tom, M. Veeramanikandan, S. Suresh, Intelligent IoT based automated irrigation system. IJAER 12(18), 7306–7320 (2017)

277 R.B. Venkatapur, S. Nikitha, Review on closed loop automated irrigation system. TARCE 6(1), 9–14 (2017) G. Vellidis, M. Tucker, C. Perry, C. Kvien, C. Bednarz, A real-time wireless smart sensor array for scheduling irrigation. Elsevier 61(1), 44–50 (2008)

Feasibility of Water Reuse for Agriculture— Case Study of Ain Temouchent (Algeria) Rokiatou Haidara, Chérifa Abdelbaki, and Nadia Badr

Abstract

1

This work seeks to study the feasibility of reusing the treated wastewater for agricultural purposes. The area under investigation is Ain Temouchent located in Northwestern Algeria. Climate studies have shown that climate change through the drought period that occurred in the past decades has affected the whole country. This has been characterized by a negative impact on available water resources as well as on the agricultural productivity. It is therefore imperative to rationalize the use of conventional water resources. This research was conducted in the WWTP of Ain Temouchent. Analyses were carried out on the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of the treated wastewater. The water quality has been compared with the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Algerian standards of water quality for irrigation. Following the interpretation of the results, the treated wastewater could be used for the irrigation of fruit-bearing trees, especially for olive tree.

Introduction

R. Haidara
C. Abdelbaki (&) Institute of Water and Energy Sciences (Including Climate Change) PAUWES, 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria

In Algeria, climate change has a significant impact on weather patterns affecting surface water availability, as well as soil moisture and groundwater recharge (Drouiche et al. 2012). Models for climate change indicate that rainfall could decrease by more than 20% by 2050. That would result in even greater worsening water shortages in different basins of Algeria (Hamiche et al. 2015). This in turn will affect water allocated for agricultural irrigation that dropped from 80% in 1960 to around 60% in 2002 (Wang et al. 2015). Currently, the water management situation in Algeria is characterized by an imbalance between the demand by different water consumers such as agriculture, domestic and industrial activities and the available water resources. Especially, agriculture is facing more and more serious problems in irrigation, as water intended for this purpose is almost rare. Consequently, the application of adequate solution is essential to adapt to climate change. Wastewater reuse is one of the main options that can be considered as a new source of water in regions where water is scarce (Moussaoui et al. 2019; Moghadam et al. 2015). It is increasingly considered as an opportunity to meet the freshwater demand (Giannoccaro et al. 2019; Dingemans et al. 2020). The objective of this study is to: (1) evaluate the quality of the treated wastewater discharged from the domestic wastewater treatment plant of Ain Temouchent; (2) make a comparison with the required WHO and Algerian standards of water quality for irrigation; and (3) assess the possibility of its reuse for agricultural purposes.

C. Abdelbaki Department of Hydraulics Faculty of Technology, University of Tlemcen, P.B. 230 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria

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Keywords




Water reuse Wastewater treatment plant Ain Temouchent




Agriculture




Materials and Methods

C. Abdelbaki EOLE Laboratory, University of Tlemcen, P.B. 230 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria

A. Study area

N. Badr Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt

The area under investigation is the city of Ain Temouchent. It is located in the Northwestern part of Algeria. The

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_34

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wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Ain Temouchent is located on the northern side of the city, near the national road toward Terga. The plant is implemented on an area of six ha, constructed to treat all domestic wastewater from the city. The operation of the plant has started in January 2014. It treats the domestic wastewater from 72,800 inhabitants with an average daily treated wastewater equal to 10,920 m3/day, (455 m3/h) (National Sanitation Office Report 2013). During the rainy period, the average treated is estimated to be 1.365 m3/h. The treatment process used in the plant is mainly depending on activated sludge technique (National Sanitation Office Report 2018).

Table 1 Parameters measures Parameters

Estimation method

BOD

Lh-bod601 Digital Biochemical Oxygen Demand

TSS

Vacuum pumps-Filtration-dried—desiccated and weighted

COD

Spectrophotometer (HACH DR/5000)

PO43−

Colorimetric dosage by spectrophotometer (HACH DR/5000)

NO3−

Colorimetric dosage by spectrophotometer (HACH DR/5000)

B. pH B. Water sample collection In order to assess the quality of the treated wastewater from the wastewater treatment plant of Ain Temouchent, a series of daily analyses on the water quality parameters were collected from the laboratory of the plant for the time period 2014, 2015 and 2017. The analyzed physico-chemical parameters are: temperature, pH, total dissolved salts (TDS), total suspended matter (TSM), dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), phosphates (PO43−), nitrate nitrogen (NO3– N), ammonium nitrogen (N–NH4+), heavy metals and microbiological parameters. Microbiological analysis of the treated wastewater concerns the quantification of the following parameters: fecal coliforms and intestinal nematodes. C. Analytical methods Temperature, TDS, DO and pH of water were measured immediately after collection using HQ 40D portable multi-parameter meter (Hach company, USA). The other parameters were detected according to Table 1.

The absolute values of pH for the treated wastewater from the WWTP of Ain Temouchent vary between a minimum of 7.3 in January 2017 and a maximum of 8.4 in July and September 2017. From the observations made in Fig. 2, the variation of pH values throughout the years under investigation is in the range of the standard values set by the Algerian Government for treated wastewater intended for irrigation (6.5–8.5) (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). C. Total Dissolved Salts The main criteria for assessing the quality of water for irrigation are its total concentration of soluble salts. The absolute values of total dissolved salts (TDS) for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 103.68 mg/l in December 2014 and a maximum of 133.76 mg/l in May 2017. According to Fig. 3, the seasonal variation of TDS is limited and recorded values are below the standard value set by the FAO (Pescod 1992) for none restriction irrigation water (450 mg/l). D. Total Suspended Matters (TSM)

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Results and Discussion

A. Temperature The absolute values of temperature for the treated wastewater from the WWTP vary between a minimum of 7.0 °C in January 2017 and a maximum of 28.32 °C in August 2015. According to Fig. 1, we observe that the variation of the temperature is not uniform. This can be attributed to the fact that the different seasons of the year in Algeria have various temperatures, which indicate that temperature is generally season dependent.

Figure 4 shows that the absolute values of TSM for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 4.0 mg/l in December 2014 and a maximum of 18.0 mg/l in August and September 2017. Generally, TSM values recorded for the area under investigation are far below the limit value set by the Algerian government for treated wastewater for irrigation (30 mg/l) (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). These results highlight the effectiveness of the clarification process after the biological treatment. Such concentration values do not create difficulties for the transport or distribution of the water such as clogging irrigation systems.

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Fig. 1 Monthly variation of temperature for the treated wastewater Fig. 4 Monthly variation of total suspended matters for the treated wastewater

2017 as minimum and maximum values, respectively (Fig. 5). It was noticed that DO recorded high concentrations in winter season due to water turbulence. The minimum level should not be lower than 4.2 mg/l (Grundy 1971; Arin 1974). According to Boner and Furland (1982), dissolved oxygen values can be of 3.5 mg/l on a daily average, but never less than 2.8 mg/l. F. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

Fig. 2 Monthly variation of pH for the treated wastewater

The absolute values of biological oxygen demand (BOD5) for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 2.5 mg/l in September 2015 and a maximum of 17.1 mg/l in March 2014. According to Fig. 6, the seasonal BOD5 variation of the water is below the limited value set by the Algerian government for irrigation water (30 mg/l) (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). In terms of biodegradable organic pollution, the treated wastewater does not present any risk for the crops (Pescod 1992).

Fig. 3 Monthly variation of total dissolved salts for the treated wastewater

E. Dissolved Oxygen The absolute values of dissolved oxygen for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between 6.39 mg/l in June 2017 and of 9.26 mg/l in November and December

Fig. 5 Monthly variation of dissolved oxygen for the treated wastewater in 2017

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Fig. 6 Monthly variation of biological oxygen demand for the treated wastewater

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Fig. 7 Monthly variation of chemical oxygen demand for the treated wastewater

G. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The absolute values of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 21.0 mg/l in August and September 2014 and a maximum of 48.0 mg/l in February 2014 and March 2015. Figure 7 shows irregular variation of the chemical oxygen demand throughout the period of investigation with values below the limits set by the Algerian government for water intended for irrigation (90 mg/l) (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). H. Phosphates (PO43−) The absolute values of phosphates for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 1.0 mg/l in January 2017 and a maximum of 6.41 mg/l in September 2015. From Fig. 8, we observe that the variation of the phosphates throughout the selected years is not uniform. This probably resulted from the extensive discharge from sewage and surrounding agricultural areas during summer season. The annual means for 2015 and 2017 were 3.42 and 2.18 mg/l, respectively, which are relatively above the limited phosphate standard set by FAO for irrigation water (2 mg/l) (Pescod 1992).

Fig. 8 Monthly variation of phosphates for the treated wastewater

I. Nitrate Nitrogen (NO3–N) The absolute values of nitrate nitrogen for the treated wastewater from the WWTP varied between a minimum of 3.65 mg/l in August 2014 and a maximum of 10.20 mg/l in November and December 2017. According to Fig. 9, it was obvious that the maximum seasonal nitrate values appeared during winter season. Fortunately, the nitrate variation of the water recorded during the study period is below the limited value set by the Algerian government for irrigation water

Fig. 9 Monthly variation of nitrate nitrogen for the treated wastewater

(30 mg/l) (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). This result can be attributed to the performance of nitrification–denitrification bacteria during biological treatment.

Feasibility of Water Reuse for Agriculture—Case Study of Ain …

J. Ammonium Nitrogen (NH4+–N) Ammonium nitrogen is a form of mineral nitrogen essential in the biological development of aquatic ecosystems. The absolute values of NH4+–N for the treated wastewater varied between a minimum of 0.97 mg/l in March 2017 and a maximum of 3.0 mg/l in June 2017. According to Fig. 10, we observe that the maximum seasonal ammonium value appeared in summer season, contrary to the nitrate values, while the minimum value appeared during spring season. Fortunately, the ammonium variation of the water recorded during the study period is below the limited value set by the FAO for irrigation water (5 mg/l) (Pescod 1992). K. Heavy Metals’ concentrations The results of heavy metals’ concentrations (Table 2) showed that all values are below the recommended norms set by the Algerian government (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). This indicated that no direct source of heavy metals was detected in the studied area. L. Microbiological Parameters The results of the microbiological analyses of the treated wastewater reveal the existence of indicator germs of fecal contamination. According to the WHO norms, the amount of fecal coliforms bacteria in the treated wastewater must be less or equal to 1000 fecal coliform/100 ml (WHO 1989, 2000). A number of intestinal nematodes less or equal to one egg/liter are recommended. However, in our study, the results of the microbiological analyses have shown that the amount of fecal coliforms in the treated wastewater from the WWTP of Ain Temouchent is equal to 11  102 fecal

Fig. 10 Monthly variation of ammonium nitrogen for the treated wastewater in 2017

283 Table 2 Heavy metals concentrations Parameters

Results (mg/l)

Algerian norm (mg/l)

Mercury

0.0024

0.01

Cadmium

0.0028

0.05

Arsenic

0.0037

2

Chromium

0.0098

1

Lead

0.0053

10

Copper

0.033

5

Zinc

0.046

10

Selenium

0.0028

0.02

Fluorine

0.02

15

Cyanides

0.0132

0.5

Aluminum

0.054

20

Beryllium

0.026

0.5

Cobalt

0.15

5

Iron

1.4

20

Lithium

0.08

2.5

Manganese

0.044

10

Nickel

0.127

2

Molybdenum

0

0.05

Vanadium

0

1

coliform/100 ml. The amount of intestinal nematodes in the treated wastewater is equal to 20 eggs/l. These values are above the WHO norms for treated wastewater intended for irrigation (WHO 1989, 2000). This is probably due to the suspension of the chlorination disinfection treatment in the plant.

4

Proposition of Plantation

The Algerian government has established the types of crops likely to be irrigated with treated wastewater (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). In this research, except for phosphates values, the interpretations of physico-chemical parameters have shown that values of all parameters are below the standards. Given the obtained microbiological results, the quality of the treated wastewater from the WWTP of Ain Temouchent is far from acceptable for unrestricted irrigation in general, namely for the irrigation of crops that are normally eaten raw. For these crops, according to the Algerian standards, the number of fecal coliforms bacteria must be less than 100 fecal coliforms/100 ml with an absence of intestinal nematode eggs (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). Concerning the vegetables that are only eaten cooked, vegetables for the canning industry or non-food processing, a number of fecal coliform bacteria less than 250 fecal

284

coliforms/100 ml and intestinal nematodes eggs less than 0.1 egg/liter are required. Therefore, the treated wastewater is not acceptable for these crops. For fruit trees, fodder crops, shrubs, cereal crops, industrial crops, forest trees, floral and ornamental plants a limit of 1000 fecal coliforms bacteria/100 ml and one nematode egg/liter is fixed. The amount of fecal coliforms in the treated wastewater is 1100 fecal coliforms bacteria/100 ml, while the number of intestinal nematodes is 20 eggs/liter. These values are above the limit values mentioned above. However, according to the Algerian standard, there is no recommended standard for the treated wastewater to irrigate fruit trees, fodder crops, shrubs, cereal crops, industrial crops, forest trees, floral and ornamental plants as the irrigation technique used is localized irrigation (Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35 2007). In addition to that, according to Karef et al. (2014), the irrigation of fruit trees does not require activated sludge biological treatment process. The Algerian norms class fruit trees in the group for which disinfection is not required in the treatment likely to ensure the microbiological quality. Therefore, for our study, we will propose the irrigation of a fruit tree using localized irrigation. Localized irrigation is a system where the water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. The fruit tree that we will propose following the results of our study is the olive tree. Indeed, this crop represents in most arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean basin, the main component of the cropping systems developed there and it plays an important economic, social and environmental role. The olive tree adapts to almost all bioclimatic stages, from humid, sub-humid to semi-arid and even arid zones, characterized by low rainfall and strong evapotranspiration, where these two climatic factors cause long periods of water deficit (Allalout and Zarrouk 2013). The choice of the olive tree can be justified by its importance in the agricultural sectors in order to ensure the food security of the country (Algeria). The cultivation of olive trees in Algeria is an old practice, which constitutes a significant source of income for the rural population that represents more than 50% of the national arboriculture orchard. The olive tree allows to have a balanced annual yield despite the pathological problems (Boumediene et al. 2013). The olive tree is one of the least water-demanding plant species. It is characterized by its tolerance to drought and flexibility to adapt to fluctuations in climatic conditions. The cultivation of the olive tree is practicable under a hydric regime varying between 100 and 800 mm/yr. The olive tree is specified by a good efficiency of water use. In extreme climatic conditions, the olive tree prefers the scarcity of

R. Haidara et al.

water to its abundance since the high water availability and stagnation could cause the asphyxiation of the tree, while in a situation of great water stress, the olive tree deploys all its natural abilities in order to survive. In comparison with the majority of fruit-bearing trees, the olive tree has modest water needs. The strength of the root system of the olive tree facilitates access to water at high levels of depth. In all water situations, the olive tree shows a great capacity of adaptation through its intensity of flowering and fruiting (Boumediene et al. 2013).

5

Conclusion

This work allowed to evaluate the physico-chemical and microbiological quality of the treated wastewater from the WWTP of Ain Temouchent during three years. Following the obtained results, we can conclude that the quality of the treated wastewater is satisfactory for the reuse in irrigation. This indicated that the treatment process of the plant is effective to produce water that meets the reuse standards, since it is equipped with a tertiary treatment unit. The physico-chemical analyses of the treated wastewater have shown, in most cases, values below the recommended WHO, FAO and Algerian standards of water quality for irrigation. However, an operation of the chlorine disinfection treatment would not allow microbiological values in accordance with the irrigation standards. Referring to the Algerian norms, the irrigation of the olive tree through drip irrigation technique is likely to reduce the risk of contamination while preserving the health of consumers. Indeed, this will contribute to a better integrated water resources’ management of the region while promoting the agricultural sector. It will generate a source of income for the population given the importance of olive in the agricultural sector of the country. Acknowledgements This research has been funded by the Pan African University Institute of Water and Energy Sciences Including Climate Change (PAUWES).

References A. Allalout, M. Zarrouk, Culture hyperintensive de l’olivier dans le monde et applications en Tunisie, , HTE N° 157–158 SEP/DEC 2013, http://www.anafide.org/doc/HTE%20157-158/157158-8.pdf M. Arin, Monitoring with the carbon analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 898–902 (1974) L. Boner, M.C. Furland, Seasonal treatment and variable. Effluent quality based on assimilative capacity (1982) M. Boumediene, C. Abdelbaki, A. Bechlaghem, A. Kellouche, Etude de la faisabilité de réutilisation des eaux usées issues de la STEP de Chlef à des fins agricoles, 3ème conférence internationale sur l’eau. (Alger, Algérie, 2013)

Feasibility of Water Reuse for Agriculture—Case Study of Ain … M.M.L. Dingemans, P.W.M.H. Smeets, G. Medema, J. Frijns, K.J.R. AP. VanWezel, R.P. Bartholomeus, Responsible water reuse needs an interdisciplinary approach to balance risks and benefits. Water 12, 1264 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051264 N. Drouiche, N. Ghaffour, M.W. Naceur, H. Lounici, M. Drouiche, Towards sustainable water management in Algeria. Desalin. Water Treat. 50(1–3), 272–284 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994. 2012.719477 G. Giannoccaro, S. Arborea, B.C. de Gennaro, V. Iacobellis, A. Ferruccio Piccinni, Assessing reclaimed urban wastewater for reuse in agriculture: technical and economic concerns for mediterranean regions. Water 11, 1511 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/w11071511 R.D. Grundy, Strategies for control of man-made eutrophication. Environ. Sci. Technol. 5(12), 1184–1190 (1971). https://doi.org/10. 1021/es60059a011 A.M. Hamiche, A.B. Stambouli, S. Flazi, A review on the water and energy sectors in Algeria: current forecasts, scenario and sustainability issues. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41(14), 261–276 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.024 Journal officiel de la République algérienne nº 35, 2007. Décret exécutif nº 07–149 fixant les modalités de concession d'utilisation des eaux usées épurées à des fins d'irrigation ainsi que le cahier des charges-type y afférent. (Algérie, 2007), pp. 8–12 S. Karef, A. Kettab, M. Nakib, Characterization of byproducts from wastewater treatment of Medea (Algeria) with a view to agricultural reuse. Desalinat. Water Treat. 52(10–12), 2201–2207 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.848332

285 F.M. Moghadam, M. Mahdavi, A. Ebrahimi, H. Reza Tashauoei, A. Hossein Mahvi, Feasibility study of wastewater reuse for irrigation in Isfahan, Iran. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 23(10), 2366–2373 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2015.23.10.22752. ISSN 1990-9233, IDOSI Publications 2015 T. El Moussaoui, S. Wahbi, L. Mandi, S. Masi, N. Ouazzani, Reuse study of sustainable wastewater in agroforestry domain of Marrakesh city. J. Saudi Soc. Agricult. Sci. 18(3), 288–293 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.08.004. ISSN 1658-077X National Sanitation Office Report (2013). Retrieved from http://ona-dz. org/ National Sanitation Office Report. (2018). Retrieved from http://ona-dz. org M.B. Pescod, Wastewater Treatment and Use in Agriculture—FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 47 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1992), 169 p. Z.-Y. Wang, J.H.W. Lee, C.S. Melching, Water quality management. River Dyn. Integr. River Manag. 202, 555–631 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-642-25652-3_10 WHO, Guidelines for the microbiological quality of treated wastewater used in agriculture: recommendations for revising WHO guidelines. Bull. World Health Organiz. 78(9), 1104–1116 (2000) WHO, Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture (World Health Organization—Technical Report Series, 1989), https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-3449(92)90045-4

Water Footprint Assessment of the Tichi-Haf Dam Waters (Soummam Valley, Bejaia, Algeria) According to ISO 14044 and ISO 14046 Under the 6 and 12 UN-SDGs Hafed-Eddine Mansouri H-E.M, Fatima Belaitouche, Nadir Ben Hamiche, Saliha Arbaoui, Abdelghani A, Amir Aieb, Tahar Aouchiche, Moura Atmaniou, Sofiane Khenteche, and Khodir Madani Abstract

If the Earth is called the blue planet, it is not a coincidence. It is covered with 71% water and the blue color is clearly visible on the satellite images. Freshwater is essential to all forms of life and indeed fundamental to human health, sustainable socio-economic development and food security. At the dawn of the third millennium, the water sector is facing new mutations that are taking place all over the world: population growth, migration, urbanization, climate change, land use and economic development. The human consumption of water continues to grow, and the supply of freshwater becomes more and more difficult under the pressure of the considerable needs of modern civilization. Thus, we have moved from the use of spring and groundwater to an increasing use of surface water. Keywords

Water footprint Inventory phase

1






Dam ISO 14044 Impact assessment




ISO 14046




Introduction

In Algeria, water is a scarce, fragile and unevenly distributed resource on the territory. The demand for water is constantly increasing, and the use of surface water is an unavoidable necessity. The current situation in Algeria is characterized by H.-E. Mansouri H-E.M (&) Qualilab EcoSafety Solutions, 01 El Bordj, Smina, Bejaia, Algeria F. Belaitouche Ministry of the Environment, Bejaia, Algeria N. B. Hamiche
S. Arbaoui
Abdelghani A
A. Aieb
K. Madani A/Mira University of Bejaia, Bejaia, Algeria T. Aouchiche
M. Atmaniou
S. Khenteche Ministry of Water Resources, Bejaia, Algeria

an imbalance between needs and available water resources; the direct and indirect degradation of the different types of water reduces the volumes of water likely to be consumed and used. The issue of water and its management has become increasingly central to the global debate on sustainable development. This interest has been driven by growing demand for water, increasing scarcity of water in many areas and/or degradation of water quality. This leads to the need for a better understanding of water-related impacts to improve water management at local, regional, national and global levels (ISO, 14046). It is therefore desirable to have appropriate evaluation techniques that can be used in a coherent way at the international level (ISO, 14046). In this study, the water scarcity and degradation of production of 180 L/H/D of good quality water from the Tichy Haff dam was evaluated, intended for the use of 20 communes’ inhabitants of the Wilaya de Bejaia, which are fed from the same dam for the four quarters of the year 2017. The Tichy Haff Dam, 84 m high and 70 km length, is located near the village Mahfouda, City of Bouhamza, in the Seddouk daïra, Wilaya of Bejaia (36° 23′ 26″ North, 4° 23′ 25″ East). It is located on the bed of Oued Boussellam, one of the tributaries of Oued Soummam, about 20 km from the valley Soummam. It is located 7 km upstream of the Sidi Yahia hydrometric station. The surface of the watershed at the dam site is 3.980 km2, and the capacity of the reservoir is 81.844 Hm3 to improve water management at local, regional, national and global levels (ISO, 14046). It is therefore desirable to have appropriate evaluation techniques that can be used in a coherent way at the international level (ISO, 14046). In this study, the water scarcity and degradation of production of 180 L/H/D of good quality water from the Tichy Haff dam were evaluated and intended for the use of 20 communes’ inhabitants of the Wilaya de Bejaia, which are fed from the same dam for the four quarters of the year 2017. The Tichy Haff Dam, 84 m high and 70 km length, is located near the village Mahfouda.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_35

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Settings or Methods or Materials and Methods

The current study is based on the four steps of the methodological approach of ISO 14044 and ISO 14046, defining the purpose and scope of the study, followed by the inventory phase, the impact assessment and the interpretation of the results (Fig. 1). A. Definition of the field of study The wilaya of Bejaia is located in the North East of Algeria, with an area of 3,268 km2, on the Mediterranean coast, over a length of 95 km. It is crossed by Oued Soummam and Oued Boussellam. It is bounded by the Wilayas of Tizi Ouzou and Bouira to the West, Bouira and Bordj Bou Arreridj to the South and finally Sétif and Jijel to the East and the Mediterranean Sea to the North (Directorate of Planning and Budget Monitoring, 2018). The commune of Bouhamza, where the dam is built, is located to the southwest of the wilaya of Bejaia, on the northern slope of Oued Boussellam. It is a new commune, resulting from the last administrative division (1984). It is part of the daïra of Seddouk and is administratively limited as follows: In the North by the municipality of Amalou, in the South, by the municipalities of Tamokra and Ait R’zine, to the East by the town of Beni Maouche and to the West by the commune of Akbou.

It had about 9,719 inhabitants in 2017. It covers an area of 77.86 km2, an average density of around 125 people per km2 (Directorate of Planning and Budget Monitoring, 2018). (a) Hydrology The commune of Bouhamza is located in the watershed of Boussellam which passes at its southern and southwestern limit. The hydrographic network is very dense (Fig. 5). This density is linked to the relief and the altitude (Directorate of Planning and Budget Monitoring, 2018). (b) Climatology In the absence of observations at the level of the studied region, we used the data collected from the Bejaia weather station to which we applied the correction method proposed by Seltzer in 1946 and described below. The observation period for precipitation spans 48 years (from 1970 to 2017) and for temperatures 40 years (Office National de la Météorologie, Station Bejaia, 1978–2017) (Fig. 2).

2.1 Temperature The lowering of the maximum temperatures is 0.65 °C for an elevation of 100 m altitude and that of minimums is of the order of 0.4 °C for the same elevation. The maximum altitude of our study area is around 1674 m, and the minimum altitude is 2 m. This means that the average altitude of our study area is around 836 m. Table 1 represents the minimum (T° min), maximum (T° max) and average (T° avg) temperature data. It turns out that January is the coldest with 4.14 °C, while July and August are the hottest with 24.13 and 24.88 °C.

2.2 The precipitations

Fig. 1 The phases of the water footprint (ISO 14046 2014)

Precipitation plays a very important role in the Mediterranean region. They are characterized by their irregular diet and uneven distribution (summer dryness). They are mainly in the form of rain but also in the form of snow in winter and spring (Sersoub 2012). For precipitation, an elevation of 100 m above sea level will generate a rainfall gradient of around 40 mm (Seltzer 1946). The average annual precipitation of Bejaia (Pan = 783.85 mm) (Table 2). The corrected annual average precipitation of the Boussellam watershed (P’an = 783.85 + 334.4 = 1118.25 mm). Therefore, the ratio K = Pan / P’an is equal to 0.7 (K = 0.7). The monthly precipitation at the Boussellam watershed site is the result of the product of the raw data from the Bejaia station by the coefficient K = 0.7.

Water Footprint Assessment of the Tichi-Haf Dam Waters …

289

Fig. 2 Map of the hydrographic network of the Boussellam watershed (Lambardi 1984). Table 1 Average monthly temperatures in degrees Celsius corrected for the study area for the period (National Office of Meteorology, Bejaia Station, 1978–2017) Mois T (°C)

J

F

M

A

M

J

JU

A

S

O

N

D

T°max T°min

11.15

11.62

13.28

15.01

17.53

21.03

24.13

24.88

22.79

20.07

15.42

12.27

4.14

4.33

5.69

7.49

10.63

14.33

17.33

17.91

15.8

12.56

8.44

5.33

T°moy

7.64

7.97

9.48

11.25

14.08

17.68

20.73

21.39

19.29

16.31

11.93

8.8

T° max: maximum temperature. T° min: minimum temperature. Avg T° = (Max T + Min T) / 2: average temperature

Table 2 The distribution of average monthly precipitation in (mm) of the Bejaia station and our study region (National Office of Meteorology, Bejaia Station, 1970–2017) Mois

J

F

M

A

M

J

Bejaia Bou Sellam

JU

A

S

O

N

D

P (mm)

110.75

93.35

86.27

68.61

42.12

77.52

65.34

60.38

48.02

29.48

13.68

5.95

12.05

48.91

76.84

101.44

123.9

783.85

9.57

4.16

8.43

34.23

53.78

74

86.71

548.62

290

H.-E. Mansouri H-E.M et al.

The rainfall regime of the Boussellam watershed shows some variability. The lowest average is recorded during the month of July with 4.16 mm, while the rainiest months are December and January with monthly averages of 86.71 and 77.52 mm. (c) Summary of climate data according to Bagnouls and Gaussen Ombrothermal Diagram. The pluviothermal diagram obtained shows the existence of two periods. The dry period begins from the second week of May until the end of September and the wet period begins from the start of October until the start of May (Fig. 3).

2.3 Climagram of Emberger The bioclimatic classification most used in North Africa and particularly in Algeria is that of Emberger corrected by Stewart. It is based on temperature and forecast data. The Emberger Climagram (Fig. 4) is expressed by the following formula: Q2 ¼ 3:43P=Mm: P M m

Average annual precipitation Average annual maximum temperature Average annual minimum temperature

Calculation of Q2 for our study region (Boussellam watershed): P = 548.62 mm, M = 24.88 °C, m = 4.14 °C Q = 3.43542.79/24.88−4.14. Therefore, Q2= 89.76. B. Presentation of the Tichi Haf dam The Tichi Haf Dam, 84 m high and 70 km long, is located near the village Mahfouda, commune of Bouhamza, in the daïra of Seddouk, Wilaya of Bejaia (36° 23′ 26″ North, 4° 23′ 25″ East). It is located on the bed of Oued Boussellam, Fig. 3 Ombrothermal Bagnouls and Gaussen diagram of our study area (Boussellam watershed) (1978–2017)

one of the tributaries of Oued Soummam, about 20 km from the Soummam valley. It is located 7 km upstream from the Sidi Yahia hydrometric station. The surface of the catchment area at the dam site is 3980 km2. The capacity of the reservoir is 81.844 Hm3 (Coyne and Bellier 1996). To promote access to water and an equitable sharing of resources between regions, Algeria has carried out major transfers, among them, the transfer of Tichi Haf (National Agency for Dams and Transfer, 2018). This water transfer is located in Kabylia in the wilaya of Bejaïa. It mainly allows the raw water stored in the Tichi Haf dam to be transferred to a treatment station near Akbou and then supplies drinking water to the agglomerations located along the Akbou-Bejaia corridor (Fig.5) (La Direction of the Tichi Haf dam, 2018). The Ait R’zine treatment station is located, approximately 2.5 km from the Tichi Haf dam, on the left bank of Oued Bousellam, over an area of around 5 Ha (Treatment station dam water -Ait R’zine-, 2018). The station was created on April 28, 2011. It has an analysis laboratory equipped with equipment allowing to perform all physico-chemical and bacteriological analyzes and this in accordance with Algerian and International Standards. Twenty (20) municipalities are directly connected to the Tichi Haf Main Transfer (Dam water treatment plant -Ait R’zine-, 2018). Water treated at this station will be routed to two other stations, one located in Tamokra and the other in Timezrit, in which chlorination is added if necessary (Dam water treatment station -Ait R’zine-, 2018). C. The hypotheses We take into account the data of the Algerian Water Company. The theoretical endowment of one inhabitant per day with drinking water is 180 L, for the year 2017. So our study will be based on the 180 L of water of satisfactory quality meeting the national standard of potability for the use and human consumption of a resident of the 20 municipalities of the wilaya of Bejaia, we have several hypotheses;

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Fig. 4 Climatic classification of the study region according to the Emberger diagram

– We assume that the 180 L of water is used in the following way: 2 liters for direct consumption, 50 liters for cooking, 50 liters for personal hygiene and the rest for laundry and floors. – We assume that 20% of the used water used to sewage treatment plants, four in number in the Wilaya of Bejaia. In the case of our study, we will only consider that of Sidi Ali Lebhar, because it is the only treatment plant that receives wastewater from the use of water from the Tichi Haf dam) and 80% are directly discharged in the sea. – We did not take into account the transport of water from the Tichi Haf dam to the Ait R’zine treatment station because there is no energy consumption (transport is by gravity). – We assume that there are no leaks during transport (from the treatment station to households), because over time, it is impossible to check all the connections. – We assume that the Algerian Water Company uses 50 vehicles (Pick up) to monitor the pumps, which consume 45 L/2 J of fuels. D. The study system The study system consists of five phases: dam operation, treatment of raw water from the dam, distribution (adduction), water use by the inhabitants and the last phase is the end-of-life (Fig.6). (a) Life cycle phases included in the study – Reception of water in the dam. – Treatment of the water supplied from the dam in the Ait R’zine treatment station andchlorination in the Timezrit station.

– Distribution (transport) of water to reservoirs via pipes and pumps. – Transport of water from the tanks to the consumer. – Use: water and energy consumption. – Transport of wastewater from homes to the wastewater treatment plant (Sidi Ali Lebhar). – End-of-life of the product (water). – Life cycle phases excluded in the study. (b) The conducted study excluded capital goods. These capital goods are: – The volume of water from the evaporated dam, because the Tichi Haf dam management did not create an evaporation basin. – The manufacturing of chemicals used in the treatment of raw water and domestic wastewater, because of lack of reliable data. – The construction phase of the dam is excluded from the interpretation, given the time allocated to this is brief. – In the absence of wastewater stations for the twenty municipalities supplied by the Tichy Haff dam, we will take into consideration that of Sidi Ali Lebhar at the mouth of Soummam valley, which processes part of the wastewater of Bejaia city. In order to better situate the context of the present study (Fig. 7). The scope of this study is to evaluate the water footprint, scarcity and degradation (marine ecotoxicity and eutrophication) of the Tichi Haf dam, in order to produce water of satisfactory sanitary quality for the inhabitants of the region of Bejaia in Algeria and to determine which phase(s) has (have) the most impact on the system.

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Fig. 5 Diagram of the transfer of Tichi Haf-Bejaia (The dam water treatment plant -Ait R’zine-, 2018)

The functional unit is producing 180 L of good quality water per day for a resident of the region and throughout the year. The data collected were converted according to the number of inhabitants of the twenty communes of Bejaia wilaya, fed from the Tichi Haf dam which is 554,365 inhabitants per day and compared to the endowment of a

person which is 180 L of water and the results are expressed by the formula, as follows. The consumption of materials and energy as well as the emissions/discharges at each stage of the life cycle has an impact on water (degradation/availability). A characterization factor is applied to convert an assigned water footprint inventory analysis result to the common unit of the category indicator.

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Fig. 6 The study system

X: it is the quantity of the product according to the number of inhabitants of the 20 communes, per day and compared to the functional unit (180 L of water). For the scarcity water footprint characterization factor, we used the Aware database for Algeria. For the characterization factor of the eutrophication impact, we used the Recipe database and for the characterization factor of the marine ecotoxicity impact, we used the Usetox database. The reference flow (Fig. 8):

dams proved to be insufficient, as much as it did not allow a good satisfaction of the needs, in spite of the importance of the investments.

4

Discussion

Impact evaluation and impact interpretation by quarter A. Water footprint scarcity.

3

Results

The current situation in Algeria is characterized by an imbalance between needs and available water resources. The direct and indirect degradations of the different types of water reduce the volumes of water likely to be consumed and used. During the year 2017, the treatment of surface water from the Tichi Haf dam generated a predominance of the scarcity index (99%) in the production, distribution and utilization phases, of all quarters , and the fourth quarter operating phase, 98% in the second and third quarter operating phase, this index is 60% at the first quarter operating phase, followed by the eutrophication impact in the end-of-life phase (98% for the second and third quarters, 95% for the first and fourth quarters), and lastly the impact of marine ecotoxicity, which is manifested in the dam operation phase during the first quarter (40%) and in the end-of-life phases (5% for the first and fourth quarters, 2% for the second and third quarters). The construction of the

From Fig. 9, the scarcity water footprint is insignificant during the four phases (dam operation, treatment, distribution and end-of-life), in the four quarters. However, it is moderately remarkable during the use phase. Household wastewater is loaded with pollutants such as detergents, even though the volume released is 175 L/d/inhabitant. Because this water is of poor quality, it influences its availability. B. The impact of eutrophication per quarter. From Fig.10, the impact of eutrophication varies from one step to another, from one season to another with a peak during the use stage, which can be explained by the use of detergents and cleaning chemicals, within second position the stage of production which is due to the use of different chemicals for the treatment such as regulators of acidity (sulfuric acid) and polyacrylamide, sodium hydrochloride and aluminum sulfate. After almost six months of no precipitation in season 2 and 3, the raw water becomes water

294 Diagram of the study system

Aggregate quarry

Sand pit

Power plant

Oil refinery

Cement plant

RealizaƟon

Iron foundry

Water

Dam project

OperaƟon

PrecipitaƟon water

Sludge Dam in operaƟon Solid organic maƩer.

Wadis water Raw water

Electricity

Diesel fuel

Alumina sulfate coagulant

Chlorine gas

Charcoal

Sulfuric acid

Slidge

ProducƟon Transport

Potassium permanganate

StaƟon de traitement de l’eau AIT R’ZINE

Poly electrolyte Waste water

TAMOKRA RechloraƟon StaƟon

TIMEZRIT RechloraƟon StaƟon

Gasoil Lubricants Electricity

Transport Water leaks

Waste water

Use

Detergent

Electrecity

Evaporated water

Use

Gaz

End of life

Fig. 7 Diagram of the study system

H.-E. Mansouri H-E.M et al.

Wastewater treatment plant

Wadis

Sea

Sodium hypochlorite

Water Footprint Assessment of the Tichi-Haf Dam Waters … Fig. 8 The reference flow

Electricity

Diesel fuel

295

Alumina sulfate coagulant

Chlorine gas

Potassium permanganate

PrecipitaƟon water

Charcoal

Sulfuric acid

Sodium hypochlorite

Slidge

Dam

Wadis water

Waste water

potable water

Poly Acrylamid

potable water

Fig. 9 Total values of the water footprint scarcity by quarter (year 2017)

laden with suspended solids; hence, the use of the aforementioned chemicals with higher concentrations which explains the peaks in the quarter 4 and 1. C. The impact of marine ecotoxicity per quarter The interpretation: The impact of marine ecotoxicity: Fig.11 shows that the marine ecotoxicity impact is high in the Tichi Haf Dam

operation phase during the first quarter (98%). This is due to the fact that during this quarter of 2017, the precipitation rate was high compared to other quarters. The dam is fed by Wadi Boussellam which is surrounded by farmland. The local residents use all types of pesticides, so the precipitation has leached these lands, as well as all the homes and small industrial units located upstream of the dam, which dump their liquid discharges in the streams, knowing that there is no treatment plant at this level and the water of precipitation

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H.-E. Mansouri H-E.M et al.

Fig. 10 Total values impact eutrophication by quarter (year 2017)

Fig. 11 Total marine ecotoxicity impact values by quarter (Year 2017)

brings with them all their liquid discharges, because the water is considered as a diluent and a vector at the same time.

5

Conclusion

We noted that the treatment of surface water from the Tichi Haf dam generated a predominance of the scarcity index (99%) in the production, distribution and use phases of all quarters, and the fourth quarter operating phase, 98% in the second and third quarter operating phase. This index is 60% at the first quarter operating phase, followed by the

eutrophication impact in the end-of-life phase (98% for the second and third quarter, 95% for the first and fourth quarters) and lastly the impact of marine ecotoxicity, which is manifested in the dam operation phase during the first quarter (40%) and in the end-of-life phases (5% for the first and fourth quarters, 2% for the second and third quarters). The construction of the dams proved to be insufficient, in so far as it did not allow a good satisfaction of the needs, in spite of the importance of the investments made. The construction of a dam impairs the water cycle, hence the need to consider new strategies for planning and managing our water resources, based on modern tools of

Water Footprint Assessment of the Tichi-Haf Dam Waters …

investigation, prevention and managing the rational use of this resource in the context of sustainable development. For the treatment of sludge, we intend in the framework of this work to undertake a line of research related to the end-of-life phase which consists in deepening analyzes on the sludge of wastewater treatment plants and even there.

References Ait R’zine Treatment Station, Annual Report for the Year 2017, ed 2018 (2018) Algerian Water, Annual report of the Year 2017, ed 2018 (2018) L. Barna, E. Benetto, Integrated methodological approach for the evaluation of the environmental impacts of mineral waste valorization, in Prospective Study (2006), p. 211 M.Z. Belhadj, Surface Water Quality and Its Impact on the Environment in the Skikda Wilaya. PhD Thesis in Hydraulic Sciences (Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Biskra Mohamed Khider, 2017), 153 p A.M. Boulay, J. Bare, L. Benini, M. Berger, M.J. Lathuillière, A. Manzardo, Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 23(2), 368–378 N. Bouziani, Water, Environment and Renewable Energies: towards an Integrated Water Management in Algeria. PhD thesis in management sciences (Faculty of Economics, Business and Management Sciences, University of Tlemcen Abu Bekr Belkaid, 2015), 246 p Coyne, Bellier, Study Report on the Eatershed of Wadi Boussellam (1996)

297 M. Dahinden, Study of the Swiss water footprint, in Illustration of the Switzerland’s Dependence on Water (2014), page 4. Directorate of Budget Planning and Monitoring, Paper of the Wilaya of Bejaia 2017, ed 2018 (2018) P. Dubreuil, Introduction to Hydrological Analysis (Masson & Cie Publishers, ORSTOM, 1974), p. 224 Executive Decree No. 11-125 of 17 Rabie Ethani 1432 corresponding to March 22, 2011 relating to the quality of water for human consumption, OJ No. 18 of 18 Rabie Ethani 1432 of March 23, 2011, page 9. ISO 14040, ISO 14044, ISO 14046 ISO 14071 C. Lacaze, The Eutrophication of Marine and Continental Waters, Causes, Manifestations, Consequences and Means Of Struggle (Edition Marketings, Paris, 1996), A.10–110. Lambardi, Design office Locano (Switzerland) Tichi Haf dam detailed design, in Hydrological Report (1984), 4 p National Agency for Transfer and Dams, Annual Report of the Year 2017 (2018) National Office of Meteorology, Weather Report (Bejaia Station, 2018) P. Seltzer, Works of the Meteorology and Physics Institute of the Globe of Algeria, ed by Typo-Litho, J. Carbonel (1946), p. 219 D. Sersoub, Management and Safeguarding of the Biodiversity of Oued Boussellem-Sétif Valley. Master thesis (Ferhat Abbas-Sétif University, 2012), p. 197 B. Touati, Dams and Water Policy in Algeria: State, Diagnosis and Prospects of Sustainable Development. Doctoral thesis in Regional Planning. ( Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Constantine Mentouri, 2010), 290–291 p

Study of Storage Tanks (Majels and Fesguia) of Rainwater in the Matmata Mountains (Tunisia) and Water Quality Habib Lamourou and Mohamed Moussa

Abstract

1

Located in the south of Tunisia, the mounts of Matmata face a water resources’ scarcity. This issue has pushed the local population to search and invent techniques like Mejel and Fesguia to conserve natural resources in order to meet the growing needs. The traditional rainwater harvesting techniques in the Matmata Mountains are essentially characterized by their key role in the storage of the runoff water, which represents a significant renewable water potential despite the scarcity of rains. Serious attempts to exploit the runoff water for human consumption and rain-fed agriculture reduce the water erosion in the mountain regions. This study aims to examine the rainwater stored in collection tanks (called Mejel and Fesguia) based on chemical analyzes carried out in the Laboratory of Eremology and Combating Desertification at the Arid Regions Institute (IRA) Medenine, Tunisia. The objective of this work is to get an idea about the quality of water tanks intended for human consumption. The physicochemical analysis of water in tanks showed an acceptable chemical composition that meets the standard suggested by the WHO except for a few samples. The microbiological analysis has shown that 60% of all collected samples have a quality that does not comply with the standards, which is why a disinfection operation is mandatory to prevent, or at least minimize, any kind of microbial contamination. Keywords









Mounts of Matmata Runoff water Traditional techniques of collecting Field inventory Quality of water tanks

H. Lamourou (&)
M. Moussa Institut Des Régions Arides, Médenine, 4119, Tunisie e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

Everyone agrees today that our planet will face a drastic increase in water needs in the near future. Tunisia, located on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, is a country with arid to semi-arid climate in over three quarters of its territory (LISSIR 2003). These are fragile and sensitive ecosystems in which the phenomenon of desertification is particularly active due to climatic characteristics, overexploitation of natural resources, and population growth (Ben 2001). The needs for water and land for cultivation are increasing day by day, while natural resources remain limited. The conservation of these natural resources is a concern. Indeed, for a long time, the main tendency of the locals has been researching, and inventing techniques ensure a regular and satisfactory water resource, despite the severe conditions. These developments have appeared for several centuries and, until now, remain the only source of drinking water for tens of thousands of families in Tunisia (El Amami 1984). These traditional rainwater harvesting techniques are widely used in the mountainous regions of Southeast Tunisia. They consist of building underground water tanks or cisterns in which the runoff water from an artificial or natural impluvium is collected. These tanks can have two very distinct shapes (Fig. 1): • A parallelepiped, the cistern is called Fesguia; • A truncated cone, the cistern is called Majel or Mejel. The storage capacity varies between 20 and 200 m3 with an average of 80 m3 (Chahbani 2003). In addition, runoff water represents a significant renewable water potential. For the mobilization and valorization of this runoff water, various traditional small hydraulic structures are used (Fesguia and Majel). The quantity of water

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_36

299

300

H. Lamourou and M. Moussa

2

Materials and Methods

1. Study area

Fig. 1 Mejel and Fesguia tanks. 1 settling tank for erosion products, 2 water storage tank, 3 manual water discharge port, 4 the catchment area of the tank, 5 limit of the impluvium, and 6 topographic surface

collected will be used as a source of drinking water or irrigation. Indeed, with the technological progress combined with a demographic increase and also because of the frequent harsh climatic conditions, the demand for water has increased, whereas the current situation of the water resources and their uses in Southeastern Tunisia present issues that are common to many regions of the Mediterranean Basin, limited and uncertain water resources (Moussa 2007). This required the implementation of traditional techniques for recovering runoff water: the Mejel and Fesguia techniques are small hydraulic works built in masonry by the man himself, whose quantity of reserved water will be exploited elsewhere as a source of drinking water or irrigation or for animal watering and other activities (Chahbani 2003). In such a situation of scarcity of natural sources, the inhabitants of Southeastern Tunisia have fought through history against the scarcity of water (Ouassar and Ben 2004). Indeed, they built cisterns to collect rainwater, and they dug wells where there is a water table to ensure the satisfaction of their domestic needs. Mejels and Fesguias are reservoirs constructed of masonry in an excavation in the ground in a circular shape for Mejel and a parallelepiped shape for Fesguias. The cost of constructing these cisterns is relatively higher than the technique of Mejel, and it amounts to around 3500 TD (Fetoui 2003). The storage capacities vary between 20 and 100 m3 with two vocations for domestic and agricultural uses (Kouakbi 2005). The traditions of the regions of Southern Tunisia are that almost every household has at least one Majel. The volumes of these reservoirs vary depending on the impluvium surface forming part of the overall storm water collection system, which has an average area of 200 m2. In this context, our work studies rainwater storage tanks in the Matmata Mountains and evaluates their qualities as much as drinking water.

The Matmata Mountains constitute the northern part of the mountainous extension which stretches over the Tunisian Dahar and reaches into Libya. This mountain range constitutes an anticline, and the eastern part of which seems to have collapsed, thus constituting the coastal plain of the maritime Djeffara (SEP 1994). This chain separates the two natural regions of Djeffara to the east and the basin of the great Eastern Erg to the west. The Matmata range is characterized by a mountainous relief characterized by an arid and pre-desert climate and by a low average rainfall (150 mm to 200 mm/year) irregular in time and space (Chahbani 2003). These mountains are formed by a succession of escarpments corresponding to a cuesta relief. They are composed of a series of east–west direction cuestas: Jurassic Cuesta, Alboaptienne Cuesta, and Turonian Cuesta (Saidi 2011). The study focuses on the following regions: Jouabit, Toujene, Tounine, Leffam, Ladbech, L’ancienne-Matmata, Haddej, and Dhokkara (Fig. 2). 2. Water sampling protocol for chemical, physical, and microbiological analyzes The water samples were collected by hand in 1-L polyethylene bottles previously washed and rinsed with distilled water. To qualify the tank water, physical (pH, EC, and dry residue) and chemical (hardness, HCO3−, Cl−, Na+ , K+ , SO42−) analyzes were carried out in the Laboratory of eremology and combating desertification at the Institute of Arid Regions in Medenine (IRA). The microbiological analyzes of the samples were carried out in the regional public health laboratory of Medenine. These analyzes are carried out on samples with specific sampling conditions in sterile vials. 3. Statistical analyzes An inventory sheet was prepared, and we moved to the field and collected the necessary information concerning 327 tanks spread over the entire study area. The descriptive statistical analyzes were carried out by the StatBox software.

3

Results and Discussion

As the concentration of several chemicals in drinking water varies considerably from region to region, it is impossible to set very strict quality standards. However, Table 1 gives the collected samples’ maximum concentrations generally

Study of Storage Tanks (Majels and Fesguia) of Rainwater …

301

Fig. 2 Study area

drinking water. It is important to periodically submit drinking water for bacteriological analysis and analysis of a standard set of chemical and physical parameters. However, a study on the analysis of water, particularly on the quality problems of water intended for human consumption, is very rarely exhaustive because of the multiplicity and complexity of the different parameters to be taken into consideration.

acceptable by consumers according to the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as the acceptable limits beyond which potability is seriously harmful. • The pH values show that the water of all tanks has pHs over 7 and, therefore, shows an alkaline water and limits the effectiveness of chlorine disinfection. • The values of the electrical conductivity show a very varied mineralization with values higher than 1000 lS/cm with a peak of the order of 1120 lS/cm (WHO recommendation) in Leffam. • Regarding major cations with the exception of K+ , we considered it inappropriate to compare them with the WHO recommendations. • Regarding the major anions, the results of the laboratory chemical analyze show (Table 1) that the tank water has values in accordance with the WHO recommendations. The physicochemical quality of rainwater stored in underground tanks is, therefore, generally acceptable and even ideal when compared to the WHO standards for

The microbiological analysis that accurately determines the presence of microorganisms and pathogenic germs are the goal of the next part.

4

Microbiological Analyzes

Microorganisms are found everywhere in the environment. Among them, some are beneficial, and others can be used as microbiological indicators of drinking water quality. Among these, it is recommended to analyze two main groups:

302

H. Lamourou and M. Moussa

Table 1 Physicochemical results

Min. value

Max. value

Average value

WHO standards for drinking water 6.5–9.5

pH

–

7.12

8.43

7.82

CE

lS/cm

181

1120

388.09

RS

mg/L

80

940

212.25

1500

CL−

mg/L

34

238

97.87

250

SO4

Table 2 Analytical parameters sought for microbiological analysis

Units

2−

< 2100

mg/L

0.564

5.219

2.14

250

Total water hardness

mg/L

40.96

179.2

81.06

500

Alkalinity

mg/L

–

439.2

48

–

Sodium

mg/L

2.771

168.41

15,92

200

Potassium

mg/L

5.913

210.81

34.45

12

pdts/Matrix

Repository

Analytical parameters sought

Analysis methods

Microbiological criteria

Drinking water, Wells …

NT 09.14 (1983) second edition June 1997

Coliforms

ISO 9308-1 (2000)

10 UFC/100 ml

Escherichia Coli

ISO 93031 (2000)

abs/100 ml

1. Escherichia Coli, which are bacteria that belong to the coliform group. It is also the only species that is strictly of fecal origin. They are considered to be the best indicator of fecal contamination. Their presence indicates recent contamination by feces and the possibility of pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. 2. Total coliforms are a group of bacteria of fecal and environmental origin. They occur naturally in soil, vegetation, and in the digestive tract of humans and animals. These are bacteria serving as indicators of pollution or microbiological contamination. Their presence in water indicates a degradation of the bacterial quality of the water. Total coliforms are easily removed by disinfection (Table 2). It can be seen from Fig. 3 that only 40% of the visited tanks contain water of acceptable microbiological quality for

Fig. 3 Distribution of tanks according to microbiological quality

conform

not conform

human consumption, while almost 60% are water that exceeds the standard required for drinking water. Therefore, they are unfit for human consumption. In fact, total coliforms occur naturally in the soil, which is why several contaminations with high values have been found, even for a few samples. However, thermo-tolerant coliforms or fecal coliforms are strictly of fecal origin and are present only in the guts of humans and animals. Its presence indicates fecal pollution, which is the case for tanks located near a septic tank in the case where the settling basin is full of animal waste.

5

Conclusion(s)

Traditional rainwater harvesting techniques in the mountains of Matmata are essentially characterized by their primary role in the storage of these runoff waters, which represent an important renewable water potential despite the scarcity of rainfall. The evaluation of the microbiological and physicochemical quality of these waters was carried out by following an adequate sampling for each type of analysis and by practicing specific protocols. The physicochemical analysis of water has shown an acceptable chemical composition which meets the standards suggested by the WHO, with the exception of a few samples. Microbiological analysis has shown that 60% of the total collected samples have qualities that do not comply with the standards, which is why a disinfection operation is

Study of Storage Tanks (Majels and Fesguia) of Rainwater …

mandatory to prevent, or at least minimize, any kind of microbial contamination. To achieve better water conservation, these structures must be studied and well-dimensioned, in order to retain runoff water during exceptional events and avoid the loss of large volumes of water. Also, to ensure good water quality, especially for human consumption, it is important to periodically submit water for bacteriological analysis and analysis of a standard set of chemical and physical parameters.

References El Amami, Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels en (Tunisie, 1984) H. Ben Ouezdou, Découvrir la Tunisie du Sud, de Matmata à Tataouine. (Ksour, Jessours et troglodytes Tunis, 2001), 78p J. Bonvallot, Comportement des ouvrages de petite hydraulique dans la région de Médenine (Tunisie de sud) au cours des pluies exceptionnelles de Mars (Série science Humaine, 1979), pp 233– 249 B. Chahbani, Innovation techniques et technologiques dans le domaine de mobilisation et de conservation des eaux pluviales et de ruissellement et dans le domaine d’économie d’eau (2003)

303 M. Fetoui, Ressources naturelles, usages et stratégies des acteurs ruraux dans un micro-bassin versant de la région de Zeuss-Koutine -Jeffara tunisienne: vers un essai de modélisation multi-agent autour de la gestion des ressources en eau (Mémoire de Mastère, IRA-INAT, Institut National d'Agronomie de Tunis, Tunisie, 2003) M. Kouakbi, Développement intégré des systèmes de production basé sur les techniques de collecte des eaux pluviales dans les régions montagneuses du sud-est de la Tunisie: le cas du micro-bassin versant Rebiaa Zammour-Béni Khédach (Mémoire de Mastère. Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerranèennes Institut Agronomique Méditerranéen de Montpellier (CIHEAM), 2005) H. Lissir, Inventaire et étude des citernes de collecte et de stockage des eaux et de ruissellement dans la région de Zammour–Béni khedèche (Mémoire de fin d’étude, 2003) M. Moussa, Gestion des ressources naturelles en milieu aride Tunisien : contribution à l’étude de la dynamique du milieu dans le bassin versant de l’oued Ségui-Mareth (sud Tunisien). Thèse de Doctorat (université d’Almeria, Espagne, 2007) M. Ouassar, M. Ben, Water-Harvesting Systems in Tunisia (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (lCARDA), 2004), pp. 21–39, ISBN: 92-9127-147X M. Saidi, Inventaire et étude des citernes (Majel et Fesguia) de stockage des eaux pluviales dans la région de Béni khédache (Mémoire de Mastère, Institut Supérieur des Sciences et Techniques des Eaux de Gabès, 2011), 44p SEP, Atlas de gouvernorat de Gabes (1994)

Not What Nature Can Do for the City but What the City Can Do for Nature Justyna Karakiewicz, Jose Holquin, and Thomas Kvan

Abstract

1

When we talk about climate change or resources like energy or water, we discuss new technologies and new designs that will help us continue with our lives, just with less detrimental impact. Design approaches start with a focus on people; environmental aspects are brought in later as acts of mitigation. Perhaps the agenda for the twenty-first century has to change from what nature can do for the city to what the city can do for nature. Here, we illustrate how the framework of complex adaptive systems and the concept of coupled urban-natural systems offer better ways of addressing current problems. From this perspective, we examine water scarcity and initiatives that not only reduce water consumption, but also increase quality of life and contribute to positive changes within the environment. Keywords








Agent-based modeling Complex adaptive systems Disturbance Innovation Water Scarcity




Highlight • A complex adaptive systems approach provides insights to systemic interventions • Python scripted data modeling enabled design strategies for interventions • Community awareness feeds innovation

J. Karakiewicz (&) University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia e-mail: [email protected] J. Holquin Jose Holguin Architect, Quito, Ecuador T. Kvan Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China

Introduction

The title for this paper is a quotation from Haggard’s book on ecological urbanism (Haggard 2014). Our inquiry, however, will move beyond ecological urbanism to consider the consequences of our actions on the environment when we design in isolation and with disregard of the environment. When discussing how to deal with water scarcity in fragile natural areas, we will introduce the concept of coupled urban-natural systems (Batty et al. 2019) and the complex adaptive systems (CAS) framework in order to illustrate benefits from approaching problems from a multidisciplinary point of view, introducing work we have been doing in Galapagos Islands in the past few years. Just as in Qatar, water is an urgent issue to be addressed in the Galapagos. Although surrounded by water, access to potable water in Galapagos is very limited and desalination processes are difficult to implement as access to an adequate affordable renewable energy is constrained (Eras-Almeida et al. 2020).

2

Settings

Since 2013, the University of Melbourne together with researchers from the University of San Francisco de Quito, the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, the University College, London, the University of Chicago and Santa Fe Institute have been developing ideas about the transition to sustainability in the Galapagos Islands using framework of complex adaptive systems (Kvan and Karakiewicz 2019). Although the problems related to water in Galapagos are more severe than in most locations, we still believe that the example presented here could be translated to other locations. We also believe that far too often we jump to provide a solution without fully understanding where problems exist; and because of this, the answers repeatedly create more problems in the long run. In the contemporary world with all computational power, data, software and thus the modeling

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_37

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to our disposal, we can achieve a better understanding not only about where the problem exists but more importantly, why the problem has emerged. Perhaps we should reconsider these so-called problems and reframe them as opportunities (Fig. 1). As mentioned earlier, when trying to come up with more sustainable agenda for Galapagos Islands, we decided to apply complex adaptive systems as framework for our research, making sure that our research is multidisciplinary and is not as much trying to provide solution but rather provide better understanding current situation and framework for experimentation. While complex adaptive systems theory has been embraced by many disciplines over the past 40 years, such as by economics, management, biology, and social science, urban planning and design have more typically followed a problem-solving paradigm. This approach often leads to an intensification of the problem or the creation of consequent problems through inappropriate interventions. Changing this approach with framework of CAS is not easy. Complex systems are counterintuitive since causes cannot be found in prior events but rather in “the structure and policies of the system” (Forrester 1969). Therefore, even when we speak about CAS in the urban context, we remain trapped in simple systems thinking, identifying linear causality. All over the world, we can see the result of damage created by approaching problem in isolation and with disregard of the context within which they operate. Governments have carried massive interventions to avert desertification with little success. For example, the Soviet Union and China have both, at different times, tried to grow trees in the desert with mixed success (Sun et al. 2001; The Economist 2019). Many of the trees have been planted in areas where they don’t naturally grow and die after a few years. Those that survive can soak up so much precious groundwater that native grasses and shrubs die of thirst, causing more soil degradation. Meanwhile, thousands of farmers and herdsmen are forced to leave their lands to make way for the desert-fighting projects. Similarly, projects to secure reliable sources of potable water have led to consequential problems (Jones et al. 2019). In order to avoid similar undesirable consequences, we approach water issues in Galapagos not in isolation, but as part of interacting and interdependent systems. First, we applied the Panarchy model developed by Holling and Gunderson. In this model, the urban system is represented as one of several interlinked and nested cycles. Each cycle operates at its own speed and scale. The functioning of, and signaling between, these cycles determines the survival of the overall system. Therefore, issues related to water cannot be dealt with in isolation. Furthermore, this model is also useful when conceptualizing a process of change in one cycle operating over a time period while interacting with

J. Karakiewicz et al.

another. Figure 2 illustrates our Panarchy model where the primary (and middle) level represents urban form. This is contextualized at a higher level, the environment, which cycles more slowly. The noosphere, the lowest level, the fastest cycling of the three, represents the role of knowledge in society to inform action. The term noosphere has been adopted from Vernadsky (1945). Often, changes are not readily accepted and appreciated by the residents; failure to change might be attributed to a lack of information or the lack of real choices for consumer. We can observe that, although we are not short of ideas, we are unsuccessful at communicating them to achieve broad public commitment. They introduced new ideas that need to be perceived as advantageous to the ideas and practices being superseded. They also need to be compatible with existing values, and easy to understand and adapt (Carrera-Villacres et al. 2017). This requires developing not one solution but creating alternative scenarios and alternative models for actions. Our work mostly concentrated on San Cristobal Island, with specific focus on urban areas of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno (Fig. 3). In the Galapagos example, we worked with students from the University of San Francisco de Quito, the University of Melbourne, and the University of Chicago. We proposed a catalog of possible interventions which were designed to reduce water consumption, or harvest water from mist, rain and through air dehumidification to address the very limited supply of potable water. On San Cristobal Island, the only source of freshwater is El Junco Lake. At present most of the precipitation in the urban area runs off into the sewage pipes. Only few houses and one hotel in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno have the ability to collect rainwater. Therefore, opportunities for developing ways of harvesting rainwater are huge. Furthermore, the humidity on the island is very high during most of the year. Outdoor air dehumidification systems are already deployed in Guayaquil, on the coast of Ecuador. Harvesting water from the mist has been popular for centuries in South America. Inca Empire used to collect water condensed on the leaves where exposed surface of the leaf cools by radiating its heat to the sky and atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets. This method was later replaced by specially designed nets, where water condenses onto wires and is collected at the bottom. Depending on fog levels and wind speed, it may be possible to harvest anything between 11,500 to 75,600 L of water per square meter of net per year (Rogers 2003). With all these already-existing technologies, our work started with data collection of water consumption within urban and agricultural areas of San Cristobal Island. What we observed was that agriculture consumes by far the biggest proportion of water and that the domestic water

Not What Nature Can Do for the City but What the City Can Do … Fig. 1 Location of Galapagos Island

307

308

Fig. 2 The Panarchy Model

consumption was relatively small compared with hotels, restaurants, and obviously laundries. We created data scape using grasshopper script as represented in Fig. 4. Within the urban structure, we mapped places of greatest water consumption, locations of water shortage, empty lots, and densities of pedestrian movement. We proposed how to insert our interventions within urban structures, making sure that we choose the best possible location for them. This exercise allowed us to observe where possible opportunities related to water recycling were situated within Fig. 3 Puerto Baquerizo Moreno

J. Karakiewicz et al.

urban structures. It also illustrated locations of empty sites, where possible intervention or experimentation with water recycling could take place (Fig. 5). For example, a water purification system was placed in the area between two laundry sites, locations where water consumption was particularly high. We also recognized that agriculture was one of the biggest water consumers (Fig. 6). At the same time, we learned that hydroponic and aquaponics could provide same amount of food using one-tenth of the water needed by traditional form of agriculture. Furthermore, introduction of hydro and aquaponics within urban structure located in proximity to places with highest water consumption could create opportunities for gray water recycling and therefore dramatically reduced water use on the island. Empty lots and rooftops of the buildings located next to hotels, where water consumption is particularly high, were designated for urban farming, hydro, and aquaponics. To increase the impact that our intervention has on the noosphere, and thus change norms and value systems of residents, we proposed attractions: a water purification system with a playground for children and a water harvesting system with aquaponics in the form of observation tower. We used our Panarchy and CAS framework to test possible outcomes. We are very much aware that we cannot predict what will happen, but we can model alternatives and evaluate them accordingly. When circumstances will change our model will change too. It will need to be updated

Not What Nature Can Do for the City but What the City Can Do … Fig. 4 Water consumption in hotels (orange lines) restaurants (yellow) and domestic (blue) (image created by Jie Jin)

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Fig. 5 Rates of water consumption—high (pink) and low (blue) (image created by Jie Jin)

regularly and adapt to changes. We hope that some of these ideas will be implemented soon and we will be able to monitor them and be able to suggest new interventions (Fig. 7). A model was constructed to demonstrate the impact of possible interventions and simulate the evolution of urban systems and water infrastructures within Puerto Baquarizo Moreno. The model was written in Python 3  programming language with an Object-Oriented Programming structure. We defined the generic city parcel as the base unit

of urban system (Agent). Such agent, scripted as a Class, contained a set of parameterized attributes that gave a unique identity and its geographical location. Each parcel was assigned its real parcel ID number utilized by the municipality as a way to link different sources of data to each corresponding parcel. The parcel’s attributes were updated as the model run through time steps (n-years) and get affected by the changes in the external changing environment (global variables), and the external environment gets changed as a result of local changes in the agents.

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Fig. 6 Water consumption in agriculture areas in El Progresso, San Cristobal Island (image created by Jie Jin)

Each parcel’s attributes will also affect and get affected to its neighbors based on proximity and relationship in a similar way to a cellular automaton model. The model runs on a dimensional model of the urban area with geographic fidelity to the real site. Data assigned to each parcel instance is acquired through 2 main sources of data. The first one is through shapefile (. shp and .dbf extensions) data provided by the municipality of the city and other census, and national databases. Taking advantage that each parcel has a unique parcel ID, we can link data from different sources as long as they also contain the parcel ID, which is not difficult to find. We utilized the PyShp python package to access all this data and build all the agent’s classes. The second source of data that was

linked to each parcel was through a personal survey of the city that was conducted by all students. Groups of students were given different neighborhoods of the city and a map of each neighborhood’s parcels with its parcel IDs. Each student filled up a card of information for every parcel assigned to them. Information was always kept in categorized or quantifiable information that could therefore be processed in the model. The information gathered by students was then transferred to an excel file which could be easily linked in the model to each agent and the rest of the information. There are also global variables included in the model such as population growth, which is obtained through census data and projections. This data is used to calculate the growth of the model through time in a realistic rate. For example, we

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Fig. 7 Water consumption on San Cristobal Island (image created by Jie Jin)

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calculate that every year one thousand new inhabitants migrate or are born in the city; hence, demand for built space increases in a calculated amount annually. Once we have the attributes for each parcel of the city added to the model database, we need to add their geographical location and spatial structure. The location of each parcel in space and in relation to its neighbors is fundamental to the elaboration of the model. Utilizing a street line shapefile of the city provided by the corresponding municipality and a shapefile of all parcels of the city we have generated a node and line shapefile where all parcels are connected to each other through the streets that serve them. Using Network X python package, we then convert this node and line map into a weighted network graph we can use to calculate proximities between nodes (parcels) and neighborhoods of parcels. The advantage of this methodology is that distances are calculated throughout the street network and not direct geographical distances that will ignore geographical accidents and the geometric structure of the city. With this network built, as an example, we can query what the n closest neighbors of a parcel are, or all the neighbors found within x-meters of the parcel. Once we have all the agents of the model generated and defined in memory, we are able to simulate the model. The model is setup to run like a cellular automaton model, each step of the model every parcel is analyzed and evaluated through logic rule sets that are defined by the students. An example rule set would be like this: if the parcel has more than 5 neighbors within 100 m who meet this criterion, then change one of its attributes from A to B. The model can evaluate each parcel for many different rule sets. Every time step of the model, all the parcels are evaluated at a random order to avoid biases. The model also has the capacity to generate “clusters” of units based on how the algorithm evolves. After the model is simulated completely, a data file, which contains all states of each agent throughout every step of the process, is generated. A script was elaborated in the Grasshopper plugin for Rhinoceros 3d which takes in the resulting data file from the model and displays it as a 3d visual representation of the city. We use the parcel shapefile of the city as a base to display this information in 3d. The script can take morphological data from each parcel and modify it as time-steps pass. For example, if a parcel gets improved and built during time the model can show these changes in construction volume that takes into account zoning regulations such as setbacks and build height. Students are also able to codify parcels and its buildings with different colors depending on what attribute they want to show. The script also marks the different clusters that are formed as time progresses. Units

that belong to a same group that has been formed get connected by lines in order to graphically show these relationships.

3

Results

By using CAS as framework and modeling consequences of initial and consequential interruptions within urban system, we were able to visualize how even the smallest interventions could have significant effects (perhaps “snowball” outcomes) not only on the urban structure, but also how these affect residents’ environmental awareness, increase creativity, innovation; and these changes can slowly and gradually lead to positive effects on the environment and lead toward transition toward more sustainable future. We could also see which locations and which interventions might perform better and which should be avoided. It is important for us to run parallel models, representing not only changes which are happening within urban structure, but also within environmental awareness of the inhabitants and the possible consequences on the environment (Fig. 8).

4

Discussion

Water access challenges are more severe in the Galapagos than those in Qatar. Although the Galapagos is surrounded by sea, desalination is not an option as affordable renewable energy is scarce and brine levels sensitive; other methods therefore need to be implemented. Desalination is also the isolated issues, not the systemic challenges. For example, much of the expensively desalinated water is used only once —only 14% water is recycled in Qatar—which means that the energy and water are both wasted (Haweya 2015). In Galapagos, more than 50% of the water that today ends up as waste could be purified and we have shown how these purification systems could be turned into recreational and education areas. A major portion of gray water could be used for watering plants, which will provide very needed shade, or in aquaponics, which in turn can provide residents with fresh food and other products using fewer resources, including water (Pretty and Bharuca 2019). Some countries, Qatar included, have many projects underway, but most of the projects are done in isolation. The challenge is to consider the issue systemically. The moment we stop looking at problem in isolation and stop trying to come up with solutions before developing better understanding of causes that created these problems in the first place, we will be able to come up with more innovative and possibly more sustainable ideas.

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Fig. 8 Computer simulation indicating how water demands are changing together with environmental awareness

5

Conclusion

There are lessons in technologies, in their application, and in alternatives to the technologies that Galapagos and Qatar might learn from each other. What we learnt in Galapagos when we started to briefly investigate water issues of San Cristobal Island that addressed problems revealed opportunities not only in reducing water consumption, but most of all what can be done to harvest and recycle the water. With

comparatively minor investments, we could find opportunities to provide enough clean potable water broadly and also build up stronger communities, create new types of employment and generate new knowledge, providing a framework for innovation. But most immediately, we hope that the increased environmental awareness can dramatically help to decrease water demand. Acknowledgements The authors thank Su Sun, University of Melbourne, for creating figures 4–7.

Not What Nature Can Do for the City but What the City Can Do …

References M. Batty, L.M.A Bettencourt, M. Kirley, Understanding coupled urban-natural dynamics as the key to sustainability: the example of the Galapagos, in Urban Galapagos: transition to Sustainability in Complex Adaptive Systems, ed. by T. Kvan, J. Karakiewicz (Springer Nature, Switzerland, 2019), pp. 23–41 D.V. Carrera-Villacres et al., An innovative fog catcher system applied in the Andean communities of Ecuador. Trans. ASABE 60(6), 1917–1923 (2017) The Economist, China’s desert-taming “green Great Wall” is not as great as it sounds (2019) A.A. Eras-Almeida et al., Decarbonizing the Galapagos islands: techno-economic perspectives for the hybrid renewable mini-grid Baltra-Santa Cruz. Sustainability 12(6), 2282 (2020) J.W. Forrester, Urban Dynamics (MIT Press, Cambridge, 1969) S. Haggard, Ecological Urbanism: the Nature of the City (Routledge, 2014)

315 I. Haweya. Food and Water Security in Qatar: Part 2—Water Resources (Strategic Analysis Paper Future Direction International, 2015) E. Jones, M. Qadir, M.T.H. van Vliet, V. Smakhtin, S. Kang, The state of desalination and brine production: a global outlook. Sci. Total Environ. 657 1343–1356 (2019) T. Kvan, J. Karakiewicz. Urban Galapagos: transition To Sustainability in Complex Adaptive Systems (Springer Nature, Switzerland, 2019) J. Pretty, Z.P. Bharuca, Chapter 28–integrated aquaculture and aquaponics, in Sustainable Food and Agriculture, ed. by C. Campanhola, S. Pandey (Academic Press, 2019), pp. 251–257 E.M. Rogers. Diffusion of innovations (Free Press, 2003) B. Sun, T. Fang, Desertification in China and its control, in Sustainable Land-Use in Deserts. ed. by S.-W. Breckle, M. Veste, W. Wucherer (Heidelberg, Berlin, New York, 2001), pp. 357–367 V.I. Vernadsky, The biosphere and the noosphere. Am. Sci. 33(1), 1–12 (1945)

Agricultural Waste-Based Alternative Adsorbents for the Remediation of Organophosphate Pesticide from Water Siham S. Hassan, Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti, Mohammad Abu-Dieyeh, and Gordon McKay

Abstract

The study focuses on using agricultural waste-based alternative adsorbents for the remediation of organophosphate pesticide-profenofos from water. Date pits agricultural wastes were used to prepare three types of adsorbents, namely roasted date pits (RODP), activated date pits (ACDP) and nano-activated date pits (NACDP). To determine the efficiency of these adsorbents to treat wastewater, different physical and chemical characterizations were studied, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and BET surface area. Adsorption isotherms models were examined in order to understand the interactions between the adsorbate profenofos and the prepared adsorbents. In addition, thermodynamic adsorption was carried out to determine the homogeneity and spontaneous of the adsorbents. Keywords

Adsorption

1




Date Pits




Green chemistry




wastewater reuse to improve Qatar’s water security (Islam et al. 2015). Adsorption technique has high efficiency and costeffectiveness in removal of pollutants in water on large scales. (Rawtani et al. 2018). Adsorbents using lignocellulose materials including agricultural wastes have advantages in low costs. Due to the abundant availability of the date palm and its chemical structure, it has shown promising results in removing pollutants from water (Wakkel et al. 2019). Moreover, due to the presence of lignocellulosic composition and its structure that is suitable in high temperature and makes it suitable to be activated carbon. The study focused on using modified dates pits-based alternative adsorbents for the remediation of organophosphate pesticide from water.

2

Methodology

2.1 Adsorbent Preparation Pesticide

Introduction

In order to achieve the aim of Qatar National Vision 2030 to transfer Qatar toward an advanced society capable of achieving sustainable development by 2030, there must be focus on water resources in Qatar and must be protected for the present and future generation. One of the solutions to overcome this challenge is the expansion of treated S. S. Hassan
M. A. Al-Ghouti (&)
M. Abu-Dieyeh Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected] G. McKay College of Science and Engineering Sustainable Development, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar

Date pit was roasted at a temperature of 130 °C for 24 h. Prepared RDP was sieved at different particle sizes. RDP was then converted to ADP by physical activation under continuous flow of argon gas in a horizontal tubular furnace. Mechanical preparation of nano-sized ADP was prepared using CryoMill grinder using agate ball mill.

3

Results

Figure 1 shows variation in the removal percentage among the three adsorbents, due to the surface area and total pore volume that were much higher for ADP and NDP. Therefore, the adsorption mechanisms of profenofos pesticide onto the ADP and NDP could be enhanced by the surface adsorption. Figure 2 shows that the solubility of profenofos increases as temperature increases causing low adsorption on the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_38

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Fig. 2 Effect of Temperature on the adsorption of profenofos onto RDP, ADP, NDP

Removal Percentage of Profenofos (%)

Fig. 1 Effect of initial concentration on the adsorption of profenofos onto RDP, ADP and NDP

100 90 80 70 60

RO DP AC DP NA CDP

50 40 30 20 10 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

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Initial Concentration (ppm)

surface of the adsorbents. The adsorption thermodynamic shows DH positive in all three adsorbents resulting in an endothermic reaction between adsorbents and profenofos, energy in the form of heat was adsorbed and DS negative indicates a non-spontaneous reaction.

4

Conclusion

According to the results, NDP showed the highest surface area and pore size distribution. Hence, the NDP has resulted in high removal percentage and removal capacity of profenofos from aqueous solution. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Central Laboratory Unit, Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences in Qatar University

for the analysis procedures and Dr. Ahmed Abdelatty for contribution to some of the experimental work.

References M.A. Islam, I.A.W. Tan, A. Benhouria, M. Asif, B.H. Hameed, Mesoporous and adsorptive properties of palm date seed activated carbon prepared via sequential hydrothermal carbonization and sodium hydroxide activation. J. Chem. Eng. 270, 187–195 (2015) D. Rawtani, N. Khatri, S. Tyagi, G. Pandey, Nanotechnology-based recent approaches for sensing and remediation of pesticides. J. Environ. Manage. 206, 749–762 (2018) M. Wakkel, B. Khiari, F. Zagrouba, Textile wastewater treatment by agro-industrial waste: Equilibrium modelling, thermodynamics and mass transfer mechanisms of cationic dyes adsorption onto low-cost lignocellulosic adsorbent. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 96, 439–452 (2019)

ENERGY: Energy Conversion

Insights on Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical and Biological Techniques Sravanthi Veluturla, Saddam Sharieff, N. Ashwini, K. V. Apoorva, Afnan Shariff, and Rahul Singhvi

Abstract

1

The quota of renewable energy in the total primary energy supply is expected to rise from 14% in 2015 to 63% in 2050. Major economies have started to explore the benefits of renewable energy sources to compete for their share in the world energy market. Also, the rising trend towards sustainability, greener, and cleaner sources of energy is what the future will be dependent on. With the exhaustion of fossil fuels in a few decades, hydrogen fuels will have the best prospect in replacing conventional energy sources leading to the evolution of a sustainable hydrogen economy. Hydrogen as a fuel has a high energy density and virtually produces no harmful emissions. This paper scrutinized the diverse hydrogen production techniques and safe and effective storage methods. With the development of hydrogen production from renewable bio-mass and sophisticated storage facilities, the days are not far from harnessing the complete potential of hydrogen energy and hydrogen fuels to dominate the energy sector. Keywords








Bio-mass Conventional energy Hydrogen fuel Renewable




Demand




Emissions

Highlights • The paper focuses on the outputs from various hydrogen production techniques. • Chemical and biological pathways for hydrogen production are presented. • Diverse hydrogen storage techniques are also discussed.

S. Veluturla
S. Sharieff (&)
N. Ashwini
K. V. Apoorva
A. Shariff
R. Singhvi Department of Chemical Engineering, M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, 560054, India

Introduction

The GCC nations (Gulf Cooperation Council), like Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia, are economies dependant on oil and natural gas for local consumption and export revenues (Reiche 2010). The fossil fuel supply is expected to exhaust at a minimum of 8 years reserves of oil to 10 decades of gas (BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2017). Regardless of being the world’s leading exporter of oil, with GCC’s largest oil reserve exports, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is expected to falter to a maximum of 3 M barrels/day by the year 2028 (England 2010). Technical and economic analysis has shown that the UAE would fail at providing its share of oil to the world economy by 2015 and that of natural gas by 2042 (Kazim and Veziroglu 2001). The dwindling sources of non-renewable energy have compelled researchers to look for alternatives, such as bio fuels which are produced from biomass, which is available in abundance. Biomass sources include wood waste, waste from food processing, municipal solid wastes, aquatic plants, and animal wastes (Demirbas Jul. 2001) and hence are available cheaply. Looking at other economies, Germany, the second greatest horticultural nation in Europe, alone accounted for 175 million tons of agro-waste per year in 2000. German municipal waste added to 16 million tons for each year and modern waste of 9 million tons. This inexpensive source of biomass will fuel the economies of the future, especially in the form of high-density hydrogen fuels. Hydrogen is a simple and highly potent element with one electron. Its existence can be converted into a useful resource to produce energy fuels. Developed countries have paved their way to finding new technological paths to produce hydrogen efficiently. Cost is an effective factor in the production of hydrogen as it determines the output. To cut down costs and maximize the output, optimized, and alternative process routes are being explored to generate a high yield of hydrogen.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_39

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The discourse of the paper analysed the thermochemical and biological routes for hydrogen production. The thermochemical processes include pyrolysis and supercritical water gasification. Pyrolysis progresses at high temperatures and in the absence of oxygen to produce hydrogen. However, steam gasification utilizes the oxidizing properties of water to produce H2 gas. Various biomasses are reviewed for their hydrogen production capacity, and the results were tabulated. The modern biological routes consist of direct and indirect photolysis and dark fermentation. An essential role in most biological methods is played by the hydrogenproducing enzymes, microorganisms, and energy in the form of sunlight. Each of the methods is compared for their efficiencies. Figure 1 shows a flowchart of the hydrogen production routes. With an advancement of hydrogen production, large quantities of the gas are being produced; therefore, storage has become an integral part, and the different storage methods have been reviewed and presented.

2

Thermochemical Routes

The thermochemical methods are thermally assisted chemical reactions to produce hydrogen. The processes involved in these methods of hydrogen production are mainly pyrolysis and supercritical water gasification. A. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis is a process that involves degrading organic materials chemically at high temperatures in the absence of

Fig. 1 Thermochemical and biological routes for hydrogen production

oxygen. The efficiency of this process is at its peak for the temperature range (400–450 °C). In the case of hydrogen production, the biomass undergoes degradation to form condensable liquid, tar, and char. The factors that affect the yield and composition are the biomass species, particle size, temperature, heating rate, chemical and structural composition, together with the reactor configuration, and pressure (Demirbas 2002). The hydrogen yield from a variety of biomass is summarized in Table 1. B. Steam gasification using supercritical water Steam gasification using supercritical water is a thermo-chemical method which produces hydrogen based on the phase change of water. Water exists in three phases, namely solid, liquid, and gas (Zhang et al. 2010). Water is subjected to a pressure of 221 bar and a temperature of 374 ° C (Demirbas 2005). At this particular condition, gaseous state and liquid state become miscible. As a result, water attains oxidant characteristics. Biomass reacts with this water to undergo a water gas reaction to produce hydrogen. Table 2 gives the hydrogen yields from common biomasses.

3

Biological Routes

The phenomena of biological hydrogen production gained immense attention when the oil crisis broke out in the 1970’s. It is an environmentally friendly method. It includes processes such as direct and indirect photolysis and dark fermentation involving microorganisms.

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Table 1 Hydrogen production via pyrolysis using different biomasses Biomass

Conditions/parameters

Catalysts

Results

Remarks

References

Pinewood sawdust powder (90 g)

Cylindrical pyrolysis reactor was operated at 500, 750 & 850 °C

Metal oxides: Cr2O3, MnO, FeO, Al2O3, CaO, and CuO

Without a catalyst, a hydrogen yield of 44.2% (wt) was obtained at 750 °C The chromium oxide catalyst gave the highest hydrogen yield of 49.3% in comparison to other metal oxides at 750 °C

The catalyst CuO had a negative effect on the yield

Chen et al. (2003)

Rice straw pellets (70 g)

Cylindrical pyrolysis reactor was operated at 500, 750 and 850 °C

Metal oxides: Cr2O3, MnO, FeO, Al2O3, CaO, and CuO

Without a catalyst, a hydrogen yield of 45% (wt) was obtained at 750 °C The chromium oxide catalyst gave the highest hydrogen yield of 48% in comparison to other metal oxides at 750 °C

The reason for the different yields of hydrogen from the two biomasses rice straw and sawdust could be due to the different mineral contents (Na, K)

Chen et al (2003)

Wheat straw

A fixed-bed reactor was maintained under a N2 pressure of 0.1 MPa and at 600 °C with a heating rate of 10 °C/min

Nickel/Calcium promoted iron catalyst

At 600 °C and 750 °C a maximum H2 yield of 91.19 mL/g is achieved

Increasing temperatures beyond 750 °C can further increase the yields

Lu (2020)

Dried olive pomace

Catalytic bed reactor operated at 700 °C

OPC, Ni/CoC, W-OPC, CoC, Ni/OPC and Fe/CoC

With Ni/OPC catalyst, the highest H2 yield of 315.3 mL/g biomass was achieved

Steam without a catalyst had barely any influence on hydrogen production

Duman and Yanik (2017)

Legume straw

Fast pyrolysis of the biomass was carried out in a free-fall reactor at atmospheric pressure and 800 °C

Non-catalytic

At 800 °C a 65.4 mol % (H2 + CO) was obtained with a 0.76 (H2/CO) (mol/mol) ratio

The pyrolysis products depend upon the chemical composition

Li et al. (2004)

Apricot stone

Fast pyrolysis of the biomass was carried out in a free-fall reactor at atmospheric pressure and 800 °C

Non-catalytic

At 800 °C a 55.6 mol % (H2 + CO) was obtained with a 0.47 (H2/CO) (mol/mol) ratio

Within the temperature range of 500–800 °C, with an increase in temperature, the gas product yield increased, and the solid yield decreased

Li et al. (2004)

Water hyacinth

Fixed bed two-stage reactor system First stage: 650–700 °C Second stage: 800 °C

Modified sepiolite catalyst

The two-stage pyrolysis process gives a yield of 77.2% hydrogen

A nickel content of 9% (wt %) and a reaction time of 17 min is considered to be optimal

Liu et al. (2014)

A. Direct photolysis Direct photolysis capitalizes on the photosynthetic ability of cyanobacteria and algae to split water straight into hydrogen and oxygen by converting solar energy to chemical energy, with the help of microalgae photosynthetic systems and this involves photoabsorption and charge separation reactions of photosynthesis. The photosystem II (PS-II) absorbs light energy in the form of photons and produces electrons, i.e. reductants, along with proton, O2 and these electrons are transferred through thylakoid electron transport system via PS-I, which absorbs light energy for further movement of

electrons to finally station them at electron carrier reversible hydrogenase clusters (hydrogenases and nitrogenase enzymes) through ferredoxin instead of directing them for carbon dioxide fixation and formation of molecular hydrogen is by recombination of electrons & protons extracted via the photochemical oxidation of water with a purity of up to 98% (Hankamer et al. 2007; Hu et al. 2008; Turner et al. 2008; Levin et al. 2010; Show et al. 2019). Attempts have been made to direct maximum solar energy towards hydrogen production and little energy allocated for carbohydrate building in order to sustain the cells (US Department of Energy 2007). Figure 2 depicts the direct photolysis pathway.

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Table 2 The various biomass species and reaction conditions utilized in the production of hydrogen Biomass

Reactor

Reaction conditions

Catalyst

Results/remarks

References

Legume straws

Free fall reactor

740–850 °C

Limestone, Olivine, Dolomite

H2 yield increases as temperature increases with high activity of the dolomite catalyst

Wei et al. (2007)

Wheat straw and corn cob

Cylindrical reactor

500–950 °C

–

Wheat straw gives a yield of 31–55% Corn cob gives a yield of 29–47%

Demirbas (2006)

Pine saw dust

Gasification reactor

0.075–1.2 mm (particle size), 600– 900 °C

Natural dolomite

H2 yield increases 50% by volume with a decrease in particle size (0.075 mm)

Luo et al. (2009)

Wastewater sludge

Semi-batch reactor

900 °C

–

High yield of H2, syngas and energy is found in the form of steam to carbon ratio (S/C) 5.62

Nipattummakul et al. (2010)

Fig. 2 Pathway for direct photolysis

2H2 O þ Solar Energy ! O2 þ 4H þ 2H þ þ 2e ! H2 Although these enzymes can be efficient in producing hydrogen, they can be strongly inhibited by oxygen due to inharmonious simultaneous production of hydrogen and oxygen, which is one of the important products of this process (US Department of Energy 2007; Sen et al. 2008). It has been discovered that Ca2+ benefits plants in adjusting to ecological stresses (such as high salinity, light conditions, drought, etc.) by stimulating gene expressions and/or activating biochemical responses. For instance, the PS-II is being protected by intracellular ROS by the expression of an anti-oxidant enzyme (Yang et al. 2015; Tan et al. 2011). Few approaches like optimization of light input into photo-bioreactors, improvement to the two-phase H2 production systems and genetic engineering of light gathering antennae used with green algae, mutants can be used in increasing H2 production rate in green algae (Pareek et al.

2020; Hallenbeck 2002). The commonly used microalgae include Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella fusca, Scenedesmusobliquus (Sen et al. Dec. 2008; Lopespinto 2002). Table 3 depicts the production of hydrogen via bio-photolysis using microalgae. B. Indirect photolysis In indirect bio-photolysis, the complications of simultaneous production of H2 and O2 leading to the interruption of the hydrogen evolving process are possibly evaded by parting temporally and/or spatially into two separate hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions in separate stages done by coupling with CO2 fixation/evolution (Pareek et al. 2020; Prince and Kheshgi 2005). Sulphur deprivation in green algae sources causes a reversible inhibition of photosynthetic activity. In the absence of sulphur, rates of photosynthetic O2 evolution drop below those of O2 consumption by respiration, leading to the evolution of

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Table 3 Hydrogen production through bio-photolysis by green microalgae in laboratory photobioreactors Organism

Gas growth

Light intensity (W/m2)

Gas for H2evolution

Light intensity (W/m2)

Maximum evolution rate (mmol/g -hr)

Maximum productivity (mmol/L-hr) (kJ/L-hr)

References

Anabaena variabilis PK84

25% N2 73% Ar 2% CO2

20

5% N2 93% Ar 2% CO2

20

3.06

0.35 (0.08)

Borodin et al. (2000)

Anabaena cylindrica

0.3% CO2 99.7% Air

20

97% Ar 3% CO2

60

1.33

0.93 (0.22)

Sveshnikov et al. (2006)

Anabaena variabilis PK84

98% Air 2% CO2

72

2% CO2 98% Air

72

0.21

0.26 (0.06)

Sveshnikov et al. (2006)

Synechococcus PCC602

Air

4

Ar/CO/C2H2

4–6 or dark

0.66

–

Biohydrogen, in Biohydrogen (2009)

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124

3% CO2 Acetate (17 mM) 97% Air

43

S-free acetate (17 mM) Argon

65

5.94

0.002 (0.0005)

Kosourov et al. (2002)

Chlamydomonasreinhardtii cc1036

Acetate (17 mM) Air

22

Argon acetate (17 mM) S-free

26

5.91

0.48 (0.12)

Kosourov et al. (2002)

Fig. 3 Pathway for indirect photolysis

hydrogen (Wykoff et al. 1998). The two stages of indirect photolysis are shown in Fig. 3. 12 H2 O þ 6 CO2 ! C6 H12 O6 þ O2 C6 H12 O6 þ 12 H2 O ! 12 H2 þ 6CO2 By limiting the nitrogen content, the yield of carbohydrate can be increased and O2 production can be brought down. Hence, the H2 is formed in the second step with drained O2 condition (Sampath et al. 2020). Precisely, biosynthesis of D1, which is a pivotal protein situated within

the PS-II reaction-centre, was found to be suggestively decreased as an effect of the chloroplast’s incapacity to manufacture suitable quantities of the sulphurous amino acids, methionine, and cysteine. Also, under nitrogen starvation, the rate of hydrogen generation was found to be 12.6 mg of protein/hr (Levin 2004). A maximum conversion efficiency of 16.3% has been achieved till date (Prince and Kheshgi 2005). Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Calothrix, Gloecocapsa are the commonly used microorganisms (Lopespinto 2002).

326

S. Veluturla et al.

C. Dark Fermentation

4

Dark fermentation is the conversion of organic substrates into bio-hydrogen by microorganisms in the absence of sunlight. It offers an attractive option due to the simpler reactor design and high production rates (Handbook of Biofuels Production 2016). Various approaches have shown that pre-treatment prior to dark fermentation is the most successful method to increase the bio-hydrogen rate (Sun and Cheng 2002). Pre-processing is done to obliterate the lignin that is covering the cellulosic cells and aids to release them into the solution, which is accompanied by annihilation of crystalline pattern of molecules and depolymerize it to improve enzymatic digestibility of bio-hydrogen (Bundhoo and Mohee 2018). Figure 4 represents a simple pathway of dark fermentation process for the production of hydrogen through biomass. Through the past years the method of dark fermentation to produce bio-hydrogen has been rapidly evolving and has now reached a stable and efficient pathway for producing bio-hydrogen. The most recent discovery is that the bacteria, Thermoanaerobacterium sp. strain RBIITD can be successfully used to produce bio-hydrogen more efficiently and this path involves a more economical use of substrate and is more sustainable and technologically feasible (Yin 2020). Table 4 presents the hydrogen yield from different biomasses by dark fermentation.

The biological method produces high-quality hydrogen with less investment with a variety of substrates. H2 production by means of gasification, plasma reforming, pyrolysis and the reformation of natural gas and oil are mainly based on the conversion of fossil fuel and biomass, and the processes are expensive and detrimental as they emit large amounts of the greenhouse gas CO2 and poisonous CO (Oey et al. 2016; Levin and Chahine 2010). In comparison, the algal photolysis is carbon negative and less energy intensive since it is carried out largely at ambient temperatures and pressures (Weaver et al. 1980), it has an inordinate ability to develop into a huge origin for H2. Furthermore, algae have high solar energy conversion and biomass efficiency and could be grown on non-arable land, which makes it more attractive (Oey et al. 2016; Rashid et al. 2011). Although the efficiency is low, it can be pointedly improved by microalgae derivative mutants. It produces hydrogen from effortlessly obtainable sunlight, water and native accessibility of the biomass, consequently decreasing the energy outlays and the transport expenditure of the initial raw material, it can be labelled as an economically efficient method (Pareek et al. 2020; Ni et al. 2006). Also, supercritical water gasification can be improved by reducing the energy consumption and tar formation. Steam gasification is a promising technology provided the reaction temperature can be reduced. Liquefaction is not recommended as the ideal pressure and

Fig. 4 Pathway for dark fermentation

Comparison

Insights on Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical …

327

Table 4 Hydrogen production by dark fermentation process Biomass

Reactor

Processed cheese whey

Batch reactor

pH

H2 yield (mL H2/g VSadded)

H2 in biogas (%)

References

Temperature (°C) 56

7

111

–

Cardoso et al. (2014)

Conditions

Wheat husk

Batch reactor

35

6.6

68.1

52

Fan et al. (2006)

Rice sludge

Batch reactor

37

4.5

346

45–56

Fang et al. (2006)

Organic fraction of municipal waste

CSTR

55

6.4

360

58

Akutsu et al. (2009)

Rice husk

CSTR

56

6.4

24.8

–

Chen et al. (2003)

Food waste

Leaching bed reactor

35

5– 7

310

10–55

Han and Shin (2004)

Cornstalk waste

CSTR

50

7

149.96

45–56

Wang et al. (2010)

Pumpkin and potato puree

Batch reactor

34

7.5

171.1

–

Ghimire et al. (2015)

Table 5 Cost comparison of the different production routes Process

Energy source

Feed stock

Capital cost (M$)

Hydrogen cost

References

Pyrolysis

Heat

Organic mass

3.1–53.4 M$

8.86–15.52 $/GJ 1.25–2.20 $/kg

Bakhtyari et al. (2018)

Steam Gasification

Heat

Bagasse (800 tonnes)

61.1 M$

7.64 $/GJ

Lau (2002)

Direct photolysis

Solar

Water + algae

50–60 M$/m2

2.13 $/kg 20 $/GJ

Solar Hydrogen Production (2019), Venkata Mohan et al. (2007)

Indirect photolysis

Solar

Water + algae

135 M$/m2

1.42 $/kg 10 $/GJ

Solar Hydrogen Production (2019), Benemann (1998)

Dark fermentation

–

Organic mass

N/A

5.57 $/kg

Solar Hydrogen Production (2019)

temperature for the operation is difficult to maintain and hydrogen yield remains low.

5

Cost Analysis

Hydrogen has the prospect to be a clean substitute to the fossil fuels presently consumed. This is primarily dependent upon the manufacturing complexity and the cost of hydrogen. The efficiency of the production system is one of the chief aspects responsible for the drop in production cost, alongside storage and transportation. Table 5 shows a simple cost comparison between the different production routes.

6

Application and Storage

other sectors too. At fuel pumps, hydrogen could be made available as a transportation fuel. The present stage of development of fuel cells is well recognized, and there are already vehicles (buses, cars) which are expected to run on this fuel. When a fuel cell is used in a vehicle, oxygen and hydrogen are converted into energy electrochemically and simultaneously produce water. The prescribed standards, 35 MPa pressure tanks on buses and 70 MPa pressure tanks are used on cars. An electric motor fuel cell with a mean efficiency of 60% has a 30% greater efficiency than a regular conventional engine. In accordance with all the above properties, a further reduction in particulate matter and noise pollution can be reached. A small number of hydrogen fuel stations have been constructed around the globe in the previous decade (H2 Stations—by Ludwig Bolkow Systemtechnik 1998). Electric vehicles equipped with hydrogen fuel cells are quite easy to operate and have a good acceleration (Letcher 2019).

A. Application of hydrogen

B. Storage

Presently, H2 is majorly consumed as a resource in industries for manufacturing numerous chemicals, materials processing, welding, and coolant, and finds application in

A highly flammable substance like hydrogen requires safe and efficient storage. H2 storage essentially implies the decrement in the massive volume of the H2 gas, 1 kg of H2

328

at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature takes a volume of 11 m3. In order to decrease the volume occupied by the hydrogen in a storage system, either temperature has to be maintained well below the critical temperature or work must be done in order to compress H2, or finally, the intermolecular repulsion has to be scaled down by providing H2 with another material (Zuttel 2004). Below are the main hydrogen storage methods. a. Hydrogen compression The compression of H2 is one of the highly popular used techniques of storage nowadays. This technique is the highest used due to its easy understanding and popularity (Durbin and Malardier Jugroot 2013). In this particular method, H2 is compressed in tanks using the same technologies as those used for the compression of natural gas (Cipriani et al. 2014). Pressures range (20–25 MPa) in the storage tank. For applications in the vehicle, it is better to have low weight, low cost, and high-density storage container that is best suited for the hydrogen delivery scheme (Zhang et al. 2016). b. Liquefaction of H2 H2 can be stockpiled in its fluid phase, being non-corrosive and colourless. It can stock 0.070 kg/L when competed with 0.030 kg/L as in the instance of storage using compression (Niaz et al. 2015). The container in which it is stocked up is isolated (thermally) and, alongside, stays in vacuum parameters (Zhang et al. 2015). c. Storage in hydrides Hydrides are constituents that have linked (chemically) H2. The materials which can chemically pile up H2 are the liquid organic hydrogen carriers, ammonia, carbohydrates, synthetic hydrocarbons, ammonia, formic acid, and metal hydrides. With these hydrides, it has become very easy to achieve higher densities in terms of energy produced, in contrast to the hydrides of metal (Turner et al. 2008; Hwang and Varma 2014; Lindofer et al. 2019). d. Electrochemical method In an electrochemical hydrogen storage technique, atomic hydrogen adsorbs onto hydrogen storing material on electrochemical disintegration of an aqueous medium (Guo et al. 2013). In this procedure, H2 dissociation into atomic hydrogen is absent, and therefore major limitation of hydrogen storage is overcome (Li et al. 2016). The uses of the electrochemical method from a scientific viewpoint are quite high due+ to its accuracy and availability (Konda et al. 2015). One of the major aspects which further boosts the

S. Veluturla et al.

importance of the electrochemical storage technique is that here H ions are stockpiled as mobile charges (Eftekhari and Fang 2017; Kaur and Pal 2019). e. Kubas interaction Metal hydrides have a strong binding contact between H2 molecules and metals, so they suffer from poor reversibility and long charge–discharge kinetics. It is suggested that the material and hydrogen have an adsorption enthalpy of 20– 30 kJ/mol at ambient conditions (Morris et al. 2015). On the other hand, due to the weak interactions between the H2 molecules and adsorbent, carbon-based materials and other porous materials have a reduced amount of storage volume (Lachawiec et al. 2005). To overcome these flaws, the Kubas interaction was proposed where a metal catalyst is merged with an adsorbent storage material. The hydrogen bonds grow in length, approximately 20% longer than the length between the atoms in free H2 (Morris et al. 2015; Chung et al. 2015; D. P. and S. Ramaprabhu 2014). In comparison with simple physisorption, this critical factor gives a stronger and better interaction between the hydrogen and metal catalyst. Studies on Kubas interaction are still under progress and most of the work is still limited to computational studies (Boateng and Chen 2020). f. Spillover effect This mechanism includes the movement of the species that get adsorbed on a particular surface, which then moves onto another final substrate that inhibits adsorption of active components under the similar environment. The substrate is inert towards non-activated hydrogen, and accepts only the active hydrogen from the catalyst (Parambhath et al. 2012). The storage size is expanded by the use of platinum nanoparticles modified on hydrogen-exfoliated graphene (HEG) sheets. This composite gave 1.4 wt % of hydrogen uptake at 25 °C and 3 MPa, whereas HEG alone gave (0.5 wt %). The amalgamation of the platinum nanoparticles improved the H2 loading capacity by the spillover effect. Due to reversibility of this particular process, it is being meticulously studied for enhancing hydrogen storage capacities. Nonetheless, structural stability in transition metal distributions remains a huge challenge, as metal atoms tend to amalgamate due to cohesion forces of strong metals (Ramaprabhu 2014; Chen and Ostrom 2015).

