Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church (Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies) 9780367506353, 9781003053620, 0367506351

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Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church

This book identifies both the consistencies and disparities between Catholic Social Teaching and the United Nation’s (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ encyclical, Catholicism seems to be engaging more than ever with environmental and developmental concerns. However, there remains the question of how these theological statements will be put into practice. The ongoing involvement of the Catholic Church in social matters makes it a significant potential partner in issues around development. Therefore, with the use of the comparative method, this book brings together authors from multiple disciplines to assess how the political and legal aspects of each of the UN’s 17 SDGs are addressed by Catholic Social Teaching. Chapters answer the question of how the Catholic Church evaluates the concept of sustainable development as defined by the Agenda 2030 Goals, as well as assessing how and if it can contribute to shaping the contemporary concept of global development. Examining the potential level of cooperation between the international community and the Catholic Church in the implementation of the Agenda 2030 Goals, this volume will be of keen interest to scholars of Catholic studies, religious studies and the sociology of religion, as well as environmental studies and development studies. Katarzyna Cichos works as Researcher and Lecturer at the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University (CSWU) in Warsaw. Her research interests focus on public international law, with a specific emphasis on the legal and institutional aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals and good governance. She is also an active member of local community initiatives connected to good governance and sustainable development. She holds a PhD in Law. Jarosław A. Sobkowiak is Associate Dean of the Department of Theology and a lecturer in the Institute of Media, Education and Journalism at the CSWU. He is also a board member of the Moral Theologians Association and the Head of the Social and Digital Communication Centre of CSWU. He is the Chief Editor of the scientific half-yearly magazine Studia Theologica Varsaviensia.

Radosław Zenderowski is Professor at CSWU (since 1999), Head of Chair of International Relations and European Studies, and Director of Institute of Political Science and Public Administration. He is a member of the Scientific Board for PhD Studies in Silesian University in Opava (Czech Republic), a member of the Scientific Board of Polish Association of European Studies, and a member of the Committee on Political Science, Polish Academy of Sciences. He is the author of several books and articles on national identities in Central Eastern Europe (CEE), relations between nationalism and religion, ethnic conflicts, especially in the Balkan region, ethic policies of CEE states, and public diplomacy in the cross-border regions. Ryszard F. Sadowski is Head of Department of Ecophilosophy at CSWU. He is also an editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, published by the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University Press. His main research interests focus on environmental philosophy, environmental anthropology, ecophilosophical reflection on environmental crisis, and the role of religions in causing and overcoming the crisis. Beata Zbarachewicz is Lecturer at the Department of Informatics Law and the Faculty of Law and Administration at CSWU. She is also a member of the University Council. Stanisław Dziekoński, is Professor, has been Rector of UKSW since 2012, as well as the Head of the Department of the Psychological and Pedagogical Foundations of Catechetics. His other work includes acting as a consultant for the Catholic Education Commission and the Scientific Council of the Polish Bishops’ Conference and being an active member of scientific councils for various theological and pedagogical magazines.

Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church Catholic Social Teaching and the UN’s Agenda 2030 Edited by Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz and Stanisław Dziekoński

Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies

The Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies series brings high quality research monograph publishing back into focus for authors, international libraries, and student, academic and research readers. This open-ended monograph series presents cutting-edge research from both established and new authors in the field. With specialist focus yet clear contextual presentation of contemporary research, books in the series take research into important new directions and open the field to new critical debate within the discipline, in areas of related study, and in key areas for contemporary society. Investigating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ A New Transdisciplinary Approach Andrew Loke Catholic Social Teaching and Theologies of Peace in Northern Ireland Cardinal Cahal Daly and the Pursuit of the Peaceable Kingdom Maria Power Contextual Theology Skills and Practices of Liberating Faith Edited by Sigurd Bergmann and Mika Vähäkangas Multi-Religious Perspectives on a Global Ethic In Search of a Common Morality Edited by Myriam Renaud and William Schweiker Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church Catholic Social Teaching and the UN’s Agenda 2030 Edited by Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz and Stanisław Dziekoński For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ religion/series/RCRITREL