7

Conclusion

With the rising energy demands for domestic and commercial purposes, the requirement for high energy density fuels with robust storage has risen sharply. Therefore, hydrogen

Insights on Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical …

will play a dominant role in the energy sector in the coming years. This paper has highlighted the production of hydrogen by thermochemical methods such as pyrolysis and gasification. It also discussed the sustainable biological routes that offer a better alternative as they are cheaper and less energy intensive. But they too suffer from drawbacks like low yield, large reactors and sensitivity of microorganisms. Nevertheless, with the rising research and advancement in genetic modification of microorganisms and efficient control parameters, this would help in producing hydrogen at an economical rate. Apart from the methods discussed, various other techniques are also available for producing hydrogen, like electrolysis which gives 99.999% (vol.) purity of green hydrogen (H2 produced from sustainable electricity). The three main electrolysis technologies available are alkaline, polymer electrolyte membrane, and solid oxide electrolyte. Moreover, high temperature electrolysis of steam is considered as an advanced technology as the electrolysis reaction is more pronounced at higher temperatures. These methods are either limited by cost or function efficiently at a small scale only. Some technologies are still in the R&D stages, and to meet the future demands of the hydrogen economy, large-scale operations have to be realized. Other methods included in literature are cracking of natural gas and integrated coal gasification with high temperature electrolysis, which are also energy intensive processes. The grey hydrogen produced alongside carbon dioxide by processing fossil fuels can be converted to more sustainable blue hydrogen by recovering the CO2. Photochemical catalytic reactions for producing H2 from water are also available but they give low yields. With the maturing of hydrogenproducing technologies with time and research, and inclusion of process intensification techniques like membrane embedded reactors with catalyst packing, hydrogen will become one of the major fuels dominating the energy sector of the future. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Department of Chemical Engineering, M.S Ramaiah Institute of Technology for providing us the required support and facilities.

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Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case Study for Qatar Agriculture Sertac Bayhan and Ali Elrayyah

Abstract

In this paper, a photovoltaic (PV) solar energy-based microgrid was modeled. A model predictive control (MPC), featuring a linear and accurate prediction model to overcome the drawbacks of comparable control schemes, was used to regulate the current (power) in an agricultural farm. The MPC is based on a prediction model along with a cost function that defines the switching states of the voltage source inverter to ensure the stability of the system. Furthermore, to ensure maximum power point tracking, an incremental conductance (IC) technique was used owing to its simplicity. The considered system was modeled based on Matlab/Simulink, and control performance of the proposed scheme was evaluated with simulations. Keywords







Agriculture microgrid Renewable energy management Model predictive control

1




Power

Introduction

Reforms in agriculture have increased dependency on energy resources such as electricity and oil, as in other areas. Specifically, in arid environments like that of Qatar, energy is needed for water pumping and greenhouses cooling to maintain farming during various seasons of the year (Moustafa 2010). Therefore, the agricultural sector could be characterized by a high energy demand for different aspects related to the farming process (Brudermann et al. 2013). Given the relatively high energy demands of the industry S. Bayhan (&)
A. Elrayyah Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected]

and the potential impact that climate change might have on agricultural farms, the increased adoption of renewable energy sources in the farm community seems a natural response. The use of photovoltaic systems (hereafter PV), which is the predominant electrical renewable technology for decentralized production, is rapidly gaining ground in agriculture, which should come as no surprise (Brudermann et al. 2013). To maximize the effectiveness of PV systems in the agricultural sector while meeting its increasing energy demand, small-scale microgrids based on renewable energy sources become a crucial player in farms. PV installations in farms are used in most cases to drive water pumps as it requires 0.25–0.5 the cost of using diesel generators (Chandel et al. 2015). In solar-based water pumps, a set of PV modules drives water pumps through inverters. When solar power is available, water is pumped from underground wells. The pump keeps on working until there is no sufficient PV power, or there is a need to wait for the well water to refill after it drops to below the pump level. As there is a continuous advancement in farming technologies, most of which need an electric power supply, managing all sources and loads within farms as microgrids improve resource utilization, power availability, and power quality (Vargas et al. 2018). An essential part of designing agricultural farm-based microgrid is to analyze the demand within the given farm. For a PV system that serves a single load such as water pumps, mismatches in water demand, and PV supply patterns may increase the total cost to unacceptable levels (Odeh et al. 2006). On the other hand, when the PV system supplies power to several loads, flexible supply–demand matching can be achieved by managing the various loads (Afonaa-Mensah and Asante 2015). Loads in the farm could be diverse in nature and, at the same time, can provide flexibility to be shifted over different periods of the day, eg., the cyclic nature of cooling and refrigeration systems can be coordinated with the time to run water pumps to maintain a close to uniform power distribution over the day. This

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_40

333

334

S. Bayhan and A. Elrayyah

feature is of great advantage to minimize the needed capacity of energy storage, allowing cost minimization and system efficiency improvement (Rohit et al. 2013). To this end, managing power sources and loads in farms as microgrids represents a very practical approach to ensure optimal utilization of the available resources. The microgrid system can supply the demanded power reliably despite the variations in loads demand and PV power supply, which needs to be studied in a dynamical form. The nature and number of loads in farms can be quite predictable, and this can be very supportive to optimizing the system design and operation. For this reason, an accurate model for the microgrid at farms is indeed needed to analyze the system behavior under different operating conditions and evaluate the system and controller responses. Developing a simulation model to design and analyze the performance of the microgrid system is a very useful and valuable tool to be used in this case. This paper presented a model of PV-based agricultural microgrid in Doha-Qatar and its control based on model predictive control (MPC). The simulation model and the proposed control technique have been prepared through Matlab/Simulink environment. The operation principle and the dynamic and steady-state performances were confirmed by simulation studies.

2

Overview of the Agriculture Microgrid

In the considered farm, activities are limited to winter months (November-March) as atmospheric weather is unsuitable for farming during the summer. However, artificially cooled greenhouses are planned to be installed at the farm to expand the farming season. A PV-based system is therefore considered for power supply. The project was divided into phases: In the first phase, which was considered Fig. 2 The considered microgrid architecture

Fig. 1 Solar resource availability at the considered farm

in this paper, a PV system that satisfies the need of available load was installed. The power need within the considered farm was used for the following purposes: (1) water pumping (11 kW), (2) cooling and ventilation of buildings (5.5 kW), (3) lighting (2 kW). The solar energy is available in the site throughout the year. Occasional dust storm and few cloudy days during the winter season are the only factors that may hinder the power supply from the PV system. Figure 1 shows a histogram for the PV effective hours over one-year time. A PV effective hour on a certain day (PVH) was calculated as: PVH ¼

Energy produced a day (kWh) Installed PV Capacity (kW)

ð1Þ

The simplified scheme of the considered agricultural microgrid (MG) is depicted in Fig. 2. The considered MG consists of 30 kW PV system, modeled relying on SunPower SPR-305-WHT PV panel, and load (mainly water pumps). Furthermore, the MG has a grid connection to transfer the power surplus to the grid or support load in case of low power generation. Power electronic converters were used to ensure the smooth power transfer among load, PV panels, and the utility grid.

Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case …

PV Array

Boost Converter

Lx PV

Voltage Source Inverter

D

S1

PV

S3

S2 vib

vic PV

S4

PV

VDC

PWM Gen. VPV IPV

* VDC

+

m1

IC MPPT

PI

I*

Reference Generation θg(k)

MPPT Method

Predictive Model PLL

~ vv ~v ~

ioa

i1b

iob

i1c

ioc

ga gb gc

vca vcb vcc

S6

S5

Cost Function Optimization

-

L

i1a

via

Cx2

Cx1

335

C abc

abc

abc

αβ

αβ

αβ i1αβ (k) vcαβ(k) ioαβ(k) vcαβ(k)

Model Predictive Current Controller

Fig. 3 The block diagram of the proposed system

3

Proposed Control

Figure 3 illustrates the control structure of each PV inverter system. As shown in this Figure, the proposed system consists of a boost converter and an MPPT method, a two-level VSI, an MPC-based current controller, and an output filter. A. MPPT Method As it is well known, the solar irradiance varies during the day, and the PV panels output power is not constant. To control the array power and step up the PV array voltage (VPV) to DC-link voltage (VDC), the boost converter was used as a power electronic interface. It is crucial to employ the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) mechanism for tracking the PV modules’ maximum power point (MPP) so as to ensure maximum energy conversion efficiency since PV modules have a single MPP for a specific operating condition. MPPT methods have attracted much attention in recent years, and various MPPT methods have been proposed for PV applications (Karami et al. 2017). In this study, the incremental conductance (IC) method was selected for the MPPT method because it generates less oscillation than the Perturb and Observe (P&O) method, and its implementation is more straightforward than others (Karami et al. 2017). IC method requires PV panel voltage (VPV) and PV panel current (IPV) to locate the desired MPP. Figure 4 depicts the schematic presentation of the IC method. It can be seen that the slope of the curve is zero at the MPP

(Ozdemir et al. 2015). The mathematical representation of IC method is as follows   dP dðVIÞ ð2Þ MPP ¼ dV dV  0 ¼ IþV

 dI MPP dV

ð3Þ



 dI I ð4Þ MPP ¼  dV V The PV module operates at the MPP when the change of the output conductance (dI/dV) is equal to the negative of the output conductance (−I/V) (Ozdemir et al. 2015).

Fig. 4 Schematic presentation of the IC method (Ozdemir et al. 2015)

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Fig. 5 Flow chart representation of the IC method

ΔVPV (k)=VPV (k)-VPV (k-1) ΔIPV (k)=IPV (k)-IPV (k-1)

ΔVPV =0

YES

D=D

YES

D=D++

YES

di/dv=-I/V

ΔIPV =0

di/dv>-I/V

ΔIPV >0

D=D--

D=D--

YES

YES

D=D

D=D++

VPV(k-1) = VPV(k) IPV(k-1) = IPV(k) *

D=Duty Ratio

Equation (4) is the condition to achieve the MPP. The flow chart of the incremental conductance is given in Fig. 5. B. MPC based Current Controller To convert DC power into AC power, a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) along with LC filter was used, as shown in Fig. 3. To fulfill the current control requirement, first, the mathematical model of the inverter needs to be extracted. The three control signals named Sa, Sb, and Sc form a total of eight switching states of the inverter. The switching states can be represented as  1; if S1 on andS4 off Sa ¼ 0;  if S1 off and S4 on 1; if S2 on and S5 off Sb ¼ ð5Þ  0; if S2 off and S5 on 1; if S3 on and S6 off Sa ¼ 0; if S3 off and S6 on and can be written in a vector form by S¼


2 Sa þ aSb þ a2 Sc 3

ð6Þ

where aj(2p/3) is the filter current (i1), the output voltage (vc), and the output current (io) can be represented as:

i1 ¼ 23 ði1a þ ai1b þ a2 i1c Þ vc ¼ 23 ðvca þ avcb þ a2 vcc Þ i0 ¼ 23 ði0a þ ai0b þ a2 i0c Þ

ð7Þ

The equations of the filter inductance and the output voltage can be expressed as L1 didt1 ¼ vi  vc c L1 dv dt ¼ i1  i0

ð8Þ

where vi is the output voltage vector generated by the VSI. The MPC technique was used in this study to control the output current (power). The MPC offers some advantages over the classical control techniques such as its easy implementation for linear and nonlinear systems, high dynamic response, and small steady-state error. Furthermore, the MPC can quickly solve the multi-objective control problem by using multiple cost functions. A more detailed analysis of the MPC technique and its characteristics can be found in Cortes et al. June (2009); Bayhan et al. 2016). The MPC technique mainly consists of three layers: (1) predictive model, (2) cost function optimization, and (3) reference current generation. i. Predictive model The discrete-time model is required to predict the control parameters at the next sampling time. To extract the

Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case …

337

g ¼ iabc ðkÞ  ipabc ðk þ 1Þ ¼ ia ðkÞ  iPa ðk þ 1Þ þ ib ðkÞ  iPb ðk þ 1Þ

discrete-time model, the continuous-time equations in (5)– (8) can be used. The general structure of forward-difference Euler equation can be used in order to compute the differential equations of the output current. Df ðkÞ f ðk þ 1Þ  f ðkÞ  Dt Ts

ð9Þ

The discrete-time model of the system was used to predict future behavior of the control variable, in this case, the output current. A simple estimation of the load current can be calculated from filter current and the output-voltage measurements using the following equation obtained from (8) i o ð k þ 1Þ ¼ i 1 ð k þ 1Þ 

C ð vc ð k Þ  vc ð k  1Þ Þ Ts

iii. Reference current generation To generate the reference current with the same phase of grid voltage, the phase-locked loop (PLL) was employed. Furthermore, the reference output current vector was determined by the DC-link voltage controller according to the PV system operating point, as shown in Fig. 3.

ð10Þ

ii. Cost function optimization The cost function was used to minimize the error between the reference and the predicted control variables in the next sampling time. The cost function can be expressed in orthogonal coordinates as Table 1 System parameters

ð11Þ

4

Results and Discussion

The components of an agriculture MG has shown in Fig. 1 which have been modeled and simulated through the Matlab/Simulink environment. The parameters of the studied agriculture MG are given in Table 1. The steady-state and dynamic performances of the MPC-based controller are shown in Fig. 6a and b,

System 1 (20 kW PV + Inverter A) Boost converter Input capacitance (Cx1)

220 µF

Inductance (Lx)

3 mH

Input capacitance (Cx2)

470 µF

DC-link voltage (VDC)

700 V

3-phase VSI Filter inductance (L)

1.5 mH

Filter capacitance (C)

22 µF

Nominal frequency

50 Hz

Nominal Voltage

380 V

System 2 (10 kW PV + Inverter B and C) Boost converters Input capacitance (Cx1)

220 µF

Inductance (Lx)

2 mH

Input capacitance (Cx2)

470 µF

DC-link voltage (VDC)

1000 V

3-phase VSIs Filter inductance (L)

1 mH

Filter capacitance (C)

22 µF

Nominal frequency

50 Hz

Nominal voltage

220 V (line-to-neutral)

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Fig. 6 Simulation results: a steady-state performance; b dynamic performance

respectively. The DC-link voltage is 700 V for both cases. The output current tracks its reference with a high accuracy, and the dynamic response is very fast and without any overshoot. It can be clearly seen that the performance of the

controller is satisfactory. Furthermore, the proposed system injects power into the grid with a unity power factor. To verify the performance of the system, a step-change was applied to the solar irradiation level as shown in Fig. 7.

Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case …

339

Fig. 7 Solar irradiation level, PCC voltage, and inverter output current

The solar irradiance level was increased from 350 to 700 W/m2 instantly. The solar irradiance level, PCC voltages, and inverter output currents are given in Fig. 7. It is seen that the proposed system has a fast transient response, the inverter output current is in sinusoidal waveform, and the system injects power to the grid with a unity power factor. To verify the performance of the IC MPPT technique in this application, the system was tested under one-day solar irradiance data, as shown in Fig. 8. In this simulation, SunPower SPR-305-WHT modules were used to obtain around 30 kW PV array. The I–V and P–V characteristics of this array are shown in Fig. 8a. Furthermore, the PV array voltage and current under one-day solar irradiance are shown in Fig. 8b. It can be seen that the system follows the MPP at all operating conditions except when the solar irradiance is zero. Figure 9 shows the simulation results of output powers, the DC-link voltage, the point of common coupling (PCC) voltage, and the output currents of each inverter against the one-day solar irradiation data. It is worth noting that three inverter systems given in Fig. 2 were active in this

study, and each system was controlled by the local controller. The IC-based MPPT method ensured for tracking the MPP at all operating points by controlling the boost converters duty ratio while the MPC-based current controller fulfilled the power control requirement.

5

Conclusion

In this study, the photovoltaic (PV) solar energy-based agriculture farm was modeled, and a model predictive control (MPC), which offered a fast dynamic response and small steady-state error, was used to regulate the output current (power) in the agriculture farm. The proposed system consisting of the IC MPPT boost converters, three-phase inverters, PI-based DC voltage controller, and MPC-based output current controller. The considered system was modeled based on Matlab/Simulink, and the control performance of the proposed scheme was evaluated through simulations. The results show that the proposed system tracks the MPP of the PV system and injects sinusoidal currents to the grid.

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Fig. 8 a The I–V and P–V characteristics of the selected PV array; b simulation results of solar irradiance, PV array output voltage, and PV array output current

Model Predictive Control in Photovoltaic Application: A Case …

341

Fig. 9 Simulation results: a output powers and DC-link voltage of inverters against the solar irradiation level; b PCC voltage (single-phase), output currents of inverters against the solar irradiation level

342

References S. Afonaa-Mensah, D. Asante, Impact of load diversity on the design of isolated grid solar PV systems for rural communities in Ghana. Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ. 5(4), 1–15 (2015) S. Bayhan, H. Abu-Rub, R.S. Balog, Model predictive control of quasi-z-source four-leg inverter. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 63 (7), 4506–4516 (2016) T. Brudermann, K. Reinsberger, A. Orthofer, M. Kislinger, A. Posch, Photovoltaics in agriculture: a case study on decision making of farmers. Energy Policy 61, 96–103 (2013) S.S. Chandel, M. Naik, R. Chandel, Review of solar photovoltaic water pumping system technology for irrigation and community drinking water supplies. Renewable Sustain. Energy Rev. 49, 1084–1099 (2015) P. Cortes, G. Ortiz, J.I. Yuz, J. Rodriguez, S. Vazquez, L.G. Franquelo, Model predictive control of an inverter with output LC filter for UPS applications. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 56(6), 1875–1883 (2009)

S. Bayhan and A. Elrayyah N. Karami, N. Moubayed, R. Outbib, General review and classification of different mppt techniques. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 68, 1–18 (2017) A.T. Moustafa, Potential of protected agriculture and hydroponics for improving the productivity and quality of high value cash crops in Qatar, in The Agricultural Sector in Qatar: Challenges and Oppurtunities (2010), pp. 427–451 I. Odeh, Y.G. Yohanis, B. Norton, Economic viability of photovoltaic water pumping systems. Sol. Energy 80(7), 850–860 (2006) S. Ozdemir, S. Bayhan, I. Sefa, N. Altin, Three-phase multilevel grid interactive inverter for PV systems with reactive power support capability, in 1st Workshop on Smart Grid and Renewable Energy (Doha, Qatar, 2015) K.B. Rohit, G. Karve, M. Khatri, Solar water pumping system. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Adv. Eng. 3, 225–259 (2013) C.Vargas, R. Morales, D. Sáez, R. Hernández, C. Muñoz, J. Huircán, T. Roje, Methodology for microgrid/smart farm systems: case of study applied to indigenous mapuche communities, in International Conference on ICT Adaption on Agriculture Climate Change (2018), pp. 89–105

Improved Performance of PV Cells/Modules Through the Inverse Problem Method Mohamed Rezki, Samir Bensaid, and Hamza Houassine

Abstract

Highlights

The aim of this study was to assess the various settings that can improve the efficiency of existing algorithms, used to identify the intrinsic parameters of photovoltaic modules (PV). The ultimate goal was to improve their performance. A simulation model was established through the analysis on relevant constraints, such as rank of precision and the time of execution (delay time). Via this study, it was found that the use of metaheuristic methods that are inspired by artificial intelligence especially hybrid optimization methods not only increased the accuracy but also allowed a further improvement of these methods by changing their arrangement. The metaheuristic algorithms chosen for the hybrid optimization, used in this study, were bat and simulated annealing algorithms (BA and SA) with two sequential applications (BA—SA and SA—BA). We found that taking as a beginning the bat algorithm enabled us to achieve better in terms of accuracy and time of execution. But one very important point was found and which is that the efficiency of BA technique depends strongly on the settled initial conditions contrary to SA algorithm (problem of non-convergence, solution does not exist). With the calculation of the error and statistical variables, a contribution of validation of the findings of this research was performed.

• Understand the efficiency of in situ electrical parameters identification of PV cells/modules. • Know the importance of order (arrangement) in hybrid sequential algorithms. • Use of statistical methods for improving the performance of PV cells/modules.

Keywords











Efficiency Inverse problem optimization Parameter identification Photovoltaic cell Module M. Rezki (&)
H. Houassine Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Applied Technology, Bouira University, Bouira, Algeria e-mail: [email protected]

1

Introduction

Being able to model a product such as photovoltaic (PV) modules allows simulating its characteristics in order to optimize its qualities. The two major models selected to understand the behavior of the solar module are 1D-2R model (five parametrs to identify in case:: photocurrent ‘Iph’, serial resistance ‘RS’, saturation current ‘I0’, parallel resistance ‘Rsh’, and the ideality factor ‘n’) and two-diode model (model of seven parameters). The most used model is 1D/2R that is why it was selected for this study (Bonkoungou al. 2008). Several optimizing algorithms for estimating the PV model have been employed (Bader et al. 2019; Tamrakar and Gupta 2015). The most powerful and newest of these are the metaheuristic methods, especially those inspired by nature (Yang 2014a) such as: simulated annealing algorithm (SA) and bat algorithm (BA). The rest of this study is organized as follows: Sect. 2 described the methodology used to solve the problem. Section 3 introduced the different results followed by a discussion and Sect. 4 provided a summary conclusion.

S. Bensaid Laboratoire Des Matériaux et du Développement Durable, Bouira University, Bouira, Algeria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_41

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Materials and Methods

2.1 PV Modeling The model chosen for the study is the model of single diode (1D/2R, see Fig. 1). The effectual current (I) for a PV cell can be expressed as (Cubas al. 2014).

 
 qðv þ Rs
IÞ v þ Rs
I I ¼ Iph  I0 exp 1  n
K
T Rsh ð1Þ This model includes the five parameters to find out, inter alia, photocurrent ‘Iph’, serial resistance ‘RS’, saturation current ‘I0’, parallel resistance ‘Rsh’, and the ideality factor ‘n’. With: v is the cell output voltage; q is the electron charge (1.60217646  10−19C); k is the Boltzmann’s constant (1.3806503  10−23 J/K); T is the temperature in Kelvin. When we look for the PV modules current, we have to take into account the number of PV cells connected parallel (Np) and the number of PV cells connected in series (Ns). The result is as follows (Al Hajri al. 2012): 1 2 0  3 q Nvs þ I
NRps A  15 I ¼ Np
Iph  Np
I0 4exp@ n
K
T ! v:Np Ns þ R s
I  ð2Þ Rsh It should be noted that the module is just a combination of a group of cells made by manufacturers.

solving them and subsequently finding the five cited above parameters to identify. To identify these parameters, the inverse problem method was used by comparing the values provided by the manufacturer to those calculated using the optimization algorithms: BA and SA algorithms (see description in Fig. 2). By hybridizing these methods (BA and SA), we can reach better results. Let us recall that the objective function is given by the next formula: J ¼ f ðIm ; Vm ; xÞ

ð3Þ

where Im, Vm are the manufacturer’s data (current and voltage) and x represents the solution.

2.3 Model Validation The statistical tools used to validate our inverse problem model resulting in a performance measure of our algorithms are: calculation of root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), respectively, with the below equations: vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi u N u1 X RMSE ¼ t ð4Þ fi ðIm ; Vm ; xÞ2 N i¼1 where N is the number of the experimental data.  N  1X Ai  Fi   MAPE ¼ :100 N i¼1  Ai 

ð5Þ

where Ai is the actual value and Fi is the forecast value, and N is the number of the experimental data.

2.2 Problem Formulation and Inverse Problem Procedure 2.4 Bat and SA Algorithms From Eqs. (1) and (2), it can be seen that the nonlinear nature of these equations generates a certain difficulty in

Fig. 1 Five parameters that models solar cell (Model: 1D/2R)

To minimize the inverse problem objective function described in Eq. (3), a sequential application of hybrid algorithms SA-BA and BA-SA was employed in order to get the five parameters of the 1D -2 R model.

2.4.1 Bat Algorithm (BA) The bat algorithm is a heuristic method of optimization (also, called metaheuristic) inspired by the natural process of echolocation of microbats (see Fig. 3) that consists in emitting sound pulses and detecting the possible prey from the reflected echo (Yang 2014b, 2010). Three rules were respected in the elaboration of the first optimization algorithm called BA (Yang 2010), based on the

Improved Performance of PV Cells/Modules Through the Inverse …

345

Fig. 2 Design of the used inverse problem algorithm

Fig. 3 Bat sonar (Induja and Eswaramurthy January 2016)

analysis of the behavior of microbats. These rules are (Chaouche al. 2018): • Bats use the echolocation technique to determine the distance in order to locate their food/prey and their environs. • Each bat flies arbitrarily of position xi by the velocity vi with a fixed frequency fmin, by varying frequency f and loudness A0 to track their prey. They automatically correct the frequency of their especial pulse and adjust the rate r 2 [0, 1], according to the nearness of their prey. • The loudness Ai varies from a high value A0 to a low value Amin. Where f is limited by the variation range [fmin, fmax]. The movement of the virtual bats follows a mathematical model, according to the below system of equations: fi ¼ fmin þ ðfmax  fmin Þ b

ð5Þ

þ ðxt1  x Þfi vti ¼ vt1 i i

ð7Þ

xti ¼ xt1 þ vti i

ð8Þ

where: b is an empirical parameter 2 [0, 1]. Each iteration has the following best solution: xnew ¼ xold þ eAt

ð9Þ

With e 2 [−1, 1] is a random number while At = < Ai > is the average loudness of all the bats at time step t. For loudness Ai and pulse rate ri, we have as equations: t

Ati þ 1 ¼ aAti

ð10Þ

rit þ 1 ¼ ri0 ½1  exp ðctÞ

ð11Þ

With: a = c = 0.9, Ai0 2 (Bonkoungou al. 2008; Bader et al. 2019) and ri0 2 [0, 1]. The fundamental steps of the BA method are given in the pseudocode as indicated in Fig. 4 (Yang 2010):

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Fig. 4 Pseudocode of the BA technique (Yang 2010)

1 Objective function f(x), x = (x1, ..., xd)T 2 Initialize the bat population xi (i = 1, 2, ..., n) and vi 3 Define pulse frequency fi at xi 4 Initialize pulse rates ri and the loudness Ai 5 while (t ri) 8 Select a solution among the best solutions 9 Generate a local solution around the selected best solution 10 end if 11Generate a new solution by flying randomly 12 if (rand < Ai & f (xi) < f(x*)) 13 Accept the new solutions 14 Increase ri and reduce Ai 15 end if 16 Rank the bats and find the current best x_ 17 end while 18 Postprocess results and visualization

2.4.2 Simulated annealing Algorithm (SA) The simulated annealing algorithm is also a stochastic search method (heuristic) of optimization, developed by Kirkpatrick et al. in 1983 (Kirkpatrick al. 1983). This technique is inspired from annealing process in metallurgy. This process involves the control of heat and cooling rate of a material which has the effect of minimizing the energy of the material (reach a minimal energy state). It is considered as a popular technique that outperforms several algorithms described in the scientific literature (Fodorean al. 2012). The algorithm moves from a point xi with certain energy level E to xi+1 with new level of energy E’ using probabilistic criterion ‘p’ that is dependent on the temperature ‘T’ in state i. This temperature is analogous to that in physical annealing and serves here as a control parameter. If the solution at i + 1 is better than the existing solution, then this new point is accepted (Amaran al. 2016) (El-Naggar al. 2012). This solution means that the difference between the two energy levels is less than or equal to zero, if this difference is greater than zero, the new state will be accepted with probability p (El-Naggar al. 2012). This probability is given by Kirkpatrick al. (1983):  DE p ¼ exp  ð12Þ kB :T where kB is Boltzmann's constant, and T is temperature. The SA algorithm can be summarized as the pseudocode shown in Fig. 5.

3

Results and Discussion

The implementation of the hybrid algorithms (SA–BA and BA–SA) was performed on the SUNTECH PV module— 50 W (observe Table 1).

1 Objective function f(x), x = (x1, ..., xd)T 2 Initialize the initial temperature T0 and initial guess x (0) 3 Set the final temperature Tf and the max number of iterations N 4 Define the cooling schedule T αT, (0 < α < 1) 5 while ( T > Tf and t < N ) 6 Drawn from a Gaussian distribution 7 Move randomly to a new location: xt+1 = xt + (random walk) 8 Calculate Δf = ft+1(xt+1) − ft(xt) 9 Accept the new solution if better 10 if not improved 11 Generate a random number r 12 Accept if p = exp [−Δf/T] > r 13 end if 14 Update the best x∗ and f∗ 15 t = t + 1 16 end while Fig. 5 Pseudocode of the SA technique (Yang 2014c)

After executing the MATLAB software, in order to solve the nonlinear equation and determining subsequently the five parameters of the solar module, we get the following:

Table 1 Manufacturing datasheet of SUNTECH PV module—50 W at standard test conditions (STC) (AM 1.5G, 1000 W/m2 and 25 °C) Characteristics

Value

Open-circuit voltage (Voc)

21.8 V

Power tolerance [%]

±5

Optimum operating voltage (mp)

17.4 V

Short-circuit current (Isc)

3.13 A

Optimum operating current (Imp)

2.93 A

Maximum power at STC* (Pmax)

50 W

Temp. coefficient of Pmax

−0.47%/°C

Temp. coefficient of Voc

−0.34%/°C

Temp. coefficient of Isc

0.045%/°C

Improved Performance of PV Cells/Modules Through the Inverse … BA-SA Method

3

Measured I-V Computed I-V 2.5

Current [A]

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

2

4

6

8

10

14 12 Voltage [V]

16

18

20

22

-aSA-BA Method

3

Mesured I-V Computed I-V

2.5

Current [A]

2

1.5

In order to see the output characteristics of the experimented PV module (SUNTECH—50 W), we have plotted the most representative one which is the I–V characteristic, the results were as follows: According to Fig. 6, it can be seen that the two curves representing I–V characteristics are almost perfect, there is even a good alignment between the experimental curve given by the manufacturer and the computed curve calculated by the inverse problem resolved through the use of hybrid optimizing algorithms. Nevertheless, to complete the study, a statistical analysis is required. This analysis was achieved, and the different results are shown in Table 2. From this table, we can ascertain that the arrangement of the algorithms in the hybrid method had a big importance, by beginning with bat algorithm, the time execution had been faster and the accuracy was better (see the values of RMSE and MAPE in Table 2). However, it should be mentioned that in terms of robustness (practical point of view), the simulated annealing method is more robust than the bat algorithm and less dependent on the initial conditions. The research literature confirms the performance of the SA technique (Al Rashidi M al. 2014; Saha al. 2018).

4

1

0.5

0

347

2

4

6

8

10

14 12 Voltage [V]

16

18

20

22

-b-

Conclusion

A comparison of the performance of different arrangements of algorithms constituting the hybrid methods was obtained. The statistical study via the calculation of errors (RMSE and MAPE) has proved the importance of the arrangement order. As future perspective, it is recommended to continue in this field by diversifying different hybrid algorithms and implementing them on different PV module technologies.

Fig. 6 IV characteristics of the tested PV module with the optimizing algorithms: a BA–SA, b SA–BA

Table 2 Identified parameters for the SUNTECH PV module— 50 W under STC

Parameters Rs [Ω] Rsh [kΩ]

SA–BA algorithm 0.144

BA–SA algorithm 0.1001

34.89

34.95

n (ideality factor)

1.74

1.77

Iph [A]

2.65

I0 [A]

2.3579  10

RMSE

1.0994

MAPE Time execution [s/run]

38.9846 712.21

2.65 –6

9.2398  10–6 0.0323 2.8699 281.56

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References S. Bader, X. Ma, B. Oelmann, One-diode photovoltaic model parameters at indoor illumination levels––A comparison. Sol. Energy 180, 707–716 (2019) C. Saha, et al., Review article of the solar PV parameters estimation using evolutionary algorithms, MOJ Solar Photoenergy Syst. 2(2), 63‒75 (2018) D. Bonkoungou, et al., Modelling and Simulation of photovoltaic module considering single-diode equivalent circuit model in MATLAB. Int. J. Emerging Technol. Adv. Eng 493–502 (2008) D. Fodorean et al., Simulated annealing algorithm for the optimisation of an electrical machine. IET Electric Power Appl. 6(9), 735–742 (2012) S. Induja, V.P. Eswaramurthy, Bat algorithm: an overview and its applications. IJARCCE J. 5(1), 448–451 (2016) J.Cubas, et al., On the analytical approach for modelling photovoltaic systems behaviour. J. Power Sour. 247, 467–474 (2014) K.M. El-Naggar, et al., Simulated Annealing algorithm for photovoltaic parameters identification. Solar Energy, 86, 266–274 (2012) M. Al Rashidi, et al., Extraction of photovoltaic characteristics using simulated annealing, in 2nd International Conference on Advances in Engineering Sciences and Applied Mathematics (2014), pp. 1‒3

M. Rezki et al. M.F. Al Hajri, et al., Optimal extraction of solar cell parameters using pattern search. Renew. Energy, 44, 238–245 (2012) M.S. Chaouche, et al., “BA to construction of equivalent circuit of a transformer winding from frequency response analysis measurement. IET Electric Power Appl. 12(5), 728–736 (2018) S. Amaran et al., Simulation optimization: a review of algorithms and applications. Ann. Operat. Res. 240(1), 351–380 (2016) S. Kirkpatrick, et al., Optimization by simulated annealing. Science 220 (4598), 671–680 (1983) R. Tamrakar, A. Gupta, A Review: extraction of solar cell modeling parameters. Int. J. Inn. Res. Electri. Electron. Instrument. Control Eng. 3(1), 55–60 (2015) X.S. Yang, A new metaheuristic bat-inspired algorithm, in Natureinspired cooperative strategies for optimization (NICSO 2010), vol. SCI 284 (Springer, 2010), pp. 65–74 X.S. Yang, Nature-Inspired Optimization Algorithms (Elsevier Publications. 2014), pp.141–152 X. S. Yang, “Nature-Inspired Optimization Algorithms”, Elsevier Publications, pp.141–154, 2014. X. S. Yang, Nature-Inspired Optimization Algorithm (Elsevier Publications, 2014), pp. 67–75

Use of Marine Renewable Energy in Ports of Middle East: A Step Toward Sustainable Ports Dilba Rayaru Kandiyil

Abstract

1

Renewable energies are those derived from the natural resources. Their availability and ability to replenish cause less damage to the environment and generate low CO2 emission made them evolve as one of the important sources of energy all over the world. Their benefits also include the savings in economy and their being environment friendly. Ports are important part of a nation’s economy. They still serve as unavoidable link in trade worldwide (PIANC Report on Renewable and energy efficiency for Ports 2019.). Hence, the principals of sustainability must be implemented in the ports sector too. To achieve sustainability, we must integrate the renewable energy to the port’s energy usage. Various renewable energies include wind, solar, waves, tides, ocean thermal energy conversion, and salinity gradient. Waves, tides, OTEC, salinity gradient fall under marine renewable energy. The proximity of ports to the sea and the large open area makes them more suitable for utilizing renewable energies. Feasibility study, energy usage study, research on overcoming the obstructions, development of site-specific devices, etc., will surely make renewable energy more reachable to the port community and thus the goals of greener ports can be easily achieved. Keywords








Marine renewable energy Offshore wind farm power Wave energy Ocean thermal energy




Tidal

D. R. Kandiyil (&) Oryx Universal College Under Liverpool John Moores University, Doha, Qatar

Introduction

Ports are connecting nodes between the world economy and global trade and now it is high time we had to concentrate our works related to sustainability on the area of ports, too. Seas and oceans are endowed with vast reserves of renewable energy. Marine renewable energy takes the form of kinetic energy (winds and currents), potential energy (tidal amplitude), mechanical energy (waves), thermal potential (vertical temperature gradients), or even osmotic pressure (horizontal gradients of salinity) (Manasseh 2017). For countries that have extensive maritime areas, renewable marine energy can make a significant contribution to electricity production. Energy production based on fossil fuel reserves is largely responsible for carbon emissions, and hence global warming. We need methods to reduce fossil fuel usage and implement carbon mitigation measures. While taking ocean energy into consideration, there are major interdisciplinary problems to be overcome regarding technology, cost reduction, investment, environmental impact, governance, and so forth.

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Sustainability and Maritime Sector

The term sustainable development was coined by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development in their Brundtland Report published on 1987. While the concept of sustainability emerged in 1987, no study was conducted in the scope of sustainability in the ports between 1987 and 1997. After 2008, the importance given to the sustainability issue has increased, and several studies have been conducted on a variety of topics. Although port sustainability issues came on the agenda in the last two decades, it is still seen as one of the most important subjects in the sustainability concept due to the nature of the industry. In this direction, this study aimed to investigate current port

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_42

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sustainability literature in a systematic way (Özispa and Arabelen 2017). Now in this twenty-first century, we have moved far ahead from that description stage to the execution stage. It is being planned and achieved in several fields. Nevertheless, there are still some areas that have high influence on people and environment and where the term sustainability is still on paper or in the discussion stage. Ports and harbors are one among those areas. So, the primary purpose of this paper was to open the door of potentials for using renewable energy in making ports a greener. The UN International Maritime organization says that 90% of the world trade that occurs through ports and ocean transportation is an integral part of the global supply chain. Sustainability concept is a recent approach in the maritime and many gaps are still to be filled. Özispa and Arabelen (2017) conducted a study on sustainability issues in ports: content analysis and review of the literature (1987–2017) and came to the following conclusions. The number of studies on port sustainability issues is quite limited compared to the number of studies on issues like “sustainable supply chain management” or “green port.” The results of the study demonstrated that there is still a significant gap in port sustainability issues and the emphasis should be put on port sustainability studies. When examining the 53 studies about ports sustainability subject in the current literature, it is clear that there is a very limited number of studies written about quite various fields. The most common five topics are sustainable development, sustainability performance, sustainable management, sustainable port construction, and environmental sustainability. In addition to these subjects, it is seen that there are several neglected subjects. Among these, we can state sustainability policy, sustainable coastal development, economic and environmental sustainability, ecological footprint, social sustainability, sustainability reporting, and sustainability measurement. It is thought that these neglected topics are quite important to the future studies. Specifically, sustainability reporting and sustainability measurement subjects should be studied and developed in-depth to get clearer scores on sustainable performance indexes (Özispa and Arabelen 2017). Third the IMO GHG Study done in 2014 illustrates that the ship emissions will go up to 250% by 2050 (International Maritime Organization report on Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2014). The entire emphasis was put on the need for a sustainable planning for ports and their environments. The European Union identified various factors dealing with the port and environment. This Union listed out the top 10 environmental priorities that have to be considered for a better future. European Union ports priorities are analyzed and updated every year. The analysis of the past 4-year data from 2016 to 2019 shows that air quality and energy

D. R. Kandiyil

consumption remain in first and second position. The other important thing to be noted is that the climatic change that did not figure in the 2016 list is now ranked third position in the 2019 report (Top 10 Environmental Priorities of EU Ports 2019). A careful analysis and study on the above factors and their variations along the years helps us get an idea about the parameters that we need to consider in an environmental master plan while expanding old ports or building new ones.

3

Sustainable Ports

As per the sustainability review of North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation (NQBP) Australia, the concept of “Sustainability” for ports is the integration of the environmentally friendly methods of port activities, operations, and management. That is any development causes the minimum possible impacts, contributing to improving measures and controls for the quality of the air, water, noise, and waste. Since sustainability is a new concept for ports, only a small number of literature works and standards are available. One of the major inputs to maritime literature was achieved by PIANC. They have published a report on Renewable and Energy efficiency for Ports, in 2019 and Sustainable Ports— A Guide for Port Authorities in 2014. This gives guidelines for achieving sustainability in ports. Transportation, production, building, and the infrastructure are the major sources for energy consumption in ports. To understand the problems faced by the port community, a survey was conducted by PIANC from Oct. 2013 to January 2017, and the important findings were published in their report. It shows that the renewable energy usage in 2014 was only up to 40%. The ports which were involved in the survey revealed that they had set their future plan to explore renewables such wind, solar, wave, and tidal energy for their usage. Approximately 70% of ports identified potential opportunities of using renewable energy through external audits, consultancy services, and energy companies. The survey also reveals the fact that only 20–25% of ports have an energy masterplan. Ports are an important center for energy usage, and if we examined the energy efficiency, it would show 50% implemented consumption targets, 70% identified EE opportunities, and 50% uses of the best available technology. Regarding the policies and guidelines for the energy usage, 90% have national policies incentivized and 80% of port authorities do not provide guidance. So, the conclusion from the survey is that there is lack of an energy management strategy. They have also identified key factors affecting energy efficiency in port areas as slow uptake of new technology, organizational failure, lack of time, and shortage of competence (Özispa and Arabelen 2017).

Use of Marine Renewable Energy in Ports of Middle East: A Step …

4

Renewable Energy

The ports are always using energy from non-renewable sources, and they are one of the biggest consumers. Renewable energy from ports can be from solar, wind, waves, tides, salinity gradient, and Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). The tides, waves, salinity gradient, and OTEC fall under marine renewable energy (MRE). The benefits for MRE include. • Zero CO2 emission. • The sources of energies are sustainable and predictable • Once in operation, they can provide huge amounts of energy. • Number of ocean energy technology devices are increasing every day. • Ocean is the world’s largest solar collector. • Available global ocean energy resources are in the same order of magnitude of the present electricity production worldwide.

5

Solar Energy

Solar energy always remains one of the efficient and promising sources of renewable energy for ports and their operations. The location of all the ports is in open areas exposed to sunlight. The use of solar energy has now become widespread. It includes photovoltaic (PV), solar water heating, and concentrated solar power (CSP). The most commonly used one is PV cells. It can be installed on

Fig. 1 Solar PV generation and capacity by region

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the port buildings, open ground spaces, above parking buildings, top of warehouses, floating solar panels, etc. The factors affecting the usage of solar energy include. • • • •

Climatological conditions. Availability of space to place solar panels or collectors. Power and heat requirements. Possibility to feed into public.

The graph below collected from the IEA shows worldwide usage of solar PV (Fig. 1). It shows that the usage is increasing at a higher rate. If this situation continues by 2023, the countries in the Middle East will be the ones using more solar energy (IRENA 2016).

6

Wind Energy

Wind is an important source for a maritime port since it is located close to the coast and serves as a consistent source. The windfarms can be located offshore or onshore. The onshore wind farms are possible when there is enough land area. Otherwise we can opt for offshore wind farms. The important aspect that needs to consider while setting a wind farm is to find storage area to store the produced energy so that it serves as constant power when wind does not blow. The smart grids and energy storage must be integrated. The cost of construction and maintenance of these farms has come down due to latest technologies and research studies in this filed. The factors to be considered for wind farms include.

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• • • • •

Effect on marine environment. It should not affect the port crane operations. The land area available for the installation and operation Noise from the equipment. The operations of wind farms should not affect aviation and navigation activities. • Grid integration and smart operations. • Energy storage or alternate energy sources when wind is weak or not available.

7

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that relies on the rising and falling of the sea levels and tidal energy devices convert the energy gained from the tides into electricity. The devices developed so far rely on the use of the kinetic energy or potential energy of tides. Tidal stream generators make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines. Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy, i.e., the difference in height (or hydraulic head) between high and low tides (PIANC 2019). In addition to this, there are several hybrids, site-specific and patented devices used worldwide. The largest tidal project in the world is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea, with an installed capacity of 254 MW. High cost and effect on marine environment are the two factors that pull the tidal energy from behind. But recent research and emerging technology assure that tidal energy could be a promising source of renewable energy for ports in the near future.

8

Wave Energy

Waves can store and transmit energy thousands of miles with little loss. The motion of the waves can be used to power turbines or other power take-off systems in order to generate electricity. Ports are close to oceans, so the utilization of this marine renewable energy adds to the energy usage of ports. The World Energy Council estimates that approximately 2 million megawatts, about the double the current world electricity production, could be produced from the oceans via wave power (Wave Energy Technology Brief 2014). The equipment used for converting wave energy is known as wave energy convertors and the various types are: • • • •

Most of the developed devices are site specific. Further research and studies must be done to overcome the disadvantages like adverse effect on marine environment, movement of vessels, weather and wavelength. Despite these disadvantages the potential benefits are enormous (PIANC 2019).

9

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a technique in which electricity is generated from the solar energy that is absorbed by the ocean. A gradient is created due to temperature difference on surface and deep ocean water. The technology is viable only in areas where there is difference in temperature of about 20 °C. the advantages include. • Good and efficient renewable energy. • Base load capacity for 24 h. • Vast potential of resources. There are two types: open cycle and closed cycle. The closed cycle ocean thermal energy conversion systems use a working fluid with a low boiling point, ammonia for example, to power a turbine to generate electricity. Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the oceans and cold water from the deep. The warm seawater vaporizes the fluid in the heat exchanger which then turns the turbines of the generator. The fluid now in the vapour state is brought in contact with cold water which turns it back into a liquid. The fluid is recycled. The open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped in a low-pressure chamber where, due to the drop-in pressure, it undergoes a drop in boiling point as well. This causes the water to boil. This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an electrical generator. The advantage that this system has over a closed system is that, in the open cycle, desalinated water in the form of steam is obtained. Since it is steam, it is free from all impurities. This water can be used for domestic, industrial or agricultural purposes. The world’s only open cycle OTEC facility is at keabole point on the kona coast of Hawaii US. The technology is still in its developing stage (News 2019).

10 Wave oscillated bodies. Oscillating water column. Overtopping devices. Point absorbers and attenuators.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Salinity Gradient

This is otherwise known as osmotic power or blue energy. It generates electricity from the chemical pressure differential created by the difference in ionic concentration between

Use of Marine Renewable Energy in Ports of Middle East: A Step …

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fresh water and sea water. By making use of semi permeable membranes they generate electricity using the osmotic potential. The used technology is of two types.

of total installed renewable generating capacity to meet 52% of the country’s total installed renewable generating capacity by 2030 (Kerry Boyd Anderson 2019). There are around 18 major ports operating in the Middle East. Middle East ports handle nearly 20% of the world’s sea cargo. The ports energy utilization can be done effectively by incorporating renewable energy for the port’s energy usage. If we need a better future this must be done and incorporating renewable energy for port usage is easier due to the easiness or nearness to sources such as wind, wave, solar, tides etc. Several countries around the Middle East are beginning to wake up to the wind power potential. In GCC, Saudi Arabia alone has plans to increase its capacity to a huge 60 GW by 2030; Kuwait is planning for 30% of its energy needs to come from green sources; Bahrain 10% of electricity consumption by 2030; and the UAE has set itself the grand target of 50% of its energy needs coming from renewables by 2050. Currently, Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Israel and Kuwait are the regional leaders in wind power generation (MENA 2019). Several new projects are either under construction, out for tendering, or in the planning stages in Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq and Lebanon. Egypt is currently sourcing funding for its proposed $400 m Suez Bay facility. Once constructed, it will add 250 MW to Egypt’s national grid, completely clean. Its cost makes this one of the largest undertakings, wind power-wise, in the Middle East (MENA 2019; Renewable Energy in the Middle East 2019). The figure below shows the suitability analysis for wind and solar power (Fig. 2).

• Reverse electro dialysis. • Pressure related osmosis. The first osmotic plant with a capacity of 4 KW was opened by statkraft in Norway.

11

Renewable Energy Usage in the Middle East

With the recent adoption of the Paris agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, renewable energy has emerged as a critical part of any global solution to address the threat of climate change. To accelerate the necessary energy transition, countries will need to engage in detailed analysis of their technical potential for the development of renewables (IRENA 2016; Wave Energy Technology Brief 2014)). The recent years have witnessed a drastic increase in the countries’ investment in renewable energy. Many are still focusing on feasibility studies, experiments, and research while others have moved to the implementation stage. The Arab news has reported that the region’s population growth and economic development have led to an increase in overall energy needs. “Primary energy demand in the region is expected to continue to rise at an annual rate of 1.9 percent through 2035,” according to the World Bank. Resource-rich countries want to limit the extent to which domestic needs cut into oil and gas exports, and resource-poor countries need ways to limit expensive fuel imports. While the Middle East remains heavily dependent on natural gas and oil, with coal and nuclear energy playing much smaller roles, renewable energy offers an important opportunity to diversify countries’ energy mixes. The technological development has made renewable energy a more feasible option. And it started attracting policy makers and investors. The international renewable energy agency found out that the Middle East region has strong resource potential, since 2015. Nearly 80% of non-hydro renewable energy growth was concentrated in only four of the 22 Member States, i.e. renewables contribute to only 6% of total installed power generation capacity. The current trends show that there are significant developments in renewable energy usage. In 2016, USD 11 billion were invested in renewables across the Arab region compared to USD 1.2 billion in 2008. The recent auctions resulted in the world-record solar prices, including, 17.8 USD/MWh for the Sakaka project in Saudi Arabia, 24.2 and 29.9 USD/MWh in Abu Dhabi and Dubai, respectively. Morocco continues to lead the region in terms

12

Case Study: Qatar

The Qatar’s National Vision aims that the country becomes an advanced society capable of sustaining its development and providing a high standard of living for its people by 2030. Qatar’s National Vision defines the long-term goals for the country and provides a framework in which national strategies and implementation plans can be developed. The National Vision addresses five major challenges facing Qatar: • Modernisation and preservation of traditions • The needs of the current generation and of future generations • Managed growth and uncontrolled expansion • The size and quality of the expatriate labour force and the selected path of development • Economic growth, social development, and environmental management (Qatar National Vision 2020).

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Fig. 2 Suitability analysis

That is overall it aims at sustainable development. Qatar maritime transportation has faced a very fast growth in the past few years. The container traffic through Qatar ports witnessed about 9% year-on-year increase to 5.75 mn tonnes according to the data released by the Planning and Statistics Authority. Ruwais port, Doha port, and Hamad port are the major ports operating in Qatar. Qatar is focusing on the development of Hamad Port, not only to make it a regional shipping hub, but also to play a major role in diversifying the Qatari economy ready for a post-hydrocarbon future. The figure below obtained from Qatar statistics and planning authority gives us an idea about the increase in vessel movement of Qatar (Qatar Monthly Statistics2019). So, it is evident that Qatar is going to focus on its port development. The increased growth shows its needs for a sustainable development. Hamad port has already started its journey towards achieving a green port status. The addition of renewable energy to the ports will speed up the goal towards sustainable development. Qatar has already decided to build a solar power plant capable of producing 800 megawatts. The Al Kharsaah plant near the capital Doha comes at a cost of $467 m and is expected to be completed by 2022 when the country hosts the FIFA World Cup (Al Jazeera News Middle East 2020).

Studies reveal the incorporation of solar energy to the country’s energy input is a feasible solution. The same can be extended to the ports also. Solar energy can be undoubtedly incorporated to Qatar ports so that it adds for the energy usage of ports daily operations. Wind power markets in the Middle East will add 12 GW of new capacity between 2018 and 2027, according to MAKE’s 2018 Middle East Wind Power Outlook. Annual mean wind speed over land is 4.3 m/s. off-shore areas, mean annual wind speed is 5.7 m/s. Wind energy potential for 5 m/s is 150 W/m2. In the 02nd joint Qatar-Japan environment symposium (qp-jccp) 2013 held at Qatar, the report shows that 80% of the time wind speed over Qatar is over the critical speed of 3 m/economic feasibility value of full load hours is 1400. Full load hours in Qatar is 1421. Wind power generation is (8%) lower than gas fired electricity also cost at offshore locations is 10% less than gas-based generation (Govinda Rao et al. 2013), and it concludes that Qatar can have medium and small wind turbines. Onshore and offshore wind farms can be installed and utilized for ports energy usage. The areas where the studies have not started are the tidal and wave energy. Their feasibility studies are going on. Devices that are site-specific, i.e., suitable for sea conditions in Qatar can be developed. These energies have a huge scope

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Fig. 3 Vessel movement in Qatar

in energy usage of ports. All these studies show that Qatar aims at more transportation through ports and also wants to reduce the environmental impact paving the way to a green Qatar. It has already identified the potential of solar and wind energy. The incorporation of renewable energy into the port’s energy usage will make Qatar’s ports sustainable ones (Fig. 3).

13

Conclusion

The analysis of various studies mentioned above shows that renewable energy is emerging as an important source of energy all over the world. The sources of renewables vary with regions. The Middle East has more scope for the solar and wind power as of now. Economic, environment friendly, reduction in global warming, etc., make the renewable energy a better source of energy for the future. Ports are important centres for trade networks. The energy usage is very high in ports, so the principles of sustainability must be applied in the port sector, too. But the studies and literature in this field are still limited. More research and guidelines are required for developing a plan for sustainability in ports. The rules and guidelines should be planned in such a way they

can be applied for existing ports, port planning for expansion, and for the new ports. Taking into consideration the Middle East region since they have abundant fossil fuel, the thought for renewable energy came late. However, population growth, the need for preserving the fossil fuel, increases in energy demand and diversifying country’s energy usage made the Middle East countries invest in renewable resources. Many countries in the Middle East including Qatar have already started incorporating solar energy to their energy plans. Studies are ongoing on using the wind energy also. But when we take ports into account there are currently no plan or policies to incorporate renewable energy in ports energy usage. The close location of ports to renewable energy source, increase in port traffic, increase in land area of ports, etc., require alternative energy resources. Qatar has already announced that one of its national missions in 2030 is to attain sustainability. Recent statistics show that the port sector of Qatar is growing at a faster rate. The country has got abundant solar power and considerable amounts of wind which can be utilized in ports energy so that they will help achieve the greener goals. Researching and developing new technologies and devices, careful site selection, analysing and fixing the effects on marine ecology will make RE a major source of energy in future ports. The researchers also

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have to concentrate in improving and filing the gaps in port literature studies. Clear policies and energy management guidelines have to be developed. With all these, we can surely expect a sustainable future in the marine sector, too.

References A.-H. Marafia, H.A. Ashour, Feasibility of wind energy utilization in Qatar. Eng. J. Univ. Qatar, 15, 241–251 (2002) G.L.A. Borthwickhen, Marine renewable energy seascape. Elsevier 2 (1), 69–78 (2016) .P. Govinda Rao, M. Saeed Al-alshaikh, Al-Kuwari, Assessment of solar and wind energy potential in Qatar, in 02nd joint Qatar-japan Environment Symposium (QP-JCCP) 21 joint GCC-japan Environmental Symposium 05–06 February 2013, (Doha, Qatar, 2013) A. Aydingakko, M. Al Mukhaini, S. Al-Jassasi, Renewable Energy Potential in Middle East and Particularly Oman case, in Conference Paper Research Gate (2016) A.-S. Hamedi, S. Sadeghzadeh, Conceptual design of a 5 MW OTEC power plant in the Oman Sea. J Marine Eng. Technol. 16, 94–102 (2017) International Maritime Organization Report on Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Third IMO GHG Study 2014, http://www.imo.org/en/ OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Pages/ Greenhouse-Gas-Studies-2014.aspx, Accessed 15 Nov 2019 International Renewable Energy Agency Report on Energy Usage in Middle East and MENA. https://www.irena.org/mena, Accessed 15 Nov 2019 IRENA renewable energy market analysis: 2019 marine policy. 26, 471–479 (2002) Wave Energy Technology Brief IRENA (2014) K.B. Anderson, Renewable Energy on the Rise in the Middle East. Arab News, https://www.arabnews.com/node/144802. Accessed 02 Nov 2019 (2019) R.Manasseh, S.A. Sannasiraj, K.L. McInnes, V. Sundar, P. Jalihal, Integration of wave energy and other marine renewable energy

D. R. Kandiyil sources with the needs of coastal societies. Int. J. Ocean Climate Syst. 8(1), 19–36 (2017) A.-H. Marafia, H.A. Ashour, Economics of off-shore/on-shore wind energy systems in Qatar. Renewable Energy Elsevier, 28(12), 1953–1963 (2003) N. Özispa, G. Arabelen, Sustainability issues in ports: content analysis and review of the literature (1987-2017). SHS Web Conf. 58, 01022 (2018) OTEC News, http://www.otecnews.org/what-is-otec/. Accessed October 2019 PIANC Report on Renewable and energy efficiency for Ports (2019) Qatar monthly statistics December 2019, Planning And Statistics Authority, https://www.psa.gov.qa/en/statistics/Statistical% 20Releases/General/QMS/QMS_PSA_72_January_2020.pdf. Accessed January 2020 Qatar National Vision https://www.gco.gov.qa/en/about-qatar/nationalvision2030/ Qatar to Build New Solar Power Plant 20 January 2020, Al Jazeera News Middle East, https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/qatar-buildsolar-power-plant-200120061111553.html Renewable Energy in the Middle East 19 July 2019, Break Bulk Middle East, https://middleeast.breakbulk.com/Articles/renewableenergy-in-the-middle-east. Accessed 02 Oct 2019 Renewables 2016 global status report renewable energy policy network for the 21st century the international renewable energy agency IRENA D.R, Maarten Wave Energy Converters, Coastal Wiki http://www. coastalwiki.org/wiki/Wave_energy_converters. Accessed October 2019 (2019) The SeaGen System Tidal Current System (Marine Current Turbines Ltd (MCT)), http://www.marineturbines.com Tidal Energy Technology Brief IRENA (2014) S.W. Funkea, M.D. Piggotta, Tidal turbine array optimization using the adjoint approach. Renewable Energy (2013) Top 10 Environmental Priorities of EU Ports 2019 (EcoPorts Publications, 2019) Wave Energy Technology Brief, The International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA Ocean Energy Technology (2014) Wind Power Technology Brief IRENA (2016)

Solar Radiation Variability Between Coastal and Inland Qatar Daniel Perez-Astudillo, Dunia Bachour, Antonio Sanfilippo, and AbdulAziz Ahmad Al-Mahmoud

Abstract

Highlights

An accurate assessment of solar radiation resources is crucial in supporting the management of solar energy-based projects. When available, high-quality ground radiometric measurements present the best data source for resource assessment and variability analysis due to their low error rate. Qatar is blessed with high solar radiation levels. However, significant aerosol loads in the atmosphere constitute unknown challenges for the performance of solar systems. A thorough assessment of the impact of aerosols on solar yield is necessary to establish the severity of these challenges. This paper presented a study of solar resource variation in Qatar aimed at understanding the impact of aerosols, based on measurements from two monitoring stations, one inland and one closer to the coastline. The inland station is at the site of the 800 MW solar power plant under construction in Al Kharsaah. The station closer to the coastline is at the HBKU Research Complex in Doha. The analysis of solar radiation components (direct, diffuse, global) from data collected at these stations shows higher solar radiation inland than in areas closer to the coastline. The ensuing results provide valuable insights on solar resource variability for a more effective placement of solar plants in Qatar.

• Global horizontal, diffuse horizontal, and direct normal radiations measured at 2 coastal and inland sites. • The inland site shows higher irradiances. • Relatively high light diffusion but GHI remains favorable for solar applications.

Keywords




Solar radiation Desert conditions Clearness index



PV

Aerosols

D. Perez-Astudillo (&)
D. Bachour
A. Sanfilippo Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Al-Mahmoud Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa), Doha, Qatar




1

Introduction

An accurate assessment of solar radiation resources is necessary to support the financing, development, and operational management of solar energy applications. Measurements collected through ground-level solar stations provide an ideal data source to develop the analysis of solar radiation resources due to their low error rate (5 lm. The filters with the suspensions were fixed on the specimen mount with the help of the conducting double-sided adhesive carbon type and placed into the electron microscope chamber. The scanned micrographs in the back-scattered electrons were collected into a separate file and subjected to standard digital processing to improve the image sharpness and contrast. The precipitate contained particles of quartz, mica, and iron-containing minerals (limonitic and magnetic iron), mainly, with the size not exceeding 10–15 lm. The precipitate revealed various biological objects (diatoms, annelids, plant spores, etc.). All the mineral particles and biota were covered with a layer of fine limonitic-clayish particles. Spectral analysis of some parts of the sample (selected particles, characteristic details) was carried out. The preliminary determination of the diatoms was made according to a reference book (Levadnaya 1986). The suspended matter contains a large colony of diatoms, for example Meridian circular, some cyclotellas and opyphoros, Cyclotella Vor. Jacutca. The fraction with the size of “5–1 lm” uniformly covers the filter surface with a layer of fine particles. The brown color precipitate consists mainly of mineral components

Radiation Pollution in the Waters of the Middle Reach …

(calcite, clays, clayish minerals, quartz, and gypsum debris). The color is due to iron compounds. However, there are diatoms of a definite species and size (of about 4.7 lm across) (e.g., Diatoma vulgaric), whose valves consist mainly of silicon oxide (higher than 80%). The fraction “1–0.2 lm” uniformly covers the filter surface with a layer of fine particles of the micron and submicron size. They are mainly aluminosilicate compounds having various structures and composition, limonite, calcite, and gypsum. The precipitate color is light brown. The fraction has a relatively uniform material composition. The material composition of the stable suspensions in the Yenisei River water generally corresponds to the rocks' inorganic composition and their hypergenesis products forming the river bed and banks. Sometimes, the admixture of particles having technogenic origin (ash wastes from boilers) is observed. The situation on the Yenisei is similar. In Research Reports, Releases of Radionuclides to Surface Waters at Krasnoyarsk-26 and Tomsk-7 had information that sediment concentrations of 8–27 Bq/kg of 137Cs downstream from the junction of the Angara and Yenisei Rivers, 255 km downstream from the discharge site. The suspensions' material composition correlates with the composition of the river bed sediments, particularly that of the River Yenisei, consisting of fine quartz and alumosilicate debris, detritus. Also, various clays and clayish minerals are present, in particular, micaceous alumosilicates and titanium silicates. Without going into the details of the ion-molecular equilibrium, it may be considered that in the river water, radionuclides are present in the dissolved form and on the surface of or inside suspended fine solid particles different in their size and the nature of origin. The fine particles of a suspended organometal soil actively adsorb heavy elements from the solution; thus, dynamic equilibrium is established, characterizing the radionuclide mobility. Considering the heavy particle sedimentation and artificial radionuclide redistribution in the surface layer of the Yenisei River water between the liquid and the solid phases, as well as between the particles of various sizes, one could trace the radionuclide and metal transport peculiarities downstream from the discharge point to determine a possible accumulating agent. Samples of the suspended substance were taken from the sampling sites “0 km” and “2 km” and further fractionated by the ultra-filtration method to determine the influence of the particles of various sizes on the radionuclide transport. The results are the following. At the sampling site “0 km” when the time of the discharge contact with the river water was insignificant, the radionuclides 3H, 24Na, 60Co, 239Np, and also 99Mo (*90%) were mainly presented as a fraction 30 cm) was also marked by high resistivity but with lower values than those on the surface. For instance, E.R. decreased from 214 to 201 Xm in the soil T and from 168 to 135 Xm in the soil SBR-80. On the other hand, soils SBR-40 and SBR-120 showed a great decrease in E.R. below 40 cm, reaching, respectively, 17 and 27 Xm.

4

607

Discussion

The soils of the region of Oued Souhil were described as being composed of alluvium of coarse materials, which explains the large vertical and horizontal variation of soil E. R. (Jemai et al. 2013). This highlights the efficiency of ERT in obtaining high-quality data despite soil high heterogeneity. Same conclusions were reached by Osinowo and Falufosi (2018), Galazoulas et al. (2015), and Alamry et al. (2017). In fact, Sudha et al. (2009) and Asry et al. (2012) attributed resistivity variations to the soil texture heterogeneity and precisely to the wide variation in the soil matrix and grain size distribution. High resistivity at the topsoil could be explained by soil pedological materials’ structure and precisely to soil macro-porosity at 0–20 cm. This was in line with our statistical data showing a positive correlation between sand fraction and soil resistivity (Table 3). Bai et al. (2013) confirmed this fact by explaining that soil structures, i.e., the void distribution and soil porosity,

can affect soil resistivity. Low resistivity can be attributed to the presence of fine fractions, including clay and loam materials. Statistical data showed a negative correlation between the decrease in soil resistivity and the increase in Clay and loam fractions with soil depth (Table 3). This fact was previously demonstrated by Sudha et al. (2009), explaining that clayey formations are represented by a resistivity of less than 10 Ωm, whereas silty/loam formations are represented by a resistivity range of 10–50 Ωm. Additionally, Osinowo and Falufosi (2018) and Asry et al. (2012) related low resistivity to saturated zones characterized by high electrical conductivity. However, soil E.C. and W.C. were not correlated to the decrease in soil resistivity with soil depth (Table 3), which could be attributed to the sampling done far from the affected zone. In fact, extreme low resistivity was located in each plot’s corner, which does not correspond to the targeted sampling done in the middle of the field plot. This fact highlights the ERT method’s efficiency in prospecting the spatial and temporal variability of soil properties compared to the sampling procedure. On the other hand, the effect of excessive and repetitive amendment rates of S.S. was shown neither by the ERT panels nor by the laboratory analysis. In fact, topsoil O.M. content and E.C. values at 0–20 cm decreased drastically from previous amendments (Hashmi et al. 2020b), suggesting that vertical leaching has occurred in this site. So, soil E.C. decreased from 443 to 155.3 µS/cm in SBR-120, showing no significant variation with the experimental soil before the sludge trial (119.1 µS/cm). Same observations were made for soil O.M., reaching 0.81% in SBR-120 compared to previous amendments (4.4%) and the experimental soil (1.15%). This fact can be attributed to the heavy rainfall that occurred in September 2018 at Nabeul. According to Tunisia’s National Institute of Meteorology, torrential rain had hit Northeastern Tunisia’s Cap Bon Peninsula in September 2018 (200 mm

608

S. Hechmi et al.

Fig. 4 2D inverted resistivity sections for the four treated field plots; T (0: unamended soil); SBR-40 (soil amended with 40 t/ha); SBR-80 (soil amended with 80 t/ha); SBR-120 (soil amended with 120 t/ha)

Table 3 Correlation matrix of soil parameters r Resistivity

pH T SBR-40 SBR-80 SBR-120

WC

OM

Loam

Clay

0.85

−0.66

−0.99*

0.87

0.64

−0.54

−0.98

−0.39

−0.22

0.07

0.74

0.98

0.94

−0.87

−0.99

EC

TDS

CaCO3

0.96

−0.95

−0.95

0.44

0.48

0.94

−0.99

0.98

0.98

0.65

0.89 −0.41

0.32 −0.95

0.004 0.64

−0.04

−0.6

0.59

Bold Pearson-Moment correlation coefficients are significant at p  0.05

0.83

0.9

Sand

Use of Electrical Resistivity Tomography to Study the Impact …

of rain within 24 h). This caused water levels to rise to 2 m and the overflow of Oued Souhil (river), contributing to the city’s flooding. This could explain water-soluble salt and nutrients leaching throughout the soil profile, as shown by ERT panels. The impact of precipitation on resistivity variations was previously reported by Rasul et al. (2018). They demonstrated that cumulative precipitation caused salt and other pollutants transportation to the road drainage system or deeper layers. Hashmi et al. (2020b) explained that lighttextured soils are generally well-drained and allow for easy leaching of soluble salts to deeper profiles under the action of rain. However, salt leaching from sludge-amended soils should not be neglected, because groundwater quality could be severely damaged in the long term.

5

Conclusions

A 2D electrical resistivity survey was used as an indirect method to assess soil properties’ degradation following a long-term sludge trial. Vertical soil sampling and physicochemical laboratory characterization were also performed. Based on the direct analysis, it was demonstrated that intense soil impoverishment has occurred. This fact is coherent with the 2D electrical resistivity survey, which gave a precise screening of soil textural composition only, in the absence of other significant soil parameters. Hence, the effectiveness of the electrical method has been proved. In light of these findings, another S.S. amendment is underway, and a new 2D electrical survey is intended to assess the impact of a fresh amendment on the E.R. plots. It would be more accurate to prepare the resistivity plots first and then take a sample according to the given results for a better interpretation. A deeper sampling is also intended in order to confirm the leaching hypothesis. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank everyone who has contributed to this work (academic, technical, and administrative staff).

References A.S. Alamry, M. van der Meijde, M. Noomen, E.A. Addink, R. van Benthem, S.M. de Jong, Spatial and temporal monitoring of soil moisture using surface electrical resistivity tomography in Mediterranean soils. CATENA 157, 388–396 (2017)

609 Z. Asry, A.R. Samsudin, W.Z. Yaacob, J. Yaakub, Groundwater investigation using electrical resistivity imaging technique at Sg. Udang, Melaka, Malaysia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Malays. 55–58 (2012) W. Bai, L. Kong, A. Guo, Effects of physical properties on the electrical conductivity of compacted-lateritic soil. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 5, 406–411 (2013) E.C. Galazoulas, Y.C. Mertzanides, C. Petalas, E.K. Kargiotis, Large scale electrical resistivity tomography survey correlated to hydrogeological data for mapping groundwater salinization: a case study from a multilayered coastal aquifer in Rhodope, Northeastern Greece. Environ. Process. 2, 19–35 (2015) S. Hashmi, H. Hamdi, S. Mokni-Tlili, I.R. Zoghlami, M.N. Khelil, S. Benzarti, A. Hassen, N. Jedidi, Carbon mineralization, biological indicators, and phytotoxicity to assess the impact of urban sewage sludge on two light-textured soils in microcosm. J. Environ. Qual. 49, 460–471 (2020a) S. Hashmi, H. Hamdi, S. Mokni-Tlili, M. Ghorbel, M.N. Khelil, I.R. Zoghlami, S. Benzarti, A. Hassen, N. Jedidi, Impact of urban sewage sludge on soil physicochemical properties and phytotoxicity as influenced by soil texture and reuse conditions. J. Environ. Qual. 1–14 (2020b) I. Jemai, N. Ben Aissa, T. Gallali, F. Chenini, Effects of municipal reclaimed wastewater irrigation on organic and inorganic composition of soil and groundwater in Souhil Wadi area (Nabeul, Tunisia). Hydrol. Curr. Res. 4, 160 (2013) R. Mouici, F. Baali, R. Hadji, D. Boubaya, P. Audra, C. Fehdi, B. Arfib, Geophysical, geotechnical, and speleologic assessment for karst-sinkhole collapse genesis in Cheria plateau (N.E. Algeria). Min. Sci. 24, 59–71 (2017) O.P. Olabode, O.P. Inalegwu, 2-D electrical resistivity tomography monitoring of soil moisture distribution in a rain-fed maize plot. FUW Trends Sci. Technol. J. 3, 430–435 (2018) O.O. Osinowo, M.O. Falufosi, 3D electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) for subsurface evaluation in pre-engineering construction site investigation. NRIAG J. Astron. Geophys. (2018). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.nrjag.2018.07.001 A. Pérez-Gimeno, J. Navarro-Pedreño, M.B. Almendro-Candel, I. Gómez, M.M. Jordán, Environmental consequences of the use of sewage sludge compost and limestone outcrop residue for soil restoration: salinity and trace elements pollution. J. Soils Sediments 16, 1012–1021 (2016) H. Rasul, L. Zou, B. Olofsson, Monitoring of moisture and salinity content in an operational road structure by electrical resistivity tomography. Near Surf. Geophys. 16, 423–444 (2018) K. Sudha, M. Israil, S. Mittal, J. Rai, Soil characterization using electrical resistivity tomography and geotechnical investigations. J. Appl. Geophys. 67, 74–79 (2009) N. Turki, A. Elaoud, H. Gabtni, I. Trabelsi, K. Kouki Khalfallah, Agricultural soil characterization using 2D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) after direct and intermittent digestate application. Arab. J. Geosci. 12, 423 (2019) R. I. Zoghlami, H. Hamdi, K. Boudabbous, et al., Seasonal toxicity variation in light-textured soil amended with urban sewage sludge: interaction effect on cadmium, nickel, and phytotoxicity. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25, 3608–3615 (2017)

Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater Treatment Station in a Desertic Area, Case Study In Guezzam (Algeria) Yacine Berrah, Serhane Brahmi, Illimane Msalem, Nouar Charef, and Abderrahmane Boumezbeur

Abstract

The installation of purification systems downstream of the sanitation networks presents a solution that allows preserving water resources. In south Algeria, discharges of wastewater from In Guezzam are in the natural environment without any treatment and have become a serious problem both from public health and environmental point of view. In this desertic area, whereas the wealth of the Sahara mines and quarries highlights the need for large quantities of water, plant treatment is like a solution. The present study seeks the feasibility of putting a station of purification, where the geology, the geotechnical, hydrogeology, and technical feasibility are analyzed. The wastewater treatment by lagoon processes will be characterized first, so this natural purification process must be monitored regularly to have a good operation station. Keywords

Feasibility study Wastewater

1




Desertic area




Geotechnical




Introduction

Increased demand for water and land resources due to the rapid increase in urbanization development in the desert region has forced authorities to incline to wastewater Y. Berrah (&)
S. Brahmi
I. Msalem University of Larbi Tebessi, Tebessa, Algeria e-mail: [email protected] N. Charef Laboratory of Environment, University of Souk-Ahras, Souk-Ahras, Algeria

exploitation. A huge volume of industrial and municipal wastewater is one of the best ways to manage and reuse wastewater in agriculture irrigation, mines, quarry, and industrial need. Sewage station construction in In Guezzam extreme south of Algeria is the case study of the present paper. In this work, the feasibility study includes the construction and proposed technology of the wastewater treatment plant for the studied city. Additionally, waste streams containing heavy metals are potentially problematic, as their behavior in soil profiles may be influenced by other wastewater constituents (Barjoveanu et al. 2014; Bastian and Ryan 1986; Coulon et al. 2002; Djellit et al. 2002; Emmerson et al. 1995); Wastewater can be used to produce an economic crop, providing income and employment opportunities; but trade-offs may be required. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important livelihood strategy, especially for arid and desertic regions where water scarcity is the main problem (Eva et al. 2015; Knoeri et al. 2013; Nemmers et al. 2013; Venkatesh and Brattebø 2011). However, its use can result in an increased health risk for farmers and consumers and also for soil Zithole Consulting. To ensure sustainable and safe wastewater use, there is a need to explore safe construction, safe use, and management options. The best approach will need to balance both farmers’ needs and soil destruction concerns. Several research projects have been completed to evaluate the effects of different agricultural activities, especially irrigation water quality, on soil degradation and land desertification worldwide (Abrol et al. 1988; Bailey 1992). The present work’s main goal is to put some elementary techniques in the geotechnical desk study and the project safety using the feasibility study that contains different geotechnical missions, the stability of the construction, and the safety function of the whole system should also be illuminated.

A. Boumezbeur University of Souk-Ahras, Souk-Ahras, Algeria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_77

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Description of the Project

Many options for locating a wastewater plant are available (Dennison et al. 1999; Dixon et al. 2003; Littlechild and Thompson 1977; Loubet et al. 2014; Nyborg 2014; Palme et al. 2005; Roux et al. 2011; Short et al. 2012), although some may be more expensive than others. The site selection should be based on identifying possible sites and choosing based on the mentioned criteria (Slagstad and Brattebø 2014; Smith 1967). The baseline situation of each possible location should be described, and the impacts of a possible selected site should be assessed. It can be resumed in: • The length and elevation of required water transport, • Local soil conditions and geomorphology, • The sensitivity of the environment receiving the effluent (discharging in a sensitive ecosystem requires higher treatment levels and more operational reliability than discharging into a less sensitive ecosystem), • The option to use the effluent for irrigation purposes in dryer parts of the areas means the quantity of wastewater that can be connected. Design parameters, according to the feasibility study, are resumed as follows: • • • •

The rejected flow Q = 34.38 l/s. Solids in suspension MES = 150 mg/l. Biochemical oxygen demand BOD5 = 280 mg/l. The chemical oxygen demand COD = 390 mg/l < 750 mg, where means that these waters are domestic. • COD/BOD5 < 3 these waters are biodegradable and are suitable for biological purification. The geotechnical and hydrological characteristics of the site are favorable. So, the lagoon purification system was adopted. The natural lagoon is generally applied for domestic wastewater. It leads to a very significant reduction of organic pollution. The essential factor is functional in time. A comparable rustic character is obtained only by providing for the installation of the three lagoons in series, and the respective role of these summarized basins is as follows: First Lagoon: is the main seat of the abatement of the polluting carbon load. The limit of treatment being relative to the concentration of microscopic algae of the tributary of the basin.

Second lagoon: performs the reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus and allows, on average, a reduction in their concentration of algae. Third lagoon: significantly improves these treatments. The natural lagoon requires low maintenance. It is not necessary to have a pretreatment of the raw water. A simple screening with manual maintenance is enough for the weekly cleaning and simple monitoring of the flow, the rubbing presence. This mode of treatment has the following advantages over others: • 60% removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. • The cost of the cubic meter is relatively low. Lagoon purification is achieved through a biological balance involving bacteria and algae. In general, the lagoon is done by adding organic matter which leads to a multiplication of bacteria. Bacteria transform organic matter into mineral salts and into carbon dioxide, which promotes plant growth. The pollutant load is eliminated according to three levels: the first level, the mineral salts are assimilated by the algae, consumed in their turn by the zooplankton organisms. In the second level, the organic matter is degraded biologically by the bacteria. They themselves source food for the zooplankton. At the third level, the suspended solids settle at the basins’ bottom and form the sludge. The microorganisms will consume only part of this sludge.

3

General Settings

In south Algeria, where the desert is formed by the Hoggar massif volcanic provinces structure of the Precambrian basement, involved the deposition of thick sedimentary series (Tillman et al. 1998). Cambrian magmatic and metasedimentary complexes form the base of the series and outcrop at the In Guezzam region (Zitholele Consulting 2007). The sedimentary deposits which cover the crystalline massif on its periphery draw in the region a synclinal favorable for a relatively important aquifer reservoir. Indeed the bottom of the syncline is formed by soft sandstone of the Cambro-Ordovician, which seems permeable on the surface at least; these sandstones are very thick (50–500 m) at maximum in In Guezzam. Thus, they form an important reservoir. Besides, it constitutes a significant impluvium since it is admitted that it falls between 30 and 50 mm of

Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater …

4

Hydrographic and Underground Water Condition

The underground consists of mixed alluvial soils and altered metamorphic basement, with the permeability of interstices (sand, gravel); the percolation rate in these last formations is slow and becomes more rapid the cracks of the base, periodically supply by its free surface during floods of the Oued. This underground sheet is limited downward by an impermeable substratum. The flow is limited laterally by the base, which constitutes the walls of the basin (Fig. 1).

5

Feasibility Study of Sewage Plant in the Studied Area

Following standardized geotechnical missions, defined according to standard NF P 94-500 to study the site for construction, the climatic conditions, the aquifer, and

Fig. 1 Selected sites for the sewage station construction

Temperature °

water per year (North limit of tropical influence). All the conditions are thus reunited for an aquifer in the sandstones. Some wells seem moreover linked to this aquifer.

613

24.5 24 23.5 23 22.5 22 21.5 21

Years Tmoy A (c°)

T moy (c°)

Fig. 2 Graph of average inter-annual temperatures of the studied area

groundwater reservoir, the wind effects and the characteristics of the project are the main goals required the implantation of such structure in the area of In Guezzam. Weather conditions: the studied area is located in the climatic zone characterized by a long dry and hot period with low rainfall (Figs. 2 and 3). The average monthly rainfall data show that August’s wettest month and the rainy period are between June and October (Fig. 4).

Y. Berrah et al.

Rainfall (mm)

25

20.24

20 15

11.81

10

5.24 2.65 0.08

8.39

4.78

5

0.380.37

0

5.5 0.640.24

40

70

30

50

20

30

10

10

0

Jan Fév Mar Avr Mai Jun Jul Aoû Sep Oct Nov Déc

Months

Evaporaons (mm)

Mar

Mai

Rainfall P (mm)

Fig. 3 Distribution of average monthly rainfall (2008–2018)

Jul

Sep

Nov

Temperature T °c

Fig. 6 Ombrothermic diagram (2008–2018)

400

According to the ombrothermic chart (2008–2018), we note that the precipitation curve never overcomes the temperature curve, so we can deduce that all the year’s months are dry.

300 200 100 0 Jan Fév Mar Avr Mai Jun Jul Aoû Sep Oct Nov Déc

Months

2016-2017 2014-2015 2012-2013 2010-2011 2008-2009 3.8

4

4.2

6

Sites Selection to the Implantation of Infrastructure

After performing a site investigation followed by a topographic survey and an in-situ reconnaissance to choose the adequate site for the construction of the sewage station treatment, it has been concluded that two proposed sites for the choice of the implantation based on:

Fig. 4 Distribution of average monthly evaporation (2008–2018)

Years

-10 Jan

Precipitaon mm

614

4.4

V of wind (m/s)

1. The topographic data of the region and the extension of the site. 2. The situation near agricultural sites facilitates the reuse of water after purification for irrigation purposes. 3. The prevailing wind direction. 4. The permeability of the soil. 5. The porosity of the soil. 6. The level of the water table.

Fig. 5 Average annual wind speeds (2008–2018)

The average monthly evaporation quantities data analysis shows that the evaporation rate is very high during the hottest months (March–September) (Fig. 5). The mean inter-annual velocities measured during the period (2008–2018) at the meteorological station indicate that the year recorded the highest wind speed of 2014 with 4.34 m/s, and the minimum speed (3.98 m/s) is registered in the year 2010. Indeed, the winds influence the transfer of odors, the transmission of noises, and the settling conditions in large clarifiers. The direction of these prevailing winds makes it possible to determine the areas likely inconvenienced by possible nuisances (Fig. 6).

First variant to choose the adequate implantation area: It is within 1500.00 m of the end of the existing discharge line (AEU). The advantages offered by this first choice place: • The distance from the agglomeration. • Favorable compared to prevailing winds. • Slope sufficient for the installation of the treatment system. • Very close to the sub-basin of the rejection. Second Variant choice to the implantation system: It is 500 m west of the first choice place and 1300 m of the existing discharge line limit. Advantages offered by the second place are:

Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater …

615

• The distance from the agglomeration. • Favorable compared to the prevailing winds. • Slopes are sufficient for the installation of treatment systems. • Less close to the sub-basin of the rejection. The investigation effectuated by the laboratory (LTPS) decided to use the first choice as the one more favorable for the construction station’s implantation. The minimal depth anchorage proposed of the different foundation is at 1.2 m with the critical soil bearing capacity of 1 bar. Based on the chemical studies carried out in the region of In Guezzam, the soil is aggressive. So, the foundations’ construction should be cement sulfate-resistant. Pay particular attention to the proper execution of the infrastructures’ concreting and ensure a good coating of reinforcement to prevent corrosions.

7

Geological and Geotechnical Characterization of the Chosen Site

It can be observed from these results that the soil of the studied area is sand and silty sand with the presence of fines. The equivalent of sand’s values varies between 18 and 36%, which also confirms this classification. The tested samples revealed the following results: the soil’s plasticity nature; as the Liquidity limit varies between 33 and 40% and Plasticity

Table 1 Summary of parametric analysis results

Samples

N 01

N 02

Cross section

Site implantation

Lagoon construction

N 03

N 04

N 05

N 06

Discharge plant

index is 10–19%. These results concluded that the soil analyzed is characterized by average plasticity, sensitive to variations in the water content. When using the Casagrande chart, the soil is sometimes clayey and loamy plastic (Table 1). Direct shear tests of UU type were carried out on samples taken from a different location from the studied area. The intrinsic characteristics expressed by the friction angle and the cohesion vary between 31 and 33° and from 0.12 to 0.35 bar for cohesion.

8

Modeling and Stability Analysis of the Lagoon System

A finite element model has been defined, and the actual calculations were performed. However, it is necessary to define the type of calculations to be performed, and the loading cases or the construction steps applied in the calculation program. It can be resume as plastic calculation phase (excavation and construction of the compacted clay layer 0.30 m thick), in the second phase, the consolidation analysis in 5 days by activating the loads and finally the consolidation analysis after 5 years (Figs. 7 and 8). The geometrical model comprises three layers of sand, compacted clay, and a thin layer supported with geomembrane material to prevent infiltrations. This construction of the lagoon systems was adopted and analyzed in different

Geotechnical description

PH

Permeability K (cm/s)

CaCO3

Shear parameters (Bar) U

C

Coarse sand well graded

7.18

0.0084

Traces

32

0.2

Coarse sand poorly graded

7.4

0.0026

Traces

29

0.25

Sand gravely poorly graded

6.73

0.0034

Traces

33

0.12

Sand well graded

7.42

0.0003

12%

31

0.25

Coarse sand well graded

7.17

0.0055

Traces

–

–

Coarse sand well graded

7.65

0.0033

Traces

–

–

Coarse sand well graded

7.11

0.0086

Traces

–

–

Sand with fins well graded

7.48

0.002

10%

–

–

Fine sand well graded

7.22

0.0024

Traces

–

–

Fine sand well graded

7.49

0.003

Traces

30

0.25

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Y. Berrah et al.

Fig. 7 Active pore pressure and effective stress calculation (Plaxis 8.2)

9

Fig. 8 Displacement, porewater pressure dissipation in time

ways using different calculation programs. Obtaining safety coefficients of the different sliding planes is in minimum Fs = 3.035 (Figs. 9, 10 and 11). Using Settle3D of Rocscience, after analysis, the total settlement is about 7 cm after 5 years (Figs. 12 and 13). From the analysis showed in the figures can be obtained the following results; between 6 and 8 cm of settlement after 5 years from the different programs used in the modeling steps with Plaxis 8.2, Settle3D, the different embankment used in the construction of the four lagoon basins, this latter was analyzed and verified using the GeoSlope program, and it gives a minimum factor of security of Fs = 3.04. The settlement due to the ultimate load is acceptable. However, it should mention that raw arrival in the site (strong precipitation, leak in the Canales …) can cause damaged to a different installation.

Conclusion

The infrastructure water and effluent collection and treatment proposed in this work present construction in the desert of In Guezzam (Algeria). During the conceptual design, it was taken into consideration several factors; the main parameter is the environmental affection. That is why the variant choice was based on the remoteness from the city’s extension to prevent human health. Several alternatives were identified during the planning and design steps of the present project. These have been investigated and assessed in detail in the geotechnical investigation desk study than in the project construction phase. It has been concluded that the treatment of wastewater by lagoon processes is characterized first of all by its great simplicity. Another important characteristic is its high buffering capacity concerning variations in organic or hydraulic charges because the hydraulic retention time is much higher than in the other processes. Natural lagoon treatment relies on the balanced presence of aerobic bacteria and algae. The oxygen required for bacterial is produced through the photosynthetic mechanisms of plants in the presence of light. Evacuations of sludge (liquid or solid) and refusals of the station (floating stock, pretreatments) are operations whose frequency can be daily or weekly. They involve heavy transport vehicles and specific manipulations. Access to these stations by these means must be imperative to specific directions to not disturb the lagoons’ stability.

Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater …

Fig. 9 Definition of the geometrical model and introduction of the different parameters using GeoSlope program

Fig. 10 Stability analysis of different embankments used in the whole lagoon system

617

618

Fig. 11 Results of seepage calculation using SEEP/W

Y. Berrah et al.

Feasibility and Geotechnical Study of Sewage Wastewater …

Fig. 12 Geometrical model to calculate the stability of different lagoon basins using Settle3D (Rocscience)

Fig. 13 Graph shows the settlement variation with depth

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References I.P. Abrol, J.S.P. Yadov, F.I. Massoud, Salt Affected Soils and Their Management, FAO Soil Bulletin, No. 39 (FAO, Rome, 1988) D.K. Bailey, Episode alkaline igneous activity across Africa: implication for the cause of the continental break-up. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 68, 91–98 (1992) G. Barjoveanu, I.M. Comandaru, G. Rodriguez-Garcia, A. Hospido, C. Teodosiu, Evaluation of water services system through LCA. A case study for Iasi City, Romania. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 449–462 (2014) R.K. Bastian, J.A. Ryan, Design and management of successful land application systems, in Proceeding of the Utilization, Treatment, and Disposal of Waste on Land (Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, 1986), pp 217–234 C. Coulon, M H. Megartsi, S. Fourcade, Post-collisional transition from calc-alkaline volcanism during the Neogene in Oranie (Algeria): magmatic expression of a slab breakoff. Lithos 62, 87–110 (2002) F.J. Dennison, A. Azapagic, R. Clift, J.S. Colbourne, Life cycle assessment: comparing strategic options for the mains infrastructure —part I. Water Sci. Technol. 39(10–11), 315–319 (1999) A. Dixon, M. Simon, T. Burkitt, Assessing the environmental impact of two options for small scale wastewater treatment: comparing a reedbed and an aerated biological filter using a life cycle approach. Ecol. Eng. 20, 297–308 (2003) H. Djellit, B. Henry, M.E.M. Derder, Sur la présence d’une série molassique (de type série pourprée) au Sud-Est de l’Ahaggar (In Guezzam, Ahaggar, Algérie). C. R. Geosci. 334, 789–794 (2002) R.H.C. Emmerson, G.K. Morse, J.N. Lester, D.R. Edge, Life-cycle analysis of small-scale sewage treatment processes. J. Chart. Inst. Water Environ. Manag. 9, 317–325 (1995) R. Eva, G. Oriol, R. Philippe, B. Catherine, C. Lluı’s, Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater systems: quantifying the relative contribution of sewer systems. Water Res. 77, 35–48 (2015). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.006 C. Knoeri, E. Sanyé-Mengual, H. Althaus, Comparative LCA of recycled and conventional concrete for structural applications. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-0120544-2 S.C. Littlechild, G.F. Thompson, Optimal aircraft landing facilities and fees. Bell J. Econ. 8, 186–204 (1977)

Y. Berrah et al. P. Loubet, P. Roux, E. Loiseau, V. Bellon-Maurel, Life cycle assessments of urban water systems: a comparative analysis of selected peer-reviewed literature. Water Res. 67, 187–202 (2014) S.J. Nemmers, A. Ulery, M.K. Shukla, Sorption and mobility of arsenic in desert soils when applied with municipal wastewater effluent. N. m. Acad. Sci. 44, 137–148 (2013) K. Nyborg, Project evaluation with the democratic decision-making: what does cost-benefit analysis really measure? Ecol. Econ. 106, 124–131 (2014) U. Palme, M. Lundin, A.M. Tillman, S. Molander, Sustainable development indicators for wastewater systems—researchers and indicator users in a co-operative case study. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 43, 293–311 (2005) P. Roux, I. Mur, E. Risch, C. Boutin, Urban planning of sewer infrastructure: impact of population density and land topography on wastewater treatment systems’ environmental performances. Presented at the Life Cycle Conference 2011, “Policy: LCM in Public Policy” Session, Berlin (2011) M.D. Short, W.L. Peirson, G.M. Peters, R.J. Cox, Managing adaptation of urban water systems in a changing climate. Water Resour. Manag. 26, 1953–1981 (2012) H. Slagstad, H. Brattebø, Life cycle assessment of the water and wastewater system in Trondheim, Norway—a case study. Urban Water J. 11, 323–334 (2014) R.A. Smith, A Compilation of Cost Information for Conventional and Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plants and Processes. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Advanced Waste Treatment Branch, Division of Research, Cincinnati Water Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, Dec 1967 A.M. Tillman, M. Svingby, H. Lundoström, Life cycle assessment of municipal wastewater systems. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 3, 145–157 (1998) G. Venkatesh, H. Brattebø, Energy consumption, costs, and environmental impacts for urban water cycle services: Oslo’s case study (Norway). Energy 36(2), 792–800 (2011) Zitholele Consulting, Pelindaba Necsa effluent management basis of the design for effluent collection, conveyance, and treatment report (N° 8244/8745/5/Z) (2007)

Stone Crusher Dust and Its Impact: Accumulation Efficiency of Some Woody Tree Species Around the Stone Crusher Plant (SCP) Jitin Rahul

Abstract

The increasing trend of stone crusher industries in India tends to release a huge amount of stone crusher dust. The paper examines the source of dust emission due to stone crushing activities and focuses on some selected woody tree species within the stone crusher plant. In the present investigation, sampling was done in four sites, east, west, north, and south of the stone crusher plant (SCP). The observed trend of stone crushing dust accumulation was in the order Butea monosperma > Holiptelia integrifolia > Azadirachta indica > Acacia nilotica. Measurement of dust holding capacity and heavy deposition of dust particles on the leaf surface was noted. Maximum dust interception was done by Butea monosperma in the east aspect 0–100 m distance in all investigated woody tree species far away from stone crusher dust than that near the stone crusher plant. A highly polluted area was recorded east aspect distance 0–100 m to stone crusher plant. The results indicate that the woody tree species are good for dust capturing. They will help in selecting plant species for cultivation in contaminated fields. Keywords




Dust accumulation plants Leaves

1




Stone crusher plant




Woody

Introduction

Dust is considered one of the most widespread air pollutants (Singh et al. 2012). It has been estimated that about 30 million tons of dust enter the atmosphere each year worldwide (van Jaarsveld 2008). Sources of dust pollution J. Rahul (&) Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, New Delhi, 110020, India

include agriculture-related activities, power plants, stone crusher plants, cement factories, etc. In India, dust pollutants contribute around 40% of total air pollution problems (Sanjeev 2008). Among these stone depositions, crushing dust in large quantities around stone crusher factories causes changes in soil physical, chemical properties (Asubiojo et al. 1991; Saralabai 2003). Many authors investigated the interactions between plants and different types of pollutants: most studies on the influence of environmental pollution focus on physiological and ultrastructural aspects (Heumann 2002; Psaras and Christodoulakis 1987; Velikova et al. 2000). However, long-range transport of pollutants implies that many populations are exposed to these small concentration increments, with critical public health impacts potentially significant (Ali and Athar 2010). Different species’ reaction to the altered environmental conditions is strongly correlated with their structural and functional features. According to Christodoutakis and Fasseas (1990), no significant changes in Laurus nobilis (a resistant xerophytic plant) leaf structure are exposed to Athens’ air pollutants. Studies show that under the action of pollutants, plants develop different morphological and anatomical changes. Stone crushing is a global phenomenon and has been the cause of concern globally, including the advanced countries. Dust from quarry sites is a major source of air pollution, although the severity will depend on factors like the local microclimate conditions, the concentration of dust particles in the ambient air, the size of the dust particles, and their chemistry, for example, limestone quarries produce highly alkaline and reactive specks of dust. The stone crusher dust is not only a nuisance (in terms of deposition on surfaces) and possible effects on health, in particular, for those with respiratory problems, but dust can also have physical effects on the surrounding plants, such as blocking and damaging their internal structures and abrasion of leaves and cuticles, as well as chemical effects, which may affect long-term survival (Gauch 2001).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_78

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Due to unscientific and unplanned crushing activity, a large-scale fine dust particles are released into the atmosphere, altering the anatomical characteristic of the plant’s species growing in the near vicinity. The dust particles fall heavily on the nearby vegetation, which brings about changes in the anatomical features. Most of the dust particles’ effects on plants include the potential to block and damage the stomata that photosynthesis and respiration are affected. Other effects such as hading which may lead to a reduction in photosynthetic capacity wearing down on the leaf surface and cuticle (Iqbal and Shafig 2001). Plants growing in the industrial areas and near the major roads absorb the pollutants at their foliar surface. Some plant species have been identified to absorb, detoxify, and tolerate high levels of pollution. The tolerance degree is indirectly correlated with the intensity of injuries, which occur in plant structure (Gostin 2009). Thus, the degree of sensitivity and tolerance toward various air pollution varied from species depending on the plants’ capacity to withstand pollutants’ effect without showing any external damage. Measurable plant responses to traffic emissions have been reported in several studies using either transects away from roads or exposures to different traffic densities. For example, Angold (1997) and Bernhardt-Romermann et al. (2006) reported changes in plant community composition with increasing proximity to roadsides in England and Germany. Gratani et al. (2000) reported positive relationships between traffic density and photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, total chlorophyll content, and leaf senescence of Quercus ilex L. in Rome. In a similar study in Finland, Viskari et al. (2000) also related changes in epistomatal wax structure to traffic density. This study highlighted the diversity of plant responses associated with environments adjacent to busy roadsides (Rahul and Jain 2014, 2016).

crusher plant from NH-76 was about 2 km. Various types of tree species like Acacia nilotica (locally known as Babul), Azadirachta indica (locally known as Neem), Butea monosperma (locally known as Palas), and Holoptelea integrifolia (locally known as Chilbil) were dominant in the study area (Fig. 2). The study area, stone crusher plant, Lakshmanpura (Rahul 2013) (25° 25′ 18.57″ N 78° 39′ 04.25″ E), was located at the southern part of Uttar Pradesh to the north of Madhya Pradesh. The present study stone crusher plant, Lakshmanpura, region of Bundelkhand central parts of India was selected from different directions of selected site’s aspect A-north, aspect B-south, aspect C-east, and aspect D-west (Fig. 3). Bundelkhand is a hot and semi-humid region. The maximum temperature was 45 °C recorded in April month, and the minimum temperature 5 °C was recorded in January. Bundelkhand gets moderate annual rainfall because the region of Bundelkhand is a semi-arid zone. Maximum rainfall recorded from June to July month and minimum rainfall recorded from January to April month. The maximum humidity recorded in July month and the minimum humidity was recorded in May (Table 1).