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz and Stanisław Dziekoński; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz, Stanisław Dziekoński to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Cichos, Katarzyna, editor. | Sobkowiak, Jarosław A., editor. | Zenderowski, Radosław, editor. | Sadowski, Ryszard F., editor. | Zbarachewicz, Beata, editor. | Dziekoński, Stanisław, editor.  Title: Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church : Catholic social teaching and the UN’s Agenda 2030 / edited by Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz, and Stanisław Dziekoński.  Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Series: Routledge new critical thinking in religion, theology and biblical studies | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020034316 (print) | LCCN 2020034317 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367506353 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003053620 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable Development Goals. | Catholic Church. Pope (2013– : Francis). Laudato si’. | Sustainable development—Religious aspects—Catholic Church. | Human ecology—Religious aspects— Catholic Church. | Christian sociology—Catholic Church. Classification: LCC BX1795.S87 S87 2021 (print) | LCC BX1795.S87 (ebook) | DDC 261.8088/282—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020034316 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020034317 ISBN: 978-0-367-50635-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-05362-0 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

Acknowledgments x Introduction

1

  1 Poverty prevention as a challenge for the international community in the context of Catholic social teaching

5

RADOSŁAW MĘDRZYCKI, TOMASZ SZYSZKA AND PIOTR BRODA-WYSOCKI

  2 The issue of hunger in the context of food security in Catholic social teaching

21

WALDEMAR CISŁO, KATARZYNA GÓRALCZYK AND MARIUSZ SULKOWSKI

  3 Health care as a personal and social asset

39

KATARZYNA KUCHARSKA, JAN PRZYBYŁOWSKI AND SEBASTIAN SIKORSKI

  4 The role of education and activities of the Catholic Church and the need to promote sustainable development

54

BEATA ZBARACHEWICZ, JAROSŁAW MICHALSKI AND PIOTR TOMASIK

  5 Combating legal and cultural forms of discrimination against women from the point of view of Catholic social teaching MAGDALENA WILCZEK-KARCZEWSKA, MAŁGORZATA PAWLUS AND ANDRZEJ WALESZCZYŃSKI

72

viii  Contents   6 Access to water as common good of humanity in the context of Catholic social teaching

87

WOJCIECH KLUJ, MAŁGORZATA LASKOWSKA AND MAREK RZOTKIEWICZ

  7 Prospects for sustainable development of the energy sector in the times of global climate change and environmental threats

102

ZBIGNIEW ŁEPKO, MAREK NIEZGÓDKA, PIOTR BURGOŃSKI AND DOMINIKA ŻUKOWSKA-GARDZIŃSKA

  8 Decent work and economic growth from the perspective of sustainable development and Catholic social teaching

114

KATARZYNA ROSZEWSKA, JAROSŁAW A. SOBKOWIAK AND ARTUR WYSOCKI

  9 Development or revolution? Industrialisation in the perspective of Catholic social teaching

132

ANDRZEJ RUDOWSKI, MAREK ROBAK AND PIOTR ŁUCZUK

10 Reducing inequality (social inclusion, social capital and protection of migrants in the context of Catholic social teaching)

153

ANNA FIDELUS, ELŻBIETA H. MORAWSKA AND ARTUR WYSOCKI

11 The Church vs. the issue of cultural heritage and social integration in the context of the Agenda 2030

171

KATARZYNA FLADER-RZESZOWSKA, GRZEGORZ KĘSIK AND HENRYK SKOROWSKI

12 Harmony, consumption and lifestyle in Catholic social teaching

184

MARIUSZ BOGUSZEWSKI, PIOTR BURGOŃSKI AND MAŁGORZATA STARZOMSKA-ROMANOWSKA

13 Climate changes as a challenge in the Anthropocene in the context of Catholic social teaching

198

DOMINIKA DZWONKOWSKA, IZABELLA OLEJNICZAK AND KAZIMIERZ PAWLIK

14 The protection of seas and oceans in light of international law and Catholic social teaching KATARZYNA CICHOS, BARBARA STRZAŁKOWSKA, MONIKA M. BRZEZIŃSKA AND KRZYSZTOF OPALIŃSKI

212

Contents ix 15 Land and soil sustainable management in SDG15 and in Catholic social teaching

227

BARTOSZ ADAMCZEWSKI, KRASSIMIRA ILIEVA-MAKULEC, AGNIESZKA KLIMSKA AND AGATA KOSIERADZKA-FEDERCZYK

16 Conditions for the effectiveness of guarantees of the individual’s freedom in the modern state

241

IRENA LIPOWICZ, KRZYSZTOF CEBUL AND GRZEGORZ EMBROS

17 The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs

256

RYSZARD F. SADOWSKI, JANUSZ BALICKI AND RAFAŁ LEŚNICZAK

Conclusion

274

Index280

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all authors and editors for their commitment, both in terms of content and organisation. We would also like to thank very warmly Prof. Ryszard Czekalski, Prof. Marek Michalski and Prof. Adam Świeżyński for their help and kind support for the project, Prof. Marek Rewizorski and Prof. Andrzej Szostek for their reviews, as well as Ms. Ewa Rogozińska and Mr. Grzegorz Gaura for the translation and proofreading of the chapters.