2.2 Soil Sampling and Analysis The soil was collected from disturbed sites (stone crusher plant) at different sites at varying depths, i.e., 0–10, 10– 20 cm. The soil was collected in a polyethylene bag was marked according to the depth from different locations. The study sites’ soil showed diverse chemical variations among the four (east, west, north, and south) sites (Table 2).

3 2

Results

Experimental Setup and Methodology

2.1 Description of Study Area The Bundelkhand region is the central part of India. The region of Bundelkhand is divided between Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Many major cities of Bundelkhand are Jhansi, Banda, Chitrakoot, Datia, Tikamgarh, Rath, Sagar, Damoh, Orai, Hamirpur, Mahoba, and Panna. The regions of Bundelkhand are intersectional by mainly three mountain ranges (Vindhya, Fauna, and Bender chains). Jhansi is the northern part of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). The location of Jhansi district is on the bank of the Betwa River. The region is very rich in stone and rocks. So this is the main reason for progressing for stone crusher industries. The study area’s distance was about 12 km from NH-25 (Jhansi to Kanpur highway), and the distance of the stone

The physicochemical disturbance is widely recognized as a primary influence on the plant community and the spread of invasive exotics. Plant to withstand the effect of pollution without showing any external damage. It is concluded that all the biochemical indicators exhibited significant variation from species to the species residential area. The present study on the species of Butea monosperma (Lam.) growing at four different (east, west, north, and south) sites in SCP, Lakshmanpura, (Bundelkhand region) indicated that air pollution brought important changes in foliar morphology. The Azadirachta indica and Eucalyptus globulus were the species that showed high dust holding capacity, followed by Madhuca indica. Also, Madhuca indica and Eucalyptus globulus were the least affected plant species from chlorosis and necrosis. So Eucalyptus globules and Madhuca indica may be very significant for using the cement industry’s

Stone Crusher Dust and Its Impact: Accumulation Efficiency …

623

Fig. 1 Map of study area (Lakshmanpura) region of Bundelkhand

green belt surroundings (Prajapati and Tripathi 2008). Rai et al. (2010) studied species-wise and season-wise dust deposition patterns on six selected tree species and their effects on chlorophyll and ascorbic acid content in foliar tissues. Smaller dust particles enter the leaf through stomatal openings, and the particles larger than the stomata opening generally pile up on the pore, affecting gaseous exchange processes, which affect photosynthesis, water retention, and overall plant growth. Investigations on ten annual plant species reveal that the foliar surface was an excellent receptor of atmospheric pollutants leading to several structural and functional changes. Floristic analysis of natural vegetation is recognized as all efficient and appropriate method to study the environment of the present species in an ecosystem. The following four types of tree species were reported in the study area Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, and Holiptelia integrifolia.

The pattern of dust in g/leaf loading by various tree species. Across the various distances from the disturbed site (SCP). It had been observed that leaf of Acacia nilotica plant retained maximum dust at the east aspect of 0–100 m. The minimum dust hold by the species at west aspect and north aspect of 0–100 m and west aspect of 300 m and west aspect of 500 m distance. In the present study, the relation of dust in a leaf was studied in four woody species, across the various distances from SCP. It was observed that the plant’s leaf retained maximum the dust at the east aspects of 100 m and west aspect 300 m. The minimum dust holds by the species in the west and south aspect of 500 m distance, across the various distances from SCP. It had been observed that plant retained maximum dust at the south aspects of 0–100 and 200 m. The minimum dust holds by the species are at the west and south aspect of 500 m distance, across the various distances from SCP. It was observed that the Holiptelia integrifolia plant’s leaf retained maximum dust at

624 Fig. 2 Satellite image shows the investigation area stone crusher plant (SCP) Lakshmanpura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh, India

Fig. 3 Diagrammatic sketch showing a different aspect of the investigation area

J. Rahul

Stone Crusher Dust and Its Impact: Accumulation Efficiency …

625

Table 1 Monthly variation in temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall (2010–2011) S. No.

Month

Temperature

Relative humidity

Rainfall (mm)

Max.

Min.

Morning

Evening

1.

January

21.00

05.14

88.20

48.40

0.00

2.

February

26.00

10.55

87.25

47.75

1.80

3.

March

33.02

13.62

80.25

29.75

0.00

4.

April

45.80

19.04

67.00

30.80

0.00

5.

May

42.42

25.97

52.00

26.50

20.40

6.

June

36.47

24.65

75.25

57.00

473.00

7.

July

33.20

24.80

91.00

73.75

244.80

Table 2 Physical–chemical properties of soil Parameters

East aspect

West aspect

North aspect

South aspect

100 M

300 M

500 M

100 M

300 M

500 M

100 M

300 M

500 M

100 M

300 M

500 M

Soil depth (cm)

10

20

NA

10

20

20

10

20

NA

10

20

20

pH

7.4

7.1

NA

8.0

8.8

7.0

7.2

7.3

NA

7.5

7.4

7.6

Organic C (%)

0.07

0.09

NA

0.08

0.12

0.18

0.10

0.22

NA

0.15

0.13

0.11

N (kg/ha)

A

A

NA

A

A

A

A

A

NA

A

A

A

P (kg/ha)

4.5

4.8

NA

9.0

11.0

13.5

45.0

40.5

NA

22.5

10.0

8.0

K (kg/ha)

255.36

232.96

NA

313.60

231.86

210.5

201.60

215.56

NA

230.56

389.76

207.60

Zn (ppm)

0.99

1.92

NA

1.08

1.16

1.26

0.86

1.78

NA

1.62

0.78

1.07

Fe (ppm)

6.15

18.32

NA

28.72

19.28

21.71

24.07

11.32

NA

18.92

11.27

14.22

Mn (ppm)

18.29

20.39

NA

61.44

22.83

24.07

42.91

10.73

NA

27.90

18.86

21.04

Cu (ppm)

1.10

1.06

NA

1.29

1.01

1.39

1.61

1.26

NA

1.14

0.71

1.09

A absent, NA not available

the west aspect of 300 m. The maximum dust holds by the species at the west and north aspects of 0–100 m distance (Fig. 4). In all aspects (east, west, north, and south) across various distances (0–100, 100–200, 200–300, 300–400, and 400– 500 m) at the disturbed site SCP except 400 and 500 m in east aspect and 400 and 500 m north aspect (data was not available). The richness of Butea monosperma was very high compared to other’s species of trees. The minimum richness was reported of Acacia nilotica, and the richness of Azadirachta indica and Holiptelia integrifolia was medium. Meliaceae, Fabaceae, Mimosaceae, and Ulmaceae were found surrounding the SCP in the present studies: the fast-growing family Fabaceae is noted for the tolerance and hyper accumulation capacities.

4

Conclusions

In this study, four different sites were selected for the SCP (east, west, north, and south). A total of four tree species (Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, and Holiptelia integrifolia) were selected for dust holding capacity. This study indicates that plant species growing around the SCP in high population and a very high capacity of dust holding (capturing), namely by observing tree species using floristic analysis, identification of tree species using the flora of Madhya Pradesh, and flora of British India. Relation of dust in a leaf was studied with four selected tree species across the various distances from SCP. The leaf of Butea monosperma retained maximum dust loading capacity

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J. Rahul

at the south aspects of 100 m distance, and the minimum dust loading capacity occurred in Azadirachta indica leaf at the west aspect of 500 m distance. The maximum richness tree species were recorded Butea monosperma, and Acacia nilotica was recorded minimum richness. The study emphasizes that stone crusher dust is becoming a severe threat to surrounding plants.

References

Fig. 4 Dust loading in g/leaf by various woody tree species a Acacia nilotica, b Azadirachta indica, c Butea monosperma, d Holiptelia integrifolia

M. Ali, M. Athar, Dispersion modeling of noxious pollutants from thermal power plants. Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci. 34, 105–120 (2010) P.G. Angold, The impact of a road upon adjacent heathland vegetation: effects on plant species composition. J. Appl. Ecol. 34, 409–417 (1997) O.I. Asubiojo, P.O. Ain, A.F. Oluwole, Effect of cement production on the elemental composition of soil in the neighborhood of two cement factories. Water Air Soil Pollut. 57, 819–828 (1991) M. Bernhardt-Romermann, M. Kirchner, T. Kudernatch, G. Jakobi, A. Fischer, Changed vegetation composition in the coniferous forest near motorways in southern Germany: the effects of traffic-born pollution. Environ. Pollut. 143, 572–581 (2006) N.S. Christodoutakis, C. Fasseas, Air pollution affects the leaf structure of Laurus nobilis, an injury resistant species. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 44(2), 276–328 (1990) H.G. Gauch, Multivariate Analysis in Community Ecology (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 85 I.N. Gostin, Air pollution effects on the leaf structure of some Fabaceae species. Not. Bot. Horti Agrobot. Cluj-Napoca 37(2), 57–73 (2009) L. Gratani, M.F. Crescente, C. Petruzzi, Relationship between leaf life-span and photosynthetic activity of Quercus ilex in polluted urban areas (Rome). Environ. Pollut. 110, 19–28 (2000) H.G. Heumann, Ultrastructural localization of zinc in zinc-tolerant Armeria maritime ssp. halleri by auto metallography. J. Plant Physiol. 159(2), 191–203 (2002) M.Z. Iqbal, M. Shafig, Periodical effect of cement dust pollution on the growth of some plant species. Turk. J. Bot. 25, 19–24 (2001) S.K. Prajapati, B.D. Tripathi, Seasonal variation of leaf dust accumulation and pigment content in plant species exposed to urban particulates pollution. J. Environ. Qual. 37, 865–870 (2008) G.K. Psaras, N.S. Christodoulakis, Air pollution affects the ultrastructure of Phlomis fruticosa mesophyll cells. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 38(4), 610–617 (1987) J. Rahul, Effect of stone crusher dust on Butea monosperma (Lam.) bastard teak. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Eng. Res. 4(2), 1–5 (2013) J. Rahul, M.K. Jain, An investigation into the impact of particulate matter on vegetation along the national highway: a review. Res. J. Environ. Sci. 8, 356–372 (2014) J. Rahul, M.K. Jain, Effect of heavy metals on some selected roadside plants and its morphological study. Nat. Environ. Pollut. Technol. 15(4), 1133–1142 (2016) A. Rai, K. Kulshreshtha, P.K. Srivastava, C.S. Mohanty, Leaf surface structure alterations due to particulate pollution in some common plants. Environmentalist 30, 18–23 (2010) A.C. Sanjeev, Impact of dust pollution on photosynthetic pigments of some selected trees grown at nearby of stone-crushers. Environ. Conserv. J. 9(3), 11–13 (2008) V.C. Saralabai, Effect of cement kiln exhaust (electrostatic precipitator dust) on growth, root nodule biochemistry and crop productivity in

Stone Crusher Dust and Its Impact: Accumulation Efficiency … legumes through simulation studies. PhD thesis, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 2003 H. Singh, R.K. Chaturvedi, S. Prasad, S. Rana, S.M. Obaidullah, V. Pandey, Effect of dust load on the leaf attributes of the tree species growing along the roadside. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185, 383–391 (2012) F. van Jaarsveld, Characterising and mapping of wind transported sediment associated with opencast gypsum mining, Thesis for the

627 degree of Master of Science, South Africa, University of Stellenbosch, 2008 V.I. Velikova, Yardanov, A. Edreva, Oxidative stress and some antioxidant systems in acid rain-treated bean plants. Plant Sci. 151 (1), 59–66 (2000) E.L. Viskari, S. Kossi, J.K. Holopainen, Norway spruce and spruce shoot aphid as indicators of traffic pollution. Environ. Pollut. 107, 305–314 (2000)

Effect of Foliar Application of Micronutrients on Durum Wheat in Salted and Calcareous Soil Boutheina Miloudi and Ali Masmoudi

Abstract

1

The alkaline nature of arid regions soil usually reduces solubility and assimilability of micronutrients in the soil. A study has been carried out to focus on the effect of folia respraying of micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo) on wheat cultivation—in saline and calcareous soil. The studied growth parameter is stem length, yield, the weight of 1000 seeds, and weight of dry matter. According to ANOVA at 5%, the following results were obtained: the Zn + Cu 87.67 cm, Cu + Mn 83.63 cm, Fe + Zn + Cu + Mo 83.53 cm treatments exerted the best lengths in succession. For dry matter, the best treatments reported are Zn + Cu + Mo 12,396.00 kg/ha, Fe + Mn + Mo 11,614.67 kg/ha, and Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn 11,415.67 kg/ha. The results of the weight of 1000 seeds are arranged a follows: Cu + Mo 44.62 g was the greatest followed by, Zn + Mo 42.97 g, and then by Zn + Cu + Mn + Mo 42.85 g. The top-ranked treatments in the yield parameter are Fe + Mo 3480.00 kg/ha, followed by Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn 3451.00 kg/ha, and then Mn + Mo 3442.20 kg/ha. Keywords









Foliar spraying soils Wheat




Micronutrients Salted calcareous pH Alkaline reaction

B. Miloudi (&) Univesité Mohamed Khider, 07000 Biskra, Algeria A. Masmoudi Director of Research Laboratory DEDSPAZA, Université Mohamed Khider, 07000 Biskra, Algeria

Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important cereal crop source of staple food and the most important crop in food security (Khan et al. 2010). It had widely grown over a wide range of latitudes (Liu et al. 2010) when the cultivated area and total production in 2014 were more than 218 million ha of farmlands and 771 million tons, respectively (FAOSTAT 2019). According to Asad and Rafique (2000), Maralian (2009), El-Fouly et al. (2011), Nadim et al. (2013), Inayat et al. (2014), and Chen et al. (2017), the importance of wheat is remarked in the huge consummation of this product by the population because it represents the major source of dietary calories, proteins, and minerals. Crop yield is the culmination of several rate processes: nutrient uptake (Soon 1988). Crops need 17 nutrients to complete their life cycle under ideal conditions (Iqbal et al. 2019). According to Fageria et al. (2009) and Antosovsky and Ryant (2015), micronutrients are less required relative to macronutrients, and their total content in the soil is too small, but the importance of some micronutrients for plants was not detected until the twenty-first century. Several kinds of research achieved by Asad and Rafique (2000), Arif et al. (2006), Narwal et al. (2010), Narimani et al. (2010), Nadim et al. (2011, 2012), Mekkei and El Haggan (2014), and Zain et al. (2015) conducted on the importance of micronutrients on plant development, finding an increasing crop yield by the positive effect on the cell physiology and grain quality for human nutrition but also for the nutrition of the next generation seedling. Thus, only a few of those elements are known, and they are irreplaceable: iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mo). Root uptake contributes up to 86% micronutrient accumulation in the grain (Stepien et al. 2019). Martens and Westermann (1991), Ali et al. (2009), Narimani et al. (2010), and Nadim et al. (2013) reported that: the micronutrients deficiency has become a major yield-limiting factor that may either be primarily due to their low total contents or secondary caused

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_79

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by the soil physicochemical characteristics that reduce their availability to plants. According to Coïc and Coppenet (1989) and Zeidan et al. (2010), and Wasaya et al. (2017), nutritional disorders creating deficiency symptoms can be affected by other factors such as poor drainage, soil salinity, and unbalanced fertilizer application also the availability of micronutrients such as Fe, Mn, and Zn are much affected by pH and CaCO3 due to low organic matter content. Usually, micronutrient-deficiency problems are bound in calcareous soil of arid and semi-arid regions. However, soil application of micronutrients is therefore not very effective in recovering these deficiencies in calcareous and alkaline soils (Tariq et al. 2007). Foliar spray of these micronutrients has been reported to be 6–20 times more efficient than the soil application, depending on soil type (Sadjid et al. 2009). Foliar application leads to increased grain yield components and protein percentage in seed (Moghadam et al. 2012; Hidoto et al. 2017). In Algeria, wheat is a critical product in the country’s economy and the Algerian people’s consumption. Soils in this region are particularly predominated by calcareous and salted soils, reducing the bioavailability of micronutrients for crops. Therefore, our study aims to use these elements in foliar spraying and thus facilitate their absorption by leaves of plants to compensate for the shortage of plant needs to trace elements.

2

according to completely randomized block design, each one consisting of 32 foliar spraying treatments, which are mentioned in Table 2. During the culture cycle, the measurements and weighing were carried out, including stem length (cm), the weight of dry matter (kg/ha), grain yield (kg/ha), and weight of 1000 seeds (g).

2.1 Statistical Analysis Data collected throughout the culture cycle in three blocks were analyzed using variance technique (ANOVA). For this purpose, software XLSTAT (2009) was used, and arithmetic means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test.

3

Results

3.1 Stem Length The result of foliar application of micronutrients and their combination (Fig. 1) showed a significant effect (p  0.05) on the stem length when the results range from: 64.17 cm to 87.67 cm and the best treatments are Zn + Cu, Cu + Mn, and Fe + Zn + Cu + Mo with stem lengths: 87.67 cm, 83.63 cm, and 83.58 cm, respectively.

Materials and Methods

We conducted our study in the experimental site of the agricultural sciences department, Biskra Algeria. The wheat cultivation (var. Mohamed Ben Bachir) was performed. To achieve our work, we put 7 L of soil in agricultural pots where the percentage of CaCO3 is 40.85%, EC is 4.1 dS/m, and pH is 7.3. Before planting, we brought: 1.3 g super simple phosphate (18%), 0.3 g of potassium sulfate (50%), and 0.9 g of urea (46%). This fertilizer was added in a fraction way in different vegetative stages (0.3  3). The iron sulfate, manganese sulfate, zinc sulfate, copper sulfate, and molybdic acid solution concentrations (Table 1) are prepared according to Fageria et al. (2009). This application has been carried out in two different stages, tillering and booting under favorable climatic and optimal water conditions. The maximum grain yield was recorded for two foliar sprays, which was statistically similar to the three foliar sprays (Arif et al. 2006). Our experimental site is structured as follows three blocks; distributed

Table 1 Micronutrients treatment concentrations

3.2 Weight of Dry Matter The weight of dry matter are significantly affected (p 0.05) by the foliar feeding of micronutrients, which varies between 7322.67 and 12,396.00 kg/ha; the best-reported treatments are Zn + Cu + Mo 12,396.00 kg/ha, Fe + Mn + Mo 11,614.67 kg/ha, and Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn 11,415.67 kg/ha (Fig. 2).

3.3 Grain Yield The foliar application of micronutrients and their combination (Fig. 3) showed a significant effect (p  0.05) on grain yield. The marked yield ranges from 1116.13 to 3480.00 kg/ha. The top-ranked treatments were Fe + Mo (3480.00 kg/ha), Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn (3451.00 kg/ha), and Mn + Mo (3442.20 kg/ha).

FeSO4 (ppm)

MnSO4 (ppm)

ZnSO4 (ppm)

CuSO4 (ppm)

MoO3
H2O (ppm)

6000

2000

3000

1000

200

Effect of Foliar Application of Micronutrients on Durum Wheat …

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Table 2 Foliar spray treatments Control

Fe

Zn

Cu

Mn

Mo

Fe + Zn

Fe + Cu

Fe + Mn

Fe + Mo

Zn + Cu

Zn + Mn

Zn + Mo

Cu + Mn

Cu + Mo

Mn + Mo

Fe + Zn + Cu

Fe + Zn + Mn

Fe + Zn + Mo

Fe + Cu + Mn

Fe + Mn + Mo

Zn + Cu + Mn

Zn + Cu + Mo

Zn + Mn + Mo

Cu + Mn + Mo

Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn

Fe + Zn + Cu + Mo

Fe + Zn + Mn + Mo

Fe + Cu + Mn + Mo

Zn + Cu + Mn + Mo

Fe + Zn + Cu + Mn + Mo

100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

Stem lenght Control Fe Zn Cu Mn Mo Fe+Zn Fe+Cu Fe+Mn Fe+Mo Zn+Cu Zn+Mn Zn+Mo Cu+Mn Cu+Mo Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu Fe+Zn+Mn Fe+Zn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn Fe+Cu+Mo Fe+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn Zn+Cu+Mo Zn+Mn+Mo Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn Fe+Zn+Cu+Mo Fe+Zn+Mn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo

Lenght (cm)

Fe + Cu + Mo

Treatments Fig. 1 Stem length relative to the foliar application treatments on wheat cultivation

14000.00 Weight (Kg/ha)

12000.00 10000.00 8000.00 6000.00 4000.00 2000.00 Dry matter Control Fe Zn Cu Mn Mo Fe+Zn Fe+Cu Fe+Mn Fe+Mo Zn+Cu Zn+Mn Zn+Mo Cu+Mn Cu+Mo Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu Fe+Zn+Mn Fe+Zn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn Fe+Cu+Mo Fe+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn Zn+Cu+Mo Zn+Mn+Mo Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn Fe+Zn+Cu+Mo Fe+Zn+Mn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo

0.00

Treatments Fig. 2 Weight of dry matter relative to the foliar application treatments on wheat cultivation

B. Miloudi and A. Masmoudi

4000.00 3500.00 3000.00 2500.00 2000.00 1500.00 1000.00 500.00 0.00

Grain yield Control Fe Zn Cu Mn Mo Fe+Zn Fe+Cu Fe+Mn Fe+Mo Zn+Cu Zn+Mn Zn+Mo Cu+Mn Cu+Mo Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu Fe+Zn+Mn Fe+Zn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn Fe+Cu+Mo Fe+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn Zn+Cu+Mo Zn+Mn+Mo Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn Fe+Zn+Cu+Mo Fe+Zn+Mn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo

Weight (Kg/ha)

632

Treatments

45.00 40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00

1000 seeds weight Control Fe Zn Cu Mn Mo Fe+Zn Fe+Cu Fe+Mn Fe+Mo Zn+Cu Zn+Mn Zn+Mo Cu+Mn Cu+Mo Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu Fe+Zn+Mn Fe+Zn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn Fe+Cu+Mo Fe+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn Zn+Cu+Mo Zn+Mn+Mo Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn Fe+Zn+Cu+Mo Fe+Zn+Mn+Mo Fe+Cu+Mn+Mo Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo Fe+Zn+Cu+Mn+Mo

Weight (g)

Fig. 3 Grain yield relative to the foliar application treatments on wheat cultivation

Treatments

Fig. 4 Weight of 1000 seeds relative to foliar application treatments on wheat cultivation

3.4 Seeds Weight The weight of 1000 seeds (Fig. 4) is focused between 32.68 and 44.62 g. The first three treatments are arranged as follows: Cu + Mo, Zn + Mo, and Zn + Cu + Mn + Mo, and results recorded are mentioned, respectively, 44.62 g, 42.97, and 42.85 g; however, the first treatments differ significantly from other groups.

wheat stem length due to the involvement of micronutrients in different physiological processes like enzyme activation, electron transport, chlorophyll formation, and stomata regulation (Khan et al. 2010). These results are similar to those obtained by Hussain et al. (2005), Narimani et al. (2010), Khan et al. (2010), Mekkei and El Haggan (2014), and Zain et al. (2015).

4.2 Weight of Dry Matter

4

Discussion

4.1 Stem Length We can say that the foliar spray of micronutrients Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Mo or in combination generally increase the

Ali et al. (2009) reported that the foliar application of micronutrients increases the biological yield. This may be due to better crop nutrition through foliar application of the applied nutrients, which may result in improved crop growth, and Khan et al. (2010) mention that more than one

Effect of Foliar Application of Micronutrients on Durum Wheat …

foliar spray of micronutrient mixture starting at tillering improve the biological yield. The same results were affirmed by other research achieved by Asad and Rafique (2000), Arif et al. (2006), and Yassen et al. (2010).

4.3 Grain Yield These results are similar to the results mentioned by Arif et al. (2006) and Ali et al. (2009). They also reported that micronutrient application to leaves of growing crops would ensure better crop nutrition at a thesis and grain filling stage, resulting in increased grain yield. This increased grain yield is the direct result of improvement in yield component, grain size, and number of grains per spike had a positive correlation with grain yield, so the highest grain yield might be the direct effect of improvement in grain size and several grains per spike, and many reports indicate the positive correlation of foliar spray of micronutrients with grain yield in wheat (Khan et al. 2010).

4.4 Seeds Weight The increase of 1000 seeds weight due to involvement of the sprayed micronutrients in enzyme activation, membrane integrity, chlorophyll formation, stomata regulation, and starch utilization at early stages, while enhancing the accumulation of assimilation in the grains, which result in heavier grain wheat at later stages (Khan et al. 2010). The results are in the same line with Soylu et al. (2004), Soleimani (2006), and Rashid et al. (2016), a significant increase in 1000 grain weight of wheat with foliar application micronutrients.

5

Conclusion

The micronutrient application’s effectiveness on wheat increased the stem length, biological yield, grain yield, and 1000 seeds weight was remarked by applying foliar micronutrient treatments combination. Moreover, we have noticed a positive effect of Zn because it was present in all the best combinations of treatments.

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634 H. Narimani, M.M. Rahimi, A. Ahmadikhah, B. Vaezi, Study on the effects of foliar spray of micronutrient on yield and yield components of durum wheat. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res. 2(6), 168–176 (2010) R.P. Narwal, R.S. Malik, R.R. Dahiya, Addressing variation in the status of a few nutritionally important micronutrients in wheat crop, in 19th World Congress of Soil Sciences, Soil Solutions for a Changing World, Brisbane, Australia, 1–6 Aug 2010 A. Rashid, F. Khan, R. Ali, M.A. Kahn, S. Hameed, M.E. Elahi, N. Latif, S. Khan-Marwat, Maximizing wheat yield through foliar application of sulfur and zinc with and without farmyard manure. Am-Euras. J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 16(5), 882–887 (2016) Site web: FAO.org (2019) R. Soleimani, The effects of integrated application of micronutrient on wheat in low organic carbon conditions of alkaline soils of Western Iran, in 18th World Congress of Soil Science, Philadelphia, PA, 9– 15 July 2006 Y.K. Soon, Nutrient uptake by barley roots under field conditions. Plant Soil 109, 171–179 (1988) S. Soylu, B. Sade, A. Topal, N. Akgün, S. Gezgün, E.E. Hakki, M. Babaoúlu, Responses of irrigated durum and bread wheat cultivars to boron application in a low boron calcareous soil. Turk. J. Agric. 29, 275–286 (2004)

B. Miloudi and A. Masmoudi A. Stepien, K. Worjtkowiak, R. Pietrzak-Fiecko, M. Zalewska, M. Grzywinska-Rapca, Effect of manganese and nitrogen fertilization on the content of some essential micronutrients and composition of fatty acids in winter wheat grain. Chil. J. Agric. Res. 79(4): Chillández (2019) M. Tariq, M. Sharif, Z. Shah, R. Khan, Effect of foliar application of micronutrients on yield and quality of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L.). Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 10(11), 1823–1828 (2007) A. Wasaya, M.S. Shabir, M. Hussain, M. Ansar, A. Aziz, W. Hassan, I. Ahmad, Foliar application of zinc and boron improved the productivity and net returns of maize grown under rainfed conditions of pothwar plateau. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 17(1): Temuco (2017) A. Yassen, E.A.A. Abdou-El-Nour, S. Shedeed, Response of wheat to foliar spray with urea and micronutrients. J. Am Sci. 6(9), 14–22 (2010) M. Zain, I. Khan, R.W. Qadri, U. Ashraf, S. Hussain, S. Minhas, A. Siddique, M.M. Jahangir, M. Bashir, Foliar application of micronutrients enhances wheat growth, yield, and related attributes. Am. J. Plant Sci. 6, 864–869 (2015) M.S. Zeidan, F.M. Manal, H.A. Hamouda, Effect of foliar fertilization of Fe, Mn, and Zn on wheat yield and quality in low sandy soils fertility. World J. Agric. Sci. 6(6), 696–699 (2010)

Multiple Genes (SOS, HKT, TVP) Expression in Two Contrasting Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), Cultivars on In Vitro Saline Stress Conditions Laid Benderradji, Noura Messaoudi, Lydia Elhadef Elokki, Mouloud Ghadbane, Samir Medjekal, and Faiçal Brini

Abstract

Keywords

Candidate genes expression for salinity tolerance was studied for both cationic transporters, namely: HKT1; 5 and HKT2; 1. The two genes were expressed in the root, and then, it showed that HKT1; 5 was better expressed in the root of HD cultivars. This suggests a more active function of HKT1; 5 genes in HD as a tolerant cultivar. Vacuolar antiporter Na+/H+, TNHX-1, expression was more elevated in roots, sheaths, and blades of HD than MD cultivar. Roots and sheaths of both two cultivars accumulate more transcripts of vacuolar TVP1 than the leaf blade. The two genes TNHX1 and TVP1 were expressed with high similarity in MD and HD cultivars, which suggesting equal efficiency storage in both genotypes. Na+/H+ antiporter localized in the plasma membrane (TaSOS1) was more accumulated in roots and sheaths of MD comparative to HD cultivar; suggesting that in addition to higher retention of Na+ in sheaths, HD prevents the accumulation of Na+ in the blade by activating its efflux via a high expression of the gene SOS1. Results showed that salinity tolerance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is concordant to the ability to prevent Na+ accumulation toxic levels, linked to a high osmoregulation capacity coupled with an acceptable K+ level in the blade.

Triticum aestivum L. Saline stress Genetically expression

L. Benderradji (&)
N. Messaoudi Biodiversity and Biotechnological Techniques for Plant Resources Development Laboratory, UMB of M’sila, M’sila, Algeria e-mail: [email protected] L. Benderradji
N. Messaoudi
M. Ghadbane
S. Medjekal Faculty of Sciences, Mohamed BOUDIAF University of M’sila, M’sila, Algeria L. Elhadef Elokki Ferhat Abbas University of Sétif1, Sétif, Algeria F. Brini Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia

1







Ion transporters




Introduction

Soil salinity is one of the major worldwide environmental constraints affecting agricultural production in arid and semiarid regions. Despite significant progress achieved toward understanding molecular mechanisms controlling a plant’s response to salinity, there have been a few, if any, cereal cultivars with improved salinity tolerance. Glycophytes such as bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) cope with salinity stress by excluding Na+ from shoots (Munns and James 2003; Colmer et al. 2005) and by tolerating high internal levels of Na+, which is also referred to as tissue tolerance (Yeo and Flowers 1983; Colmer et al. 2005; Munns et al. 2006; Tammam et al. 2008). When grown in saline environments, bread wheat is generally more salt tolerant than durum wheat, which is likely to be largely due to its better Na+ exclusion (Colmer et al. 2006). Despite the complexity of salt tolerance, much of the recent work to improve the level of salt tolerance in wheat has focused on Na+ exclusion in plant tissues as the most appropriate selection criteria. Genotypic differences in Na+ exclusion (estimated by the Na+ concentration in the leaf blade or whole shoot) can be demonstrated in wheat, but its relationship with salt tolerance is not consistent. Hexaploid bread wheat cultivars have slow rates of Na+ transport to the shoot and maintain a high K+/Na+ ratio in leaves. This enhanced K+/Na+ discrimination trait contributes to salt tolerance (Dvořák et al. 1994; Tammam et al. 2008). A locus for this trait, kna1, was mapped to the distal region of chromosome 4DL (Dubcovsky et al. 1996) of the bread wheat cultivar, whereas the tetraploid durum wheat lacks this trait. A homolog of the kna1 locus has not yet been found on

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_80

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either the A or B genomes of tetraploid wheat species. A new source of Na+ exclusion was found in durum wheat, Line 149, which had a low Na+ concentration and high K+/ Na+ ratios in the leaf blade similar to bread wheat (Munns et al. 2000). Genetic studies indicated two major loci, Nax1 and Nax2 (Na+ exclusion loci), controlled leaf blade Na+. Sodium efflux from root cells prevents the accumulation of toxic levels of Na+ in the cytosol and its transport to the shoot. Molecular genetic analysis of Arabidopsis SOS (salt overly sensitive) mutants has led to the identification of a plasma membrane Na+/H+ antiporter, SOS1, which plays a crucial role in sodium exclusion from root epidermal cells under salinity. Understanding the molecular basis of salt-stress signaling and tolerance mechanisms in wheat becomes today mandatory for engineering and/or screening for local wheat genotypes more tolerant to salt stress. This report performed physiological and molecular analysis on two Algerian bread wheat genotypes (Triticum aestivum L.), Mahon Demias and Hidhab, with contrasting salinity tolerance. Our data provide evidence for a functional correlation linking Na+/fluxes and the expression patterns of SOS and HKT-type transporters to salt stress tolerance in bread wheat.

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Plant Material, Germination Assay, and Stress Conditions The seeds of two bread wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.) are Mahon Demias (MD, salt sensitive) and Triticum aestivum L. Hidhab (HD1220, salt tolerant). Seeds collected successively during the last crop years were supplied by the Agricultural Research Station of Sétif (ARSS-Algeria). Seeds of each line were sterilized in 0.5% NaOCl for 15 min, then washed three times with sterile water, and placed on Petri dishes with a single sheet of Whitman #1 filter paper for germination. The percentage of seed germination was determined as the number of seeds with radicals growing at least 2 mm long over the initial seed number soaked on wet Whitman paper. To test the response of the seeds to salt stress, 30 seeds of the two wheat varieties were germinated on various concentrations of NaCl (0, 50, 100, and 200 mM) and incubated at 25 °C in a growth chamber under a 16 h light/8 h dark photoperiod and 60 ± 10% relative humidity. Four-day-old seedlings were transferred to Eppendorf tubes floating on modified half-strength Hoagland’s solution in containers (Epstein 1972). When plants reach the third leaf stage, NaCl concentrations (0, 50, 100, and 200 mM) were applied progressively (salt treatment). All seedlings were grown in a glasshouse at 25 ± 5 °C, under photosynthetically active radiation of 280 lmol m2 s−1, a 16 h photoperiods, and 60 ± 10% relative humidity.

A first harvest was made at the beginning of salt treatment (initial harvest), and sequential harvests were made at different times (3, 7, 10, and 14 days) of exposure to salinity (final harvest). All the physiological tests were performed on leaves at the same developmental stage (leaf 1 or leaf 2).

2.2 RNA Extraction and RT-PCR Assay Total RNA from roots, leaf sheaths, and leaf blades of 1-week-old plants treated with 100 mM NaCl for 3 days, were extracted using the RNeasy total RNA isolation kit (Qiagen). To remove contaminating DNA, RNAs (10 lg) were treated with RNase-free DNase (Promega). DNasetreated RNA samples (0.5 lg) were reverse-transcribed using M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen). The reverse transcription (RT) reactions were performed at 37 °C for 1 h using 2 lM oligo-dT18. Two ll of the first strand cDNAs were used as templates for PCR amplification with specific primers of candidate genes (Table 1). A wheat Actin gene fragment was used as an internal control. Samples were denatured for 5 min at 94 °C and then ran for 35 cycles of 30 s at 94 °C, 45 s at 58 °C, and 2 min at 72 °C with a final extension of 5 min at 72 °C. The PCR products were separated by agarose gel (1%) electrophoresis.

3

Results

3.1 Germination and Seedling Growth Under standard growth conditions, the overall seed germination rates of the cultivars Mahon Demias (MD) and Hidhab (HD) were >98%. However, in the presence of increasing concentrations of NaCl, a gradual decrease in the germination rates was observed (Fig. 1). Under high salinity (200 mM NaCl), the germination of the sensitive genotype (MD) was severely affected and did not exceed 66%, whereas in the salt-tolerant HD genotype, it was maintained to 82%. Moreover, these salt stress treatments affect seedling growth and result in both leaf and root length reductions, greater in MD (Fig. 2). So consequently, the estimated total leaf area was more dramatically reduced in MD than in HD.

3.2 Ion Status Following exposure to 100 mM of NaCl, Na+ concentrations were measured in individual leaves of both wheat genotypes. At the leaf sheaths (leaf 1 and leaf 2), sodium accumulates at similar rates in both genotypes after the first 3 days of salt treatment but reaches later substantially higher levels in the

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637

Table 1 List of the primers used for RT-PCR analysis of the wheat candidate genes Gene

N° access

Primer

Sequence

HKT1; 5

DQ64633

HKT8_F3 HKT8_R3

5′-CTGTCGCTCTTCTGCGCCAT-3′ 5′-TTATACTATCCTCCATGCCT-3′

HKT2; 2

DQ015706

HKT2_F3 HKT8_R3

5′-GATCCACTCAACTTCTCCAC-3′ 5′-TCATACTTTCCAGGATTTAC-3′

TNHX1

AY296910

B3_F B4_R

5′-TCGGAAAATTCCTCTACCTA-3′ 5′-AGAACAACAATGATTGTGCT-3′

TVP1

AY296911

TVP_F TVP_R

5′-GTCAGCAGAGCTGGTGTGAAG-3′ 5′-TCAGCTTGATGAGGATGTTGA-3′

TaSOS1

AY326952

KM1_F KM2_R

5′-GCATCTTATTGGAAGGATTT-3′ 5′-CCTCTCAGGTGAGACTGCTA-3′

Actin

AB181991

Act_F Act_R

5′-GTGCCCATTTACGAAGGATA-3′ 5′-GAAGACTCCATGCCGATCAT-3′

Fig. 1 Germination percentage of both two varieties, Hidhab (HD 1220) and Mahon Demias (MD)

Fig. 2 Salt stress affecting using (200 mM, NaCl) in both HD (a) and MD (b) varieties seedlings

HD variety, especially at day 7 (Fig. 3a). However, the leaf blades of MD accumulate Na+ up to 250 mM, a concentration 5 times higher than the values registered in HD variety (Fig. 3b). By contrast, in the root of both genotypes, similar Na+ concentrations were registered (Fig. 3c). Storage of Na+ in the two wheat genotypes was investigated further by measuring the Na+ content in the leaf sheaths and the leaf blades (leaves 1 and 2) after 7 days of exposure to increasing NaCl concentrations. Both wheat varieties accumulated Na+ at different levels in the leaf sheath, and HD accumulated a

substantially higher Na+ concentration than MD with no evidence of storage saturation (Fig. 3d). The two genotypes seem to have a contrasting capacity to store Na+ in the leaf sheath, and their leaf sheath cells may differ in their ability to extract Na+ from the xylem stream. This possibility was supported by genotypic differences in the proportion of total leaf Na+ content stored in the leaf sheath. We measured K+ in the leaf blade and leaf sheath of both genotypes during 14 days of growth in the presence of 100 mM NaCl. K+ was accumulated to similar levels in the

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Fig. 3 Increase in Na+ concentrations in the leaf sheaths (a) and leaf blade (b), and roots (c), of salt-tolerant HD and salt-sensitive MD and total Na+ content in blade and sheath in both HD and MD varieties (d) during 14 days exposure to 100 mM NaCl

leaf sheath of each genotype, whereas in leaf blades, more K+ accumulated in HD than MD (Fig. 4a, b), giving a higher K+/Na+ ratio in the salt-tolerant genotype (Fig. 4c). In roots, K+ content was higher in HD genotype compared to MD genotype (Fig. 4d). The root’s ability to retain K+ correlates with higher salt tolerance in HD, compared to the MD genotype.

3.3 Expression Analysis of Candidate Genes HKT1; 5, HKT2; 2, TNHX1, TVP1, and TaSOS1 in the Two Bread Wheat Varieties Many genes were previously shown to play important roles in maintaining K+ or Na+ homeostasis in higher plants. We have studied the expression levels of five candidate genes involved in controlling uptake, transport, and sequestration of Na+ ions. RT-PCR analysis of two HKT encoding genes: HKT1; 5 (previously named HKT8) and HKT2; 2 (previously named HKT2) in cultivars MD and HD exposed to 100 mM NaCl showed high expression levels of both genes

in roots but neither in leaf sheaths nor in leaf blades (Fig. 5). However, HKT2; 2 shows similar expression patterns in the roots of the two wheat genotypes, and HKT1; 5 transcripts seem to accumulate to higher levels in HD (Fig. 5). Regarding the vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporter TNHX-1, the transcript levels in the roots, sheaths, and blades were greater in HD than in the MD genotype. More transcripts seem to accumulate in the roots and leaf sheaths than leaf blades in the two genotypes (Fig. 5). The expression level of the vacuolar H+-Pyrophosphatase TVP1 was comparable to that observed with TNHX1. In fact, the roots and sheaths of the two genotypes accumulated more TVP1 transcript than the leaf.

4

Discussion

Salt tolerance reflects the plant’s ability to exclude Na+ as well as the mechanisms linked to the tolerance of the tissues to accumulate Na+. These two salt tolerance components are likely to operate independently, making salt tolerance

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639

Fig. 4 Effect of salt stress on the accumulation of K+ ions in leaf sheaths (a), in leaf blades (b) and roots (c); K+/Na+ ratio in leaf blade (d) in salt-tolerant HD and salt-sensitive MD values are means ± SD (n = 5)

dependent on their relative effects. Accordingly, salt tolerance of two Algerian bread wheat genotypes was evaluated in this study using a cluster of physiological and molecular parameters. Our data show that MD appeared to be more sensitive to salt than HD at the germination stage (Fig. 1). While the two wheat genotypes studied here appeared to have similar Na+ storage capacity in the roots, they showed different Na+ accumulation rates in leaf blades. Na+ accumulated more in the sheaths of leaf 1 and 2 of HD compared to MD (Fig. 4). Sheath storage capacity may represent an advantage for HD by limiting the loading of Na+ to the leaf blade, thus, preserving its photosynthetic capacity. However, sheath retention of Na+ itself would only delay the accumulation of Na+ in leaf blades until a threshold was reached above which the Na+ will reach leaf blades of both cultivars. It is possible that this trait of preferential sheath retention of Na+ would interact with the low xylem loading. Similarly, differential sheath retention of Na+ has been

previously reported on two durum wheat varieties showing marked differences in salt and drought stress (Brini et al. 2009). Uptake of K+ into leaf sheaths of salt-treated plants showed no differences between the genotypes. This suggests that sheath sequestration of Na+ could be Na+ specific. However, enhanced uptake of K+ in leaves of HD compared to MD resulted in a higher K+/Na+ ratio in leaf blades, which may benefit cellular homeostasis. Salt tolerance is associated with low rates of transport of Na+ to shoots with high selectivity for K+ over Na+, and therefore, K+/Na+ ratio in young leaves is suggested as an important factor for metabolism and growth (Dvořák and Gorham 1992; Husain et al. 2004; Poustini and Siosemardeh 2004). K+/Na+ ratio is controlled by a QTL linked to Kna1 locus located at the distal region of chromosome 4DL of bread wheat (Gorham et al. 1987; Dubcovsky et al. 1996). Increasing evidence shows that, during root uptake, enhanced discrimination of K+ over Na+ is an important trait contributing to salt

640

(-RT)

Blades

Sheaths

Roots

HD

Blades

Sheaths

MD

Roots

Fig. 5 RT-PCR analysis of the expression levels of HKT1; 5, HKT2; 2, TNHX1, TVP1, and TaSOS1, in roots, sheaths, and blades of salt sensitive MD and salt-tolerant HD genotypes using specific gene primers. The expected size of the cDNA HKT1; 5 is 600 pb, HKT2; 2 is 450 pb, TNHX1 is 640 pb, TVP1 is 550 pb, and TaSOS1 is 680 pb. (-RT): without reverse transcriptase; at 380 pb Actin, a fragment was amplified by RT-PCR as an internal control. The Ribosomal RNA samples stained by ethidium bromide are also indicated

L. Benderradji et al.

HKT1.5

HKT2.1

TaSOS1

TVP1

TNHX1

Actin

rRNA

tolerance, and therefore, K+/Na+ ratio in plant tissues is a widely used parameter in distinguishing genotypes for their tolerance to NaCl toxicity in wheat and other cereal species (Gorham et al. 1990; Santa-Maria and Epstein 2001; Munns and James 2003). Reducing salt-induced K+ efflux would allow its contribution toward osmoregulation, negating the need for a high investment into the production of organic solutes and allowing the critical maintenance of optimal cytosolic K+/Na+ ratio (Cuin et al. 2008). Salt tolerance of plants depends on HKT transporters, which mediate Na+ specific transport of Na+, K+ transport, and play a key role in regulating Na+ homeostasis (Rodriguez-Navarro and Rubio 2006; Munns and Tester 2008). Several genes belonging to the HKT family have been studied in wheat. TaHKT1 was the first HKT gene cloned from higher plants, showing cortical expression (Schachtman and Schroeder 1994). The down-regulation (by an antisense construct) of TaHKT2; 1 in wheat increased shoot fresh weight by 50–100% in 200 mM NaCl under conditions of K+ deficiency (Laurie et al. 2002). Following the down-regulation of TaHKT2; 1, transgenic wheat had

smaller Na+ induced depolarization in roots cortical cells and low Na+ influx, indicating that TaHKT2; 1 mediates Na+ influx (Laurie et al. 2002). Further evidence using a root uptake system and a yeast transformation system also supported TaHKT2; 1 and HvHKT2; 1 functioned as a Na+ uniport (Haro et al. 2005). In durum wheat, the gene homologous to TmHKT7-A2 (from Triticum monococum), which is the best candidate for Nax1, could control Na+ unloading from the xylem in root and sheath of line 149 (salt tolerant) but not of Tamaroi (salt sensitive) (James et al. 2006). Upon salt stress, the expression of the two HKT genes used in this study was detected only in the two bread wheat genotypes’ roots. While HKT2; 2 shows the same expression pattern in both varieties, a differential accumulation was observed for HKT1; 5 transcripts, which reach higher levels in HD roots. These findings suggest that both HKT genes might be involved in Na+/K+ transport through the root cortical cells’ plasma membrane with a more active role of HKT1; 5 in the tolerant variety. The expression level of the wheat Na+/H+ antiporter gene (TNHX1) following salt stress was also investigated. The

Multiple Genes (SOS, HKT, TVP) Expression in Two Contrasting …

TNHX1 transcripts accumulate to higher amounts in roots and leaf sheaths of both MD and HD than leaf blades. The greater increase of TNHX1 expression in roots and sheaths treated with salt might respond to more Na+ accumulating in the corresponding vacuoles. The expression level of TVP1 seems to be similar to TNHX1 in the different tissues of the plant of the two genotypes, MD and HD (Fig. 5). Thus, the Na+/H+ antiporter acts in concert with the vacuolar H+-PPase and ATPase to sequester cations in the vacuole and pre-vacuolar compartments. The similar expression patterns of TNHX1 and TVP1 observed in MD and HD suggest that vacuolar compartmentation acts with comparable efficiency in both genotypes. High salinity induction of V-PPase gene expression in roots has been reported for AVP1, HVP1, HVP10, and TsVP (Fukuda et al. 2004; Gao et al. 2006). Vacuolar compartmentation of excess Na+ would provide a cheap osmoticum for osmoregulation under saline conditions, an osmolarity that could be matched by cytosolic retention of K+. Indeed, overexpression of the Arabidopsis tonoplast Na+ (K+)/H+ antiporter AtNHX1 (that would increase Na+ influx into vacuole) improved Na+ tolerance without increasing Na+ content of transgenic wheat plants (Xue et al. 2004). Transcript accumulation of the plasma membrane Na+/H+ antiporter, TaSOS1, was lower in roots and leaf sheaths of HD than in MD; whereas, in leaf blades, the expression of TaSOS1 in HD was slightly greater than in MD (Fig. 5). These expression patterns suggest that besides efficient Na+ retention in the sheath, the HD variety may avoid Na+ accumulation in leaf blades by activating sodium efflux through a higher expression of SOS1 in this compartment. Similar results were previously confirmed by Brini et al. (2009). In fact, a correlation was obtained between the expression pattern of TaSOS1 in the roots and sheaths of both durum wheat varieties and the Na+ fluxes from roots to leaves. However, other recent findings have reported no apparent correlation between leaf Na+ content and wheat salt tolerance (Genc et al. 2007). Thus, it appears that excluding Na+ is not itself always sufficient to increase plant salt tolerance, and other physiological traits should also be considered (Benderradji et al. 2011).

5

Conclusion

This study showed that more TaSOS-1 transcripts accumulate in the roots and sheath of MD compared to HD. This type of expression suggests that in addition to better retention efficiency of the Na+ ion in the sheaths, the HD variety avoids accumulating the Na+ ion in the leaf blade by activating its efflux via high expression. Of the SOS1 gene in this compartment, HKT1; 5 and HKT2; 2 are expressed in

641

the roots, but not in the leaf sheath and leaf blade, with a better expression of the HKT1 gene; 5, which accumulates at higher levels in the roots of HD. This suggests that these two genes are involved in the transport of Na+/K+ ions, through the plasma membrane of the cortical cells of the roots, with, however, a more active role of the HKT1; 5 genes in the HD tolerant variety. The level of expression of TVP1 is comparable to that observed for transcripts of the TNHX1 gene. The roots and sheath of the two genotypes accumulate more TVP1 transcripts than the leaf blade. The similarity in the type of expression of the TNHX1 and TVP1 genes, noted in MD and HD, suggests that vacuolar compartmentalization acts with the same efficiency in the two genotypes. Tolerance to high saline concentrations in bread wheat seems to be related to an ability to avoid the accumulation of toxic levels of Na+, an enhanced capacity for osmotic adjustment and maintaining adequate levels of K+, especially in the leaf blade. This information will help select more adapted wheat varieties for future breeding programs. Acknowledgements This work was supported jointly by grants from the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Tunisia, and the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Algeria. Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest.

References L. Benderradji, F. Brini, S.B. Amar, K. Kellou, J. Azaza, K. Masmoudi, H. Bouzerzour, M. Hanin, Sodium transport in the seedlings of two bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes showing contrasting salt stress tolerance. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 5(3), 233–241 (2011) F. Brini, I. Amara, K. Feki, M. Hanin, H. Khoudi, K. Masmoudi, Physiological and molecular analysis of seedlings of two Tunisian durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. Durum [Desf.]) varieties showing contrasting tolerance to salt stress. Acta Physiol. Plant. 31, 145–154 (2009) T.D. Colmer, R. Munns, T.J. Flowers, Improving salt tolerance of wheat and barley: prospects. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 45, 1425–1443 (2005) T.D. Colmer, T.J. Flowers, R. Munns, Use wild relatives to improve salt tolerance in wheat. J. Exp. Bot. 57, 1059–1078 (2006) T.A. Cuin, S.A. Betts, R. Chalmandrier, S. Shabala, A root’s ability to retain K+ correlates with salt tolerance in wheat. J. Exp. Bot. 59, 2697–2706 (2008) J. Dubcovsky, G. Santa-Maria, E. Epstein, M.C. Luo, J. Dvořák, Mapping of the K+/Na+ discrimination locus Kna1 in wheat. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2, 448–454 (1996) J. Dvořák, J. Gorham, Methodology of gene transfer by homoeologous recombination into Triticum turgidum: transfer of K+/Na+ discrimination from T. aestivum. Genome 35, 639–646 (1992) J. Dvořák, M.M. Noamam, S. Goyal, J. Gorham, Enhancement of the salt tolerance of Triticum turgidum L. by the Kna1 locus transferred from the Triticum aestivum L. chromosome 4D by homoeologous recombination. Theor. Appl. Genet. 87, 872–877 (1994) E. Epstein, Mineral Nutrition of Plants. Principles and Perspectives (Wiley, New York, 1972) A. Fukuda, K. Chiba, M. Maeda, A. Nakamura, M. Maeshima, Y. Tanaka, Effect of salt and osmotic stresses on the expression of

642 genes for the vacuolar H+-pyrophosphatase, H+-ATPase subunit A, and Na+/H+ antiporter from barley. J. Exp. Bot. 55, 585–594 (2004) F. Gao, Q. Gao, X.G. Duan, G.D. Yue, A.F. Yang, J.R. Zhang, Cloning of an H+-PPase gene from Thellungiella halophila and its heterologous expression to improve tobacco salt tolerance. J. Exp. Bot. 57, 3259–3270 (2006) Y. Genc, G.K. McDonald, M. Tester, Reassessment of tissue Na+ concentration as a criterion for salinity tolerance in bread wheat. Plant Cell Environ. 30, 1486–1498 (2007) J. Gorham, C. Hardy, R.G. Wyn-Jones, L.R. Joppa, C.N. Law, Chromosomal location of a K+/Na+ discrimination character in the D genome of wheat. Theor. Appl. Genet. 74, 584–588 (1987) J. Gorham, R.G. Wyn-Jones, A. Bristol, Partial characterization of the trait for enhanced K+-Na+ discrimination in the D genome of wheat. Planta 180, 590–597 (1990) R. Haro, M.A. Banuelos, M.E. Senn, J. Barrero-Gil, A. Rodriguez-Navarro, HKT1 mediates sodium uniport in roots. Pitfalls in the expression of HKT1 in yeast. Plant Physiol. 139, 1495–1506 (2005) S. Husain, S. Von-Caemmerer, R. Munns, Control of salt transport from roots to shoots of wheat in saline soil. Funct. Plant Biol. 31, 1115–1126 (2004) R.A. James, R. Davenport, R. Munns, Physiological characterization of two genes for Na+ exclusion in wheat: Nax1 and Nax2. Plant Physiol. 142, 1537–1547 (2006) S. Laurie, K.A. Feeney, F.J.M. Maathuis, P.J. Heard, S.J. Brown, R.A. Leigh, A role for HKT1 in sodium uptake by wheat roots. Plant J. 32, 139–149 (2002) R. Munns, R.A. James, Screening methods for salinity tolerance: a case study with tetraploid wheat. Plant Soil 253, 201–218 (2003)

L. Benderradji et al. R. Munns, M. Tester, Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Ann. Rev. Plant Biol. 59, 651–681 (2008) R. Munns, R.A. Hare, R.A. James, G.J. Rebetzke, Genetic variation for improving the salt tolerance of durum wheat. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 51, 69–74 (2000) R. Munns, R.A. James, A. Läuchli, Approaches to increasing the salt tolerance of wheat and other cereals. J. Exp. Bot. 57, 1025–1043 (2006) K. Poustini, A. Siosemardeh, Ion distribution in wheat cultivars in response to salinity stress. Field Crops Res. 85, 125–133 (2004) A. Rodriguez-Navarro, F. Rubio, High-affinity potassium and sodium transport systems in plants. J. Exp. Bot. 57, 1149–1160 (2006) G.E. Santa-Maria, E. Epstein, Potassium/sodium selectivity in wheat and the amphiploid cross wheat X Lophopyrum elongatum. Plant Sci. 160, 523–534 (2001) D.P. Schachtman, J.I. Schroeder, Structure and the transport mechanism of a high-affinity potassium uptake transporter from higher plants. Nature 370, 655–658 (1994) A.A. Tammam, M.F. Abou Alhamad, M.M. Hemeda, Study of salt tolerance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivar Banysoif 1. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 1(3), 115–125 (2008) Z.Y. Xue, D.Y. Zhi, G.P. Xue, H. Zhang, Y.X. Zhao, G.M. Xia, Enhanced salt tolerance of transgenic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) expressing a vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporter gene with improved grain yields in saline soils in the field and a reduced level of leaf Na+. Plant Sci. 167, 849–859 (2004) A.R. Yeo, T.J. Flowers, Varietal differences in the toxicity of sodium ions in rice leaves. Physiol. Plant. 59, 189–195 (1983)

Effect of Irrigation Water Salinity on Wheat (Triticum durum) Stem Height in the Presence of Organic Matter Afaf Masmoudi, Ali Masmoudi, and Boutheina Miloudi

Abstract

This study aims to minimize the aggressive effect of the salinity on the cultivation of wheat (Triticum durum) and to come out with the right doses of organic matter at different levels of irrigation water salinity. To this end, we applied three levels of irrigation water salinity: EC 5 dS/m, EC 9 dS/m and EC 13 dS/m (EC: electrical conductivity of the irrigation salinity water, dS/m: decisiemens per meter), with three organic matter amounts “manure of poultry” doses: F0 = 0 t/ha, F1 = 30 t/ha and F2 = 60 t/ha (FV: manure of poultry doses, t/ha: tonne per hectare). We concluded that the effect of the manure poultry doses appeared in the second and third measures. Therefore, we can say that the results obtained in the doses of 30 and 60 t/ha were not so different, while the dose 30 t/ha was satisfied. Keywords

Salinity




Wheat




Manure of poultry

The use of different doses of organic matter to minimize the aggressive effect of salinity is an efficient tool for combating salinity. However, this improvement is temporary. In order to have a lasting effect, organic amendments must be made regularly according to soil characteristics and culture type (Koull and Halilat 2016). In our work, three organic matter amounts “manure of poultry” are used in combination with different levels from water salinity to see their effect on the height of the wheat stem of the wheat culture.

2

Materials and Methods

• Soil The soil tested in this trial is sampled from the experimental area of the agronomy department of Biskra, Algeria. It is mainly characterized by a clay loam texture. Further characteristics are presented in Table 1. • Irrigation Water

1

Introduction

Salinity is one of the most widespread land degradation processes on earth. Salinization is considered a major cause of desertification. Therefore, it constitutes a serious form of land degradation (Benmazhar 2012). Most studies in the various irrigated perimeters have shown that initially unsalted soils have become salted after irrigation (Bamouh and El Falah 2002 in Zraibi et al. 2012; Ouhaddach et al. 2016). The main consequence of this is the decline in soil fertility (Masmoudi and Guimeur 2008) and the loss of many soils (Badraoui et al. 2002 in Ouhaddach et al. 2016).

A. Masmoudi (&)
A. Masmoudi
B. Miloudi University of Biskra, Biskra, Algeria

The irrigation water salinity is brought of a well located at M’lili (Biskra, Algeria) in which EC = 14.60 dS/m. It was diluted until the EC = 13, EC = 9 and EC = 5 dS/m. Table 2 illustrates the chemical quality of irrigation water used. • Filling of the Pots The pots were filled with 9 kg of ground mixed well with the mineral manure and the organic poultry manure. The mineral manure was made up of 3 g of SSP (superphosphate) 18%, potassium 50%, and sulfate 1 g. The nitrogen was brought in cover in two fractions with an amount of 1.2 g/pot in the form of urea 46%. The variety of wheat used was called Boussalem.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_81

643

644

A. Masmoudi et al.

Table 1 Characteristics physico-chemicals of the soil Apparent density (g/cm3)

1.4

Electric conductivity 1/5 with 25 °C (ds/m)

4.58

pH water

8.5

Total limestone (%)

37.96

Organic matter (%)

0.67

Solution of the ground: (meq/l)

Potassium K+

0.86

++

21.20

Calcium Ca

Magnesium Mg++ Sodium Na

7.80

+

20.97

Sulfate SO4− Chlorine Cl

17.75

−

29.08

Bicarbonate HCO3−

1.50

Table 2 The chemical quality of water of irrigation Water type

EC

pH

(dS/m)

K+

Na++

Ca++

Mg+

Cl−

SO4−

HCO3−

CO3−

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

(meq/l)

EC = 13

13

8.08

1.27

84.5

26

16

93

26.6

4.75

0.3

EC = 9

9

8

1.75

39.79

28

16

68

11.68

2.25

0.2

EC = 5

5

8.17

0.44

2.42

3

40

32

11.61

2.5

0.2

• Experimental Protocol

3

Results

First measure: The results obtained showed the absence of variability between the control and the two doses of manure of poultry in the pots irrigated by salinity water of electrical conductivity 5, 9, and 13 (Fig. 1). According to the results of the variance analysis (Table 3), a non-significant effect P = 0.581 was found, where the three levels of salinity were classified in the same group for the first measure (Annex 1). This indicates that the influence of salinity in the presence of manure of poultry is not translated to this extent. Second measure: The results of the variance analysis (Table 4) revealed a very significant effect P = 0.004. The

1st measure

EC 5

EC 9

FV 60 T/ha

FV 30 t/ha

FV 0 T/ha

FV 60 T/ha

FV 30 t/ha

FV 0 T/ha

FV 60 T/ha

FV 30 t/ha

2nd measure FV 0 T/ha

The test comported 9 treatments and 3 repetitions; the treatments were three amounts manure of poultries and three levels of water salinity of irrigation. The amounts of the manure poultry were FV30 = 30 t/ha, FV60 = 60 t/ha and T pilot without manure. The levels of water salinity used were S1 = 5 dS/m, S2 = 9 dS/m and S3 = 13 dS/m. The device applied was a device Split-stud.

height of the wheat stem (cm) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

3rd measure

EC 13

Fig. 1 Evolution of the height of the wheat stem

three levels of salinity were classified in two groups for the second measure (Annex 2). In pots irrigated by salinity water of electrical conductivity 5, 9 and 13, it was shown that stem growth was faster in both manure of poultry doses (FV30 and 60) than the control in descending order as follows: EC = 5, EC = 9 and EC = 13. Third measure: In pots irrigated by salinity water of EC = 5: The graph showed a slight difference between the control and the two doses of manure of poultry.

Effect of Irrigation Water Salinity on Wheat (Triticum durum) … Table 3 Results of the analysis of variance of the salinity effect in the presence of manure of poultry on stem height (first measure)

Table 4 Results of the analysis of variance of the salinity effect in the presence of manure of poultry on stem height (second measure)

Source

Sum of squares

Square average

F

Pr > F

8

32.821

1.823

0.926

0.581

Error

18

15.761

1.970

Adjusted total

26

48.582

Source

DDL

Sum of squares

Template

Template

DDL

8

F

Pr > F

92.091

4.505

0.004

20.441

18

367.930

Adjusted total

26

1104.658

Discussion

Salinity is a major constraint to productivity and agricultural development, reducing plant growth and development (Guealia 2019). In arid and semiarid areas, the problem is more serious because the waters, in general, have higher salt content and therefore more compromising to the soil and plants (Mesquita et al. 2012 in Souza et al. 2016). Salinity of water and soil limits productivity and extension of sensitive crops (Ashraf 1994; Subbaro and Johansen 1994 in Aylaji et al. 2001). According to CHezhiyen et al. (1999) in Kwey et al. (2015) and Li (2011) in Jingang et al. (2019), there is an increase in vegetative parameters by the amendment. Indeed, salt enrichment is inversely proportional to chlorophyll accumulation, reducing the plant’s ability to increase the number of leaves (Abousalim et al. 2002 in Kwey et al. 2015). It was also verified that the said organic input has mitigated the negative action of irrigation water salts in the production and quality of yellow passion fruit P. edulis (Dias et al. 2011; Freire et al. 2014; Nascimento et al. 2015 in Souza et al. 2016). Table 5 Results of the analysis of variance of the salinity effect in the presence of manure of poultry on stem height (third measure)

Square average

736.727

Error

In water-irrigated pots of EC = 9: A difference between the stem length in the control and the two doses of manure of poultry was observed. In water-irrigated pots of EC = 13: There was a great difference between the control and the manure of poultry doses. For the analysis of variance (Table 5), a very significant effect P = 0.001 was observed. The three levels of salinity in the presence of manure of poultry were classified into three groups (Annex 3).

4

645

Source Template

DDL

In addition to organic fertilizers in solid form (Silva 2008; Ahmed and Moritani 2010 in Souza et al. 2016) or liquid, such as biofertilizers (Mahmoud and Mohamed 2008 in Souza et al. 2016) and humic substances (Turkmen et al. 2005; Khaled and Fawy 2011 in Souza et al. 2016) employed in reducing the risks of salts, the interaction between salinity and mineral fertilization with nitrogen and potassium should also be evaluated in mitigating the harsh effects of the salts to the plants (Lima et al. 2014; Prazeres et al. 2015 in Souza et al. 2016). The threshold salinity of irrigation water for wheat was 7 * 8 dS m−1 that could be used after germination (Liu 2016 and Chauhan et al. 2008 in Soothar et al. 2019). Several researchers have also endorsed the positive effects of saline irrigation on wheat production. Salinity of irrigation water between 6 and 9 dS m−1 has been suggested by Mass and Grattan (Skaggs 1999 in Soothar et al. 2019), while water salinity ranging from 3 to 8 dS m−1 has been rated within the permissible limit and water with 4.7 dS m−1 in irrigation for winter wheat was not so high (Liu 2016; Jiang 2012 in Soothar et al. 2019). Previous studies reported that saline water irrigation reduced water uptake efficiency, transpiration rate and net CO2 assimilation due to these reductions, and in turn crop growth and nutrients transport into plant are affected (Niu 2012; Giu_rida 2017 in Soothar et al. 2019).

5

Conclusion(s)

This experiment had for purpose the evaluation of the effects of a combination of irrigation water salinity in the presence of the organic matter on the behavior of a variety of durum Sum of squares

Square average

F

Pr > F

12.025

0.001

8

1975.074

109.726

Error

18

73.000

9.125

Adjusted total

26

2048.074

646

A. Masmoudi et al.

wheat (Triticum durum). The findings revealed that the salinity of the irrigation water had a measured depressive effect on the parameters. The various amounts of manure induced significant differences for the studied parameters, which were proportional to the amounts applied to the manure.

Annex 1 Modality

Average

Standard error

Bottom (95%)

Upper terminal (95%)

Groups

Annex 3 Modality

Average

Standard error

Bottom (95%)

Upper terminal (95%)

Groups

FV60 (S2)

78.000

3.021

71.034

84.966

A

FV60 (S1)

71.000

1.744

66.978

75.022

A

B

FV60 (S3)

70.000

3.021

63.034

76.966

A

B

FV30 (S1)

70.000

3.021

63.034

76.966

A

B

FV30 (S1)

70.000

3.021

63.034

76.966

A

B

FV30 (S2)

70.000

1.744

65.978

74.022

A

B

T (S1)

69.500

2.136

64.574

74.426

A

B

FV60 (S2)

12.000

1.404

8.763

15.237

A

FV30 (S1)

67.000

3.021

60.034

73.966

A

B

FV30 (S1)

11.660

1.404

8.423

14.897

A

FV60 (S3)

67.000

3.021

60.034

73.966

A

B

FV30 (S1)

10.500

1.404

7.263

13.737

A

FV60 (S2)

65.000

3.021

58.034

71.966

A

B

FV60 (S3)

10.500

1.404

7.263

13.737

A

FV60 (S2)

64.000

3.021

57.034

70.966

A

B

FV60 (S1)

10.220

0.810

8.351

12.089

A

T (S1)

64.000

3.021

57.034

70.966

A

B

FV60 (S2)

10.160

1.404

6.923

13.397

A

T (S2)

62.000

2.136

57.074

66.926

A

B

FV30 (S2)

10.053

0.810

8.185

11.922

A

FV30 (S3)

59.000

2.136

54.074

63.926

B

FV60 (S3)

9.830

1.404

6.593

13.067

A

T (S3)

57.000

3.021

50.034

63.966

B

T (S3)

9.830

0.992

7.541

12.119

A

T (S2)

56.000

3.021

49.034

62.966

B

T (S1)

9.745

0.992

7.456

12.034

A

FV30 (S3)

53.000

3.021

46.034

59.966

B

FV30 (S3)

9.165

0.992

6.876

11.454

A

FV60 (S3)

53.000

3.021

46.034

59.966

B

FV30 (S3)

9.160

1.404

5.923

12.397

A

T (S3)

42.500

2.136

37.574

47.426

FV60 (S3)

9.000

1.404

5.763

12.237

A

T (S2)

8.665

0.992

6.376

10.954

A

T (S1)

8.330

1.404

5.093

11.567

A

FV30 (S1)

8.330

1.404

5.093

11.567

A

FV60 (S2)

8.000

1.404

4.763

11.237

A

T (S3)

7.660

1.404

4.423

10.897

A

T (S2)

7.000

1.404

3.763

10.237

A

C C

References

Annex 2 Modality

Moyenneestimée

Groups

S1F1

39.247

A

S1F2

38.277

A

S2F1

35.890

A

S2F2

35.220

A

S1F0

29.277

A

B

S2F0

29.220

A

B

S3F1

28.167

A

B

S3F2

27.330

A

S3F0

23.223

B B

M. Aylaji, E. Lhadi, M. Kabil, A. Ouaaka, Impact de la salinité de l’eau sur la qualité du sol et la betterave à sucre beta-vulgaris l. Déchets Rev. Francophone D’écol. Ind. N° 24 4ème trimestre 2001— reproduction interdite (2001) H. Benmazhar, Etude de l’effet du fumier de bovin sur les propriétés physico-chimiques, la fertilité et dans la réduction de la salinité des sols sableux irrigués avec des eaux salines. Mémoire de stage de fin d’études Master Sciences et Techniques Eau et Environnement, Université Cadi Ayyad Faculté des Sciences et Techniques Marrakech (2012), p. 99 H.R. Guealia, Réponses hydriques et physiologiques du gombo (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) conduit sur substrat bentonisé sous contrainte saline (2019), p. 71 L. Jingang, J. Chen, J. Jin, S. Wang, B. Du, Effects of irrigation water salinity on maize (Zea may L.) emergence, growth, yield, quality, and soil salt. Water 11, 2095 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/ w11102095. www.mdpi.com/journal/water N. Koull, M.T. Halilat, Effets de la matière organique sur les propriétés physiques et chimiques des sols sableux de la région d’Ouargla (Algérie). étude et Gestion des Sols, vol. 23 (2016), pp. 9–19 M.M. Kwey, S.K. Banze, J.B. Mukalay, Etude de cas sur l’impact des amendements organiques vis-à-vis de la salinité en culture de bananier. Afr. Sci. 11(3), 152–160 (2015). ISSN 1813-548X. http:// www.afriquescience.info

Effect of Irrigation Water Salinity on Wheat (Triticum durum) … A. Masmoudi, K. Guimeur, Evolution de la salinité dans la région de Biskra Conference Paper, Jan 2008. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/322256184 M. Ouhaddach, H. ElYacoubi, A. Douaik, D. Hmouni, A. Rochdi, Physiological and biochemical responses to salt stress in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) at the elongation stage. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 7(9), 3084–3099 (2016). ISSN: 2028-2508 CODEN: JMESC. http://www.jmaterenvironsci.com R.K. Soothar, W. Zhang, B. Liu, M. Tankari, C. Wang, L. Li, H. Xing, D. Gong, Y. Wang, Sustaining yield of winter wheat under alternate irrigation using saline water at different growth stages: a case study in the north China plain. Sustainability 11, 4564 (2019). https://doi. org/10.3390/su11174564. www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

647 J.T.A. Souza, L.F. Cavalcante, J.C. Nunes, F.T.C. Bezerra, A.d.S.N. Juliete, A.R. Silva, D. Oresca, A.G. Cavalcante, Effect of saline water, bovine biofertilizer and potassium on yellow passion fruit growth after planting and on soil salinity. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 11(32), 2994–3003 (2016). https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2016.11233. Article number: 493CBC659956. ISSN 1991-637X Copyright ©2016 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www. academicjournals.org/AJAR L. Zraibi, A. Nabloussi, J. Merimi, A. El Amrani, M. Kajeiou, A. Khalid, H. Serghini Caid, Effet du stress salin sur des paramètres physiologiques et agronomiques de différentes variétés de carthame (Carthamus tinctorius L.). Al Awamia 125–126 Décembre 2011, Juin 2012 (2012), p. 26

High-Performance Au Nanorods as SERS Substrates for Environmental Monitoring Facilitated by the Organizing Power of Nanocellulose from Agave Palm Leaves, a Bio-Waste Hasna M. Abdul Hakkeem, Aswathy Babu, and Saju Pillai

Abstract

In search of a biocompatible and sustainable platform for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) studies, nanorods with a high aspect ratio of coinage metals such as gold, silver, and copper augment the peak intensity, but the shelf life of metal nanoparticles is questionable. Here, we report the synthetic strategy of parallelly aligned nanorods achieved by the synergetic action of carboxylfunctionalized nanocellulose fibers (TNCF) and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) as both reducing and capping agents. The synthesized parallel nanorods shows excellent SERS enhancement down to 10−7 M concentration of methylene blue and 0.1 ppm of thiram (pesticide). Additionally, TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose fibers-supported nanorods colloid showed excellent shelf life. Our approach using TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose fibers-supported Au nanorods can be considered an efficient and reproducible surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate environmental monitoring. Keywords








Highlights • We developed nanorods of gold of about 50 nm size supported with TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose. • The synthesized colloid of Au nanorods exhibited excellent Raman signal enhancement due to numerous hotspot generation. • We demonstrated ultra-trace detection of analyte methylene blue up to 10−7 M and pesticide thiram up to 0.1 ppm with Au/TNCF nanorods as the solid-state substrate.

TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose fiber Au nanorods Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) Pesticide

1

H. M. Abdul Hakkeem
A. Babu
S. Pillai (&) Materials Science and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695019, India e-mail: [email protected] H. M. Abdul Hakkeem
S. Pillai Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India

Introduction

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is an ingenious extension of plasmon resonance theory of metallic nanostructures (Betz et al. 2014; Fateixa et al. 2015; Ouyang et al. 2017). SERS becomes prominent by the sponsorship of coinage metals. These metals (Au, Ag, Cu) can be tailored into nano-dimensions with exhilarating light-reflecting properties, and that is an excellent platform for catalytic, drug delivery, bio-imaging, sensing, energy harvesting, etc. (Eo et al. 2013; Dharmatti et al. 2014; Chauhan et al. 2018; Song et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2019; Maaza et al. 2005; Kana Kana et al. 2010; Dakka et al. 2000; Vijaya et al. 2017; Shah et al. 2018; Aisida

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_82

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et al. 2019). In which, SERS is a most conceivable technique that allows the detection of analytes in trace amounts enabled by the augmentation of electromagnetic fields created by the excitation conduction electrons (Jiang et al. 2018; Wu et al. 2015). The current world is passing through a merciless way of business, even in the food industry. Nowadays, the daily diet contains many toxic chemicals in addition to nutrients that are even capable of causing human death. These poisons are masked by nicknames such as food preservatives, adulterants, coloring agents, flavoring agents, acidity regulators, stabilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, with different codes and hides under ambrosial food items. These ominous chemicals may contain aflatoxins that are carcinogens. There are varieties of purposes to ensure the safety of food in different countries. The accuracy and precision of these analysis results decide whether these products are permitted or not. There are several methods such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) (Jemal 2000), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Neue and El Fallah 1997), gas chromatography– mass spectrometry (GC–MS) (Hübschmann 2015), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) (Crowther 1995), LC-MS/MS (Jemal 2000), and GC–MS/MS (Alder et al. 2006). However, these tandem techniques are expensive, arduous, and lower detection limits. Nevertheless, these chemicals tolerant levels are in ppm. Therefore, SERS is a new modest and efficient technique that detects analytes even in aM concentration, which is an interesting task for the research world, and several new ideas in sensing are published recently (Nabeela et al. 2016). One of the crucial obstacles is the complexity in the fabrication of anisotropic metal nanostructures with high chemical stability and sensitivity. Of these metals, Ag plays a crucial role in most of the next-generation plasmonic technologies with the hurdle of instability due to fast sulfuration and oxidation (Rycenga et al. 2011). However, Au NPs are comparably chemically inert and biocompatible (Hu et al. 2006). Aforementioned, complexity in the tailoring of metal nanostructures is a severe dilemma. Morphology of metal nanostructures can be tuned by using capping agents such as CTAB (Rodríguez-Fernández et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2003; Moon et al. 2009), CTAC (Nezhad et al. 2008; Yoo and Jang 2013), PVP (Liu et al. 2010; Pastoriza-Santos and Liz-Marzán 2002), etc., that will fabricate particular nanostructures like rods (Sau and Murphy 2004; Qiu et al. 2010; Chang et al. 2005), prisms (Millstone et al. 2006; Lee et al. 2014), cubes (Skrabalak et al. 2007; Ma et al. 2010), and disks (Hong et al. 2011) by preferably attaching on specific crystal planes and suppress growth in that specific direction. For example, PVP adsorbs at {100} crystal plane, whereas citrate at {111} plane in the synthesis of nanostructures (Nabeela et al. 2016; Koczkur et al. 2015; Ji et al. 2007). Apart from this truncating property, the shelf life of metal nanostructures is still questionable. Au nanorods are

H. M. Abdul Hakkeem et al.

extensively utilized in SERS for both bio-sensing and environmental monitoring (Liu et al. 2018; Ou et al. 2018). Dimensions of nanoparticles, alignment, and aggregation were proven to have better SERS sensitivity. Au nanorods exhibit two plasmon bands known as longitudinal and transverse, sensitive to the aspect ratios of nanorods. Xu et al. published a paper recently about enriching Au nanorods induced by the ultrasonic aggregation for bio-sensing (Xu et al. 2020). Peng et al. demonstrated the self-assembly of vertically aligned Au nanorods for the SERS detection of food contaminants (Peng et al. 2013). Martin et al. compared the enhancement in SERS by parallel and perpendicular aligned nanorods (Martín et al. 2014). Here is the pivotal attraction of nanocellulose to create a complete network by hydrogen bonds that prevent aggregation of nanoparticles. Nanocellulose-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles is a burgeoning field and gained great attention due to its capability to design innocuous synthesis routes and unprecedented stability of metal nanoparticle colloids (Kaushik and Moores 2016). Many reports are dealing with metal NPs decorated nanocellulose fibers, and their applications were explored in catalysis (Chen et al. 2015; Eisa et al. 2018), hydrogels (Tang et al. 2018), antimicrobial research (Shi et al. 2015), SERS (Golmohammadi et al. 2017; Park et al. 2013), etc. TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose is a sustainable bio-material that furnishes a platform for designing eye-catching anisotropic nanostructures metals by its inherent reducing and capping ability (Nabeela et al. 2016). Here, the carboxyl groups of TEMPO-oxidised nanocellulose acts as an anchoring site for the nanoparticles and fiber nature of nanocellulose fulfills the role of a complete capping agent, which imparts unpredictable stability. Only a few reports explored the nanocellulose-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles. However, Au nanorods synthesis with nanocellulose has not been explored. In the present work, we have developed TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose (TNCF) derived from agave palm leaves as a sustainable matrix for the growth of stable Au nanorods. This finding is novel in aspect that there is no other report regarding the highly reproducible method for preparing parallel Au nanorods supported by TNCF. Synthesised nanocellulose-supported noble metal nanoparticles competitive assay were used to establish the ultra-trace detection of analytes (methylene blue and thiram) enabled by SERS.

2

Experimental Section

2.1 Materials Agave palm leaves were used for TNCF extraction. TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl) (99%), sodium bromide (99%), sodium hypochlorite (5% active chlorine), gold

High-Performance Au Nanorods as SERS Substrates …

(III) chloride trihydrate (99%), cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), L-ascorbic acid, methylene blue, and thiram were bought from Sigma–Aldrich. All other chemicals used were analytical grade such as sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, and acetic acid. All chemicals were used without further purification, as they were provided. Ultrapure 18.2 M resistivity deionized (DI) water was used throughout the synthesis.

3

Materials and Methods

3.1 Preparation of Nanocellulose Pretreatment of crushed agave palm leaves generally proceeds with an aqueous alkali hydroxide, mostly sodium hydroxide treatment. Ten grams of crushed agave palm leaves was weighed accurately and soaked in 15 wt% NaOH. The mixture was stirred for 4 h. Bleaching of mercerized fiber was done by mixing with 1.7 wt% sodium chlorite at 150 °C at pH 4. The substance was collected, filtered, thoroughly washed, dried, and desiccated (Nabeela et al. 2016; Lani et al. 2014). TEMPO-mediated oxidation was done with 1 g of hollow cellulose, 0.032 g of TEMPO, 0.32 g of NaBr, and 10 mL of NaClO, and 290 ml DI water was well stirred at pH 10–11 using NaOH throughout the reaction, followed by 1-h ultra-sonication. After a one-hour reaction, it was quenched, washed, freeze-dried, and desiccated for further use (Saito et al. 2007; Isogai et al. 2011).

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4

Results and Discussion

Nanocellulose fibers were isolated by TEMPO oxidation from the agave palm leaves accompanied by ultrasonication. Apart from the FTIR spectra of holo-cellulose, there is an intense peak at 1606 cm−1 in the TEMPOoxidized nanocellulose reflecting C=O stretching. This suggests that C-6 hydroxyl groups of D-glucose units were converted to carboxyl groups successfully (Nabeela et al. 2016). X-ray diffraction is a universal technique to investigate the crystal structure of cellulosic samples. Cellulose structure is not purely crystalline due to the presence of disordered (amorphous) domains. WAXS analysis of purified holo-cellulose and TNCF is presented in Fig. 1b. After the holo-cellulose was oxidized by TEMPO/NaBr/NaClO, a significant changes in the crystallinity indices and crystal size were not observed. These studies indicate that the COO-

3.2 Synthesis of TNCF-Supported Au Nanorods TNCF-supported Au nanorods were synthesized by using the synergic effect of TNCF, CTAB, and ascorbic acid. In brief, 250 ml mixture containing 0.25 wt.% well-dispersed TNCF, 9 g CTAB, 1 mM HAuCl4, 0.06 M ascorbic acid, and Au seed solution of 3 nm was taken in a beaker and undisturbed overnight. The prepared gold nanoparticles were cooled and stored at 4 °C for further studies.

3.3 SERS Studies Different concentrations of methylene blue (10−3, 10−5, and 10−7 M) and thiram (240, 1, and 0.1 ppm) were prepared and mixed with previously synthesized Au nanorods in a 1:3 ratio, and about 10 µl of the solution was dropped in a precleaned glass slide and dried in a vacuum. Glass slides for SERS studies were cleaned by sonicating washed glass slides in ethanol and acetone for 10 min, followed by cleaning by ozonizer for further 10 min. All the SERS studies are done only in solid state.

Fig. 1 a FTIR spectra and b WAXS pattern of holo-cellulose and TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose

652

Fig. 2 a AFM images and b zeta potential of nanocellulose

groups are generated by the TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation and are selectively present in the cellulose microfibril surface without any change in the internal structure crystallite of cellulose (Isogai et al. 2011). AFM did the morphological characterization of TNCF. AFM images of TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose from agave palm leaves are shown in Fig. 2a. Dimensions of nanfiber has a wide range of distribution, but most of the rod-like nanofibers’ size lies within the range 150 ± 50 nm length and 15 ± 5 nm width as confirmed. The stability of nanocellulose fibers was studied using zeta-potential measurements. The zeta-potential value of TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose fiber obtained was −39.0 mV, confirming the high stability of nanocellulose. UV–visible absorption spectroscopy is employed to investigate the optical properties of Au nanorods supported by TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose fibers (Fig. 3a). It has been well understood that the shape, size, and composition of nanostructures confide the position and nature of the surface resonance peak, and all these factors ultimately affect the enhancement of the Raman signal in SERS. The UV–

H. M. Abdul Hakkeem et al.

visible spectrum shows SPR peaks of Au nanorods consist of two absorptions bands at 540 and 780 nm corresponding to transverse and longitudinal modes. By considering cost-effectiveness, simplicity in the synthesis, and plasmonic properties, Ag nanoparticles are preferable, but biocompatibility and low toxicity made Au nanoparticles chosen in this work (Vijaya et al. 2017; Shah et al. 2018; Aisida et al. 2019). Figure 3b shows representative bright-field TEM images of Au nanorods of about 50 nm length and 15 nm width with parallel arrangements imparted by the organizing power of nanocellulose. The surface carboxyl groups donated this astral organizing power of TNCF to facilitate the hotspot generation. Au nanorods’ SERS efficiency was studied by employing methylene blue (MB) as the model analyte molecule. Characteristic peaks at 449 and 502 cm−1 are correlated with the skeletal deformation mode C–N–C of methylene blue. Peaks perceived at 772 and 1152 cm−1 correspond to C–H’s in-plane bending mode, while the peak at 1300 cm−1 attributed the C–H in-plane ring deformation mode. C–N symmetrical stretching and C–C ring stretching generate peaks at 1394 and 1623 cm−1, respectively, which are prominent in the case of Raman spectra of methylene blue (Nabeela et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016). Scheme 1 demonstrates the schematic model of SERS sensitivity studies by employing TNCF-supported Au nanorods as substrate. As shown in Fig. 4a, it is obvious that the Raman bands of methylene blue obtained from the blank solution (without Au nanorod substrate) of concentration 10−3 M were fragile. Additionally, the SERS spectra of methylene blue at concentration 10−5 and 10−7 M were also studied. Due to the high SERS enhancement efficiency of Au nanorods, the Raman intensity is thousand times increased in 10−5 and 10−7 M methylene blue and the characteristic Raman peaks are also prominent. These results indicate that the methylene blue molecules were adsorbed on the Au nanorods, hence experiencing a tremendous electromagnetic field. Our substrate’s reproducibility and social applicability are evaluated by selecting thiram, the pesticide used in an agricultural area with a 2 ppm tolerance level. The characteristic peaks of thiram at 561 cm−1 are reflected in the S–S stretch. Stretching vibrational mode of CH3N is observed at 930 cm−1, while that of C–N stretch and CH3 rock is at 1300 cm−1. Intense peaks around 1375 and 1500 cm−1 are dedicated to C–N symmetrical stretching and CH3 deformation, respectively (Chen et al. 2016; Shizhuang et al. 2014). The Raman signal enhancement of a pesticide, thiram, was also studied using SERS in solid state. The SERS spectra of thiram at different concentrations (240, 1, and 0.1 ppm) are shown in Fig. 4b in which 240 ppm is blank (without Au nanorods). TNCF-supported Au nanorods are used as substrate to detect thiram beyond its tolerance level,

High-Performance Au Nanorods as SERS Substrates …

653

Fig. 3 a UV–visible absorption spectra and b TEM micrographs of TNCF-A-supported Au nanorods

Fig. 4 SERS spectra of a methylene blue and b thiram

analytical enhancement factor (AEF) computed based on the specific equation. AEF ¼ ðISERS =IRAMAN ÞðCRAMAN =CSERS Þ

Scheme 1 Schematics of SERS-assisted sample detection by using Au nanorods

signifying its applicability in the environmental monitoring and food safety sectors. Multi-detection of multicontaminants through SERS by using our substrate is also possible since every molecule had different Raman signals. We attained a lower detection limit (LOD) 10−7 M, 0.1 ppm for methylene blue and thiram, respectively, with an

where ISERS is the intensity of SERS at concentration CSERS obtained in metal nanoparticles’ presence as a substrate, while IRAMAN and CRAMAN are in the absence of nanoparticle substrate (Li et al. 2016; Wei and Vikesland 2015). Focused on MB’s intense peak at 1623 cm−1and thiram at 1375 cm−1, AEF for TNCF-supported Au nanorods was estimated to be 1.2  104 and 3.1  103, respectively. A plot for comparing the SERS intensity versus concentration of MB and thiram was also given (Fig. 5), which enlightened our substrate’s key role in SERS enhancement. The unusual SERS enhancement in MB’s case can be attributed to the ionic interaction between cationic MB and negatively charged Au nanorods. Besides, when two Au nanorods are aligned parallel, their transverse plasmon oscillations couple each other, resulted in the maximum

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H. M. Abdul Hakkeem et al. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank AcSIR, UGC, and KSCSTE-PDF for funding.

References

Fig. 5 Bar diagram of signal intensity of most intense peak versus concentration of methylene blue (peak at 1623 cm−1) and thiram (peak at 1375 cm−1)

electromagnetic field in the vicinity of analytes molecules (Kumar and Thomas 2011).

5

Conclusion

We demonstrated a simple synthetic strategy for the Au nanorods derived from sustainable TNCF. Here, we have studied the role of nanocellulose as an anchoring site for the growth of Au nanorods and tailored into parallelly arranged Au nanorods for the easiness of hotspot generation. The optical and morphology of Au nanorods were successfully analyzed. Further, Au nanorods as SERS platform were used to demonstrate ultra-trace detection of analyte molecules (dye and pesticide). Modified Au nanorods aqueous colloid showed excellent Raman signal enhancement ascribed by Au and Ag’s localized surface resonance action. Ultra-trace detections of methylene blue (up to 10−7 M) as a model analyte and pesticide thiram (up to 0.1 ppm) in solid state were demonstrated.

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ENVIRONMENT: Environmental Sustainability

A Conceptual Geographic Information System Development Using Remote Sensing and Conventional Data Collection for Sustainable Arid Land Developments Pahala Kumar

Abstract

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Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development issues are one of the essential objectives of nations worldwide to safeguard land, water, air, natural resources, and habitats, for the future generation’s environment to live and prosper. The population growth and economic development invariably have put pressure on land-use changes, which threatens to impact the ambient environment worldwide and significantly further degrade the populated semiarid zone desert’s environment, ecology, and its habitats. Furthermore, over-farming, overgrazing, over-population on meagerly available fertile lands, coupled with faster soil erosion and climate changes have caused severe desertification of the semiarid regions. The combination of remote sensing (RS) image analysis and conventional data collection input through a centralized geographic information system (GIS) databank has a wide range of applications, including the arid zone natural resources development for sustainable management. In general, this paper highlights the importance of various types of data collection and analysis through RS and GIS techniques to achieve a robust and sustainable development of arid zones. It also proposes a conceptual design for the Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System DCN-NRIS. Keywords













Geographic information system (GIS) Remote sensing (RS) Data collection Sustainable development Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System DCN-NRIS

P. Kumar (&) GIS Consultant, Doha, Qatar

Introduction

Deserts are regions that receive less than 25 cm (10 in.) of rain per year, and they are found on every continent. Desert environments (arid lands/drylands) constitute the most widespread terrestrial biome on Earth, covering about 35% of the world’s land areas and are home to over 20% of the world’s population (Arid Land, Ecology of Desert Systems). Rainfall scarcity, higher temperatures, evaporation and evapotranspiration, lower humidity, and a general scarcity of vegetation cover characterize deserts. Some of the world’s semiarid regions are turning into desert at an alarming rate. This process is known as desertification. The population growth and economic developments in semiarid land terrains put pressure on land-use changes, which threatens to further degrade the desert environment and its habitats. Overfarming, over-grazing, over-population on meager fertile lands, and faster soil erosion have also caused severe desertification in the semiarid regions. There are different kinds of semiarid climates, and depending on variables such as temperature, topsoil quality, soil moisture, they give rise to different biomes. Semiarid climates tend to support short or scrubby vegetation and are usually dominated by either grasses or shrubs. Sustainable developments are one of the critical objectives of nations worldwide to safeguard land, water, air, natural resources, for the future generation to live and prosper. Food insecurity and climate change are two significant interlinked global challenges that humanity is facing today (COP-18, Doha) (UN Climate Change Conference 2012). Remote sensing data analysis and geographic information systems are two important technology components in environmental impact studies and natural resources management. In this paper, the author’s previous works in remote sensing and GIS (Kumar 1996) are used as example maps for illustrative purposes. Furthermore, a new concept design for the Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System DCN-NRIS is also proposed.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_83

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Materials and Methods

The data in the form of raster and vector maps from remote sensing multispectral image analysis and tabular database collected from various sources were analyzed through the geographic information system. Remote sensing (RS) is acquiring precise details about objects without direct human visited site observation, usually through satellites, aircraft, and nowadays through drones. Remote sensing data provide panchromatic, multispectral, infrared, thermal, lidar, and synthetic aperture radar imaging data of the land. Geographic information system (GIS) is a computerbased information system designed to collect, store, manipulate, analyze, organize, manage, summarize, and display all types of geographical data. Geographical data have two components: a location represented by a graphic point, line, or polygon of an entity in geographic coordinate space and the associated data as tabular information linked to those entities (Kumar et al. 2009). The combination of RS and conventional data collection as tabular input through centralized GIS data bank has a wide range of GIS applications, including the arid zone natural resources for sustainable development. The role of remote sensing to evaluate the impact of iron ore mining on the environment was studied in detail by Venkataraman et al. (1992). The role of remote sensing and GIS for sustainable development has been well studied earlier by scientific communities around the world. According to Rao (2000), sustainable developments aim to maintain the balance between often conflicting ideals of economic growth and nurturing environmental quality and viability. Remote sensing provides a sound database for generating baseline information on natural resources, a pre-requisite for planning and monitoring any developmental program. According to Haimes (1992), the sustainable development paradigm is built on the premise that neither of the two objectives, economic development, and environmental protection—can be ignored and that an acceptable balance must be achieved between the two. A 17 point sustainable development goals ‘SDG’ 2030 agenda was presented at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York in September 2015, which all United Nations Member States adopted. The SDGs call for action by all countries—poor, rich, and middleincome—to promote prosperity while protecting the environment (United Nations, SDG Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform). It emphasizes that economic growth must address a range of social needs, including education, health, equality, and job opportunities while tackling climate change and working to preserve our environment. One important bullet point to be noted in the context of this paper and conference title is as follows,

UN-SDG 2030, Goal 15 Life on land, bullet point-3 “By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought, and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.” Apart from the continual industrial developments in the last two centuries, the human population has also increased tremendously and has impacted land-use patterns. People in search of livelihood have migrated to various parts of the globe, including semiarid deserts. As a result of increased human consumption and activities on land, various changes have taken place such as land degradation, deforestation, water pollution, air pollution, contagious decease spread, climate changes, loss of flora and fauna species, sea-level rise, increased cyclonic storms, melting of glaciers and icebergs, increased floods, landslides, people mass migration in search of lively hood elsewhere. Many nations have drawn attention to minimize human effects on the land, water, air, and all such natural resources when realizing the urgent need for sustainable development so that their national developments are sustainable for the benefit of present and future generations. The following dedicated activities can be carried out to maintain the sustained development of national natural resources.

2.1 Satellite Image Analysis The key to natural resources analysis is its data capturing of land-use, landcover, and environment. Remote sensing multispectral images are the most critical data acquired through satellites, aircraft, or drones since these images offer critical data for thematic mapping, interpreting, and analysis of land features. Commercial remote sensing satellites are an easy source for data, covering large areas, in different spectral bands, low to high resolution, old data as much as 40 years to recent data as early as yesterday are available at a relatively cheaper cost. Google Earth has a repository of satellite images and is available freely for general usage and image interpretation. Thematic maps and tabular or statistical data available about land resources in records of associated resources departments also need to be collected. The data collection could be on rainfall over the years, groundwater table, forest coverage, agricultural land, soil classification map, desertification map, geology and geomorphology map, land-uselandcover map past and present, urban master planning maps, industrial and waste dumping area maps. In principle, all data available that could be spatially attributed should be collected and digitally encoded into the GIS inventory for proper usage in the multi criteria GIS geoprocessing analysis and interpretation.

A Conceptual Geographic Information System Development …

2.2 Image Classification RS image classification and image interpretation is one of the most fundamental data analyses. Different thematic landcover types in a spectral image band can be delineated by visual image analysis by developing image tone, texture, color, shape, human cognition interpretation keys, and using digital interpretation algorithms available as analysis tools in remote sensing GIS software. The brightness value information contained in each pixel of the spectral image band is a quantitative value of the physical property of that surface material, which then can be statistically estimated to a particular information class, such as forest types, agriculture types, desert types, water bodies, soil types, rock types, topographic height, contours, and slopes. The digital land-use classification procedures to be used can be either “supervised” or “unsupervised” classification algorithm methods. In the case of supervised classification (Fig. 1), the spectral features of some areas of the select field visited or

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sampled known landcover types are extracted from the image, which is known as the “training areas.” Every pixel in the whole image is then classified as belonging to one of the training area classes depending on how close its spectral signature is to the training areas’ spectral features. The computer program automatically groups the pixels in the image into separate clusters in unsupervised classification, depending on their spectral feature’s statistical signature. Each cluster will then be assigned to a particular landcover type by the analyst. Each class of landcover is referred to as a “theme,” and the classification product is known as a “thematic map.” The geospatial temporal information derived from remote sensing images is often combined with other auxiliary tabular data to form the input for a geographic information system (GIS). A GIS is a geospatial database composed of many different layers of a given region or sites, where each layer contains information about a specific aspect of the same area, which is used for modeling, predicting, and analysis by the resource scientists.

Fig. 1 Supervised image classification land-use/landcover map, Bicholim area SPOT-1989 (Kumar 1996)

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Emerging research in artificial intelligence techniques for satellite image analysis and realistic classification will soon speed up the processing of large volume high-resolution hyperspectral temporal, temporal big data and would provide actionable information in real-time (Hemanth 2019).

P. Kumar

normalized over the sum of these bands. These NDVI maps (Fig. 2) can then be classified into vegetation categories and displayed as vegetation maps with different colors representing different levels of vegetation.

2.4 Change Detection (Temporal Analysis) 2.3 Vegetation Indices Due to its chlorophyll content, green leafy vegetation has a physical property of high near-infrared spectral band (NIR) reflectance value but of low reflectance value in the red spectral band. It can be georeferenced, combined, and digitally processed to analyze the vegetated agricultural and forest areas using the spectral properties of different bands of a multispectral image. One such combination is the normalized difference vegetation Index (NDVI), a ratio computed by NDVI = (NIR − Red)/(NIR + Red). The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is used to separate green vegetation from the brightness background. It is the difference between the near-infrared and red reflectance

The images taken on two different dates/years can detect land-use changes over the years. The two date images have to be comparable in the image acquisition season, spectral bands used, resolution, geo-rectification, radiometric corrections, resampling, and image interpretation methods to do the change analysis. A typical value for each theme has to be assigned in each date mage. Then the images have to be overlaid by geoprocessing GIS methods to determine changed digital values and delineate a change classifications map (Fig. 3). The qualitative and quantitative results of land-use/ landcover changes will reflect the changes due to many factors such as urbanization, climatic changes, desertification, wind migration of sand, siltation of rivers, cultivation

Fig. 2 NDVI vegetation map, Pale-Surla area SPOT 1989 (Kumar 1996)

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Fig. 3 Spatial change detection map, NDVI image of North Goa, Landsat MSS 1981 and 1989 (Kumar 1996)

changes, groundwater table changes, mining, waste dumping, constructions, and deforestation. Remote sensing images serve to derive various kinds of thematic maps like land-use/landcover map, vegetation indices map, drainage density map, geology map, geomorphology map, desert oasis, dunes, wadis map, soil map, and lineament density map. The thematic maps are the basis of spatial modeling through GIS for various purposes like groundwater quality monitoring (Fig. 4), groundwater potential zonation (Fig. 5), groundwater impact monitoring (Fig. 6), soil erosion identification, environmental impact analysis, mineralized zone identification, and detail exploration.

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Desert Climatic National Natural Resources Inventory

The various data collected, analyzed, and stored in the GIS geodatabase repository forms an efficient National Natural Resources Inventory. GIS helps in environmental

monitoring with its capability to quickly retrieve and analyze geospatial and database SQL queries, displayed as colorful maps, charts, tabular data, and scientific modeling to predict the areas for potential development with the environment socio-economic sustainability. GIS provides relevant information about the environment condition and prepares geospatial maps based on policy plans, including conservation programs interpreted through RS and GIS in natural resource management. In particular, GIS adds value through map analyses through its capability to empirical modeling and multi-condition selection map query retrieval from GIS geodatabase. It provides the information of where is what? The scenario is, what it impacts, what is close by, where the utilities are with its maintenance records, where an incident happened and its vulnerable buffer impact areas, site selection based on predictive modeling algorithms. With its data repository, GIS can provide current and predictable information resources as quickly as published weather maps, which helps policy plan decision-makers execute the development projects by governing agencies and engineers.