Introduction

On 25 September  2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda) with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was adopted by the UN General Assembly Resolution in New York. In view of how critical the problems addressed in the 2030 Agenda are and given that both developed and developing countries declared their willingness to solve them, the implementation of SDGs is a challenge for the entire international community. Therefore, it seems that all affected parties should be involved in the process. The Catholic Church is undoubtedly one of such parties. Starting from Pope Paul VI’s encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967), she has been intensively involved in the debate on the concept of development. The broad discussion on social reality was initiated in 1967 with the Pontifical Commission “Iustitia et Pax” established by Pope Paul VI. In 1988, Pope John Paul II upgraded the Commission to the Pontifical Council. On 1 January  2017, the Council was transformed into the Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development. The involvement of the Catholic Church in social issues is also clearly reflected in the socially oriented encyclicals of Pope John Paul II, i.e., Laborem Exercens, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis and Centessimus Annus (the latter announced on the 100th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum), and the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, which serves as a kind of catechism of the Catholic Church in social matters. The commitment of the Catholic Church to shaping a vision of global development undoubtedly finds its culmination in the concept of integral ecology proposed by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’. The involvement of the Catholic Church in environmental issues is a consequence of the debate, triggered by an article by Lynn White in 1967, on how Christianity contributed to the ecological crisis.1 The debate confirmed that religions have a great ecological potential and should use it properly. This opinion is shared by the State of the World 2003, the Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress towards a Sustainable Society, which indicates the need to involve religions in the process.2 The latest research in the field of religion and ecology, a new branch of knowledge, also confirms

2  Introduction this thesis. Mary E. Tucker and John Grim from Yale University, who have been exploring this issue since the mid-1990s, claimed that the contemporary environmental crisis cannot be solved by religion alone, but cannot be solved without religion either.3 The care of the Catholic Church for the development of individuals and societies is expressed in Catholic social teaching. This concept cannot be defined solely on the basis of the documents of the Church as they do not provide a clear definition. In this respect, the pontificate of Pius XII was undoubtedly a breakthrough. He described all issues related to the social thought of the Church as dottrina sociale cattolica. Pope John XXIII, in turn, contributed to the issue by incorporating Catholic social teaching into academic structures (John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, 1961, section  223). It should be emphasised that the mission of the Catholic Church is integral in nature. This means that no serious theological concept can be developed without reference to the contemporary world, current events or the circumstances of social life of a given epoch and in isolation from the vertical dimension, i.e., the fundamental relationship between man and God. Another definition for the social doctrine is provided in the Instruction Libertatis conscientia. It emphasises that “social teaching has established itself as a doctrine by using the resources of human wisdom and the sciences” (SVC, 1962, section 72). However, as stated by Pope Paul VI, the Church, in dialogue with the world and contemporary science, tries to “give an answer, in its own sphere, to men’s expectations” (Paul VI, Octogesima Adveniens 1971, section 42). Therefore, the attempt to define Catholic social teaching is needed at all stages of human dialogue with the world. Catholic social teaching refers to God to define the areas and factors which influence the development of man and his sense of dignity. It also constitutes the basis for shaping an attitude of responsibility, not only for personal and social development, but also for the state of the environment. The continuous commitment of the Church to social issues makes her a partner in this respect. Given the number of her followers, global structures and moral authority, the role of the Catholic Church in shaping the consciousness, necessary for the adequate response to contemporary global challenges, seems invaluable. The aim of this monograph is to identify both the common points and differences between the 2030 Agenda, with its contemporary sociopolitical concepts, and Catholic social teaching in terms of achieving Sustainable Development Goals, and to indicate the complementarity of cognitive perspectives and paradigms in the content of the 17 SDGs. Individual SDGs are discussed in the 17 chapters of the monograph in order consistent with the 2030 Agenda. The reference is made to Catholic social teaching and the scientific achievements of various scientific disciplines. The chapters attempt to answer the question of how the Catholic Church evaluates and approaches the concept of sustainable development defined in the 2030 Agenda, and whether, how and to what extent she can contribute to shaping the

Introduction 3 contemporary concept of global development. The publication is intended to define the potential interface between the international community and the Catholic Church in the implementation of the goals of the 2030 Agenda. The monograph also explores how the approach of the Catholic Church evolved to the reality of social life in recent decades. Note that the position of the Church was most often discussed with reference to either the tradition, more than a hundred years old, initiated by the teachings of Pope Leo XIII, or newer, though rare, trends in theological reflection, such as theology of liberation or political theology. However, such views did not provide a common ground for reflection. They rather strived to polarise the two positions, which is necessary but not sufficient to develop the official position of the Catholic Church on social issues. They attempted to transfer certain paradigms of the sociological sciences, especially in the field of social ethics, based on the Frankfurt School, into the theological reflection. The aim was to prevent the Catholic reflection from being accused of imitating the natural law increasingly identified with the ideologically driven theological reflection. The Second Vatican Council noted some weaknesses in communicating the axioms of the Catholic Church and laid the foundations for a new theological current called theology of earthly realities. However, the rejection of old paradigms was too radical. As a result, Catholic social teaching lost its identity. Note that paradigms of the sociological sciences do not provide continuity, which is a fundamental value for the theological reflection. The official teaching of Pope John Paul II provides an answer to how to change the paradigm and preserve the continuity of the teaching at the same time. The key concepts of this new theological reorientation include anthropological foundations, the principles of freedom and responsibility, and a reference to the categories of the common good, solidarity, subsidiarity, participation and the universal destination of goods. The traditional social doctrine of the Catholic Church, enriched with the new concepts, acquired a new status and methodological identity,4 and opened to a broader dialogue with the contemporary world. This new approach is discussed in this monograph. Also, note that this monograph, whose aim is to explore the content of the 2030 Agenda from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, approaches the individual goals of the 2030 Agenda on an interdisciplinary basis. The publication brings together 55 authors from different scientific disciplines and uses the comparative method to present each of the 17 SDGs from the perspective of both a range of different scientific disciplines and Catholic social teaching. Each chapter of the monograph was prepared by three or four representatives of different scientific backgrounds and disciplines. This clearly highlights the multifaceted nature of the challenges of the 2030 Agenda. Each challenge of the 2030 Agenda seems better “exposed” in one particular scientific discipline: social sciences, humanities, law, theology or exact sciences. Each of the 17 chapters of the monograph was prepared by another research team, and the teams were often diverse in composition.

4  Introduction Finally, note that the mere work on the monograph, encouraging dialogue and cooperation at a micro level, proved that to develop a common position among people with different and often very distant views, experiences, paradigms and research perspectives for the achievement of the goals of the 2030 Agenda is sometimes difficult, but definitely possible.

Notes 1 Cf. White, L. (1968). The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis. Science, 155(3767), pp. 1203–1207. 2 Cf. Gardner, G. (2003). Engaging Religion in the Quest for a Sustainable World. In G. Gardner et  al. (Eds.) State of the World 2003. A  Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Towards a Sustainable Society. WW Norton  & Company, pp. 150–175. 3 Cf. Tucker, M., & Grim, J. Religion and a New Environmental Ethic. www.you tube.com/watch?v=BG0bQ3SwDI8 4 The essential and noteworthy study: Gocko, J. (2013). Nauka społeczna Kościoła w poszukiwaniu własnej tożsamości. Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego (with rich foreign-language literature proving the importance of the discussion).

1 Poverty prevention as a challenge for the international community in the context of Catholic social teaching Radosław Mędrzycki, Tomasz Szyszka and Piotr Broda-Wysocki Introduction Sustainable Development Goal 1 (SDG1), with the wording “End poverty in all its forms everywhere,” is the first of a long list of 17 goals indicated in Resolution 70/01. The message of this goal is very optimistic. Moreover, the following statement is used: “We are determined to end poverty and hunger in all their forms and dimensions” (UNGA, 2015, section 2). This approach seems to stem from the conviction that if we mobilise all forces and use the entire world’s potential, we will be able to avert the tragedy of millions of people who live in extreme poverty (UNGA, 2015, section 5). In recent decades, a great number of scientific analyses, publications, reports and studies on poverty eradication have been published, with a multitude of valuable suggestions. However, to put theory into practice is a very challenging task for many reasons. In spite of the great commitment of the Catholic Church and lay people as well as enormous effort and financial resources, the implementation of the “Church of the Poor” formula and the human promotion imperative has not yet produced fully satisfactory results. Therefore, the concept conveyed by SDG1, especially in relation to sustainable development, does not seem to be unattainable, all the more within one decade. In his encyclical letter Laudato Si’, Francis explicitly states that “the exploitation of the planet has already exceeded acceptable limits and we still have not solved the problem of poverty” (Francis, 2015, section 27). This deep thought of the pope should be construed as a reference to human activity to date since a number of goods produced with the use of the planet’s resources have not improved the quality of life of the poor, either due to socioeconomic overexploitation or lack of solidarity. Unfortunately, social sensitivity is still too weak, and this entails mentality of indifference and heartlessness towards the poorest. Incidentally, such an approach is a manifestation of the sin of omission and missed opportunities. The final conclusion is pessimistic: unfortunately, the chance to fight poverty using the planet’s resources has already been wasted. It also seems that opportunities that arise as a result of the acts of the international and supranational law, i.e., acts of the Council of Europe, the European Union, the African