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Fig. 4 Groundwater quality monitoring dug wells spatial data (Kumar 1996)

GIS data as graphic point, line, and polygon areas can be analyzed along with various statistical data collection, namely: population density, annual rainfall, agriculture production, drinking, and irrigation water availability, soil quality like moisture content, salinity, fertility, thickness, groundwater quality, depth levels, quantity yield, physical parameters, chemical composition, pollution, groundwater potential zones; infrastructure networks, industries, facilities, utilities, water consumption, water demand, energy consumption, energy demand, land for industries, cattle and poultry farming lands, allocating camel gracing areas, in principle any data that could help the developments, sustainable stress analysis, mitigation analysis, natural resources management. On the regional environment or of the small area of a village can be analyzed for overall sustainable development of their regions. In this paper, the author proposes a dedicated system for overall Sustainable Developments with a high-level conceptual design for the Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System DCN-NRIS. The purpose of Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System (Fig. 7) conceptualized is to scientifically develop and serve communities, policymakers, and policy

implementors with a well-structured, publishable authentic geospatial and non-spatial database to make profound microand macroeconomic decision with well-informed data analysis techniques for sustainable development of their specific regions especially the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) developing and underdeveloped nations. The DCN-NRIS system developed must be continually updated and maintained with dedicated GIS infrastructure, with scientific and engineering technical staff. Although GIS is now widely used by developed and developing nations, barring a few, it is not dedicatedly developed with a mindset of environment and socio-economic sustainable development goals as enumerated by UN with its 17 points ‘UN proposed 2030 Sustainable Developments’ (United Nations, SDG Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform).

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Results and Discussion

Through GIS data analysis using various types of derived maps, qualitative and quantitative data, the natural resources management efforts required can be planned with the suitable method to implement with new policy plans such as the

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Fig. 5 Groundwater potential index zones through GIS modeling analysis (Kumar 1996)

best location for reforestation, best practice forms development locations, rainwater harvesting, groundwater depletion monitoring, identifying high groundwater potential zones, identifying locations for check dams, solar and wind power generation sites, new infrastructure planning including well-networked transportation plan for the movement of people and goods for trading the local produce. GIS also helps locate schools and facilities with criteria such as distance to walk or travel, the population density of villages, and available road networks. The semiarid zone economic development and sustainable land-use development can be better understood using various data collected and analyzed through GIS. The natural resources management and mitigation policy implementation at appropriate local levels with appropriate funding and monitoring the scientific efforts undertaken would transform into land restoration from further desertification of semiarid lands and help local inhabitants for their living resources needs, thereby significantly reducing or decreasing their needs nullify population migration at cross-country levels.

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Concluding Remarks

Sustainable development meets the needs of the present population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. GIS software allows users across the globe to share ideas on how to meet their resource needs, plan efficient land use, and protect the environment from guaranteeing the survival of future generations. The sustainable development of arid regions would involve establishing large scale regional data collection centers as “Natural Resources Inventory” for scientific policy-based decision-making process through extensive use of GIS technology. The GIS analysis emphasis on natural resource management provides reliable geographical map data to policy decision-makers to help develop and monitor the environmental impacts, positive or negative changes. The GIS analysis provides qualitative and quantitative data about the environmental issues such as degree of pollution, land degradation, soil erosions, deforestation, afforestation,

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Fig. 6 Land-use changes impact on groundwater potential through GIS modeling analysis (Kumar 1996)

cultivation, surface water and groundwater availability, and natural resources location. Through GIS analysis, natural resources can be optimally managed and used to predict future adverse impacts due to human activities or natural calamity. The national-level data collection for natural resources inventory with its GIS analysis experts, policy decision-makers, and implementers in principle helps for a well-planned sustainable development of natural resources, including the development of impacted semiarid desert land countries. Through this paper, although not with every minute detail, this author tries to emphasize a dedicated ‘DCN-NRIS’ system (Fig. 7) development and effective use of geospatial data analytic technologies with multi point development goals.

The figures shown in this paper are only example techniques that are being widely used. However, there is more than one technique to achieve similar objectives, such as satellite image land-use landcover classification, vegetation indices, and change detection. Choosing a particular best analytic technique is an essential step for a given project, spatio-temporal data analysis. Many new techniques are covered in various chapters of the latest Remote Sensing Handbook volume-1, 2016 (Thenkabail 2016). Developing a system like the above proposed DCN-NRIS will involve capital cost, which can be partly reduced by adopting open-source software products, freely available satellite images, collaborating and borrowing data from associated departments, and adopting cloud computing web based technologies.

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Fig. 7 Desert Climatic National—Natural Resources Inventory System (DCN-NRIS) schematic conceptual design

Acknowledgements The author, now retired, is a GIS Specialist, has worked as Engineering Services Lead and GIS Coordinator in Qatar, UAE, and India as a scientific researcher. This paper write-up includes example figures from his Research works for his Ph.D. thesis works in 1996 at the Center for Studies Resources Engineering, IIT, Bombay, India. All the examples shown are for illustration purposes only. Similarly, advanced techniques shall be used in the new ‘DCN-NRIS’ system developments. The present write-up is out of his interest in popularizing and recommending scientific methods of using the advanced application of remote sensing and geographic information system for sustainable developments in the developing and underdeveloped countries through the proceedings of “International conference on sustainable energy-water-environment nexus in desert climate 2019” Doha, Qatar. The author sincerely thanks the committee of IC-SEWEN 2019 and QEERI for providing the opportunity to write this paper. Further would like to remember and thank his professors G. Venkataraman, S. D. Shah and H. S. Pandalai at IIT-Bombay, India, who inspired him to carry out high-end research in remote sensing and GIS during his Ph.D. research work 1991–1996 in the Department of Geology and in Center for Resources Engineering (CSRE).

References Arid Land, Ecology of Desert Systems, (Second Edition) 2020, HYDROLOGY, FLOODS AND DROUGHTS | Deserts and Desertification, V.P. Tchakerian, in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric

Sciences (Second Edition), 2015. https://www.sciencedirect.com/ topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/arid-land Y.Y. Haimes, Sustainable development: a holistic approach to natural resources development. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. 22(3), 413– 417 (1992) D.J. Hemanth, Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Satellite Image Analysis (Springer, 2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03024178-0 P. Kumar, Research works “evaluation of ground water potential index of Mandovi River Catchment Area (Goa) using remote sensing and GIS techniques”, Ph.D. thesis, 1996 P. Kumar et al., Development & usages of geographical information system (GIS) at Ras Laffan Industrial City, Qatar Petroleum, Qatar, in International Petroleum Technology Conference, IPTC Paper-13270, held in Doha, Qatar, 7–9 Dec 2009 D.P. Rao, International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, vol. XXXIII, Part B7 (Amsterdam, 2000), pp. 1231–1251 P.S. Thenkabail (ed.), Remotely Sensed Data Characterization, Classification, and Accuracies. Remote Sensing Handbook, vol. 1 (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016) UN Climate Change Conference 18th Session of the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP-18) held from 26 November to 7 December 2012 in Doha, Qatar United Nations, SDG Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/, https://www.un. org/development/desa/disabilities/envision2030-goal15.html. United Nations Sustainable Development Summit on 25 Sep 2015

668 G. Venkataraman, S.P. Kumar, K.V. Rao, Environmental impact of open cast iron ore mining in Goa, through remote sensing, in Natural Resources Management—A New Perspective, ed. by R.L. Karale (National Natural Resources Management System

P. Kumar (NNRMS), Department of Space, Government of India, Bangalore, India and published by Publication and Public Relations Unit, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) HQ, Antariksh Bhavan, Bangalore, 1992)

Family Stability and Environmental Sustainability: An Interdependent Nexus Ahmed Aref

Abstract

This paper examines the interdependent nexus between family stability and the geophysical environment, both as dependent and independent variables. The first hypothesis is conceptualized based on human ecology, theorizing the impact of the environment on human behavior. Environmental contexts in their geophysical concepts construct human behavior and affect marital relationships. It might lead to quality relationships between spouses resulting in family stability or predispose families to disintegration. The second hypothesis examines the impact of family stability on environmental sustainability, as married couples living in the same household consume fewer resources, including electricity, water, and fuel than divorced couples, who live in two separate households. Evidence from different countries indicates that soaring divorce rates has resulted in more households with fewer people and increased resource consumption globally. Keywords











Family stability Geophysical environment Environmental sustainability Divorce Human ecology Sustainable development




Highlights • Geophysical environment affects family stability by enhancing or undermining spousal relationships. • Evidence shows that family stability contributes to environmental sustainability by sustaining fewer households and reducing resource consumption.

A. Aref (&) Institute for Policy Research, University of Bath, Bath, UK e-mail: [email protected]

• Policy framework of environmental sustainability should be multisectoral mainstreaming implicitly family stability policies and programs.

1

Introduction

The emergence of disciplines that integrate ecology and geography into social studies began in the 1950s. Methodological and conceptual problems arose at that time regarding how to identify, and more specifically, how to measure the impact of the environment on human behavior (Barker 1968). Subsequently, through decades of theoretical and empirical research, a body of knowledge has been developed that examines the geophysical environment’s impact on human behavior. Today, studies of human ecology have proven that the environment has a wide-ranging influence on human behavior in both its geographical and physical conceptions (Bronfenbrenner 1986). According to studies of family theories from a functional perspective, the family is considered a social organization that affects and is affected by its surroundings through a variety of complex approaches, such as the geopolitical context, economy, social norms, physical environment, and public policies (White and Klein 2008). Although the relationship between family and environment is theoretically developed, there is limited empirical evidence to date that examines the direct relationship between geophysical environment and family stability. On the other hand, there is clear empirical evidence on the impact of family stability on environmental sustainability. Family stability has a direct impact on environmental sustainability by preventing escalating resource use and environmental degradation. Divorce causes a former spouse to form a new household, which increases the use of materials and land for housing. Divorce embeds an increase in resource consumption for two households instead of one.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_84

669

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A. Aref

The negative consequences on the environment are not limited to the land (two households instead of one), but evidence also proves that divorce increases water, electricity, and energy consumption for divorced couples living in two households (Aref 2014).

2

Method

To answer the research question: ‘To what extent are family stability and geophysical environment variables interdependent?’, a systematic literature review will be conducted. Scholars of social sciences’ research methodologies described systematic literature review as a very similar method to surveys. Surveys are meant to extract data from people, and a systematic literature review is doing the same but from literature (Robson and McCartan 2016). The systematic literature review will be conducted to map and analyze the literature that theorizes the relationship between family stability and geophysical environment and prove a correlation between family stability and environmental sustainability. This method is being criticized for bias possibilities. The criticism is about being selective in the literature to serve the need for research, which questions the value-free analysis (Boell and Cecez-Kecmanovic 2015). However, preventive measures are put in place to avoid bias in this research, such as incorporating meta-data analysis, empirical evidence literature, and ensuring the inclusion of quality primary studies (de Almeida and Goulart 2017).

3

Conceptual Framework

Environmental research problems embed a complex of social, ecological, and geographical concepts (Barlow et al. 2011). The literature on human ecology and related frameworks describes the person-environment interactions as reciprocal. Individuals formulate their behavior affected by their environment (Arnold et al. 2012). Family stability is one of the social phenomena that intersect with environmental studies. Family stability as a concept is defined in literature as the continuity of the marriage institution in the social order without dissolution (Punt 2010). This continuity of the marriage institution embeds lower resource consumption compared to family disintegration in two separate households. Consequently, environmental sustainability, under the notion that natural capital must be maintained (Goodland 1995), is under threat with the increased divorce rates globally. This paper attempts to provide an interdisciplinary approach to answer a broader research question on the independence between family stability and the geophysical environment. This question is composed of two main

concrete research questions, in addition to a third question on policy implications, as follows: 1. What is the impact of the geophysical environment on family stability and/or family dissolution? 2. To what extent can family stability be considered a driving force for environmental sustainability? In other words, how does divorce affect environmental degradation? 3. Could governments consider family stability in factoring environmental policies? Graph 1 summarizes the complexity of the two main research questions. Accordingly, the research objectives are to; (I) examine the impact of the geophysical environment on family stability, (II) examine the impact of family stability on environmental sustainability, and (III) explore the possible policy response considering family stability as a facilitator to environmental sustainability.

4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Impact of Geophysical Environment on Family Stability More than a century ago, scholars in the United States of America started a debate on the interactions between the environment in its physical-geographical concepts and human beings. In 1914, the term “human ecology” emerged as a theory and a scientific discipline in the schools of social sciences in the United States of America. Human ecology brought methods and theoretical foundations from plant and animal ecology and applied them to the study of human society (Featherstone 1974). Scholars invested in formulating conceptual structures and investigating valid methods and logical principles as human ecology foundations (Gettys 1939). Several human ecology frameworks were developed through the decades to put sets of variables for empirical examination of the impact of the environment on human behavior. However, these frameworks were criticized for being misleading as the study of human ecology is more complex and should integrate several ecosystems involving humans (Catton Jr 1994). In general, the physical environment’s impact on human behavior has been studied through human ecology perspectives and environmental anthropology scholars, making this nexus an interdisciplinary field of study (Dove and Carpenter 2008). The placement of the family as a unit within this field of study has been extensively studied. The theory of human ecology conceptualized the family as “an

Family Stability and Environmental …

671

Graph 1 Interdependency between family and geophysical environment

Impact on the number of households and associated resources consumption that leads to:

• Urban vs Rural Environment • Housig Type • Negibourhood Context

Geophysical environment

Family • Family Stability • Family Disintegration / Divorce

• Environmental Sustainability • Environmental Degradation

Geophysical environment

Impact on human bahaviour/ spousal relations that leads to:

energy transformation system that is interdependent with its natural physical-biological, human-built, and social-cultural milieu” (Bubolz and Sontag 2009). Evidence on the impact of the geophysical environment on family stability has multiple dimensions. For example, a study examined the neighborhood context as an independent variable affecting spousal interaction and marital quality among 202 married African American couples who resided in a range of neighborhood contexts in the United States of America. The sample was selected from a larger sample of 897 families who were participants in the Family and Community Health Study, a study of African American families conducted in Iowa and Georgia. The study embedded a multi-variable model within the larger contexts of neighborhood characteristics and geographic locale. The results highlighted the significance of the contexts in which relationships are embedded, as neighborhood quality is a source of satisfaction versus marital quality dissatisfaction among respondents. Lower warmth was found in specific neighborhoods as well as regional contexts. Neighborhoodlevel economic disadvantage showed a significant negative relation to interaction warmth. The stress load, norms, and support structures imposed by neighborhood contexts can shape behaviors and attitudes toward close relationships in diverse ways (Cutrona et al. 2003). Considering “housing” as an explicit indicator of the physical environment (Rosow 1961), finding from surveying thirteen census tracts of different housing types and neighborhood conditions in Canada proved that some dimensions of housing type, whether it be the lack of direct access to the

out-of-doors, the number of households in a building, floor level, the number of common areas, or a combination of the above, have negative repercussions on spousal relationships. The study found that multiple dwellings and apartments are associated with psychiatric impairment among males and a felt loss of privacy among females, which led to disputatious marital relations, even with eliminating the other social and economic variables. Spouses living in apartments reported higher levels of marital conflict and dissatisfaction. These negative consequences were evidenced even after controlling for other demographic and socioeconomic variables (Edwards et al. 1982). In another study, examining the factors associated with spousal violence in five post-Soviet countries (Azerbaijan, Moldova, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan), the findings proved that spousal violence is higher in deprived neighborhoods compared to advanced ones (Ismayilova 2015). Many studies also proved that families tend to be more cohesive and stable in rural communities than urban ones as spousal relationships in rural communities are more satisfactory than in urban communities. Tight urban housing in urban communities and other work-family balance variables affect marital quality (Pimentel 2000). On the other side, the causes of marital tensions are less in rural areas. On small farms, the family functions as the management and decision-making unit and also as the sole or major labor force (Sontag and Bubolz 1985). This attested evidence was reported similarly in many research works, including longitudinal studies, which reported that intrafamilial relations and spousal cohesiveness are stronger within urban families.

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Environmental anthropology scholars argued that this fact is based on agrarian ideology and values (Imig 1983). In its physical term, the environment is a direct contributor to rural values, traditional wisdom, and folklore, making a model of rural familism (Coward et al. 2019). Confirming the same, in a quantitative study, examining the coping strategies of stressors within a sample of 218 urban spouses and 202 rural spouses in the United States of America, rural respondents reported effective coping strategies than the urban respondents. The findings indicate that rural spouses put forth a greater effort to control their lives (Marotz-Baden and Colvin 1986).

4.2 Impact of Family Stability on Environmental Sustainability The concept of family stability refers to the family’s continuation as a unit after family formation/marriage (Karberg et al. 2017). This stability is threatened by divorce, which breaks the continuation and leads to literature conceptualized as family fragmentation (Kohm and Toberty 2012). The studies that addressed the economic cost of divorce focused mainly on the negative consequences of divorce on women. Longitudinal studies proved the negative repercussions on women’s economic well-being due to the gender pay gap, more responsibilities, and single-headed households’ economic loads (Holden and Smock 1991). The literature varies on the multi-dimensional socioeconomic costs of divorce on parents and children in terms of negative consequences on child well-being, educational attainments, life satisfaction of divorcees, economic repercussions, especially on female-headed households (André et al. 2019). However, less attention was given to the environmental cost of divorce on the environment until the center for systems integration and stainability at Michigan State University conducted a research project in 2007 to examine the environmental impacts of divorce across 12 countries. As divorce entails a move of a former spouse to a new household, which is usually associated with a larger number of households, smaller household sizes, and a larger number of rooms per person. The study hypothesized the effect of divorce on the environment by increasing the number of households, lands, and resource consumption. The study concluded that if divorced households had the same average household size as married households, and there could have been 7.4 million fewer households in the 12 countries. For example, in the USA, one of the 12 countries mapped; “Divorced households spent 46% and 56% more on electricity and water per person than married households. Divorced households in the U.S. could have saved more than 38 million rooms, 73 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity,

A. Aref

and 627 billion gallons of water in 2005 alone if their resource use efficiency had been comparable to married households. Furthermore, U.S. households that experienced divorce used 42–61% more resources per person than before their dissolution.” (Yu and Liu 2007). The European Union 2017 data from Eurostat (Directorate-General of the European Commission) showed that one of the main driving forces behind the fall in the average size of households had been an increase in the proportion of people living alone, which is linked to numerous factors, including a reduction in the longevity of relationships due to higher divorce rates (Eurostat 2017). Another empirical evidence examined the impact of demographic factors on air pollution. The study implicitly gave insights on the impact of divorce on air pollution. The study concluded that bigger average household size is associated with lower carbon dioxide emissions. Households with greater size are likely to benefit from economies of scale in utilizing space, energy use, and transportation. Accordingly, the increased number of smaller households due to divorce contributes to increased air pollution (Pradhan et al. 2017; Cole and Neumayer 2004). As indicated in the conceptual framework, the relationship between family stability and environmental sustainability is interdependent. In fact, Yu and Liu’s (2007) study proves clearly how family dissolution negatively affects environmental sustainability through the increase in the number of households. Evidence showcases another angle, where housing cost contributes to family dissolution. For example, in Iran, an empirical study examined the relationship between housing costs (prices and rents) and divorce rates, while controlling other variables. The results showed that “increases in housing costs erode marital stability in Iran” (Farzanegan and Gholipour 2016).

5

Policy Implications

The sustainable development goals (SDGs) put forth a comprehensive framework for the development agenda 2030. SDGs prioritized the environmental pillar of the development agenda. Six SDGs out of fourteen are explicitly directed to the environment (SDG 6 on clean water and sanitation, SDG 7 on affordable and clean energy, SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities, SDG 12 on responsible consumption and production, SDG 13 on climate action, SDG 14 on life below water and SDG 15 on life on land), in addition to the implicit reference to the environment throughout the rest of the SDGs (Pradhan et al. 2017). Although the SDGs’ targets and indicators provided a comprehensive framework that guides the implementation, yet less attention was given to the evidence on the impact of

Family Stability and Environmental …

divorce on environmental sustainability, as indicated in this article. According to the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Marriage Data, more than 9 million divorce cases happen every year. That entails a huge environmental cost. Policies and programs to enhance family stability and prevent family dissolution are always part of national social policies. More attention should be given to these policies as multisectoral, not only to eliminate the socioeconomic consequences of divorce but also to combat divorce’s environmental cost.

6

Limitations

• The conceptual framework is very complex and entails multidisciplinary schools that vary from human ecology, sociology, and environmental anthropology. • Limited empirical evidence on the explicit and implicit environmental cost of divorce. • Related literature from the developing countries and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is very limited.

7

Conclusion

This paper discussed the interdisciplinary nexus between family as a social unit and environment through undertaking a systematic literature review. The environment in its physical and geographical terms affects human behavior and contributes to family stability or facilitates family dissolution by affecting spousal relationships. On the other side, family stability contributes to environmental sustainability as married couples in the same household consume less than being separated into two smaller-size households, which would entail more land, rooms per person, and more water, electricity, and energy consumption. Future research needs to empirically examine the interdependency between family stability and environmental sustainability in various contexts. Policy frameworks of environmental sustainability should intersect in a multidisciplinary manner with social policies and intervention programs addressing family stability.

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References S. André, C. Dewilde, R. Muffels, What do housing wealth and tenure have to do with it? Changes in well-being of men and women after divorce using Australian panel data. Soc. Sci. Res. 78, 104–118 (2019) A. Aref, The family: a social capital for sustainable development. OIDA Int. J. Sustain. Dev. 7(06), 63–68 (2014) K.D. Arnold, E. Lu, K.J. Armstrong, The human ecology framework. ASHE High. Educ. Rep. 38(5), 11–18 (2012) R.G. Barker, Ecological Psychology: Concepts and Methods for Studying the Environment of Human Behavior (1968) J. Barlow, R.M. Ewers, L. Anderson, L.E. Aragao, T.R. Baker, E. Boyd, T.R. Feldpausch, E. Gloor, A. Hall, Y. Malhi, Using learning networks to understand complex systems: a case study of biological, geophysical and social research in the Amazon. Biol. Rev. 86(2), 457–474 (2011) S.K. Boell, D. Cecez-Kecmanovic, Debating systematic literature reviews (SLR) and their ramifications for IS: a rejoinder to Mike Chiasson, Briony Oates, Ulrike Schultze, and Richard Watson. J. Inf. Technol. 30(2), 188–193 (2015) U. Bronfenbrenner, Ecology of the family as a context for human development: research perspectives. Dev. Psychol. 22(6), 723 (1986) M.M. Bubolz, M.S. Sontag, Human ecology theory, in Sourcebook of Family Theories and Methods (Springer, 2009), pp. 419–450 W.R. Catton Jr., Foundations of human ecology. Sociol. Perspect. 37 (1), 75–95 (1994) M.A. Cole, E. Neumayer, Examining the impact of demographic factors on air pollution. Popul. Environ. 26(1), 5–21 (2004) R.T. Coward, W.M. Smith, P.L. Heller, L.A. Ploch, The Family in Rural Society (Routledge, 2019) C.E. Cutrona, D.W. Russell, W.T. Abraham, K.A. Gardner, J.N. Melby, C. Bryant, R.D. Conger, Neighborhood context and financial strain as predictors of marital interaction and marital quality in African American couples. Pers. Relat. 10(3), 389–409 (2003) C.P.B. de Almeida, B.N.G. de Goulart, How to avoid bias in systematic reviews of observational studies. Rev. CEFAC 19(4), 551–555 (2017) M.R. Dove, C. Carpenter, Environmental Anthropology: A Historical Reader, ed. by M.R. Dove, C. Carpenter (2008) J.N. Edwards, P.K. Edwards, A. Booth, Housing type, stress, and family relations. Soc. Forces 61(1), 241–257 (1982) Eurostat, People in the EU—Statistics on Household and Family Structures—Statistics Explained (2017). https://ec.europa.eu/ eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=People_in_the_EU_% E2%80%93_statistics_on_household_and_family_ structures&oldid=375234 M.R. Farzanegan, H.F. Gholipour, Divorce and the cost of housing: evidence from Iran. Rev. Econ. Household 14(4), 1029–1054 (2016) J.M. Featherstone, Human ecology and sociology: the development of human ecology in the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago 1914–1939. PhD thesis, Durham University, 1974

674 W.E. Gettys, Human ecology and social theory. Soc. Forces 18, 469 (1939) R. Goodland, The concept of environmental sustainability. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26(1), 1–24 (1995) K.C. Holden, P.J. Smock, The economic costs of marital dissolution: why do women bear a disproportionate cost? Ann. Rev. Sociol. 17 (1), 51–78 (1991) D.R. Imig, Urban and rural families: a comparative study of the impact of stress on family interaction. Res. Rural Educ. 1(2), 43–46 (1983) L. Ismayilova, Spousal violence in 5 transitional countries: a population-based multilevel analysis of individual and contextual factors. Am. J. Public Health 105(11), e12–e22 (2015) E. Karberg, N. Cabrera, J. Fagan, M.E. Scott, L. Guzman, Family Stability and Instability Among Low-Income Hispanic Mothers with Young Children (National Research Center on Hispanic Children & Families, 2017) L.M. Kohm, R.K. Toberty, A fifty-state survey of the cost of family fragmentation. Regent UL Rev. 25, 25 (2012)

A. Aref R. Marotz-Baden, P.L. Colvin, Coping strategies: a rural-urban comparison. Fam. Relat. 281–288 (1986) E.E. Pimentel, Just how do I love thee?: marital relations in urban China. J. Marriage Fam. 62(1), 32–47 (2000) P. Pradhan, L. Costa, D. Rybski, W. Lucht, J.P. Kropp, A systematic study of sustainable development goal (SDG) interactions. Earth’s Future 5(11), 1169–1179 (2017) J. Punt, Family in the New Testament: Social Location, Households and Traditional Family Values (University of Stellenbosch, 2010) C. Robson, K. McCartan, Real World Research (Wiley, 2016) I. Rosow, The social effects of the physical environment. J. Am. Inst. Plann. 27(2), 127–133 (1961) M.S. Sontag, M.W. Bubolz, Research in progress: case studies of family adaptation to changing resources and environments. Agric. Hum. Values 2(1), 48–51 (1985) J.M. White, D.M. Klein, The systems framework. Fam. Theories 151– 177 (2008) E. Yu, J. Liu, Environmental impacts of divorce. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 104(51), 20629–20634 (2007)

Use of Solar Energy in the Sustainable Development of Agriculture in the Saharan Regions of Algeria Mabrouka Oustani, Farida Tadjine, and Smail Mehda

Abstract

1

The use of clean energy, especially solar energy, is “essential” to contribute to Algeria’s efforts to ensure sustainable agriculture in rural areas while reducing fossil energy exploitation. In fact, Algeria has considerable sun potential, due particularly to the Sahara desert, one of the world’s largest solar deposits. This research is based on a qualitative approach using a thematic literature review of scientific documents related to the use of solar energy in agriculture in Southern Algeria. The analysis shows that solar energy can improve farmers’ living conditions in the Saharan regions by ensuring their electricity needs (pumping water for domestic consumption, agricultural irrigation, livestock watering … etc.). The use of this type of energy is a rational solution for the sustainable development of agriculture in the Saharan area. Keywords




Solar energy Sustainable development Saharan regions




Agriculture

M. Oustani (&) Laboratory of Saharan Bio-Resources: Preservation and Development, Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Kasdi Merbah, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria S. Mehda Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, University of El Oued, 39000 El Oued, Algeria e-mail: [email protected]




Introduction

Algeria’s energy production is essentially characterized by an excessive dependence on hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas), which constitutes 93.6% of its exports (Bouraiou et al. 2020). On the other hand, the demographic growth in this country will lead inevitably a strong growth in demand for electricity, which sooner or later will come up against constraints such as resource depletion fossil fuels, transportation difficulties of these fuels at operating sites for diesel power plants, and the cumulative nuisance to the environment … (Bélaïd and Abderrahmani 2013). Another dimension, global warming, and environmental pollution are the results of the utilization of conventional energy resources, i.e., fossil fuels such as; oil, natural gas, and coal, which are the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions (Khraief et al. 2018). Based on the previous challenges, the scientific community has reported that renewable energy resources, which are environmentally friendly and available almost worldwide, are the most reliable solution to address the world’s preoccupations with energy consumption and climate change. Hence, in the last decade, several countries have been investing and securing enormous budgets for product development, research, and renewable energy exploitation (Koua et al. 2015; Adenle 2020). In this context, in Algeria, the search for other energies, especially in areas where the electricity distribution network is not served, such as in Saharan regions. In this area, renewable energy is an effective tool for compensating for the lack of energy; their benefits are not related to its economic benefits but especially environmental protection (Abada and Bouharkat 2018). The transition to renewable energy, in particular solar energy, is encouraged by taking into account the great solar potential of Algeria, due in particular to the presence of the

F. Tadjine University of Kasdi Merbah, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_85

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Sahara desert, one of the most important solar deposits in the world (Himri et al. 2009). Agriculture in Algeria, like other economic sectors, must participate in sustainable development, which is not limited to environmental protection awareness but rather aims to establish the best possible balance between the economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The agricultural sector’s challenge is to improve the country’s food security in a context of climate change inducing drought stress, the phenomenon of desertification, and reduced rainfall affecting the already limited water availability. Gourari and Anteur (2016) and Labed et al. (2016) underline that the integration of solar energy as renewable energy in the rural world, particularly in Saharan regions, can improve living conditions and living standards in sustainable development. In fact, the farmers in Algerian Sahara suffer from the absence of electricity. They often opt for generators to produce electricity for their farms, which is very expensive. In this context, solar energy is an effective tool for compensating for the lack of energy, especially in areas where the electricity distribution network is not served; its benefits are not related to their economic benefits and environmental protection (Ghodbane et al. 2016). According to Laaboudi et al. (2019), the use of solar energy in Saharan agriculture ensures an increase in the peasant population’s income and stabilizes the local population against the rural exodus. Unfortunately, although the geographical and climatic conditions are very favorable in the south of Algeria, solar energy exploitation is not well-developed yet. This article presents an overview of solar energy use in Saharan agriculture in Algeria while highlighting the barriers to the transition to this type of energy and establishing possible recommendations for the successful use of solar energy in Saharan agriculture.

2

Methodology

This research was designed based on a qualitative approach using a thematic literature review method. Data collected from different scholarly documents selected using purposive sampling to ensure that all relevant and information-rich materials were collected. The selection criteria of each material must meet to be considered for this research are: Table 1 Solar potential in Algeria

(1) must be a scholarly document including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference presentations, donors’ database in Algeria (CDER, SONELGAZ, INRAA, …, etc.) and (2) must be from one or multiple areas of study such as solar energy, agriculture, sustainable development and governance studies, and (3) must be published during the last decade. The study’s objective is to assess solar energy exploitation in Saharan agriculture in Algeria and determine the effects of this type of energy on the economic, social, and environmental sectors in Saharan regions. Therefore, it is first necessary to specify the solar potential in the study region and determine the main fields of exploitation of solar energy in Saharan agriculture.

2.1 Solar Potential in Algeria Algeria has the highest solar potential in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and one of the most important in the World (Dehkal 2016). With average annual sunshine of 2000 h and an assessed territory composed of 86% of the Sahara desert, its solar power is estimated at 2650 kWh/m2/ year, which corresponds to capacity 8 times higher than the natural gas reserves of the country and the largest solar fields in the world (Sulmont and Meley 2013) (Table 1; Fig. 1).

2.2 Solar Energy Applications in Saharan Agriculture Aware of the importance of energy issues for the sustainable development of agriculture, Algeria has developed several energy efficiency projects in agriculture. The Algerian government has launched several photovoltaic solar projects with a total capacity of around 800 MWp in 2020 in different cities (Sonelgaz n.d.). Other projects with a capacity of 200 MWp per year will have to be carried out over the period 2021–2030. Like the other regions located in the north of Algeria, several projects have been launched on several farms in the Saharan regions (Ouargla, Biskra, Ghardaia, Adrar, Illizi, In Salah, …, etc.). These farms have benefited from a renewable energy system to generate electricity from solar energy (CDARS 2018). The projects carried out have focused on the use of solar energy in several agricultural activities. This is to sensitize farmers and

Region

Coastal

High plateau

Sahara

Surface (%)

04

10

86

The average duration of sunniness per year (h)

2650

3000

3500

Average energy received (kWh/(m2 year))

1700

1900

2650

Source CDER (n.d.)

Use of Solar Energy in the Sustainable Development …

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Fig. 1 Potential sites for solar electricity supply and examples of the overall daily exposure received (in kWh/m2/day) in Algeria. Source Stambouli (2011)

breeders to the importance of solar energy for agriculture and examine the possibilities of generalizing this energy type in other Saharan cities. The farms studied have different agricultural orientations (phoeniciculture, market gardening, animal husbandry, …, etc.). Currently, the main field of exploitation of solar energy in the Saharan regions is the pumping of water for agricultural irrigation (Fig. 2), watering livestock, and domestic consumption (CDARS 2018; INRAA 2020).

3

Results and Analysis

Analysis of published studies related to solar energy use in Saharan agriculture shows that several farms have benefited from state projects relating to solar energy (inra). The photovoltaic (PV) technology seems to be the main type of solar energy used in these regions. In this context, Sonelgaz (The National Gas and Electricity Society) (n.d.) aims to the rural electrification by deploying solar photovoltaic kits all over agricultural farms situated in the isolated villages. Despite the state’s efforts to generalize the exploitation of solar energy throughout Southern Algeria, many farms have

not yet benefited from this type of energy. Thus, isolated farms fend to use generators to meet their basic electricity needs, which harms the environment and costs a lot of transport (Laaboudi et al. 2019; Dehkal 2016; Sulmont and Meley 2013; CDER n.d.; Stambouli 2011; Sonelgaz n.d.; CDARS 2018).

3.1 Solar Energy in Algeria and Sustainable Development (Environmental, Economic, and Social Impact of Using Solar Energy in Saharan Areas) Algeria must adopt a new policy of energy consumption to ensure food securities for the future generations. The solutions lie in renewable energy, particularly the exploitation of solar energy in agriculture in Saharan regions. This type of energy becomes a reliable and less-expensive energy source, an unlimited resource, unlike fossil fuels. The preponderance of solar photovoltaic energy in these regions is due to its multiple advantages. It represents an appealing alternative instead of engine generators. It has manifold assets, among which:

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Fig. 2 Solar water pumping in Saharan regions. Source INRAA (2020)

• • • •

No gas releases nor greenhouse effect; Free energy source; Modular design adaptable to all needs; Little impact on the local hydrographic network or significant impact on the water regime; low water consumption; • Little waste can even be recycled. Thanks to the use of photovoltaic technology, the farmer will, thus, benefit from permanent electricity. The average life panel of a system is 17–20 years maximum (CDER n.d.) and requires very little maintenance. The projects carried out in the various Saharan farms have shown that the cost of the installation of solar photovoltaic energy device depends on the extension of the farm and the need for electricity. Technically, to cover more areas, it is necessary to increase the number of panels. Adding the panels is easy. It is only a question of increasing the number of sensors since the system is already installed at the beginning of the project. Solar photovoltaic energy seems very important, especially in the field of water pumping. Indeed, if photovoltaic pumping systems are made available to farmers, agricultural areas will automatically be increased, which generates a large workforce and increasingly important agricultural production (Laaboudi et al. 2019). Consequently, the launch of small or medium-sized pumping system industries photovoltaic is necessary for Saharan regions, on the one hand, to lower prices and on the other hand, to greater availability of the product (Bouzid et al. 2015). So, the use of solar energy for pumping of water makes it possible to reduce the extra costs due to the electricity bill,

penalizing many farmers in the Saharan regions, whose crops are essentially irrigated and consume a lot of water and electricity. The labor market for this energy can also generate many job positions for the Saharan region’s rural population (Flazi et al. 2012; Mostefaoui et al. 2019). One of Algeria’s main current challenges lies in the generalization of the use of solar photovoltaic on a large scale in Saharan regions, which seems very difficult to achieve because of numerous barriers.

3.2 Barriers to the Use of Solar Energy in Saharan Agriculture The Saharan regions have great potential in the solar energy sector; however, variability and intermittency are some of the main problems that characterize this renewable source. Solar energy suffers from climatic obstacles such as high temperature, wind, shading, sand, and dust accumulation. For example, dust can constitute a major obstacle to the performance of solar panels in two ways, accumulation on the solar system with time and sand dust in the environment surrounding the PV system, especially in the sandstorm. In both cases of dust, much of the available solar radiation will be dispersed and absorbed by the dust particles, which are a disadvantage for photovoltaic systems (Kawamoto and Guo 2018; Piliougine et al. 2013). Sandstorms impart solar panels’ performance by reducing the intensity of solar rays that filter through the atmosphere (Fig. 3). The aging and degradation of photovoltaic modules are also dependent on climatic and environmental conditions (Alghamdi et al. 2019).

Use of Solar Energy in the Sustainable Development …

Fig. 3 Sanding problem of solar panels in Saharan regions. Source CDER (n.d.)

The performance and the efficiency of solar energy in particularly photovoltaic modules in Algeria are also affected by several other types of problems such as technical, policy, and social problems: Lack of qualified personnel in the photovoltaic technology, the low profitability of certain solar energy sectors for investors due to the strong subsidy to conventional energy, political instability in Algeria, and unpredictable political changes are causing uncertainty regarding government support financial, which can lead to the risk of non-acceptance of solar energy technologies and especially of the non-acceptance by the financial community, for example, banks and investment funds can be a real obstacle for successful the exploitation of solar energy in Algeria.

3.3 Recommendations for the Use of Solar Energy in Saharan Agriculture To ensure sustainable development of agriculture in Saharan regions, it is essential to adapt solar energy technologies to climatic conditions of Saharan regions (temperature, sand dust, …) and to develop capabilities to master, install, maintain, and use them. This requires essentially the elimination of dust accumulation on solar systems (mainly solar panels). Various techniques are currently being employed to address such sand soiling ranging from mechanical (brushing) to active and passive electrical interventions (Ziane et al. 2017). The combination of several systems can solve the variability and intermittency of solar energy. According to Nadjemi et al. (2009), the hybridization of multiple sources improves the system efficiency and the supply’s reliability. The majority of the reviewed studies are about sizing PV/wind hybrid systems. Wind/solar energy coupling holds

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great promise for increasing water supplies in water-scarce regions (Mahmoudi et al. 2009). The development of the skills needed to innovate new solutions to meet local needs, and international cooperation should enable local capacity building, technology transfer, and the establishment of a strong renewable significant integration. Creation space for discussion (thematic network) for the emergence of cooperation between scientists and professionals (private and state) guarantees the bankability of projects; involves banks in investment projects in the field of renewable; encourage autonomous networks in remote areas. Effective integration of these technologies will allow Saharan regions to address water-shortage problems with a domestic energy source that does not produce air pollution or contribute to the global problem of climate change. In regards to the fields of the use of solar energy in Saharan agriculture, apart from pumping water, which is the most used field, the sampled studies indicated other application of this type of energy in Saharan agriculture: • Solar desalination of brackish water to improve the quality of irrigation water. The desalination units powered by solar energy systems are uniquely suited to provide water and electricity in remote areas where water and electricity infrastructures. • Solar purification of urban wastewater for agricultural reuse. • PV pumping for livestock watering. • Development of suitable solar dryers as an alternative to traditional drying and to enhance surplus production (onions, potatoes). • Optimization of greenhouse agro-systems for better use of solar energy (greenhouse models and air conditioning). • Cooling of agricultural buildings: greenhouses, batteries, and animal stables solar dryer. • Improvement of the conditions of breeding whose atmosphere is controlled, particularly for hot and arid zones what generate additional income and availability of products out of season.

4

Conclusion

Clean energy and food security are the most important challenges for underdeveloped countries. This manuscript has reviewed the valuation of solar energy use in the agricultural sector in the Algerian Sahara, focusing on the advantages and obstacles of harnessing this type of energy in this region. Analysis of all studies carried out on this topic has shown that solar energy can contribute to the sustainable

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development of agriculture in Algeria’s Saharan regions. The challenge remains in accelerating the spread of this type of energy to all agricultural farms in Saharan areas. This diffusion must be supported by the integration of technological policies and market measures. Besides, the technological modules (panels) must be adapted to Saharan conditions. On the other hand, with its huge solar potential, Algeria must develop a local photovoltaic industry and increase efforts to spread this technology to all corners of the country to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels. Finally, the integration of solar energy in the agricultural sector in Saharan regions can improve the conditions and the standard of living of the farmers within the framework of sustainable development.

References Z. Abada, M. Bouharkat, Study of management strategy of energy resources in Algeria. Energy Rep. 4, 1–7 (2018) A.A. Adenle, Assessment of solar energy technologies in Africa-opportunities and challenges in meeting the 2030 agenda and sustainable development goals. Energy Policy 137, 111180 (2020) A. Alghamdi, A.B.S. Bahaj, L. Blunden, Y. Wu, Dust removal from solar PV modules by automated cleaning systems. Energies 12, 2923 (2019) F. Bélaïd, F. Abderrahmani, Electricity consumption and economic growth in Algeria: a multivariate causality analysis in the presence of structural change. Energy Policy 55, 286–295 (2013) A. Bouraiou, A. Neçaibia, N. Boutasseta, S. Mekhilef, R. Dabou, A. Ziane, N. Sahouane, I. Attoui, M. Mostefaoui, O. Touaba, Status of renewable energy potential and utilization in Algeria. J. Clean. Prod. 246 (2020) Z. Bouzid, N. Ghellai, T. Mezghiche, State of the art and future of photovoltaic installations in Algeria. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 5 (2), 427–434 (2015) CDARS, Commissariat for the development of agriculture in the Saharan regions. La généralisation de l’utilisation de l’énergie solaire en milieu rural, Dec 2018 CDER, “Renewable Energies Development” Center (CDER) [WWW Document] (n.d.). URL https://www.cder.dz/. Accessed 22 Apr 2018. Renewables global status report [WWW Document] A. Dehkal, Etats des lieux des énergies renouvelables dans la région MENA. Le pari Algérien dans le secteur de la mobilisation de l’eau. Rev. Nour études écon. 3, 90–205 (2016) S. Flazi, Boudghene, A. Stambouli, Z. Khiat, Sahara solar potentials: energetic, socio-economic and sand reserve, in 2AASE Forum and 4SSB Workshop—15 and 16—USTO/ORAN (2012) M. Ghodbane, B. Boumeddane, N. Moummi, S. Largot, H. Berkane, Study and numerical simulation of solar system for air heating. Fundam. Appl. Sci. 8(1), 41–60 (2016)

M. Oustani et al. B. Gourari, I.D. Anteur, Projets d’énergies solaire photovoltaïque dans le développement durable de l’agriculture dans la région de Bourdj Bou arredj (enjeux, concept et méthodologie), in Third International Conference on Energy, Materials, Applied Energetics and Pollution. ICEMAEP2016, Algeria, 30–31 Oct 2016 Y. Himri, A.S. Malik, A.B. Stambouli, S. Himri, B. Draoui, Review and use of the Algerian renewable energy for sustainable development. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13(6), 1584–1591 (2009) INRAA, Proceedings of the National Seminar on the Applications of Renewable Energies in the Fields of Agriculture and Rural Development, Feb 2020 H. Kawamoto, B. Guo, Improvement of an electrostatic cleaning system for removal of dust from solar panels. J. Electrostat. 91, 28– 33 (2018) N. Khraief, M. Shahbaz, H. Mallick, N. Loganathan, Estimation of electricity demand function for Algeria: revisit of time series analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82(Part 3), 4221–4234 (2018) B.K. Koua, P.M.E. Koffi, P. Gbaha, S. Touré, Present status and overview of potential of renewable energy in Cote d’Ivoire. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41, 907–914 (2015) A. Laaboudi, B. Nasri, T. Ansaria, M. Benhamza, L’énergie renouvelable une alternative pour la préservation des foggaras. Alger. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10 (2019) A. Labed, N. Moummi, K. Aoues, A. Benchabane, Solar drying of henna (Lawsonia inermis) using different models of solar flat plate collectors: an experimental investigation in the region of Biskra (Algeria). J. Clean. Prod. 112(4), 2545–2552 (2016) H. Mahmoudi, A. Ouagued, N. Ghaffour, Capacity building strategies and policy for desalination using renewable energies in Algeria. Renew. Sustain. Energy 13, 921–926 (2009) M. Mostefaoui, A. Ziane, A. Bouraiou, S. Khelifi, Effect of sand dust accumulation on photovoltaic performance in the Saharan environment: southern Algeria (Adrar). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 26, 259– 268 (2019) O. Nadjemi, T. Nacer, A. Hamidat, H. Salhi, Optimal hybrid PV/wind energy system sizing: application of cuckoo search algorithm for Algerian dairy farms. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. (2009) M. Piliougine, R. Cañete, C. Moreno Carretero, J.J. Hirose, S. Ogawa, M. Sidrach-de-Cardona, Comparative analysis of energy produced by photovoltaic modules with anti-soiling coated surface in arid climates. Appl. Energy 112, 626–634 (2013) Sonelgaz report [WWW Document] (n.d.). URL http://www.fce.dz/wpcontent/uploads/2018/01/sonelgaz-acteur-etpartenaire-majeur-de-latransition-energetique.pdf. Accessed 30 Apr 2018 A.B. Stambouli, Algerian renewable energy assessment: the challenge of sustainability. Energy Policy 39(8), 4507-4519 (2011) N. Sulmont, F. Meley, Les énergies renouvelables en Algérie “chiffres Clefs, service économique régional, Ambassade De France, Alger, Algérie” (2013) A. Ziane, M. Mostefaoui, N. Ammar, N. Sahouane, R. Dabou, A. Bouraio, Impact of dust accumulation on PV panel performance in the Saharan region, in 18th International Conference on Sciences and Techniques of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering (STA), Monastir, Tunisia (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/STA.2017. 8314896

A Circular Economy Centered on Microalgae: Moving Toward Economic Commercial-Scale Recycling of Industrial, Agricultural, and Domestic Waste for a Sustainable Environment Darren Lee Oatley-Radcliffe, Alla Silkina, and Andrew Ross Barron

Abstract

Human activities produce waste. In autotrophic mode, microalgae consume these waste materials, as growth nutrients, along with sunlight to create more biomass and O2. This process is known as photosynthesis, and microalgae are the fastest photosynthetic organism on the planet. Moreover, they are not land-based and do not compete for arable land. The algae themselves are full of useful products. This paper demonstrates at near commercial scale that nutrients in waste streams can be recovered and recycled in a circular economy by algae production. The downstream process for algae harvesting and refinement is also demonstrated at scale via a bio-refinery approach with close to 100% mass efficiency. In this way, valuable products can be obtained from recycled materials resulting in a cost-effective process. Thus, algae have great potential to bio-remediate waste materials and create value, which has significant environmental benefits. Keywords

Algae production Circular economy

1











Membrane technology Bio-refinery Bioremediation

Introduction

The world population is growing at an alarming rate. Estimate of the population as of mid-2015 was around 7.3 billion and is predicted to be 8.5 billion by 2030 and 9.7 billion by 2050 (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, D. L. Oatley-Radcliffe (&)
A. R. Barron Energy Safety Research Institute, Swansea University, Bay Campus, Swansea, S1 8EN, Wales, UK e-mail: [email protected] A. Silkina Algae Wales Research Group, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, S2 8PP, UK

Population Division 2015). In order to sustain life on earth, there are several key factors required, namely water, shelter, energy, and food. These factors are intrinsically linked and greatly impact the global environment and sustainable livelihoods (Biggs et al. 2015). For example, as the population increases, the consumption of food also increases. Protein is an energy-intensive food, and beef production on a global scale has increased from 47 million tonnes in 1950 to 260 million tonnes in 2005, more than doubling the consumption per person from 17 to 40 kg per year (McAlpine et al. 2009). The production of meat has a major impact on the environment. 1. Energy—required to produce fertilizer to grow crops to feed the cows. Generates CO2. 2. Environment—raising cattle generates CH4. 25–30% of UK methane emissions are from cattle. 3. Environment—raising cattle generates slurry. High pollution risk—excessive C, N, P, and pathogens. 4. Water—raising cattle requires freshwater as feed and water for cleaning equipment and barns. Thus, something as simple as beef production has a wide ranging impact on the energy–water–environment nexus. Microalgae are a diverse group of prokaryotic and eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms that grow rapidly due to their simplistic structure (Li et al. 2008). Microalgae and their cousins macroalgae (seaweed) are the pollution control agents of the oceans. In autotrophic conditions, these organisms consume CO2, N, P as the building blocks of life and expel O2 during photosynthesis. Microalgae can capture up to 1.8 kg CO2 per kg of algal biomass (Benemann 1997), and given that arable land is not required for cultivation, the environmental benefits of this form of biomass surpass that of any other feedstock used in renewable energy production, see Table 1. Thus, algae have the potential to remediate human activities from industry (CO2), agriculture (C, N, P), and domestic (C, N, P).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_86

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Table 1 Comparison of the oil and productivity metrics for algae and terrestrial crops for biodiesel (adapted Mata et al. 2010) Plant source

Seed oil content (% oil by wt in biomass)

Oil yield (L oil/ha year)

Land use (m2 year/kg biodiesel)

Biodiesel productivity (kg biodiesel/ha year)

Corn/maize

44

172

66

152

Hemp

33

363

31

321

Soybean

18

636

18

562

Jatropha

28

741

15

656

Camelina

42

915

12

809

Canola/rapeseed

41

974

12

862

Sunflower

40

1070

11

946

Castor

48

1307

9

1156

Palm oil

36

5366

2

4747

Microalgae (low oil content)

30

58,700

0.2

51,927

Microalgae (medium oil content)

50

97,800

0.1

86,515

Microalgae (high oil content)

70

136,900

0.1

121,104

With an estimated 200,000–800,000 different species on the planet (Flanders Today 2012), algae represent an untapped resource, and the potential range of products available from these organisms is enormous. However, with only around 50,000 species described by science and less than 100 species actually grown in controlled conditions, this is still a fledgling technology. The early focus for algae products was based on fuel production to replace fossil fuels (Rodionova et al. 2017). However, there are many cost issues associated with algae for this product range. As fuels are high-volume low-cost products, the algae production process needs to be extremely economical to turn a profit. When compared to fossil fuels, this generally is not the case, with a study on the economics of algal biodiesel in the USA (Ghimire 2008) suggesting that the production rate of biodiesel from this source would not be sufficient to meet the supply needs of the transport sector without significant technical change, of the order of 30% per annum, and would require heavy government subsidies to be competitive. Life-cycle assessment studies have shown that biodiesel production from microalgae under current operating technology is not sustainable (Collet et al. 2014; Passell et al. 2013; Quinn and Davis 2015). The major cost challenges lie in dewatering the algae following production and the subsequent downstream processing, in this case, lipid extraction and transesterification to biodiesel. For this reason, a bio-refinery approach is required to maximize the profitability of the algae process (Oatley-Radcliffe et al. 2017). Algae can be considered to consist of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in roughly 33.33% fractions of each, although this is highly species-dependent. This means that for biodiesel production, as a maximum, only one-third of the algae is being utilized. The bio-refinery approach, similar

to refining crude oil, is to utilize as much of the algae as possible and drive the mass efficiency of the process toward 100%. In addition to the bulk products available from algae, different species contain various high-value components in lower quantities, such as exopolysaccharides, phycobiliproteins, potent antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and mycosporine-like amino acids. Some of these compounds can have significant value; b-carotene and astaxanthin (pigments) can be worth 2000–5000 Euro per kg, respectively. Other pigments such as phycoerythrin and phycocyanin can be worth as much as 36,000–72,000 Euros per kg. Table 2 highlights some of the useful products available from algae. Thus, algae can act as a bioremediation tool removing and recycling C, N, and P while producing O2 and genuine products of value. This is, by definition, a sustainable circular economy and is depicted in Fig. 1. This paper aims to outline some of the steps that have been taken at the bench and pilot scale to realize this sustainable circular economy. Furthermore, we will report on current progress related to the scale-up of these processes to commercial-scale operation.

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Algal Production Two algal production facilities are described in this study. The first is a 2500-L vertical tube photobioreactor and is described in detail elsewhere (Silkina et al. 2019). The second is essentially a similar design as the first. However, in this case, the tubes are 3.5 m tall, the dark tank is 5000 L, and the overall system volume is 7500 L.

A Circular Economy Centered on Microalgae: Moving Toward … Table 2 High-value compounds available for extraction from various algae

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Species

Product

Chlorella vulgaris

Biomass, pigments

Chlorella spp. Chlorella ellipsodea Coccomyxa acidophila

Lutein, b-carotene

Coelastrella striolata var. multistriata

Canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, b-carotene

Crypthecodinium conhi

Docosahexaenoic acid

Diacronema vlkianum

Fatty acids

Dunaliella salina

Carotenoids, b-carotene

Galdiera suphuraria

Phycocyanin

Haematococcus pluvialis

Carotenoids, astaxanthin, cantaxanthin, lutein

Isochrysis galbana

Fatty acids, carotenoids, fucoxanthin

Lyngbya majuscule

Immune modulators

Muriellopsis sp.

Lutein

Nannochloropsis gaditana

Eicosapentaenoic acid

Nannochloropsis sp.

Fig. 1 The algal sustainable circular economy

Odontella aurita

Fatty acids

Parietochloris incise

Arachidonic acid

Phaedactylum tricornutum

Lipids, eicosapentaenoic acid, fatty acids

Porphyridium cruentum

Arachidonic acid, polysaccharides

Scenedesmus almeriensis

Lutein, b-carotene

Schizochytrium sp.

Docosahexaenoic acid

Spirulina platensis

Phycocyanin, linolenic acid, biomass protein

Ulkenia spp.

Docosahexaenoic acid

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2.2 Membrane Filtration The equipment used to filter the anaerobic digestion effluent was a two-pump tubular membrane system, illustrated in Fig. 2. The equipment consists of a baseline, fed with material from the tank and pressured by pump 1 (C0M500/22/P, Lowara, Italy). The pressure in the baseline was controlled via the pressure control valve. A second pump loop operating off the baseline is supplied by a second pump (as previous), which recirculates at high speed to minimize fouling. The membrane modules used in this study are tubular (ABCOR® INDU-COR 12’HFM-251) from Koch Membrane Systems, UK. Two modules were used in series, and the combined membrane area is 8.4 m2, each module consisting of thirty 0.5 in diameter tubes in a PVC shell. The MWCO for the membrane is 100,000 Da. A second filtration system was used and was a single pump system. This is the same design as illustrated in Fig. 2, but with the first pump removed. In this case, material flows from the tank, through the pump, directly to the membrane. The retentate returns directly to the feed tank, and this line contains the pressure control valve. The equipment is described in detail elsewhere (Gerardo et al. 2013).

2.3 Chemical Analysis Total nitrogen: Nitrogen as total nitrogen, nitrates, and ammonia were measured using Kits-colorimetric methods (Hach 2714100; LCK302; LCK303). Total phosphate: Total phosphate was measured using the Kits-colorimetric method (Hach 2767245).

3

Results

3.1 Recycling Nutrients from Anaerobic Digestion Effluent In 2015, we reported the bench-scale recovery and fractionation of nutrients (N.P) from dairy manure digestate using membrane technologies (Gerardo et al. 2015). The process was evaluated using the NF270 nanofiltration membrane over a pH range from 3 to 11, and a maximum process flux of 150 LMH at 20 bar was observed at pH 11. Rejection of P was high at *97%, and rejection of N (as ammonia) was lower at *33%. Due to P’s high rejection, near pure fractions of N could be obtained, and almost pure P could be obtained by diafiltration. A schematic of the process is shown in Fig. 3. In the process indicated in Fig. 3, the need for the relative purification of each of the diafiltration step will be dependent on the requirements of the end product. Hence, the second

and third diafiltration may not be necessary in real terms. However, a full cost and energy evaluation of such a process has been conducted, see Gerardo et al. (2015). The conclusion was made that the production cost was $0.26/kg NH3 and $3.68/kg NH3 for the one stage or the three diafiltration stages, respectively. For comparative purposes, the current cost of purchase for bulk ammonia is $0.73/kg. The resulting fractions obtained from such a process are useful nutrients and can be supplied back to the agriculture industry as fertilizer. Hence, mixing the fractions can produce varied concentrations with different N-P ratios required for different applications. In this case, we are interested in producing the growth media for algae production. In a current project (ALG-AD, Interreg NWE), we have developed a commercial-scale membrane unit and deployed the rig to a farm in Devon, UK. The farm recycles dairy slurry and waste foods via anaerobic digestion (AD), producing biogas as a product and a waste slurry. The liquid fraction of the slurry is rich in N and P. Figure 4 outlines the basic process. The pre-conditioning stage highlighted was used to settle out some of the larger solid materials to prevent excessive solids entering the filtration process. The residual slurry’s filtration produces a clarified liquor, rich in N and P, and a high-density solids sludge. The sludge can be recycled back to the land as fertilizer, and the liquor was then used to grow algae. Figure 5 shows the filtration operation on site. Figure 5 shows two identical membrane systems; only one was used for AD effluent processing. The AD effluent samples were characterized for particle size distribution, and the result is shown in Fig. 6. As shown in Fig. 6, the mean particle size of the AD effluent is around 25 lm, and the smallest particle size is around 0.6 lm. Thus, the selection of the Koch membrane with 100,000 MWCO seems, at first glance, very conservative, and a membrane of pore size in the region 0.1 or 0.2 lm would be more appropriate. However, due to the nature of the AD effluents, i.e., they contain pathogens, the Koch membrane was selected due to the ability to remove viruses and clarify the liquors. Analysis of the A|D effluent indicated that the pH was 7.8, the total N was 6850 mg/L, and the total P was 183 mg/kg. The permeate liquors obtained from the filtration contained a total N 4474 mg/L and total P 135 mg/kg, indicating that some of the nutrients remain with the retentate fraction. Figure 7 shows images of each of the samples. As expected, the AD effluent is extremely colored in nature, and the permeate from the membrane process (UF Out) is significantly decolored. One of the drawbacks of using AD effluents for growing algae is that dense coloration hinders light penetration into the reactor and inhibits photosynthesis. In this case, most of the color has clearly been removed. Figure 7 also shows the further processing of a small sample UF Out at lab scale using a

A Circular Economy Centered on Microalgae: Moving Toward …

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PERMEATE RETENTATE PT2

RETENTATE

Feed Tank

PERMEATE

Membrane Module

Pressure Control

PT1 TT1

FEED V1 Centrifugal Pump P1

Centrifugal Pump P2

Fig. 2 Schematic of the membrane system

Fig. 3 Filtration and diafiltration of dairy manure digestate to produce fractions rich in N and P

tighter NF270 nanofiltration membrane. In this case, all of the color has been removed. However, this level of clarity was not deemed necessary at the commercial testing facility, and a Nanofiltration unit was not constructed and deployed.

3.2 Cultivation of Algae Using Recycled Nutrients Several experiments have been conducted to demonstrate near commercial-scale cultivation of algae using industrial

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Fig. 4 Schematic representation of N and P recycling from farm waste

Fig. 5 The deployed pilot tubular membrane system

Fig. 6 Particle size distribution for the farm AD effluent

effluents. In order to grow, algae need a source of C, and in the modern world, most industrial processes produce gaseous carbon effluents in the form of CO2, usually with small quantities of other gases such as CO and SO2. These effluents normally arise from burning fossil fuels. In this experiment, the 2500-L photobioreactor was retrofitted to take exhaust gas from a wood pellet burner, see Fig. 8. The photobioreactor was used to grow several batches of N. oceanica using standard F/2 nutrient media, see Fig. 9. The growth rate was typical as expected, with a lag phase to day 3, followed by exponential growth to day 12 when the batch was harvested.

The same reactor setup was also used to grow several algae batches using N and P nutrient obtained from various waste sources. In this case, an agricultural waste was used following anaerobic digestion of mixed cattle slurry, silage, and food waste (Farm Renewable Environmental Energy Limited, Wrexham, UK), an aquaculture waste as clarified liquid effluent (Test Valley Trout Farm, Romsey, UK) and anaerobically digested municipal waste (Afan AD municipal waste plant, Port Talbot, UK). The characteristics of the three wastes are shown in Table 3. The growth of algae in the photobioreactor is indicated in Fig. 10.

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F/2 media. The aquaculture growth curve is interesting in that the rate is higher than the F/2 media curve in the early days, but then slows and approaches the F/2 curve and then accelerates again from day 10, leading to the highest overall biomass concentration of 2.5 g/L. The municipal waste curve is also above the F/2 curve for most of the period but around day 12 begins to slow and rests at a final biomass concentration slightly lower. The maximum specific growth rates evaluated from the exponential sections of the curves were 0.42, 0.14, 0.62, and 0.45 days−1, respectively. This comparison clearly shows that algae are quite happy to function and grow on recycled nutrients at this scale of operation. Following the successful trials at pilot scale, a near commercial-scale reactor has been deployed to a test site at a farm in Devon, UK. The reactor deployed is shown in Fig. 11 and is fed using bottled CO2 with N and P coming from the AD effluent detailed in section A. The deployment began in March 2019. It aims to grow algae in a semi-continuous mode for a sustained period of time. This will generate realistic CAPEX, OPEX, and performance data used for life cycle assessment to determine whether there is a commercial case for the technology. Fig. 7 Images of various solutions

The control growth rate in Fig. 10 exhibits classical microbial growth, with a short induction period, followed by exponential growth, leading to a plateau or the stationary phase at a biomass concentration of *2 g/L. The agricultural growth curve follows a similar general pattern, but around day 10 begins to fall sort of the growth rates seen on

Fig. 8 2500 L vertical tube photobioreactor (far right) and wood pellet burner with exhaust gas capture in the flue stack (left)

3.3 Harvesting Algae Using Membranes Once the algae have completed a growth period in the photobioreactor, the biomass must be harvested. As Fig. 9 illustrates, the final algae concentration is low, and anywhere from 1 to 4 g/L is normal. This is only 0.1–0.4 wt%.

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Fig. 9 Growth curve for N. oceanica grown in the 2500 L photobioreactor with F/2 standard media and CO2 from the flue stack of a wood-burning stove. Error bars represent three repeat experiments

Table 3 Characteristics of the three waste streams used in the study

Parameters

Agriculture waste

Aquaculture waste

AD municipal waste

8.5 ± 0.02

8.5 ± 0.2

8.7 ± 0.015

BOD (mg L )

421 ± 16

405 ± 14

433 ± 12

COD (mg L−1)

2500 ± 256

2786 ± 385

2766 ± 410

Ammonium (mg L )

360 ± 15

26 ± 1.5

890 ± 30

TSS (total suspended soils) (mg L−1)

210 ± 6.8

472 ± 9

1060 ± 12.1

Phosphorus (mg L )

36.5 ± 0.6

418 ± 2.8

63 ± 0.5

Magnesium (mg L−1)

5.9 ± 0.8

29 ± 2.6

8.55 ± 1.65

Dissolved iron (mg L )

2.64 ± 0.06

5.93 ± 0.2

2.61 ± 0.03

Conductivity (mS cm−1)

5.16 ± 0.02

0.858 ± 0.006

4.89 ± 0.2

PH value −1

−1

−1

−1

Operating any downstream process at this dilution would be cost-prohibitive. Thus, the usual first step in an algae process is to harvest and concentrate the biomass. This can be achieved via several technologies, namely floatation, sedimentation, centrifugation, and filtration. Pragya et al. (2013) critically reviewed the various options available and determined that none of the technologies were totally appropriate for various cost or processing reasons. Therefore, flocculation and sedimentation are generally not preferred as agents are added to assist the process. Centrifugation is certainly capable of harvesting algae, and recoveries over 90% are perfectly feasible. However, this comes at a significant energy penalty. Filtration can also recover the biomass with 70–95% efficiency (process dependent), but this technology also carries an energy burden. For this reason, we have conducted several studies using filtration to harvest algae (Gerardo et al. 2013). Membrane flux was assessed over a wide range of operating pressures to generate a process model for the harvesting and recovery process for the algae Scenedesmus sp. The model was then used to predict the recovery process’s performance over several consecutive batches, see Fig. 12. The information in Fig. 11 is typical of

that expected for a cross-flow filtration (tangential flow), with a pronounced decline in membrane flux from 130 L per square meter of membrane per hour (LMH) at the outset of the experiment and then a gradual leveling off to an almost constant flux rate of 50 LMH. This initial decline represents cake formation or fouling at the membrane surface in the early stages of the filtration, which is then normalized by scouring the cake layer by the tangential flow across the membrane surface. The model was effective at predicting the algae harvesting process performance, and the data were then used in conjunction with the pump data to generate the power requirements of the process. The optimized harvesting process was estimated to require 0.90 kWh per m3 of algae solution and $0.058 per kg of microalgae harvested. The subsequent cleaning operation required 0.23 kWh or $0.029 per batch of microalgae processed. Thus far, no systematic long-term harvesting program has been reported to assess the process performance overtime or the useful membrane lifespan. These figures are significantly lower in terms of power consumption than the generally preferred method of centrifugation. A recent study (Davey and Smith 2018) by

A Circular Economy Centered on Microalgae: Moving Toward … Fig. 10 Growth of algae N. oceanica on waste nutrients. Control is F/2 standard growth media, AW is agricultural waste, AQW is aquaculture waste, and ADMW is municipal waste. Error bars represent three repeat experiments

Fig. 11 A 7500-L vertical tube photobioreactor deployed at Langage Farm, Devon, UK. The image shows three tubular module sections. There are seven in total

Fig. 12 Filtration of the algae Scenedesmus sp. Conditions were 1.1 g/L initial concentration, 20 °C, 1.95 bar, cross-flow at 1 m/s, and 3.8 m2 of membrane area

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Cambridge University (UK) made a direct comparison between filtration and centrifugation to harvest algae. The laboratory centrifuge used 9.6 kWh for harvesting 60 L of algae (9.6 h in 4 L centrifuge) and a power cost of £1.34. However, harvesting the algae on a Membranology filtration platform used 0.3 kWh for 60 L harvest (60 min, 0.9 m2 area, 0.2 lm, 1 bar) at a power cost of £0.04p. Clearly, the filtration process is the better harvesting technology. This is mostly since the membranes are highly efficient at these low concentrations and centrifuges are less efficient. As the concentration increases during the harvesting process, the membrane will become less efficient, and the centrifuge will become more efficient. Thus, in reality, an optimization can be achieved between the two technologies, and when large-scale industrial processes are developed, the CAPEX investment required for the two technologies to coexist may be justified.

3.4 Recovering Value from Algae The downstream process for recovering materials from algae is, or certainly can be, quite complex and species-dependent. An example of a downstream process is illustrated in Fig. 13. In the process illustrated in Fig. 13, the algae are first concentrated to a 10–15 wt.% solution for further processing. At this point, the algae themselves may be dried and form a whole-cell product, as is the case with the health food Spirulina. For intracellular products, the algae must be opened up in a process called cell disruption. This can be achieved using many technologies, and these have been reviewed by Günerken et al. (2015). Once fractured, the cellular debris is removed by microfiltration. The algal debris is typically rich in lipids and is sent as an emulsion to organic solvent recovery, typically using hexane. The aqueous phase is sent to an ultrafilter, where the soluble lipids are removed and taken to transesterification for biodiesel production. From this point, progressive filtration is conducted across a range of stages where the pore size of the membrane is reduced, i.e., materials are fractionated in terms of size and, in some cases, charge. Thus, proteins, pigments, nucleic acids, amino sugars, nutrients, and salts may all be recovered, and purity can be improved by diafiltration. In all cases, the water in the process can be recovered and recycled back to the photobioreactor. Figure 14 illustrates some typical products obtained using this strategy. Algae respond to stress in their environment in much the same way as humans do. For example, in direct sunlight, humans will experience sunburn and typically rub sun lotion over themselves to protect the skin. Algae are the same; only

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in this case, the algae will generate the antioxidants required themselves. Thus, algae respond to stress by changing their chemical composition. This fact has been exploited commercially in processes like astaxanthin production by the Cyanotech Corporation (Lorenz and Cysewski 2000). In this case, the cells are subjected to environmental and nutrient stress to boost astaxanthin production. Similarly, we have developed photobioreactors containing LED panels (Coward et al. 2016); see Fig. 15. These photobioreactors supply light to the algae at specific frequencies and can be tailored for optimum growth at low energy by only supplying wavelengths that can be absorbed. However, they can also be used to induce light stress in the organism. In this way, biomass can be grown and then, following the growth period, can be stressed to generate increased quantities of specific cellular materials. Figure 16 illustrates that algae growth is promoted by green light and is hindered by both red and blue light. However, blue light promotes the production of protein within the cells. Thus, a tailored light regime could produce higher yields of algae and then higher yields of internal cellular products following the growth phase. In this case, the protein yield under optimum conditions was almost 30% higher. This is significant and vastly improves the resultant economics of the production system.

3.5 Future Prospects Throughout this paper, the technologies described have all been developed and tested at a bench scale in our laboratories and at a small pilot scale in our 2500-L photobioreactor and equivalent downstream processing equipment. The recovery and recycling of nutrients N and P are currently being investigated at a near commercial scale in a 7500-L photobioreactor at Langage Farm, Devon (UK). The results of these trials will be available soon. We are also currently building a 15,000-L photobioreactor and equivalent downstream processing (Reduced Industrial Carbon Emissions— RICE) that will be deployed to a major industrial site in South Wales (UK). In this equipment, we will bring together all of the technologies discussed: nutrient recovery and reuse (C, N, P), algae production, and downstream processing to produce a whole-cell product, a protein rich extract, and pigment harvesting. This will allow us to optimize and quantify the process yields, evaluate CAPEX and OPEX, and perform a life cycle assessment to demonstrate the technology to be sustainable. The ultimate goal is to have a circular economy with a 100% mass-efficient bio-refinery approach to algae production, see Fig. 17. This will have a huge impact and be highly beneficial to the environment.

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Fig. 13 A general downstream process for harvesting value from algae

Fig. 14 Products obtained from the algae downstream process. Left to right: whole-cell algae, protein rich extract, carbohydrate rich extract, lipid rich biomass, and finally lipids (by solvent extraction)

4

Conclusions

Human activities produce industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste. In this paper, we have demonstrated that algae production and downstream processing based on membrane technology can mitigate the environmental impact of these wastes by recycling and reusing carbon (CO2), nitrogen (nitrates, ammonia), and phosphorous (phosphates) to produce usable and valuable materials. The burning of fossil fuels leads to flue gas effluents containing

CO2, which are consumed by algae. Similarly, organic waste may be degraded via anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, and the liquid part of the effluent from this process, rich in N and P, is also consumed by algae. The photosynthetic process consumes these nutrients, along with sunlight, and produces algae biomass and O2. This significantly reduces the environmental burden of the greenhouse gas CO2 and the highly polluting N and P. The algae biomass can then be refined into an array of products suitable for use in several industries. Overall, the holistic algae bio-refinery provides a mechanism for sustainable production in a circular economy.

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Fig. 15 Artificially lit LED photobioreactors

Fig. 16 Growing the algae Porphyridium purpureum using artificial light. RGB-W is warm white (natural light), R100 is 100% red light, G100 is 100% green light, and B100 is 100% blue light. Top: growth curves for the organism. Bottom: protein content during the growth period

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Fig. 17 A bio-refinery approach for a sustainable algae production and downstream process Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the members of the Algae Wales Research Group at Swansea University (UK) for their assistance in this work.

References A place in the sun: algae is the crop of the future, according to researchers in Geel, Flanders Today, 31 Oct 2012 J.R. Benemann, CO2 mitigation with microalgae systems. Energy Convers. Manage. 38, S475–S479 (1997) E.M. Biggs, E. Bruce, B. Boruff, J.M. Duncan, J. Horsley, N. Pauli et al., Sustainable development and the water–energy–food nexus: a perspective on livelihoods. Environ. Sci. Policy 54, 389–397 (2015) P. Collet, L. Lardon, A. Hélias, S. Bricout, I. Lombaert-Valot, B. Perrier et al., Biodiesel from microalgae—life cycle assessment and recommendations for potential improvements. Renew. Energy 71, 525–533 (2014) T. Coward, C. Fuentes-Grünewald, A. Silkina, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, G. Llewellyn, R.W. Lovitt, Utilising light-emitting diodes of specific narrow wavelengths for the optimization and co-production of multiple high-value compounds in Porphyridium purpureum. Bioresour. Technol. 221, 607–615 (2016) M. Davey, A. Smith, Expanding the range of algal species suitable for membrane harvesting (PHYCBIV-22). PHYCONET Business Interaction Voucher Project Short Report (2018) Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables (Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.241)

M.L. Gerardo, N.H. Aljohani, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, R.W. Lovitt, Moving towards sustainable resources: recovery and fractionation of nutrients from dairy manure digestate using membranes. Water Res. 80, 80–89 (2015) M.L. Gerardo, D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, R.W. Lovitt, Minimizing the energy requirement of dewatering Scenedesmus sp. by microfiltration: performance, costs, and feasibility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (1), 845–853 (2013) N. Ghimire, Economics of biodiesel production from microalgae. Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 2008 E. Günerken, E. d’Hondt, M.H.M. Eppink, L. Garcia-Gonzalez, K. Elst, R.H. Wijffels, Cell disruption for microalgae biorefineries. Biotechnol. Adv. 33(2), 243–260 (2015) Y. Li, M. Horsman, N. Wu, C.Q. Lan, N. Dubois-Calero, Biofuels from microalgae. Biotechnol. Prog. 24(4), 815–820 (2008) R.T. Lorenz, G.R. Cysewski, Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends Biotechnol. 18 (4), 160–167 (2000) T.M. Mata, A.A. Martins, N.S. Caetano, Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14(1), 217–232 (2010) C.A. McAlpine, A. Etter, P.M. Fearnside, L. Seabrook, W.F. Laurance, Increasing world consumption of beef as a driver of regional and global change: a call for policy action based on evidence from Queensland (Australia), Colombia and Brazil. Glob. Environ. Change 19(1), 21–33 (2009) D.L. Oatley-Radcliffe, T. Ekins-Coward, R.W. Lovitt, Maximising value: the bio-refinery concept, in Microalgae as a Source of Bioenergy: Products, Processes and Economics. Recent Advances in Renewable Energy, vol. 1 (2017), pp. 315–331

694 H. Passell, H. Dhaliwal, M. Reno, B. Wu, A.B. Amotz, E. Ivry et al., Algae biodiesel life cycle assessment using current commercial data. J. Environ. Manage. 129, 103–111 (2013) N. Pragya, K.K. Pandey, P.K. Sahoo, A review on harvesting, oil extraction and biofuels production technologies from microalgae. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 24, 159–171 (2013) J.C. Quinn, R. Davis, The potentials and challenges of algae based biofuels: a review of the techno-economic, life cycle, and resource assessment modeling. Biores. Technol. 184, 444–452 (2015)

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GO-NGO Partnership and Sustainability of Climate Change Adaptation M. Anwar Hossen

Abstract

Sustainability of climate change adaptation is currently the core point in climate-vulnerable countries like Bangladesh. The policies in adaptation interventions like water resources management and associated disaster risk reduction promoted by the government (Go) in Bangladesh are supposed to overcome the climate change effects and ensure local communities’ sustainability. However, their effectiveness in the context of long term success was questionable as local people failed to eradicate their sufferings. Given the prominence of global governance lately, this question gets greater attention, and the neoliberal perspective emphasizes GO and NGO (Non-Government Organization) partnership. Based on the importance of this partnership, this paper explores the performances of GO-NGOs partnership by using the data of the research project, DECCMA (DEltas, vulnerability, and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation). The findings argue that despite a significant level of success in the partnership in climate change adaptation, local communities still encounter a major sustainability concern because of top-down policy practices. This concern can be addressed under the framework of adaptation governance. Keywords




Climate change adaptation partnership Governance




Sustainability




GO-NGO

Highlights • With the GO-NGO partnership, local communities are better positioned to deal with climate change adaptation, M. Anwar Hossen (&) University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected]

but the sustainability of adaptation is still a major concern. • The top-down approach causes lesser success in GO-NGO partnership in the adaptation sustainability. • The governance approach, including local community representatives with GO-NGO partnership, can be more effective in climate change adaptation.

1

Introduction

The multiple climate change effects: e.g., rainfall variability, irregular floods and drought, and desertification, cause major sustainability challenges for climate change adaptation in Bangladesh. These effects create concerns over local socio-economic opportunities like water, food, and health (Sachs 2008), which have short, medium, and long term consequences in local community livelihoods. Based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, the signatory countries like Bangladesh promote agricultural development in coordination with water resources management and disaster risk reduction to promote climate change adaptation. Although the state lost its past jurisdiction, it is still at the centre point in incorporating everyone’s livelihood opportunities for long-term sustainability in the environmental, social, and cultural aspects of livelihoods (Spaargaren 1997). However, structuration theory relies on the human agency to fix environmental problems in developed countries (Giddens 2008). Human agency as the centre of an actor is knowledgeable and capable of reproducing social practices important for this sustainability. However, this agency-centric approach is weaker when local institutions fail to secure the rights of everyday practices of local people important for the freedom of expression and representation. In Third World countries like Bangladesh, it is important to focus on the linkage between structure and agency to ensure

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_87

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their right and responsibility can be termed as the structuration. The process of reaching the goal of structuration can help introduce the dialogue and negotiation between the state and human agency centric approach. This structuration process is important in developing the discourse of climate change adaptation in mainstreaming the importance of sustainability (Cannon and Müller-Mahn 2010). This process of developing a sustainability perspective needs to be promoted with the role of local and national institutions, which can be ultimately useful to establish proper policies related to climate change adaptation (Tacoli 2009). This institutional process needs to recognize the cultural dimensions of adaptation grounded in the local community context (Adger et al. 2012). To overcome the elite-biased approach, the policy perspectives emphasize social justice, equity, and environmental sustainability (Brown 2011). For this purpose, the incorporation of local voices of individuals and communities can help ensure the sustainability elements of inclusion, participation, and empowerment (Boncour and Burson 2009). This adaptive governance approach emphasizes continuous learning, reducing error, and promoting accountability for local adaptation and community sustainability. The coordination between the public, private, and NGO sectors can promote awareness-raising, capacity building, and service delivery related to this sustainability (Thomalla et al. 2005). In this context, the bridging between individual agency and state role can develop better adaptation perspectives (Agrawal 2008). As part of this new effort on coordination, the nested bonding between policies and local people related to socio-economic issues like agriculture, conservation, and water resources are prerequisites to adaptation sustainability (Urwin and Jordan 2008). Incorporating social justice and environmental integrity in this sustainability perspective can promote better results in climate change adaptation (Eriksen et al. 2011). As part of global governance, UNFCCC has the institutional scope in reviewing the ongoing challenges for reducing climate change effects as the different geographic regions have different adaptation needs to be grounded in local socio-economic and environmental conditions. Side by side, this organization has a major strength in developing better coordination with state and non-state actors as the neoliberal system is in the driving seat of global governance. This governance perspective can be emphasized with Giddens’s (2008: 3) four major points: risk, planning, consensus, and social justice. Here the risk is described as the immediate and long-term danger that can be caused by climate change. In coordination with international communities and local NGOs, the state needs to develop the proper planning in addressing this risk and securing adaptation sustainability. These different groups of stakeholders under the coordination role of UNFCCC need to develop the

M. Anwar Hossen

broader consensus aiming to promote the success in climate change adaptation perspective. In this context, social justice in terms of the right to life and livelihood by overcoming the vulnerabilities caused by climate change effects needs to be incorporated in this consensus. Grounded on this climate change adaptation approach, the government in Bangladesh established Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) in 2009 and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2005, focusing on some major interventions: e.g., agricultural development and disaster risk reduction. In this context, the word adaptation is described as the “individuals and groups adapt to their environment by measuring the costs/benefits and successes/failures of these changes” (Simonet 2010). As shown in Map 1, the study area covers the southwest and south-central region of Bangladesh. An estimated projection shows that 97% of the coastal area and over 35 million people are vulnerable to multiple climatic concerns (Shamsuddoha and Chowdhury 2009). Based on these concerns, this article emphasizes the performances of local government and NGO partnerships in climate change adaptation and sustainability.

2

Methods

The study followed a mixed-method research approach where social survey, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and workshops were conducted in Bangladesh based on the research project, DECCMA (DEltas, vulnerability, and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation) in 2015–2018. In this research, a social survey was conducted with 1384 respondents in Bangladesh’s coastal area in 2016–2017. Furthermore, 19 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 3 workshops were also done; the FGDs were conducted in the coastal area, and the workshops were organized in Dhaka and Khulna. Two workshops were conducted in Dhaka at Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology (BUET) and, Ministry of Disaster Management (MoDM). At BUET, 62 participants from 22 organizations attended the workshop who represented the government, donors, and civil society in Bangladesh. At MoDM, the total participants were 52 from the different ministries, departments, and bureaus. The third workshop was organized at the district level Khulna, where 85 participants from local governments, non-government, and community organizations attended the workshop.

3

Results

During the FGD data collection, local people described the climate change effects with their livelihood experiences. Sajina, one FGD respondent of Shothkhali Village,

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Map 1 Coastal area in Bangladesh. Source DECCMA study

describes; drought is now longer, five months or more than the past, three months in a year. She also informed us that soil is now like sand; its fertility decreases significantly. In the Kazua village of Khulna, salinity intrusion creates different types of problems: e.g., it destroys field crops, causes deaths of domestic animals, and disrupts drinking water sources. To overcome these types of livelihood concerns, local people at the coastal area in Bangladesh, in coordination with GO and NGOs supports initiate the different types of adaptation measures like salt-tolerant crops, proper usage of fertilizer, land use transformation, getting training, and usage of shelter place described in Fig. 1. These measures have the combined contribution of structure and agency in the goal of successful adaptation important to get back their normal life after the climatic concerns. Based on the BCCSAP and NAPA guidelines, agricultural diversification is one major effort on climate change adaptation in terms of multiple cropping, crab farming, and floating gardening practiced by 73% of the survey respondents. The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) introduced new varieties of rice, oilseeds, and pulses. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and Bangladesh

Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) developed some varieties of Boro rice such as BRRI Dhan-47 and BINA-8 to fight against salinity intrusion (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) 2012). Based on this agricultural development, integrated farming covers the largest, 46%, of all adaptation practices that help increase crop production and fight against the climatic effects (Mondal et al. 2015). Salt tolerant paddy in the winter season is another effort practiced by 87% of the survey respondents in the coastal area, including Shothkhali, which was developed as part of climate change adaptation. Some NGOs like Shushilon, Prodipon, Sabalamby Unnayan Samity (SUS), Uttaran, Islamic Relief, Gonomukhi, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), Christian Commission for Development in Bangladesh (CCDB), Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), and Jagrata Juba Shongha (JJS) are working with local people for the goal of climate change adaptation. Shushilon in Shudhirpur village provides salinity tolerant plants like sofeda, coconut, rain tree, and plums for social forestry and income-generating activities. Although it was wild earlier for community consumption, crab farming is currently a major

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Fig. 1 Types of adaptation practiced by the respondents of coastal area in Bangladesh

income-generating source with microfinance from local NGOs like JJS, which helps in-situ adaptation. These activities are important elements of land use transformation practiced by 93% of the survey respondents described in Fig. 1. Local people initiate the different types of adaptation measures at an individual level with the support of local government and NGOs in Bangladesh’s coastal area. Among the survey respondents, 95% get these supports in fighting back in normal life after the climate change effects like Aila. Based on the JJS NGO initiatives, they get important guidelines related to the climatic issues and concerns. As 42% of the survey respondents who have three years or less schooling cannot read, the NGOs need to ensure their inclusion in the training not to be left behind. Like the JJS, some other NGOs provide training on different issues like salt-tolerant crop production and crab farming in fighting against climate change effects, which helped 97% of the respondents. To produce an increasing amount of crops, 79% of them use the increasing amount of chemical fertilizer to reduce the loss of climate change effects. One NGO, CCDB, regularly promotes a tree plantation program to reduce the river bank erosion and increase employment opportunities for the marginalized groups of local people. This forestation program also aims to protect local roads and communication networks important for local communities’ climate change adaptation. During Sidr’s cyclone, Jorina cut three banana trees and made a floating boat to save their life, domestic animals, and other assets. With the major contribution of some NGOs like BRAC and Grameen Bank, microcredit loan is an important mechanism for the 82% of survey respondents who are getting capital for new investment in recovering from climate change effects. In most cases, loan receivers are poor women who do not have alternative money sources like personal investments, friends, or relatives. This loan is mostly helpful for improving their socio-economic

condition, described as the development discourse of empowerment and the recovering mechanism from a specific climatic event like Sidr. As a loan security process, NGOs like BRAC encourage to join their designed village organization (VO) for the loan beneficiaries (Hossen 2015). Among the respondents, 90% joined in the cooperatives or VO to get the loan as their major goal of recovering from the vulnerabilities mentioned in Fig. 1. This village organization works as a platform for the loan receivers to meet regularly and discusses the effective investment strategy in climate change adaptation. As an adaptation effort on the household level, the survey data evinced that 96% of the respondents work outside of home to overcome their climate change effects on livelihoods. This earning makes women visible in their family decision-making process related to investment, children’s education, or male members’ working outside of their own village. This participatory approach at the household level helps reduce the gap among family members and fight against emergency events like Aila. Based on mutual understanding, 92% of the male respondents work outside of their village when they encounter unemployment or related problems caused by climatic concerns. All of these efforts help recover from the concerns and secure everyday livelihood. In addition to this household-level effort, local government and NGOs’ contribution adds new opportunities for increasing their scopes for climate change adaptation. Immediately after climatic concerns like Aila and Sidr, the government relaxed the payment of microcredit installment, waived the default interests, and developed policy guidelines in providing a new loan despite the record of the existing loan. They executed these measures in coordination with NGOs according to the data mentioned in Fig. 1. To secure safe water for agricultural production and domestic activities in fighting against climate change effects, the partnership between local government and NGOs

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reduces water-related problems. In some villages, such as Fashiatola, Kazua, Southkhali, Pasharbunia, no tube well for drinking water was available, and this caused water scarcity responsible for water borne diseases like diarrhea. After the cyclones of Aila and Sidr, for example, the people of Southkhali village faced this health concern, and still, now they are sufferings from the damage of tube wells and water-related sickness. Again, tube well in a distant place causes a major challenge for women and children in collecting drinking water. People in Dacope and Koyra face this challenge for a long time and look to solve the crisis in the climate change adaptation process. To overcome these increasing concerns over freshwater scarcity, the government in Bangladesh has major policy efforts to secure safe water for local people, as shown in Fig. 2. Based on NAPA (2009) guidelines, freshwater for agricultural production and domestic activities, including drinking water, is a major adaptation component in Bangladesh’s coastal area. Thus their traditional access like surface water or dug well has been replacing with a better facility like tube well; 84% of the survey respondents have access to tube-well whereas only two and five percent of them have dug well and surface water (e.g., river, pond, or canal) respectively. Traditional access is increasingly unsafe due to the increasing level of water pollution and environmental problem. As part of the sustainability perspective, rainwater harvesting is currently a major component in fighting against the water scarcity caused by climate change effects. In Shudhirpur, local NGOs like Nazrul Smriti Sangsad (NSS) assist coastal villagers in building rainwater harvesting structures. JJS set up 150 rainwater harvesting plants in Dacope and Koyra Upazilas. Most of this rainwater infrastructure is sustainable in coping with climatic concerns like cyclone Aila. This NGO provides microcredit, technical support, and maintenance training so that local people can secure their investment, access to water, and promote income-generating efforts in fighting against climate change effects. BRAC supports women’s roles in raising livestock and cultivating crops. With the training supports of JJS, women produce biogas that is helpful for income-generating

Fig. 2 Coastal people’s access to drinking water in Bangladesh

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activities and promotes environmental conservation and gender-based climate change adaptation. Moreover, the government established the disaster management system in coordination with local NGOs for the goal of climate change adaptation. For example, the government executed one project: Building Resilience of Vulnerable Communities and Institutions to Protect Livelihoods and Reduce Risk from Disasters and Climate Change in Coastal Areas of Bangladesh. It was established for the goal of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Khulna district. The project focused on the capacity building of local NGOs and local government to promote coastal people’s climate change adaptation. They trained 15,975 volunteers in 11 coastal upazilas to disseminate weather forecast information and related guidelines so that local people can take necessary measures related to their field crops, household assets, and food supplies in coping with climate change effects. In this context, early warning and real-time information dissemination are important efforts on this disaster management in terms of overcoming the negative effects of extreme weather like floods or drought. In coordination with Upazila Disaster Management Committee (UDMC), some NGOs like JJS deliver the early warning to local people as part of the Cyclone Preparation Program (CPP). They collect the latest information from the national level weather department, print and electronic media, and disseminate them to local people by their trained volunteers. Local volunteers use hand mikes to deliver weather forecasts and related emergency information. Some NGOs offer mike and radio to local community representatives and maintain close communication during the emergency time to disseminate real-time weather information. In addition to the government and NGOs’ information, some of the respondents currently use social media like Facebook in getting real-time information about weather forecasts, emergency measures, and shelter places to ensure their safety in the context of climate change adaptation. Social networking as an individual agency performs a stronger role in communicating with each other within and beyond their own community. Multiple social communication fronts: e.g., children communicate with parents, friends, and classmates are new dimensions in reducing climatic effects in Bangladesh. Like others, Humaira of Ramgoti have phones and use social media as part of their emergency coping mechanism. Based on the available information, she reserved dry food, drinking water, and a firebox in a safer place underneath to ensure the emergency supply during the cyclone Sidr. When the climatic concerns reach an extreme level, the local government and NGOs motivate local people to take refuge in the shelter. They explain the risk of not going to the shelter side by side with the advantage of moving there. As a result of this effort, 83% of the survey respondents took

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refuge in the government shelter place during the cyclone Sidr mentioned in Fig. 1. Another major contribution of NGOs is to promote social services to local people in recovering from climatic concerns over Bangladesh’s coastal area. BRAC executes the wash program while Shushilon contributes to food for work and child food program. CCDP programs emphasize promoting housing and other basic rights like food programs. Heed Bangladesh and PSKF provide loans for Income Generating Activities (IGAs) like car painting, plumbing, and trading. Asroy Foundation trains local women to promote local people’s innovative ideas about alternative IGAs, such as small business in handicraft sectors, vegetable gardening like pumpkin and carrot production, tailoring, and engagement in fishing and aquaculture, and nurturing livestock. These activities are currently the foundation for gender-based climate change adaptation activities grounded in the neoliberal development approach. Despite the GO-NGOs partnership efforts, one important question is currently getting an increasing level of attention; whether the present adaptation measures help ensure local people’s sustainability given the frequent nature of climatic concerns. For example, working outside of the village for male members promotes earnings and causes multiple social problems like divorce, adulteration, or lack of trust between husband and wife. Furthermore, sometimes local people use a greater amount of fertilizer as the survey data demonstrated to get the increasing amount of crops in recovering from the climate change effects. This aspect of adaptation limitation causes multiple environmental and biodiversity concerns as the different species of vegetation, animal, and plants are disappearing from the local ecosystem. These concerns raise many questions that need to be dealt with in the dominant discourse of sustainability. Furthermore, some other concerns over the climate change adaptation need to be considered in reducing the challenges for coastal people in Bangladesh. For example, due to the absence of cyclone shelter near their neighborhood in Fashiatola village, the villagers are used to taking shelter in a raised house when a storm like Sidr strikes. Because of the absence of a proper shelter or storage place, Fouzia Begum expresses frustration over personal safety, household assets, domestic animals, and agricultural materials. Here, the marginalized people like Fouzia’s old father-in-law and three-year-old daughter encounter the survival challenges. Again, the absence of a sheltered place is not the only problem; the inappropriate shelter is another major concern. For example, the Pasharbunia area has a cyclone shelter, yet it is not easily reachable at a proper time. Furthermore, the shelter place cannot accommodate the total number of local people due to its limited capacity. During the cyclone Sidr, the marginalized groups of people like children, pregnant

M. Anwar Hossen

women, disabled, and elderly encounter different challenges regarding the freedom of movement into a shelter, privacy, sanitary norms, and sleeping seats. Moving to a sheltered place, they encounter another type of social problems: e.g., the dilemma between life and livelihood. As human beings, they can take refuge at a shelter to secure their lives, but their livelihood elements like domestic animals, household essentials, and stored crops need to be left behind in the insecure household finding no other alternatives. Due to the extreme level of flood or absence of household members, these livelihood assets can be washed away or stolen, which can cause a major survival challenge. These concerns over the livelihood elements are more challenging for the poor to recover from the effects of climatic concerns. The failure to protect them can cause further livelihood vulnerabilities and displacement. In addition to these limitations in emergency response, water development causes further adaptation sustainability concerns like water-logging and drainage congestion, creating major concerns over agricultural production in Southkhali. One major cause for this logging is polders established to increase agricultural production in Bangladesh’s coastal region. However, polders currently cause drainage bottlenecks and reversing agricultural production. Furthermore, the bottleneck causes runoff of chemical fertilizers in local water bodies responsible for biodiversity loss, environmental degradation, and sustainability concerns.

4

Discussion

The GO-NGOs partnership plays a significant role in ensuring agricultural production and associated disaster management activities for climate change adaptation. For example, climate tolerant crops are successful initiatives of the BCCSAP and NAPA executed by the local government. NGOs promote social mobilization in favor of this crop production. Furthermore, the local government performs the core role in coordinating with NGO representatives and other groups of stakeholders in climate change adaptation. Although BCCSAP and NAPA have been performing the main role in this process, a significant number of other policies like water and agriculture have also contributed to promoting the socio-economic capability of the coastal people in Bangladesh. The problem with this contribution of multiple policies is that it is difficult to specify one specific policy’s contribution to local people’s climate change adaptation. For example, they take microcredit loan for rainwater harvesting to fight against the climate change effects had been executed with disaster management and social protection programs in Bangladesh. However, the GO-NGO partnership showed limitations in supporting all groups of people as the level of adverse effects

GO-NGO Partnership and Sustainability of Climate …

is greater than their existing capacity in terms of human resources, funding, infrastructure, and policy discourse. Again, the current trend of climatic vulnerabilities indicates that they are likely to increase—thereby, it is essential to increase the institutional capacity in collaboration with government, private sectors, NGOs, and local communities. Furthermore, the government needs to have the proper data related to the total number of climate victims, along with their socio-economic condition. This data is supposed to describe the different dimensions of the problems, e.g., who needs what types of supports in the process of climate change adaptation. Furthermore, the FGD data analyses indicate a gap between local people and service delivery related to the adaptation measures. NGOs provide the services depending on the funding availability and follow the funding agency designed goal, and they have lesser accountability to local people. Again, the local government executes the central government’s decision, which may not appropriate to the different groups of local people like fishermen, indigenous people, disable, or women. NGOs and the local government may have a different understanding of the adaptation approach, but they do not have scope for representing this understanding in the policy-making process of the central government or funding agencies. Evaluating this lens of NGOs and local government, it is challenging to develop the adaptation discourse important to promote the coastal people’s capability in Bangladesh. To reduce this gap between policy and local people, the DECCMA research findings demonstrate that locally embedded understanding of adaptation sustainability needs to be mainstreamed in GO-NGO partnership. Local NGOs and the government are supposed to represent the policy-making process in promoting a greater level of success in climate change adaptation. This approach will help reduce the gap between government and local people and create a new scope for inclusion and representation for the goal of adaptation sustainability. Otherwise, this gap will not be helpful for the success of coastal communities in Bangladesh.

5

Conclusion

The linkage between policy and local communities is the principal foundation for GO-NGO partnership in promoting climate change adaptation. This partnership plays an important role in the different issues like agricultural production and related disaster risk reduction at the policy execution level. Based on this policy execution, coastal people in Bangladesh can secure, for example, a greater amount of crops, get micro credit from NGOs, access drinking water, and take refuge at a sheltered place during a

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climatic emergency. However, these adaptation measures are not enough to establish adaptation sustainability. The climate-vulnerable people cannot survive even for a week without having a regular income or external supports, which were evident in the context of cyclone Sidr; this level of vulnerability raises the question about the effectiveness of the GO-NGO partnership. Two adaptation discourses can help address this question: (i) effective inclusion of local community representatives in GO-NGO partnership to reduce the influence of top-down practices and to promote the governance approach, and (ii) redirection of neoliberalism in fixing the negative effects of the market economy on the adaptation approach. Acknowledgements This work was carried out under the DEltas, vulnerability and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation (DECCMA) project which is part of Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA), with financial support from the UK Government’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), canada. the views expressed in this work are those of the creators and do not necessarily represent those of DFID and IDRC or its board of governors.

References W.N. Adger, J. Barnett, K. Brown, N. Marshall, K. O’Brien, Cultural dimensions of climate change impacts and adaptation. Nat. Clim. Change 3(2), 112 (2012) A. Agrawal, The Role of Local Institutions in Adaptation to Climate Change (2008). [Online]. Available from http://siteresources. worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/ updated_SDCCWorkingPaper_LocalInstitutions.pdf Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), BRRI Annual Report Summary 2012–2013 (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012). http://brri.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/ brri.portal.gov.bd/page/6d86d72e_953c_4f74_9157_3cfeaa80c2b1/ BRRI_annualrepor_summary%202012-13.pdf P. Boncour, B. Burson, Climate change and migration in the South Pacific region: policy perspectives. Policy Q. 5(4) (2009) K. Brown, Sustainable adaptation: an oxymoron? Clim. Dev. 3(1), 21– 31 (2011) T. Cannon, D. Müller-Mahn, Vulnerability, resilience and development discourses in context of climate change. Nat. Hazards 55(3), 621– 635 (2010) S. Eriksen, P. Aldunce, C.S. Bahinipati, R.D. Martins, J.I. Molefe, C. Nhemachena, K. O’Brien, F. Olorunfemi, J. Park, L. Sygna, When not every response to climate change is a good one: identifying principles for sustainable adaptation. Clim. Dev. 3(1), 7–20 (2011) A. Giddens, The Politics of Climate Change: National Responses to the Challenges of Global Warming (Policy Network, London, 2008) H.M. Hossen, Poverty reduction challenges: BRAC’s programs in Bangladesh. Dhaka Univ. Stud. 6(8), 43–63 (2015) M.S. Mondal, D. Saha, M.S.S. Hossain, M.T. Islam, P.K. Das, M.A. Hossain, Z. Akhter, R. Rahman, T. Siddiqui, Report on Adaptation Inventory in GBM-Bangladesh Delta (2015) W. Sachs, Climate change and human rights. Development 51(3), 332– 337 (2008) M. Shamsuddoha, R.K. Chowdhury, Climate Change Induced Forced Migrants: In Need of Dignified Recognition Under a New Protocol

702 (EquityBd, Bangladesh, 2009). [Online]. Available from https:// www.mediaterre.org/docactu,Q0RJLUwtMy9kb2NzL2NsaW1hdG UtbWlncmFudC1wcmludGVkLXBvc2l0aW9uLWRlYy0wOQ==,1. pdf G. Simonet, The concept of adaptation: interdisciplinary scope and involvement in climate change. S.A.P.I.E.N.S. Surv. Perspect. Integr. Environ. Soc. (3.1) (2010) G. Spaargaren, The Ecological Modernization of Production and Consumption: Essays in Environmental Sociology (Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, Wageningen, 1997)

M. Anwar Hossen C. Tacoli, Crisis or adaptation? Migration and climate change in a context of high mobility. Environ. Urban. 21(2), 513–525 (2009) F. Thomalla, T. Cannon, S. Huq, R.J.T. Klein, C. Schaerer, Mainstreaming adaptation to climate change in coastal Bangladesh by building civil society alliances. Solut. Coast. Disasters 668–684 (2005) K. Urwin, A. Jordan, Does public policy support or undermine climate change adaptation? Exploring policy interplay across different scales of governance. Glob. Environ. Change 18(1), 180–191 (2008)

Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste Management and Treatment Systems in the Arab Gulf States (With the Potential to Benefit from Global Experiences) Amar Houtia and Fatima Zohra Houtia

Abstract

Keywords

According to a recent report issued at the World Governments Summit in Dubai in February 2019, the current linear economy model in the Arabian Gulf region is depleting its resources at an accelerated rate while generating unprecedented amounts of waste and emissions, causing social, economic, and environmental damage. If waste is the world’s biggest problem because of its environmental and health risks, the Gulf States needs to exploit the vast resources of wastes and benefit from its revenues. Hence, the importance of applying the circular economy as a modern model seeks to enhance the value and productivity of resources and reduce slack and losses, which has a positive impact on the economy and the environment. The report noted that countries in the region could save nearly $138 billion by 2030 if they adopted the circular economic model. Whereas the GCC countries are taking accelerated steps toward adopting the circular economy model to achieve sustainable growth according to their strategic vision, the question arises: How does the application of the circular economy model contribute to the improvement of waste management and treatment systems in the Gulf States? The research aims to introduce the circular economy model and try to diagnose the reality of the wastes industry in the region while demonstrating the contribution of the application of the circular economy model to improving waste management and treatment systems in the Arab Gulf countries, with the potential to benefit from global experiences in this field.

Arab Gulf states Circular economy Efficient use of resources Waste management systems

1








Introduction

New economic models have been developed to improve waste management and treatment systems, the most important of which is the circular economy model, which is gaining increasing global attention as a tributary of sustainable development, and they are expected to save the world approximately $1 trillion by 2025. In the Arabian Gulf region, a recent report issued at the World Governments Summit in Dubai in February 2019 indicated that the current linear economic model in the region is draining its resources at an accelerated rate with the generation of unprecedented amounts of wastes and emissions, causing social, economic, and environmental damage. If waste is the biggest problem that worries the world because of its environmental and health risks, the Arab Gulf countries need to implement mechanisms to exploit the vast resources of waste and benefit from its revenues.

1.1 Definition of the Circular Economy The concept of a circular economy has many definitions, among which: • A circular economy is an economic system aimed at eliminating waste and the continual use of resources.1

A. Houtia (&) Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA F. Z. Houtia Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar

1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_88

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• The circular economy is a new industrial model that opposes the linear model of resource consumption based on the trilogy “Take, industrialize, dispose of” to eliminate environmentally harmful waste (Gallaud and Laperche 2016). • A circular economy is an economy in which the value of products, materials, and resources in the economy is maintained as long as possible, and waste production is minimized (Le Moigne 2018). • A circular economy is an industrial economy that does not produce waste or does not cause pollution in the environment, from the beginning of its creation, through its design and manufacture.2 From previous definitions, we conclude that: a circular economy is an economy in which waste production is minimized, it has no adverse effects on the environment, and it is based on recycling components and products. This can be expressed in Fig. 1. The circular economy is generally based on several foundations, including (Esposito et al. 2018): 1. No waste. All components are recycled and reused. 2. Diversity is power, as various products, materials, and systems are more flexible in the face of external shocks. 3. Energy must be from renewable sources, and to rationalize the consumption of non-renewable energy sources. 4. The rule of systems thinking, i.e., looking at things as affecting each other within an integrated framework and considering the elements appropriate within the context of infrastructure, environment, and society. 5. Prices should reflect the real cost in order to be effective (op-cit).

A. Houtia and F. Z. Houtia

Fig. 1 Circular economy model. Source https://c-voucher.com/ circular-economy-vs-linear-economy/

1.1.2 Importance and Objectives of the Research This research is significant because it is related to the new economic model “circular economy.” This model deems pollution and wastes as leakage of value, and its application will undoubtedly enable to improve the use of resources, reduce wastes, and develop the mechanisms of operation of waste management and treatment systems. All these tools contribute to the advancement of development, economy, innovation, and sustainable growth. Through this research, we will pursue the following objectives: • It was introducing the circular economy model and the advantages of its application in the Arab Gulf countries. • Try to diagnose the waste industry’s reality in the region and the importance of developing waste management systems and treatment. • Identify aspects of the circular economy model application’s contribution to the improvement of waste management and treatment systems. • Reference to international experiences and possibilities to benefit from them in this field.

The circular economy operates on four levels: products, companies, networks, and policies.

2 1.1.1 Problematic Research As mentioned in the above report, the GCC countries will save approximately $138 billion by 2030 if they adopt the circular economic model. This has led the countries of the region to take accelerated steps toward adopting this model. Following their strategic vision, the question arises: How does the application of the circular economy model contribute to the improvement of waste management and treatment systems in the Gulf States?

2

Nouf Abdelaziz Al-Ghamdi. Economic pluralism and sustainable investment. Retrieved from https://www.maaal.com/archives/ 20190123/117824.

Research Methodology

The world’s common economy is linear, based mainly on production and consumption (extraction, industrialization, use, disposal), which has been reflected in the unfair treatment of the environment as a waste dump and has led to the development of new economic models such as the knowledge, participatory, social, cooperative, and circular economy model. The researcher adopted the descriptive analytical approach to define and describe some of the circular economy concepts. We try to analyze some of the impacts of the latter’s application on improving waste management systems and treatment using data and statistics from government sources and international bodies related to the subject of the study and use indicators to explain that impact.

Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste …

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Discussion

4

Results

Some of the results will be: • The aggravation of waste and emissions in the Arab Gulf countries makes it more urgent to apply the “circular economy” mechanisms to exploit resources of waste and benefit from its revenues. • The circular economy uses fewer resources in manufacturing processes and changes prevailing practices in the disposal of the product in the wastes, to reuse such as re-repair or recycling the product. • Most countries in the region do not have programs for sorting, recycling, or disposing of waste safely. They need to implement a circular economy to exploit the huge waste resources and benefit from their revenues. • Some countries in the region, such as the United Arab Emirates, have made significant progress in this area, have adopted the circular economy model, and are among the first countries to adopt the “Accelerate the Circular Economic 360” system. • With some 29 million tons of garbage expected to be generated by 2020, strict measures have been taken to advance zero waste, starting with the goal of diverting 75% of waste from landfills through reuse and recycling by 2021. • It is possible to benefit from international experiences such as those of China and Finland. • In China, where the waste processing industry is expected to grow to 300 billion-yuan, circular economy services such as door-to-door recycling and garbage disposal have diversified. Many centers and businesses are established in major cities such as Shanghai. Different types of garbage are converted into different products. • In Finland, in addition to imposing an environmental tax or duty on waste treatment activities, one of Finland’s main waste prevention strategies focuses on the root of the problem, focusing on products from the first stage of production. Part of the subsidy funds is provided to reuse and recycling centers.

4.1 The Importance of Transiting to a Circular Economy The trend toward a circular economy is one of the most popular topics in recent years, both at the research level and at the level of countries working to include them in their public policies. The transition from a linear economy to a

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circular economy is necessary for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, as there are not enough natural resources to sustain the growth of the world economy on a linear model. If a linear economy deals with raw materials and then manufactures them as a product and the cycle of use ends with their disposal as waste, the circular economy as a new economic model is the opposite, as it is interested in changing all production methods unsustainable consumption patterns. Furthermore, the circular economy’s application will reduce the ecological footprint, reduce accumulated waste, reduce air pollution and strategic solution for climate change, and reduce the amount of energy needed for industrial production processes. It also allows resources to be used in the best possible way as long as possible, modernizes the economic system, creates sustainable jobs, and builds a fairer and more inclusive economic system.3 Smol et al. (2018) referred to some of the transition requirements to the circular economy, namely4: first, the existence of ecological culture, environmental awareness, change of attitudes and behaviors, and change of behavior patterns. Second, integrated resource-based planning for industrial, agricultural, and urban development, as in Germany, the Netherlands, Finland, and Poland, introduced the circular economy’s principles in 2016. Third, introducing cleaner methods of production in companies as well as the development of eco-industrial parks. Finally, there is no doubt that enterprises’ trend to implement circular working systems will bring them sustainability and the creation of competitive advantage.

4.2 Advantages of Shifting Toward a Circular Economy Governments are currently seeking to shift toward a circular economy, benefiting from its many advantages, which are as follows: to start, achieving sustainability, the circular economy is a sustainable economy, dependent on reliable production friendly environmental systems. It will also contribute to reducing the impact of the eco-footprint by reducing the deterioration of the environment. Another advantage is, contributing to energy management and providing it as a service and not a product through entrepreneurship and eco-innovation. Furthermore, it balances economic development with environmental and resource protection, and it focuses on the most effective and efficient use and recycling of resources and environmental 3

How does the circular economy contribute to environmental protection? Published in Al-Sharq Al-Awsat newspaper. (22/12/2019). Retrieved from https://aawsat.com/home/article/2046531/F. 4 Smol et al. (2018).

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A. Houtia and F. Z. Houtia

protection. Also, it reduces energy and other resource consumption and pollutants’ emission and produces less waste. It creates new employment opportunities by maximizing the use of resources, particularly in the areas of recycling. Also, it reduces the cost of raw materials and energy uses and reduces losses and the costs of preserving the environment. Moreover, improving markets and institutions’ image creates new markets and industries, contributing to maximizing the value. Finally, it promotes cooperation and participation in all areas of the economy and increase the sense of responsibility.5 Finally, the emergence of a different type of consumers interested in an innovative model of ownership, namely (Korhonen et al. 2018), ownership of services rather than individual ownership of the commodity or product.6 A 2015 report by the World Economic Forum and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation indicated that a circular economy would save the world $1 trillion by 2025 and create more than 100,000 new jobs. According to the EC’s report, the EU’s circular economy will reach 1.4 billion Euros by 2030 and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by nearly 450 million tonnes yearly.7 From the above, we find that circular economy is an economic model that uses fewer resources in manufacturing processes and that it is changing the practices of subsequent waste disposal of the product and switching to reuse, such as re-fix it, remanufacture it, or recycling of the product. Which makes us wonder how waste is managed?

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What Are Waste Management Systems?

Waste management is a crucial issue for those interested in environmental issues due to environmental problems resulting from its mismanagement. What is the concept of waste management?

required to be disposed of under national law.”8 Waste can be classified according to several criteria, including (Muslim and Massoudi 2018): • According to its hazard level: waste is classified in terms of its hazard into two: hazardous waste and non-hazardous or regular waste. • According to its source and nature: classified as a household, industrial, commercial, agricultural, medical, construction or removal waste, mine waste, radioactive waste, electronic waste, etc.… • According to their state: liquid waste, gas waste, solid waste. According to a report released by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in June 2018, the world produces more than 3 billion tons of waste annually, which is expected to reach more than 13 billion tons in 2050 and that 9% of the 9 billion tons of plastic produced by the world are recycled, while 91% of these tones will end up in the garbage or the environment in general. Besides, some of the effects of waste can be summarized in the following points: • Contamination of sewage and poisoning by this water. • Poisoning and contamination with toxic substances and compounds resulting from hazardous waste such as chemical waste. • Waste disposal contaminates air, water, and soil, causing 2.4 million deaths worldwide yearly (Ausra and Pablo 2012). • In the case of waste accumulation, it causes many health risks due to germs’ transmission to the human body. • Economically negative impacts, such as the cost of waste disposal and the cost of treating their negative effects healthily and environmentally.

5.1 Waste Types and Effects WHO defined the waste as: “Some things that the owner does not want somewhere and at some time that have no importance or value” (Abdel-Haq 2016)? Furthermore, according to Basel accords, waste is defined as: “Materials or objects that are disposed of intended to be disposed of or

Al-Saadoun Asaad. “The Circular Economy … Its Concept, Importance and Location in the Gulf Culture”. Published in the Bahrain News newspaper, retrieved from http://akhbar-alkhaleej.com/news/article/ 1103119/, accessed on 04/02/2020. 6 Circular economy … a global trend to implement comprehensive sustainability standards, AlMajala Magazine, retrieved from https://arb. majalla.com/2017/11/article55262200/9/. 7 Ibid. 5

5.2 The Concept of Waste Management Process The worsening effects and risks of waste have led to increased attention to waste management, which includes methods and techniques associated with reducing waste from sources of generation, storage, collection, transportation, and final disposal, following social and environmental regulations and laws protecting the health, public environment, and aesthetics of the public landscape as well as economic aspects (Salvato 2003).

8

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (2011).

Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste …

The definition of waste management means controlling the processes (generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing, recycling, and final disposal) of solid waste in a manner or method consistent with public health, economic, urban and regional planning standards, natural resource conservation, and environmental considerations (Zuilen 2006). Furthermore, waste management is a collective activity involving separation, collection, transportation, reprocessing, recycling, and disposal of various types of waste to mitigate its negative effects on environmental, human, and economic health. It also relies on both the public and private sectors to find appropriate solutions that include administrative, financial, legislative, planning, and engineering aspects related to waste problems. These fields usually address many science and knowledge fields, including planning, geography, economics, public health, and engineering. In order to design an appropriate waste management system, the following objectives must be achieved (Zuilen 2006): protecting public health, achieving the high quality of an urban environment, supporting the economy, and creating jobs. Though recycling contributes to environmental conservation, reduces pollution, contributes to the conservation of resources and energy, reduces consumption, increases the efficiency of production processes, and contributes to energy saving and protection of land from harmful and toxic substances from extractive and manufacturing industries, there are other significant economic benefits. The operation provides 700 kg of petroleum per ton of recovered plastic, and the recovery of 1 kg of aluminum provides about 8 kg bauxite, 4 kg of chemicals, and 14 kWh of electricity. Each ton of recovered carton provides 2.5 tons of forest wood (Al-Suleiman 2017); each leaf saves 1 L of water, 2.5 W/h of electricity, and 15 g of wood. Moreover, there are several methods for reusing and utilizing waste, the most important of which is the 3R: Basically, the 3R (reduce–reuse–recycle) concept is a sequence of steps on how to manage waste properly. First, reduce: buy what you need because a better way to reduce waste is not creating it. Second, reuse: If you have to acquire goods, try getting used ones, or obtaining substitutes. Third, recycle: When discarding your waste, find ways to recycle it instead of letting it go to landfill (Abdul-Rahman 2014). The Waste Management Hierarchy, which usually appears in an inverted triangle, presents a hierarchical approach to showing the most preferred way to generate and manage waste. Reduction and reuse are the two most preferred methods, followed by recycling, extracting energy, and, finally, processing and disposal of it properly (see Fig. 2). Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a contemporary and systematic approach to solid waste management. The US Environmental Protection Agency

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Fig. 2 The waste management hierarchy. Source http://www. newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy/

(EPA) defines it as an integrated waste collection, recycling, and disposal system. It contains a set of plans and strategies that help to achieve its objectives and goals (Salvato 1992), which are reducing source, recycling, waste transport, landfilling. Good processing or sustainable waste management is essential from a healthy point of view and relevant economic and environmental values, including their contribution to energy generation in developing countries. The use of AI technology is an important step in the waste management cycle and sustainably. Nonetheless, poor waste management undoubtedly harms human health and the local environment while increasing the climate challenge. Unfortunately, the poorest people in society are often adversely affected by inadequate waste management. Good waste management systems are, therefore, necessary to build a recycling economy.

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The Role of the Circular Economy in Activating Waste Management Systems in the Arab Gulf Countries

As we have seen before, the circular economy reflects an economy without waste or pollution. We will try to diagnose the circular economy’s reality and the importance of activating its role in activating waste management systems in the Arab Gulf states.

6.1 The Reality of the Implementation of the Circular Economy and Its Expected Benefits in the Arab Gulf States A recent report issued at the World Government Summit in Dubai in February 2019 entitled “Putting GCC cities in the loop” indicated that the current linear economic model in the Arabian Gulf region is draining its resources at an accelerated rate with the generation of unprecedented amounts of

708 Table 1 GCC countries have some of the most intensive usages of electricity for households and gas for transportation

A. Houtia and F. Z. Houtia

Electricity consumption, 2016 Gasoline consumption, 2016

Kuwait

Saudi Arabia

UAE

MWh per household per year

40.0

24.0

18.0

Global rank

1st

3rd

4th

Liter per person per day

2.8

2.5

2.3

Global rank

3rd

4th

6th

Source Bejjani et al. (2019)

waste and emissions, causing social and environmental damage. For example, the rates of energy consumption in homes, fuels, and transportation in the region are the highest globally, as shown in Table 1. Data indicate that the total production of waste in the Arab Gulf countries reaches 150 million tons per year, and the UNITED Arab Emirates is one of the highest countries in the region in terms of solid waste production with a per capita production rate of 2.2 kg per day, followed by Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Bahrain.9 The GCC countries’ carbon footprint is one of the largest among their global counterparts, with five of these countries in the top 10 out of 142 countries in 2015 compared to the population. Given the unsustainability of the linear economic model, there is an urgent need to shift to a circular economic model as an alternative, positively impacting the economy and the environment. It could help align the region’s economies with their countries’ national visions of sustainable investment and contribute positively to economic diversification. Its application would bring many benefits to the Gulf States, as the report noted (Bejjani et al. 2019): 1. Enhancing resource value and productivity, reducing losses, and contributing to sustainable economic growth. 2. Supporting economic diversification strategies and development programs in the countries of the region. 3. Stimulating environmentally friendly innovation, manufacturing, rationalizing consumption, and recycling. 4. Savings of up to $138 billion between 2020 and 2030, distributed as follows: • A flexible and strong urban environment incorporates circular principles into the approach to building and use, and the consumption of products and facilities, saving approximately $23 and $23 billion and considering that the construction sector produces 35–40% of the total waste in cities in the Arab Gulf countries, compared to between 25 and 30%. • The formation of an environment-friendly and flexible mobility system, resulting in cumulative benefits in the GCC, amounting to $69 billion between 2020 and

9

Ibid.

2030, in addition to reducing CO2 emissions by 28 million tons during the same period, equivalent to the removal of 577,000 cars off the roads, about half of the personal vehicles currently in use in the UAE. • Building a society aware of the circular culture and environmental issues within households, generating cumulative benefits of $46 billion between 2020 and 2030, could lead to a reduction of up to 117 million tons of CO2 during the same period by rationalizing electricity consumption, slightly more than the annual CO2 emissions recorded in the Czech Republic in 2015.

6.2 Efforts to Shift to the Circular Economy and Waste Management in the Arab Gulf Countries In recent years, the Gulf States have been making significant efforts to adopt a circular economy model, increase recycling investment, and create a strong waste management industry. The most prominent are: In Saudi Arabia, the Kingdom adopts the concept of a “low-carbon circular economy” to reduce carbon emissions, based on four strategies: reduction, reuse, recycling, and disposal. Moreover, most of the waste produced in Saudi cities is rich in organic components such as food waste, which amounts to 40–50% of the total solid waste collected, and plastics amounting to 16–20% of the total solid waste. The Kingdom recycles approximately 10% of the recyclable materials with an annual production of about 50 million tons, while about 90% of the materials are disposed of by landfill, which can lead to many environmental issues. Consequently, an integrated waste management system is needed. From here, the new 2030 vision growth policy stressed the support of the maximum transfer of waste from landfills to material or energy with the production of clean energy, recyclable products, and an environmentally friendly added value. Therefore, the development of waste to energy or waste analysis at the biological level is essential to search for promising solutions such as alternative fuels and waste

Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste …

disposal problems and huge economic and environmental benefits.10 SIRC, owned by the Public Investment Fund, plans to launch Saudi Arabia’s first plant to process solid waste and convert it into energy during 2023. In the UAE: The UAE is moving in the right direction toward adopting the circular economy model through national plans and legislation that integrate and monitor sustainability standards, including Vision 2021 and the Green Agenda 2030. Dubai’s recycling rate reached a high level of 25% of total waste in 2015–2018, compared with an average of 45% in the EU. The implementation of the circular economy in UAE cities is expected to save $28 billion during the period (2020–2030), spread over $7.2 billion in the urban environment, $11 billion in transportation systems, and $9.8 billion in homes. It could save 23 million tons of carbon emissions during the same period, in the form of 1.3 million tons in the urban environment, 4.5 million tons in transport systems, and 17 million tons in homes. The state’s interest in this economic and development transformation is reflected in the national agenda by reducing landfill by 75%. By 2021, Dubai Industrial Strategy 2030, Abu Dhabi Environmental Vision 2030, and more.11 Since the beginning of 2008, the UAE has started establishing a waste management center, “Recycling,” and building a waste-to-power plant in Abu Dhabi. Dubai Municipality is building the largest solid waste-to-energy plant, in addition to several recycling projects set up by the private sector, such as used edible oil recycling plants and convert it into car oil. In Bahrain, where there is no strategic waste recycling project, waste processing is still carried out in traditional ways, resulting in a significant lost opportunity for investment, and there are a few small- and medium-sized private projects that rely on incoming labor to collect and sort waste.12 In Kuwait, it is one of the highest countries in the generation of solid waste compared to the population, with a production of about 1.4 kg of waste per person, and still adopts old methods without sorting in the process of solid waste disposal, and there are 18 landfill sites in Kuwait. Organic food, which accounts for 50% of municipal solid waste, is considered effective and useful in producing high-quality organic fertilizers and the potential for producing methane, which contributes to electricity generation, which is feasible given Kuwait’s high energy consumption rates. Kuwait also established the Waste Research

10

Abdul Sattar Nizami, Muhammad Rehan. Achieving revenue from waste management. Retrieved from https://www.envirocitiesmag.com/. 11 “Circular economy” Emirates road to sustainable development. (17/03/2019), retrieved from https://www.albayan.ae/economy/localmarket/2019-03-17-1.3513645/. 12 Ibid.

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Management Unit at the Kuwait Scientific Research Institute in April 2016, and Umniah, an emerging company, launched an environment-friendly initiative to recycle plastic waste and build a plant for that. In Qatar, its efforts to achieve sustainable environmental development in light of Qatar’s Vision 2030 focus on energy development launched in 2008, with Qatar moving toward recycling and using waste as organic fuels. It has initiated studies on the extraction and recycling of organic gas emitted from waste for use as organic fuel for the operation of dual-fuel vehicles (Al-Suleiman 2017). In Oman, on December 17, 2019, the first environmental innovation platform to accelerate business was launched, building and developing new business models in the areas of sustainability and circular economy, pushing small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to adopt the UN Sustainable Development Goals and Oman’s Vision 2040 goals. From the above, the GCC countries, which rely mainly on oil and gas, still lack a comprehensive approach to upgrading the circularity per the three main principles of the circular economy, namely the optimal use of resources, prolonged product life, and reduced the volume of waste and extracted the value from them.

6.3 The Challenges Facing Waste Processing and Management in the Arab Gulf Countries In 1997, the GCC adopted a unified waste management system, disposing of it in a way that preserves the environment and at the same time prevents its harmful effects on human health and safety. It also managed waste and neutralized a large part of it from landfills through reuse and recycling, and its recycling rates ranged from approximately 10% in Saudi Arabia to about 30% in Abu Dhabi in 2016, well below the EU average of 46% in 2016 [14]. However, the waste management sector in the Arab Gulf countries faces many major challenges, including a lack of a clear business structure in managing the waste sector to collect, transport, and process waste properly. Secondly, the lack of effective and comprehensive legislative frameworks regulates the waste sector and application mechanisms’ inefficiency. Furthermore, most waste management activities are directly linked to state institutions, i.e., the public sector. Thirdly, the inefficiency of human and organizational capabilities and specialized competencies in this field. Moreover, the lack of accurate and reliable basic data, the lack of information on waste. Another challenge is inadequate infrastructure and waste management strategies. Besides, waste recycling is expensive. Finally, there is insufficient demand for recycled products in the domestic market, hampering the waste recycling industry’s growth. Finally, prevailing public

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opinion, where the region’s countries’ economy depends mainly on oil and gas. Therefore, for several decades, renewable energy alternatives such as solar, wind, and others have not been introduced. However, in the last few years, due to low oil prices, more consideration has been given to renewable sources.13

7

The Potential to Benefit from International Experiences to Activate the Role of the Circular Economy in Waste Management

To reduce the negative effects of waste in the Arab Gulf countries, we can use international experiences to activate the circular economy’s role in managing waste and achieving sustainable development in the region’s countries.

7.1 Some International Experiences in the Adoption of Circular Economy and Waste Management China, Japan, and South Korea have developed national strategies to enable the circular economy. In 2002, China adopted the circular economy as a development strategy and practiced with the Circular Economic Promotion Act in 2009.14 Japan, which leads the world in the ratio of waste-to-energy conversion, passed the Basic Law for the Establishment of a Recycling Society in 2000. According to the China Sustainable Development Research Association, “The adoption of China’s circular economy will contribute to the launch of seven new industries: environmental industry, waste recycling, energy saving, and reduced consumption, renewable energy, health, service economy, design, and creative perceptions. Furthermore, the Chinese government has invested billions of yuan in leading projects in waste management, deployed tax incentives, and issued permits allowing the industry to resume previously banned activities, such as the sale of relatively clean “gray water” wastewater. Expanding such practices would save Chinese businesses and households 32 trillion yuan (US $4.6 trillion) in 2030, or save 14% of the projected GDP that year. Brazil, India, and the USA are taking an approach that is progressively from society’s base. For example, Asta Rede, a network of more than 60 cooperative women’s groups

spanning 10 Brazilian states, has designed an online platform to support artisans recovering waste materials.15 The European Union combines this and that. He has adopted mandatory targets for local waste. By 2030, EU member states will commit to reusing and recycling at least 65% of the waste and sending no more than 10% to landfills. The aim is to reuse all plastic, recycling 75% of the packaging. EU regulations are also working to reduce food waste and fund the circular economy. Regulations have been put in place targeting electrical and electronic waste, dilapidated vehicles, and batteries. The European Union is also investing in regional innovations, such as supporting companies that recycle clothing.16 In Sweden, for example, where citizens produce an average of 461 kg of waste each year, they have benefited from the conversion of half of their waste into electricity and are importing garbage from other countries to keep recycling plants operational. The Swedish government has drafted legislation stating that recycling centers must be 1000 ft. from residential areas, where the centers have begun to use glass to manufacture new materials, plastics in the manufacture of raw materials, the conversion of food residues into compost or biogas used as fuel, in addition to purifying wastewater into potable water, and under Swedish law producers are responsible for all the costs related to collecting and recycling their products. Sweden has also followed the waste-energy plan, with the construction of 32 burning plants, to burn more than 2 million tons of waste per year, producing steam used to power generators that in turn produce electricity, providing nearly 950,000 homes with electricity needs for heating, and 260,000 homes with electricity, thus significantly developing recycling, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and reducing imports.17 The majority of these circular economy initiatives have provided materials, energy, waste reduction, and emissions. In the Japanese city of Kawasaki, the reuse of industrial and domestic waste in cement manufacturing has reduced greenhouse gas emissions by about 15% (41,300 tons per year) since 2009 and provides 272,000 tons of raw materials each year. China’s typical industrial cities, such as Liuju City, Guangzhou, Guangzhou Province, provide more than 2 million tons of CO2 emissions annually, using less energy and recycling materials.18 These steps did not come out of anywhere but benefited from previous research and policies focused on waste management in more than one place worldwide.

13

Challenges facing solid waste management in the GCC countries. (29/06/2019), retrieved from https://www.ecomena.org/gcc-wastemanagement-ar/. 14 Ibid. 15 https://arabicedition.nature.com/journal/2019/05/d41586-019-00017.

16

Ibid. https://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/3923408. 18 Ibid. 17

Applying the Circular Economy Model in Improving Waste …

711

damaged. Good waste for “recycling” and cleaners collected the waste of families after they made sure that their content was clean, where the process begins with good results to the whole country. Abolishing support from municipalities to make the recycling option feasible, whether in the form of waste processing fees or specific exemptions, but it remains important to emphasize that reuse and recycling culture must stand firmly against consumption and waste culture at the expense of rationalization and good exploitation of resources. They were activating community participation in waste management by encouraging citizens to reuse materials, similar to the Chinese experience that has deployed informal recycling networks in different regions, where citizens were initially invited to work in sorting waste for little money, which increased with the development of the industry. The Chinese citizen invested with the government the waste of his home, his neighborhood, and then his city, and he was able to help his country progress in the field of recycling.21 Activating circular economy principles in hedging commodity price fluctuations; rebalancing the movement of goods, scrap, and used products, for example, by using trucks and shipping containers. Filling them with waste, such as cardboard, wood, and metal, can be returned to production plants.22 Establishing international alliances with the aim of partnering, exchanging experiences and helping to build national cadres capable of advancing a sustainable circular economy, and developing innovative solutions in waste management. Incorporating the relevant principles of circular economy and waste management into school curricula, develop, coordinate standards concerning performance measurement, reporting, accountability, and future products.

7.2 Proposals to Activate a Role in Waste Management in Light of International Experiences The Gulf States adopt several plans to address the challenges of implementing the circular economy and activate its role in waste management and benefit from international experiences that adopt this model to enhance opportunities to advance the wheel of a sustainable circular economy. In this regard, we could make some proposals:

•

• Unifying the Arab Gulf states’ efforts in the transition toward the circular economy and establishing a strategic advisory council to oversee the transformation plans’ implementation, to support the transition properly and reap the desired benefits. • Integrating the principles of a circular economy into the strategies, policies, and initiatives required, including: – Work on a national plan to increase resource efficiency in industry, taking into account the long-term environmental and social costs of production and waste disposal. – Develop new laws and policies based on the revision and redesign of business models. – Support for market development and the empowerment of circular practices in cities. – Develop an ambitious waste management plan that includes reducing, reusing, and recycling it. – Creating new ways to enforce legislation, resolve disputes, and enforce penalties for violations. – Creating new technologies, making fundamental changes in consumption patterns, and enhancing efficiency.19 • Reshaping and modernizing the Gulf culture to the circular economy, looking at it as a new branch of economics, environmental economics, and a supporter of environmental sustainability. Moreover, exceeding the inferiority complex in working in its sectors and investing in its projects, especially in light of some investment sectors’ stagnation.20 Here we refer to Japan’s comprehensive education experience of home recycling, with special waste recycling machines and boxes on its streets. Japan began to spread the culture of “waste separation” among its children, as a first step toward the recycling project, as the one Japanese family owns more than one waste bin in its home and allocated companies for sorting

•

“Circular economy” Emirates road to sustainable development. (17/03/2019), retrieved from https://www.albayan.ae/economy/localmarket/2019-03-17-1.3513645/. 20 Nouf Abdelaziz Al-Ghamdi. Economic pluralism and sustainable investment. Retrieved from https://www.maaal.com/archives/ 20190123/117824. 19

•

•

•

Such proposals and others will support the rapid and correct transition toward a circular economy and enable investment opportunities in waste management to achieve social, financial, and educational profits and gains.

8

Conclusion

Waste management and the trend toward a circular economy are among the most popular topics in recent years at the Arab Gulf states working to include them in their public policies. In this study, the reality of the circular economy in the Arab Gulf

21

https://www.mubasher.info/news/2123819/. Ibid.

22

712

countries was diagnosed and its role in improving waste management and processing systems in light of international experiences. The following results were reached: • The worsening of waste and emissions in the Arabian Gulf countries makes it more needed to apply the mechanisms of the “circular economy” in the exploitation of huge resources of waste and benefit from its revenues. • The circular economy uses fewer resources in manufacturing processes and changes product disposal practices in waste to reuse it, such as repairing, remanufacturing, or recycling the product. • The Arab Gulf states have prepared several plans to meet the challenges of implementing the circular economy and activating its role in waste management, but most of them lack programs to sort, recycle, or dispose of waste safely, and benefit from its revenues. • International experiences such as China and Sweden can be used for a rapid transformation of the circular economy. In light of the findings, and regarding the international experiences referred to, the following recommendations can be made: • Developing legislation on reducing domestic waste and by-products of the industry to reuse and recycle them is urgent. • Work to create an appropriate and attractive investment environment for those wishing to invest in production projects using recycled raw materials. • The need to develop new economic models in terms of the production and consumption of the product and recycling the product will change the way of life and push the adoption of development and innovation in industry and consumption. • Support cooperation between the government and private sectors and stimulate cooperative projects to smooth transition to a circular economy. • Increasing public awareness and integrating the relevant principles of the circular economy into the curriculum. • They are encouraging partnerships with international institutions to exchange experiences and build national cadres capable of advancing a sustainable circular economy.

References A.-Q. Abdel-Haq, The problem of solid waste and recycling. Adm. Dev. Res. Stud. 09, 435 (2016)

A. Houtia and F. Z. Houtia F. Abdul-Rahman, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Alternatives for Waste Management (NM State University, Cooperative Extension Service, 2014) N.A. Al-Ghamdi, Economic pluralism and sustainable investment. Retrieved from https://www.maaal.com/archives/20190123/117824 Y. Al-Suleiman, Gulf countries are turning to waste recycling to boost energy sources, 23 Mar 2017. Retrieved from https:// alkhaleejonline.net/9/ A.-S. Asaad, The circular economy … its concept, importance and location in the Gulf culture. Published in the Bahrain News. Retrieved from http://akhbar-alkhaleej.com/news/article/1103119/. Accessed on 04/02/2020 S. Ausra, G.J. Pablo, Impact de la production des déchets sur l’environnement (2012). https://bit.ly/2FcTdO9/ M. Bejjani, et al., Putting GCC Cities in the Loop (Ideation Center Insight, UAE, 2019), pp. 5–18 Challenges are facing solid waste management in the GCC countries, 29 June 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ecomena.org/gcc-wastemanagement-ar/ Circular economy … a global trend to implement comprehensive sustainability standards. AlMajala Magazine. Retrieved from https://arb.majalla.com/2017/11/article55262200/9/. “Circular economy” Emirates road to sustainable development, 17 Mar 2019. Retrieved from https://www.albayan.ae/economy/localmarket/2019-03-17-1.3513645/ M. Esposito, T. Tse, K. Soufani, Introducing a circular economy: new thinking with mew managerial and policy implications. Calif. Manag. Rev. 60(3), 5–19 (2018) D. Gallaud, B. Laperche, Circular Economy—Industrial Ecology and Short Supply Chain, vol. 4 (Wiley, USA, 2016), p. 03 How does the circular economy contribute to environmental protection? Published in Al-Sharq Al-Awsat Newspaper, 22 Dec 2019. Retrieved from https://aawsat.com/home/article/2046531/F https://arabicedition.nature.com/journal/2019/05/d41586-019-00017 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy https://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/3923408 https://www.mubasher.info/news/2123819/ J. Korhonen, A. Honkasalo, J. Seppälä, Circular economy: the concept and its limitations. Ecol. Econ. 143(c), 37–46 (2018) R. Le Moigne, L’économie circulaire stratégie pour un monde durable, 2nd edn. (Dunod, Paris, 2018), p. 24 M. Muslim, A.Q. Massoudi, Contributions of the waste generation to achieving sustainable development, in Fifth International Forum on Renewable Energy Strategies and Their Role in Achieving Sustainable Development, 23–24 Apr 2018 (University of Al-Blida, 2018), pp. 3–4 A.S. Nizami, M. Rehan, Achieving revenue from waste management. Retrieved from https://www.envirocitiesmag.com/ J.A. Salvato, Environmental Engineering and Sanitation, 4th edn. (Wiley, New York, 1992), p. 760 J.A. Salvato, Environmental Engineering, 5th edn. (Wiley, New Jersey, 2003), p. 755 M. Smol, A. Avdiushchenko, J. Kulczycka, A. Nowaczek, Public awareness of circular economy in southern Poland: case of the Malopolska region. J. Clean. Prod. 197, 1035–1045 (2018) United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (2011), p. 9 L. Zuilen, Planning of an integrated solid waste management system in Suriname, a case study in Greater Paramaribo with focus on households, Ph.D. thesis, Ghent University, 2006, p. 22

Family Farms Sustainability in Rural Semi-arid Areas: Case of Bargou-Siliana in Tunisia Jamel Ben Nasr, Chaima Snoussi, and Hatem Chaar

Abstract

1

Agriculture faces many social, economic, and environmental challenges. They are manifested by the degradation of natural resources, the clearing of rangelands, and the increase of poverty. In fact, climate change is projected to increase temperatures and extreme weather events and reduce precipitation and weather predictability. While there will be variations based on local specificity, this will result in a general reduction of both crops and livestock production and productivity throughout the farming systems, particularly in Tunisia’s arid and semi-arid regions. These systems are vulnerable, and their sustainability is threatened. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze farming systems’ performance and sustainability. This paper aims to assess farming systems sustainability in the region of Siliana-Tunisia. The IDEA method (Indicators of Agricultural Sustainability) combined with field investigations allowed to assess 60 farming systems’ sustainability levels. Results showed that the economic scale recorded the best performances. However, the agroecological and socio-territorial scales are the weak points. Keywords








Environment Economic Farming systems Sustainability Vulnerability




Social

Highlights • Sustainability farm levels • Rural household’s well-being • Environmental and social scales.




Introduction

In Tunisia, rural areas’ development largely depends on agriculture, which employs more than 50% of the rural population (MARHP 2016). However, the Tunisian agricultural sector is facing many constraints to its performance and sustainability. Climate change becomes a major concern of this sector, particularly in arid, semi-arid rural areas. Semi-arid to Cline (2007), developing countries will have a 9–21% decrease in agricultural productivity due to global warming. It is projected to increase family farms’ vulnerability because of their small size, water scarcity, fragile ecosystems, poorly developed technology, and limited economic resources. Hence, this situation put the sustainability and the viability of farming systems at risk. This paper aims to assess the sustainability of family farms in the Bargou-Siliana region and analyze the determinants of sustainability farm levels. The IDEA method was adopted to evaluate the sustainability of 60 family farms.

2

Achieving Sustainability: A Conceptual Framework

Sustainability is the greatest challenge of human activities and economic sectors of our time. However, the literature review shows different definitions of the sustainability concept. This diversity makes sustainability assessment difficult and unreliable. Nevertheless, we can distinguish two main classes of approaches: Strong sustainability and weak sustainability. There is universal recognition that sustainability includes social, economic, and environmental components (Wilson and Wu 2017), and the relationship and interchangeability between these components are the subject of intense debate among ecological and economists, resulting in the two distinct sustainability perspectives.

J. Ben Nasr (&)
C. Snoussi
H. Chaar National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, Carthage University, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle, 1082 Tunis, Tunisia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_89

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The main difference between the two perspectives lies in treating the substitutability between natural capital and human-made capital (Huang 2018). Weak sustainability refers to the neoclassical economic growth theory of Hartwick (1977) and Solow (1974, 1986), which considers nonrenewable natural resources as a production factor. Hence, it permits mutual substitutability between natural capital and human-made capital (Hediger 2008): The environmental sphere is inside the economic and social spheres (Fig. 1a). The paradigm of strong sustainability is grounded on the thermodynamic and ecological foundations (Hediger 2008; Daly 1977; Daly and Cobb 1989). Advocates of this approach argue that critical natural capital must be maintained at the current level to maintain important environmental functions (Daly 2001). It cannot be substituted in the provision of these functions by manufactured capital (Buriti 2019). The environmental sphere surrounds both economic and social spheres (Fig. 1b). Literature review shows that structural theoretical conflict is the source of divergence in sustainability perspectives. With both the two opposing paradigms (strong and weak), sustainability achievement and accounting are complicated and unreliable. Therefore, Ben Nasr et al. (2015) suggests an alternative approach (Fig. 2). It is an intermediate and consensus perspective between strong and weak sustainability. In fact, it is a core issue to coordinate the relationships among the environment, economy, and society in sustainability (Brundtland 1987). However, the Brundtland proposal remains silent on how this equilibrium is between the three pillars of sustainability. Ben Nasr et al. (2015) add a fourth component: institutions in the sense of the North (1990). Arbitration and the definition of critical thresholds (T1, T2, and T3 in Fig. 2) for the intersection between the three spheres are the institutions’ primary roles. This makes sustainability more realistic and its assessment feasible.

J. Ben Nasr et al.

Economic

Environment T2 T1

Institution

T3

Social

Fig. 2 Alternative sustainability approach with four pillars

Several evaluation methods fall within this perspective: IDEA method (Vilain 2000) and 3 E method (Barraqué 1998).

3

Methodology

3.1 Assessment Method: IDEA The IDEA method (Indicateurs de Durabilité des Exploitations Agricoles) was applied to assess family farms’ sustainability. This method was developed in France (Vilain 2000). Due to their transparency and simple aggregation (Ode et al. 2016), it has been applied in many countries like Tunisia (Laajimi and Ben Nasr 2009; M’hamdi et al. 2009) and Algeria. IDEA considers the three dimensions of sustainable development represented by agroecological, socio-territorial, and economic dimensions. The sustainability value is given by the lowest score of the three scales. These three scales of sustainability, with the same weight, contain components, which in turn contain indicators (Table 1). These indicators represent the variables to be assessed. There are 19 indicators for the agroecological scale, six for the economic scale, and 16 for the socio-territorial scale (Vilain 2008; Zahm et al. 2008).

3.2 Study Area

Fig. 1 Strong sustainability (a) versus weak sustainability (b)

Bargou-Siliana is a delegation from northwestern Tunisia (Fig. 3). The regional economy is based mainly on agricultural activity (cereals, arboriculture, and sheep farming). The climate is warm and irregular, and the ecosystem is fragile. Precipitation decrease combined with temperature increase cause drought, which has become longer, more frequent, and more intense.

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Fig. 3 Study area presentation

Table 1 Components and indicators of the three dimensions of IDEA method (Baccar et al. 2016)

Agroecological dimension

Socio-territorial dimension

Economic dimension

4

Components

Indicators

Diversity

Diversity of annual and temporary crops (A1), diversity of perennial crops (A2), animal diversity (A3), and animal biodiversity (A4)

Organization of space

Crop rotation (A5), dimension of fields (A6), management of organic waste (A7), ecological buffer zones (A8), contribution to the environmental challenge of the territory (A9), improvement of the space (A10), and fodder area management (A11)

Farming practices

Fertilization (A12), manure management (A13), pesticides (A14), veterinary products (A15), soil protection (A16), water management (A17), energy dependency (A18)

Product quality and land

Quality process (B1), valorization of the building patrimony and landscape (B2), non-organic waste management (B3), access to the property (B4), social involvement (B5)

Employment and services

Short trade value chains (B6), autonomy and enhancement of local resources (B7), services and multiple activities (B8), contribution to employment (B9), collective work (B10), probable farm viability (B11)

Ethics and human development

Dependence on commercial concentrates (B12), animal welfare (B13), training-education (B14), labor intensity (B15), quality of life (B16), isolation (B17), quality of buildings (B18)

Viability

Economic viability (C1), economic specialization rate (C2)

Independence

Financial autonomy (C3), sensibility to government subsidies (C4)

Transferability

Transferability (C5)

Efficiency

Productive process efficiency (C6)

Results

Results of the IDEA method reveal an extreme variability in sustainability values across the entire sample. For all farms, values for overall sustainability range from 22 to 53, as shown in Fig. 4.

The average is 37. Compared to the average of sustainability (37), three farms emerge (Table 2). All three groups have relatively high economic sustainability values. However, the socio-territorial component is the weak point for all farms. According to the IDEA method principle, the sustainability value is given by the three scales’ lowest score. The

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60

80

68.89

70 60

50

44.6

Sutainability level

50 40

40

32.03

30 20

30

10 0 Agroecological sustainability

20

Socio-territorial sustainability

Economic sustainability

Fig. 5 Sustainability scales for the farms: Group A

10 0

74.78

80

Fig. 4 Sustainability ratings of 60 farms

socio-territorial scale has the lowest value, 32.03, which is the sustainability value of Group A (Fig. 5). For the farms of Group B, the socio-territorial scale shows the lowest score. Hence, the sustainability value is 41.13 (Fig. 6). Since the socio-territorial scale is the lowest in Group C, the sustainability value is 47.4 (Fig. 7).

70 60

52.7

50

41.13

40 30 20 10 0 Agroecological sustainability

Socio-territorial sustainability

Economic sustainability

Fig. 6 Sustainability scales for the farms: Group B

5

Discussion

For the three groups, the lowest performances are recorded in the social dimension. The progress made at the economic level does not allow an improvement of social welfare. This scale presents a constraint for the sustainability of farms in the region. Indeed, according to Fig. 8, which gives a global vision of the results of the IDEA, one notes that the component “Quality of the products and the soil” has the lowest note 2.59, 6.17, and 9.57, respectively, for groups (A), (B), and (C). The two indicators, “organization of space” and “diversity,” are the two limiting environmental sustainability factors for the agroecological scale.

Table 2 Farms classification according to sustainability level

83.33 80 70

62.2

60

47.43

50 40 30 20 10 0 Agroecological sustainability

Socio-territorial sustainability

Economic sustainability

Fig. 7 Sustainability scales for the farms: Group C

Group A

Group B

Group C

Sustainability

S < 37

37  S < 45

S  45

Average

32.0

41.1

47.4

Number of farms

29

24

7

Family Farms Sustainability in Rural Semi-arid …

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Fig. 8 Sustainability level determinants

6

Conclusion(s)

The results of the IDEA method applied to a sample of 60 farms made it possible to assess the overall level of sustainability of agricultural production systems. It appears that for most of these farms, the economic results obtained do not improve the well-being of rural households. The imbalances between the three scales (environmental, social, and economic) affect farms’ overall sustainability. According to the alternative approach proposed in Fig. 2, efficient institutions can enhance farming systems’ sustainability level. Encouraging good practices and sanctioning social and environmental negative externalities are recommended as political measures in this case.

References M. Baccar, A. Bouaziz, P. Dugué, M. Gafsi, P.-Y. Le Gal, Assessing family farm sustainability using the IDEA method in the Saïs plain (Morocco), in IFSA: Social and Technological Transformation of Farming Systems: Diverging and Converging Pathways, Newport, 2016 B. Barraqué, Les services publics d’eau et d’assainissement face au développement durable. Ann. Ponts Chaussées nouv. sér. 87 (1998)

J. Ben Nasr, M.S. Bachta, H. Ammami, L’agriculture durable de la conceptualisation à l’évaluation. Rev. INRGREF (2015) H. Brundtland, Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) R. Buriti, “Deep” or “strong” sustainability, in Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education, ed. by W. Leal Filho (Springer, Cham, 2019) W. Cline, Global Warming and Agriculture: Impact Estimates by Country (Center for Global Development, Washington, 2007) H.E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1977) H.E. Daly, Sustainable development and OPEC, invited paper for the conference, OPEC and the Global Energy Balance: Towards a Sustainable Energy Future, Vienna, 2001 H.E. Daly, J. Cobb, For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1989) J.M. Hartwick, Intergenerational equity and investing of rents from exhaustible resources. Am. Econ. Rev. 67, 972–974 (1977) W. Hediger, Weak and strong sustainability, environmental conservation, and economic growth. Nat. Resour. Model. 19(3), 359–394 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-7445.2006.tb00185.x L. Huang, Exploring the strengths and limits of strong and weak sustainability indicators: a case study of the assessment of China’s megacities with EF and GPI. Sustainability 10, 349 (2018) A. Laajimi, J. Ben Nasr, Appréciation et comparaison de la durabilité des exploitations agricoles biologiques et conventionnelles en Tunisie: Cas de l’oléiculture dans la région de Sfax. New Medit. 8(1), 10–19 (2009)

718 MARHP, Le Ministère de l’Agriculture, des Ressources Hydrauliques et de la Pêche (Agence de la Vulgarisation et de la Formation Agricoles (AVFA), Référentiel du Développement Agricole Durable en Tunisie, 2016) N. M’hamdi, R. Aloulou, M. Hedhly, M.B. Hamouda, Evaluation de la durabilite des fermes laitieres dans le gouvernorat de Nabeul par la methode IDEA. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 13, 221–228 (2009) D. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990) E.M. Ode, F.W. Oudshoorn, C.A.G. Sørensen, E.A.M. Bokkers, I.J.M. de Boer, Assessing sustainability at farm level: lessons learned from a comparison of tools in practice. Ecol. Indic. 66, 391–404 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoline.2016.01.047

J. Ben Nasr et al. R.M. Solow, Intergenerational equity and exhaustible resources. Rev. Econ. Stud. 14, 29–45 (1974) R.M. Solow, On the intergenerational allocation of natural resources. Scand. J. Econ. 88(1), 141–149 (1986) L. Vilain, La méthode IDEA. Guide d’utilisation (Éducagri éditions, Dijon, 2000) L. Vilain, La méthode IDEA: indicateurs de durabilité des exploitations agricoles (Educagri editions, 2008) M.C. Wilson, J. Wu, The problems of weak sustainability and associated indicators. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World 24(1), 44–51 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2015.1136360 F. Zahm et al., Assessing farm sustainability with the IDEA method— from the concept of agriculture sustainability to case studies on farms. Sustain. Dev. 16, 271–281 (2008)

Enviro-Safe Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil—Experimental Study with Optimal Proportion of Stabilizer K. Ashwin Thammaiah, H. G. Shruthi, M. E. Gowtham Prasad, C. R. Shashi Kiran, Shrithi S. Badami, and M. C. Sampathkumar

Abstract

1

Black cotton soil (BCS) is a typical expansive soil having the property of excessive shrinking and swelling based on the variation in its moisture content. Expansive soils are usually prone to severe volumetric variations with an increase in the load intensity of overlying superstructure, making it less preferred as a founding media. In this paper, the exploratory outcomes acquired on enhancements in the quality of expansive soil in laboratory tests when stabilized with varying proportions of lime in addition to coir fibers are investigated. The test outcomes, such as Compaction test, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength test (UCS) were obtained on black cotton soil prior to stabilization, then with addition of lime at different proportions by weight of soil—0, 2, 4, 6 percentage after which coir was varied at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1 percentage keeping optimum percentage lime content at constant value. The experimental results clearly indicate the sensitivity of the BCS with respect to above-mentioned engineering properties, in relation to the constituent proportion of stabilizing agents and the percentage of stabilizer beyond optimum (4%—lime and 0.5%—coir fiber) is seen to have alleviated the beneficial influence of stabilizer on BCS. Keywords





Expansive soils Enhancements percentage Sensitivity




Stabilized




Optimum

K. Ashwin Thammaiah (&)
M. E. Gowtham Prasad
C. R. Shashi Kiran
S. S. Badami Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering (R V College of Engineering), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India H. G. Shruthi ATME College of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India M. C. Sampathkumar BMS College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Introduction

Black cotton soil has the capacity to swell and shrink along with the variation in the moisture content. This variation leads to considerable distress in the soil, which is detrimental to the structures of the overlying soil. During monsoons, sufficient moisture is available for saturation and the soil becomes very soft, leading to soil negligible moisture-holding capacity. On the contrary, during the dry seasons (summer), evaporation leads to the loss of moisture held in the soil, and the soil hardens. Soils that constitute montmorillonite as a clay mineral to a considerable extent are generally expected to exhibit the above-mentioned properties. The damages caused by these soils to structures are usually irreparable. The black cotton soil in the subcontinent is mostly found in Deccan traps. These soils have also been found in the river valleys of Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, and Tapi. These soils are found to be rich in magnesia, iron lime, and alumina and lack phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic content. In the present experimental study, quick lime is used for the stabilization purpose, although hydrated lime can be utilized for the same. The extent of reaction between the clay particles and lime and the development of the ultimate strength in the stabilized layer is decided by the mineralogical structure and properties of soil. As a rule, fine-grained soils with at least 25% going through 74 mm sieve and a plastic limit more than 10 are thought to be great potential for stabilization. Soil having critical measures of natural organic material (more prominent than around 1%) or sulfates (more prominent than 0.3%) may require extra lime. Followed by lime, coir fiber has been used as fiber-like reinforcing media. The coir fiber can be twisted without breaking because its elasticity can bear curl as permanently waved. As it is a by-product of factories, making use of it for soil stabilization is economical, and it is also environmental friendly as it is biodegradable. The addition of coir to soil

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_90

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can help in consolidation of soil and hence enhance its stability. Research findings indicate that the proportion of fiber affects soil significantly relative to its aspect ratio. Local availability and low cost add to the advantage of coir material. The experimental study highlights the influence of effectiveness of lime-coir fiber on the CBR and UCS value of black cotton soil of Davanagere, Karnataka, India to obtain the optimum percentage of the stabilizer, and the results are compared with untreated soil along with quantifying the enhanced geotechnical properties.

2

Methodology

In order to stabilize the black cotton soil which tends to shrink/swell under different moisture conditions and improve its physical and engineering properties, the experimental study is divided as follows: 1. The literature review was carried out on the topic of “Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil using lime and coir fibers” by collecting and studying related journals. 2. Materials needed for the study were acquired from respective suitable sources. 3. Characteristics of material, in this case black cotton soil, were determined by performing a series of experiments such as evaluation of Atterberg limits, compaction tests, and unconfined compression test. 4. The content of lime varied in terms of percentage by weight in different proportions ranging 0, 2, 4, 6 percentage in the consecutive samples respective optimum moisture content which would be determined by mini compaction test. 5. CBR tests and UCS tests were carried on different soil samples carrying different proportions of lime by weight, which will, in turn, lead to obtain the optimum lime content required by black cotton soil for stabilization. 6. Subsequently, keeping the optimum lime content at a constant value, coir fiber is added to the soil samples for carrying out CBR and UCS tests to determine the optimum coir content.

3

soil classification system (IS 1498-1970) (2007), the soil was classified as CH (inorganic clay of high plasticity). The engineering and index properties were assessed as per parts of IS 2720 (1972, 1980a, b, 1985a, b, c, 1991).

3.2 Lime Lime was obtained from CHEMICAL HOUSE SHOP in Rajajinagar, Karnataka, which is located at a distance of 12 km from Central Bengaluru, Fig. 2. The lime used in the investigation in the form of quicklime is a caustic white alkali with the chemical name calcium oxide and of white color. The physical and chemical properties of lime are presented in Table 2.

3.3 Coir Fiber The coir fiber used is shown in Fig. 3. The fibers were extracted from used coconut shells of RajaRajeshwari Temple, Bangalore, dried in sunlight for 1 day. It was further cut into the length of 25 mm with a diameter of 0.02 mm, having an aspect ratio of approximately 1250. The properties of coir fibers are shown in Table 3.

4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Effect of Lime on the Compaction Characteristics of BCS The percentage of lime used has been varied in the amount of 0, 2, 4, and 6% by weight of expansive soil. The dry density of the soil decreases as the amount of lime is increased, which is due to the lower specific gravity and lightweight nature of lime. Also, with the addition of lime, optimum moisture content increases due to the water absorption characteristics of lime as presented in Fig. 4.

Characterization of Materials

3.1 Black Cotton Soil (BCS) The soil sample was obtained from Davanagere district, Karnataka at a depth of 1.5 m from the ground level. Figure 1 represents the black cotton soil sample used for the experimental study. Table 1 includes the geotechnical properties of black cotton soil. As per the Indian standard

Fig. 1 Black cotton soil sample

Enviro-Safe Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil … Table 1 Geotechnical properties of soil

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Experiments conducted

Results

Specific gravity (IS 2720-3 (1980))

2.6

Liquid limit (%) (IS 2720-5 (1985))

60

Plastic limit (%) (IS 2720-5 (1985))

19.75

Plasticity index (IS 2720-5 (1985))

40.25

Grain size distribution Fine sand (%)

2.5

Silt-size (%)

18.9

Clay size (%)

78.6

Soil classification

CH (inorganic clay of high plasticity)

Shrinkage limit (%) (IS 2720-5 (1985))

9.32

Optimum moisture content (OMC) (%)

21.8

Maximum dry unit weight (g/cc)

1.66

Unconfined compressive strength (N/mm2)

0.0549

CBR (%)

3.02

Fig. 3 Coir fiber sample Fig. 2 Lime/calcium oxide sample Table 2 Properties of lime

Properties

Parameter

Chemical formula

CaO

Molar mass

56.077 g/mol

Appearance

White

Density

3.35 g/cubic cm

Boiling point

3123 K

Melting point

2845 K

Solubility (in water)

Reactive/hydrates

Solubility (in acids)

Soluble

Solubility (in methanol)

Insoluble

Acidity

12.5

Crystal lattice

Face-centered cubic structures

722 Table 3 Chemical and physical properties of coir fiber

K. Ashwin Thammaiah et al. Chemical properties

% Composition

Lignin

45.83

Cellulose

43.42

Hemi-cellulose

00.24

Pectin and related compounds

03.01

Water-soluble

05.26

Ash

02.21

Physical properties

Results

Diameter (in mm)

0.02

Length (in inches)

6–8

Breaking elongation

30

Tenacity (g/tex)

10

Density (g/cc)

1.4

The rigidity of modulus (dyne/cm2)

1.8924

Swelling in water (diameter)

5%

Fig. 4 Variation in maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) with lime content

4.2 Effect of Lime on California Bearing Ratio of BCS The CBR value of black cotton soil mixed with varying lime content is presented in Fig. 5. The lime content varied for 0, 2, 4, and 6 percentage weight. As the lime content in the soil increases, CBR value of the soil also increases (Arthi Priya et al. 2017; Ayininuola and Oladotun 2016) and reaches a

maximum and slightly reduces with an increase in lime content.

4.3 Effect of Lime on Unconfined Compressive Strength of BCS The effect of lime on the unconfined compressive strength of expansive soil was studied. The unconfined compressive strength test results of black cotton soil mixed with 4% lime by weight of soil and cured for 7 days are presented in Fig. 6. The addition of lime is found to increase the unconfined compressive strength significantly for 7 days curing period.

4.4 Effect of Coir Fiber on the Compaction Characteristics of BCS

Fig. 5 Variation in CBR with lime content

The effect of coir fiber on the compaction characteristics of black cotton soil mixed with optimum lime content, i.e., 4% as determined previously is studied and presented in Fig. 7.

Enviro-Safe Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil …

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Fig. 6 Variation in UCS with lime content Fig. 8 Plot showing the variation in CBR with coir fiber

The dry density of the soil was observed to be inversely proportional to the coir fiber content. The MDD goes on decreasing with the addition of coir fiber due to the low density of the coir. The OMC has been observed to increase with the addition of coir content. This is because the coir fiber tends to absorb the water.

and Prakash 2017; Subramani and Udayakumar 2016; Devdatt et al. 2015) till 0.5% coir fiber where it achieves maximum UCS of 195 kPa. After this point, the UCS starts decreasing on the addition of coir fiber.

4.5 Effect of Coir Fiber on California Bearing Ratio of BCS

4.7 Comparison of California Bearing Ratio for Optimum Lime and Optimum Coir Fiber Content

The CBR value of black cotton soil and optimum lime mixed with varying coir fiber is presented in Fig. 8. The coir fiber content varied for 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1%. The addition of coir fiber is found to increase the California bearing ratio of soil.

The comparison between the California Bearing Ratio for black cotton soil with optimum lime content and optimum coir fiber content shows that there is a noteworthy increase in the CBR. The bar chart shown in Fig. 10 shows the comparison.

4.6 Effect of Coir Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Black Cotton Soil

4.8 Comparison of Unconfined Compressive Strength for Optimum Lime and Optimum Coir Fiber Content

The UCS test results of black cotton soil mixed with a different percentage of coir fiber and cured for 7 days are shown in Fig. 9. The addition of coir fiber initially increases the unconfined compressive strength of the BCS (Priyanka Fig. 7 Plot showing the variation in maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) with coir fiber content

The comparison between the un-confined compressive strength for black cotton soil with optimum lime content and optimum coir fiber content enhanced the performance

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5

Conclusions

A comprehensive laboratory study was done to determine the characteristics and characterization of the black cotton soil to study the influence of lime coir fiber on the black cotton soil. The conclusions obtained are mentioned as follows:

Fig. 9 Variation in UCS on the addition of coir fiber

Fig. 10 Plot showing a comparison of CBR with optimum lime and coir fiber

evidently and collectively. On addition of optimum lime content, there is a noteworthy increase in the UCS, the addition of fiber also increases UCS slightly. The bar chart shown in Fig. 11 shows the comparison.

Fig. 11 Plot showing a comparison of UCS with optimum lime and coir fiber

1. The OMC increased 3.5%, and corresponding MDD decreased 0.14 g/cc owing to lower specific gravity of lime for 0–6% lime addition, respectively. 2. The optimum lime content was found to be 4% by weight of soil from the experimental investigation. 3. The OMC increased 1.0%, and corresponding MDD decreased 0.06 g/cc for 0–1% coir content, respectively. This is because the coir fiber tends to absorb the water with increasing concentration. The MDD was obtained at optimum lime content (Chaple and Dhatrak 2013; Maurya et al. 2015). 4. The addition of coir fiber at optimum lime content initially increased the 7-day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) from 127 to 195 kPa till 0.5% and decreased to 125 kPa for 1% coir fiber. 5. The optimum coir content was found to be 0.5% by weight of soil. 6. The CBR value of untreated soil was 3.02 (% units), and with the addition of optimum lime content, it increased to 7.5 (% units). Finally, with the optimum coir content at optimum lime content, its value increased to 12.03 (% units).

References D. Arthi Priya, R. Gopalakrishnan, M. Jawahar, Stabilization of black cotton soil using coir pith. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 04 (02), 1–6. e-ISSN; 2395-0056 G.M. Ayininuola, P.O. Oladotun, Geotechnical properties of coconut coir fiber soil mixture. J. Civ. Eng. Res. 6(4), 79–85 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.5923/j.jce.20160604.0 P.M. Chaple, A.I. Dhatrak, Performance of coir fiber reinforced clayey soil. Int. J. Eng. Sci. (IJES) 2(4), 54–64 (2013). ISSN (e): 2319-1813, ISSN (p): 2319-1805 S. Devdatt, R. Shikha, A.K. Saxena, A.K. Jha, Soil stabilization using coconut coir fiber. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. (IJRASET) 3(IX), 306–309 (2015). ISSN: 2321-9653 IS 2720 (Part 4), Method of Test for Soil (Part 4-Grain Size Analysis) (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1985a) IS 2720 (Part 6)-1972, Methods of Test for Soils: Determination of Shrinkage Factor (Bureau of Indian Standards, 1972) IS 2720 (Part 7)-1980, Methods of Test for Soils: Determination of Water Content-Dry Density Relation Using Light Compaction (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1980a)

Enviro-Safe Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil … IS 2720-2: (Part 2), Methods of Test for Soils: Determination of Water Content (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1985b) IS 4332 (1968), Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils, (Part IV) Wetting and Drying and Freezing and Thawing Tests for Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi 1968) IS: 1498 (1970), Classification and Identification of Soils for General Engineering Purposes (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, Reaffirmed 2007) IS: 2720 (Part 5), Methods of Test for Soils: Determination of Liquid Limit (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1985c) IS-2720-PART-3-1980, Specific Gravity Test of Soils (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1980b)

725 IS-2720-PART-3-1980, Part 10, Methods of Test for Soils, Determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength (Bureau of Indian Standards, 1991) S. Maurya, A.K. Sharma, P.K. Jain, R. Kumar, Review on stabilization of soil using coir fiber. Int. J. Eng. Res. 4(6), 296–299 (2015). ISSN: 2320-1834 V.K. Priyanka, V. Prakash, Soil stabilization of clayey soil using coir fiber and lime. Int. J. Sci. Res. Dev. IJSRD 5(01) 718–720 (2017). ISSN (online): 2321-0613 T. Subramani, D. Udayakumar, Experimental study on stabilization of clay soil using coir fiber. Int. J. Appl. Innov. Eng. Manag. (IJAIEM) 5(5), 192–204 (2016). ISSN: 2319-4847

Supercritical Water and Hydrothermal Technologies: Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Energy Production Fatemeh Saberi and Omid Tavakoli

Abstract

Distillery wastewater is of serious environmental concern due to its very high COD and BOD, low pH, and unpleasant odor. In the current research, non-catalytic and catalytic hydrothermal treatment of a molasses-based ethanol production plant (vinasses) is experimentally studied. Effects of temperature (300–375 °C), retention time (15–45 min), and weight fraction of wastewater in a feed (20–40 wt%) on COD reduction and hydrogen production were studied in a high-pressure batch reactor. The results showed that treatment efficiency increased by temperature increment due to higher reaction rates and diffusivity, and the maximum COD reduction was obtained at 375 °C, 30 min, and 40 wt% of feed as 44.8%. Moreover, distillery wastewater possessed great potential for hydrogen production compared to other wastewaters. MnO2 was determined as a weak catalyst for hydrothermal gasification, while Co3O4 was the best choice according to both aspects of gasification efficiency and H2 mole fraction. Keywords

Hydrothermal

1




Gasification




COD removal




Hydrogen

Introduction

Distillery wastewater (DWW), generated from alcohol production plants, contains high BOD (35,000–50,000 mg L−1), COD (100,000–150,000 mg L−1), and a high F. Saberi Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran O. Tavakoli (&) School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, 14176 Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

percentage of dissolved solids. It is also characterized by low pH, high temperature, unpleasant odor, and dark brown color pigments named melanoidin (resulting from Maillard reaction) (Satyawali and Balakrishnan 2008a; Goto et al. 1998; Sangave and Pandit 2006a). The high content of organic load and the highly colored nature of DWW can hinder photosynthesis by blocking sunlight and cause depletion of dissolved oxygen; therefore, it could be detrimental to aquatic life (Sangave and Pandit 2006b). Because of imposing stringent environmental regulations and to stipulate environmental demand, DWW needs to undergo different treatment methods to have acceptable BOD and COD levels in effluents. Various chemical, biological, and physical treatment methods have been investigated to meet the environmental constraints cost-effectively. Nevertheless, these solutions suffer from some inadequacies such as long retention time, large area requirement, high temperature, high energy consumption, expensive chemicals, and low efficiency in color or odor removal. Conventional treatment methods, including aerobic and anaerobic treatments, can only reduce COD of DWW in long hydraulic retention time; nevertheless, it does not reach the acceptable level (Lianga et al. 2009). The high operating cost of anaerobic digestion, aeration, and sludge generation are the most important disadvantages of such treatment methods. Besides, excess use and high cost of chemicals and adsorbents, sludge generation, and disposal are deterrent to adopting physicochemical methods (Pant and Adholey 2007; Satyawali and Balakrishnan 2008b). Supercritical water technologies, including supercritical water oxidation (SCWO), supercritical water gasification (SCWG), near/sub-critical water technologies, and hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), are unique technologies to address the environmental issues of waste streams and to effectively convert pollutants into biodegradable compounds, materials, and energy resource recovery or final oxidization to CO2, N2, and water (Fig. 1). Goto et al.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_91

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received sample’s COD level was very high (58,880 mg L−1), three diluted samples were prepared by addition of deionized water with 20, 30, and 40 wt%, corresponding to COD level of 12,200, 17,750, and 25,000 mg L−1, respectively. Elemental analysis (CHNS) of the received sample showed that its general chemical formula is C0.344H0.049N0.048O0.56.

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of different supercritical water technologies through the phase diagram of water

studied this technology on distillery wastewater and could achieve the destruction of TOC, ammonia, and acetic acid. Many researchers have focused on exploiting SCWO for various industrial waste streams, such as olive mill, textile, landfill leachate, and coking (Matsumura et al. 2000; Erkonak et al. 2008). Moreover, decomposition and oxidation of chemicals, like phenol, halogenated hydrocarbons, and dichlorobenzene, in such a reaction media have been explored (Qi et al. 2002). Without oxygen, sub-, and supercritical water (SCW) processes are also interestingly powerful for effluents’ degradation. Reforming of aniline, glycerol, formic acid, and pentachlorophenol in SCW is already reported (Fujii et al. 2012). This paper presents the utilization of hydrothermal and sub-supercritical water gasification technology to treat molasses-based distillery wastewater. The experiments were carried out in a high-pressure autoclave at various temperatures, reaction times, and feed weight fractions. The efficiency of the process was determined by COD reduction of feed and hydrogen production and gasification efficiency.

2

Materials and Methods

Materials Distillery wastewater was obtained from an Iranian ethanol production plant and used with no purification. As the

Experimental Procedure Experiments were performed in a stainless steel batch reactor with reaction time periods of 15, 30, and 45 min at 300, 350, and 375 °C. The corresponding pressure of the above-mentioned temperatures were 87, 168, and 210 bar, respectively. The reactor has a volume of 160 mL (including its tubings) and is equipped with gas sampling and pressure safety valves. The temperature was controlled by a K-type thermocouple inserted in a thermowell inside the reactor coupled with a PID controller. Both pressure transducer and gauge directly measured the pressure of the reactor. For each run, the reactor was filled with 90 mL solution of diluted wastewater mixture, purged by nitrogen to remove air, sealed, and heated up to the desired temperature by a 1000 W electrical heater. After the desired holding time, the heater was removed, and the reactor was cooled to room temperature by an air fan. After purging the gaseous product, the reactor was opened, and liquid effluent was collected for further analysis. Analysis Solids were separated from the reactor's liquid effluent using paper filtration (pore size: 2.5 microns) within 10 min of the vacuum pump. The aqueous phase’s pH was then measured, and enough samples were collected for chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis. 0.2 mL of samples were put into ultra-high range COD vials (100–15,000 mg L−1), kept in a block heater at 147 °C for 120 min, and taken out to reach the room temperature. Each sample’s COD level was then measured by a COD analyzer (Merck; Spectroquant® Multy). The gaseous product from each run was immediately collected into an initially evacuated gas bag (Tedlar-SKC) and then sampled using a gas-tight syringe for gas analysis injection. The gas analysis was carried out with a gas chromatograph (Young Lin Acme 6100 GC) equipped with two Agilent 19095Q-P04 packed columns in series with a 5 Å Agilent molecular sieve column and a helium ion detector (HID) to determine H2, CH4, CO, CO2, N2, and O2 mole fractions. Ultra-pure helium was utilized as the carrier gas with a flow rate and pressure of 28 ml/min and 6.4 PSIG, respectively. The oven and the HID detector temperatures were maintained at 35 °C and 280 °C, respectively.

Supercritical Water and Hydrothermal Technologies: …

3

729

Results and Discussion

The influence of the initial weight fraction of wastewater in feed was determined by conducting experiments at three feed concentrations of 20, 30, and 40 wt%. The results are presented in Fig. 2, clearly highlighting that conversion is greatly improved by initial concentration increment. An increase of wastewater fraction in the feed from 20 to 40 wt % led to a remarked increase of COD reduction efficiency from 11.9 to 32.8% at 350 °C and 30 min. This finding is in good agreement with the results of Qi et al. (2002). This behavior could be related to a positive reaction order for decomposition. To evaluate COD reduction’s catalytic effect, Co3O4 was applied at 300 °C, and the results illustrated the enhancing of COD removal from 31.4 to 43.7% (Fig. 3). As shown using this catalyst, a similar result was obtained by decreasing reaction temperature from 375 to 300 °C, which remarkably enhanced hydrothermal condition. Figure 4 clearly highlights that the decreasing-increasing effect of reaction time on HP (hydrogen production) and H2% was also observed in non-catalytic experiments, and Co3O4 has just intensified it catalytically. It is also inferable that the catalyst has a considerable effect on the HTG process at a constant temperature, and its effectiveness is much pronounced at longer reaction times, as HP was significantly increased from 1.07 to 8.06 mmol g−1 by adding 40 wt% Co3O4 as catalyst. Considering catalytic and non-catalytic GE (gasification efficiency) curves in Fig. 4 make it clear that the reduction of HP at 30 min experiments was not attributed to gasification efficiency. Rather it was due to a considerable decline in hydrogen mole fraction.

Fig. 3 Effect of reaction time on COD reduction at 300 °C with and catalyst (initial COD concentrawithout 40% Co3O4 tion = 58,880 mg L and pH = 5.0)

Fig. 4 Effect of reaction time on hydrogen production (HP) and gasification efficiency (GE) at 350 °C without and with 40% Co3O4 catalyst

4

Fig. 2 Effect of weight fraction of feed on COD reduction for 30 min

Conclusion

The results obtained in this research show the great potential of the different technological approach of supercritical water (SCW, SCWO, SCWG, HTL, etc.) for industrial and domestic wastewater treatment (water reuse) as well as simultaneous energy resource recovery, including biofuels (biodiesel and bio-oil), hydrogen, and biogas production. All these achievements can be classified through Energy-Water-Environment (EWE) Nexus concept (Fig. 5).

730

Fig. 5 General outline of applying supercritical water technologies on the EWE nexus

References H. Erkonak, O. Sogut, M. Akgun, Treatment of olive mill wastewater by supercritical water oxidation. J. Supercrit. Fluids 46, 142–148 (2008)

F. Saberi and O. Tavakoli T. Fujii, R. Hayashi, S. Kawasaki, A. Suzuki, Y. Oshima, Effects of pressure on the decomposition of formic acid in sub- and supercritical water. J. Supercrit. Fluids 71, 114–119 (2012) M. Goto, T. Nada, A. Ogata, A. Kodama, T. Hirose, Supercritical water oxidation for the destruction of municipal excess sludge and alcohol distillery wastewater of molasses. J. Supercrit. Fluids 13, 277–282 (1998) Z. Lianga, Y. Wan, Y. Zhou, H. Liu, Coagulation removal of melanoidins from biologically treated molasses wastewater using ferric chloride. Chem. Eng. J. 152, 88–94 (2009) Y. Matsumura, T. Nunoura, T. Urase, K. Yamamoto, Supercritical water oxidation of high phenol concentrations. J. Hazard. Mater. B73, 245–254 (2000) D. Pant, A. Adholey, Biological approaches for treating distillery wastewater: a review. J. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 2321–2334 (2007) X.H. Qi, Y.Y. Zhuang, Y.C. Yuan, W.X. Gu, Decomposition of aniline in supercritical water. J. Hazard. Mater. B90, 51–62 (2002) P.C. Sangave, A.B. Pandit, Ultrasound and enzyme assisted biodegradation of distillery wastewater. J. Environ. Manage. 80, 36–46 (2006a) P.C. Sangave, A.B. Pandit, Enhancement in biodegradability of distillery wastewater using enzymatic pretreatment. J. Environ. Manage. 78, 77–85 (2006b) Y. Satyawali, M. Balakrishnan, Wastewater treatment in molasses-based alcohol distilleries for COD and color removal: a review. J. Environ. Manage. 86, 481–497 (2008a) Y. Satyawali, M. Balakrishnan, Wastewater treatment in molasses-based alcohol distilleries for COD and color removal: a review. J. Environ. Manage. 86, 481–497 (2008b)

Biochemical and Physicochemical Mechanisms Involved in Fusarium-Date Palm Interaction Souad Lekchiri, Hakim Taoufik, Abdeslam Jaafari, Hafida Zahir, Kaoutar El Fazazi, Redouane Benabbes, Mostafa EL Ouali, and Hassan Latrache

Abstract

Highlights

This study aims to evaluate the biochemical and physicochemical properties of Fusarium-Date Palm interaction. The results of the biochemical study performed by UV– Visible spectrophotometry and CCM suggested that Fusarium oxysporum f.s. albedenis (Foa) secretes a substance catalyzing polyphenols. In fact, we reported a lignin degradation at the xylem and a decrease in hydroxylated polyphenols amount. The hypothesis of delignification, supported by the results obtained when the Foa strain was cultured with CsCl, confirmed the inhibition of peroxides release. Regarding physicochemical mechanisms, studied by the contact angle measurement (Ow) and the free energy of interaction determination (DGiwi), we reported that the Foa and the root of the sensitive variety of date palm had hydrophilic properties, while the resistant variety had hydrophobic properties. These findings suggested that the hydrophilic properties might be responsible for the adhesion of Foa on the sensitive date palm root; therefore, it causes its sensitivity to Bayoud disease. However, the hydrophobic properties of the resistant variety could explain its resistance. We also reported that short-range forces could govern this adhesion, partially.

• Fusarium oxysporum f.s. albedenis (Foa) may act on date palm by decreasing polyphenols release. • Mechanisms involving cellulases and oxidases affecting lignocellulosic degradation are associated to Foa pathogeny. • Hydrophylicity and electron acceptor/electron donor character of the surfaces may be responsible for the adhesion of Foa on date palm root.

Keywords

Date palm




Fusarium




Biochemical




Physicochemical

S. Lekchiri
H. Taoufik
A. Jaafari (&)
H. Zahir
K. El Fazazi
M. EL Ouali
H. Latrache Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco R. Benabbes Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed I University, Oujda, Morocco

1

Introduction

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Albedinis (Foa) is a fungus responsible of vascular wilt of Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) known as the Bayoud disease. The Bayoud is the most predominant disease affecting date palm in Morocco and around the world. Foa has destroyed about 60% of Moroccan palm plantations (more than 10 million trees) causing a remarkable economic, ecological, and social damages (Fernandez et al. 1995). The pathogen attacks the plant through the roots and spreads in all the other parts of the tree by vascular system producing foliar withering and leading to the death of the date palm tree (Belarbi-Hallir and Mangenot , 1986). Chemical, prophylactic, genetic, and biological controls have been tested in order to reduce the dissemination of this disease but without promising results. Thus, the comprehension of biochemical and physicochemical mechanisms involved in the interaction between Fusarium and date palm could help find ways to fight this disease.

2

Materials and Methods

Fungal Material A Foa strain was isolated from infected fragments of date palm spine. The purification was performed using culture on

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_92

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PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) solid medium. Small fragments of date palm spine presenting Bayoud symptoms were disinfected by alcohol for one minute and dried using a flame. Then, they were set in a PDA medium and incubated for 48 h at 25 °C. A delicate and pink mycelia carpet was obtained. After 5 to 7 days of incubation, mycelia hyphae appeared around each spine fragment. Explants of the uncontaminated peripheral zone of mycelia were drawn and transferred on a new Petri dish with PDA medium. These mycelia were transplanted about 3 weeks minimum time required to obtain pure culture. Biochemical Study A new approach, based on the biological model (biological mimicry) using a polyphenol activated catalyst, especially those of small size, has been used. We first synthesized catalyst M and then tested it on both healthy and infected date palm varieties (Boufeggousse, Assiane). Catalyst M, unlike enzymes, has the advantage to be stable at neutral and alkaline pH and can be synthesized in water-soluble form, which allowed us to perform a controlled kinetic study. The tests were performed using UV–Visible spectrophotometry and CCM analysis. Then, we tried to block the oxidation system by cesium chloride (CsCl) directly on the fungal culture medium and to visualize different variations of controls compared to the test. CCM was performed using Kieselgel 60F254 silica plate and two migration solvent systems: Benzene/Methanol/acetic acid (45/8/3, v/v/v), and Toluene/Ethyl Formicate/formic acid (4/5/1, v/v/v). Meanwhile, electron donors (gaiacol and catechol) served to study the production of peroxidases and polyphenols oxidases by Foa. This study was realized in the Czapeck-dox medium culture with wood sawdust as a sole source of Carbone. Physicochemical Study Qualitative and quantitative hydrophobicities of date palm root and Foa were evaluated, respectively, by contact angle measurement (Ow) and free energy of interaction determination (ΔGiwi) using the method described by Busscher et al. (1984). The electron donor (alkaline)/acceptor (acid) character of the studied Fusarium strain and date palm root was also determined. To calculate the free surface energy, three to six contact angle measurements were performed. The approach of Good, van Oss and Chaudhury (acid–base theory) was used in this study (Oss et al. 1988). The surface energy components of a surface (cS+, cS− and cSLW) were determined by performing contact angle measurements using three probe liquids (Two polar and one

S. Lekchiri et al.

apolar) with known surface tension parameters (cL+, cL− and cLLW) and employing Young–van Oss equation (Absolom et al. 1983). Cosh ¼  1 þ 2ð!S LW!L LW Þ1=2=!L þ 2ð!S þ !LÞ1=2=!L þ 2ð!S  !L þ Þ1=2=!L where h is the measured contact angle, cLW is the Van der Waals free energy component, c+ is the electron acceptor component, c− is the electron donor component and the subscripts (S) and (L) denote solid surface and liquid phases respectively. The surface free energy is expressed as: cS = csLW + csAB where csAB = 2(cS+ cS−)1/2 is the acid–base free energy component. The free energy of interaction (DGiwi) between surface molecule (i) immersed in water (w) can be expressed as:

Statistical Analysis The individual data values are presented as the arithmetic mean ± SD (standard deviation). The statistical significance of the results obtained from in vitro studies was evaluated by the Student’s t test or by ANOVA at p < 0.05, using STATISTICA software.

3

Results

3.1 Biochemical Study The spectrophotometric study showed that regardless of the healthy date palm variety, its absorption is less than that of the infected one, particularly in 300–400 nm. When we treated the healthy date palm with catalyst M, its spectrum differed from the normal one, getting closer to that of the infected date palm. This observation suggests that there is a catalytic activity of M molecule on some date palm polyphenols. To confirm this hypothesis, spectrums of p-coumaric acid and cafeic acid transformation were drawn. The results showed a displacement of kmax by M catalyst toward high wave lengths (Bathochromic effect) (for p-coumaric acid, kmax without M = 285 nm, kmax with M = 320 nm; and for cafeic acid kmax without M = 295 nm, kmax with M = 348 nm) (Fig. 1). CCM analysis revealed the presence of different aromatic compounds with low molecular weight in date palm extracts. In the case of date palm treated with M, there was a decreasing number of spots; its chromatogram resembled

Biochemical and Physicochemical Mechanisms Involved …

733

Fig. 1 a Absorbance spectrum of p-coumaric acid treated (–) and untreated (—) by M; b Absorbance specters of date palm extract treated b and untreated a by M

3

b

1

0

600

500

400

300

200

Wavelength nm

a

a

Absorbance

2

b

Fig. 2 a Macroscopic observation of Foa in liquid medium with (essai = Test) and without (temoin = control) CsCl, b microscopic observation of Foa with CsCl, c microscopic observation of Foa without CsCl

that of the infected date palm. These observations confirm our previous results. Meanwhile, tests realized with CsCl suggested that Fusarium might release peroxides necessary for lignin oxidation by lignin oxidases. For that, we performed a culture of Foa in Czapeck-dox medium in the presence (Test) and absence (control) of CsCl. 4 weeks later, a net difference in coloration between the test and the control was observed (Fig. 2). In addition, microscope observations showed an aggregation of macro- and micro-conidia in the test culture compared to the control (Fig. 2). Therefore, it is safe to assume that CsCl inhibits Foa peroxides necessary for lignin degradation.

3.2 Physicochemical Study The results of the physicochemical study are summarized in Table 1. The hydrophobicity analysis shows that the contact angle between Foa surface and water is hw = 30.57°, which means that the surface of the fungus strain tested has a hydrophilic property. The quantitative approach asserts this

suggestion since it is found that the tested strain has a positive free surface energy (DGiwi = 15.51 MJ/m2). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that this strain has a strong electron donor character (c−= 53.99 MJ/m2), whereas its electron acceptor property is very low (c+= 8.95 MJ/m2). Regarding date palm root, two varieties were studied: sensitive variety (Boufegouss) and resistant variety (Aziza M). The results of contact angle measurements show that the surface of sensitive variety’s root has a hydrophilic character (hw = 62.97°), while that of resistant variety is hydrophobic (hw = 69.50°). The quantitative approach results confirm this character since date palm root of sensitive variety has a positive free surface energy (DGiwi = 6.84 MJ/m2), whereas that of resistant variety has a negative free surface energy (DGiwi =−20.61 MJ/m2). These values confirm the surface properties of the sensitive and resistant varieties. Moreover, it has been shown that both resistant and sensitive varieties have a weak electron acceptor property. In fact, c+= 0.15 MJ/m2 and c+= 0.08 MJ/m2 for resistant and sensitive varieties, respectively. Regarding electron donor property, the two varieties have relatively important character donor, but the sensitive variety (Boufegouss) is a strong electron

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donor character (c−= 30.5 MJ/m2) comparing to the resistant one (Aziza M) (c−= 16.57 MJ/m2).

4

Discussion

The findings of this study showed an oxidasic activity of catalyst M on paracoumaric acid suggesting that there is a dominance of oxidized form of aromatic core compared to reduced form in the infected date palm. In fact, the absorption at 340 nm was always higher in infected date palm and in the healthy one treated by catalyst M compared to the healthy one not treated by catalyst M. Testing the other phenolic control (cafeic acid) revealed the same results. Applying the Scott rule determined the position of the absorption band in the aromatic carboxylic compounds spectra in case of replacing an aromatic system with a double bond or ketone. This rule was applied to conjugated carbonyls with an aromatic system. Accordingly, we proceeded in the same way for conjugated diene and enones by adding a set of increments to the original structure. We obtained the position of the absorption band due to load transfer in the aromatic carboxylic compounds (Kalsi 2007). CCM exposed the presence of different aromatic compounds with low molecular weight. In the case of date palm treated with catalyst M, there was a decreasing number of spots and its chromatogram were close to that of infected date palm. This might be due to the transformation of those compounds by Foa. The degradation of aromatic compounds by fungi was previously reported by literature (Francesc et al. 2006). Moreover, some fluorescent bands were present only at the resistant date palm varieties (Taabdounte et Aziza). These bands might correspond to the compounds responsible for the resistance of those varieties to Bayoud disease. The tests realized with CsCl suggested that Fusarium might release peroxides necessary for lignin oxidation by lignin oxidases. In fact, spectroscopic and chromatographic studies led us to assume that Foa released oxidant compounds as peroxidases, which could transform polyphenols as in the case of white and brown rot fungi (Hatakka 2001). Conversely, date palm released peroxidases that could react with peroxides released by fungus leading to secondary reactions in date palm metabolism (Majourhat et al. 2002). CsCl fixed the peroxides and prevented their release in exterior medium. Those peroxides played an important role in degradation and oxidation of lignin and cellulose in white rot fungi (Tyromyces palustris et Coniophora puteana) (Kim et al. 2002). For that, we performed a culture of Foa in Czapeck-dox medium in the presence (Test) and absence (control) of CsCl. 4 weeks later, a net difference in coloration between test and control was observed. In addition, the microscope observation showed an aggregation of macro- and micro-conidia in the test culture compared to the

control. Therefore, we could assume that CsCl inhibits Foa peroxides necessary for lignin degradation. Furthermore, our results showed that Foa had a cellulosic activity, which could contribute to a better understanding of the biochemical mechanism of its pathogeny. Therefore, an overall analysis of the findings allowed us to make the following hypothesis: When in contact with the lignocellulosic membrane of the date palm, Fusarium induces on the one hand, cellulases that release reducing sugars, in particular glucose necessary for fungal growth and other enzymes (glucose oxidase that release H2O2 necessary for ligninase to catalyze lignin) on the other hand. Understanding the physicochemical interaction between microorganism and its host goes through knowing their respective surface characteristics. Several studies have evaluated the potentiality of adhesion in various surfaces using thermodynamic approach (Hamadi et al. 2008). Although Bayoud is a serious threat to date production in Morocco and other countries, it appears that no studies have investigated the potentiality of Foa to adhere to date palm root. Thus, the primary purposes of this study were: (i) to predict the ability of microorganisms to adhere to Aziza (resistant variety) and Boufegouss (sensitive variety) root surfaces, and (ii) to obtain indications on the involvement of these surface properties in the resistance and sensitivity phenomenon of the date palm to Bayoud. Several techniques are usually used to assess cell surface properties. Cell surface hydrophobicity is evaluated by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, bacterial adhesion to hydrocarbon, salinity, and water contact angle (Absolom et al. 1983; Stenstrôm 1989). Hydrophobicity has always been considered as the major factor involved in the adhesion of microorganisms to the surfaces of their hosts and their environment. According to Vogler (1998), hydrophobic surfaces exhibit a water contact angle values higher than 65°, whereas hydrophilic surfaces exhibit water contact angle values lower than 65°. However, with this approach, it is only possible to assess hydrophobicity qualitatively (Oliveira et al. 2001). The approach of Van Oss et al. (1988), Oss (1996) makes it possible to determine the absolute degree of hydrophobicity of any substance toward water. Three methods have been used to assess the acid–base properties of the cell surface including contact angle measurement combined with equation of Van Osset et al. (1988), Oss (1996), the microbial adhesion to solvents and acid–base titration. In the present study, we used contact angle measurements technics to determine fungus and date palm root surface characteristics. The surface hydrophobicity of all samples was analyzed from the water contact angle. We also reported that Foa and the root of sensitive variety of date palm had both hydrophilic properties, while the resistant variety had hydrophobic property. The hydrophilic property of fungi like Penicillium commune, Penicillium crustosum,

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Table 1 Contact angle measurements of date palm and Foa and lifshitz-van der Waals (cLW), electron acceptor (c−), electron donor (c+) parameters and free energy of interaction (DGiwi) Surface tension: components and para meters (MJ m−2)

Contact angles h (°) Samples

hw

hF

hD

cLW

c+

c−

cab

DGiwi

F.o.a.

30.57 ± (2.35)!

41.27 ± (1.15)!

93.13 ± (2.85)!

11.33 ± (0.43)!

8.95 ± (0.92)!

53.99 ± (4.01)!

43.98 ± (0.27)

15.51!

Sensitive variety (Bouf)

62.97 ± (1.09)!

63.17 ± (2.40)!

52.77 ± (2.21)!

32.65 ± (0.10)!

0.08 ± (0.11)!

30.50 ± (3.20)!

3.07 ± (0.29)!

6.84!

Resistant variety Az. M

69.50 ± (1.9)!!

58.10 ± (0.91)!!

52.00 ± (3.63)!!

33.08 ± (0.97)!!

0.15 ± (0.09)!!

16.57 ± (2.36)!!

3.15 ± (0.28)!!

0.2061!

and Penicillium chrysogenum was reported in the literature (Abed et al. 2010). This result suggests that the hydrophilic properties of surfaces may be responsible of the adhesion of Foa on sensitive date palm root and, therefore, causes the sensitivity of this variety to Bayoud disease. Meanwhile, the hydrophobic properties of the resistant variety could explain its resistance. The microbial surface properties depend essentially on the chemical composition of the cell surface. The hydrophobic property of a bacterial cell is largely influenced by the residues and the structures on the surface of the cell, which can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic (Mei et al. 2003; Hamadi et al. 2012). According to the physicochemical approach, the adhesion process is the result of intermolecular interactions between microorganism and host surfaces: electrostatic, Van der Waals, and polar interactions (hydrophilic/hydrophobic) (Oss 1996). In fact, it has been shown that the hydrophobicity measured by the contact angle is directly correlated with the high ratio of N/C concentrations and inversely correlated with that of O/C concentrations (Latrache et al. 2002). Moreover, our tests reported that date palm root of sensitive variety is an important electron donor comparing to the resistant variety, and the Foa surface is relatively an important electron acceptor. This insinuates that the electron donor/electron acceptor character may also play an important role in the adhesion of Foa on date palm root of sensitive variety. Thus, the theoretical adhesion of Foa on date palm sensitive variety should be governed also by short-range forces (acid–base interactions): DGAB. The adhesion of fungi on threes despite their weak electron accepting/donating property has been reported in other threes like cedar, oak, and beech (Meijer et al. 2000; Abed et al. 2010). These studies are in agreement with our results. The importance of the electron donor character has been attributed to the presence of basic groups exposed at the cell surface, such as carboxyl groups (COO-), phosphate (PO4) phospholipids, lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides, amines (NH2) (Briandet et al. 1999), or sulfate groups (SO3) (Skinner et al. 1997). In addition, the importance of the electron acceptor character has been attributed to the presence of groups, such as R-NH or R-OH, exposed on the cell

surface. The work of Hammadi et al. has correlated the electron donating properties of Escherichia coli surface to a combination of carboxyl group-amino group and a combination proteins-polysaccharides (Hamadi et al. 2012).

5

Conclusion(s)

The present study reported that biochemically, Foa might act on date palm by, first, decreasing polyphenols release, and by other mechanisms involving celluloses and oxidases affecting the lignocellulosic degradation. Nevertheless, concerning the physicochemical interaction Fungus-host, the hydrophilicity of both Fusarium and date palm root surfaces may play a very important role in the adhesion of Foa on date palm root. Furthermore, the electron acceptor (c −)/electron–donor (c +) properties of the fungus and date palm root surfaces may strongly govern this interaction.

References S.E. Abed, F. Hamadi, H. Latrache, H.M. Iraqui, K.S. Ibnsouda, Adhesion of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium expansum spores on Fez cedar wood substrata. Ann. Microbiol. 60, 377–382 (2010) S. El Abed, S.K. Ibnsouda, H. Latrache, S. Boutahari, Theoretical effect of cedar wood surface roughness on the adhesion of conidia from Penicillium expansum. Annals Microbiol. 62(4), 1361–1366 (2012) D.R. Absolom, F.V. Lamberti, Z. Policova, W. Zingg, C.J. Van Oss, A. W Neumman, Surface thermodynamics of bacterial adhesion. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46, 90–97 (1983) R. Belarbi-Hallir, F. Mangenot, Bayoud disease of date palm; ultra structure of root infection trough pneumatodes. Can. J. Bot. 64, 1703 (1986) R. Briandet, T. Meylheuc, C. Maher, M.N. Bellon-Fontaine, Listeria monocytogenes Scott A: cell surface charge, hydrophobicity, and electron donor and acceptor characteristics under different environmental growth conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 5328–5333 (1999) H.J. Busscher, A.H. Weerkamp, H.C. Van der Mei, A.W.J. Van Pelt, H. P. De jong, J. Arends, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48, 980 (1984) D. Fernandez, M. Lourd, M. Ouinten, A. Tantaoui, J.P. Geige, Le bayoud du palmier dattier : une maladie qui menace les pheniciculture. Phytoma—La Défense des végétaux 469 (1995)

736 X. Francesc, Prenafeta-Boldu, R. Summerbell, G. Sybren de Hoog, Fungi growing on aromatic hydrocarbons: biotechnology’s unexpected encounter with biohazard? FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 30, 109– 130 (2006) F. Hamadi, H. Latrache, M. Zekraoui, M. Ellouali, J. Bengourram, Effect of pH on surface energy of glass and Teflon and theoretical prediction of staphylococcus aureus adhesion. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 29, 1302–1305 (2008) F. Hamadi, H. Latrache, H. Zahir, S.E. Abed, M. Ellouali, S.I. Kouraichi, The relation between the surface chemical composition of escherichia coli and their electron donor/electron acceptor (acid-base) properties. Res. J. Microbiol. 1, 32–40 (2012) A. Hatakka, in Biodegradation of lignin, vol. 1 ed. by M. Hofrichter, A. Steinbûchel. lignin Humic substances and coal. (wiley-VCH, weinheim, Germany, 2001), pp. 129–180 P.S. Kalsi, Spectroscopy of Organic Compounds, 6th edn. (New Age International Publications, 2007), p. 662 Y.S. Kim, G.W. Seung, H.L. Kwang, P. Aoly, Cytochemical localization of hydrogen peroxide production during wood decay by brown rot fungi Tyromyces palustris and coniophora puteana. New York 56, 7–12 (2002) H. Latrache, A.E. Ghmari, M. Karroua, A. Hakkou, H.A. Mousse, A.E. Bouadili, P. Bourlioux, Relations between hydrophobicity tested by three methods and surface chemical composition of Escherichia coli. New Microbiol. 25, 75–82 (2002) K. Majourhat, K. Bendiab, L. Medraoui, M. Baaziz, Diversity of leaf peroxidases in date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) as revealed in an

S. Lekchiri et al. example of marginal (seedling derived) palm groves. Scientia Horti. 95(1–2), 31–38 (2002) H.C. Van der Mei, Van de Belter-Gretter, P.H. Pouwels, B. Martinez, H.J. Boussher, Cell surface hydrophobicity is conveyed by S-layer proteins—a study in recombinant lactobacilli. Colloids surf. B 28, 2–3, 127–134 (2003) M.D. Meijer, S. Haemers, W. Cobben, H. Militz, Surface energy determinations of wood: comparison of methods and wood species. Langmuir 16, 9352–9359 (2000) R. Oliveira, J. Azeredo, P. Teixeira, A.P. Fonseca, The Role of Hydrophobicity in Bacterial Adhesion, in Bio_ film Community Interactions: Chance or Necessity? Eds., (Bioline, Cardiff, 2001), pp. 11–22 C.J Van Oss, M.K. Chaudhury, R.J. Good, Interfacial lifshitz_ van der waals and polar interactions in macroscopic systems. Chem. Rev. 88, 927–941 (1988) C.J. Van Oss, Interfacial Forces in Aqueous Media (Dekker, New York, 1996) J.A. Skinner, K.A. Lewis, K.S. Bardon, P. Tucker, J.A. Catt, B. J. Chambers, An overview of the environmental impact of agriculture in the U.K. J. Environ. Manage. 50, 111–128 (1997) A.T. Stenstrôm, Bacterial hydrophobicity, an overall parameter for the measurement of adhesion potential to soil particles. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55, 142–147 (1989) E.A. Vogler, Structure and reactivity of water at bio_ material surfaces. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 74, 69–117 (1998)

Implementation of a Process for the Treatment of Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soil Using Petroleum Produced Water Wajdi Ibn Haj Ali, Hassan El Gharbi, Fatma Aloulou, Subrata Borgohain Gogoi, and Monem Kallel

5 min, and the optimum of liquid/solid ratio was 100 mL/100 g. With these optimum conditions and after three successive soil washing, we managed to reduce the percentage of residual TPH in contaminated soil from 0.19% (1900 ppm) to 0.03% (300 ppm).

Abstract

Oil-pipeline, oil-well accidents, and leaky underground storage oil-tanks can all permanently contaminate massive areas of soil making them economically useless as well as dangerous to human health, biological resources, and ecosystems. There are many methods to treat of the soils contaminated by hydrocarbons Stegmann R., Brunner G., Calmano W., Matz G.: Treatment of contaminated soil, Fondamentals Analysis Applications. Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 658 p. (2001): stabilization/solidification, bioremediation Suthersan, S. S., Horst J., Schnobrich M., Welty N. and McDonough J. Remediation engineering: design concepts, CRC Press. (2016), incineration, soil washing, etc. The present work focuses on the treatment of the soil contaminated by hydrocarbons with soil washing process using oilfield produced water (PW). The methodological approach consists of researching the optimum conditions of soil washing based on the optimum moisture parameters between PW and contaminated soil such as liquid/solid contact time and liquid/solid ratio. Another parameter was analyzed is the successive wash test. The contaminated soil before applying the treatment has 1900 ppm of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). After six washing tests, the optimum parameters of test were as follow: the optimum of liquid/solid contact time was W. I. H. Ali (&) La Compagnie Franco-Tunisienne des Pétroles CFTP, QHSE, Sfax, Tunis, Tunisia W. I. H. Ali
H. E. Gharbi
M. Kallel Laboratoire de Génie de l’Environnement et Echo-Technologie GEET; Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Tunis, Tunisia F. Aloulou Laboratoire de Génie de l’Environnement et Echo-Technologie GEET; Faculté des Sciences de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Tunis, Tunisia S. B. Gogoi Department of Petroleum Technology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India

Keywords











Produced water (PW) Contaminated soil Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) Soil washing Oil and gas activity

1

Introduction

Nowadays, the major challenge of oil industry is abide by the environmental initiatives and societal pressure to save water resources, limit gas emissions, and decrease the quantity of contaminated soil by hydrocarbons. Many different in-situ or ex-situ remediation technologies have been developed throughout the years in order to remove these contaminants and to mitigate the risk imposed by soil contamination such as stabilization/solidification, bioremediation, incineration, and soil washing. (EPA 2007). However, large volumes of produced water (PW) are generated due to oil pumping operations. This PW can be used to clean contaminated soil by hydrocarbons with soil washing process. Washing tests have been carried out in laboratory scales followed by analyses to evaluate the release of TPH content from soil to the aqueous phase and determine the optimum conditions for an effective washing.

2

Methodological Approach

The main factors that control soil washing by chemical extraction-using water are flushing number, contact time, liquid/solid ratio, and water temperature as regards to

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_93

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leaching column test (Jeannot et al. 2000). We have chosen to study the effect of the first three factors on the removal of TPH at ambient temperature in order to determine the optimum conditions for an efficient soil washing process. The soil washing treatment was based on the following steps to reduce the amount of hydrocarbons stored in the soil; 1. We observed the optimum liquid and solid contact time for dissolving hydrocarbons in produced water at ambient temperature and 5, 10, and 20 min. 2. After having estimated the optimum liquid and solid contact time, we limited the liquid/solid ratio at 100/100, 200/100, 300/100 (mL/g), respectively, to see the optimum ratio for dissolving hydrocarbons in produced water. 3. A series of successive washes were carried out in compliance with the optimum contact time and the optimum liquid/solid ratio in order to reduce the concentration of residual TPH in the soil (Fig. 1).

W. I. H. Ali et al.

2.1.2 The Stages of Soil Washing Soil Preparation A mixture of homogeneous soil was prepared by manual mixing and breaking of large aggregates. Then, we put the amount of soil that will be treated into a container, which was exposed to the sun and dried leaving it without any moisture inside. Chemical Extraction by Produced Water Once the soil has been prepared, washing tests were carried out in the laboratory scale by produced water as an aqueous solvent. Washing protocol: • 100 g of homogenized soil sample with mixed with the appropriate washing water amount (100, 200, or 300 ml) in a beaker was continuously stirred at 100 rpm to the required contact time. The sample was left to settle for 20 min and then filtered to properly remove the soil and the water.

2.1 Soil Washing Process 2.2 Analytical Methods 2.1.1 Soil Sampling We used sample bags, a spatula, gloves, field notebook, GPS, Trax, and spade to collect soil samples. Ten samples were collected from different locations at ambient temperature and were relatively homogenous representing the dominant type of soil at each location and depth. Surface samples were collected from a maximum depth of 1 m and at depth intervals (0.4, 0.5, 0.84, or 1.0 m intervals). To fill the sample bags, the top layer of soil was removed to the desired sample depth with Trax or spade. Then we collected the soil and scraped it into the sample bag with a spatula.

2.2.1 Soil Analysis Before Treatment Soil Water Retention Capacity • We poured 50 mL of water into a beaker containing 25 mL of soil and then shook it. A funnel covered with filter paper was used to separate the water from the soil and the collected water volumes were recorded.

Porosity “Soil porosity” refers to the amount of pores, or open space, between soil particles. • 100 mL of water was poured into a cup. We drained the water from this cup so that it could be filled with the soil sample up to the drawn line, • The water was slowly and carefully poured into this cup using a graduated cylinder until it reached the top of the soil sample, • The volume of water remaining in the graduated cylinder was recorded.

Fig. 1 Guide of soil washing application

Implementation of a Process for the Treatment of Hydrocarbon …

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The porosity can be calculated using the following formula:

After that, we put the {capsule + salts} in the oven at 105 °C for one hour, and after that, it was cooled to room temperature in a desiccator in order to weigh it. The density was determined using a density meter in a graduated cylinder containing 500 mL of produced water. As well as, the hardness (Ca and Mg) was also determined using Digital Titrator.

Porosityð%Þ ¼ pores volume=total volume PH of Soil The procedure of soil hydrogen potential is as follows: • 10 g of soil was mixed with 50 mL of distilled water to shake them up for an hour • After their equilibrium for 16 h, the pH was measured by a pH-measuring device

Moisture Content 10 g of wet soil sample taken was weighed. Then, it was air-dried to determine their dry weight. Organic Matter Percentage The organic matter of soil is determined after calcinations of the dried soil at 105 °C sample in the oven at 550 °C for 2 h in order to obtain a weight of P550 OM% ¼ ðP550  P105 Þ=ðP105  P0 Þ

2.2.2 Washing Water Analysis Devices and Materials An oven at 105 °C. • • • • • •

Desiccators Conduct meter Electronic balance (RADWAG band), e = 1 mg Two capsules pH-measuring device Agitator

Devices Sampling and Measuring We took a produced water sample from the production center of oil field in order to determine their characteristics such as: The electrical conductivity of produced water was measured by conduct meter at 22 °C. Similarly, a pH-measuring device was used to determine their pH. To determine the total salinity of produced water sample, an empty capsule previously dried in the oven at 105 °C and cooled to room temperature in a desiccator was weighted. Then, we poured 10 mL of produced water into the capsule. This capsule was placed in the agitator until the salts precipitated.

2.2.3 Hydrocarbon Analysis Liquid: Solid Extraction In order to determine the quantity of total petroleum hydrocarbons “TPH” according to (ISO TR 11,046) at each wash test, we have included the mechanical agitation method which is based on liquid: solid extraction and consists in mechanically agitating the sample in the presence of an extracting solvent at atmospheric pressure and at room temperature. It appears very simple and nevertheless interesting because it gives results at least as good as those obtained by the Soxhlet technique (Jeannot et al. 2000). The organic solvent that has to be used for extraction sample is methylene dichloride (CH2Cl2) (DCM) (Zhang et al. 2013). This method was processed by several steps to extract hydrocarbons from the contaminated soil which are detailed in the following extraction protocol: Extraction Protocol • Put 10 g of contaminated soil in a beaker. • Take 30 mL of organic solvent by pipette to add it to the beaker containing the soil sample. • Shake this mixture for 5 min using a mechanical shaker, then let it settle to filter and recover the {hydrocarbons + organic solvent} into a new dried beaker. • In order to separate TPH from the organic solvent, it is recommended to use rotary evaporator at 40 °C. • The concentration of hydrocarbons obtained after solvent evaporation was put into a dried carrycot to be weighed

To calculate the quantity of extracted hydrocarbons, we may use this formula: TPH ¼ ðP  P0 Þ  100

• P0: Weight of the empty carrycot (g). • P: Weight of the carrycot + the extracted hydrocarbons (g).

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To get the hydrocarbons concentration in 1 kg of contaminated soil, we need to multiply the result by 100.

W. I. H. Ali et al.

3

Results

3.1 Untreated Soil Characterization Liquid Chromatography It is a quantitative, qualitative, and separative analytical technique mainly used in the field of analytical chemistry as a major scientific tool but also in various fields such as organic chemistry and biochemistry. In this project, we chose liquid chromatography on the solid phase since it allows us to separate compounds with different polarities as reference to Nouha (2006). Analytical Protocol As a first step, we have to prepare the separation column. The next step consists of the elution of organic compounds by organic. In the last step, these two fractions (aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons) are collected in identified hemolytic tubes and weighed. After drying the elutes, the tubes are torn again, and the relative proportions of each of the fractions can thus be calculated for each sample by the difference between the mass of the empty and full tubes. The scheme (Fig. 2) represents the chromatographic column.

Some characteristics of studied soil before treatment have been identified that are important for understanding the interactions of petroleum hydrocarbons with this soil at 20 °C.

3.1.1 Water Retention Capacity The soil used in this project has the capacity to retain about 80% of the water. This content is a decisive factor for the distribution of the pollutant during the three phases of the soil. Indeed, if the pollutant is present in the gas phase, the presence of water on the surface of the adsorbent may reduce the adsorption of hydrophobic pollutant (by repulsion) or increase its retention if it is hydrophilic (hydrogen bonds with water molecules or dissolution in still water) (Gourdon 1997). Therefore, the important water retention capacity of contaminated soil limits the adsorption phenomenon of hydrophobic pollutants. 3.1.2 Soil Porosity and pH Soil contamination by hydrocarbons limits its porous space. Thus, the soil is air-dried in order to keep the hydrocarbons compounds into the soil system to accurately determine its porosity. After executing the porosity test, the porous space occupied by air and water represents 41%, which enhances the distribution of wash water in the contaminated soil and their pH = 7.67. 3.1.3 The Moisture Content The weight humidity of soil before treatment corresponds to 10% while the use of water to clean up the soil causes the increase of this moisture to 32% and may reduce the adsorption of organic pollutants.

Fig. 2 Chromatographic separation column

3.1.4 Organic Matter Percentage 8.7% is the percentage determined through the designed test; this percentage is very high compared with the following figured in the non-contaminated soil gathered from an agriculture zone nearby the contaminated zone which is only 1.9% that is because the percentage of the hydrocarbons stored into the contaminated soil which exceeds 5% of the soil dry weight.

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From the study of Gourdon (1997), this content plays a role in the soil’s ability to retain organic pollutants; such low-polar, non-ionizable organic molecules have a greater affinity for hydrophobic elements than for water in the soil. This partition can be described by a solvation phenomenon that occurs in soils rich in organic matter since this latter has a significant role for hydrophobic interactions provides by its aliphatic chains. As a result, the high percentage of organic matter limits the receptivity of soil for being treated by washing.

This type of water is used as washing water, and then their characteristics are well determined and recorded in the Table 1. From this table, produced water is characterized by high salinity and conductivity, which enhance the ionic strength of water, and it has a low acidity (pH = 6.23).

3.1.5 Soil Granulometry The granulometric analysis of soil by wet sieving (63 µm sieve) shows that: The coarse mineral fraction, which is sandy, represents 72% of total soil mass. The percentage of fine particles, which are silt and clay, is 28%. This parameter is very important since the soil rich in sand and silt is characterized by its high permeability to water. Moreover, these two fractions do not intervene practically in the adsorption of organic pollutants in the soil, unlike clays that have a very high adsorption capacity (Gourdon 1997). Therefore, this significant percentage of sand improves the efficiency of water scrubbing.

3.2 Washing Water Characterization Generally, most produced waters have salinities greater than that of seawater and, therefore, are denser than seawater (Collins 1975) while it contains the same salts as seawater, with sodium and chloride the most abundant ions.

Table 1 Physicochemical properties of produced water (at 20 °C)

3.3 Categories of Removed Hydrocarbons 3.3.1 Quantitive and Qualitative Analysis Result In order to identify, and to qualify hydrocarbons types removed by the process of water leaching, we have set up an analytical program based on the liquid chromatography characterization. Thus, liquid chromatography (on silica column) allowed the identification of the class of removed hydrocarbons according to the analysis result of the following soil samples: S0: Untreated soil sample. SW1: Soil washed once. SW2: Soil washed twice. SW3: Soil washed three times. The obtained results are recorded in Table 2. The total petroleum hydrocarbons is composed of three major fractions: Saturated hydrocarbons (SAT). Aromatic hydrocarbons (AROM). Nitrogen sulfur oxygen (NSO) compounds. The polar compounds were found to be the most abundant in the untreated soil sample S0, which represents 1150 ppm, following by the saturated hydrocarbons with a content of 470 ppm, while the aromatic hydrocarbons are the least abundant which correspond only to 280 ppm. This may indicate that the origin of hydrocarbons is heavy crude oil according to the composition of the (Fig. 3) ternary diagram.

Physiochemical characteristics

Produced water

Electrical conductivity (ms/cm)

270

Total salinity (g/L)

137

pH

6.23

Density (kg/L)

1.01

Calcium (mg/L)

1820

Magnesium (mg /L)

6200

Chloride (mg /L)

76.58

Sodium (mg/L)

52.28

Nitrate (mg/L)

12

Barium (mg/L)

40

Sulfide (mg/L)

10

Sulfate (mg/L)

220

742 Table 2 Contents of TPH, saturated hydrocarbons, aromatics ,and polar compounds of a sample before and after treatment

W. I. H. Ali et al. Studied soil

SAT (ppm)

AROM (ppm)

NSO (ppm)

SAT (%)

AROM (%)

NSO (%)

TPH (ppm)

S0

470

280

1150

25

15

60

1900

SW1

460

92

148

66

13

21

700

SW2

357

21

122

71

11

18

500

SW3

229

18

53

77

8

15

300

Fig. 3 Ternary diagram of soil samples

These concentrations of residual hydrocarbons in soil change considerably after three successive washings. In fact, there is a great release of NSO compounds, which decreases from 1150 to 53 ppm. Thus, the removal efficiency of these compounds is about 95%. Similarly, the aromatic hydrocarbons know also a significant decrease from 280 to 18 ppm Thus, their removal efficiency is about 93%. However, the release of saturated hydrocarbons is carried out slowly to reach to 229 ppm at the end of washing series with a removal efficiency of 51%. Relatively, saturated compounds appear to be less affected by washing process than other hydrocarbons. This result can be explained by the dissolution principle mentioned in the first part of this document. As a conclusion, polar compounds and aromatic hydrocarbons are the most removed hydrocarbons (elimination is around 95%) from soil to water, unlike saturated hydrocarbons (with elimination around 50%). The analysis of hydrocarbons composition through the evaluation of relative proportions of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and NSO compounds provides the following two results such:

There are essential differences between the hydrocarbons composition in the untreated sample (S0) compared to the other Samples (SW1, SW2, SW3). In fact, they are manifest through the combined position of the treated soil samples at the pole of the saturated hydrocarbons while the untreated sample is at the pole of NSO compounds. This is displayed in the ternary diagram in Fig. 3 which clearly means that the decrease in hydrocarbons recorded at the transition from S0 to SW1 seems entirely due to the high dissolution of polar compounds (NSO). A detailed review of the extracts’ composition in all different samples and after three washings by water shows that the proportions in NSO have changed significantly. In fact, the percentages decrease from 60 to 15. Similarly, the aromatic hydrocarbons decreased from 15 to 8%. However, the fraction of saturated hydrocarbons occupied the majority of residual hydrocarbons in the soil with percentages greater than 60%.

3.3.2 Interpretation The tendency to dissolve and remove preferably—the majority of aromatic hydrocarbons and polar compounds from soil to water—is due to the different polarity between the different classes of total petroleum hydrocarbons. In fact, NSO compounds (resins and asphaltenes) are the most polar compounds followed by aromatic compounds, which are moderately polar and finally, the aliphatics, which are apolar (Jane 2016). And, the high polarity enhances the hydrocarbons dissolution phenomenon into water, which is already a polar solvent. Similarly, the dissolution defined by Nicholas (2015) mainly affects polar and low molecular weight aromatic compounds (mainly compounds lower than C15). In addition to that, the solubility of petroleum hydrocarbons in water decreases as their size (molecular weight) increases; aromatic hydrocarbons are more water-soluble than saturated hydrocarbons with the same molecular weight (Jerry et al. 2011). Furthermore, the evaporation phenomenon must be taken into consideration because it may affect lighter volatile compounds with low molecular weight during soil drying before analysis at 40 °C.

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In addition, the wide range of natural surfactant molecules in produced water provides the solubilization of hydrophobic compounds especially the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Treatability study According to the CRC CARE Technical Report (2017), the suitability of soil washing as an application depends on a number of factors aside from the successful reduction of contaminant concentrations in the soil. Even in cases where the majority of contamination has been removed, the contaminant concentrations in the remaining soil must comply with the remediation criteria. As far as legislation is concerned, the detailed examination of the contaminated soil should take into consideration these elements:

Fig. 4 Histogram of soil classification according to saturated hydrocarbons concentrations

• The absence of national (Tunisian) regulations in the field of contaminated sites management (under preparation). • The international regulation uses specific indexes to characterize the scale of pollution (such as hydrocarbon index). • The comparison is relatively difficult, given the specificity of the soil (clay content, organic matter). We have studied the Canadian regulations to assess the level of contamination of our studied soil. Indeed, the regulations of the Ministry of the Environment of Quebec require in the case of present contaminants the soil to be treated until a specific level of contamination is reached. The regulation is summarized as follow (François 2015). The level that is assimilated to the bottom content of soils is level A. If contamination is present, the land used to build the road base must be decontaminated at level B (Table 3). If contamination is present, industrial and commercial properties must be decontaminated at level C. In order to use this classification, we assumed that the saturated fraction (obtained in the liquid chromatography) correspond to the Aliphatic hydrocarbons (C10–C50) where table lists the concentrations of saturated hydrocarbons (ppm) (Fig. 4). From the above histogram, the treated soil samples (SW1 and SW2) are classified in level B. So, they may be reused

Table 3 Levels of soil contamination for aliphatic hydrocarbons according to the ministry of environment of Quebec Studied soil

SW1

SW2

SW3

Saturated hydrocarbons in ppm

460

357

229

Contamination levels

Level A

Level B

Level C

Fig. 5 Schematic proposal for soil washing process

for building road base. While the soil sample (SW3) is treated and can be classified in level A, which represents natural soil bottom level. Overall, an attempt was made to put forward a proposal for the application of this washing method at an industrial scale as illustrated below: From Fig. 5, the proposed soil washing process can include four steps: Step 1: Excavating contaminated soil and placing it in another specific site for treatment. Step 2: Pretreatment. In this step, large objects are removed from the soil so that a homogenous (diameters less than 50 mm) soil is prepared for the washing step. Removal can be done through mechanical screening. The oversized materials can consist of anything from construction debris to large pieces of rock or gravels. These materials are usually not contaminated. However, if treatment is necessary, crushing and grinding may be needed to reduce the size of the materials (USEPA 1993; Griffiths 1995). Step 3: Successive soil washing. Typically, the number of flushing can be monitored according to the reuse of soil.

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Considering the results of this work, we have estimated the quantity of process water to 2 m3 for each 1 m3 of soil with a ratio of 200/100. Step 4: Process water treatment: Liquid waste (produced water) may require the addition of flocculating agents to assist in the clarification and/or filtration to remove suspended solids as sludge or filter cake. After treatment, it can be returned to the production center to be mixed with other produced waters from different wells and can be re-injected in an existing reservoir or recycled for reuse in the soil washing process. The amount of hydrocarbons present in the contaminated soil before applying the treatment method was determined as TPH = 1900 ppm. Our objective is to transfer the maximum of hydrocarbons from the soil to the produced water. To that end, the optimal conditions of soil washing were determined by assessing the quantity of hydrocarbons remaining in the soil after each wash test. The main conditions at laboratory scale for all samples are: The amount of contaminated soil is 100 g, the ambient temperature is between 19 and 21 °C, the agitation speed is 110 rpm. On the other hand, several other components could potentially be transferred to the soil treated from PW through this process. It can be cleaned by applying another process (e.g., by bioremediation process) or it can be used in its state and specific level.

3.4 Liquid and Solid Contact Time Optimization The washing conditions are: – The volume of produced water is 100 mL – Liquid/solid ratio is 100/100 (mL/g) – Liquid and solid contact time is 5, 10, 20 min, respectively. Table 4 summarizes the removal and residual TPH percentages in soil after washing test.

3.5 Liquid/Solid Ratio Optimization The washing conditions are: • The volume of produced water is 100, 200, 300 (mL), respectively. Table 4 Variation of TPH as a function of liquid and solid contact time

• Liquid/solid ratio: 100/100, 200/100, 300/100 (mL/g), respectively. • Liquid and solid contact time is 5 min. The removal and residual TPH in soil and after washing test are registered in Table 5.

3.6 Successive Wash Test Successive washing consists of four consecutive washes on the same sample in order to produce four different extracts under the following conditions: • Liquid and solid contact time is 5 min. • Liquid/solid ratio is 100/100 (mL/g). Table 6 summarizes the removal and residual TPH in soil after each water rinse.

4

Discussion

4.1 Liquid and Solid Contact Time Optimization The soil sample S0 represents the initial state of the soil records a TPH concentration of 1900 ppm. This concentration decreases rapidly after the first rinse. This drop in TPH concentration clearly shows that a significant proportion of the hydrocarbons have been removed about 57% as proven by the curve above. At this point, a quick and significant dissolution of hydrocarbons with high solubility may carry out in produced water. Table 1 shows that the increase of the contact time between liquid and solid phase provides a slight decrease in the remaining TPH in the soil. Indeed, residual TPH concentration is 810 ppm (for 5 min) while it is 480 ppm (for 20 min). As a deduction, hydrocarbons proportions in the water are increased since the removal TPH comes to 74% for 20 min while, it is about 57% for 5 min. Thus, increasing the contact time between water and soil has an effect on TPH Removal efficiency. From a profitability point of view, it is better to wash the soil for 5 min and reach to 57% of TPH removal than to regulate the contact time up to 20 min (=increase of

Sample name

Liquid and solid contact time (min)

Residual TPH (ppm)

Removal TPH (%)

S1

5

810

57

S2

10

690

64

S3

20

480

75

Implementation of a Process for the Treatment of Hydrocarbon … Table 5 Variation of TPH as a function of liquid/solid ratio

Table 6 Variation of removal and residual TPH as a function of successive washing

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Sample name

Liquid/solid ratio (mL/g)

Residual TPH (ppm)

Removal TPH (%)

S4

100/100

880

53

S5

200/100

610

68

S6

300/100

224

88

Flushing number

Residual TPH (ppm)

Removal TPH (%)

1

700

63

2

500

73

3

300

84

electricity) to reach to 74% of TPH removal. For that, an optimal washing time is 5 min.

4.2 Liquid/Solid Ratio Optimization As found in the previous study of the contact time effect, washing the soil initially for 5 min in accordance with the liquid/solid ratio (100/100) transferred a significant amount of hydrocarbons from the soil to the water where the removal of TPH is about 53%. Table 2 indicates that the increase of the liquid/solid ratio provides a decrease in the quantity of hydrocarbons remaining in the soil. In fact, the proportions of TPH removed from soil have been increased to 88% (300/100) from 53% (100/100). Even though, the release of hydrocarbons becomes more important with the increase of the liquid/solid ratio. The amount of water used is considered very high while its removal efficiency compared to 100/100 ratio is low. Therefore, washing the soil according to the 100/100 ratio is cost efficient than washing it with high quantity of water. Thus, the optimal liquid: solid ratio has been selected is 100/100 ratio.

4.3 Successive Wash Test From Table 3, a significant decrease for TPH in the soil is observed after the first flushing, following by a gradual decrease after each successive washing until it comes to 300 ppm. Indeed, the proportion of TPH removal for the first wash is important since it reaches 63% from 100% of TPH in contaminated soil. This proportion increases considerably after the following successive washings as it reaches to 84%.

As a result, an important transfer of hydrocarbons from the contaminated soil to produced water can be achieved after this washing series. Thus, increasing the number of flushing provides the increase of TPH removal efficiency. But, it will increase the cost of this process.

5

Conclusion(s)

As a result, the application of soil washing with produced water as a method of treating hydrocarbon contaminated soil has allowed us to reduce the percentage of residual TPH in soil from 0.19% (1900 ppm) to 0.03% (300 ppm). These results obtained with the washing conditions below: • • • •

Ambient temperature: between 19 and 21 °C. Liquid and Solid contact time: 5 min. Liquid/Solid ratio: 100 mL/100 g. Flushing number: 3 successive washes.

These optimum conditions can provide TPH removal efficiency at about 84%. The qualitative analysis of total petroleum hydrocarbons indicated that this process has affected essentially the aromatic and polar fractions (NSO’s) with an elimination rate exceeding 90% while the removal of saturated fraction does not exceed 50%. Therefore, a washing process based on three successive washings using a ratio of 2 m3 of water for 1 m3 of soil. The water used in this process will be treated in waste water treatment plant before the reuse. It can be also re-injected in the reservoir of oil field without treatment. Thus, it is possible to reduce the quantity of hydrocarbon present in the oil field-contaminated soil with a low cost technique and a minimum impact on the environment.

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Further essays should be conducted (in larger scale: semi industrial) to calculate exactly the cost of this process.

References A.G. Collins, Geochemistry of Oilfield Waters (Elsevier Scientific Publishers, New York, 1975), p. 496 E. EPA, Treatment technologies for site cleanup: Annual status report (Washington, 2007) P. François, Traitement des sols contaminés aux hydrocarbures (C10– C50) et aux métaux lourds PB CU ZN. Département de genie chimique. Ecole Polytechnique Montérial. p. 87 (2015) R. Gourdon, Etude de l’adsorption–desorption de polluants organiques dans les sols. Approche methodologique et application au pentachlorophenol et aux hydrocarbures polycycliques aromatiques. RECORD 223, 94–0404/3A (1997) R.A. Griffiths, Soil-washing technology and practice. J. Hazard. Mater. 40, 175–189 (1995)

W. I. H. Ali et al. F. Jane, Chemistry for Land Contamination. Yorkshire Contaminated Land Forum (2016) R. Jeannot, B. Lemière, S. Chiron, Guide méthodologique pour l’analyse des sols pollués. Rap. BRGM R 50128, 110p., 44 fig, 3 ann (2000) M.N. Jerry, L. Kenneth, M.D. Elisabeth, Produced Water: Overview of Composition, Fates and Effects (Springer New York, 2011), pp. 3– 54. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0046-2_1 G. Nicolas, Hydrocarbures pétorliers: caractéristiques, devenir et criminalistique environnementale, Études GENV222 et GENV23, Évaluation environnementale stratégique globale sur les hydrocarbures. Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, p. 41 et annexes (2015) B. Nouha, Traitement d’un sol pollué par les hydrocarbures par le procedé de Landfarming. (Master (FST), Tunisie, 2016), p. 101 USEPA, Innovative Site Remediation Technology: Soil Washing/Soil Flushing. EPA 542-B-93-012 (1993) J. Zhang, J. Li, R. Thring, L. Liu, Application of ultrasound and Fenton’s reaction process for the treatment of oily sludge. Proc. Environ. Sci. 18, 686–693 (2013)

Policies and Community Outreach

A Governance Framework to Adapt WEF NEXUS in Decision Making: A Case Study of the Water Sector n the State of Qatar Maha Al-Matwi

Abstract

This paper illustrates a proposed governance framework for water, energy, and food nexus with a case study of the water sector in Qatar. Through studying different policy tools and thinking systems, a water, energy, food nexus ranking system is created to highlight the level of interdependency among the three sectors in order to form a monitoring and decision-making procedure. Such system needs a valid and reliable data source. As a result, establishing a nexus knowledge hub will enhance the communication and coordination processes by allowing needed data to be available on time. Such a sustainability approach in decision making will increase the efficiency of decision making and ensure the successful delivery of national strategies and sustainable development goals. Keywords







Water Water, energy and food nexus Decision making Qatar

1




Government




Introduction

Managing resources has always been a challenge for nations, particularly for those who suffer from limited resources. Nations face a bigger challenge to ensure an adequate balance between water, energy, and food security. The water, energy, and food nexus (WEF nexus) materialized as a conceptual framework that highlights interdependencies between the water, energy, and food sectors. Many have studied those relationships between sectors and from the policy perspectives. The state of Qataris is an M. Al-Matwi (&) Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation “Kahramaa”, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected]

example of a country who suffers from limited water resources and imbalanced between those three pillars (Hussein and Lambert 2020) and (Stockholm Environment Institute. “Understanding the Nexus.” Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the European Union 2011). Qatar is one of the fastest growing economies since the last two decades. It has gone through huge demographic growth which resulted in a huge spike in demand for resources and services. The government is challenged to achieve its national vision 2030 targets and at the same time is aiming to sustainably managing those resources. This paper will tackle the challenge of decision making in the WEF sectors by offering a proposed decision-making mechanism within the governance framework that can utilize available data from the water sector perspective.

2

Method

This paper will adopt a qualitative method that will use combined data from published literature, governmental, and international organizational reports in order to draw a futuristic governance framework for the state of Qatar by implying the nexus to different thinking systems with a case study of the water sector. Nexus The WEF nexus emerged as a conceptual framework that highlights interdependencies between the water, energy, and food sector. It provides a cross-sectoral perspective through integrating sustainable natural resources’ management. Furthermore, nexus relationships have addressed bilateral interdependencies, such as energy needed for water desalination, or water needed for irrigated agriculture (Toolkit and [Online] Available at, 2016). This bilateral interdependency is crucial for some countries such as Qatar, where water and food represented in agriculture are highly codependent

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_94

749

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M. Al-Matwi

because water sources are limited with desalination, and it has a restricted access to groundwater. The main philosophy of the WEF nexus approach is achieving sustainable development by ensuring a balance between the three pillars: economy, environment, and society. It was internationally approved to have this understanding, and it was supported by national commitment at the local level, to have two sets of interconnected principles that must be included when developing any national policy or legal framework for implementing a WEF nexus policy. These two sets are the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and human rights (Abulibdeh and EsmatZaidan 2019; Stockholm Environment Institute. “Understanding the Nexus.” Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the European Union 2011).

3

Results and Discussion

National Vision and strategy Qatar national vision 2030 has been built on four pillars: social development, human development, economic development, and environmental development. Qatar’s national vision had a holistic environmental vision with establishing an effective legal framework that assures a balance between development needs and protecting the environment. The Second National Development Strategy has provided a comprehensive urban development plan for Qatar that adopts a sustainable policy concerning urban expansion and population distribution (Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics 2019). Therefore, the second Qatar national strategy (2018–2022) has emphasized the following: (1) Efficient use of natural resources, including oil, energy, and water. (2) Continuous upgrading of legislation to keep abreast of various developments. (3) Maximizing real private–public partnerships (PPP) (Smajgl et al. 2016). To achieve those national objectives, an intersectoral work mechanism is needed. It will assure its successful implementation for different projects without impacting other sectors. Water Sector Implementing the nexus in Qatar needs to be in an intersectoral form with strong coordination with the stakeholders in the public and private sectors. This will help examining the corelation among nexus sectors. Qatar is ranked first among the countries with water stress with an expected unmet water demand prone to exceed 60% by 2050 (Keskinen et al. 2016). Therefore, Qatar national

strategies addressed those challenges and developed a national mechanism for water resources. As a result, a national committee was established in 2017, known as the Permanent Water Resources Committee (PWRC) where members from other sectors have been involved water decision-making process. This engagement from different ministries and sectors is through all levels from top management to technical teams. The Permanent Water Resources Committee (PWRC) mandated the development of Qatar Water Security Policy and Qatar Water Strategy and is responsible of following all national water projects and plans. Even with PWRC delivering its objectives, a broader term of integration is needed where holistic decision making can be implemented, and every challenge is studied and reviewed. Sustainable consumption of natural resources and delivering demand is a must. Furthermore, countries often hugely rely on both private and public sectors, and among each, there are different governmental authorizes and companies with a different set of objectives, and harmonizing all is necessary for reliable decision-making mechanisms and delivering the policies. Different systems of thinking methods have been used to investigate the common principles and models to describe the WEF nexus and the use of systems theory to establish its scientific basis. There were four areas identified that can use systems thinking: (1) mapping the nexus and its linkages, (2) finding critical linkages, (3) using models for nexus problems, and (4) realizing the rebound effect in a system setting (Alcamo 2015). By adopting few of those systemthinking methods, a local framework can be created for Qatar. WEF Nexus Ranking System The WEF nexus is an analytical tool and conceptual framework, which uses quantitative and qualitative methods to understand interactions among water, energy and food systems. However, the nexus has been a concept for a long time (Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics 2019; Stockholm Environment Institute 2011) lacking the right tools to transform it into a governance framework, since WEF linkages promote coherence in policy-making and encourage a cross-sectoral collaboration to solve critical problems that assures sustainability (Keskinen et al. 2016). In order to identify the responsibilities and level of integration. First, to assure that all projects and decisions are made within a WEF nexus perspective, all of the projects should go through the ranking process to be classified with low, moderate, and high according to the interdependency with WEF nexus. This classification shall be made by the technical team. For instance, if the interdependency is high and affects the other sectors in the long term, it should be approved by both technical and management as shown in Table 1.

A Governance Framework to Adapt WEF NEXUS …

Those ranks will categorize the urgency of those decisions and then the correct communication channels and discussions will be made to assure that the decisions will be determined by nexus dependency and its corresponding decision makers. Table 2 shows the nexus sectors reflected in Qatar’s public and private systems. Different stakeholders should assure to appoint focal points among both strategic planners and management stuff to assure regular follow up of the system and the decisions are made within the time limit available. An analysis should be done through crossing Tables 1 and 2 through identifying the sectors in the problem and the level of dependency and decision maker level needed. After identifying the rank and respective stakeholders an integrated system can be created. In order to understand the interdependency between the sectors, Fig. 1 shows the level of the interdependency in the intersections between the different sectors interdependency, and the level of interdependency is increasing as it goes deeper to the three sectors intersection, which reflects the complexity of the level of decision-making will. Table 1 shows the level of this relationship and the type of decision making needed, both can act as tools to give us guidelines in creating the right path for different challenges in water, energy, and food sectors. A process can be established through the following steps: (1) Identifying the level of the problem through Table 1 and Fig. 1 to understand its rank level, dependency, and decision maker required. (2) Identifying the sectors and governmental or private sector entities involved. Nexus Knowledge Hub Collective efforts are needed to collect and gather data to create a national data-sharing hub that will support the decision-making process with real up-to-date data. This role can be played by the ministry of development planning and statistics, where an interactive data system is made available for both sectors. This system should ensure an updated data from all authorities and easy access by all concerned parties. Furthermore, such initiative will assure the delivery of Sustainable Development Goals 2030. The nexus knowledge Table 1 WEF nexus ranking system

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hub is an attractive data source for national and international research institutions, where success stories and lessons learned are available, and to be used in other countries facing similar challenges, or it can also be developed with technology and innovation (UN ESCWA Water-Energy Nexus Operational Toolkit: Resource Efficiency Module 2018). Furthermore, having educational and research institutes to take part in the decision-making criteria in particular for futuristic projects and to act as a backbone system provides additional insights from science and research perspective. Such additional role player is essential nowadays, where technology and innovation are fast growing and could be offering solutions to different sectors to help preserve the natural resources. There are many local research institutions in Qatar University and Qatar foundation that can provide the innovation inputs to the decision-making formula and play this role. Nexus is a framework that is supported by sustainable development goals which accounts as an international obligation and each country is held accountable to deliver the expected results by 2030. Therefore, recording and reporting those results is a crucial aspect of this process (Stockholm Environment Institute. “Understanding the Nexus.” Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the European Union, 2011).

4

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, WEF nexus concept has been imposed on a governmental framework through a WEF nexus ranking system for national challenges. This proposed governance framework aims to create better communication channels between both public and private sectors and sustainability approach in decision making. A case study of the water sector has been illustrated to highlight the importance of such a sustainability decision-making tool in the governmental sector. In addition, a supportive nexus knowledge hub is proposed to enhance the reliability and availability of data among stakeholders in the three sectors as well as encouraging research and development to use those data to tackle the challenges and use technology and innovation to provide

Rank

Nexus dependency definition

Decision maker

Low

Current practice and can be done with existing policies

Technical level

Moderate

The impact will be moderate to other sectors and will have an impact on three to five years plans

Technical level and middle management level

High

The impact will be tremendous to other sectors and will have an impact on three to five years plans

Technical level and the top management level

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M. Al-Matwi

Table 2 Water, energy, and food sectors Water sector

Energy sector

Food sector

Potable water

Qatar general electricity and water corporation (Kahramaa)

Electricity

Qatar general electricity and water corporation (Kahramaa)

Agriculture

Ministry of municipality and environment and private sector

Ground water

Qatar general electricity and water corporation (Kahramaa)

Oil and Gas

Qatar petroleum, qatar gas, and others

Livestock

Ministry of municipality and environment and private sector

Drainage water

Public works authority (Ashgal)

Others

Private sector

Treated sewage water

Public works authority (Ashgal)

Water Sector

database and record of all local case studies that can be used in the future to help other countries to achieve sustainable development goals.

References

Energy Sector

Food Sector

Fig. 1 Interdependency in decision making

valuable solutions to decision makers. This proposed governance framework will help to deliver national targets and sustainable development goals in 2030. Furthermore, the outcomes of this paper are the following: • Nexus is a framework for intersectoral management, and imposing it on current governmental procedures is challenging but crucial. • Nexus ranking method is a proposal for enforcing communication dialogue and partnerships between main stakeholders. • Nexus knowledge hub will assure data needed in the decision-making process. • Adapting a nexus-strategic planning and decision-making approach will assure that the implementation of policies will be in a holistic form and trade-off will be done among different sectors and intersector activities. • Research and development can improve with an integrated knowledge hub, as it also provides a research

J. Alcamo, Systems thinking for advancing a nexus approach to water, soil and waste. Keynote address, Dresden nexus conference 2015 (dnc2015) on global change, sustainable development goals and the nexus approach. Dresden, Germany, October 2019 25–27 (2015). https://flores.unu.edu/download/lecture-series-no-2-systemsthinkingfor-advancing-a-nexus-approach-to-water-soil-and-waste. Accessed October 2019 A. Abulibdeh, E. Zaidan, M. Al-Saidi, Development drivers of the water-energy-food nexus in the gulf cooperation council region. Dev. Practice 29(5), 582–593 (2019). Accessed 31 March 2020 H. Hussein, L.A. Lambert, A rentier state under blockade: Qatar’s water–energy–food predicament from energy abundance and food insecurity to a silent water crisis. Water 12, 1051 (2020) ESCWA, Regional Policy Toolkit. [Online] Available at: https://www. unescwa.org/sites/www.unescwa.org/files/publications/files/waterenergy-nexus-regional-policy-toolkit-english.pdf. Accessed 1 October 2019 M. Keskinen, J. Guillaume, M. Kattelus, M. Porkka, T. Ras¨anen, O. Varis, The water–energy–food nexus and the transboundary context: insights from large Asian Rivers. Water 8, 193 (2016). Accessed 31 March 2020 Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, Qatar Second National Development Strategy 2018–2022. [Online] Available at: https://www.psa.gov.qa/en/knowledge/Documents/NDS2Final.pdf. Accessed 1 October 2019 Stockholm Environment Institute, “Understanding the Nexus.” Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the European Union (2011) A. Smajgl, J. Ward, L. Pluschke, Water–food–energy nexus realising a new paradigm. J. Hydrol. 533, 533–540 (2016). Accessed 31 March 2020 The Water Energy and Food Security Resources Platform, UNESCWA water-energy nexus operational toolkit: resource efficiency module (2018). [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.water-energy-food.org/ resources/resources-detail/un-escwa-water-energy-nexus-operationaltoolkit-resource-efficiency-module/. Accessed 1 October 2019

Water, Energy, and Food Nexus Approach: Kashafrood River Basin Case Study Vahideh Safaee, Kamran Davary, and Yavar Pourmohamad

Abstract

The growing population of the world, especially developing countries, and the need to provide food for the over expanding population will not result in anything but overreaching resources. This research was carried out in the Mashhad catchment study area, one of the most critical basins in eastern Iran. WEAP software for managing water and food resources and LEAP software for managing the energy sector were used in this research. The water and energy resources status were examined concerning expenditures and population growth rates, from 2009 to 2040, with WEAP and LEAP software. In both software, two scenarios were raised. The findings revealed that in the second scenario, coupled with the nexus approach to water, energy, and food, water, energy resources in the Mashhad basin are much more critical than when the nexus approach (the first scenario) is not considered. Keywords











Integrated water resource management LEAP Nexus WEAP Water energy Food

1




Introduction

The growing population of the world, especially developing countries, and the need to provide food for the over expanding population will not result in overreaching resources (Hoff 2011). With its limited freshwater and arid and semi-arid climate resources, Iran requires maintaining the water, food, and energy security more than before (Sowers 2015). Thus, untapped harvesting of water and V. Safaee
K. Davary
Y. Pourmohamad (&) Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Azadi sq. Mashhad, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

energy resources will put the Middle East region’s future stability in great danger (Sowers et al. 2011). Seeking to establish the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations, researchers have presented various interdisciplinary approaches to achieving a dynamic balance in producing and consuming resources. The most important is the nexus of water, energy, and food approach (Rahaman and Varis 2017). Nexus water, food, and energy management for security purposes require integrated data analysis approaches (Lawford et al. 2013). This aims to identify cross-sectoral exchanges, cost-effective production planning, and strategy management (Wicaksono and Kang 2019).

2

Materials and Methods

This research has been carried out in the study area of Mashhad catchment, one of the most critical basins in eastern Iran (Fig. 1). This basin has attracted many managers and policymakers in the water and energy sector due to the high population in the Mashhad metropolitan. Mashhad plain aquifer condition has amplified the importance of the study. The water resources used in this area are surface and groundwater resources. The main river in this area is the Kashfroud River. Electricity generation in the Mashhad basin is achieved through four thermal and steam power plants, the fuel of which is natural gas (Fig. 2). WEAP software for managing water and food resources and LEAP software for managing the energy sector were used in this research (Sieber and purkey 2011). The water and energy resources status was examined regarding expenditures and population growth rates, from 2009 to 2040, with WEAP and LEAP software. In LEAP software, supply and demand information, which includes power plants as well as domestic, agricultural, industrial, etc., subscribers, is modeled. The data required for modeling in WEAP software include

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_95

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simulated according to the amount of water consumed in the agricultural production and energy production for the future.

3

Results

The findings from the combination of two models WEAP and LEAP for Mashhad catchment, in general, include six principal parts: water demand, supply requirement, coverage, groundwater storage, energy demand, and energy production.

Fig. 2 Location of the complications in the Mashhad catchment area

information about surface and groundwater resources, wastewater treatment plants, drinking, and industrial uses according to water users’ priority and information about catchments such as agricultural products of the region, rainfall, and evapotranspiration (Sieber and purkey 2011). In both software, two scenarios were raised. The first scenario is the status of resources and consumptions, regardless of the nexus approach. The second scenario is established by considering the nexus approach. The relationship between the two software was addressed to the integrated management of the resources of the region. One of this study’s innovations is to divide the aquifer of Mashhad plain into three parts of the upper, middle, and lower basin. By applying nexus and non-nexus scenarios, the groundwater aquifer’s condition in each of the three sections was measured, and the status of the aquifer was

4

Discussion

The results of both software revealed that in the second scenario, which is considered the nexus water, food, and energy approach, the situation of water and energy resources in Mashhad plain is much more critical than when this approach is not considered. This means that in the second scenario in both software, the process of reducing water and energy resources and reaching the critical stage occurs with a steeper slope than the first scenario. During the study period, the state of groundwater aquifers throughout the plain was decreasing with a negative growth rate. For the second scenario, this growth rate was lower (negative), significantly impacting the water users’ demand. As shown in Fig. 3, in the nexus scenario, the hypothetical groundwater volume of the two upstream and middle basins decreases to zero in 2037 and 2034, respectively, while in the non-nexus scenario, this occurs in 2039 and 2038. In the energy sector, demand and energy production are under two scenarios. In both cases, it is observed that when

Water volume (billion cubic meters)

Fig. 1 Location of Mashhad catchment and cities located in the study area

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 2009

2012

2015

2018 2021

2024

2027 2030

2033

2036

2039

StaƟsƟcal period Nexus Scenario

Non-Nexus Scenario

Fig. 3 Comparison of two scenarios (non-nexus scenario and nexus scenario) for the status of groundwater aquifer in Mashhad basin

Amount of energy required (million MWh)

Water, Energy, and Food Nexus Approach: Kashafrood River… 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 2009

2012 2015

2018 2021

2024 2027

2030 2033

2036 2039

StaƟsƟcal period Nexus scenario

Non-Nexus scenario

Fig. 4 Comparison of two scenarios (non-nexus scenario and nexus scenario) for the energy required by subscribers in Mashhad study area

the nexus approach scenario is established, the amount of demand (Fig. 4) and, consequently, the production process are larger than the non-nexus scenario.

5

Conclusion

This research showed that the non-nexus scenario managed the basin’s condition only by considering resources and water consumption conditions. However, the nexus scenario implied examining the basin’s status according to integrated management and the nexus approach of the three sectors of water, food, and energy. Furthermore, due to the Mashhad plain’s prohibition and the sharp drop in groundwater, production exceeded the plain’s needs in the agricultural and energy sectors. The consumption of groundwater resources in this plain in the preparation and production of food and energy enabled the export of its surplus. Therefore, it is necessary to study the approach of water, food, and energy nexus that can be irreversible in some cases. In conclusion, many studies are

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recommended to determine the best management approach and present it to water and energy resources planners. In the beginning, it is mandatory to examine groundwater aquifer. When defining these scenarios, it is necessary to assess the need to prepare and produce food and energy according to the constituency’s needs to improve water abstraction management from the table. Moreover, we should consider the groundwater quality and the importance of food and energy imports in the field of water resources management in these scenarios.

References H. Hoff, Understanding e nexus. Background Paper for the Bonn2011 Conference: The Water, Energy and Food Security Nexus. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm. Available from http:// www.water-energy-food.org/en/conference.html R. Lawford, J. Bogardi, S. Marx, S. Jain, C. Ringler, C.P. Wostl, F. Meza, Basin perspectives on the water–energy–food security nexus (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.005 M.M. Rahaman, O. Varis, Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges. Integrated Water Resources Management: Evolution, Prospects and Future Challenges, p. 7733 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2005. 11907961 J. Sieber, D. purkey, Water evaluation and planning system (WEAP) user guide, Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), U.S. Center (2011) J. Sowers, Water, Energy and Human Insecurity in the Middle East (2015) J. Sowers, A. Vengosh, E. Weinthal, Climate change, water resources, and the politics of adaptation in the middle east and North Africa. Clim. Change 104(3–4), 599–627 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10584-010-9835-4 A. Wicaksono, D. Kang, Nationwide simulation of water, energy, and food nexus: Case study in South Korea and Indonesia. J. Hydro-Environ. Res. 22, 70–87 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jher.2018.10.003

Drought Management Policies and Institutional Mandate in Jordan Tala H. Qtaishat, Emad K. Al-Karablieh, Haitham AlAdaileh, and Mohammad Samir El-Habbab

Abstract

Keywords

Drought represents a serious challenge that affects sustainable development in Jordan. Because a drought is directly related to the water, Jordan has created many strategies and policies for different institutions; these strategies contain different aspects related to drought management and drought adaptation for agriculture, surface water, groundwater, health, land use, livestock, the environment, desertification, and rangeland. These strategies and policies are interrelated. Reviewing the existing strategies and policies shows the gaps and shortcomings with drought management. A drought monitoring and drought early warning system have been suggested by many strategies. Many projects and programs have been proposed to reduce the negative effect of droughts without any real implementation on the ground. There is a need to improve the understanding of a drought’s effects on the water sector as well as to assess their underlying causes, to identify the detrimental effects, and to recommend the appropriate mitigation and response actions through effective bottom-up, multi-stake holder processes which are rooted in the “priority-setting” approach.

Drought Polices Vulnerability Proactive measures

T. H. Qtaishat (&)
M. S. El-Habbab Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, School of Agriculture, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan e-mail: [email protected] E. K. Al-Karablieh Economics of Natural Resources, Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, School of Agriculture, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan e-mail: [email protected] H. AlAdaileh Doctoral School of Environmental Science, University of Szeged-Hungary, Szeged, Hungary e-mail: [email protected]




1







Reactive measures




Introduction

Jordanian water crises are being exacerbated due to the increased water demands derived from high population growth, sudden refugee fluxes, economic development, and the increased frequency of drought events (MWI 2016). Jordan implemented reactive drought management measures; some of them cope with the threatening water scarcity each summer (MWI 2018). These forces stress the urgent need to develop appropriate drought-adaptation planning based on vulnerability mapping which is correlated to prolonged weather events. Drought management strategies are needed because water shortages directly affect a great number of humans and animals as well as a significant portion of the environment. Drought often results in a shortage in water resources, crop failures, the loss of livestock, more diseases, less hydropower, increased soil erosion, more fires, and increased social stress (Al-Qinna et al. 2011), leading to human losses, mass migration, reduced security, and potential wars. Therefore, there is a great need to develop and to implement drought management strategies and action plans in order to increase societal and environmental resilience as well as to enhance drought-response and recovery capabilities (AlAdaileh et al. 2019). During the last decades, the frequencies and severity of droughts as well as the affected area have increased (Dai et al. 2004; Dai 2013), mainly as a result of climate change. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Smith et al. 2009), freshwater availability in some parts of Asia is projected to decrease as a result of climate change which, along with population growth and the increasing demand arising from higher standards of living,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_96

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could adversely affect more than a billion people by the 2050s. The IPCC findings also predict dramatic changes in the temperature and precipitation conditions for the Mediterranean region as well as a likely increase in drought frequency and intensity. Rahman et al. (2009) argue that the effects of climate change, which is represented in the temperature rise for the region exceeding 2.0 °C per decade, have exacerbated Jordan’s water crisis. Over the last half-century, the average annual temperatures in Amman have increased by more than 1.5 degrees and precipitation has dropped by more than 50 mm per year, along with an increase in heatwaves and an increased number of high-temperature days. The main effects of climate change on Jordan’s water sector include (a) high temperature and increased heat waves, resulting in increased evaporation; (b) decreased precipitation (rainfall), resulting in under-recharge of surface and groundwater sources; and (c) increased variability and fluctuation for the temporal and spatial precipitation patterns, leading to further changes in drought severity and the intensity of floods (MWI 2016; MoEnv 2013, 2014, 2017).

2

Methods

There are many strategies, policies, and programs in Jordan which contain different aspects related to drought management. This work is based on a desk review of previous documents and reports about drought monitoring in Jordan, and the main findings are summarized from reviewing the past and existing strategies. Jordan has recently developed four policies and strategic documents about climate change: (a) the National Climate Change Policy (2013), (b) the Third National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014) (MoEnv 2014), (c) the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2015, that will be the key reference document for climate change planning in the coming years, and (d) the Climate Change National Adaptation Plan (NAP) in 2019 (MoEnv 2019).

3

Several studies have highlighted the severity and influence of water stress in Jordan as being partially caused by drought (MoEnv 2014; Al Qatarneh et al. 2018; El-Naqa and Al-Shayeb 2009; Margane et al. 2004; Abdulla and Eshtawi 2015; Abdulla and Al Omari 2008). Among the effects noted for the last 20 years, more than 200 springs have become dry, and the groundwater level has dropped at a rate of around 2 m per year. In some highly depleted areas, the reduction can reach 5 to 20 m per year, decreasing the magnitude of the base flow and flood flow in the main wadis (valleys) and reducing the main dams’ storage to around half of their capacity. These changes have led to more food imports, increased food insecurity, more desertification trends, frequent deterioration of land productivity, increased migration from rural areas, reduced investments, and increased unemployment (Nairizi 2017; Battikhi 2013; Mohammad et al. 2015; Abu-Allaban et al. 2015; Al-Tabbal and Al-Zboon 2012). Priority sectors for adaptation in Jordan include water and agriculture as well as ecosystem services and biodiversity (MWI 2016). The drought-relief policies, which have been largely of an ad-hoc reactive nature, have created social and economic dependencies among people in the low rainfall areas, a situation which is proving to be financially costly for governments and which is difficult to escape from Battikhi (2013). Together with broader sector and national policies, the policy encouraged an escalation of animal numbers and has had negative effects on the natural environment. The drought policies cannot be separated from the political and economic drivers, such as urbanization, population pressures, waves of refugees, development plans, and economic adjustment programs (Abu Hajar et al. 2019). The downscaled, forecasted climate change scenario in Jordan shows that, when comparing the baseline period (1980–2010) to 2070–2100, the average temperature increases by 2.5 °C, rainfall decreases by 30% and multiple drought-type occurrences increase from * 8 in 30 years to * 25 in 30 years. There is a significant surge for the occurrence of multiple drought types along with an 80% increase for simultaneous warm and dry events. The effects of climate change will lead to precipitation variability and increased summer temperatures (MoEnv 2019, 2015).

Historical Drought

At the request of Jordan’s government, a joint FAO/WFP Assessment Mission visited the country in 1999 in order to assess the effect of drought in the country. The mission reported the lowest-recorded domestic harvest: less than 1% of the domestic cereal requirement. In a normal year, the domestic production meets about 10 percent of the country's cereal requirement. The operation was managed by the Drought Relief Committee, headed by the Minister of Interior, comprising representatives from the Ministries.

4

Results

A drought in Jordan is characterized by a temporal and spatial variability regarding probability and severity. The most prolonged drought events range from mild to moderate with long periods of exposure, which may extend for up to 13 consecutive years (Al-Bakri et al. 2019). Due to high groundwater-basin sensitivity and low adaptive capacity, Jordan’s groundwater systems are fragile and highly

Drought Management Policies and Institutional …

vulnerable to drought, being subject to either a reduction in quantity and/or a deterioration in quality over time. There are variations among public institutions concerning drought management policies and responses. Recently, Jordanian decision-makers have become more concerned with the problem of drought and some progress in dealing with this natural disaster has been achieved. Among the actions taken, there is establishing national drought committees to reduce the effects of drought on the population, crops, and livestock, hence improving the poor’s livelihood. Local committees have also been created to implement the drought-relief measures that are set up by the national drought committee. With assistance from international organizations, Jordan’s government has focused on drought-relief measures. As a response to recent recurring droughts, many institutions have established a drought unit or committees where different concerned ministries are represented in order to coordinate the efforts to deal with the drought crisis and its effects. This positive initiative has solved some conflicts and has addressed the lack of coordination among different administrations and agencies which are concerned with water and drought issues. The Jordanian Ministry of Environment (MoEnv) is responsible for coordinating climate change governance at the national level and for managing its implementation. In 2013, MoEnv launched a National Policy on Climate Change. The long-term goal of Jordan’s policy and the sector strategic guidance framework is to build a climate risk-resilient country with a low carbon, but growing economy. This objective is promoted with the National Strategy and Action Plan to Combat Desertification (2015–2020) (MoEnv et al. 2017) as well as the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’s (UNCCD) 10-year strategy. The plan aligns the country’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2015–2020) with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Following the UNCCD, Jordan initiated the process of preparing a national action plan to combat drought and desertification. The National Committee for Combating Desertification (NCCD) was established; it is chaired by the Ministry of Environment and has relevant partners participating with its goal to integrate UNCCD concerns into existing national strategies and programs which address environmental protection, water-resource management, and agriculture. Many laws and articles in the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) are directly or indirectly related to drought management. Article 65 of 2015’s Agricultural Law No. 13 says, “In case the Kingdom or a part thereof suffers by a drought, or in case the agricultural sector was subject to a natural disaster, the Minister shall officially declare this, and he shall undertake appropriate procedures that mitigate the negative effects resulting therefrom on the agricultural sector in cooperation and coordination with the concerned entities and

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in accordance with the resolutions issued by the cabinet for this purpose. The Minister shall also undertake procedures that protect consumers in such cases that may include limiting the exportation of affected agricultural products provided that relevant international entities are notified of such procedures (Official_Gazette 2015a).” The National Agricultural Research Center (NARC) is the only governmental agriculture research institution at the national level, and it is the national umbrella for applied scientific research and agricultural consultation. NARC achieves its objectives by performing tasks specified by Article 5 of 2018’s Bylaw 42. NARC’s goals are to adopt the latest research findings from local and other sources in order to improve agricultural production: conserve, preserve, and sustainably use natural resources; maintain an ecological balance through sustainable use of the available resources without jeopardizing environmental status; and promote the use of drought-tolerant crops. The Drought and Monitoring Unit (DMU) was established at the National Agricultural Research Center because of the agreement between NARC and The World Food Program (WFP). The WFP provided equipment and training that enabled NARC to monitor drought more efficiently. The DMU’s primary objectives are to analyze climatic data with various methodological techniques in order to identify the probability of drought and return periods for different areas in Jordan and to provide information for decision-makers to implement the necessary plans in order to mitigate the effect of droughts at the country level. The DMU used remote-sensing technology to monitor drought from satellite data in order to construct the normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI). The DMU has a problem with limited climatic data and mainly relies on the vegetation index to assess drought occurrences and severities. Nevertheless, the unit is continuously testing new indices to add. In addition, the DMU contributes to different research projects which are concerned with climate change, water-shortage adaptation, and water harvesting. In 2016, a new national agriculture development strategy was published (MoA 2016). This strategy is coherent with Jordan’s Vision 2025 and the National Strategy for Food Security 2016–2025. The new agricultural strategy covers many areas, including land resources, irrigation water, horticulture (rainfed, irrigated areas in the Jordan Valley and highlands), forest and rangeland, livestock, and the marketing and supporting sectors. The document indicates that rainfed agriculture has many challenges, including desertification and climate change. The strategy proposes two projects related to drought management. The first project establishes an early warning system to predict drought. The project should set a combined trigger to declare drought, to establish a database system for rainfed and rangeland areas, and to measure the effect of a drought in those areas. The second project proposes measures to develop

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drought-tolerant seed and to plant varieties as well as creating income diversification. Article 2 of 2009’s Law No. 5 for the Agricultural Risk Management Fund (ARMF) defined drought as one of the agricultural risks that the fund should handle (Official_Gazette 2009). However, in practice, drought is not further elaborated in the law. The fund aims to compensate farmers during emergencies and natural disasters in accordance with the criteria and ceilings set by the regulations (Official_Gazette 2012). The director reports that the ARMF has nothing to do with drought in the current time. Because drought affects large areas in different agriculture sub-sectors, the ARMF concentrates on frost damage, horticultural pests, and diseases. The MOA “activated” its ARMF in 2017, granting farmers compensation for frost damage for the first time since the fund was created in 2009. In 2018, ARMF in cooperation with the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MOPIC), financed from the Adaptation Fund, conducted a feasibility study to establish a cooperative solidarity company for an agricultural insurance company to benefit the ARMF. The Civil Defense Law includes creating a council called the Higher Council for the Civil Defense (HCCD) which is chaired by the interior minister and has representatives from all ministries, institutions, and organizations related to facing disasters, including drought (Law No 18 for the year 1999). This council is responsible for managing and facing emergency cases which are defined by law as any unordinary or sudden case the Kingdom or any part of it is facing and which are announced by the prime minister. According to Article 8, the interior minister has the prime minister’s authority during emergencies and disasters; the interior minister can order actions and measures throughout the duration of the following cases: Article No. 4 authorizes the minister to regulate and to control food distribution and all materials needed to cope with emergencies and disasters as well as to ensure stability for the citizens’ life and conduct. Article No. 5 regulates and controls the use of water resources and electricity, tools and all accessories in coordination and cooperation with the individuals who are responsible for management and operation. The Ministry of Interior (MOI) established a drought committee; the HCCD is led by the minister of interior and consists of the secretary generals for the MOA, Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), Ministry of Health (MOH), Ministry of Finance (MOF), and MOI. The HCCD coordinates actions between the relevant line ministries during a time of crisis. The MOI’s role during a drought is to identify vulnerable groups affected by drought, securing safe drinking water for rural populations, in particular, and preserving livestock through feed distribution (Gilbert 2017). The National Center for Security and Crisis Management (NCSCM) started operating in 2015 after the approval of

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2015’s Bylaw No. 20 (Official_Gazette 2015b). The center’s mission is to deal with all types of crises throughout the management cycle (prediction, prevention, and mitigation) in order to oversee a coordinated response and recovery across government departments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international humanitarian aid agencies. In 2015, the center became fully operational. The NCSCM ranked drought as the fourth-worst national disaster that can hit Jordan after earthquakes, floods, and landslides. However, it is worth mentioning that there is a potential overlap of duties for the NCSCM and the HCCD; when a drought becomes a crisis, the NCSCM takes over the role of managing the crisis. The NCSCM nominates a crisis commander to coordinate and facilitate cooperation between related institutions. The NCSCM operates as a policy direction but not as a technical unit related to drought. The MWI is responsible for the overall national leadership on policy, strategic direction, and planning for Jordan’s water sector; this task is done in coordination with Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) and Jordan Valley Authority (JVA). Under 2014’s Bylaw No. 14, the MWI assumes full responsibility for water and public sewage as well as all related projects in the Kingdom. The MWI aims to upgrade, develop, and regulate the water sector and to enhance the quality of water services. It has a mandate to develop sectoral policies and strategies; to endorse plans and programs related to water-resource protection; to implement international agreements; to develop laws, by-laws, regulations as well as normative and technical standards; to develop private sector partnerships; to supervise the implementation of strategic plans and programs; and to follow up on the water companies’ and utilities’ performance. Since its establishment, the MWI has been supported by several donor organization projects that have assisted with the development of water policies and water master planning as well as restructuring the water sector. The water strategy (2016–2025) adopted by the MWI aligns with the royal initiative for economic change in all sectors that were formulated in the nationally adopted document “Jordan Vision 2025” (MWI 2016). It considers the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) from September 2015. The MWI recognized the need to introduce an updated water strategy to ensure that national goals and priorities are realigned with the country's changing needs. The ongoing risks and threats to Jordan's renewable water resources include a growing population and an expanding economy where water is highly vulnerable to risk, including the effects of climate change; an increased frequency of drought spells affects Jordan’s social, economic, and environmental development. Mitigation and adaptation measures are proposed in the Climate Change National Adaptation Plan (MoEnv 2017, 2019). For the plan to be adopted, it is necessary to ensure that there is institutional

Drought Management Policies and Institutional …

response capacity, community education, and awareness about the drought risks. The Climate Change Policy for a Resilient Water Sector (2016) (MWI 2016) is one document for the new water strategy (2016–2025) and provides the background, concept, solutions, and implementation mechanism to build resilience. The implementation is described in more detail in the policy’s accompanying action plan. The three main levels of resilience are persistence, adaptability, and transformability. The policy’s rationale is to provide a framework and methodology for strengthening the resilience of the Jordanian water sector based on existing Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) approaches. The climate policy does so in a systematic way by prioritizing solutions according to a combination of climate-specific and other criteria as well as mainstreaming climate adaptation and mitigation measures into the existing institutional framework. This policy stresses that the water sector is the most heavily affected by drought. A drought’s effect on the water sector includes reduced total water availability, an increasing intensity of droughts during which the reservoirs are not refilled and the groundwater not recharging. The drought-adaptation measures mentioned in this policy are water harvesting, the reuse of treated wastewater, and virtual water through importing water-intensive products (MWI 2016). The MWI has a mandate to develop sectoral policies and strategies, and to endorse plans and programs related to water-resource protection. The by-law enables the minister to initiate a unit that can serve the ministry’s objective and mandates. In May 2018, the MWI approved the Water Sector Policy for Drought Management. The Water Sector Policy for Drought Management sets clearly defined rules to manage the scarce water resources efficiently and sustainably, taking into account the risks of drought on the water sector. The policy describes the measures and actions which are required to achieve the national goals for long-term water security. This policy is built on previously adopted strategies, policies, and plans as well as water sector legislation to support national efforts to manage drought or to address its effects within appropriate timeframes. The following facts are used to justify the approval of a drought management policy for water: • There is a lack of legislation dealing with drought compared to other natural disasters even though drought has been ranked fourth priorities of the natural crises by the NCSCM. • Drought is not treated as a crisis or disaster; it is an emergency or water-shortage condition.

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• Drought management in Jordan is still based on a crisis management, not risk management approach. In other words, actions are not proactive, other than being targeted primarily for relief. This approach is due to the absence of a national drought management policy that supports action plans at the sector level. • Current drought-response procedures lack coordination and are usually managed by different departments and sections of the relevant institutions. Therefore, there is a need for policy and legislation in the water sector in order to support national efforts to manage drought or to address its effects within appropriate timeframes. • Resources for drought preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery are not available in a manner which is commensurate with the challenge posed by these disasters.

5

Discussion

The existing governance structure of Jordan’s drought management is under development and lacks clear institutional and legal arrangements. At the same time, the MWI has a mandate to handle the country’s drought issues from the water-scarcity perspective related to domestic and irrigation water. Drought management is a multi-disciplinary approach and should engage a wide spectrum of stakeholders. A drought is regarded as a slow-onset, natural disaster that causes inevitable damage to water resources and to farm life. Currently, crisis management is the basis of drought-mitigation plans; however, studies (Al-Qinna et al. 2011; Al Adaileh et al. 2019; Törnros and Menzel 2013) indicate that effective drought management strategies are based on risk management. The results show that there are some institutional weaknesses for all drought-related issues (exposure, impact, vulnerability, sensitivity, mitigation, and adaptive capacity). There is a lack of real coordination among different water-related actors, which can constrain successful adaptation. Currently, many activities pertaining to adaptation in the water sector are undertaken by different institutions in an ad-hoc manner and without proper coordination. For example, many climate change adaptation projects for the water sector and irrigated agriculture were implemented by the MOA, NARC, MOPIC, and other institutions without real coordination based on the adaptation priorities and vulnerability. This situation cannot be considered favorable; therefore, an appropriate institutional mechanism to coordinate different actors is needed. The analysis found that institutional weaknesses, a lack of coordinated governance, and conflicting objectives among different actors can constrain adaptation. Enhancing the

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awareness of individuals, organizations, and institutions about drought and climate change vulnerability, effects, and adaptation can be a starting point to build individual and institutional capacity for planning and implementing changes. Each public entity has its own laws and regulations that define its roles and responsibilities. There is an urgent need to establish an entity with responsibility for the overall coordination and implementation of the plans, strategies, and policies regarding drought management. In addition, a national drought committee should be established by utilizing the relevant entities (government entities, NGOs, the private sector or other key stakeholders) to coordinate and implement activities on the ground. An institutional mechanism to monitor and evaluate the implementation of the drought-adaptation plan should be structured to ensure that there is an annual review to validate the performance. The drought adaptation is interlinked with the climate change strategy, and the policies different institutions have prepared with little synergy from other institutions. The current institutional setting lacks a proper and clear mandate, and coordination mechanisms impede the implementation of coherent and proactive drought risk management.

6

Conclusions

There are many agencies dealing with drought management which have overlapping responsibilities; there is weak cohesiveness, little cooperation and a lack of integrated efforts. Non-existent teamwork and limited communication among agencies inhibit the implementation of an effective and proactive drought management policy. Drought management in Jordan is known as post-event measures, not proactive actions. The institutional weaknesses, lack of coordinated governance, and conflicting objectives among different actors can constrain a proactive drought management system. Enhancing the awareness of individuals, organizations, and institutions regarding drought vulnerability, effects, and adaptation can be a starting point to build individual and institutional capacity for planning and implementing change. Each public entity has its own laws and regulations which define its roles and responsibilities. There is no integrated, national drought management policy that supports action plans at different sectoral levels. Therefore, it is necessary to design and implement a drought management plan, considering both the risk and proactive drought procedures. Create the required institutional setup for implementing, co-coordinating, and monitoring the plan’s execution. Additional factors that may contribute to a larger effect for a drought in Jordan are as follows: (a) high population growth (2.5% per year) and large refugee influxes; (b) water demand doubling and reaching 1,550 MCM

compared to the current 1,050 MCM; (c) limited funding and private sector participation to implement water projects; (d) limited energy sources available for water projects with Jordan being highly dependent on foreign energy sources [about 96% of the country’s energy comes from imported oil and gas (MWI 2015)]; (e) a lack of coordination with neighboring countries regarding the management of water resources (surface water, groundwater, and wastewater); and (f) over extracting groundwater above the safe yield from vulnerable groundwater basins.

References F. Abdulla, A. Al Omari, Impact of climate change on the monthly runoff of a semi-arid catchment: case study Zarqa River Basin (Jordan). J. Appl. Biol. Sci. 2(1), 43–50 (2008) F. Abdulla, T. Eshtawi, Climate change effect on sediment yield at King Talal Dam (Jordan). Civil Environ. Res. 7(7), 13–26 (2015) M. Abu-Allaban, A. El-Naqa, M. Jaber, N. Hammouri, Water scarcity impact of climate change in semi-arid regions: a case study in Mujib Basin, Jordan. Arab. J. Geosci. 8(2), 951–959 (2015) H. Abu Hajar, A.Z. Murad Yasmin, K. Shatanawi, M.B. Al-Smadi, Y. Abu Hajar, Drought assessment and monitoring in Jordan using the standardized precipitation index. Arabian J. Geosci. 12, 417 (2019) H. Al Adaileh, M. Al Qinna, K. Barta, E. Al-Karablieh, J. Rakonczai, A. Alobeiaat, A drought adaptation management system for groundwater resources based on combined drought index and vulnerability analysis. Earth Syst. Environ. J. article October 04 2019 G. Al Qatarneh, B. Al-Smadi, K. Al-Zboon, K.M. Shatanawi, Impact of climate change on water resources in Jordan: a case study of Azraq Basin. Appl. Water Sci. 8–50 (2018) H. AlAdaileh, M. Al Qinna, B. Károly, E. Al-Karablieh, J. Al Bakri, R. János, Applicability of a combined drought index to monitoring drought in Jordan. J. Eng. Res. Appl. 9(no. 7) (Series -VI), 20–39 (2019) J.T. Al-Bakri, M.J. Alnaimat, E. Al-Karablieh, E.A. Qaryouti, Assessment of combined drought index and mapping of drought vulnerability in Jordan. J. Eng. Res. Appl. 9(9), 59–68 (2019) M.I. Al-Qinna, N.A. Hammouri, M.M. Obeidat, F.Y. Ahmad, Drought analysis in Jordan under current and future climates. Clim. Change 106(3), 421–440 (2011) J.A. Al-Tabbal, K.K. Al-Zboon, Suitability assessment of groundwater for irrigation and drinking purpose in the northern region of Jordan. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 5(5), 274–290 (2012) A. Battikhi, Drought Policy and Food Security in Jordan. HMNDP 132013 A. Dai, Increasing drought under global warming in observations and models. Nat. Clim. Chang. 3(1), 52 (2013) A. Dai, P.J. Lamb, K.E. Trenberth, M. Hulme, P.D. Jones, P. Xie, The recent Sahel drought is real. Int. J. Climatol. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 24 (11), 1323–1331 (2004) A. El-Naqa, A. Al-Shayeb, Groundwater protection and management strategy in Jordan. Water Resour. Manage 23, 2379–2394 (2009) S. Gilbert, Drought and Climate Change in Jordan: An Analysis of the 2008–2009 Drought and Climate Change Impact, Ph.D. Thesis (Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA, 2017) (1999). Law No 18 for the year 1999: Civil Defense Law. and It amendment law No 24 for the year 2012. Date 18/07/2012, Volume 5167, Page 3422. Available: http://pm.gov.jo/newspaperSubjects/ 5167/5167.html

Drought Management Policies and Institutional … A. Margane, M. Hobler, A. Droubi, R. Rajab, A. Subah, A.R. Khater, Groundwater vulnerability mapping in the Arab Region, in Groundwater in the Middle East and North Africa—Resources, Protection and Management. ed. by F. Zereini, W. Jaeschke (Springer, Berlin, 2004), p. 115 MoA, The National Strategy for Agricultural Development 2016–2025 (Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan, 2016). Available: https:// jordankmportal.com/resources/national-strategy-for-agriculturaldevelopment MoEnv, IUCN, GEF, The Aligned National Action Plan (NAP) to Combat Desertification in Jordan 2015–2020. (Ministry of Environment, Amman. Jordan, 2017). Available: https://knowledge. unccd.int/sites/default/files/naps/Jordan%2520-%2520eng% 25202015-2020.pdf MoEnv, Jordan’s Third National Communication on Climate Change. Submitted to The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Funded by GEF and UNDP (Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan, 2014) MoEnv, The National Climate Change Policy of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 2013–2020: Sector Strategic Guidance Framework (Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan, 2013) MoEnv, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) (Ministry of Environment, Amman. Jordan, 2015). Available: https:// www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Jordan% 20First/Jordan%20INDCs%20Final.pdf MoEnv, Jordan’s State of Environment Second Report 2016: Technical Summary (Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan, 2017) MoEnv, Climate Change National Adaptation Plan (NAP) (Ministry of Environment, 2019) A.H. Mohammad, T. Almomani, I. Alhejoj, Groundwater vulnerability for the surface outcropping aquifers in Jordan. J. Environ. Prot. 6, 250–258 (2015) MWI, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Policy for the Jordanian Water Sector (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Amman,

763 Jordan, 2015). Available: http://www.jva.gov.jo/sites/en-us/Hot% 20Issues/Energy%20Policy.pdf MWI, National Water Strategy 2016–2025: Water Sector Policies (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Amman, Jordan, 2016) MWI, Climate Change Policy for a Resilient Water Sector (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Amman, Jordan, 2016) MWI, Water Sector Policy for Drought Management (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Amman, Jordan, 2018) S. Nairizi, Irrigated Agriculture Development under Drought and Water Scarcity (2017) Official_Gazette, Bylaw No 56 for the year 2012. Compensation of Subscribers in Agricultural Risk Management Fund. Issued according to Paragraph (B) of Article (4) of Agricultural Risk Management Funs No (5) for the year 2009, vol. 5517, Dated 24/07/2012, p. 3930 (2012). Available: http://pm.gov.jo/ newspaperSubjects/5177/5177.html Official_Gazette, Agricultural Law No 13 for the year 2015, vol. 5337, Dated 16/04/2015, p. 1868 (2015). Available: http://pm.gov.jo/ newspaperSubjects/5337/5337.html Official_Gazette, Bylaw for National Center for Security and Crisis Management, Bylaw No 20 for the year 2015, vol. 5337, Dated 01/04/2015, p. 1610, 2015. Available: http://pm.gov.jo/ newspaperSubjects/5335/5335.html Official_Gazette, Law No. 5 Agricultural Risk Management Funs No (5) for the year 2009, vol. 4948, Dated 01/02/2009, p. 202 (2009). Available: http://pm.gov.jo/newspaperSubjects/4948/4948.html Rahman et al., Declining rainfall and regional variability changes in Jordan. Water Res. Res. 51(5), 3828–3835 (2015) J.B. Smith et al., Assessing dangerous climate change through an update of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) “reasons for concern.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106(11), 4133–4137 (2009) T. Törnros, L. Menzel, Characterizing droughts under current and future climates in the Jordan River region. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss. 10(5), 5875–5902 (2013)

Sustainable Energy Policies in Qatar: On the Green Path Riad Abadli and Chokri Kooli

Abstract

Highlights

The transition toward green energy is currently a dominant paradigm in energy-related public policies. This article aimed to provide an overview of the energy transition in Qatar and more specifically to assess the state's performance in terms of energy diversification. The methodology is based on a documentary research and a comparative analysis between existing practices in Qatar and global benchmarks. We observed that Qatar's new energy policy is based on a logic of development that takes into account the evolution of its society, its industrialization and energy consumption. The research also concluded that policymakers and Qatari government are becoming more and more aware of the threats reported by environmentalists. We would recommend that the Qatari government set up policies that promote the reduction of CO2 emissions. This can be achieved by increasing the reliance on the use of solar energy in electricity production. The government should also adopt policies that impose stabilization of gas consumption and promote the use of green energy on a large scale. On the other hands, the imposition of a tax on CO2 emissions would slow down the overexploitation of gas in favor of renewable energies.

• It is necessary to sensitize people on the generated environmental problems and rely more on the circular economy. • By being inspired and adopting principles of the circular economy, encouraging the extraction of energy from renewable sources, Qatar can cope with hydrocarbon alienation. • Qatar needs to cope with hydrocarbon alienation and optimize the use of electric energy by achieving suitable, energy-efficient and economic buildings.

Keywords




Sustainable development in Qatar Solar energy Energy saving




Energy strategy

R. Abadli Oum El Bouaghi University, Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria C. Kooli (&) University of Quebec, Outaouais, Canada




1

Introduction

Ecologists’ view of the economy is entirely different from the attitude of the other components of society. It is based on a developmental logic that takes into account the evolution of society, its industrialization, and its energy consumption. Nowadays, populations are becoming more aware of the threats pointed out by ecologists. The latest decencies, the state of Qatar, faced the economic necessity of increasing its energy production to ensure its development and cope with the ever-increasing demands of the society. Besides, the wise management of resources derived from hydrocarbons, the standard of living is increasing sharply, despite the increase in the population, and the rate of household equipment in appliances and air conditioners exceeds that of the community. This fact can be explained by the catching up of the delay in the quality of life required by the consumer. Studies in the field must take into account a range of factors, including population and demand growth (variable data); the aspiration to a better living standard (variable data); environmental constraints and the severity of the climate (constant data). These constraints and the two variables will completely change the Economy and energy management of this country. Ensuring the qualitative and quantitative

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_97

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development of individual and collective well-being is a persistent goal. Since the industrial revolution, energy has always been at the heart of the socio-economic development of countries (Howard 1955; Cipolla 1978; Cottrell 2009). The countries’ economic policies have been built on this resource based essentially on hydrocarbons as a raw material. The latter is especially both polluting and finite over time (Rojey 2008). This system was subsequently questioned because we can hardly continue ignoring this problem (Brücher 2009). Under these conditions, an energy transition is necessary (Krause 1981). Several studies succeeded in questioning this model of development and concluded that there must be other alternatives to ensure a better future (Brundtland 1987). Nevertheless, this energy transition must take into account the economic repercussions. As explained by Rojey (2008), “the energy transition involves the implementation of a set of innovative solutions: energy-saving technologies, alternative energies, new energy vectors, hybrid propulsion, capture and storage of energy CO2.” Indeed, sustainable development is a notion that emerged in the mid-1970s, with the combination of the first oil shock and the limits to growth (Meadows 1972). It stimulates the integration of economic, social, and environmental objectives of the community into a unified and coherent approach. This objective is not readily achievable simply because energy is often perceived only in its technical dimension. Renewable energies are frequently considered as mere substitutes for fossil fuels. They are supposed to be replaced in the current technological and social system. Their ability to meet this goal is often justifiably questioned. Renewable energies indeed require technical, political, economic, and social networks that are radically different from those in which fossil and nuclear powers have evolved (Raineau 2011). Finally, the objective is to optimize the use of energy and diversify the resources in their origins while respecting the ecological balance. This work is consistent with the logic of Raineau (2008) who explains that the main advantage of renewable energies was not to provide a technical “solution” to the power and ecological crisis that our society is facing, but to give a “social” response, relying, in particular, on the political or economic levels. Right now, the essential question that our society must face consists of knowing how to engage in a new dynamic toward an energy transition. So, since the question of the energy has become essential, a new economic model based on the sustainable use of resources is urgent. Thus, the clean global economy (GCE) of the future will be based on renewable energies consolidating the principles of sustainability. Based on the policy of “closing the life cycle,” nowadays, the circular economy is perceived as the locomotor of the GCE. It tends to value, promote, and maintain the sustainable use of resources, materials, and products. The circular economy adds value to businesses,

R. Abadli and C. Kooli

consumers, and communities. It also helps to protect the environment and promote a sustainable living environment for future generations. The circular economy is based on several principles like the recycling, reuse, reparation, and valorization of materials, energy, and services. It also encourages the extraction of energy from renewable sources. In addition, the circular economy was proposed as one of the latest concepts for addressing both environmental and socio-economic issues (Witjes and Lozano 2016). Thus, it could be assimilated as an alternative solution that the state of Qatar could use to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on nonrenewable energies.

2

Settings

This study explored the progress achieved by the State of Qatar concerning the elimination of its dependence on fossil fuels. It also highlighted the efforts, strategies, and achievements of Qatar in respect with the adoption of the circular economy basics concerning the extraction of energy from renewable sources. Web-based research was performed to collect the necessary data and draw the important conclusions.

3

Results

3.1 Qatar’s Energy in the Era of Sustainable Development At the end of the twentieth century, Qatar decided to join the train and to take advantage of the experiences of most industrialized countries, which have resources to develop methods concerning the management of energy and particularly in housing. This wise decision must be accompanied with measures to achieve the outlined objectives. Therefore, we must ensure that individuals participate in the creation of their living environment. For example, the eco-districts set up in Europe over the last few decades have become a research laboratory on the new ecological orientations of urban planning. This experience is reproduced in Qatar, but on a smaller scale, the project in question is the Qatar National Convention Center “QNCC” that will be discussed in more detail in the section related to the reality of solar energy in Qatar. Another measure was taken in this direction; Qatar has been inspired by the most appropriate methods of investigation in the world, consisting of the training of architects-planners who operate in vast areas requiring knowledge in technical, economic, political, and social matters. Our research subject was Qatar’s experience, which has the resources, the will, the courage, and the desire to take up the challenge of sustainable development. The

Sustainable Energy Policies in Qatar: On the Green Path

country can join the train and compete with both nations that have insight in the field: Germany and France. Indeed, the notion of urban ecology in France leads to the creation of a large number of tools helping to establish eco-neighborhoods. They respond in a strategic, contractual, regulatory, or incentive way to this need so that more than 150 instruments to date constitute a database of varied experiences conducted throughout the territory. Moreover, the main problem is not to sell an energy supply and to sell it at any price, but to satisfy needs starting from a demand analysis. So, the question that needs to be addressed is how households perceive energy consumption? The perception of energy varies depending on the social groups and on their power uses. To have better living conditions, we need energy as an economic good, a natural good, or as a socially necessary good. The values, beliefs, interests, Know-how, and social trajectories of individuals explain the complexity of household behavior and, therefore, the extreme difficulty of analyzing their demand. Satisfying this demand requires equipment and infrastructure (electricity network).

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Fig. 1 Electricity production in Qatar (TWh). Source Personal work from https://perspective.usherbrooke.ca, IAE, World Bank, and IMF data (IAE Database 2019)

3.2 The Continuous Rise of Qatar’s Energy Demand How to increase the comfort of the population without weighing unbearable burdens for the national economy? How to avoid pressures on resources? What will be our levers of conduct so that the future energy trail does not weigh too much on the individual and collective levels of society? We first question the long-term trends in resource availability and growth, particularly in the energy field, where we may face the most considerable risks of global imbalance for the country. Then, we should ask ourselves the question on the trajectory (in particular of the residential sector): what are our driving levers? Are there enough regulating devices, or are we going toward a more and more chaotic movement? How can we move from crisis to a more sustainable situation? In other words, it is a matter of “managing an energy heritage, intended to ensure its reproduction and development over time.” Structuring energy flows with information to satisfy, at the least cost, the imperative individual and social aspects of “being,” without damaging the environment (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 2 Electricity consumption in Qatar (kwt). Source Personal work from https://perspective.usherbrooke.ca, IAE, World Bank, and IMF data (IAE Database 2019)

consumption patterns and the development style (see Fig. 3). Finally, the rise in global greenhouse environmental problems will lead the country to decide how it will contribute to the preservation of a common heritage. Consequently, it appears to the researchers that it is more judicious to analyze the mode of management of this precious energy by the

3.3 Why the Choice of an Energy Approach? First, because Qatar has so far been a producer and exporter of hydrocarbons and this situation is not going to last forever. Thus, the formation of energy demand is a new observatory to judge the long-term orientation of

Fig. 3 Electricity consumption in Qatar by sector (Ktoe). Source IEA database. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/?country=QATAR& fuel=Energy%20consumption&indicator=Electricity%20final%20cons umption%20by%20sector

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authorities of Qatar. That is why we have collected the necessary information on consumption by nature and whether there are recorded losses in the table below and its graphical representation. Figure 3 shows that between 1990 and 2018. Qatar’s production of electricity was multiplied by ten. Unfortunately, the loss of power evolved at the same time as production. Qatar has recorded a 5% loss since 1990; yet, the authorities could do nothing to counter this issue. However, the industrial sector has seen a dramatic evolution. Consumption in this sector, which accounts for 13% of total electricity consumption, reached 31% at the end of the studied period (use increased by 19.72% in 25 years). Several large shipyards were launched during this period, including preparations for the World Cup, as well as the extension of oil extraction platforms and, finally, the construction of skyscrapers. The residential sector, in turn, recorded a significant increase multiplied by eight in the same period. An increase explained by the demand of households pushed by the need for more comfort (for example, the use of air conditioning). It should be emphasized that an acceleration of production and consumption was recorded between 2005 and 2015. This fact could be explained by the surge in hydrocarbon prices in this period.

3.4 Qatar Energy Capacity Qatar has significant reserves of oil and gas. It is one of the largest producers and exporters of gas. The increase in energy consumption, including electrical energy multiplied by 1.5 over 30 years (see Fig. 3), implies the installation of new power stations. However, the installation of these new stations requires a choice between solar power stations, nuclear power stations, or a mixed park. Hydrocarbons dominate Qatar’s energy profile. The production of electricity multiplied by 10 over 30 years (see Fig. 1) depended mainly on gas. Qatar’s strong growth in demand and production of power from oil has made the state one of the largest CO2 emissaries in metric tons per capita (see Fig. 4) at the global level. However, since Qatar plans to cover 240 thousand homes by solar energy, the progressive development of renewable energies is highly encouraged in the country. At this time, it is expected that the installed capacity of solar renewable energy will reach 1.8 GW in 2020. In a context of a substantial rise in domestic electricity demand, this diversification of the Qatari energy mix would free up volumes of hydrocarbons destined for export. Oil exports currently constitute more than 90% of Qatar’s exports. Some prominent Qatari Organizations like Hamad International Airport (HIA) started energy reduction programs, and their efforts were rewarded. Recently, the HIA adhered to the airport

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carbon accreditation program aiming to improve aviation’s reputation concerning environmental efficiency and carbon reduction. The Airport Carbon Accreditation certification developed by the Airports Council International Europe (ACI) assesses and recognizes the efforts of airports to manage and reduce their carbon emissions with four levels of award. The Qatari airport was able to make further strides in managing, reducing, and ultimately neutralizing its carbon footprint. Consequently, HIA has successfully retained its Airport Carbon Accreditation at Level 3 out of 4 for the third consecutive year and becomes the first airport in the GCC and only the second in the Middle East and North Africa region to reach Level 3 accreditation. To achieve this level, the Airport Company is expected to be able to determine emissions sources within its operational boundaries. It must also be able to calculate the annual carbon emissions. The next step consists of implementing effective carbon management procedures and effectively reach the reduction targets. The energy reduction program also focuses on third-party engagement in carbon footprint reduction. By reflecting on global environmental standards and minimizing environmental impact, HIA’s airport-wide energy reduction programs and collaborative approach with airport stakeholders to manage third-party emissions have resulted in measurable changes. Consequently, HIA was able to minimize its use of natural resources, control emissions, and carefully manage waste as it moves forward. HIA was committed to tackling

(kt)

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World

Fig. 4 Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (kt). Source https:// perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/ComprendreContexteGES?

Sustainable Energy Policies in Qatar: On the Green Path

climate change and set valuable targets and made considerable efforts to improve carbon efficiency per passenger. The airport company also adopted a fuel-saving program aimed at reducing fuel consumption through operational practice and driver awareness. HIA also approved of a carbon Management Plan involving energy reduction initiatives throughout the airport. Consequently, energy-saving initiatives were adopted and included the optimization of air conditioning for passenger load bridges through integration with flight schedules, replacing conventional lighting with LEDs, and optimizing light usage at the airport’s boarding gates. Another initiative aimed at minimizing cooling losses and saving electrical consumption and consisted of the installation of air curtains and high-speed doors to the numerous entrances and exits around the Passenger Terminal Complex and baggage handling areas, both airside and landside. Qatari Efforts aiming to reduce energy consumption were conjugated by the adoption of the National Program for Conservation and Energy Efficiency (Tarsheed) run by Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa). Launched in 2012, the program intended to reduce the per capita consumption of electricity and water in Qatar by 17 and 18%, respectively, reduce carbon emissions by 10.2 million tons, saving 265bn cubic feet of natural gas and around QR5bn by the end of 2017. ‘Tarsheed’ program, aimed to produce 500–700 MW from renewable resources by providing the technical support of some projects in Qatar. The second phase (2018–2022) of the National Program for Conservation and Energy Efficiency (Tarsheed) aims to reduce the per capita consumption of electricity and water by 8 and 15%, respectively, and emissions by 7%. The National Program for Conservation and Energy Efficiency targets the saving of about QR6bn, cutting carbon emission to more than 13 million tons and gas about 319 million cubic feet by offering technical support to projects related to renewable energy, which will enable the country to reach its aspirations. Together with these valuable efforts, programs, and initiatives, the solar energy program could be a valuable opportunity for the Qatari State.

4

Discussion

4.1 Solar Energy: An Opportunity for Qatar? Passive solar energy is an ancient capture technique that focuses homes toward the sun’s rays, typically to the south direction in countries with temperate climate situated in the northern hemisphere. Contrarily, in the case of Qatar, houses will instead seek to avoid this passive solar energy. Traditionally, to maintain freshness, homes in hot countries have small windows. Today, the challenge for the construction of

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new buildings in Qatar is the development of design based on natural ventilation and, therefore, energy-efficient. Solar thermal energy consists of using the heat generated by solar radiation to heat water and food, for example (direct use of heat) or to produce electricity via thermodynamic solar power plants (indirect use of heat). It is in the sense that concentrated thermodynamic solar power plants (or CSPP for Concentrating Solar Power Plant) are developed. This technology works with the help of mirrors that concentrate sun rays to heat a fluid that conducts this heat (so-called coolant fluid). The liquid is most often converted into steam that will cause a turbine to rotate, resulting in an alternator producing electricity (following the same logic as in power plants operating on fuel, gas, or even via a neutron source). The scenarios established by the International Energy Agency indicate that concentrated solar thermodynamics will play a significant role in global electricity production by the 2050s. The script called BLUE Map predicts that for an installed capacity estimated at 630 GW, the concentrated solar thermodynamics (all sectors) can represent 5% of electricity production in 2050. The most optimistic scenarios (AIE Solar PACES, European Solar Thermal Electricity Association, Greenpeace …) predict an installed capacity of 1500 GW worldwide. To validate these scenarios, it is necessary to develop a concentrated thermodynamic solar industrial sector rapidly. A genuine commitment of the government is expected since we observe today that the pool of power stations in service comprises less than twenty sites worldwide. Existing plants include the Kramer Junction plant in California, which was commissioned in 1985 and produces 354 MW. As for completed and underway projects, Qatar is well ranked. World Finance magazine, which analyzes and globally covers the global financial sector, has awarded Qatar Solar Technology Company, a member of the Qatar Foundation, for the best-integrated solar energy company in the Gulf region (Qatar Foundation 2016). By 2020, the Qatar Solar Plan is going to commission projects with a total capacity of 1.8 GW of solar origin. In the MENA region, Algeria plans to produce 24,000 MW of energy from a renewable source. Also, in the Maghreb countries, the Moroccan Solar Plan provides for the construction of plants with an installed capacity of 2000 MW. The availability of electricity generation, a significant issue for lighting cities at night, has been optimized through technological innovations. For example, the Solar 2 plant in the USA can produce power up to 3 h after sunset, thanks to a system for storing energy in molten salts. This technique intended for regions with strong sun radiation (California, southern Spain … but of course Qatar too) is improving significantly because the Solar 3 power plant (under construction in Almeria, Spain) will be able to produce more

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electricity during day and night (the capacity of storage of solar energy raised from 3 to 16 h).

4.2 The Reality of Solar Energy in Qatar On a local scale, photovoltaic solar energy enables city dwellers to equip themselves with solar panels, for example, on the roofs of houses and institutions. This energy refers to the electricity produced by the transformation of part of the solar radiation using a photovoltaic cell. Several of these cells are interconnected within a photovoltaic solar module. Several modules are then associated with forming a solar installation at an individual or in a photovoltaic solar power plant. As a result, the Qatar National Convention Centre (QNCC) installed 3500 m2 of solar panels. These roof panels provide about 12.5% of the energy needed to operate the center. The exhibition halls are also equipped with lighting equipment using an energy-saving light-emitting diode. They are also equipped with a set of integrated design elements that are currently being modified to maintain the highest level of sustainability criteria (Qatar National Convention Center 2019). The solar equipment can supply a need on the spot or be injected, after transformation into alternating current, into an electrical distribution network. The first case requires the use of storage facilities, which are not necessary in the second case of a provision on the system. This source of energy is much mediated now. Even though it is a promising source of energy, today, we can see that the produced amounts relying on this technique are quite small. However, production costs are expected to drop significantly over the next few years, and this technology has many advantages. Its simplicity and versatility allow its operation autonomously or connected to an electrical network. It can power a house for its energy needs (hot water, electricity …) as well as an industry, unlike other forms of solar energy that produce only heat. Being aware of this new reality, the Qatari leaders decided to invest in this energy of the future and mobilized the facilities guaranteeing the leadership in this field. Qatar Solar Technology Company has announced the start of production of its Ras Laffan plant with a preliminary production capacity of 8,000 metric tons per year of high-quality polysilicon. The company is one of the largest producers of polysilicon in the Middle East and North Africa. The company aims to expand Ras Laffan Industrial City’s polysilicon plant to produce the equivalent of 50,000 metric tons of high-quality polysilicon, a milestone in the Middle East and North Africa in the region in terms of solar power generation (Qatar Foundation 2017). In the same way, Qatar policymakers conjugated their efforts by signing an agreement with the French company “Total” to build a solar power plant with a capacity of 800 Mwc.

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In short, solar energy represents future energy that is theoretically inexhaustible. Besides, the price of fossil fuels such as coal and oil increases as resources deplete, and solar energy goes down. Moreover, the solar energy production systems have a proportional cost almost equivalent to zero because there is no need for fuel but rather just maintenance, security, repair, etc. Although these costs depend very little on production, investment costs are much higher than for fossil technologies or other renewable energies (wind, hydro). The use of sensors makes it possible to produce domestic hot water at a low cost. Once the installation is completed, the maintenance is very inexpensive and allows substantial savings of fossil fuel or electricity. On the other hands, to produce electricity, the cost of the installation is vital in the case of the adoption of solar thermodynamics, or very high in the case of photovoltaic. In this sense, this tremendous opportunity for investment must be seriously studied and supported by the state of Qatar. Also, solar energy has particular peacemaking virtues, as it provides an inexhaustible source of energy to people, as well as economic development and employment.

5

Conclusion

The economy of Qatar is mainly based on the consumption of natural gas. In fact, approximately 98% of Qatari electricity is derived from this gas resource. Between 1985 and 2018, electricity consumption in Kilowatt-hours per person increased 3.5 times. It rose from 464 to 1670 kWh during the same period. In order to meet this mandatory demand, Qatar has increased its electricity production more than ten times (from 3.96 TWh in 1985 to 39.5 TWh in 2018). This boom in electricity consumption continues to increase yearly. As the majority of the electricity produced in Qatar is generated from natural gas, meeting future needs using traditional methods seems to be an unfeasible challenge. Also, research has shown that Qatar's per capita CO2 emissions are among the highest in the world: 30.77 t/capita in 2016, more than double those of the USA and seven times those of France (IAE September 2018). Therefore, in order to limit or even stabilize its future CO2 emissions, the Qatari government is looking for less polluting substitutes. Increasing the use of solar energy would not only preserve the country's energy independence, but also reduce the levels of its carbon emissions. In this study, we were able to track and use the available data in order to understand the opportunity for the Qatari government to develop this new source of green energy. The results show that the large-scale development of solar energy will only be possible with the help of strong production subsidies. The adoption of a policy favoring the development of renewable energy would reduce Qatari carbon

Sustainable Energy Policies in Qatar: On the Green Path

emissions. A tax on C02 would not promote the development of the gas industry but rather benefit renewable energies. In this sense, Qatar could help to safeguard the earth and thus guarantee individual and collective well-being.

References W. Brücher, Energiegeographie: Wechselwirkungen zwischen Ressourcen, Raum und Politik (Borntraeger, 2009). G.H. Brundtland, Our common future—Call for action. Environ. Conserv. 14(4), 291–294 (1987) S. Chen, B. Mulgrew, P.M. Grant, A clustering technique for digital communications channel equalization using radial basis function networks. IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. 4, 570–578 (July 1993) C.M. Cipolla, The Economic History of World Population (Harvester Press, Sussex, 1978) F. Cottrell, Energy & Society: The Relation Between Energy, Social Change, and Economic Development (Author House, 2009). J.U. Duncombe, Infrared navigation—Part I: An assessment of feasibility, in IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-11, pp. 34– 39 (1959) Qatar Foundation (2016). Available at https://www.qf.org.qa/app/ media/50007

771 Qatar Foundation (2017). Available at https://www.qf.org.qa/news/ qstec-produces-first-polysilicon-at-qatar-plant G.W. Howard, Common Sense in Research and Development Management (Vantage Press, 1955) IAE Database (2019). Available at https://www.iea.org/ F. Krause, H. Bossel, K.-F. Müller-Reißmann, Energie-wende: wachstum und wohlstand ohne erdöl und uran (S. Fischer, 1981) C.Y. Lin, M. Wu, J.A. Bloom, I.J. Cox, M. Miller, Rotation, scale, and translation resilient public watermarking for images. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 10(5), 767–782 (May 2001) D.H. Meadows, D.H. Meadows, J. Randers, W.W. Behrens III, The limits to growth: a report to the club of Rome. Google Scholar (1972). Qatar National Convention Center (2019). Available at https://www. qncc.qa/sites/default/files/inline-files/QNCC-Company-Profile.pdf L. Raineau,L’imaginaire des énergies renouvelables. Énergie et société: sciences, gouvernances et usages, Aix-en-Provence, Édisud 205– 213 (2008) L. Raineau, Dossier «Adaptation aux changements climatiques»-Vers une transition énergétique? Nat. Sci. Soc. 19(2), 133–143 (2011) A. Rojey Énergie & climat: réussir la transition énergétique. Editions Technip, 2008. S. Witjes, R. Lozano, Towards a more circular economy: proposing a framework linking sustainable public procurement and sustainable business models. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 112, 37–44 (2016)

Food and Water Security in Qatar: Current Challenges Caused by the Blockade and Proposed Solutions Abedalkader Alkhouzaam, Yousuf Rebeeh, Omar Elhafez, and Elsadieg Elhadi

Abstract

Highlights

Food and water security and variability are some of the crucial challenges facing communities worldwide. Qatar is concerned with such challenges due to its nature and the rapid population growth. The 2017 blockade only further aggravated the situation since it interrupted the food supply chain, and therefore, food security. This study investigates the impacts of the blockade on Qatar's food and water security. All challenges facing Qatar’s food and water security have been discussed; as well as the possible solutions to secure sustainable water and food supply. Among all initiatives, integrated farming was selected as one potential solution toward agricultural and food sustainability in Qatar. The proposed project consists of several production units in arranged and interconnected ways to improve the integration, reduce costs, and maximize benefits. The proposed units of the project include agriculture production units, livestock production units, fish farms, and a composting unit for the management of farm wastes. This project is expected to be of great benefit to the Qatari food and water sectors. It can contribute to reducing the gap between the demand and supply for food thanks to its advantages over the conventional agriculture and farming systems.

• The challenges of food and water sustainability in Qatar have been raised due to the blockade. • Among all available solutions, integrated farming is a promising solution toward food and water sustainability. • The limitations and challenges of integrated farming were addressed.

Keywords




Food security Water security

Integrated farming




Qatar blockade

A. Alkhouzaam (&)
E. Elhadi Department of Chemical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected]




1

Introduction

Qatar's diplomatic crisis started on 5th June 2017 when four countries in the region (The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt) issued a sudden air, sea, and land blockade. The relations cutting off included travel bans, withdrawing ambassadors, and imposing trade embargo. KSA closed the only land border for Qatar. For maritime traffic, both USA and UAE refused to receive Qatari ships and did not allow their shipping corporations and ports to deal with their Qatari counterparts. Moreover, KSA barred its banks from trading the Qatari riyal. Additionally, Qatar Airways was banned from passing over the airspace of both countries; which led to seeking other alternatives such as Iranian airspace as shown in Fig. 1. In the midst of these conditions and given that up to 80% of the food needs were secured through these countries, Qatar shifted the destination toward other countries like Iran, Turkey, India, and Morocco to secure the supply of food and water. Also, Qatar encouraged and supported local agricultural companies like BALADNA to establish local farms to meet the domestic demand for dairy products (Bill 2017). However, regarding the energy sector, Qatar continued exporting the natural gas to UAE and Oman through Dolphin Energy’s Pipeline Company, so this covers around 40% of the total UAE’s energy demand (Alkhalisi 2017).

Y. Rebeeh
O. Elhafez Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_98

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Fig. 1 Qatar Airways routes before and after the blockade

2

Qatar Food and Water Challenges

The State of Qatar faced the challenges emerging from the blockade by creating numerous alternatives for the imports (3) from the embargo countries by resorting mainly to aviation (4) in the delivery of goods, especially in the first months. The (5) state was then able to complete the construction works of Hamad port that had started in 2010; this led to receive the imports directly from the origin countries. Additionally, Qatar issued policies encouraging the local producers and private sectors by providing financial supports to increase (6) productivity. Another important point is the positive (7) response of the Qatari residents toward the consumption of local products. Furthermore, Qatar expanded the food storage capacity to ensure food security. (8) Regarding water security in Qatar, there was no significant impact like the case of food security. This is because the water (9) needs in Qatar depend mainly on the local desalination plants, ground water and treated wastewater. However, and due to (10) the rapid increase in population through the last five decades, the number has doubled more than 10 times compared to the population in 1960; establishing more desalination plants is still essential. This is because Qatar is surrounded by sea- (11) waters enabling the use of desalination techniques to cover 99% of domestic demand. Following are some challenges that Qatar faced regarding food and water security: (1) Growing demands due to food and food supplies: The population is increasing rapidly due to natural population growth and expats’ immigration to Qatar after issuing the hosting of the world cup 2022. This led to (12) an increase in food demand. Furthermore, the economic growth and increase in wealth accompanied by the change in lifestyle increased the food consumption. (2) Declining yields of the existing food supply chain: The main factor is climate change as high temperatures lead to a major scarcity of water, which negatively affects the rate of desalinated water used in agriculture and

thus food supply. Other crucial factors include soil exhaustion and the loss of farmland due to rapid urbanization contributing to a massive agricultural land loss that could affect the food security. Interruption of food supply. Domestic food storage. Domestic food supplies and production: Qatar has hot and dry climate and most of the lands are unsuitable for agriculture; which makes the domestic food production costly. Additionally, the lack of water and soil fertility limits the expansion of the agricultural in Qatar. Lack of internal food resources supplies. Limited marine route/access to open sea (because of the dependency on nearby marine logistic hub such as Jabal Ali or Fujaira ports in UAE). Varieties of Food needs due to the improved wealth and model lifestyle. Short-stage life for some essential products such as dairy product. Food security versus low cost import: This challenge looks attractive and might diver the national attention of Qatar from the importance of independency and diversity of food supplies. Large Food waste: Food losses and waste is a serious problem in Qatar due to the widespread of hotels, restaurants. This is mainly related to consumption habit which needs to be improved by increasing the awareness of sustainability in food consumption and food security issues. Therefore, an optimum plan is crucial to food conservation management to achieve sustainable food disposal and eco-friendly solutions (Zafar 2014). Domestic agriculture challenge: Expanding the agricultural sector is one of the major challenges due to climate nature, soil condition, and water availability. This will require introducing new methods that provide the optimal use of scarce resources and minimize the impact on the environment. Greenhouses, advanced irrigation systems, and hydroponics are all applicable solutions.

Food and Water Security in Qatar: Current …

(13) Water and Water supplies: Water quality and availability are colossal challenges facing Qatar due to its geographical nature and location. (14) The natural resources available such as rainfall, rivers, and underground water fail to supply the increased demand for water to support daily and development requirements, mainly agriculture. Thus, the state needs to secure water for domestic use: • 2–4 days approximately for the strategic storage. • High water consumption rate. • The power consumed in desalination is high and fossil fuels is used as driver force. One of the valid solutions to affordable sufficient water supplies is the reuse of water produced as byproduct in the gas/oil extraction and processing (e.g. to produce electricity and reuse in the exhaust steams for desalination plants). (15) Domestic and irrigation water challenges: Qatar's Population has registered a noticeable growth in the last 50 years by 10 times accompanied by a radical change in lifestyle. This outbreak significantly affected the water consumption rate (currently 557 L/day/habitant), especially when considering the limited water resources in Qatar and the increased demands in the agricultural and the industrial sectors. The only resource for freshwater is aquifers; which about 90% of the farms depend on. This led to a real problem in the last few years due to the massive usage for the farms’ irrigation which may also lead to the deterioration of groundwater quality. Consequently, part of the irrigation water is supplied by desalination plants presenting another domestic agriculture challenge.

3

Solutions and Actions Toward Sustainable Food and Water Resources in Qatar

A. Food Losses Reduction and Sustainable Waste Disposal Food losses and wastes are unused energy that most of the time ends up decomposing in landfills, thus releasing greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. Such waste contains organic wastes generated in restaurants, hotels, canteens, parks, cafeterias, and shopping malls in the form of vegetable waste, leftover food, uncooked food, and stale cooked, teabags, meat, extracted tea powder, milk products napkins, etc. Treating or recycling food waste is difficult since it contains high levels of moisture and sodium salt and is mixed with other wastes during collection. Below are some solutions for the management of food losses and wastes.

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(1) Food Losses Reduction The solutions toward the reduction of food losses and waste should be implemented at all levels: governmental, stakeholder, and consumer levels. Below are some solutions that can help in reducing food losses and waste: (a) Solutions at Governmental Level • Investing in public goods and infrastructure to reduce food losses and to guarantee sustainable food systems such as supply, appropriate storage, technologies and reliable energy, processing facilities, transport, improved connection and access of food consumers and producers to markets. • Capacity development in form of training and education. • Improvement of data collection on food losses: All stakeholders should agree on sharing data in a coherent and transparent manner, improve the data collection, sharing good practices and experiences on food losses on all stages of food chains. • Encourage sector-based audits of food losses and waste. • Invest in research and development to minimize food losses. (b) Solutions at Stakeholders’ Level • Reviewing the causes of food losses at each stage of food chains allows to identify the possible solutions and to implement them. • Adopting technical investments and innovations to improve the practices at harvest and post-harvest stages. When appropriately implemented, good agricultural practices and good hygienic practices during food processing can protect food from damage or contamination hence reducing the food losses. • Improve storage conditions. • Food industries should commit to report on their activities with respect to the reduction and monitoring of food wastes and losses. This can help in reduction of food losses with their dealers even at consumer level. (c) Solutions at Consumers’ Level Government and stakeholders should train and educate consumers about the problem of food losses and waste and the solutions to such a problem. This involves awareness-raising and direct communication on the importance of food waste reduction and management, as well as advising on food storage and sustainable consumption.

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(2) Sustainable Food Waste Management Among the various types of wastes being produced in Qatar, food waste (FW) comprises a high amount of carbons which can be efficiently transformed into organic fertilizer and biogas. FW can either be utilized as a single substrate in a biogas plant or co-digested with other wastes like poultry litter, crop, cow manure, abattoir wastes, residues, etc. Generally, one of the efficient ways of FW management and reduction is composting. It is generally valid to waste sources that have high organic contents, which applies to most municipal solid wastes (MSW). It is defined by the breaking-down of organic wastes by micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria, or earthworms in an aerobic environment. The compost, which is the final product, is rich with nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium that are beneficial to plants. Therefore, it is mainly used as fertilizer and soil conditioner. As discussed in section II, Qatar has one of the highest waste generation rates per capita globally. Figures show that in 2012, the waste generated in Qatar was about 8,000 tons of MSW daily (excluding demolition and construction waste which is about 20,000 tons of additional waste per day). MSW generation rates are expected to reach 19,000 tons/day in 2032, with the current growth rate that is about 4.2% (Qatar: Solid Waste Management, Phase 1 Assessment). Although the government is increasing its efforts to decrease the amount of waste going to landfills, most of the MSW generated ends up in landfills. For instance, in 2012, about 90% of Qatar’s MSW were landfilled. This percentage is extremely high compared to many industrialized countries where less than 10% of MSW is disposed of in landfills (e.g. Austria, Netherlands, Denmark, and Japan). These countries have invested in technologies to transform waste into energy or other products and have high recycling rates One of the main technologies used in these countries is composting which accounts for about 40% of their wastes (Rubio 2018). Composting in Qatar is principally done at the Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre (DSWMC) located in Mesaied, which is considered one of the largest composting facilities in the world. Two types of compost are being produced in DSWMC: Grade A fertilizer (that comes from food waste from restaurants and other catering services, and green waste like park trimmings and agriculture wastes) and Grade B fertilizer produced from MSW. Once the plant runs in full capacity, it can treat 750 tons of waste daily and produce 52 and 377 tons of Grade A and Grade B fertilizers respectively. Additionally, the liquid fertilizer produced is composed of 51 and 204 tons of Grade A and B, in addition to 129 tons of biogas (Gulf Times 2012). The market for compost is gradually growing especially with the effort of many countries promoting sustainable

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agriculture and the growing demand for organically grown products. Composting, hence, apart from avoiding the landfilling of organic wastes, can also be an excellent source of revenue. Thus, composting is significant and worthy development in Qatar especially concerning the treatment of food losses and waste and reduction of landfilled amounts. B. Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable agriculture can be simply defined as the effective production of high-quality, safe, and healthy agricultural products in an environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable way. These targets can be achieved by the improvement of the economic and social conditions of farmers and national communities; and by protecting the animal well-being of all farm species. Hence, this will help preserve the environment and its resources as well as mitigating climate changes. Sustainable agriculture is considered as a productive and resource-efficient way that is adapting to climate change and needs to be implemented in Qatar through the following actions: • Giving special attention to diversity within and between different types of plants and livestock for their contribution in providing alternative food sources for each other and making biodiversity a priority. • Using virtual water and green accounting and other effective tools to estimate the value of ecosystem services. • Implementing agricultural technologies that benefit decarbonization and adapt to climate change constraints. • Inspiring the development of local indicators to measure the environmental, economic, and social performance of various farming technologies and their impacts on the national sustainability targets. • Investing in the farmers communities as agents of the land and training them about the technologies used toward achieving the sustainable agriculture and its economic and environmental benefits. Recently, two main technologies have been developed in the agriculture sector contributing to achieve the sustainability targets, precision agriculture (PA) and vertical farming (Aero-farms). (1) Precision Agriculture (PA) Studies have shown that finding new land was not ever the main driver of increased output and will not solve the food production problem. Sustainable and effective production has tended to arise from innovative technologies rather than land expansion. Bruinsma reported that 77% of the growing crop production from 1961 to 2005 came from development

Food and Water Security in Qatar: Current …

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Fig. 2 Recently developed agriculture technologies

in agriculture technologies and only 14% came from the expansion of agricultural land (Bruinsma 2050). Nowadays, precision agriculture (PA) is gaining more focus. It combines different agriculture technologies such as GPS-enabled machinery, remote sensors, and big data to analyze growth rates and soil fertility differences and to examine crops for disease and locate problems outbreaks (Fig. 2). With the help of such technology, farmers can deliver the necessary nutrient or pesticide to each plant more efficiently, hence, reducing the amounts used while minimizing the environmental impacts and saving costs at the same time (Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition 2017). (2) Vertical Farming (Aero-farms) In Aero farms, crops are being grown in vertically inclined surfaces, vertically stacked layers, and/ or combined in other structures using artificial sunlight, soil, and water. Sensors are installed to take a large amount of data, allowing the growth to be controlled and monitored effectively. Aero-Farms have the efficiency of growing more than 30 types of leafy plants in controlled settings in a small area. Additionally, aero-farms are estimated to use almost zero pesticides, fungicides and herbicides, about 50% less fertilizer, and about 95% less water; while producing up to 30 annual crops, compared to conventional farms that usually produce three crops annually (Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition 2017; Pinstrup-Andersen 2017). (3) Irrigation Sustainability Water management during the Irrigation cycle is the act of regulating irrigation water application in a sustainable way that satisfies the plant’s water requirement with minimum water loss, energy, and nutrients or degrading the soil texture/erosion. Sustainable irrigation water application should concurrently achieve the targets of sustaining irrigated agriculture for food security and saving scarce water resources (Love et al. 2015). Due to the low annual rainfall and limited groundwater resources, Qatar depends on expensive and energy-intensive desalination and retreatment plants to encounter its rising water demand (Bruinsma

2050). To enhance the water security through irrigation, the following solutions can be implemented in irrigation: • Greywater reuse • Aquaponic farming • Treated Sewage Effluent Greywater is the used water resulting from showers, swimming pools, washing machines, air conditioning units, lavatory sinks, and ablution water from mosques. Greywater needs slight and can substitute more expensive water resources (Whiting 2012). Currently, Qatar’s water network doesn’t take advantage of greywater resources. Most plumbing systems in Qatar mix black water and greywater, which contaminates the entire mixture. Consequently, all the water in the network goes through costly tertiary-level treatment, and only a small fraction of the treated water is being used. Separating black water from greywater would reduce the total volume of water going through treatment, thereby lowering the total cost of the treatment process, allowing the use of greywater in landscaping and irrigation. Currently, the Public Works Authority (ASGHAL) has a good network of treated sewage effluent (TSE) and is being in use as an alternative to desalinated water for the urban landscape in the country. Aquaponic technology is also a valid solution, especially in regions like Qatar where the temperature is not favorable for agriculture and the water is scarce. This technique would result in sustainable and efficient water use in agriculture (Failed 2014). The aquaponic technique for growing vegetables must be adopted in local farms to increase the production of the vegetables and some fruits.

4

Proposed Integrated Farming Project Toward Food and Water Security in Qatar

After reviewing the possible solutions for sustainable agriculture and food in Qatar, this section discusses a proposed integrated system that can be implemented in Qatar and enhance sustainability for agriculture and livestock production while reducing food losses and wastes.

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Integrated Farming (IF) is simply the design and management of a whole organic farm system aiming to deliver more sustainable agriculture. IF is a dynamic approach that can be applied to different farming systems as it combines the traditional practices with modern technologies and tools according to a given site and situation. The principal concept of an integrated farming system is the arrangements of recycling products/byproducts of one component as input to another linked component. Figure 3 illustrates the process flow of the proposed integrated farming system. Integrated farming is expected to be of great benefit to the Qatari agriculture sector because it could help in: • Improving the soil quality due to the use of organic fertilizers. • Reduction of water usage. • Reduction of pollution or waste disposal costs. • Reduction of chemicals and inorganic fertilizers usage. • Reduction in overall cost. • Yield maximization per unit area. • Increasing the diversity of products (e.g. dairy, livestock, fishery, and agriculture crops). A. Project Features and Objectives • Developing traditional farming methods with modern and environmental-friendly agricultural. • Achieving sustainable agriculture in Qatar based on IF technology to reduce the use of pesticides and industrial fertilizers without controls (Falamarzi 2009). • Reduction of the waste generated from agriculture, fishponds, and livestock farming by recycling products/by products of each process as input to another process as illustrated in Fig. 3. • The use of automatic irrigation to reduce water consumption resulting from traditional irrigation methods, which waste strategic water reserves in the State of Qatar.

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• Introducing new varieties of vegetable and feed crops as well as livestock production. • Achieving a profitable economic return due to the nature and quality of the products. • To proceed gradually to transform the agricultural city's operation with all its activities for the solar energy system instead of electric power. The proposed project is divided into 4 main units: (1) Agriculture Production Unit Based on the current farming demand and activities in Qatar (Aguilar 2017), the agricultural products can be either produced vertically such as lettuce, spinach, kale, tomatoes, peppers, onion, capsicum, cabbage, beans, strawberry and basil (Michael 2017); or by conventional farming such as courgetti, eggplant, cucumber, watermelon, and broccoli. (2) Livestock Production Based on the existing livestock farms and the local needs in Qatar, the livestock production unit is proposed to produce the dairy products, meat, and poultry products. (3) Fish Farm The Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) started conducting studies in 2013 to invest in the sector of fish farming as part of Qatar's efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in food products (Aljundi 2017). Qatar produces about 14,000 tons of fishery products annually that cover 80% of local consumption (Ataullah 2017) where the fish farming projects are going to satisfy the other 20%. Aligning with these efforts and to achieve the integrated farming target as well, this study proposes a fish farm to be associated with other units. The wastewater from the fishpond will be pumped to the vertically grown agriculture units to be used in irrigation (aquaponic system). The water coming from the fishpond is nutrient-rich, hence the bacterium in the soil breaks ammonia into nitrites that are absorbed and utilized by the plants. Simultaneously, the water is filtered by the soil and then recycled to the fishpond (Kyaw and Ng 2017; Love et al. 2015). Figure 4 illustrates how the aquaponic system works (Whiting 2012). (4) Composting Unit

Fig. 3 Schematic of the process flow of the proposed integrated farming system

The composting plant will be responsible for treating the waste coming from agriculture and livestock and will be producing compost and biogas (Gulf Times 2012). It can also receive food wastes from external sources such as

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Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the aquaponic system (Whiting 2012)

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restaurants and other farms. The effluent of the composting plant is fed to the fishpond to enhance the productivity of the pond. Direct fertilization of fish farms with the effluent of composters and biodigesters as a combined system is used in several countries as a low-input fish production system (Failed 2014). Also, heavy metal content and pathogen load are significantly reduced in the biodigester effluent that can be utilized as a source of fishpond fertilization.

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Project Limitations and Challenges •

The application of the proposed IF system in Qatar is expected to have some challenges and limitations. These challenges are summarized below: • Lack of awareness about integrated farming systems: this is a critical issue as it might affect the performance and efficiency of the integrated farming system due to the lack of knowledge of the integrations requirements and specific technical information needed to operate each unit in the integrated farm. • Lack of timely availability of process inputs: This risk is expected to happen at any moment during the operation of the integrated farm. Thus, it might affect its performance leading to interruptions of one or more components of the farm. Accordingly, buffer storage or system

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needs to be designed to support such event, and to minimize its effect on the farm's performance, to compensate for any delay or shortage from the output of any stream that is considered input to another component. Lack of knowledge among farmers: In fact, the traditional farming community relies on outdated information inherited over time from previous generations. This can be managed through the establishment of training farms or centers to train and certify farmers to operate the integrated farming system as it requires a higher level of education in terms of operating and balancing the integrated farming and its components. Lack of demonstration on integrated farming system: As this system is relatively new in Qatar, we don’t have any demonstration or training farm that can be used as training field for the farmers to practice the integrated farming principles and learn by practicing the integrated farming principles on real farm and real setup. Lack of knowledge of integration aspects of subsystems of integrated farming can seriously affect the system performance, cause low productivity, and destroy the ecological balance of the farm. It is a crucial component for success to understand how each subsystem reacts and works within its environment. Lack of information on the type and size of enterprises to be included. This type of information is needed to decide on the level of integration within the same farm or with other nearby farms. This information is not available in Qatar and needs to be developed to support integration faring business in Qatar. Lack of skilled laborers: This is one of the present challenges that can be overcome by importing skilled laborers from other integrated farms worldwide or train the existing labor force to manage and operate the integrated farms in Qatar. This step is central to ensure smooth operation and secure the professional support needed to run such facilities. Lack of knowledge on effective recycling of farm wastes as the waste stream is very important and is considered as input for the next stream. Understanding the characteristics of the waste will help to fine-tune the integrated farm system and ensure stable operation. Vulnerability to viruses and diseases transfer from one unit to another is considered one of the biggest risks that threaten the sustainability of an integrated farming system. This can destroy the whole system if the disease or viruses moved from one part to another in the integrated farm since all units are linked directly or indirectly through a medium such as water, air, or solid waste. Efficient monitoring and controlling in all stages of operation is a must to avoid the transfer of diseases and infections from a contaminated component to another healthy component.

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Conclusion

Food supply and availability are primary issues facing Qatar due to the rapid population growth approaching 2.7 million people with a potential increase in line with the economic growth and urban development. This issue became more critical when Qatar's food supply and logistics have been interrupted suddenly due to the closeout of all supply routes from nearby countries because of the 2017 blockade. This embargo caused complete blockage for land routes and heavy restrictions on the air and sea routes. Although Qatar managed to overcome and secure alternative routes in a limited time, implementing new methods to secure food and water supply became essential. The proposed integrated farming project in Qatar described here is a prototype to examine the effectiveness and success of such a concept on a small scale in Qatar and to identify the challenges and difficulties that might arise during implementation on a commercial larger scale. Overall, the expected benefits of such a project compared to traditional farming are (Manjunatha et al. 2014): • Productivity improvement: 30–50%. • Resource saving 40–50%. • Lower emissions of GHG: 50%. Additionally, some initiatives should be developed to ensure availability and sustainability of food including: • Continuous assessment and evaluation of food requirements. • Investment in applied research to improve soil productivity and to overcome clime and water limitations that affect the local food production. • Secure alternative import and export routes for food supply to avoid any emerged situations like the blockade case. • Invest in domestic food supplies such as local food farms to secure essential food supplies locally. • Development of local food processing and storage facilities which can help to partially fulfil the demand and preserve the imported foods for longer periods. • Invest in food waste reduction campaign in all levels. • Invest in water conservation and recycle initiatives, considering water is one of the essential elements in food sustainability and supply.

Acknowledgements This work was made possible by an Award [GSRA4-1-0504-17043] from Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF, a member of Qatar Foundation). The contents herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.

References J. Aguilar, Qatari Farms Increase Production by 100% Amid Blockade (2017), 5/4/2018. Available: http://www.gulf-times.com/story/ 576066/Qatari-farms-increase-production-by-100-amid-block H. Aljundi, MME in Deal to Set Up ‘First-of-Its-Kind’ Fish Farms (2017). Available: http://www.qatar-tribune.com/news-details/id/ 101259 Z. Alkhalisi, Qatar Keeps Gas Flowing to UAE Despite Blockade (2017) S. Ataullah, New Fish Farming Projects to Save Strategic Reserve (2017). Available: https://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/30/ 12/2017/New-fish-farming-projects-to-save-strategic-reserve Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition, Fixing Food Towards A More Sustainable Food System (Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition, Parma, Italy, 2017) L. Bill, Qatar Rides Out the Blockade (2017) J. Bruinsma, The Resource Outlook to 2050: By How Much Do Land, Water and Crop Yields Need to Increase by 2050? ed. by E.S.D. Department (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2009) M. Falamarzi, National Aquaculture Sector Overview (National Aquaculture Sector Overview Fact Sheets, Qatar, 2015) Gulf Times, World’s Largest Composting Plant in Mesaieed. Gulf Times 23 February 2012. Available: http://goo.gl/xcLtXa T.Y. Kyaw, A.K. Ng, Smart Aquaponics system for urban farming. Energy Procedia 143, 342–347 (2017) D.C. Love, J.P. Fry, X. Li, E.S. Hill, L. Genello, K. Semmens, et al., Commercial aquaponics production and profitability: Findings from an international survey. Aquaculture 435, 67–74 (2015) S.B. Manjunatha, D. Shivmurthy, S.A. Satyareddi, M.V. Nagaraj, K.N. Basavesha, Integrated farming system—an holistic approach: a review. Res. Rev. J. Agric. Allied Sci. (2014) C. Michael, The Best Crops For Vertical Farming (2017). Available: http://blog.zipgrow.com/best-crops-for-vertical-farming/ J.C. Nnaji, B.I. Ugwu, Use of polyethylene tube biodigester for fish production and processing—a review. Res. J. Chem. Sci. 4 (2014) P. Pinstrup-Andersen, Is It Time to Take Vertical Indoor Farming Seriously? (Global Food Security, 2017). 22 Sept 2017 Qatar Development Bank, Qatar: Solid Waste Management, Phase 1 Assessment, ed. by Qatar Development Bank M.R. Rubio, Composting Scenario in Qatar (2018). Available: https:// www.ecomena.org/composting-qatar/ D. Whiting, Local Men Go Beyond ‘Teaching a Man to Fish’ (2012). Available: https://www.ocregister.com/2012/01/11/local-men-gobeyond-teaching-a-man-to-fish/ S. Zafar, Food Wastes Disposal Methods (Organic Industrial Wastes in the Middle East, 2014). Available: https://www.ecomena.org/foodwaste-disposal

Roadmap for Future Food Systems and Smart Cities: Making the Ecosystem Contentious and Policies Sima Hamadeh

Abstract

As water, food, energy, and environment (WFEE) are critical determinants of human survival and wellbeing, managing these vital resources sustainably commands a holistic nexus perspective. This conceptual paper uses social marketing techniques, systems approach, and social enterprises to (1) explore the WFEE nexus from a systemic approach, (2) understand the complex interconnection between key stakeholders across food systems, (3) describe the underlying drivers of food policies, and (4) propose an integrated holistic framework representing a new nexus-oriented approach. Results showed the means to deal with the WFEE nexus and the development of relevant policies through the social marketing approach lens. An innovative theoretical tool was suggested to improve understanding of the complexity of interactions between key stakeholders and outcomes, and integrating the necessity for coordination within and across all sectors, institutions, and food systems. Solutions need to be sought within the system to move forward in harmony toward future food- smart country. Keywords








WFEE Food systems Social marketing policies Food-smart country




Food

Highlights • Research needed to substantially increase our understanding of the interactions and feedbacks among water, food, energy, and environment. • The wicked WFEE nexus requires coordinated transdisciplinary actions that are multi-level and multidirectional. S. Hamadeh (&) Haigazian University, Beirut 11-1748, Beirut, Lebanon e-mail: [email protected]

• A comprehensive innovative roadmap for future food systems and smart countries was proposed in this research to help decision- and policy-makers in their activities.

1

Introduction

Over the last 30 years, global energy use has approximately doubled. The demand is likely to grow again by more than half by 2040 (Rasul and Sharma 2014). Many factors impact the energy-water-environment (EWE) nexus food system being an important one (Rasul and Sharma 2014; Riccardini and Rosa 2016). By 2030, the demand for food is expected to rise by 35% and for water and energy by 40% each (Hoff 2011). Several external forces are shaping our food demands and driving structural changes in the food systems, including urbanization, demographic changes; population movements and migrations; rising incomes, rapid technological changes, and innovation; evolving food consumption, preferences, nutrition, and health-related problems; climate changes and severe conditions, localized development “local is the new global,” etc. (Tefft et al. 2018; Hamadeh et al. 2019; United Nations Development Programme 2018; Skaggs et al. 2012). Hence, a better knowledge of different types of food systems and the interaction between food environment, food supply, and consumers’ behavior is critical to understanding why and how dietary patterns and food demands are changing tremendously worldwide (Tefft et al. 2018; HLPE 2017). While some of these changes have had a positive effect on diets that promote health, some have had negative implications for the evolution, managing and performance of food systems and environments (Tefft et al. 2018; HLPE 2017). It is important to highlight that food systems exist on a continuum and a huge diversity exists within each system type. Therefore, studying the distinct elements of several typologies is useful to illustrate the complexity of food systems and allow researchers and policy-makers to consider the variety

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_99

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of their components and their strengths and weaknesses when designing and adapting programs and policies to a given food system (HLPE 2017). In 2017, a report by the high level of experts on food security and nutrition identified three broad types of food systems based on different elements of the food supply chain (production, storage, and distribution, processing and packaging, retail and markets) and of the food environment (affordability and availability, accessibility, food quality and safety, promotion/advertising/information) (HLPE 2017). This typology includes the traditional food system, the mixed food systems, and the modern food systems. It will categorically help decision- and policy-makers to structure their discussions and activities around pathways, priorities, and solutions to enhance nutrition, sustainability, and health-related problems across each type (HLPE 2017). For instance, traditional food systems focusing on local food are valuable by themselves and can be a source of inspiration for policy-makers. In contrast, modern food systems where domestic and international products are massively available are not the end goal for every food system (HLPE 2017; Poli 2010). Likewise, the Barilla Center for food and Nutrition assessed the food environmental impacts (water consumption and ecological footprint) after analyzing the entire food supply chain. It demonstrated that highly recommended foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains have a lower impact on the environment than processed food and red meat (Poli 2010). In response to that, Barilla proposed the following double food and environmental pyramid that confirms that the traditional Mediterranean diet is the food system with the highest positive effects on health and environments (Poli 2010).

“The Health map” Adapted from Barton and Grant (Barton and Grant 2006)

In all types of food systems, ecosystems are the source of water and biomass for food production, preparation, cooking, and preservation (Food Security Policies 2013). Studies showed that stable and sustainable food systems require a resilient ecosystem to impact social, economic, and environmental stresses (Rasul and Sharma 2014; Food Security Policies 2013; Barton and Grant 2006; European Environment Agency 2015).

As water, food, energy, and environment are critical determinants of human survival and wellbeing, managing these vital resources sustainably commands a holistic nexus perspective (Rasul and Sharma 2014; Riccardini and Rosa 2016). The water-food-energy (WFE) nexus is rapidly growing in scholarly literature as a novel method providing a promising conceptual approach for addressing and enhancing resources use efficiently and food system development challenges (Rasul and Sharma 2014; Albrecht et al. 2018; Howells et al. 2013). However, there is no such thing as nexus thinking, a “one size fits all” approach to reducing food insecurity and safety issues (Albrecht et al. 2018; Food Security Policy 2006) Rather WFE nexus has the hallmarks of a wicked multi-causal problem difficult to solve if not seen with people's wellbeing and adapted to each environmental context (Riccardini and Rosa 2016; Albrecht et al. 2018) and market demands (Food Security Policy 2006). Moreover, the use of nexus methods to evaluate water, food, energy, and environment (WFEE) interconnections and support the

It is well documented that climate change (Rasul and Sharma 2014) and desert climate (World Food Programme 2018; World Food Programme Insight 2017) bring multiple stresses on ecosystems structures and services, natural capital (food, water, air), lives and local, national, and global economic systems of production and consumption. Thus, adaptation to water, energy, and food securities requires integrated and comprehensive strategic approaches with inter-sectoral coordination at different scales (local, national, and regional) (Rasul and Sharma 2014). In 2006, Barton and Grant (Barton and Grant 2006) developed the following dynamic tool “the health map” to focus on collaboration across all sectors inspired from the ecosystems theories, the principle of sustainable development and the relationship between health and the physical/social/economic environment.

Roadmap for Future Food Systems and Smart Cities …

development of socio-environmentally and politically relevant policies has been limited in the literature (Albrecht et al. 2018; Resnick et al. 2017). To help overcome these limitations, specifically in certain climate conditions (Skaggs et al. 2012) or in desert climate (United Nations Development Programme 2018), it is crucial to explore the complex interplay between all stakeholders such as food producers, industrials, economists, marketers, researchers, environmental experts, health practitioners, consumers, decision- and policy-makers, and their influence on how individuals consume food and perceive local food production (Tefft et al. 2018; Resnick et al. 2017) Second there is a need to chart a course forward using several approaches to reveal enabling factors for future food systems (Tefft et al. 2018) and smart cities (Gil-Garcia et al. 2015; Eremia et al. 2017) (Table 1) and develop solutions to effect change (Tefft et al. 2018). Furthermore, to build a framework using systematic and analytic tools that may assist in planning, implementing, and evaluating food systems programs and policies aimed at complex social, environmental, and public health problems such as food insecurity, nutrition, and national wellbeing (Hamadeh et al. 2019; Food Security Policies 2013).

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Settings or Methods or Materials and Methods

Learningfrompastexperiencesanddifferentdisciplinescanhelp create a network offeedback loops and increase our chances for success in the future (Lane and Sterman 2011). For this reason, applyingthesystemdynamics(SD)methodologytotackleissues from organizational change to climate change is practical to understandthedynamicsofglobaldevelopment,developscientific knowledge, and improve practitioners and policy-makers’ performance (Lane and Sterman 2011; Georgiadis et al. 2005).

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This conceptual paper reviews literature on water, food, and energy responses to environmental concerns facing the globe today to bring about sustainable and smart development. The paper analyzes all factors and global trends that play a role in the WFEEnexusanddevelopsappropriatestrategiesand/orpolicies forsustainablefoodsystems,stableecosystems,andsmartcities. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the social marketing approach used in different fields such as economics, business, engineering, and sociology helps to understand where we have been, what has been done, how we got here and, therefore, helps to delimit and orient our practices for the future (Hamadeh et al. 2019; Basil et al. 2019). Thus, this conceptual paper uses social marketing techniques, systems approach, and social enterprises to focus on the food system as part of the wicked perspective of the WFEE nexus. The primary purpose of this paper is: (1) to explore the WFEE nexus from a systemic approach through the use of systems dynamics as means of understanding the nexus complexity and its factors interdependency; (2) to understand the complex interconnection between key stakeholders across food systems; (3) to describe the underlying drivers of food security policies over time and across country needs. Finally, this paper is set to propose an integrated holistic framework representing “a new nexus-oriented approach WFEE” needed to address unsustainable patterns of growth and impending resource constraints to develop solutions to effect change, especially in climate desert.

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Results

The practical and pragmatic SD methodology employed in this work helped exploit existing information, model our results, make the ecosystems connections, and design our policy for future food systems and smart cities. This paper presents means to deal with the nexus perspective through

Table 1 Comprehensive view of smart cities components and elements. Adapted from Gil-Garcia et al. (2015)

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the lens of the social marketing modeling approach. In particular, focusing on nutrition, as well as food security and safety, considered as the primary need more strictly related to the wellbeing achievement, all the linkages available with water, energy, environment, and society are investigated. Moreover, the literature review helped provide an analytical approach relying on the existing factors, key features, and other possible measures, which can fit the nexus within the holistic proposed model (Fig. 1). As results from data reviewed and analyzed, the following three themes of such a new WFEE nexus approach were identified. Mapping the interconnection between stakeholders and food systems: While examining the WFEE nexus, focusing on sector-to-sector interfaces alone will not detect the significance and the complexity of their interlinked systems (Skaggs et al. 2012). Understanding the multiple interactions, trade-offs, and feedbacks among these sectors helps decision-makers in evaluating the systems and policymakers in developing effective strategies and appropriate policies (Skaggs et al. 2012).

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There have been calls for widespread incorporation of a systems thinking approach when addressing food securityrelated issues and other complex socio-environmental and ecosystem concerns (Parkinson et al. 2017). Carey et al. (Carey et al. xxxx) stated that “Systems thinking enables causal loop and pathway mapping to identify how one part of the system has a flow on effects to another and how actions in one area of the system have the potential to manifest as unintended consequences in another argue models.” Depicting such dynamic connections between and across systems serve to prompt the development of multi-level interventions, which will lead to greater impact, reach, and eventually change (Tefft et al. 2018). Besides, such a systems approach allows a reframing of the tackled problem to align with individual and societal beliefs and values to create an effective exchange (Domegan et al. 2016). Adopting a systems approach, therefore, provides a framework for transition from interventions to sustainable dynamic behavior change, not only at the individual level, but also at the societal level (Hamadeh et al. 2019). Today, it is noteworthy that a wider range of new emerging technologies (geospatial technology, sensors,

Fig. 1 Road map for future food systems and smart cities: a new WFEE nexus-oriented approach

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drones, digital platforms, social media, etc.) provides new opportunities for collecting, combining, and analyzing the food systems and ecosystems (Tefft et al. 2018; Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018). Both traditional and emerging sources of data will help to guide effective mapping of the interconnection between all stakeholders and food systems, but with the new emerging technologies, governments, and professionals can enhance their perspectives of “systems thinking approach” and its assisting role to understand in details the context of any food system from farm-to-plate (Tefft et al. 2018; Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). Social marketing and social enterprises as significant leverages of change: Given the diversity of stakeholders involved in the food systems, there is a need for the social marketing discipline to become adept at addressing socio-environmental and institutional changes via multiple interacting sub-systems (Domegan et al. 2017). The social marketing approach emphasizes a focus on values, attitudes, perceptions, and incorporation of new concepts such as public and/or private governance, stakeholders’ engagement, and partnerships, providing a conceptual basis to facilitate discourse around the factual responsibilities of key stakeholders and to help establish a common understanding of contextual problems and preferred solutions (Hamadeh et al. 2019). Therefore, social marketing is well-positioned and skilled to guide such trans-disciplinary food systems initiatives. Similarly, the social enterprises approach has a key role in creating attitudes modifications and societal motivation to change, promoting enterprises and industries flexibility, and developing skills and capacities, contributing to creating desirable goals and maximizing social impact and improvements in socioeconomic and environmental wellbeing (Luke and Chu 2013). Therefore, to address the issue of food security, rather than designing interventions only directed at individuals (micro-level), we need to pursue avenues that allow for the co-creation of value by key stakeholders within the whole food systems levels. Providers of health, environmental, and wellbeing services operating at the meso level of influence also assist in facilitating individual-to-individual value co-creation through various mechanisms such as social support (Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018). Going a step further, policy-makers at the macro-level of influence should empower the governmental regulations and institutional norms surrounding the related enabling factors as a way to transcend the issue of scale (Nestle 2013). This means that when working in diverse, unbalanced and dynamic circumstances, social marketing, and social enterprises approaches can progress action when it facilitates joint efforts with stakeholders across and

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between all levels of influence on food systems (Hamadeh et al. 2019; Perrini et al. 2010). Making the food policies: With food and beverage products at the heart of the WFEE, a more inclusive, nutritious, safe, and sustainable food system are transformed by local and international institutions, businesses, industries, marketers, financing and governance mechanisms, and innovative food policies (Hamadeh et al. 2019; Hamadeh 2019). Policy-makers normally use models to support their decisions (Albrecht et al. 2018; Carey et al. 2015). This research concerns the strategic understanding and the development of tools to guide the planning, implementation, and evaluation of food security policies. The integrated holistic framework proposed in this research (Fig. 1) co-creates the maximum set of relevant factors that policy-makers and researchers should consider when identifying opportunities for, or constraints to, policy reform episodes. Besides, the proposed framework encloses a new WFEE nexus perspective adapted to each context, including the food environmental impact (demonstrated by the double pyramid) and the existing ecosystem services. Such a new WFEE nexus-oriented approach influenced by several global trends (globalization, environmental pressures, geopolitical conflicts, food systems activities, nutrition economics, etc.) is considered central to the effective design, selection, implementation, and monitoring of adaptation and mitigation strategies. For instance, there is a need to address global issues and trends in local governance, ensure private and public financing, and strengthen public management and services provision at all levels (Resnick et al. 2017; Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). In this context, evidence from several studies stressed the need to improve local advocacy and leadership capacity in communities and to enhance people's participation in policymaking and their active engagement in the overall related activities to move toward more inclusive decision-making processes (Hamadeh et al. 2019; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). The study empowers the local planners in the decisionmaking process, to foresee future food-related threats, and to handle the mismanagement of food resources. Solutions need to be sought within the systems, working to identify and develop common ground from which to move forward in harmony toward future food- smart country that became in the twenty-first century a priority task with direct participation from political entities, industrials, technologist, practitioners, and the scientific community (Gil-Garcia et al. 2015; Eremia et al. 2017). The smart cities/countries must adapt to changes (use technology and data-driven solutions) in both institutional and governmental sectors to make people's lives better and to alleviate the effect of several factors, such as population growth and demographic change;

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globalization of economy; technology development; climate change; ecological risks and dependencies; human mobility; and insecurity as regards food, water, and energy (Eremia et al. 2017). But until recently, smart cities including New York and Tokyo have not adopted the smart practical methodology for the most critical component of ecosystem “food,” which should be supported through contextual smart food policies applying a data-driven approach (Gil-Garcia et al. 2015). The integrated holistic framework proposed in this study encounters some challenges. Thus, considerable efforts should be made by all stakeholders concerning its practical application and implementation. For instance, designing a road mapping framework should adequately describe and simulate the interactions of climate, ecosystem, energy, and economy at regional scales (United Nations Development Programme 2018; Skaggs et al. 2012). One rationale for doing so is to provide informed scientific input to regional decision making, especially about adaptation and mitigation issues. Another challenge is the difficulty of capturing the insight needed without significant engagements with the public, stakeholders, and decision-making communities (Tefft et al. 2018; Hamadeh et al. 2019) Such groups help provide rapid insight into which process in the framework must be improved or added and insight into managing expectations of integrated outcomes. To overcome these challenges, it is crucial to encourage political dialog and leadership commitment to develop a set of measures, evaluation indicators, and regulatory acts regarding the smart food policy development and execution (Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). Moreover, a coordinated body should be established, and a clear effective agenda through which the decision- and policy-makers operate should be created (Food and Agriculture Organization 2019).

4

Discussion

Several studies on food security and safety highlighted the importance of integrating the principles of social marketing into sustainable food systems and ecosystems programs and policies to improve nutrition and raise environmental responsibility among consumers (Basil et al. 2019; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). The social marketing approach applied in this research helped propose a preliminary set of contextual diagnostic questions and metrics for a complete roadmap for future food systems and smart cities, including a new comprehensive nexus (WFEE), which combines the old nexuses (WFE and EWE). The new WFEE nexus-oriented approach illustrated in Fig. 1 represents the first step in: (1) identifying and discussing data needs from different related core fields

such as society, economy, environment, food industry and systems, education, and communication fields and (2) recognizing innovative ways to address global trends and suggest enabling factors for the promising agenda of food sustainable strategies and smart policies. It has been demonstrated that a stronger inter-sectoral collaboration, a productive multi-sectoral partnership, and joint activities are fundamental elements to put in place food security, nutrition, and sustainable environment efforts (Tefft et al. 2018; Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). In this respect, this paper suggests an innovative theoretical tool to improve understanding of the complexity of interactions between multi-sectoral stakeholders and outcomes, and integrating the necessity for coordination within and across all food system levels (micro to macro levels) as well as across sectors and institutions. Findings from the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization reports showed that using the new emerging technologies and the Big Data techniques by larger food businesses and some governmental bodies was beneficial for their planning, investments, and business decisions (Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). Consistent with these results, our framework highlights the importance of open data as an input to municipal, regional, and national-level-decision making to adapt the WFEE perspective contextually. Furthermore, it emphasizes the increasingly imperative role of technological innovation as an enabling factor for designing sustainable food strategies and progressive smart policies, and maximizing its impact at the regional and country levels (Resnick et al. 2017). Experts and researchers around the world were actively engaged in studies and discussions focusing on issues such as basic elements of different types of food systems and their interrelation with nutrition, drivers of consumer behaviors, sustainability, and the impact of climate change. However, little has been documented on the concept of merging these themes for a general overview of food environments (Skaggs et al. 2012; Poli 2010; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). The originality of this paper is revealed in the use of amalgamated approaches that provides insights into the trans-disciplinary and dynamic circumstances surrounding the food systems and highlights the leverage points of WFEE nexus perspective where joint actions can be facilitated with key stakeholders. Moreover, it builds on the diversity of “food systems” to provide a theoretical basis for key features of analytical approaches, specifically identifying potential indicators for monitoring and evaluating functions in any sustainable food projects and programs. Finally, this paper offers a foundation for future research to expand upon. As part of future work, the use of social marketing techniques, systems thinking approach, and social

Roadmap for Future Food Systems and Smart Cities …

enterprises to focus on food systems as part of the wicked perspective of the WFEE nexus should be evaluated against some set of testable criteria and indicators (Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018). As the scope of this study does not cover the WFEE evaluation outline, testable criteria and specific indicators aimed at managing the nexus were not reviewed in this paper. However, data for indicators can be generated from a large number of methods and procedures and/or be found in a wide variety of places such as public, private, and local institutions (municipalities, governmental bodies, agribusiness, civil societies, food industry, food chain institutions, etc.). Determining the most relevant source and type of data to use is influenced by several factors, including its availability, quality, relevance to the chosen indicators, and ease of understanding and use by designated stakeholders (Resnick et al. 2017; Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework 2018; Food and Agriculture Organization 2019). Future work should also concentrate on further refinements on the proposed integrated holistic framework elements and their practical applicability in different contexts and more complex environments (Rasul and Sharma 2014; Resnick et al. 2017). It must be noted that the specific WFE is a part of the broader United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda for 2030 (Altamirano et al. 2018). A review of our comprehensive proposed theoretical framework, including the new WFEE nexus-oriented approach, suggests tremendous links with most of the 17 SDGs. In keeping in line with the 2030 United Nations Agenda for sustainable development, it is recommended to test the implication of the proposed framework by this study in increasing capacities toward the realization of the SDGs (Food and Agriculture Organization 2019; Altamirano et al. 2018).

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Conclusion(s)

The merit of the original approach used in this conceptual research based on mixing three concepts (systems thinking/dynamic, social marketing, and social enterprises) was clearly demonstrated in answering this study's objectives. Besides, it revealed that the wicked WFEE nexus requires coordinated trans-disciplinary actions that are multi-level and multi-directional and requests understanding of various inter-related key stakeholders’ actions within an interdependent, interconnected, complex food system that is constantly changing and, therefore, may take a long time to stabilize. Finally, the proposed holistic model can identify optimal parameters for various strategic decision-making scenarios and effective policies in future food systems. Thus,

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the model can further be tailored and used by decision- and policy-makers in a wide spectrum of WFEE management issues.

References T. Albrecht, A. Crootof, C.H. Scott, The water-energy-food nexus: A systematic review of methods for nexus assessment. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 1–27 (2018) M. Altamirano, A. Bodegom, N. Linden et al., Operationalizing the WEF Nexus: Quantifying the Trade-Offs and Synergies Between the Water, Energy and Food Sectors. ECN Report, 2018, 122p H. Barton, M. Grant, A health map for the local human habitat. J. R. Soc. Promot. Public Health 126(6), 252–261 (2006) D. Basil, G. Diaz-Meneses, M. Basil, Social Marketing in Action: Cases from Around the World (Springer Texts in Business and Economics, Cham, Switzerland, 2019), 474p G. Carey, E. Malbon, N. Carey et al., Systems science and systems thinking for public health: a systematic review of the field. Open Br. Med. J. 5(12), e009002 (2015) C. Domegan, P. McHugh, M. Devaney et al., Systems-thinking social marketing: conceptual extensions and empirical investigations. J. Mark. Manag. 32(11/12), 1123–1144 (2016) Domegan, C., McHugh, P., Biroscak, B. et al., Non-linear causal modeling in social marketing for wicked problems. J. Soc. Mark. 7 (3), 305–329 (2017) M. Eremia, L. Toma, M. Sanduleac, The smart city concept in the 21st century. Procedia Eng. 181, 12–19 (2017) European Environment Agency, Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services. SOER Report, 2015, 10p Food and Agriculture Organization, Food Security and Nutrition Policy Dialogues in Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia 2016–2019: A Retrospective. FAO Report, 2019, 130p Food Security Policies: Making the Ecosystem Connections, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Report, 2013, 9p Food Security Policy, Republic of Malawi-Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security Report, 2006, 19p P. Georgiadis, D. Vlachos, E. Iakovou, A system dynamics modeling framework for the strategic supply chain management of food chains. J. Food Eng. 70, 351–364 (2005) R. Gil-Garcia, T. Pardo, T. Nam, What makes a city smart? Identifying core components and proposing an integrative and comprehensive conceptualization. Inform. Polity 20, 61–87 (2015) S. Hamadeh, M. Marquis, S. Estepan, Ten-point vision strategies to offer a menu of options to promote healthy eating and active living in Lebanon: between facts and stories. Clin. J. Nutr. Diet. 2(1), 1–10 (2019) Hamadeh, S.: The social psychology of food and body image: exploring new dimensions in public health policies in MENA. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health, Special Issue 1, 17–29 (2019) H. Hoff, Understanding the nexus, in Background paper for the Bonn conference “The water, energy and food security nexus” (Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden, 2011) M. Howells, S. Hermann, M. Welsch et al., Integrated analysis of climate change, land use, energy and eater strategies. Natl. Clim. Change J. 3, 621–626 (2013) D. Lane, J. Sterman, Profiles in Operations Research: Pioneers and Innovators (Springer, New York, 2011) B. Luke, V. Chu, Social enterprise versus social entrepreneurship: an examination of the why and how in pursuing social change. Int. Small Bus. J. 31(7), 764–784 (2013)

788 M. Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, Vol. 3 (University of California Press, LA, USA, 2013) Nutrition and Food Systems, A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, 2017, 152p. HLPE J. Parkinson, C.H. Dubelaar, J. Carins et al., Approaching the wicked problem of obesity: an introduction to the food system compass. J. Soc. Mark. 7(4), 387–404 (2017) F. Perrini, C. Vurro, L. Costanzo, A process-based view of social entrepreneurship: from opportunity identification to scaling-up social change in the case of San Patrignano. Entrep. Reg. Dev. 22 (6), 515–534 (2010) A. Poli, The Food Pyramid and the Environmental Pyramid (Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition Report, 2010), 17p G. Rasul, B. Sharma, Water, Food, and Energy Nexus in South Asia: Implications for Adaption to Climate Change (Handbook of Climate Change Adaption, Springer, Berlin, 2014), 28p D. Resnick, D. Mather, N. Mason et al., What drives agricultural input subsidy in Africa? Applying the Kaleidoscope model of food security policy change, in Policy Research Brief 27 (Department of Agriculture, Food and Resource Economics at Michighan State University, 2017), pp. 1–9

S. Hamadeh F. Riccardini, D. De Rosa, How the nexus of water/food/energy can be seen with the perspective of people well being and the Italian BES framework. Agric. Agric. Sci. Procedia 8, 732–740 (2016) R. Skaggs, K. Hibbard, T. Janetos et al., Climate and Energy-WaterLand System Interactions (Technical Report to the US Department of Energy in Support of the National Climate Assessment, 2012), 152p. PNNL ref J. Tefft, M. Jonasova, R. Adjao et al., Food systems for an urbanizing world (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Report, 2018), 176p United Nations Development Programme, Climate Change Adaptation in the Arab States: Best Practices and Lessons Learned from Country Experiences (UNDP Report, 2018), 90p Urban Food Systems Diagnostic and Metrics Framework. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Report, 2018, 26p World Food Programme Insight, Growing Food in the Algerian Desert, 2017. https://insight.wfp.org/growing-food-in-the-algerian-desert28dc89219a9a. Accessed 10 Mar 2020 World Food Programme, Climate Risks and Food Security Analysis: A Special Report for Pakistan. WFP Report, 2018, 112p

Including Sustainable Architectural Design in the Teaching Pedagogy: A District Adapted to the Desert Climate of the Oasis of Nafta–Tunisia Nour El Houda Jouini, Fakher Kharrat, Mouldi Chaabani, and Kaouther Zair

Abstract

Nafta is an oasis located in the governorate of Tozeur in the South of Tunisia. The unique natural and built environment it offers has been degrading due to climate change, pollution, and overexploitation. Additionally, the new residential districts are unsuitable for the desert climate of the area. Not only do they fail to provide thermal comfort, especially during the heat waves, but also they contain non-eco-friendly materials such as concrete. However, we notice that the vernacular architecture respects the climate context and can serve as a reference. Teaching second-grade architecture students, we tried to include this in our pedagogy method to raise awareness about the matter. This paper presents the project of a sustainable district in Nafta conducted with the students during a workshop. The study shows that urban morphology and the building design can significantly influence the energy efficiency and the ecological footprint of the district. It also reveals that the vernacular architecture can be a reference to rebuilt contemporary eco-friendly cities.

• Oasis cities in south Tunisia are vulnerable regions and must be adapted to climate change as soon as possible. • The traditional architecture can be a reference to rebuild a sustainable contemporary district.

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Introduction

Highlights

As a PHD student, I work on mitigation strategies of the built environment in order to face climate change in Tunisia. My research work aims at an ecological evaluation of the collective housing of Tunis. As teachers for the second-grade architecture students, my colleagues and I try to include sustainable approaches in our pedagogy in order to raise awareness of the climate challenges. We present here the students’ work for one of the assessments. We first realized an on-site study lasting a week where we visited the oasis of Nafta. The vernacular part of the city presents a substantial architectural value not only by its unique techniques of construction but also by its adaptation to the desert climate and the human context. During the visit, the students were familiarized with the architectural and urban context by analyzing the urban organization and the architectural specificities. In the second phase, the vernacular architecture analyzed is intended to serve as a reference to create a residential district. The project method is taking into consideration the natural environment, the climate, the cultural heritage, and the local identity.

• Including sustainable architectural design in the teaching pedagogy, can raise awareness of the climate challenges.

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Keywords

Desert climate architecture




Sustainable district




Vernacular

N. E. H. Jouini (&)
F. Kharrat
K. Zair National School of Architecture and Urbanism, Carthage University, Tunis, Tunisia M. Chaabani Higher School of Audiovisual Architecture and Design, Tunis, Tunisia

Settings or Methods

The oasis of Nafta is wedged between Chott-Djerid and the dunes of the Sahara, in Tozeur, southwest of Tunisia. According to the Koppen classification, the climate is classified as desert climate (BWh) (Belda 2014).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_100

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The average air temperature in summer is 39.1 °C and can get up to 45 °C. The precipitations are very rare. During winter, the air temperature is between 6.3 and 16.7 °C. The precipitations are rare too with and only 3 days per month with an average of 13 mm (IMM 2003). The built-up space is located on both sides of an oasis with a large natural basin called ‘the basket.’ The water of the ‘basket’ irrigates nearly half a million palms trees and spread over 300 hectares. Due to climate change, pollution, and overexploitation, the ‘basket’ is now drying, many palms disappeared and the equilibrium of the ecosystem is disturbed (ENAU 2012) (Fig. 1). Compared to the old city, the new districts do not take into consideration the climate or the context. The urban morphology of the old city is a compact Medina with introverted patio houses. Whereas the dwellings in the modern districts are organized in separate lots, with withdrawals of 4 m from the front of the plot. The local stone is no longer in use. They prefer using concrete and glassing instead (Fig. 2).

N. E. H. Jouini et al.

According to the climate data detailed above and according to governmental studies by the ministry of environment, adaptation and mitigation measures for the built environment in Nafta must focus on the following points: • Ensure energy efficiency and thermal comfort especially during the summer season to face the extreme heatwaves. • Preserve the rare water resources. The assessment we introduced for the students included an urban approach and an architectural approach. After 4 weeks, they proposed a design for a sustainable residential district for the new city of Nafta.

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Results

A. The on-site study An on-site study lasting approximately one week helps the students discover the urban and architectural characteristics of Nafta. This study is followed by the production of a travel report intended to serve as a reference for the application project (Fig. 3). The travel report includes the following points: • General presentation of Nafta the Oasis city of Djerid • Urban reading of the different urban sequences and their articulation: public place/plot, street/alley/dead end, covered passage (bortal), etc.

Fig. 1 Urban structure of the oasis of Nafta

Fig. 2 Urban morphology of the old city of Nafta

Fig. 3 A group photograph at the Basket in Nafta

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Fig. 5 Students working on their models

In order to identify what the students learned from the trip, we asked them to represent their perception of the city by recreating what they remembered to be the urban configuration of Nefta in a model with Plasticine (Fig. 5). After a discussion session, they were asked to create a general plan for a district of 30 dwellings in the city of Nafta. The urban organization was developed based on the vernacular model. The students are nevertheless responsible for adapting this urban configuration to the living conditions and the new needs of the inhabitants. The urban design of the district tempts essentially to: ANME (2012) and Safa (2015).

Fig. 4 Students sketches

• Architectural study of the organization and the components of the typical house unit and the religious buildings. • Identification of the techniques used and the construction materials (Fig. 4). B. Studying the city of Nafta allowed the students to draw the following observation: The architecture was strongly characterized by (i) its adaptation to the context and (ii) the genius of its construction techniques. Students were able to understand the coherence of this architecture with its natural and human environment and to identify specific concepts that can serve as a reference in a conceptual approach to a new project. C. The urban approach

• Reduce car use by ensuring a functional mix and integrating shops, a coffee, and a mosque. • Integrate vehicular traffic and parking spaces. However, in order to reduce the bitumen large roads, we propose to integrate peripheral vehicular traffic and parking spaces while preserving the inner streets for pedestrians. It will help reduce the impermeability of soil since the impermeability rate of the bitumen surfaces is 0.9. • The pedestrian’s ways will be similar to the vernacular ones covered with permeable bricks in order to increase the permeability rate and preserve the water resources. • The pedestrian’s ways will also be narrow in order to create shadow and reduce the solar gains by the building’s envelope and the street itself. • Use of the traditional urban structure: public square, galleries, and narrows streets with vault-covered parts of the streets called bortal (the bortal is used to extend the dwellings on the second floor). Thanks to the covered streets, the urban structure ensures a minimal exposure to solar radiation and provides shaded ways. This will allow external thermal comfort and helps get a thermal comfort indoors.

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The urban design must also consider the following points: • All the dwellings must have at least one blind façade shared with the neighborhood to minimize the envelope surface. That includes higher compactness. Making the dwellings compact with common walls reduces the thermal bridges by reducing the envelope surface. • Dwellings correspond to the traditional patio house offering introvert spaces. The patio has an important bioclimatic role as proved by many surveys. The housing unit and the patio dimensions were predefined by the teachers to ensure thermal comfort of the indoor environment during the heat season (Figs. 6 and 7). The chosen model was revisited in groups under the supervision of the teachers, which allowed us to achieve an urban organization that would meet the requirements and local specificities (Fig. 8). D. The architectural approach For the second part of the assessment, the students are required to design the housing unit while respecting the

Fig. 8 Site plan proposed for the sustainable district

urban typology previously proposed in phase I. The students will also develop a contemporary architecture that respects the local identity as well as the climatic context. • Dwellings correspond to the traditional patio house, as previously mentioned. • Dimensions of the openings are reduced, and high-thermal performance glazing is employed. Reducing the glazing surfaces helps reduce the heat in the dwellings. Most openings must be in the patio. • Use of non-eco-friendly materials such as bricks or reinforced concrete is not allowed. In fact, these materials have a high gray energy1 consumption and a low thermal inertia. Instead, they are replaced with the local stones and bricks that ensure a higher insulation. All these recommendations may help achieve thermal comfort with passive ways such as nocturne ventilation (Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12).

Fig. 6 Discussion session to choose a model to work on

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Discussion and Conclusions

This project aims to introduce students to the sustainable design. The technical details of the water and energy management are not included since the assignment is intended to second-grade students. In desert climate regions, the energy efficiency, the thermal comfort, and the water resources are really important topics to take into consideration while designing the build

1

Fig. 7 Model chosen— © Maryem Cherif 2018

the amount of energy from fossil fuels consumed during the life cycle of a material or product: production, extraction, transformation, manufacture, transport, implementation, maintenance, and finally recycling.

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Fig. 9 Detail of the material used— © Dhia Jbeli 2018

Fig. 11 Final project: the second-floor plan

Fig. 12 Final project: a 3D model

References Fig. 10 Final project: the first-floor plan

areas. The vernacular architecture can inspire architects and urban planners to face the climate change effects.

Appendix I want to thank all the students of second-grade architecture of ESAD-Tunisia of the year 2017–2018 for this great work. I also want to thank the head teacher Mr. Mouldi Chaabani and my colleague Mme. Kaouther Zair.

ANME, Outils d'aide à la conception de batiments économes en énergie Zone ZT3 (2014) M. Belda, Climate classification revisited: from Köppen to Trewartha. Research 59, 4102 (2014) ENAU, Rapport du Workshop de la ville de Nafta (2012) IMM, National Institute of Meteorology, Monthly Climate Data (2003). http://www.meteo.tn/ A.-Y. Safa, Evaluation des conditions de confort thermique d’été en espaces extérieurs à Tunis: Des tissus historiques aux nouveaux quartiers (2015)

History of Desalination Technology in Libya in Sixty Years (1959–2019) Bashir Brika

Abstract

1

Libya is a sparsely populated North African state with a population of about 6 million and an area of over 1.759 million square kilometers. The climate is mostly semi-arid to arid, with very low precipitation rates and limited freshwater sources. It is in one of the world's driest regions with an annual rainfall ranging from just 10– 500 mm, with only 5% of its land receiving more than 100 mm annually. Therefore, seawater desalination is the most practical answer to overcome the issue of freshwater shortage. The country's population has tripled since the 1950s. As a result of this and the improvement of living standards (and therefore the water demand), the country is confronted with a severe lack of water resources. Water deficits of about 1.15–4.34 km3 have been estimated for 1998 and 2025, respectively. This paper focuses on highlighting/reviewing the desalination trend in Libya and discusses the present situation and existing problems and suggestions regarding desalination technology in Libya. Keywords







Man-made river project Seawater desalination desalination Reverse Osmosis




Inland

Highlights • Libya is experiencing a major challenge in water supply due to a reduction in the groundwater. • Man-made river project is considered to be an unstable and unreliable water source. • Desalination is a proven alternative water supply technology that is growing in importance worldwide. B. Brika (&) Libyan Advanced Center of Chemical Analysis, Libyan Authority for Scientific Research, Tripoli, Libya

Introduction

As other countries located in arid regions, Libya suffers from rainfall scarcity and limited renewable water resources. Libya depends mainly on groundwater and, to some extent, on desalination for domestic and industrial purposes. While demand for water in Libya is growing, the country's freshwater resources are limited. Furthermore, some rebels and protesters were deliberately cut off the main water source supply for the man-made river (MMR). Rebels, protesters, and their commanders shut down the MMR water supply system as a mechanism to force the government to make decisions in their favor. As a result, Tripoli citizens and some other coastal cities have difficulty getting access to water for a few weeks. This scenario has happened many times over the past five years, and the most recent deliberate cut off of man-made river's network happened a few months ago (2019). Having stated that, MMRP cannot be a sustainable, available, and reliable water source for all situations (Brika 2018). The author tries in this paper to give an overview of the desalination trend in Libya. With the available information on the desalination technology in Libya, we can objectively analyze the country's desalination plants. The rest of the review paper methodology will focus on; the cumulative contracted capacity, number of contracted plants, and proportions of different desalination technologies, daily desalinated water production, and the future projection in terms of demand/supply.

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Data Acquisition

The approach was to conduct a literature review, in-person interviews (where possible), and site visits. Data were obtained from national water authorities represented by General Electricity Company of Libya (GECOL), General Desalination Company (GDC), and General Company for

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_101

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water and wastewater (GCWW) in the form of reports (data sheets), through conversations with technical and administrative personnel, and from personal communication with the management team of the GCWW. Information was also sourced from the internet. The information presented reflects a combination of recorded information and anecdotal (unreliable) data. Further details were also sourced through the ministry of water resources.

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Historical Glance on Desalination Technology

It is stated that the use of modern technology for desalination most likely dates from the beginning of the last century. The first desalination plant in Kuwait was commissioned in 1914. Kuwait is also the first member of the Gulf Council Countries (GCC) to launch the multi-stage-flash (MSF) desalination technology in the mid-twentieth century. A single-stage flash distillation plant was installed on HMS vanguard in 1945 (UKAEA 1967; Clayton 2015). On the other hand, one of the first commercial electrodialysis (ED) desalination units in the world were installed in Tobruk in Libya in 1959 by the British company William Boby Ltd using membranes developed and manufactured in the Netherlands by the Dutch organization for applied scientific research (TNO) (Clayton 2015). A large number of desalination plants, mainly thermal technologies, were installed worldwide throughout the 1950s and 1960s for both irrigation and drinking water supply, mainly by British companies (UKAEA 1967). Over the past 25 years, there was growing business investment in research and development (R&D) produced innovations that have greatly reduced the desalination industry's energy requirements and improved the technology itself. These breakthroughs have dramatically reduced the cost of desalination, bringing it within reach of many more countries (Desalination 2019). Significant price reductions in desalinated water production costs were continuously achieved in the last decades, causing the water price to reach US$ 0.50/m3 (Kiand 2004) for large-scale SWRO plants and specific local conditions and below US$ 1.00/m3 for MSF (Ghaffour et al. 2013). At present, according to the 31st desalination inventory (which covers July 2017–June 2018), the total global installed desalination capacity stands at 97.4 million m3/d, while the total global cumulative contracted capacity is 104.7 million m3/d. As of June 30, 2018, over 20,000 desalination plants had been contracted around the world. Furthermore, it claims that 300 million people get water from desalination, and their numbers are quickly rising (IDA 2018). It is worth mentioning that the Arabian Gulf Countries have the biggest number of desalination plants globally

(43% of the global share), followed by the Mediterranean region (Al Hashemi et al. 2014). Additionally, the biggest desalination plant in the world is the Ras Al-Khair in the city of Ras Al-Khair in Saudi Arabia, which uses both membrane and thermal technology with a capacity of 1,025,000 m3/day, in operation since 2013 (Konstantinos Zotalis et al. 2014; SWCC 2015). Meanwhile, the largest reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant in the world has been built at Sorek in Israel. The plant was finished in late 2013 but only began producing at its full capacity of 627,000 m3/day in January 2015 (Talbot 2015).

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Desalination in Libya

Desalination is considered to be the second important non-conventional water resource adapted in Libya. Desalination technology has been used in Libya since the early 1960s, although few desalination plants have been established. There are currently about 21 operating desalination plants, with a total capacity of 525.680 m3/d. Thermal processes represent about 95% of the operable desalination plants, while reverse osmosis membrane technology represents about 5%. The overall contribution of desalination in the overall local water supply represents 1.4% in 2002 (Ashour and Ghurbal 2004). In the early seventies, several desalination plants with limited capacities were installed, such as Tubrok, Darna, Soussa, Benghazi, Zwiteena, Ben Jawad, Sirt, Zliten, Tripoli West, and Zwara. The total designed capacity reached 136,900 m3/d. These plants are currently out of service due to their lifetime and their design capacity limitations, making their maintenance uneconomical. Due to the increased demand for clean water in the early eighties, some new plants of medium capacities were established, such as Bomba, Khoms, and some of the old plants were extended, such as Zwiteena, Sirt, Zliten, and Zwara. The total production capacity of these plants reached 123,500 m3/d. In the early nineties and with the availability of expertise in the field of desalination and increased demand for potable water for urban use, a number of plants with a total capacity of 40,000 m3/day were implemented (West of Tripoli ext, Zliten ext). At the beginning of the 2000s, plants with a total capacity of 130,000 m3/day have been implemented to meet the coastal areas’ needs (Tubrok ext, Soussa ext, Zwara, and Abou Traba). Based on the documents obtained from the national co-operations and authorities, there is some uncertainty regarding the real number of the current operating desalination plants in Libya. A careful comparison of all the obtained documents gave a close idea of the real operating desalination plants. According to the GDC data, the total amount of desalinated water produced in 2010 from desalination plants belonging to the company is 71 Mm3.

History of Desalination Technology in Libya …

In addition to seawater desalination plants, according to the data obtained from the GCWW, there are several reverse osmosis (RO) units, which desalinate brackish water. Brackish water has a higher salt content than freshwater but a lower content than seawater. Electrodialysis reversal (EDR) has been used widely in Libya to desalinate groundwater, with more than 200 plants installed since 1964. The number of plants and capacities increased stridently between 1969 and 1978 at a rate of about 5000 m3 annually. The estimated total installed capacity of EDR plants is over 90,000 m3/day in 1998. Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination technology started in Libya on a small scale in 1973 with a rapid increase after 1978 at an average rate of 9200 m3/day per year and a total installed capacity of more than 140,000 m3/day. Like EDR plants, most of the RO plants are used to desalinate groundwater. However, seawater desalination accounts for more than 40% of all RO plants’ total installed capacity (Abufayed and El-Ghuel 2001). On the other hand, thermal desalination technology has been used in Libya since 1975. The total installed capacity is estimated to be over 330,000 m3/day during 1975–2000. Ninety-one percent of the total installed capacity is produced by multi-stage flash (MSF), and the rest is produced by multi-effect distillation (MED) (Kershman 2001). The history of desalination technologies in Libya during the last 25 years of the twentieth century has experienced a similar trend being slow in the early seventies and increasing remarkably from 1975 (Fig. 1). MSF is by far the dominant desalination technology used during the period from 1975 to 2000, followed by RO technology. Other technologies, such as MED and TVC, were insignificant (incomparable) in the same period. The main desalination plants installed in the seventies along the Libyan coast were Tubrok, Darna, Soussa, Benghazi, Zwiteena, Ben Jawad, Sirt, Zliten, Tripoli West, and Zwara. The total designed capacity of these plants reached 136,900 m3/d. These plants are currently out of service due to their lifetime and their design capacity limitations, making their maintenance uneconomical (Brika 2018).

Fig. 1 Cumulative installed desalination capacities in Libya: 1965– 1999 [After (Abufayed and El-Ghuel 2001)]

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When the previous government, represented by Muammar Al-Qaddafi, started to think about a new plan that supplies water to the north without relying heavily on seawater's desalination, investment in desalination technology was not as big as it was supposed to be. All the investments focused mainly on building one of the biggest and most expensive groundwater pumping and conveyance projects, the MMR project. Due to a long time of the construction works of the MMR project and due to the increased demand for clean water in the early 1980s, a number of new desalination plants of medium capacities had to be established such as Bomba, Khoms, and some of the old plants were extended such as Zwiteena, Sirt, Zliten, and Zwara. The total production capacity of these plants reached 123,500 m3/d. Although the first stage of the MMR project was partially operated on 28th of August 1993 and the second stage was partially operated on 28th August 1996, there was continued growth in water demand for urban use. Therefore, in the early 1990s, and with the availability of expertise in the field of desalination, a number of plants with a total capacity of 40,000 m3/day have been implemented (West of Tripoli ext, Zliten ext). At the beginning of the 2000s, plants with a total capacity of 130,000 m3/day have been implemented to meet the coastal areas’ needs (Tubrok ext, Soussa ext, Zwara, and Abou Traba) (Brika 2018). Generally, the past government has long been a supporter of the MMR project to deal with water scarcity in the country. However, it used to give permissions from time to time to governmental authorities and companies to construct desalination plants to fulfill population water demands. General Electricity Company of Libya (GECL), General Desalination Company (GDC), and General Company for water and wastewater (GCWW) are the responsible authorities for the desalination plants. It was an intensive task to get the real number of the total desalination plants operating in Libya. Technical reports, papers and grey literature mentioned different numbers and status of desalination plants operating in Libya. Therefore, the author conducted a careful comparison between all the obtained documents to have a close idea of the real operating desalination plants. Table 1 presents the number of desalination plants as well as their production capacities on the Libyan coastline. Figure 2 shows the distribution of seawater desalination plants on the Libyan coastline. It should be mentioned that the data included in Table 1 and Fig. 1 are the most updated data obtained from the formal authorities; however, the out of service desalination plants are excluded. Desalination plants presented in Table 1 belong to different authorities, although the government owns them. In addition to seawater desalination plants presented in Table 1, according to the data obtained from the GCWW, several smaller reverse osmosis (RO) units desalinate

798

B. Brika

Table 1 Existing operating desalination plants in Libya (adapted from Brika (2018))

Location

Desalination type

Design capacity

No of units

Operation year

Tubrok

MEDa-TVCb

40,000

-

1977–2002

Bomba

MSFc

30,000

3

1988

Darna

MED-TVC

40,000

-

-

Sussa

MED-TVC

10,000

2

2000

Sussa ext

MED-TVC

40,000

-

-

Abou Traba

MED-TVC

40,000

-

2006

Zliten

MSF

30,000

3

1992

Azawia

MED-TVC

80,000

-

-

Zwara

MED

40,000

-

2006

Zwara ext

MED-TVC

40,000

-

-

Tubrok

MSF

24,000

4

1977

Tajoura

ROd

10,000

2

1984

Misrata

MSF

30,000

3

1987

Sirt

MSF

10,000

1

1986

Azawia double

MED

2,500  2

2

2006

Tripoli West

MED-TVC

5,000  2

2

1999

Khomes

MSF

10,560  3

4

1985

Benghazi North

MED-TVC

4,800  1

1

2005

Benghazi North double

MED-TVC

2,500  2

2

2007

Darna

MED-TVC

4,700  1

1

1998

Hrawa

MSF

500  1

1

1989

Total design capacity

525,680

MED is multi-effect distillation, bTVC is thermal vapor compression, cMSF is multistage-stage flash, dRO is reverse osmosis

a

Fig. 2 Distribution of the number of seawater desalination plants within coastal cities in Libya

brackish water from groundwater wells. Brackish water has a higher salt content than freshwater but a lower content than seawater. The largest of these units produce roughly 365,000 m3 annually. In total, brackish water facilities produce approximately 1MCM/year. Table 2 summarizes the existing brackish water desalination units in Libya.

The three brackish water desalination plants presented in Table 2 distribute their product water to certain residential districts for domestic use. On the other hand, around 10, other brackish desalination plants are currently out of service due to some maintenance and lack of raw materials required for operating.

History of Desalination Technology in Libya … Table 2 Existing brackish water desalination units in Libya

5

Service office

Plant name

Design capacity (m3/day)

Al-jmeel

Al-assah

1000

Al-wahaat

Maradaah

500

Tubrok

Al-jaghboob

1000

Existing Problems and Suggestion Regarding Desalination in Libya

In Libya, there is insufficient policy support for the utilization of desalinated seawater at present. The capital investment for industry development could not be completely guaranteed, and seawater desalination at a large scale is not clearly included in the subsidy range provided by the government. It is of great importance to set up a complete legal system related to seawater/brackish desalination. The regulation related to desalination technology should specify the responsibility and obligations for individuals and enterprises investing in the field of desalination. Furthermore, the law should include strict rules for permitting individuals who sell desalinated water in small shops. The number of these shops is increasing quickly in the coastal cities. In terms of environmental risks associated with the process of seawater desalination, a large amount of concentrated seawater (brine) discharged from desalination plants is considered a major concern. The direct discharge of brine will damage the coastal water environment (Yu et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2010; Brika 2016). Although there are some developed technologies for the comprehensive utilization of brine, including multi-effect distillation of brine, softening of calcium and magnesium of brine, salt-making method of brine, and bromine and potassium extraction from brine (Dai et al. 2018) yet, none of these technologies are used in Libya. Most of the Libyan coastline desalination plants discharge their brine directly into the sea via an open-coastal tube. As mentioned earlier, the direct discharge of brine into the sea could seriously impact the marine environment. Therefore, it is of great importance for the government to take the initiative regarding the environmental impacts of desalination plants. A proposal such as combining seawater desalination and salt production could be a great option to be adopted.

6

799

Conclusions

Libya is facing a serious shortage of freshwater resources and a groundwater pollution issue, especially in its coastal regions, restricting further development. To address the serious imbalance between water resource supply and demand and efficiently utilize the regular water resources,

Libya has strived to develop alternative water resources to combat the water crisis, among them man-made river project and seawater desalination. This paper presented a brief review of desalination technology in Libya, including the points outlined below. The history of seawater/brackish water desalination in Libya was classified into three phases according to sequential order: the phase of laboratory experiments and technological research (1958–1959), the phase of utilizing of seawater desalination (1964–1983), and the phase of fulfilling domestic and industrial water demands (1984– present). The number and capacity of seawater desalination plants rapidly increased during 1981–2000. Most of the desalinated seawater was utilized in industry sectors (mainly including the oil and power generation industry) and residents’ domestic living. In terms of the number of seawater desalination plants, most of the desalination plants are located in coastal regions: Jeffarah plain, Al Jabal Al Akhdar, and Gulf of Sirt. From the perspective of capacity, most desalination plants are concentrated in the Western part (Jeffarah plain) of Libya. Most desalination plants have employed MSF, followed by RO technologies. Existing problems and some suggestions regarding the present status of seawater desalination have been proposed. Policies, regulations, and technological standards governing seawater/brackish desalination are to be set up. The major challenge associated with desalination technology is the direct discharge of brine effluents into coastal environments. Intensive studies should be done concerning the negative impacts of brine disposal from local desalination plants on marine life, soil, and groundwater. Due to the man-made river project's current unstable conditions and the advancement of seawater desalination technology and great expectations for capital cost reduction of desalination technology, the governmental authorities should consider adopting desalination seawater in all coastal Libyan cities. In contrast, desalination plants for brackish water should be installed throughout the country. Desalinated seawater is expected to play a vital role in dealing with the serious shortages of water resources within Libya's coastal regions. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the General Electricity Company of Libya (GECOL), General Desalination Company (GDC), General Company for Water and Wastewater (GCWW) for their co-operation in providing the required documentation.

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References A.A. Abufayed, M.K.A. El-Ghuel, Desalination process applications in Libya. Desalination 138, 47–53 (2001) R. Al Hashemi, S. Zarreen, A. Al Raisi, F.A. Al Marzooqi, S.W. Hasan, A review of desalination trends in the Gulf cooperation council countries. Int. Interdiscipl. J. Sci. Res. 1(2), (2014) M. Ashour, S. Ghurbal, Economics of seawater desalination in Libya. Desalination 165, 215–218 (2004) B. Brika, Environmental implications of Tajoura reverse osmosis desalination plant. Desalin. Water Treat. 57, 21712–21720 (2016) B. Brika, Water Resources and Desalination in Libya: A Review, in Presented at the 3rd EWaS International Conference on “Insights on the Water-Energy-Food Nexus”, Lefkada Island, Greece, 27–30 June 2018 R. Clayton, A Review of Current Knowledge, Desalination for Water Supply (Foundation for Water Research, Marlow, UK, 2015) J.Y. Dai, L.Y. Wu, Y.G. Zhang, Z.X. Tang, Brief analysis on environmental influence and comprehensive utilization of brine from thermal desalination. Guangdong Chem. 45, 48–52 (2018) Desalination: An Ocean of Hope. Available at: http://parisinnovation review.com/articles-en/new-water-offers-an-ocean-of-hope. Accessed on 28 Jan 2019 N. Ghaffour, T.M. Missimer, G. Amy, Technical review and evaluation of the economics of water desalination: current and future

B. Brika challenges for better water supply sustainability. Desalination 309, 197–207 (2013) IDA, International Desalination Association, IDA Desalination Yearbook 2018–2019 (Media Analytics, Oxford, 2018). Print S.A. Kershman, 25 years of experience in operating thermal desalination plants. Desalination 136, 141–145 (2001) F.H. Kiand, Supply of desalinated water by the private sector: 30 MGD Singapore seawater desalination plant, in MEDRC International Conference on Desalination Costing, Conference Proceeding, Lemesos, Cyprus, December 2004 Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC), Annual Report; Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (2015), pp. 20–36 D. Talbot, The world's largest and cheapest reverse-osmosis desalination plant is up and running in Israel. MIT Technology Review, 18 Feb 2015 UKAEA, Desalination and Its Role in Water Supply (HMSO for the British Information Services, 1967) R.X. Yu, Y. Wang, S.C. Wang, A review in brine disposal from desalination plants. Technol. Water Treat. 6, 1–3 (2005) Y.L. Zhang, H.J. Ni, A.G. Chen, Z.H. Jiang, D. Yuan, H. Zhang, Progress in the research on effect of desalinated seawater on environment and human health. J. Environ. Occup. Med. 27, 317– 318 (2010) K. Zotalis, E.G. Dialynas, N. Mamassis, A.N. Angelakis, D. Technologies, Hellenic experience. Water 6, 1134–1150 (2014). https:// doi.org/10.3390/w6051134

Local Community Perceptions Towards Water-Energy-Food Nexus Resources: A Perspective on Food Security Zinabu Wolde, Wei Wu, and Wang Kunpeng

Abstract

Highlights

Water-energy-food (WEF) nexus approach was specifically designed to address the nexus resources insecurity and enhance livelihoods. Although the WEF nexus approach in the global, national and transboundary scale has demonstrated notable successes in many cases, however, it still has several shortcomings local scale. The difficulties relate to the unsustainable exclusion and exploitation of nexus resource in individual bases, based on the data collected through a survey. The result shows nexus perceived from their benefits in individual basis rather than their interlinkages. This could be due to the community perceptions on one nexus resources, mainly food. Food (agriculture) is the centre of nexus resources in the community bases. This indicates that there is a missing link among water and energy, as sources for food production. Therefore, this paper emphasized that, yet more expected from government and other stakeholders towards achieving WEF nexus security and improving local community perceptions.

• Water, energy and food nexus resources have inextricable linkage with livelihoods of local community. • Regulating, managing and using WEF nexus resource in local community, perceived in singular/sectorial basis and are not enough to solve the current trade-off. • Local community has limited attention towards food and energy interlinkages, which need the multi-sectorial approach to avoid undesirable environmental impacts.

Keywords










Local community Livelihoods Nexus Food security Water-energy-food

Z. Wolde
W. Wu (&)
W. Kunpeng College of Land Management, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China e-mail: [email protected] W. Wu Joint Engineering Research Center for Rural Land Resources Use and Consolidation, Nanjing, 210095, China Z. Wolde College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia




1

Introduction

Community has settled near the location of safe water, energy and food supply (Vörösmarty et al. 2010; Scott et al. 2015; Al-Saidi and Saliba 2019). With this, we treat the physical environment as part of the community and see the community as part of the land scape. Recognizing the interdependence of community well-being and ecosystem strengthens the capacity of communities to have a voice in decision about planning and design of conservation initiatives affecting them (Karlberg, et al. 2015). The high demand and development towards those resources forces mankind to secure the provision of these basics of life (Al-Saidi and Saliba 2019; Scanlon et al. 2017). However, globally, about one billion people face water-insecurity, which is often interconnected with equally devastating deficiencies in energy and food security (Fabiani et al. 2020; Gathala 2020). This could be due to the lack of water, energy and food security. Thus, the issue of water, energy and food security is a big obstacle for global sustainable development, which needs management of three inextricably linked resources, i.e. water, energy and food (Gathala 2020; Ravar 2020). The WEF nexus as a worldwide hotspot was put out since 2011 (Flammini et al. 2017; Hoff 2011) and has been studied from global, national and transboundary level (Chen et al. 2018; Granit et al. 2012; Rasul 2014); however, limited attention was given from local level (Karlberg et al. 2015;

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_102

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Gulati et al. 2013; Terrapon-Pfaff et al. 2018). This indicates that the WEF nexus agenda was increasingly attempting to link sustainable development at different scales and levels to reduce the trade-off exist between local community and nexus resources use and management. Additionally, field of knowledge to highlight the interlinkages, synergies and trade-off among nexus resources was needed (Terrapon-Pfaff et al. 2018; Mohtar and Lawford 2016). The focus of WEF nexus issues on global, national and macro-level drivers create a missing focus on the major nexus challenges faced by local community and household to sustain their livelihoods (Terrapon-Pfaff et al. 2018; Chartres and Noble 2015). Therefore, focussing on understanding the water, energy and food nexus resources from local level is used to deliver social benefits and enhance efficient ways of managing limited resources and reduce pressure on environment linked with livelihoods of local communities.

2

Materials and Methods

Case Study Area The study area covers the Gidabo Watershed in Ethiopia, East Africa. Gidabo watershed falls within the humid to

Fig. 1 Map of the study area

semi-arid agro-ecological zone of Ethiopia and is located by latitude of 6°9′4″ to 6°56′4″ N and longitude of 37°55′ to 38°35″ E covering an area that is approximately 3549 km2 (Fig. 1). The area is on an altitude of approximately ranging from 1771 to 3213 m above sea level. The region experiences double maximum rainfall in a year in upper part, with erratic rainfall in lower part of watershed. The catchment population has doubled over the last two decades from 593,157 to over 1.5 M (Meshesha et al. 2012). Increased population in the basin and the socio-economic developments have been linked to the land use and land cover changes, and consequently, water and food potential in the basin is declining (Meshesha et al. 2012). Specifically, the population pressure on land for settlements and farming has resulted in conversions of previously dominated land-use types, streams flow and lake level, as stated by WoldeYohannes et al. (2018) and Elias et al. 2019). This brings new demand to water, energy and food resources. Based on the prior knowledge and existing food security condition on the study area, a total of 438 farmers were selected for the interviews. These selected farmers were, farmers in which their livelihoods primarily depend on agricultural and natural resources as a sources of incomes. The study uses both primary and secondary data sources to assess their most pressing problems in relation to WEF

Local Community Perceptions Towards Water-Energy-Food …

803

nexus resources. Using nexus matrix table was developed by agriculture, water and energy sectors experts, which used to understand the farmer’s engagement with the nexus resources. The sampling scheme was performed using Kothari (2004) formula to determine the total sample size. n¼

z2  p  q  N e 2 ð N  1Þ þ z 2  q  p

ð1Þ

where n is the sample size, z is the values of standard variation at 95% confidence interval (1.29), p is the estimated proportion of livelihoods of local community linked with nexus resources (P = 0.017), q is 1 − p, e is the standard error (acceptable error) which should be within 3% of the true value and N is the number of total household heads (N = 438). To know the community perceptions towards nexus resources, we used binary logistic regression (Table 2) and correlations to show the relationships and influence of nexus explanatory variables from six nexus indicator variables and considering local perceptions as dependent variables. The model used for this analysis is Yi ¼ a þ b1k1 þ b2k2 þ


þ b6k6

ð2Þ

Where Yi is the dependent variable (perception towards livelihoods), a is the regression constant (Y-intercept), b1–6 are the slope of the regression line (are coefficients indicating the degree of association between each independent variable and the outcome) and k 1–6 are the independent variables. Additionally, local community expected to categorize nexus resources based on the rating for their livelihoods.

3

Results

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The demographic features of the respondents revealed that more than 85% of selected household depend on rain fed farming activities, with low irrigation practices. This makes the livelihoods of local community decrease from time to time. According to Mazumdar (2020), feeding more than half of the world population by focussing only on agriculture sector become difficult, since it remains largely on small-scale subsistence farming which characterized by low level of inputs, such as irrigation, mechanization and fertilizer. This all necessitates the availability of water and energy. The survey result shows that from sampled household, 83.5% leave without electrification and on biomass as their primary cooking fuel as reported by Medhin and Mekonnen (2019).

Access to Nexus Resources by Local Community About 74.3% of respondents reported that they had good and strong access to water as compared with the food (22.9%) and energy (2.8%) nexus resources. However, the exploitation of water is in traditional ways which may affect the accessibility and sustainability of water, as reported by Garrick (2019). Energy is one of the nexus component which enhances quality of life at the household level and stimulates economy at a broader level (Qureshi et al. 2017; Mazzone 2019). The immediate benefits of modern energy sources are improving lighting, access to education and health, which are the major component of livelihoods. Similarly, energy in turn enhances the food production capacity of local community using simple energy-based machine, like motor pump for irrigation purpose. During our study, we explore that lack of energy sources press pressure on environment, through expansion of wood-fuel tree plantation, use of Acacia trees for charcoal and deforestation. This will affect both water and food production, particularly for the country like Ethiopia in which 98% of energy generation was from hydropower, deforestation practices affect overall performances of perennial rivers and tributaries which may affect hydrological effect, as reported by Tilahun et al. (2018), Amenu (2017). Food is the major component of nexus resources, however, food security cannot be achieved without considering the synergies between water and energy. Based on the survey results, 63.2% of respondents perceived that in the last two decades, the food production potential is decreasing from time to time, due to climate variability and land productivity. Large variability in climate, resulting on fluctuation in water availability substantially lower water and energy productivity, which affect the livelihoods of local community depend on irrigated crops and fish farming. This indicates that continuing along sectorial-based management of WEF nexus resources results in low food production, which expose local community to shocks and stress. Community Resources

Understanding

Towards

WEF

Nexus

Community understanding towards the use and management of nexus resources is of vital significance in determining the conservation of nexus resources. The important thing is that, community perceptions determine performance of local community in respect to held accountability to use and mange resources in sustainable way. However, local community perceives management and use of nexus resources from their individual benefits than their interlinkages. Figure 2 depicts that respondents have high individual nexus resources management and use, i.e. water (22%) and

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Z. Wolde et al.

Fig. 2 Understanding of nexus component from local community perspective (W = water, E = energy, F = food)

food (16.3%), and comparably energy to water (EW) and water to food (WF) linkages also understood well in the community. This encourages farmers to involve in different livelihoods activities and willing to participate in those nexus resources. In community level, the multipurpose utilization of WEF nexus resources from multiple sources is reality in rural settings, but understanding towards synergetic management often neglects this. Figure 2 shows that community understanding towards WEF nexus resources is (2.7%), and one prominent result of this is large knowledge gap on water, energy and food production and consumption especially form their livelihoods perspectives. According to Chen et al. (2018), food system relies on a variety of earth’s natural resources, and this indicates failure in management of water and energy critically affects the food production. Similarly, over emphasis on food production without keeping synergies with other resources results on nexus resources trade-off, ultimately affect the living condition of human being. Relationship Between Water, Energy (WEF) Nexus Resources and Livelihoods

and

Food

From the six livelihoods indicators such as, human, physical, social, financial, natural and environmental. Result of current study indicates that all the three nexus resources are categorized under serious impact category. The community livelihoods perceptions towards energy are low as compared with water and food, and this is because from the sampled household, more than 80% of household depend on traditional energy sources. The charcoal preparations (15.3%) are also potential livelihoods which used as sources for their energy (39.2%) and income (13.7%). Unless these situations overcame, such livelihoods practices are sign for land degradations. Figure 3 shows that during our field investigation, we observed that over-dependence on natural resource harvesting for income or subsistence (18.82%), land fragmentation (22.35%), population pressure (15.59%),

Fig. 3 Common factors affecting WEF security and livelihoods of local community

seasonal stress, poor infrastructure and markets, and widespread poverty are the common factor affecting their livelihoods. This factors both directly and indirectly linked with access to water, energy and food resources. Table 1 indicates that the human, financial, natural, physical and social livelihoods components are a statistically significant (P < 0.01) and are positively associated with local perceptions (r > 0.01). While environmental indicator is not statistically significant, even though it has a positive relation with local perceptions (Table 2). This indicates community livelihood activities force the local people to press pressure on the environment directly or indirectly. Table 2 indicates that the binary logistic regression results, which show human, social and natural attributes are a statistically significantly associated with the perception of local community towards nexus resources (b  0.357, P < 0.01). It is evident that when the household productive assets (i.e. land for food production) increased the households, labour productivity and productions thereby enabling it to increase its income and food security over time. The result of perceptions of household in the importance of WEF nexus indicates food take the central part of nexus compared with other resources, however, without using efficient water and energy it is difficult to attain food security. During our field investigations, we observed that there was strong recognition of the farmers’ dependence on the nexus resources for a variety of social, economic and ecological services for their livelihoods. However, the nexus resources access, availability, distribution and management all define the local context within which nature is conserved or degraded. The livelihoods characteristics of the household depend on the perennial crop production, bulk of livestock grazing and fodder, uses of forest and shrub wood as traditional energy, wood as construction materials and charcoal burning, which have eminent impact on environment, while local industry expansion,

Local Community Perceptions Towards Water-Energy-Food … Table 1 Shows correlations among attributes variables

805

Attributes variables

L. Perce

L. perce

1

Human

Social

Financial

Natural

Physical

Human**

0.064

1

Social**

0.123

0.736

1

Financial*

0.264

1.154

0.822

1

Natural**

0.014

0.519

0.054

0.685

1

Physical**

0.553

0.239

0.255

0.834

0.318

1

Environmental

0.423

0.429

0.533

0.812

0.643

0.812

Env

1

L. Perce = local perceptions, Env. = environment, *correlation is significant at p < 0.05, **correlation is significant at p < 0.01

Table 2 Shows binary logistic regression

Attributes variables

b

SE

df

sig

Exp (b)

Human

1.239

0.265

1

0.00**

0.292

Social

0.457

0.413

1

0.010**

0.159

Financial

0.063

0.27

1

0.030*

1.046

Natural

0.347

0.393

1

0.01**

1.294

Physical

0.652

0.257

1

0.010*

1.933

Environmental

0.485

0.252

1

0.75

1.133

Constant

3.783

0.958

1

0.001

1.54

*Significant at p < 0.05, **Significant at p < 0.01

overharvesting of nexus resources, land-use change, population and lack of alternative livelihoods are the common driver for nexus resources. Therefore, the intervention efforts were needed to reverse such diverse, through improving local community perception towards integrated management of water, energy and food. Besides, multiple nature to address technical, administrative and policy issues will be needed. Food, Energy and Environment Concern by Local Community A demand of food and energy, which is dominated by agricultural expansion and fuel wood shows that different land and energy management practices significantly result on environmental disturbances as exemplified by land degradation. This implies that food production maximization as nexus resources component substantially affect energy sources, particularly for local community depend on traditional energy sources. It was understood from key informants and FGDs that the local community potentially depends on traditional energy sources, which is the primary cause of the decline of forest, shrub and woodland in the study area. In Africa, 80% of households’ energy comes from these sources (Adkins et al. 2012), shows societies’ land-use practices and priorities affect the availability of energy sources.

With high dependences of local community on local ecosystems and their services and thereby the stronger connection to their environment, the concern for the improvement of the environment in expense of food and energy should start from the grass root level. Because the nexus approach recognizes the human, social, physical, financial and natural livelihoods diversity within nexus resources and community, indeed policies and development efforts can be tailor made based on local condition and existing livelihoods capital.

4

Discussion

This paper surveyed the linkage between the local community perceptions towards WEF nexus and their livelihoods. The initial analysis of existing literature showed there is limitation of study on WEF nexus from local perspective (Terrapon-Pfaff et al. 2018). Therefore, our study has several important implications for the stakeholder and scholars who want work on WEF nexus and its impact on local community. The overall understanding of local community towards nexus resources access indicates, water is the major nexus component, and its use efficiency is very low. Our assessments show synergetic management of WEF nexus resources by local community are very low, which will affect the sustainability of livelihoods. The general finding indicates;

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first, we identified the WEF nexus resources have the potential to enhance both local livelihoods and contribute to different livelihoods aspects (i.e. human, physical, social, financial, natural and environmental). The result of survey using three rating scale for six livelihoods component from WEF nexus resources perspective indicate that water (16.5%) energy (16.9%) and food (18.6%) seriously impact from social, human and environmental livelihoods component. This shows the issues of those nexus resources becoming critical, since these resources are basic resources for human life (Scanlon et al. 2017), the local community perceive the potential value of these resources for their livelihoods form economic and income generating aspects. However, the perception was primarily from sectorial-based perspective, which may not be effective. Second, due to significant role of nexus resources, identifying synergies and trade-off enhance agricultural production (food) with efficient use of water and energy. The current energy system heavily reliant on traditional energy sources, which leads to forest, shrub land and crop biomass use as a source of energy in rural area, which will enhance silent land degradation. Considering local community perceptions to manage nexus resources is critical for sustainable livelihoods conditions through realistic use, management and conservation of nexus resources. Finally, survey of local perceptions towards nexus resources through six livelihoods component provide an important insight to understanding the current local community dimensions from nexus resource management perspective.

5

Conclusion

Concern given in local level to deal on nexus resources was very low, and this could be the fundamental challenges to meet WEF security in local level. To come up this problem in depth assessments of the WEF nexus from its impact on livelihood will require greater collaboration among local stakeholders, practitioners and decision makers to implement local-based measures. Water, energy and food nexus approaches are likely to continue to be a key strategy in in sustainable livelihoods, nexus resource management and rural development. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Chinese Government Scholarship Council (CSC) for giving the first author a chance to pursue his Ph.D. study in China. The authors are also indebted to thanks Professor Wu Wei for his supervision and constructive comment during the study period.

References E. Adkins, K. Oppelstrup, V. Modi, Rural household energy consumption in the millennium villages in Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy Sustain. Dev. 16(3), 249–259 (2012) M. Al-Saidi, S. Saliba, Water, energy and food supply security in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries—a risk perspective. Water 11(3), 455 (2019) B.T. Amenu, Assessments of the effects of land degradation on freshwater and local communities participation in Essera District, Dawro Zone, South Western Ethiopia. Am. J. Nat. Sci. 1(1), 1–20 (2017) C.J. Chartres, A. Noble, Sustainable intensification: overcoming land and water constraints on food production. Food Security 7(2), 235– 245 (2015) B. Chen et al., Global land-water nexus: agricultural land and freshwater use embodied in worldwide supply chains. Sci. Total Environ. 613, 931–943 (2018) E. Elias et al., Impact of land use/cover changes on lake ecosystem of Ethiopia central rift valley. Cogent Food Agric. 5(1), 1595876 (2019) S. Fabiani et al., Water energy food nexus approach for sustainability assessment at farm level: an experience from an intensive agricultural area in central Italy. Environ. Sci. Policy 104, 1–12 (2020) A. Flammini et al., Walking the Nexus Talk: Assessing the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Context of the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative (FAO, 2017) D. Garrick et al., Rural water for thirsty cities: a systematic review of water reallocation from rural to urban regions. Environ. Res. Lett. 14(4), 043003 (2019) M.K. Gathala et al., Enabling smallholder farmers to sustainably improve their food, energy and water nexus while achieving environmental and economic benefits. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 120, 109645 (2020) J. Granit et al., Regional options for addressing the water, energy and food nexus in Central Asia and the Aral Sea Basin. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 28(3), 419–432 (2012) M. Gulati et al., The water–energy–food security nexus: challenges and opportunities for food security in South Africa. Aquatic Procedia 1, 150–164 (2013) H. Hoff, Understanding the Nexus: Background Paper for the Bonn2011 Conference (2011) L. Karlberg et al., Tackling complexity: understanding the food-energy-environment nexus in Ethiopia's Lake tana sub-basin. Water Alternatives 8(1), (2015) D. Mazumdar, The problems of development gap between developed and developing nations: is there any sign of convergence? in Wealth Creation and Poverty Reduction: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice. IGI Global. pp. 515–536 (2020) A. Mazzone, Decentralised energy systems and sustainable livelihoods, what are the links? Evidence from two isolated villages of the Brazilian Amazon. Energy Build. 186, 138–146 (2019) H. Medhin A. Mekonnen, Green and climate-resilient transformation in Ethiopia, in The Oxford Handbook of the Ethiopian Economy (Oxford University Press, 2019) D.T. Meshesha, A. Tsunekawa, M. Tsubo, Continuing land degradation: cause–effect in Ethiopia’s Central Rift Valley. Land Degrad. Dev. 23(2), 130–143 (2012) R.H. Mohtar, R. Lawford, Present and future of the water-energy-food nexus and the role of the community of practice. J. Environ. Stud. Sci. 6(1), 192–199 (2016)

Local Community Perceptions Towards Water-Energy-Food … T.M. Qureshi, K. Ullah, M.J. Arentsen, Factors responsible for solar PV adoption at household level: a case of Lahore, Pakistan. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 78, 754–763 (2017) G. Rasul, Food, water, and energy security in South Asia: a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Environ. Sci. Policy 39, 35–48 (2014) Z. Ravar et al., System dynamics modeling for assessment of water– food–energy resources security and nexus in Gavkhuni basin in Iran. Ecol. Indicator. 108, 105682 (2020) B.R. Scanlon et al., The food-energy-water nexus: transforming science for society. Water Resour. Res. 53(5), 3550–3556 (2017) C.A. Scott, M. Kurian, J.L. Wescoat, The water-energy-food nexus: enhancing adaptive capacity to complex global challenges, in Governing the Nexus. (Springer, 2015), pp. 15–38

807 J. Terrapon-Pfaff et al., Energising the WEF nexus to enhance sustainable development at local level. J. Environ. Manage. 223, 409–416 (2018) A.K. Tilahun, N. Haregeweyn, S.M. Pingale, Landscape changes and its consequences on soil erosion in Baro river basin, Ethiopia. Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 4(2), 793–803 (2018) C.J. Vörösmarty et al., Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467(7315), 555–561 (2010) A. WoldeYohannes et al., Land use and land cover changes and their effects on the landscape of Abaya-Chamo Basin, Southern Ethiopia. Land 7(1), 2 (2018)

Investigating a Monotonic Relationship Between Bank Liquidity Risk and Financial Technology Adoption Among the BRICS Economies Tochukwu Timothy Okoli and Devi Datt Tewari

Abstract

Highlights

This study employed the dynamic panel ARDL (1, 1) estimators and the static fixed effect estimation techniques to investigate how the adoption of Fintech would affect bank liquidity among the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) economies over the period 1995–2018. The principal component analysis was used to generate an index for Fintech. The results showed that aside from finding a consistent conclusion with previous studies that both internal and external factors drive bank liquidity, and it also confirmed the existence of a U-shaped relationship between bank liquidity and Fintech adoption. Furthermore, this suggested that BRICS banks face a dampening effect of Fintech on their liquidity risk to a certain threshold after which further adoption will significantly raise liquidity risk. The sufficient condition of the U-test also revealed a consistent conclusion. The present study recommends the optimization of the right Fintech adoption, and the improvement of the internal management of banks among the BRICS market to mitigate liquidity risk.

• Bank variables (e.g., non-performing loan, etc.) raise liquidity risk, while macroeconomic variables (e.g., interest rate) dampen it. • Fintech adoption dampens liquidity risk to a certain threshold and afterward raises it, hence a U-shaped relationship. • These imply that the management of BRICS banks has an adverse effect on liquidity, whereas too many Fintech can worsen it.

Keywords











Bank-specific factors BRICS economies Financial technology Liquidity risk Macroeconomic factors

T. T. Okoli (&) Department of Economics, University of Zululand, Private Bag X1001, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. T. Okoli Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria D. D. Tewari Faculty of Commerce, Administration and Law, University of Zululand, Private Bag X1001, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa

1

Introduction

Studies investigating the factors that drive bank stability have significantly increased since the global financial crisis of 2008, with focus on bank and macroeconomic factors. Findings across these studies show that both factors drive bank risks. The crisis that was a result of poor access to liquidity, lack of innovations, insufficient intermediation, and poor financial depth (Quint and Rabanal 2013; Caggiano et al. 2014) has intensified the need for a technology-enabled financial solution. This suggests that proper identification and management of these factors with the adoption of technology in financial service delivery are necessary to mitigate the financial crisis threatening banks’ stability. Banks’ vulnerability to risks depends on their ability to create liquidity, which is their primary role (Ratnovski 2013). Moreover, recent global trends have also suggested the need to consider the role of financial technology in mitigating risk. The ability of financial technology (Fintech hereafter) to create liquidity and make funds available for both private individuals and businesses (Dorfleitner et al. 2017; Belleflamme et al. 2014) is an aspect of liquidity risk to banks. This can be explained by the fact that Fintech extends funds and other financial services faster and with lower interest rates than the banks’ interest laden and bureaucratically

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_103

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challenging options. Therefore, the likelihood that banks will remain solvent with the advent of Fintech is undetermined as consumers may begin to keep their money with non-bank financial institutions/Fintech. Besides, the uncertainties surrounding Fintech can increase the volatility of financial assets’ prices thereby increasing the uncertainties within the financial system (Hakkio and Keeton 2009) and possibly raise liquidity risk. On the other hand, while it is likely that the advent of Fintech might raise bank liquidity risk, its ability to manage large transactions more efficiently can as well dampen it. Fintech increases bank flexibility and allows them to react faster to changes (Jermann and Quadrini 2006). It promotes financial intermediation and development makes economies less vulnerable to crises and widens the access to liquidity especially during periods of stress (Gai et al. 2008). This statement suggests that Fintech can have an asymmetric impact on bank liquidity risk. Consequently, apart from the bank-specific and macroeconomic factors that can drive bank liquidity risk, and the adoption of Fintech can also have an asymmetric impact.

2

Literature Review

Generally, the determinants of liquidity risk are classified into two broad areas of internal and external factors in the literature with no reference to the impact of financial technology. Studies such as Al-Homaidi et al. (2019), Sopan and Dutta (2018), Ghenimi et al. (2017), Thi et al. (2017), Yahya et al. (2017), Rashid and Jabeen (2016), Singh and Sharma (2016), Moussa (2015); etc. affirmed. Whereas studies such as Al-Homaidi et al. (2019), Sopan and Dutta (2018), Ghenimi et al. (2017), Rashid and Jabeen (2016), Singh and Sharma (2016), etc., also showed the impact of macroeconomic factors on bank liquidity risk. The role of Fintech in creating and extending credit/liquidity is the missing link in the literature. This study therefore hypothesizes that Fintech adoption can have an adverse asymmetric effect on bank liquidity risk both in the short and the long run, hence, the need to investigate its impact.

independent variables. They are the pooled mean group (PMG),1 mean group (MG) and the dynamic fixed effect (DFE) estimators. This study will estimate the three models and use the Hausman test to select the best estimator.

3.1 Data The data include bank liquidity measured with bank credit to total deposit ratio (BCD) as the dependent variable, while the independent variables comprise of both bank-specific or internal and macroeconomic/external variables. They are: bank return to assets ratio (BRA), bank non-interest income to total income ratio (BNII), bank crisis measured with bank Z-score (BZS), bank assets quality measure with non-performing loan to total loan (NPL); lending interest rate (INTR), GDP growth rate (GDPG), inflation rate (INF) and Fintech index (FTCH). The date is sourced from the World Bank database (2019) for the period between 1995 and 2018 among the five BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). The generated Fintech index was transformed into percentage and normalized to plot a line graph with bank liquidity in order to show the trend/movement between the two indicators. The graph was plotted for each country on the panel. A close examination of the plot, particularly for Brazil revealed that an increase in Fintech adoption dampened bank liquidity up until a certain threshold, and raised it afterward. The case for China was similar. The rest of the countries seemed to have a uniform growth process (see Figs. 1–6).

3.2 Model Specification The model specification is based on Pesaran et al. (1999) dynamic heterogeneous panel regression model. This model can be incorporated into the error correction model using the autoregressive distributed lag ARDL (p, q) technique thus (Loayza and Ranciere 2006): DBCDit ¼

p1 X j¼1

kij DBCDitj þ h



q1 X j¼0

bij DXitj

þ di BCDit1  a0 þ aij Xit1

3

þ qi þ lit ð1Þ

Methodology

The estimation techniques used is the dynamic panel ARDL bound testing. The panel ARDL works more efficiently when the time series and/or the cross-sectional identities are small with a combination of an I(0) and I(1) series (Pesaran and Smith 1995; Pesaran et al. 1999). It uses three different estimators to investigate the dynamic short run and long run causality running between the dependent and the

i

where D is the difference operator BCDit represents the liquidity risk, X is a vector of independent variables as outlined above including Fintech index and its squared, k and b are vectors of the lagged short run coefficients of the 1

Note that this technique is not the same as the pooled ordinary least square (POLS).

Investigating a Monotonic Relationship Between Bank …

dependent and independent variables, respectively. a and d are the vector of the long run coefficients and the speed of adjustment coefficient, respectively. p and q are the lag lengths for the dependent and independent variables, respectively.2The subscripts i and t represent country and time identities, respectively. We estimate Eq. (1) using the three ARDL estimators and then apply the Hausman test to test the null hypothesis that the PMG estimator is a better estimator than the MG and DFE. This will be rejected in favor of the alternative if the P-Value is insignificant at the 5% level; otherwise, the MG or the DFE estimator will be more reliable.

4

Results and Discussions

This section presents and discusses the results. The analyses are divided into preliminary studies and the ARDL model.

4.1 Preliminary/Diagnostic Results and Discussion The descriptive statistics and the unit root tests were carried out as preliminary or diagnostic tests to ascertain the behavior of the data and guarantee the use of the ARDL technique. The descriptive statistics results revealed that with the exception of Fintech, all the series had positive mean and 120 observations. The statistics further revealed that bank liquidity was the most volatile and risky indicator because of its high standard deviation at 78.6%. This means that variations in bank liquidity can threaten the entire banking sectors performance and stability if not controlled; hence, the need to investigate its determinants (Table 1). The following step was the unit root test. It was used to both examine the series stationary and to guarantee that our series was integrated of order one and zero. This is a prerequisite for the estimation of a panel ARDL model (Pesaran and Smith 1995; Pesaran et al. 1999). Two different types of panel unit root tests: (i) Levin, Lin and Chu (LLC), and (ii) Im, Pesaran and Shin (IPS) were carried out to determine the series’ order of integration. The LLC and IPS unit root tests were necessary to utilize the benefits from their assumptions of homogeneous and heterogeneous slopes, respectively. Table 2 reports the results of the unit root tests. These results show that most of the variables are stationary at order zero [I(0)] with constant and no trend, while liquidity risk, bank Z-score, bank noninterest income to total income ratio

Note that the model losses a lag after taking the first difference of the model as presented in Eq. 1.

2

811

and Fintech index become stationary after the first difference [I(1)]. With a combination of I(0) and I(1) series, the use of panel ARDL approach to co-integration is appropriate for this study.

4.2 Results of the PMG, MG and DFE These estimators were used to assess whether Fintech would have an inverted U shape impact on the level of liquidity risk among the BRICS economies or not. The Hausman h-test served to measure the comparative efficiency and consistency among the models with the null hypothesis that the PMG model was a better estimator. Therefore, a high p-value would imply not to reject the null hypothesis. Among the results presented in Table 3, the focus was on the PMG estimation given that it proved to be a better estimator than the MG and the DFE models according to the Hausman test. The findings indicate that in the long run, Fintech has a negative significant impact on bank liquidity risk but beyond a certain threshold, and its impact will be significantly positive. In other words, the results show that there is a U-shaped relationship between liquidity risk and Fintech adoption. This suggests that two much Fintech adoption could be dangerous for banks among the BRICS economies in maintaining an optimal balance between its reserve and its ability to meet unexpected cash withdrawals. The situation is different in the short run, as Fintech had no significant impact on bank liquidity risk. Results from the DFE revealed a somewhat consistent conclusion with the PMG estimator, while that of the MG estimator only showed a short run causality between liquidity risk and its determinants. Meanwhile these results were consistent with those of Aspachs et al. (2005) and Al-Homaidi et al. (2019) who indicated that banks’ profitability had an insignificant association with banks’ liquidity; Moussa (2015) who indicated a positive influence of GDP on banks liquidity and that of Al-Homaidi et al. (2019) who also found a negative impact of interest rate on banks liquidity. Moreover, the findings proved inconsistent with those of Al-Homaidi et al. (2019) who found that assets quality (NPL) had a negative significant influence on banks’ liquidity; Moussa (2015) and Bhati et al. (2015) who found that inflation rate had a significant influence on banks’ liquidity; and Bunda and Desquilbet (2008), Dinger (2009) and Aspachs et al. (2005) who agreed that GDP had a negative association with banks’ liquidity. Only bank level financial crisis (BZS) is associated with a 0.694% increase in liquidity risk in the short run, at 10 percent significance level, on average ceteris paribus. Finally, the PMG model revealed that the model reverted to its long run equilibrium after contemporaneous disturbance distorts the system at an average speed of 11.5% per annum.

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T. T. Okoli and D. D. Tewari

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the variables

Data

Obs

Mean

Std. Dev

Min

Max

BCD

120

134.2105

78.57054

59.311

337.198

BZS

120

15.84974

BNII

120

36.83609

BRA

120

1.115126

1.423124

−10.747

NPL

120

6.936108

6.006629

0.9537

INTR

120

GDPG

120

INF

120

FTCH

117

9.418386 16.99627

20.41318

19.08277

4.748181

3.853421

9.737066

20.35218

-9.4e−09

5.6492

96.6803

7.9611

95.263

4.35

86.363

−7.80

14.231

−1.40

197.414

−1.369

1.418037

6.843 29.8

3.29571

Source Estimation

Table 2 The unit root tests

Variables

IPS test

LLC test

Level

1st Diff

Level

1st Diff

BCD

Non-stationary

Stationary

Non-stationary

Stationary

BZS

Non-stationary

Stationary

Stationary

NA

BNII

Non-stationary

Stationary

Non-stationary

Stationary

BRA

Stationary

NA

Stationary

NA

NPL

Stationary

NA

Stationary

NA

INTR

Stationary

NA

Stationary

NA

GDPG

Stationary

NA

Stationary

NA

INF

Stationary

NA

Non-stationary

Stationary

FTCH

Non-stationary

Stationary

Non-stationary

Stationary

Source Estimation

In other words, short run disequilibrium that threatens the system can be corrected in the long run at an average adjustment speed of 11.5% per annum. This means that the variables under consideration are co-integrated, and hence, they move together in the long run.

4.3 Sufficient Condition for a Quadratic Relationship This study adopted the Lind-Mehlum (2010) test for inverse U-shaped relationship to investigate the second order condition for a U-shaped or an inverted U-shaped relationship between banks’ liquidity and financial technology adoption. To this end, we took the first derivative of Eq. (2), and tested the null and the alternative hypotheses thus:3 H0 : ðbi1 þ 2bi2 FTCHlowerbound Þ  0Þ   and/or bi1 þ 2bi2 FTCHupperbound  0

3

ð2Þ

Where the null hypothesis is that the PMG is efficient estimator than MG estimator.

This could be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis thus:4 H1 : ðbi1 þ 2bi2 FTCHlowerbound Þ\0   and/or bi1 þ 2bi2 FTCHupperbound [ 0

ð3Þ

where FTCHlower bound and FTCHupper bound represent the minimum and maximum values of financial technology, respectively. Rejecting the null hypothesis meant confirming the existence of a U shape relationship between financial technology and bank liquidity risk. The results as presented in Table 4 revealed that the lower bound of the interval was negatively significant, while the upper bound was positively significant 1%. This suggested that the null hypothesis of inverse U shape/monotonicity was rejected in favor of the alternative. Consequently, it confirmed the U-shaped relationship between financial technology adoption and bank liquidity among BRICS economies.

4

Where the null hypothesis is that the PMG is efficient estimator than DFE estimator.

Investigating a Monotonic Relationship Between Bank … Table 3 Results of the dynamic ARDL (1, 1) estimators

813 PMG estimator

MG estimator

DFE estimator

Long run coefficients

DBCD

DBCD

DBCD

BZSit-1

0.027 (0.07)

3.340 (1.09)

0.928 (1.23)

BNIIit-1

0.406 (0.82)

−0.237 (0.58)

0.108 (0.18)

BRAit-1

13.658 (1.00)

−3.402 (0.79)

3.201 (0.40)

NPLit-1

14.599 (2.57)**

1.697 (0.50)

0.251 (0.18)

INTRit-1

−2.228 (2.42)**

4.899 (1.43)

−3.257 (2.69)***

GDPGit-1

15.870 (3.06)***

2.573 (1.20)

7.964 (2.11)**

INFit-1

0.824 (0.73)

−0.507 (0.50)

2.388 (1.86)*

FTCHit-1

−19.015 (1.90)*

28.833 (0.91)

−5.292 (0.56)

FTCHsqit-1

21.737 (3.81)***

−1.547 (0.11)

11.686 (2.56)**

Speed of Adjustment Term (ECT)

−0.115 (1.96)**

−0.976 (4.04)***

−0.134 (3.38)***

DBZSit

0.694 (1.90)*

0.994 (3.36)***

0.023 (0.27)

DBNIIit

0.165 (0.58)

0.323 (0.63)

0.324 (2.74)***

Short run Coefficients

DBRAit

3.904 (1.09)

−7.380 (1.16)

−0.308 (0.46)

DNPLit

0.864 (0.83)

2.189 (1.31)

−0.437 (1.34)

DINTRit

−0.187 (0.36)

0.728 (1.46)

−0.423 (2.07)**

DGDPGit

0.158 (0.16)

1.014 (1.91)*

0.211 (0.61)

DINFit

0.200 (1.25)

−0.164 (0.18)

0.388 (2.80)***

DFTCHit

−6.517 (1.49)

7.064 (0.38)

−2.227 (0.55)

DFTCHsqit

−7.134 (1.45)

−2.373 (0.28)

4.961 (3.18)***

Constant

0.249 (0.20)

83.547 (2.33)**

12.220 (1.69)*

Observations

112

112

112

Hausman test: H0: PMP is efficient estimation than MG h-test = 5.41; Probability value = 0.7976 Hausman test: H0: PMP is efficient estimation than DFE h-test = 2.83; Probability value = 0.9708 Absolute value of z statistics in parentheses * sig at 10%, ** sig at 5%, *** sig at 1% Source Estimation

Table 4 The results of the Lind-Mehlum (2010) U-shaped relationship

Particulars

Lower bound

Interval

−1.369171

Upper bound 3.295709

Slope

−20.34601

t-value

−3.709094

4.173574

P-values

0.0001686

0.0000314

Overall test of presence of a U shape t-Value = 3.71, P-values = 0.000169 Extreme Point: 0.589856 Source Estimation

28.10237

814

% changes in Liq Risk and Fintech

200

% changes in Liq Risk and Fintech

150 100 50 0 1990

2020

150 100 50 0 1990

2000

2010

2020

Years

Fig. 3 Line Graph of Indian’s Bank Liq. and Fintech

400 200 0 1990

2000

2010

2020

Years

Fig. 4 Line Graph of China’s Bank Liq. and Fintech

600 400 200 0 1990

2000

2010

2020

Years

Fig. 5 Line Graph of South African’s Bank Liq. & Fintech

50 0 1990

2010

Years

150 100

2000

Fig. 2 Line Graph of Russian’s Bank Liq. and Fintech

% changes in Liq Risk and Fintech

This study examined the asymmetric effect of Fintech on banks’ liquidity measured in terms of banks’ credit to total deposit ratio among the BRICS economies for the period 1995 to 2018. The principal component analytical tool (PCA) was used to generate an index for Fintech using three components of mobile cellular subscription, automate teller machine per 100,000 people and percentage of individuals using the internet to the total population. Other drivers of bank liquidity were bank-specific variables including bank return on assets, assets quality, bank Z-score, and bank noninterest income. The macroeconomic factors were lending interest rate, GDP growth rate and the inflation rate. The study employed both a dynamic panel ARDL technique and the static (pooled, fixed, and random effects) estimation techniques to analyze the data. The findings indicated that a U-shaped hypothesis held between bank liquidity and Fintech for the period under consideration. A situation where Fintech adoption would significantly reduce the risk of liquidity among the BRICS markets until reaching a certain threshold of about 59% adopters, then it would notably raise. This principal finding implied that too much Fintech adoption could threaten the stability of banks among the BRICS markets. The study also found that bank-specific determinants of liquidity risk were assets quality (NPL), bank noninterest income to total income (BNII), and bank Z-score (BZS), whereas the macroeconomic determinants included interest rate and the growth rate of GDP. The bank-specific determinants and GDP growth rate increased the level of banks’ liquidity while the interest rate reduced it. Furthermore, these findings implied that banks’ internal managerial decisions such as bank credit risk management (NPL), bank diversification (BNII), and crisis within bank (BZS) had an adverse effect on their ability to increase assets and meet both expected and unexpected financial obligations. Therefore, BRICS banks’ ability to meet their financial demands would always be at the risk of compromising their profitability and financial conditions through unacceptable losses. Conversely, the dampening effect of interest rate on banks’ liquidity indicated that credit tightening was a prerequisite to

control possible liquidity risk issues among BRICS banks. This study, therefore, recommends that BRICS markets should regulate the adoption of Fintech to stay within an optimal range as well as improve the internal management of banks to maintain an optimal balance between increasing its assets and meeting their financial obligations.

% changes in Liquidity Risk and Fintech

Conclusion and Policy Implications

% changes in Liquidity Risk and Fintech

5

T. T. Okoli and D. D. Tewari

2000

2010

2020

Years

Fig. 1 Line Graph of Brazilian’s Bank Liq. and Fintech

Fig. 6 Definition of keys. Sources Estimations

Investigating a Monotonic Relationship Between Bank …

Appendix See Appendix Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 Principal components/correlation Component

E. value

Difference

Proportion

Cumulative

Comp1

2.01083

1.0926

0.6703

0.6703

Comp2

0.91823

0.847289

0.3061

0.9764

Comp3

0.07094

0.0236

1.0000

Source Estimation

Table 6 Principal components (eigenvectors) Variable

Comp1

Comp2

Comp3

ATM

0.6514

−0.353

0.6714

0

MCS

0.3172

0.9307

0.1822

0

INTB

0.6892

−0.094

-0.718

Unexplained

0

Source Estimation

References E.A. Al-Homaidi, M.I. Tabash, N.H. Farhan, F.A. Almaqtari, The determinants of liquidity of Indian listed commercial banks: a panel data approach. Cogent Econ. Finance 7(1), 1616521 (2019) O. Aspachs, E. Nier, M. Tiesset, Liquidity, Banking Regulation and the Macroeconomy: Evidence on Bank Liquidity Holdings from a Panel of UK-Resident Banks. Unpublished Manuscript. BIS, UK (2005), pp. 1–26 P. Belleflamme, T. Lambert, A. Schwienbacher, Crowdfunding: tapping the right crowd. J. Bus. Ventur. 29(5), 585–609 (2014) S. Bhati, A.D. Zoysa, W. Jitaree, Determinants of liquidity in nationalised banks of India, in World Finance and Banking Symposium. (Faculty of Business The University of Wollongong, Australia, 2015), pp. 1–11 I. Bunda, J.-B. Desquilbet, The bank liquidity smile across exchange rate regimes. Int. Econ. J. 22(3), 361–386 (2008) G. Caggiano, P. Calice, L. Leonida, Early warning systems and systemic banking crises in low income countries: a multinomial logit approach. J. Bank. Finance 47, 258–269 (2014) V. Dinger, Do foreign-owned banks affect banking system liquidity risk? J. Comp. Econ. 37(4), 647–657 (2009)

815 G. Dorfleitner, L. Hornuf, M. Schmitt, M. Weber, Definition of FinTech and description of the FinTech industry, in FinTech in Germany. Springer, Cham (2017), pp. 5–10 P. Gai, S. Kapadia, S. Millard, A. Perez, Financial innovation, macroeconomic stability and systemic crises. Econ. J. 118(527), 401–426 (2008) A. Ghenimi, H. Chaibi, M.A.B. Omri, The effects of liquidity risk and credit risk on bank stability: evidence from the MENA region. Borsa Istanbul Rev. 17(4), 238–248 (2017) C.S. Hakkio, W.R. Keeton, Financial stress: what is it, how can it be measured, andwhy does it matter? Econ. Rev. 94(2), 5–50 (2009) U.Jermann, V. Quadrini, Financial innovations and macroeconomic volatility. NBER Working Paper, Number 12308 (2006) J.T. Lind, H. Mehlum, With or without U? The appropriate test for a U-shaped Relationship. Oxford Bull. Econ. Stat. 72(1), 109–118 (2010) N.V. Loayza, R. Rancière, Financial development, financial fragility, and growth. J. Money Credit Bank. 38(4), 1051–1076 (2006) M.A.B. Moussa, The determinants of bank liquidity: case of Tunisia. Int. J. Econ. Financ. Iss. 5(1), 249–259 (2015) H. Pesaran, R. Smith, Estimating long run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels. J. Econ. 68(1), 79–113 (1995) M.H. Pesaran, Y. Shin, R.P. Smith, Pooled mean group estimation of dynamic heterogeneous panels. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 94(446), 621– 634 (1999) D. Quint, P. Rabanal, Monetary and Macroprudential Policy in an Estimated DSGE Model of the Euro Area (IMF Working Paper No. WP/13/209). IMF Working Paper (Vol. WP/13/209). Zurich (2013) A. Rashid, S. Jabeen, Analyzing performance determinants: conventional versus Islamic Banks in Pakistan. Borsa Istanbul Rev. 16(2), 92–107 (2016) L. Ratnovski, Liquidity and transparency in bank risk management. J. Finan. Intermed. 22(3), 422–439 (2013) A. Singh, A.K. Sharma, An empirical analysis of macroeconomic and bank-specific factors affecting liquidity of Indian banks. Fut. Bus. J. 2(1), 40–53 (2016) J. Sopan, A. Dutta, Determinants of liquidity risk in Indian banks: a panel data analysis. Asian J. Res. Banking Finance 8(6), 47–59 (2018) N. Singh, N. Diep, T. Nguyen, Determinants of liquidity of commercial banks in Vietnam in the period, in Determinants of Liquidity of Commercial Banks in Vietnam in the Period 2009–2016, vol. 5, no. 6 (2017) N. Thi, N. Diep, T. Nguyen, Determinants of liquidity of commercial banks in Vietnam in the period, in Determinants of Liquidity of Commercial Banks in Vietnam in the Period 2009–2016, vol. 5, no. 6 (2017) A.T. Yahya, A. Akhtar, M.I. Tabash, The impact of political instability, macroeconomic and bank-specific factors on the profitability of Islamic banks: an empirical evidence. Invest. Manage. Financ. Innov. 14(4), 30–39 (2017)

Pioneering Global Leaders for Tackling Global Food Land Water Crises Mokhtar Guizani, Seiji Takeda, and Takashi Inoue

Abstract

Highlights

The global food supply is failing to meet growing food demand. This shortfall is a result of multiple factors, often involving an intricate linkage between water, food, land, energy, and environment. This intricate linkage is known as a nexus. Proper management of this nexus is essential. However, current management approaches are addressed from a single-discipline point of view and are limited. Hence, multifaceted measures need to be developed to address these challenges. At Hokkaido University, a graduate program for fostering new global leaders with multi-backgrounds was launched in 2017. Candidates develop a broad knowledge and multifaceted perspectives to tackle global food resource issues locally and worldwide. This paper presents this unique and unprecedented program to serve as a model for future education programs worldwide in general and in desert climate regions in particular.

• This paper reports a multidisciplinary Graduate education program conducted at Hokkaido University. • It gives an overview on the program and highlights its objectives and structure. • It presents the origin of the program and its current status.

Keywords




Global food resources Nexus Multifaceted perspectives




Global issues




M. Guizani (&) Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan e-mail: [email protected] M. Guizani
S. Takeda
T. Inoue Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8589, Japan S. Takeda Faculty of Health Sciences Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8589, Japan T. Inoue Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8589, Japan

1

Introduction

Global water, food, and energy supplies are failing to meet the ever-growing water, food, energy demands. These shortfalls are a result of multiple factors including but not limited to the population growth, unequal distribution in space and time of resources as well as the improper management of resources. A number of other issues (Fig. 1), including poverty, food contamination, environmental pollution, land degradation arises when food resources are brought into discussion. Nevertheless, these issues have been tackled in the respective fields of specialization solely. In addition, they have been regarded to be local in physical and scientific terms, and the proposed solutions have been considered to address local issues. However, since food resources problems are global challenges, they must be addressed from a global perspective too. The term “glocal” is therefore adopted. For example, if a region is hit by famine, it is a local issue. To overcome it, agricultural productivity could be increased using advanced technology. However, famine eradication also requires consideration of the local as well as the global environment, including climate, natural features, and water, and energy resources availability. It is also mandatory to master production and control measures from a multifaceted consideration of the region, including economic strength, production costs, political situations as well as the need for the maintenance and empowerment of local residents and improvement of their well-being, among others. The situation requires broad

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_104

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Fig. 1 Global food, land, and water resources crises

knowledge in the areas of food “production,” “environment,” and “governance.” It is also important to notice that expertise is distributed across different fields, including agriculture, engineering, fishery sciences, health science and hygiene, economics, geography, and education. For all the aforementioned reasons, future leaders must be equipped with broad knowledge in the areas of food “production,” “environment,” and “governance,” which cover people’s living environments, culture, and eating habits to tackle global food land water crises. Interest in multidisciplinary education has been the focus in the last two decades worldwide as exemplified by the programs of the University of Tokyo (UT), the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, among others (Mino and Hanaki 2013; Barthe and Seid 2017). These post-graduate education programs aimed to foster new environmental leaders. Hence, an institution that meets the needs of today to find solutions to global food, water, and land resource crises in the twenty-first century, glocal (global and local) leaders

with a pioneering spirit who are capable of contributing to regional issues with a global perspective must be fostered. This institution aims at the establishment of consistent technological systems and the creation of a framework for performance-based human resource development. The graduate school of global food resources (GFR) of Hokkaido University was launched in 2017 with this perspective.

2

Overview of the GFR

The graduate school of global food resources aims to foster new global leaders for tackling food water energy and environment issues in all regions from global perspectives. The school involves a T-shaped education system (Fig. 2) for the integration of science and humanities. It widens the knowledge of students in various disciplines and deepens their knowledge in their field of expertise as per their needs and personal preferences. The school aspires to produce internationally minded experts capable of serving as team leaders to tackle global food, water, and land resources issues.

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Fig. 2 T-shaped education system (T-shaped education is strong like T-shaped Typhoon)

3

Objectives of GFR Program

GFR provides masters and Ph.D. programs. The school desires to foster internationally minded experts and leaders who can address global food, water, and soil resources

issues. At the master’s level, GFR aims to produce individuals with generalist knowledge who are capable of contributing to the resolution of global issues. While in Ph.D. programs, GFR intends to produce individuals with highly specialized knowledge who are capable of approaching issues from broad, multifaceted perspectives.

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GFR Program Structure

The GFR provides an education program integrating sciences and humanities. To foster future leaders of global food resources, faculty members from different disciplines and specialties, including food production, food processing, food preservation, logistics, economics, culture, the environment, and public health, contribute to this program. These faculties are invited not only from Japan but also from several world-leading universities. This unique partnership provides GFR’s students with the opportunity to acquire diverse knowledge and conduct multidisciplinary studies in all these fields. This partnership is the most distinctive feature of the school’s master’s degree program. To ensure the resolution of global food resources problems in the twenty-first century, it is essential to develop personnel through education that integrates the humanities and sciences. The humanities include education and economics, and sciences include agriculture, engineering, fisheries science, global environment, and public health. The Graduate School of Global Food Resources aims to produce world-class pioneers with broad perspectives and international negotiation skills who are capable of addressing various food resources challenges. To accomplish this goal, the school encourages students to learn technical aspects of

food production and environmental conservation, as well as cultural, economic and all other related aspects of the associated problems (e.g., current world affairs, economics, history, races/ethnic groups, and thought). Faculty members from different fields of specialization and different world-leading universities work together to provide students with the necessary tools and support learning and research (Fig. 3). It is worth mentioning that students must acquire a number of credits from compulsory subjects articulated around global food land water issues. In addition, students are required to get the rest of the credits from elective subjects depending on their interests. The school also places a significant importance to fieldwork and hand on experience of real-world food resources problems. It offers fieldworks practical training programs in Japan and overseas called “wandervogel,” meaning “wandering bird” in German, which emphasizes on outdoor activities. Subjects of each wandervogel program are carefully set, to fulfill program requirements and student interests. Table 1 illustrates a brief description of the list of subjects. Further details on the subjects are presented in Fig. 3. Since the school offers a curriculum integrating humanities and sciences, lectures on fundamental science subjects are provided primarily for students with majors in humanities to promote their understanding of science subjects.

Fig. 3 International mindset experts and multi-disciplines-based curricula.

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Photo 1 A group of students learning water management in Australia (photo credits: Dr. Guizani M.)

Photo 2 A group of students visiting the University of Sydney accompanied by their mentor (photo credits: Dr. Guizani M.)

Table 1 Brief description of the list of subjects M1 Compulsory subjects (9 credits): list of lectures covering production, Governance and Environment

M2 Fieldwork subjects (4 Credits)

Fieldwork subjects (2 credits)

Fieldwork subjects (1 credit)

Theme subjects (6 credits) Seminar and study subjects (2 Credits)

Seminar and study subjects (6 Credits)

Elective subjects (3 credits): Broad Elective subjects Thesis or specific research project

Furthermore, students are taught how to organize international conferences and symposiums. Wandervogel programs (Photos 4 and 5) are provided to cultivate food sustainability ideas. It strengthens students’ understanding of food problems worldwide. Each year a number of wandervogel programs are planned and students choose one of the programs. These programs are arranged in way to cover multiple destinations. Visits to Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), East Asia (Philippines and Myanmar) and Europe (Denmark) have been conducted. These programs are conducted in collaboration with our partners at host countries. During their visit, students receive lectures,

learn onsite and have hands-on experiences with different food-related problems. Eventually, students report on their visit, share what they have learned with other teams, and discuss multiple facets of the problems. In addition to courses and training, students are asked to prepare a thesis linked to global food resources. The theses are supervised by more than one supervisor form different fields (3 supervisors). They are also conducted in collaboration with our partner universities. This gives the students the opportunities to emerge as new leaders with broader vision. Despite the interests in multidisciplinary education and integration of social science and natural science education,

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there was no clear consensus on how interdisciplinary education could be achieved, or how collaboration should be performed. According to Repko et al. “Interdisciplinary studies is a process of answering a question, solving a problem or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be dealt with adequately by a single discipline, and draws on the disciplines with the goal of integrating their insight to construct a more comprehensive understanding.” (Repko et al. 2011) The most distinctive feature of GFR’s education program is that it focuses on one topic, in this case global food resources, while considering all other related social, economic, cultural, and environmental aspects. It is not a simple integration/collaboration, rather it is a deep understanding and interaction. Students do not discuss these issues in classes alone, rather they acquire a hands-on experience during the several “wandervogel” programs. From a pedagogical point of view, it is a student-led learning as students have a lot of flexibility to choose the topics and programs that suit their interests and motivation.

5

Origins of the Program

The commitment of Hokkaido University to sustainability issues is the main driver of this program. Indeed, Hokkaido University has a long history in developing global classes for fostering new environmental leaders (CENSUS 2012). This ongoing program has its origin in the Graduate Special coordinated Training Program (StraSS) conducted at Hokkaido University to foster new environmental leaders (Barthe and Seid 2017; Center for Sustainability Sciences 2014). The Strass Program itself has its origins in a former project known as the Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S) launched more than a decade ago. The IR3S program was developed by the UT to coordinate a collaboration on sustainability issues among major Japanese universities. Hokkaido University was among the universities participating in this program.

6

Current Status of the Program

The first batch of Master’s students (17 students) graduated in March 2019. The second batch of students (16 students) graduates in March 2020. All master’s students graduated from this program found jobs. Some of the graduates joined

the Ph.D. program at GFR. While the program is still in its early stage, it shows that it is progressing well. Similar programs can be implemented.

7

Conclusion(s)

It should be noted that this program for pioneering global leaders to tackle global food issues along with water, energy, and environment issues is underway. It is an attempt to build an educational platform to foster new global leaders with multifaceted perspectives. The program could serve as a source of inspiration worldwide and especially in countries with a desert climate with severe pressure on food and water resources. Despite the growing interest in interdisciplinary education programs, there is no clear consensus on how collaboration between social and natural science should be conducted. This program is unique in the way it addresses social science in global food resources. Wandervogel fieldworks play a key role in broadening the students’ vision and their ability to consider multifaceted aspects when addressing a global food issue. Acknowledgements This work is supported by Global Station for Food, Land and Water Resources (GSF), a project of Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education at Hokkaido University.

References R. Barthe, R. Seid, Interdisciplinary collaboration between natural and social sciences—status and trends exemplified in groundwater research. PLoS One 12(1), e0170754 (2017) CENSUS (Center for Sustainability Sciences), Challenges and Opportunities in Sustainability Education at Hokkaido University-Toward Fostering Novel Professionalism in Higher Education. CENSUS Booklet Hokkaido University (2012), 85p Center for Sustainability Sciences, StraSS Final Report-The special Coordinated Training Program for Sustainability Leaders and Sustainability Meisters. CENSUS Final Report Hokkaido University (2014), 177p T. Mino, K. Hanaki, Environmental Leadership Capacity Building in Higher Education: Experience and Lessons from Asian Program for Incubation of Environmental Leaders (Springer, Tokyo, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, 2013). ISBN 978-4-431-8 A.F. Repko, W.H. Newell, R. Szostak, Case Studies in Interdisciplinary Research (Sage, Thousand Oaks, 2011)

Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According to Contract Type in Water Megaprojects in Qatar Ayman Mashali , Emad Elbeltagi, Ibrahim Motawa, and Mohamed Elshikh

Abstract

1

The construction industry is of high importance to the economy of most countries. Water megaprojects (WMPs) affect millions of people, and they take many years to be completed. Furthermore, they contribute to countries’ development, providing opportunities for new businesses. Due to their scale and scope, WMPs involve both primary and secondary stakeholders who have different interests and, therefore, different perceptions of success. WMPs that are executed unavoidably face several organizational challenges and pressures carried out on them. Several types of research considered stakeholder management (SM) and contract types individually without investigating the synergy effect between them on WMPs delivery. This paper investigates the methods of stakeholders’ engagement (SE) according to contract type in WMPs in developing countries with desert climate as Qatar. To this end, a questionnaire survey was carried out among construction practitioners working in WMPs in Qatar. Quantitative data analysis was conducted using (SPSS) software. Findings—This paper identifies the most common methods for engaging stakeholders in WMPs in Qatar and presents the “stakeholders/Contract type” engagement metric. Originality/value—This metric can contribute to defining the interrelation of stakeholders and contract types and support organizations in developing sustainable WMPs roadmap. Keywords









Water megaproject Stakeholder management Engagement Contract Sustainable Qatar




Introduction

There are many different forms of contracts and procurement strategies used in construction projects. They vary in terms of the project they address, the benefits, and the constraints. In general, the client specifies the form of contract and procurement strategy for a project depending on financial outlook, risk management, program constraints, and the type of project. Both engineers and contractors must understand each form of contract and procurement to complete the project successfully. It is generally accepted in Qatar that there are four key contract methods: lump-sum, measurement, cost reimbursable, and design and build (EPC) csontracts. Latterly, Qatar has flourished in the construction field, and the Qatar market has been growing rapidly. However, Qatar is facing great challenges due to the enormous construction evolution needed to accomplish the World Cup 2022 and fulfill Qatar vision 2030 to improve its infrastructure that comprises numerous international companies and multinational professionals. Consequently, this raises the question of stakeholder management in the construction of MPs. In this paper, the authors focus on MPs that comprise numerous participants and are executed in the state of Qatar. Besides the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environment, and society, MPs are characterized by their colossal investments drawing public concern and political attention due to their vital impact on society, environment, and budgets (Capka 2004). This paper aims to examine the relationship between SE and contract type in WMPs. Also, it addresses the suggestions of the potential strategy to increase the SE maturity implementation level.

Present Address: A. Mashali (&)
E. Elbeltagi
I. Motawa
M. Elshikh Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt A. Mashali Kahramaa, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_105

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Literature Review

2.1 Characteristics of Developing Countries Nations can be categorized as developed or developing countries in terms of economic development, education and training terms, political stabilization, health care, technological improvement and infrastructure, the population growth rate, society demography, and culture (Othman 2013a). The World Bank (2018) categorizes Nations by a low, lower, and upper-middle-income sets according to their Gross National Income (GNI) per individual as developing Nations. Development of infrastructure is a development interference, the core to economic increase, best health provision, promoted education, and reinforced socio-cultural life. There is a need for infrastructure for Qatar's economic areas due to population growth, health, and education. Additionally, to fulfill Qatar's vision (QNV) 2030 to improve its infrastructure, many megaprojects, including WMPs with a total value of US $95 billion, should be realized before 2022 (Scharfenort 2012). Nevertheless, relevant to mention that the construction projects in the developing nations are fragmented and predominated by international organizations. However, executing WMPs is for the fast conversion of the urban landscape and the production of business chances. They are described by challenges, government funding dependence, construction technology, human resources, and construction industry fragmentation. Furthermore, stakeholders are of diverse experience effects on resource variously, and environmental factors impact their directors.

2.2 Mega Construction Projects (MCPs) In developing nations, the necessity for MCPs is significant to fast economic increase. Therefore, authorities pledge with educational, health, infrastructure, between others, for economic and social interference. During these, the Nations have encountered a critical development. Globally, studies and researches have reported that the construction industry provides around 5–10% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and about 10% vocation out of the total working people (Ofori 2012). MPs are commonly described as “large-scale, complex projects with total value US$1 billion or more, implemented internationally, need many years to be completed, comprise many stakeholders, are transformational, and influence millions of people” (El-Sabek and McCabe 2017; Flyvbjerg 2014). Moreover, MPs are different projects in terms of scale, times, complexity level, and SE (Flyvbjerg 2014; Marrewijk 2007). There is a necessity to handle the influence of WMPs in a method that they are environmentally and

socially responsible, showing the necessity to undertake these matters at the project evolution phases while designing these established environments (Plessis 2007). WMPs certainly need massive artificial and natural resources affecting the environment; consequently, the necessity for effective SE to be applied. Also, water megaprojects in developing countries face political, managerial, human, and sustainability difficulties, including Qatar. As such, it is necessary to answer the questions, “what are the challenges for realizing SE in construction projects” and “how SE can reinforce WMPs construction” in developing countries adopting a quantitative research methodology. Mega construction projects definition from various viewpoints comprises time, value, scope, and complexity (Cleland and Ireland 2002a). This research corresponds with the description that MCPs are massive scale, important, and characteristics complexity (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003) and convert the landscape quickly and extremely, re-image the town by reinforcing its attractiveness and competitiveness for an economic increase (Hannan and Sutherland 2015). MCPs can comprise green or brown sites and involves shopping housing, water project, roads, stadia, and infrastructure project. Furthermore, MCPs need excellent design information, skills, and expert human and managerial abilities (Hannan and Sutherland 2015; Othman 2013b). Relating to project goals of time, cost, and quality, MCPs include a massive investment of billions of dollars, time, founded big organizations and partners to execute the project. Mok et al. (2013) state that MCPs trigger development challenges: (1) The participation of many stakeholders driving to complicated relationships among stakeholders and conflict of interests; (2) The effectiveness and increasing capability driving to large project uncertainty (Yeo 1995), and (3) Their management by a powerful multi-role managerial structure driving to critical public attention and disputes (Yeo 1995), consequently, the necessity for efficient SE. Additional challenges recognized by researchers include if MCPs provide permanent benefits (Hannan and Sutherland 2015), political, managerial, and environmental demand influence on sustainability (Othman 2013b), environment and sustainability (Ugwu and Haupt 2005), and efficient SM (Weaver 2010). Investigating the influences of SM in MCPs is vital because opposing stakeholders remain to resist, produce obstacles to the MCPs’ successful delivery.

2.3 Stakeholders Management The construction industry comprises a broad group of stakeholders, each making them by a high diversity of claims, concerns, interests, and likely chances. Considering their needs and requirements, the management of project stakeholders is a primary part of project

Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According …

management and project success (Hannan and Sutherland 2015; Bal et al. 2013). Project stakeholders have been defined and categorized in many and at times contradicting methods in the project management literature. Stakeholders are defined as: “an individual, groups, or organizations who may affect, be affected by, or perceive themselves to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project” (PMI 2018). On this basis, Freeman (Freeman 1984) provided the widely accepted definition of a stakeholder in the literature: A stakeholder is any person, group, or organization that can impact or is impacted by realizing the organization's objectives. An idealistic categorization is to classify stakeholders to external and internal where: Internal stakeholders are the formal individuals of the project incorporation and, therefore, ordinarily prop the project, where they are regularly indicated to as principal stakeholders or work actors (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003; Carroll 1993; Eyiah-Botwe 2015). Otherwise, external stakeholders are non-formal individuals of the project incorporation; however, they may influence or be influenced by the project. For example, they include national governments, local governments, landowners, and neighborhood residents (Plessis 2007). Projects may react to stakeholder compression and requirements in different ways. Most significant of the current studies have concentrated on developing various engagement models (Yeo 1995; Mitchell et al. 1997). However, several problems of SM in construction projects introduced by past scholars involve insufficient SM, project managers owning foggy aims of stakeholders, hardness to know the invisible stakeholders, and poor communication among stakeholders (Bourne and Walker 2006). For solving these barriers and obstacles, project management wants to know what the needs are for SM (Cleland and Ireland 2002b). “Trust” and “collaboration” among stakeholders found to be the critical factors of projects in Qatar (Evans et al. 2020).

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involve, collaborate, consult, and inform (Chinyio and Olomolaiye 2010). According to the stakeholders’ aims, these levels of SE strategies should be utilized and as an outcome of stakeholder analysis. Moreover, most of the research reviewed clearly stated that effective engagement with stakeholder interests is primary to the project mission's successful delivery. However, stakeholders’ management studies that explore the stakeholders’ engagement according to contract type in megaprojects in Qatar are limited. Finally, weak SE can result in many significant obstacles in construction projects; these obstacles may be a primary cause of the project delays, and the cost exceeds.

2.5 Stakeholders’ Engagement and Sustainability Researches on the SE influence in fulfilling sustainability for developed nations indicate a six-step process as following: identify the principal stakeholders, associate stakeholders with sustainability policies, prioritize stakeholders, SM, evaluate stakeholders' rendering, and lay aims in action (Bal et al. 2013). Othman (2013b) stated that challenges associated with MCPs and sustainability in developing nations involve technical and design challenges and owner executing companies. Therefore, there is a necessity to enhance economic sustainability for the whole project stages, reducing the negative environmental impact. It is remarking that stakeholder matters are related to the different stakeholders concerned, their cultural background, and the project location culture in context (Mok et al. 2013). Many efforts have been exerted on approaches to determine SE in construction industry projects independently. However, the literature shows no measures have been developed in SE in water megaprojects according to contract type in the GCC countries nor Qatar.

2.4 Levels of Stakeholders’ Engagement

3 SE is the process of working and communicating with concerned stakeholders to satisfy their needs and expectations, handle issues while they happen, and enhance proper SE in project activities during all project phases (Carroll 1993). This process's significant benefit is that it enables the project manager to increase support and minimize stakeholder resistance, significantly enhancing the chances to fulfill project success (Carroll 1993). There are several various approaches to SE; however, it could be classified into four engagement strategy levels:

Methodology

Naoum (2007) classified research approaches into two kinds; qualitative and quantitative. To achieve the study aim, a questionnaire survey is designed and distributed among Qatar's construction practitioners to gather information about stakeholders’ management. The methodology begins by outlining the research's problem, aim, and objective, supported by a comprehensive literature review, designing a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire. The questionnaire is prepared and designed in a digital form using the online SurveyMonkey.

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3.1 Sample Size

3.3 Relative Importance Index (RII)

The target population for this research involved all professionals related to the construction industry in Qatar. According to the Ministry of Municipality and Environment, it is nearly impossible to define the exact number of the total population as the number of engineers in Qatar is 14000. The sample size was determined using Eq. (1) (Tejada and Punzalan 2012):

The collected data were analyzed through the calculation of the relative importance index (RII). The RII is calculated by using Eq. (2) (Halwatura and Ranasinghe 2013):

n¼

N 1 þ Nðc2 Þ

ð1Þ

RII ¼ R Wi ni =ðN  AÞ

0  index  1

where Wi: weight given to each factor by the respondents and ranges from 1 to 5;

C = margin of error, taken as 9% = 0.09.

ni: number of respondents give the weight Wi;

N = Total population, taken as 14,000.

Wini = 5n5 + 4n4 + 3n3 + 2n2 + 1n1.

n = Sample size. Applying the equation:

A: the maximum weight (i.e., 5 in this case), and

14000 n¼ ¼ 122:37  123 1 þ 14000ð0:092 Þ The quantitative approach was used in this research. The data collected were analyzed using popular (SPSS) V (22). Out of 400 questionnaires sent, 235 are received. The response rate reached 60%, a satisfactory number of responses from an overall population sector (Heravi 2014; Babbie 1992). SE and analysis are the prime tasks in SM. To identify the SE and analysis approaches, the questionnaire was intended to assess the existing practice of strategic SM in construction projects. For fulfilling the study objectives, the questions were prepared to assess the common practical approach that the respondents commonly utilized in the existing practice of SM according to contract type in the following issue: meetings, social contacts, negotiations, workshops, and interviews.

3.2 Reliability of the Questionnaire Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha (a) is the most common measure of internal consistency (reliability). It is most commonly used to check the scale's reliability when questions are asked on a Likert scale. The range of a value is 0  a  1), and the higher value indicates a greater degree of internal consistency (George and Mallery 2003). If a value is higher than 0.7, this means that the data is reliable for analysis. In this study, a is 0.96, which indicates a high reliability of the whole questionnaire.

ð2Þ

N: is the total number of respondents. The higher the value of RII, the more impact of the attribute (Tam and Le 2006). The RII is determined from the responses to rank the engagement ways. The respondents were asked to indicate the significance on a 5-point Likert scale, and then SE ways were ranked based on the RII. Moreover, to divert the surveys’ responses into precise and meaningful data, the adoption of RII has been applied where proper. The utilization of the RII, as a data analysis tool, has been applied in other researches, including questionnaire surveys (Park 2009; Tarawneh 2004).

4

Results

This part includes the available personal information about the participants. The majority was obtained from supervision Consultant/Designer/Management, as shown in Fig. 1. More than 70% of the respondents were from the top management and senior levels, who have managerial and technical skills, which have key positions that support the quality of obtained information (Fig. 2). More than 15 years’ experience in the participants’ construction industry had a good percentage (47.65%). They act as leaders and decision-makers of projects. The highest amount of experience increases the level of accuracy of evaluation, as shown in Fig. 3. The findings give an overview of how stakeholders deal with different contracts type is practiced in WMPs in Qatar.

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Fig. 1 Type of respondents’ firms

Measurement

Current Career 40.00% 30.00% 20.00%

32.77% 19.57% 12.77%

10.00% 5.11%

20.00% 9.78%

0.00%

Responses

Director/ Senior Management Project Manager/ Construcon Manager

70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00%

(1) Strongly Agree (2) Agree (3) Neutral (4) Disagree (5) Strongly Disagree

Fig. 2 Respondents’ roles Fig. 5 Measurement contract

Experience in construcon 30.00% 20.00% 10.00%

28.08% 25.11% 20.43% 19.57%

Less than 5 years 5 - 10 years

6.81%

11 – 15 years

0.00%

Responses

Cost Reimbursable 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00%

(3) Neutral (4) Disagree (5) Strongly Disagree

Fig. 3 Years of experience

Lump Sum 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00%

(1) Strongly Agree (2) Agree

(1) Strongly Agree (2) Agree (3) Neutral (4) Disagree (5) Strongly Disagree

Fig. 6 Cost reimbursable contract

70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00%

Design-Build (EPC)

(1) Strongly Agree (2) Agree (3) Neutral (4) Disagree (5) Strongly Disagree

Fig. 4 Lump-sum contract Fig. 7 Design-build procurement

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Discussion

Generally, WMPs contribute to the country's development, enhance many regions, supply several districts with water pipelines, and present the chance for different firms. Because of their size and scope, WMPs include secondary and principal stakeholders who own various concerns and successes. Therefore, project managers have to know every concerned stakeholder and deem their concerns from the project start. Qatar has testified prompt growth of WMPs in the urban districts, fostering the question of SE in construction. The scale, characteristics, and complexity of these projects, besides funding, have created many chances for people and organizations involved in the WMPs development. Engagement of stakeholders involves activities such as: • Engaging stakeholders at proper project phases to gain or confirm their continued commitment to the project success; • Managing stakeholders’ expectations by negotiation and communication, ensuring project objects are delivered; • Addressing possible concerns that have not still become issues and forecasting future problems raised by stakeholders. • Such concerns necessitate to be identified and discussed as soon as possible to evaluate associated project risks; and • Clarifying and resolving matters that have been identified. SM assists in increasing the projected likelihood of success by ensuring that stakeholders clearly understand the project aims, advantages, and uncertainties. That empowers them to be influential in the project and assist in directing the project's actions and decisions. By foresee stakeholders’ responses toward the project, proactive responses can help obtain assistance or reduce negative project impacts. The stakeholders’ power to impact the project is usually high throughout the first project stages and decreases with Table 1 Matrix of (stakeholder/contract) engagement

Engagement methods

the project. A project manager is accountable for engaging and managing the different project stakeholders and maybe request the owner to support when necessary. Effective stakeholder management reduces project risk and decreasing the failure to fit its aims. The participants were asked about their views regarding the efficient methods of SE per the contract type in WMPs in Qatar. Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7 and Table 1 show that “meeting” was ranked first for all contract types, and it is the prevalent method for SE in WMPs in Qatar. As the meeting is face-to-face engagement, the communication ensures attendees understand the matters and knowledge obtained from viewpoints they state, and inexpensive and comparatively simple to arrange. The negotiation was ranked second since it is perhaps the common popular and cheap way of disagreement resolve in the construction industry, where the dominance of the disagreement process remains between the individuals concerned. To fulfill a better conflict negotiated compromising, four things have to be realized: efficiency, fairness, stability, and wisdom. By applying those types of measures, conflict resolution likely leads from win-lose situations to win–win solutions, wherever all participants seek to obtain novel methods to reach their goals and achieve the players’ aims. During this procedure, participants may conduct their own as in direct negotiation or may introduce a facilitator or an advisor. Otherwise, the interview is ranked last. The project manager wants to be fully facilitated and own the interpersonal skillfulness to address challenging matters, despite a premium approach for debate on criteria or analysis of options. Besides, Table 1 illustrates that for all types of contracts and procurement, the design-build was ranked in the first position, and it is the most common contract type for engaging stakeholders in WMPs in Qatar. The lump-sum contract was ranked second, and the cost reimbursable contract was ranked third. Otherwise, the measurement contract was ranked last.

lump-sum

Measurement

Cost Reimbursable

D&B procurement

Rank

RII %

RII %

RII %

RII %

Meetings

88.11

86.29

87.41

90.07

1

Social contacts

80.28

79.72

80.14

82.66

3

Negotiations

81.82

81.40

82.80

83.64

2

Workshops

81.40

80.42

80.98

82.66

3

Interviews

75.80

75.66

75.24

78.18

5

All factors

81.48

80.70

81.31

83.44

Rank

2

4

3

1

Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According …

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These results mention that project managers’ experience is most significant because the distinct contract type can enhance the collaboration at the WMPs level and, thus, improved the project performance. Moreover, SE is vital to project success, whereas stakeholder meetings are crucial for the dialog on mutual interest, explaining the project benefits and values. Furthermore, the engagement of key stakeholders as a portion of stakeholder management aims for identifying stakeholders’ demands and interests, which will achieve owner satisfaction. This is essential for successful WMPs performance. SM targets can be achieved through effective engagement.

Table 2 clarified the calculated results in terms of single factors, impact level, vested interest-impact index, and influence index. According to the influence index, the ranks clarified the stakeholder priority in descending order, which shows the most significant stakeholder in the WMPs in Qatar (Nguyen et al. 2009; Bourne and Walker 2005).

þ Urgency þ Knowledge

5.3 Stakeholder Vested Interest Table 2 illustrates that the respondent indicates that the client (RII = 81.99%), the contractor (RII = 75.89%), end-user (RII = 74.75%) have an interest in the construction of WMPs projects and can be effective in the project execution. Also, their engagement has the power of deciding the final shape and product of the project.

5.4 Stakeholder Power

5.1 Stakeholder Engagement Attributes

Impact level ¼ Power þ Proximity þ Legitimacy

cess will create many advantages, such as client promotion and achieving his needs.

ð3Þ

Vested interest Impact index ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðVested interest  Impact levelÞ 25

ð4Þ

Influence index ¼ Impact index  Attitude

ð5Þ

According to the acquired outcome in Table 2, the respondents agreed that all attributes utilized in this study are significant factors influencing the SE assessment. The values of these attributes will be utilized in prioritizing stakeholders and then classifying those stakeholders. Finally, select the engagement level to construct WMPs in Qatar to fulfill this paper's objective. The attributes will be introduced as the following:

Power is commonly described as an individual or set that may permanently modify or terminate the project or any other work (Bourne 2005). Moreover, power means the capacity to “resources control, generate dependencies, and prop the interests of some institution members or sets over others” (Mitchell et al. 1997). Table 2 indicates that all respondents indicate that the project clients (RII = 82.41%) and governmental authorities (RII = 78.16%) have the highest power. This is because most of Qatar's construction projects are funded based on the clients’ and the government's needs and requirements. In contrast, the clients and government have the power of providing finance and have the power to construct the project or changing it. Power can originate with features displayed by the individual or the organization. Also, power is often propped by other people's perceptions of the leader. Moreover, it is primary for project managers to be aware of their relationships with other stakeholders. Additionally, there are many types of power at the disposal of project managers. Nevertheless, power can be complex due to its nature and the different factors playing in the project.

5.5 Stakeholder Proximity 5.2 Stakeholder Attitude Table 2 demonstrates that most respondents indicate that the client (RII = 81.13%), the consultant (RII = 76.60%), and the contractor (RII = 76.31%) clear an effective engagement, supporting attitude to projects. This is because project suc-

Proximity indicates the degree to which a stakeholder is engaged in the project (Bourne 2005). (Bourne and Walker 2006) stated that stakeholders who may own substantial power and impact but are relatively far from the project core might appear transparent/invisible. Therefore, their likely influence may be minimized.

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A. Mashali et al.

Table 2 Stakeholder attributes index Attributes

Stakeholders

Client

Consultant

Contractor

Governmental authorities

End-user

General Public

Attitude

Mean

4.049

3.82

3.822

3.609

3.581

3.035

Std. Error

0.0794

0.075

0.076

0.089

0.0923

0.0951

Std. Dev

0.9436

0.900

0.904

1.060

1.096

1.1301

Vested Interest

Power

Proximity

Legitimacy

Urgency

Knowledge

RII

81.13

76.6

76.31

72.20

71.63

60.71

Rank

1

2

3

4

5

6

Mean

4.092

3.61

3.780

3.624

3.730

3.042

Std. Error

0.0732

0.073

0.078

0.07832

0.0798

0.0888

Std. Dev

0.8693

0.867

0.9265

0.92997

0.9477

1.054

RII

81.99

72.6

75.89

72.34

74.75

60.99

Rank

1

4

2

5

3

6

Mean

4.113

3.46

3.347

3.900

3.645

2.858

Std. Error

0.0824

0.078

0.0877

0.08380

0.0872

0.09943

Std. Dev

0.9790

0.930

1.041

0.9950

1.036

1.180

RII

82.41

69.6

66.95

78.16

72.91

57.30

Rank

1

4

5

2

3

6

Mean

3.985

3.79

3.808

3.5319

3.560

2.8227

Std. Error

0.0739

0.069

0.0766

0.0808

0.0769

0.0966

Std. Dev

0.8781

0.823

0.9095

0.9603

0.9131

1.148

RII

79.86

75.8

76.03

70.78

71.21

56.45

Rank

1

3

2

5

4

6

Mean

3.992

3.70

3.687

3.687

3.461

2.8511

Std. Error

0.0820

0.078

0.0860

0.0830

0.0863

0.10012

Std. Dev

0.9746

0.929

1.022

0.9865

1.024

1.188

RII

80.00

74.0

73.76

73.76

69.36

56.88

Rank

1

2

3

3

5

6

Mean

3.829

3.75

3.808

3.468

3.354

2.8440

Std. Error

0.0938

0.074

0.0859

0.0874

0.0895

0.0997

Std. Dev

1.114

0.885

1.020

1.038

1.063

1.184

RII

76.74

75.1

76.17

69.36

66.67

57.02

Rank

1

3

2

4

5

6

Mean

3.964

4.21

4.156

3.567

3.468

2.829

Std. Error

0.0807

0.070

0.0748

0.0850

0.0845

0.0980

Std. Dev

0.9592

0.835

0.8886

1.009

1.003

1.164

RII

79.57

84.1

83.12

71.35

69.36

56.31

Rank

3

1

2

4

5

6

Impact index

1.804

1.655

1.686

1.622

1.615

1.314

influence index

7.306

6.340

6.446

5.856

5.785

3.991

1

3

2

4

5

6

All factors

Rank

Table 2 shows that the most of respondents indicate that the client (RII = 79.86%), the consultant (RII = 75.89%), and the contractor (RII = 76.03%), directly participate in the work full time from the starting to the handing over and close out the project including maintenance period.

The proximity of team members to suppliers, customers, or other key stakeholders is useful and can realize many benefits. Hence, proximity can be defined as the period before the risk might influence one or more project objectives. A short period mentions high proximity.

Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According … Table 3 Stakeholder impact level and probability of impact values

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Impact level and Probability

Client

Consultant

Contractor

Governmental Authorities

End-User

General Public

*Impact level

19.88

18.94

18.80

18.15

17.48

14.20

3.61

3.78

3.62

3.73

3.04

**Probability of impact

4.092

*Impact level = Power + Proximity + Legitimacy + Urgency + Knowledge (Nguyen et al. 2009) **Probability of impact = Vested interest (Bourne and Walker 2005)

5.6 Stakeholder Legitimacy Legitimacy is a social good, something larger and further participated than just self-perception that may be determined and negotiated variously at different social organization levels (Mitchell et al. 1997). Legitimate stakeholders are whose actions, and claims should be considered by managers because of their potential effects upon concerned stakeholders. The stakeholder legitimacy gives a feeling that legitimacy reflects the contractual relations, legal, and ethical fairness in relationships among the stakeholders and the project (Nguyen et al. 2009). As illustrated in Table 2, the most of respondents indicate that client (RII = 80.00%), consultant (RII = 74.04%), and contractor (RII = 73.76%) have a great extent of legitimacy since they are internal stakeholders and incorporate in a one construction project and have a strong contractual relation.

5.7 Stakeholder Urgency Urgency is commonly described as the “degree to which stakeholder demands call for prompt attention.” (Mitchell et al. 1997). They additionally declare that urgency has two characteristics: time-sensitive and crucial. The urgency characteristics of stakeholders determine the degree to which they use pressure on a project manager via calling for contingency action. Table 2 shows that all respondents indicate that the client (RII = 76.74%), the consultant (RII = 75.18%), and the contractor (RII = 76.17%) have a high degree of immediately urgent reply. Additionally, urgency can be defined as the period within which a response to the risk is implemented to be effective. A short period mentions high urgency.

it observe. Walker et al. (2008) indicated the importance of every stakeholder's receptiveness to gain information concerning the project, and McElroy and Mills (2000) stated that stakeholder knowledge varies from complete awareness to whole ignorance. Table 2 shows that all respondents agree that the consultant (RII = 84.11%), the contractor (RII = 83.12%), and the client (RII = 79.57%) may have full information of projects since the consultant, contractor, and client are the stakeholder who bears whole responsibility, dealing with technical matters, solving the facing obstacles, etc., during all project stages. To sum up, Table 2 illustrates that the client was ranked in the first position, and the contractor was ranked in the second position. These were coming at the top of the list; this indicates that these stakeholders may be having the most effect on the construction of WMPs in Qatar. Thus, they should get the maximum attention of the project manager. The project manager should be determining and implement all client needs based on project specifications as cost, time, quality, and client satisfaction, where the client is the financier for the project. The contractor also executes the work according to the contract and the design drawings; furthermore, he hires the required workforce. Moreover, the consultant was ranked in the third position. This indicates that these stakeholders also own a peak influence on construction projects in Qatar. The consultant's score in the analysis is due to his position, actual responsibility, and important role in design and supervision. Additionally, the last group of stakeholders included the end-user and the general public and was ranked in the last position. This gives a negative indicator for this group toward the construction of WMPs in Qatar. Therefore, the project manager should be taken care of in this group.

5.8 Stakeholder Knowledge Yang et al. (2007) mentioned in their study that automation and integration technology might add and contribute significantly to project completion whence of stakeholder success. They stated that due to technological advancement, stakeholders could gain a diversity of information from many sources. Unquestionably, the more information a stakeholder has about the project, the more he/she can affect

5.9 Classification and Engagement Level of the Stakeholder For classification, the engagement level of the stakeholder, the stakeholder attributes should be determined and prioritized. Olander (2006) presented the classification of stakeholders based on the impact/probability matrix approach, Eq. (6) (Bourne and Walker 2005).

832

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Fig. 8 Classification and engagement level of the stakeholder

Probability of impact ¼ Vested interest

ð6Þ

While Eq. (3) calculates the impact level (Nguyen et al. 2009), the results are presented in Table 3. Evans et al. (2020) found that SE could be in four levels: collaborate, involve, consult, and inform. The relation between impact and probability was indicated in the impact/probability matrix. The results of the stakeholder classification are presented in Fig. 8: • Collaborate: Comprise the key player set (governmental authority, client, consultant, contractor, and end-user). • Involves: Keeping a satisfied set (general public). • Informing: Minimal effort set “Nil” • Consultation: Keeping informed set “Nil” Note: the general public is located between keep satisfied and key player. Collaborate: It includes partnering with the stakeholders in all decisions, including the evolution of alternative approaches where the key stakeholders have a high influence on project success. It is also considered the approach of working as one group to reduce conflict using multiple viewpoints and different perspectives. The following stakeholder set: client, consultant, contractor, governmental authority, and end-user are the key players in the construction industry in Qatar. Therefore, the project manager should collaborate with this stakeholder set to achieve a win–win situation. When everyone on the team is 100% allocated to one

project, they can collaborate continuously as a team, making everyone's work more dynamic (PMI 2018). Involving/engagement includes working fair and directs with the stakeholders to ensure that stakeholders' attention and ambitions are understood and considered continuously. The general public stakeholder is the key player in this group. Taking into consideration that this set does not participate directly in the project's execution. Nevertheless, the project's administration must deal immediately with these stakeholders continuously to achieve their requirements and their satisfaction. Involving all stakeholders during the initiation stage creates a shared understanding of success criteria. It also raises the chance of deliverable acceptance at the project completion stage and stakeholders' satisfaction throughout the project. The results of earlier studies indicate that RII is a broadly applied technique. However, it has some limitations: 1. Specialists and experts usually record the factors evenly (4 or 5 points), since they must operate on a 5-point scale. All factors evaluated were highly crucial with a substantial influence on project implementation. 2. Notwithstanding experts and specialists assessed each set of factors separately. Some factors from different sets were due to the reasons stated in point one above, given the same weights even though their differed impact on the project execution clearly.

Assessment of Stakeholders’ Engagement According …

5.10 Gap in the Research Due to a shortage of relevant research on this topic, this study contributes to the body of knowledge on stakeholders’ management. Also, the perception of such a critical subject, driving to a reinforcement of efficiency and effectiveness in stakeholders’ management in megaprojects. Therefore, the need for more work to be done on this subject is both apparent and urgent.

6

Conclusion(s)

From the responses of the participants, it is clear that there are varieties between the respondents. It includes many professions: client, supervision consultant, designer consultant, main contractor, and sub-contractor. It has many jobs related to the construction field, like client representatives, project managers, construction managers, and civil/structural engineers. There are different experiences and different companies. Based on the above statistics, it can be deduced that this sample of the respondents is suitable and sufficient to give the research a compatible view of the water megaprojects and stakeholder management in Qatar. The survey participants have related knowledge of stakeholder management and contracts and hands-on experience in construction projects. This gives reliability and credibility to the data and opinions collated. This paper introduced SE's approach to achieving successful WMPs in developing countries with desert climate as Qatar. However, MCPs have many stakeholders who need dynamic engagement to realize project aims. Also, engaging stakeholders provide a podium to deal with all concerns and conflicts associating with the construction industries in developed countries. Concerning the workable methodologies that could be applied in the SM process, the past researches designate several methodologies for engaging the stakeholders. However, the approach's effectiveness predicates on the stakeholder analysis, type of project, and the project aim that demands to achieve. WMPs are unique due to the huge stakeholder relationship networks in the project, with crucial impacts on society, the economy, and the environment. The aim is to identify and rank the most common contract types in Qatar that affect the SE process in WMPs. Meetings, negotiations, workshops, social contacts, and interviews are efficient ways for SE in the WMPs in Qatar. Moreover, meetings are the most effective method that should be used in engaging the stakeholders. Furthermore, the respondents believe that the Design-Build (D&B) is the most efficient method for dealing with the stakeholder requirements and claims in Qatar's WMPs. The paper's results are valuable for all concerned stakeholders when considering future WMPs sustainable

833

execution plans to help overcome the construction obstacles and increase the three pillars of sustainability.

6.1 Contribution This research contributes to the growing international body of knowledge addressing the application of Stakeholders Engagement According to Contract Type in WMPs. The results of this study will be useful for clients, contractors, project, and contract managers when considering future implementation plans for WMPs in Qatar, developing more collaboration among the project's stakeholders. The research is limited by the number of participants involved and the scope of the research. The authors announce that there is no conflict of interest. Future researchers can carry supplementary studies on increasing the number of projects investigated. Since megaprojects are different from every other, and more projects with qualitative data should be gathered, applied, and examined to have further flexible outcomes as a foundation for planning and constructing future projects. This issue needs many resources and time.

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Road to Academic Research Excellence in Gulf Private Universities Chiraz Zidi, Chokri Kooli, and Ahmad Jamrah

Abstract

In this study, we analyze first the origins of excellence strategy are evoked, highlighted by the European Community in the prolongation of its 2000 Lisbon Agenda affirming the Strategic. Second, we analyze excellence in Omani national research strategy 2008–2020 then excellence in the Private University research strategy where we discussed why the predominant use of excellence criteria has bias and risk. A pyramid of research skills exists where researchers and the laboratory of excellence are at the vertex: we wonder about the relationship that should be developed between the base and the top of this pyramid, from equity and efficiency perspectives. Finally, we propose a reflection on good practices to reach top-level research, emphasizing collaborative ethics and shared values. We ask then the question of researchers' responsibilities, especially those who are well-known, in raising the whole society's capacity to progress through intelligence and knowledge. Keywords

Research




Excellence




Strategy




• Finally, a reflection on good practices to reach the top-level research, emphasizing collaborative ethics and shared values, was proposed.

1

Introduction

The Research and Innovation Development (R&ID) in a Private University in a Gulf country conducts a study to determine how to measure research excellence, particularly regarding interdisciplinary applied research for development. In this paper, the literature review results as part of the study will be utilized to present the main debates in evaluating research, including impact, peer review process, measurement tools used as indicators, and criteria for assessing excellence in research.

2

Analysis

A. Excellence: from the managerial vision of Lisbon strategy to Europe 2020 strategy Private university

Highlights • Excellence in Omani national research strategy 2008– 2020 was analyzed • Then, excellence in Private University research strategy was discussed (why the predominant use of excellence criteria has bias and risk). C. Zidi (&) Muscat University, Muscat, Oman C. Kooli Lusail University, Doha, Qatar

The Commission developed in March 2010 Europe 2020 strategy. This new project, aiming for “smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth” is organized around three axes: innovation, increasing employment rate, and growth sustainability. It offers several target figures, as an overall employment rate of 75% (5% more than Lisbon Strategy), a research budget equivalent to 3% of GDP (resumption of the previous target, reaffirmed despite the context of deficit reduction and crisis), a 25% reduction of poverty, and a reduction of school failure from 15 to 10%. Furthermore, the Europe 2020 strategy reaffirms the ambitions of the “energy-climate package” adopted in 2008. Since adopting this strategy, some countries’ economic situation has deteriorated further, with a lingering recession, rising debt,

A. Jamrah College of Engineering, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_106

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unemployment, and poverty increase. So, we need to rethink the method that has clearly shown its limits. B. Excellence in national research strategy 2008–2020: case study the national research strategy in the Sultanate of Oman (from the Research Council) In order to achieve the vision by 2020 and overcome research excellence gaps, strategies that address specific goals were selected; major qualitative goals are enumerated below: • Lead in research by continuously tracking local and international scientific and social trends and responding to them by adapting research excellence areas. • Create cutting edge research in oil and gas-related fields. • Increase research activity in diverse strategic areas of interest. • Create strength in policy research for informed decision making. C. Excellence in Gulf Private University Research Strategy

1. The effects of scientific priorities display on creativity The choice of priority themes is well justified by societal challenges that research must help solve (Wright 2007). However, putting teams' fierce competition on priority axes projects has negative consequences. In all cases, it introduces unnecessary relevant distortions between stakeholders, which could lead to an opportunistic reshaping of teams or units and generally individualistic behavior. The reduction, or even disappearance, of recurrent resources concerning targeted funding is particularly detrimental to teams working on specific areas and specializations (Bak and Kim 2015) or new themes that break free from the call for proposals and international comparisons. Moreover, how to handle a gateway for unexpected discoveries that undoubtedly smack scientific serendipity, calling for some degree of investigation freedom, which may occur in emerging structures not classified under excellence categories? Creativity needs a freedom space that allows taking risks from the government as well as individuals sides, involving not being confined to only “in fashion topics” but also supporting researchers who open new paths, running counter to dominant themes current (O'Gorman et al. 2006) and (Marcella et al. 2017). Support possibilities at many risks have decreased significantly: activity changes are heavily penalized by the current funding patterns and the urgent need to achieve a rapid investment return.

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2. Which criteria assessing “excellence”? Justification and evaluation of excellence involve the multiplication of expert committees set in place at all levels, which has a high cost, not least by the time they require and cut from research activity time. Moreover, recognition of excellence in research is based itself on ambiguity. Even if we stick to the definition given above, excellence is generally determined from appraisal, often based on current work, which means, in extreme cases, to recognize as excellent only what is already achieved and not what is in the way of achievement. Furthermore, excellence is seldom evaluated in-depth, taking the example of the end of a research contract; this fact reduces learning processes and the need for improvement while expecting evaluation feedback. Also, evaluating excellence in individuals, teams, institutions, research projects, etc., by a recognized ranking adopted in research institutions mostly dodges a deep reflection about the choice of excellence criteria (Belcher et al. 2016). Evaluation time and criteria discussions between evaluators are paradoxically reduced, almost in the same proportion as the increase in evaluation operation number (Hammersley 2008). Implying that assessors’ postulated excellence is sufficient (Yates 2016), although risks are evident, namely: evaluators’ specialization, de-contextualization of assessors, over-representation of certain disciplines (Beerkens 2013) and criteria opacity (Roebber and Schultz 2011; Petit-Zeman 2003). Gulf Private University (Department of Research and Innovation) works on offering an instructive example through appealing “gold standard” methods of evaluation: It is planned to activate skills variety, gather them in a single high-level jury (Wooding and Grant 2003; Ware 2011; Smith et al. 2011). The objective of identifying supposed “Excellent” researchers is largely in its way of achievement. Nevertheless, slight selection biases were notable: candidates operating in the best context are the most benefited; “in fashion areas” of research have all the favors and preferences. A perfect assessment will, indeed, never be possible (Boaz and Ashby 2003)! 3. Limits of excellence strategy The fact that there is a pyramid of skills in the research community must be considered, where researchers and laboratories known as “of excellence” constitute the pyramid vertex. Although, if we do only finance proclaimed excellence, the pyramid base will not have the means anymore to operate, and in extreme cases, excellence will kill the rest! This, indeed, could most likely be fatal to excellence itself. Instead, halfway-research between pyramid base and vertex must not be underestimated. Exploratory research at pyramid

Road to Academic Research Excellence …

edges, often full of uncertainty, is edifying; we precisely need to clear new methods before becoming standardized. A wide base, far from being an obstacle to innovative and effective research emergence, is, on the contrary, essential to the pyramid vertex. This latter, based on the work of all research stakeholders, will only rise further. The pyramid height is born from the conjunction between talents and opportunities: this is exactly what should be cultivated everywhere by breaking a static and de-motivating model that stops many researchers from engaging in projects considered too ambitious for them. Rising and descending interactions between base and vertex must be questioned because excellence is multifaceted. The visible excellence, located at the pyramid vertex, adds a “niche excellence” or “hidden excellence” established in the middle of the same pyramid, thus, less considered. The development of highly dynamic research areas was often preceded by periods, sometimes very long, where only a few researchers have been active apart from financing channels and international competition. This “excellence of niche,” which needed to be well identified and efficiently protected, could become one of the highly dynamic research of the future. It is also necessary to reserve a place for “sharp” or a little bit visible topics, whose disappearance would be a very damaging loss to intellectual heritage and expertise. Undisclosed high-level research can exist in teams closely working with (Olmos-Peñuela et al. 2014) protected by the imperatives of secret in economic competition. However, this form of excellence is essential to companies, although it is considered sparsely visible in terms of public sector evaluation criteria. The current context implies an urgency to share all over the Gulf countries' scientific activity fruits and be attentive to diverse businesses' needs. Innovation often emerges from laboratories set outside of most prominent institutions: very high-level scientific production only prospers from royal roads characterizing Gulf Countries elites, formed by preparatory classes and major prestigious schools. Technology sectors, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and engineering schools of moderate importance are pathways for all scientists who find jobs relevant to societal needs. The development of high-level research needs a fertile ground in a specific geographical area (university laboratories, engineering schools, business and industries basins, and cultural implementations) (Chai and Shih 2016): diversity of skills causes a wealth of leading research ensembles; MIT in the United States is a good example of such. 4. How to create and stimulate high-level research at Private University? The legitimate ambition of research financed by public funds is to reach a very high level. However, to achieve this target,

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it must be taken into consideration that leading research production has naturally non-programmable dynamics. This research is not completely limited to a research landscape, static, and sized by an exact time–space evaluation. It is primordial to stimulate conditions to attract top researchers to the Private University of Gulf Countries laboratories. Passionate spirits about research exist everywhere; the brightest and most creative researchers will not only be encountered in the most prestigious universities; laboratories “of excellence” can occasionally turn into fortresses. The starting situation is not an absolute determination. This is why it is important to ensure a multiplicity of proving-grounds, maintaining pools of expertise, and connecting them. The possibility of mobility for all researchers and responsiveness and adaptation to new situations is essential to intellectual enrichment. Private Universities must facilitate trajectories that skew and may change, avoid premature specialization, generally speaking, create conditions for the orientation to be rethought throughout the career. Conversely, when research is initiated, Private Gulf Universities must ensure its development conditions, especially its sustainability. Short and medium-term projects should be able to be extended when they lead to interesting findings. Generally, the skills of high-quality teams must be nourished. Nevertheless, the call for proposal logic frequently leads to look for themes obeying novelty more than creates skills effective mobilization conditions (Goldfarb 2008). Research construction based on duration is neither opposed to responsiveness nor to new situations adaptation. 5. Excellence exemplary in the disclosure of Science at Private University Nowadays, Omani and Gulf Countries society, standing for knowledge and intelligence, face great challenges in energy, environment, and health areas, where science has a crucial role to play. For example, in the Sultanate of Oman, people with strong and solid scientific knowledge levels are insufficient. It is necessary to expand this basis forming the pyramid base whose vertex is research at its highest level, which deploys relatively in tension to other country needs such as strengthening national capacities (“capacity building”). Indeed we must not underestimate the population's reluctance about science (Berlemann and Haucap 2015) (and even science stakeholders). Scientifically, proven findings are challenged by individual opinions (Fife 1979); many benefits of technologies for everyday life are getting forgotten or ignored. However, it is obviously entitled to expect scientific work at all levels to address the societal challenges of the future. Research stakeholders, regardless of their level, have an obligation to raise societal scientific culture. It is clear that special attention has to be directed to youth

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Table 1 Oman’s current research productivity and quality indicating the need for a radical strategy to build excellence in any field (from The Research Council—Sultanate of Oman)

(Valencia et al. 2015; Németh 2014): for example, Omani private University students, because they are the force pipelines that will take over tasks of today's researchers and engineers (Hossler et al. 2001; Hossler 2001); but technical and scientific occupations attractiveness is insufficient. In this respect, visibility and exemplarity of a model representing the most prestigious laboratories and the most recognized researchers involve some responsibilities. Research and scientific approaches disclosure to the public is a necessity (Ismail et al. 2015). Some Nobel laureates, fields medals, or other great rewards (big prizes for women scientists, etc.) have well understood and largely contributed to spread a positive image of science and transmit its taste to the greatest possible number of public. D. Recommendations and conclusions The present study aimed to present the main debates in evaluating research, including impact, peer review process, measurement tools used as indicators, and criteria for assessing excellence in research in the Sultanate of Oman. Its overuse has trivialized the meaning of the term “excellence” in any and all contexts. The analysis helped us to generate an overview regarding the research progress through the private Omani Universities. Thus, a couple of recommendations would be beneficial to help these universities reach the excellence level. It would be better to limit its use in terms of research operations, substituting the concepts of quality (Kooli 2019), high-level work, and competitive capacity instead. Any benefit, selection, award, bonus, or allocation of credits based on excellence criteria implies adopting strict, transparent evaluation procedures, especially regarding the publication of results and the beneficiaries' names. Excellence, by definition, implies differentiation. Therefore, the evaluators must be required to uphold the principles of excellence in their evaluations. Moreover, an evaluation must be based on quality criteria and not exclusively on bibliometric indicators. The policy of excellence and the associated funding must provide sufficient means in terms of basic support and human resources for high-quality teams that do not necessarily meet the prevailing criteria of

“excellence.” High-level research relies on reacting quickly to new topics that may be highly original and far removed from the usual investigation paths. This capacity for rapid adaptation should be fostered by the decision-makers, facilitating teams' mobilization to work on these topics (encouraging mobility, reactivity in funding). We must ensure the sustainability of high-level research over time. Too often, the calls for proposals encourage applicants to pursue only the newest topics, which are determined more in terms of fashionability than the good use of available resources. Short- and medium-term projects that have produced promising results should have the possibility of being extended. More generally, we must maintain the skill levels of high-quality teams. The competition induced by the race for excellence can lead to increased misconduct in the laboratories. We must be aware of the importance of ethics in training research personnel and implementing the appropriate training mechanisms (Conroy and Smith 2017). Finally, researchers recognized for their “excellence” have a particular duty toward the scientific community and the general public. They are seen as models, and their high profile comes with a responsibility to share their research and, more generally, their scientific approach, with the young generation, the general public, and policy-makers.

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Road to Academic Research Excellence … A. Boaz, D. Ashby, Fit for Purpose? Assessing Research Quality for Evidence Based Policy and Practice (ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice London, 2003) K. Ceulemans, I. Molderez, L. Van Liedekerke, Sustainability reporting in higher education: a comprehensive review of the recent literature and paths for further research. J. Clean. Prod. 106, 127–143 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.052 S. Chai, W. Shih, Bridging science and technology through academic– industry partnerships. Res. Policy 45, 148–158 (2016). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.respol.2015.07.007 J.C. Conroy, R. Smith, The ethics of research excellence. J. Philos. Educ. 51, 693–708 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12249 J.D. Fife, Improving the use of higher education research. Res. High. Educ. 10, 189–192 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00976229 M. Gaillard, De la strategie de Lisbonne a la startegie Europe 2020, vie-publique.fr (2013) B. Goldfarb, The effect of government contracting on academic research: does the source of funding affect scientific output? Res. Policy 37, 41–58 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2007.07.011 M. Hammersley, Troubling criteria: a critical commentary on Furlong and Oancea’s framework for assessing educational research. Br. Edu. Res. J. 34, 747–762 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/01411920802031468 D. Hossler, Finding (more) fruit on the vines: using higher education research and institutional research to guide institutional policies and strategies (Part II). Res. High. Educ. 42, 223–235 (2001). https:// doi.org/10.1023/a:1026529721018 D. Hossler, G.D. Kuh, D. Olsen, Finding fruit on the vines: using higher education research and institutional research to guide institutional policies and strategies. Res. High. Educ. 42, 211–221 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/a:102657760 N. Ismail, M.J.M. Nor, S. Sidek, A framework for a successful research products commercialisation: a case of Malaysian Academic Researchers. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 195, 283–292 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.163 C. Kooli, Governing and managing higher education institutions: the quality audit contributions. Evaluat. Program Plann. 77, 101713 (2019) A. Kuzhabekova, D.D. Hendel, D.W. Chapman, Mapping global research on international higher education. Res. High. Educ. 56, 861–882 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-015-9371-1 R. Marcella, H. Lockerbie, L. Bloice, C. Hood, F. Barton, The effects of the research excellence framework research impact agenda on early-

839 and mid-career researchers in library and information science. J. Inform. Sci. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551517724685 B. Németh, Research and development of adult education through higher education institutions: a challenge and perspective for better adult learning and education. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 142, 97– 103 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.594 C. O’Gorman, O. Byrne, D. Pandya, How scientists commercialise new knowledge via entrepreneurship. J. Technol. Transf. 33, 23–43 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-006-9010-2 J. Olmos-Peñuela, E. Castro-Martínez, P. D’Este, Knowledge transfer activities in social sciences and humanities: explaining the interactions of research groups with non-academic agents. Res. Policy 43, 696–706 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2013.12.004 S. Petit-Zeman, Trial by peers comes up short. The Guardian, 16 (2003) P.J. Roebber, D.M. Schultz, Peer review, program officers and science funding. PLoS ONE 6, e18680 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0018680 S. Smith, V. Ward, A. House, “Impact” in the proposals for the UK’s research excellence framework: shifting the boundaries of academic autonomy. Res. Policy 40, 1369–1379 (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.respol.2011.05.026 J. Valencia, J. Macias, A. Valencia, Formative research in higher education: some reflections. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 176, 940– 945 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.562 M. Ware, Peer review: recent experience and future directions. New Rev. Inform. Netw. 16, 23–53 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13614576.2011.566812 S. Wooding, J. Grant, Assessing Research: The Researchers' View, DTIC Document (2003). ISBN: 0-8330-3480-4 T.S.A. Wright, Developing research priorities with a cohort of higher education for sustainability experts. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 8, 34–43 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1108/14676370710717571 L. Yates, Is impact a measure of quality? Some reflections on the research quality and impact assessment agendas. Eur. Educ. Res. J. 4, 391–403 (2016). https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2005.4.4.5 L. Zhang, W. Bao, L. Sun, Resources and research production in higher education: a longitudinal analysis of Chinese Universities, 2000– 2010. Res. High. Educ. 57, 869–891 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11162-016-9410-6

Historical Water Systems in the Arab Tradition: Al-Andalus, Oman, and New Mexico: A Documentary Film Thomas Glick, Shobuz Ikbal, and Paxton Farrar

Abstract

Modern approach to water resources management focuses purely on ontechnological solutions without complementary solutions in management and holistic systems design. Traditional Islamic water systems for irrigation installed by Arabs and later Moors, found in the Middle East, Spain, and the Americas hold two lessons for long-term sustainable water management in arid climates. (1) Local management of water as a common pool resource with special attention paid to the reduction of conflict and social stability. (2) Using the water system to support a “green” sustainable ecosystem development where man is the steward, not the ravager. Successful long-term management of water is not at base a technological issue at base; it is a social issue. Keywords





Acequias tradition

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Cultural diffusion Water allocation




Irrigation




Islamic

Introduction

The following proposal is the result of development work for the documentary film Agua Andalucía and is based on research and publications by scholars and experts on the team, chiefly Thomas F. Glick, Ph.D. The Arab conquests of the early middle ages led to the diffusion across the Islamic world of an approach to water resources that was fairly homogeneous, not only in terms of T. Glick Boston University, Boston, MA, USA S. Ikbal (&) Agua Andalucia—A Documentary Film, WA, Seattle, USA P. Farrar Agua Andalucia—A Documentary Film, Los Angeles, CA, USA

technology (qanats, norias), but also in measurement systems (12-based volumetric and time units, measurement by shadow), institutions of allocation (irrigation turns) and water rights (proportionality of water to agricultural surface). The success of such arrangements is reflected on their hyper-stability (which is longevity) which suggests viewing present-day Arab-influenced traditional irrigation systems influence as living historical artifacts.

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Methodology

Our method is based on field work over a period of three years, on three areas where “Arab style” water resource management has been, and still is practiced: Oman, Granada, and New Mexico. The field work has begun in Granada (in the form of development filming and initial interviews) and New Mexico. Emphasis has, thus, far centered on physical irrigation systems, filmed explications by local irrigators of water allocation both on the canals themselves and in meetings of farm irrigators. We traveled to multiple locations in southeast Spain including Las Alpujarras, Jerez del Marquesado, Granada, and in New Mexico near Santa Fe and Taos, filming and meeting irrigators, recording their experiences with water distribution and management and were able in this way to see social control in action. The portion on Oman has not yet been developed.

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Results

On our April 2018 expedition to Granada and Las Alpujarras, we met with Dr. José María Civantos of the University of Granada, and we visited the towns of Cañar and Orgiva where we met with local water administration and observed irrigation and maintenance of the irrigation systems. In our expedition in May 2019 to Jerez del Marquesado, we observed a community event of traditional

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Heggy et al. (eds.), Sustainable Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Deserts, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76081-6_107

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maintenance and rehabilitation of historic and functional water channels by the townspeople and a volunteer group from Granada. From these, we determined that the salient features of these irrigation systems: (1) have highly localized control of water supply and distribution, with emphasis on social stability; (2) are using the water system to support positive ecosystem development where the infrastructure becomes an interface between the population and the environment. As much as traditional irrigation systems around the world have been shown to have placed a high value on local control of irrigation, there is a structural dissonance between state-designed systems and locally generated ones (which is the “traditional” model). For example, peasant communities like to self-monitor their activities which often get them into relationships of tension and conflict with governmental authorities.

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Discussion

Water systems all over the world are struggling, and the severity of this is increasing as the climate changes, especially those in arid regions. Yet, in the dry landscapes of Andalucía in southeast Spain, we find numerous examples of thriving irrigation networks which have been functioning for over a thousand years in some cases. Their longevity (which we call “hyper-stability”) is due to the high value that communities of farm irrigators place upon local control of irrigation, which translates into a pragmatic management style and the application of knowledge-intense practices which govern their relationship with the surrounding environment. By “knowledge intensive,” we mean the way the local communities of irrigators store micro-ecological information which informs their agricultural practices. Particularly, in the case of irrigation, this knowledge includes traditional institutions of water allocation and measurement that inform the daily practice of irrigation, such as the particular structure of irrigation turns that underlie the efficient practice of irrigation, as well as crop choice and cultivating techniques. In southern Spain, these practices and attitudes derive from their historic Islamic origins. Al-Andalus was the medieval Iberia under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492AD, comprising multiple dynasties and ethnic groups often collectively referred to as the Moors (although, strictly speaking, Moors were peoples originally inhabiting the Roman province of Mauretania in North Africa.) There is an adage in the water communities of Andalucía: “Obra de Moros” (literally translates to “Work of the Moors”) referring to practices or artefacts which are exceptionally well done and thought-out, as in “This castle must be the work of the Moors.”

Indeed the citizens of al-Andalus installed thousands of local irrigation and water supply systems, which have, particularly in the last 50 years, attracted the attention of scholars. Based on small channels called acequias, which distribute water to parcels of land and towns, this technology can be found wherever the Muslim tribes and the Spanish after them ventured: The Middle East, North Africa, Spain, and the New World. You can find success in varying degrees, depending on the legal system which prevailed. In California, the legal system of prior appropriation (“first in time, first in right”) was established to serve the interest of gold miners and has exacerbated the water crisis in that state. In the U.S state of New Mexico, historic acequias struggle to function in a system which allocates water by volume rather than by time. What we think of as Arab or Berber, water resource system was able to succeed where others have failed; not because of superior technology, but due to a unique and unusually resilient social structure, consciously built to minimize conflict. The irrigation systems in Andalucía represent an exceptional example of the local management of a Commons. A Common Pool Resource—like fisheries, air, pastures, and water—is a renewable resource which human populations will exploit to destruction if not actively and wisely managed. When Muslims arrived on European shores from the Middle East and North Africa, their tribal social structures uniquely prepared them to solve the problem outlined in “Governing the Commons,” the book for which Dr. Elinor Ostrom won the Nobel Prize in Economics. Her research is extensive—and based in part on Dr. Glick’s data—but it can be loosely summed as local management of a resource using tools one would naturally find in a tribe: the users agree to jointly manage the resource, agree to share the benefits, and obey a judicial system administered by the elders. Arab-founded systems in Spain were, later on, succeeded by hybrid structures; whereby in the absence of tribes, irrigation communities were organized by the most proximate model (crafts guilds, with their distinctive officers, or even town councils) and produced legal codes which evolved to meet local conditions and requirements. Such hybrid institutions, somewhat surprisingly, worked very well in practice despite their radically different origins. Academic and governmental organizations are starting to model these surprisingly diverse systems for use in similar environs worldwide. In 2014, California passed The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) which compels the users in water-stressed basins to create a local organization and create a masterplan to be groundwater sustainable by 2040, mirroring the local management model found in Andalucía. The secondary focus of our findings is the ancillary result of irrigation creating what are now considered “green”

Historical Water Systems in the Arab Tradition …

sustainable ecosystems. When intensive, long-term irrigation is introduced, and the physical environment undergoes a dramatic change. These systems may be viewed as inefficient by post-industrial revolution standards, where efficiency is measured by how few drops are lost between the source and the customer. But in this way, “the perfect is the enemy of the good.” The water which leaks from the porous bottoms of the acequias is not lost. By spreading it relatively evenly across the landscape, it recharges aquifers, supports forests, creates local weather micro-systems, and helps in preventing desertification along the middle latitudes. Our project has been focused on southeastern Spain where we have looked at traditional irrigation systems inherited from the Muslims who originally built the systems. From there, we have looked at New Mexico where the traditional acequia communities have continued to irrigate in the Andalusi style, wherein tribal norms of water allocation and use have been succeeded by hybrid irrigation communities where tribal functions have been assumed by local entities. Now we seek to identify other irrigating societies in the Arab world in order to test for the presence of homogeneous approaches to irrigation. At first glance, we detect a kind of technological consistency of these communities. Qanats or filtration galleries are typical of an Arabo–Persian approach to tapping water in semiarid or arid environments, and we find it throughout the Near East, North Africa (foggaras), eastern Spain which is notable for the profusion of qanats at all scales, from the monumental (Crevillente, Madrid) to very small backyard galleries of only several meters; and then in the American southwest (Los Angeles). Lifting devices such as water wheels (whether current wheels or drawn by animals) are also geographic and cultural markers of these wide areas. A proximate area of interest is Oman whose distinctive organization of irrigation (the so-called Aflaj) has been the subject of scholarly interest. The Aflaj has in fact been named a World Heritage Site. The singular, “falaj,” is an irrigation canal, from the verb “falaja,” meaning “divide in two.” That semantic nuance is interesting because it supposes that the division of canal water is proportional.

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The water distribution system is based on qanats of moderate volume which typically are divided into four equal streams, shared by a maximum of eight users. Water is delivered on a fixed-time schedule. The shares are then converted into timed units, based on a twenty-four hour day, according to two methods for daylight measurements: in northern Oman, by observing changes in the length of a man’s shadow, while in central Oman, a primitive sundial is employed. At night, measurement is calculated by practical astronomical observations.

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Conclusion

Many would be students of water resource system in al-Andalus have failed to understand these two lessons and have neglected to take in the whole picture and relied purely on technological solutions without complementary solutions in management and holistic systems design. Successful long-term management of water is not at base a technological issue—it is a social issue. It is “The work of the Moors.” For the coming century, water management may very well join the list of Islam’s contributions alongside trigonometry, astronomy, and medicine.

References G. Bédoucha, L'eau, l'amie du puissant’. Unecommunautéoasienne du Sudtunisien (Paris, 1986) T.F. Glick, Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia (Cambridge, MA, 1970) HsainIlahiane, Ethnicities, Community Making, and Agrarian Change: The Political Ecology of a Moroccan Oasis (New York, 2004) J.B. Mabry, ed. Small-Scale Irrigation Systems (Tucson, 1996) A.M.A. Maktari, WaterRights and Irrigation Practices in Lahj (Cambridge, UK, 1971) J.A. Rivera, Acequia Culture: Water, Land and Community in the Southwest (Albuquerque, 1998) E. Ostrom, Governing the Commons (Cambridge, UK, 1990)