6  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. Union and others, have not been fully exploited. Due to the global nature of extreme poverty and limited length of the chapter, only global references have been made. However, it can be easily found that this issue is regulated by many legal acts and programme documents. In SDG1, the international community assumes the fight against poverty with respect to sustainable development. In a broader sense, SDG1 refers to social policy. Since “the exploitation of the planet has already exceeded acceptable limits” (Francis, 2015, section 27), while the problem of global poverty remains unresolved, poverty should be approached following Catholic social teaching. In this respect, the question that arises is about similarities and differences between those two approaches to SDG1, i.e., the strategy adopted by international aid providers and donor countries providing the so-called Official Development Assistance and the framework of Catholic social teaching. It is also worth assessing how the national measures to combat extreme poverty, proposed by the Catholic Church, differ from those of left- and right-wing groups. To address this issue, SDG1 as well as the related axiological and normative documents and acts of international law referring to poverty are examined here. The global approach to poverty is compared with Catholic social teaching.

Definition of extreme poverty There are two categories of international documents which address poverty, including extreme poverty. The first category includes axiological and political documents which do not shape any rights of the poor, but instead constitute political or moral commitment of particular countries (governments) to fight against poverty (Ploszka, 2019, pp. 74–84). Resolution 70/01 also falls into this category. Other key documents are as follows: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted at the Rio de Janeiro meeting on 3–14 June 1992 (Rio Declaration); Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna on 25 June  1993 (Vienna Declaration); Beijing Declaration 1995; Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development of 1995; United Nations Millennium Declaration 2000 (Millennium Declaration); and Human Rights and Extreme Poverty Resolution 2012. In general terms, the documents falling into this category maintain axiological coherence. In the documents referred to previously, the fight against poverty (or against extreme poverty, as the case may be) constitutes a goal pursued by the international community, individual countries, organisations and even people themselves. This implies the decentralisation of responsibilities (Rio Declaration, Principle 5; Millennium Declaration, section III.20). Extreme poverty precludes the exercise of human rights and violates human dignity (Vienna Declaration, section I.25). In the strategy documents, inequality between men and women, including inequality of access

Poverty prevention as a challenge 7 to goods and means of production, is seen as one of the causes of poverty. Poverty is also significantly triggered by lack of sustainable development in the globalised world and lack of solidarity (cf. e.g. Beijing Declaration 1995, section 16). The second category includes normative acts pertaining to human rights at the international level. There are few acts in this group which directly refer to extreme poverty as compared to the first group. They include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), with the assumption of its binding nature, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The literature notes that the small number of international legal acts related to poverty is due to the fact that setting international legal standards for the right of “freedom from poverty” would inevitably lead to conflicts between poor and wealthy countries; the latter, in accordance with the principle of solidarity, being responsible for guaranteeing this right. Therefore, freedom from poverty should be considered in connection with the rights related to the adequate standard of living (Ploszka, 2019, pp. 101–102). The responsibility to guarantee these rights rests with the signatory states of the convention. Due to the assumptions made in this chapter, the crucial role of regulations enforced in the Council of Europe and the EU should be mentioned as a side note. The regulations adopted by the Council of Europe include the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms secured with the European Court of Human Rights established to enforce it, the European Social Charter of 18 October  1961 with its additional protocols (1988, 1995) and amending protocols (1991), and the Revised European Social Charter of 3 May 1996. With respect to the EU, besides the soft law instruments, the leading role of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union is most frequently highlighted. In Article 34(3) thereof, the right to social and housing assistance is recognised and respected in order to combat social exclusion and poverty. However, it is also emphasised that the EU’s human rights–based approach to poverty is mainly based on argumentation and has not provided significant added value in the fight against poverty and social exclusion so far (Ploszka, 2019, p. 201). In addition to legal acts and documents, the programmes of the World Bank conducted in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund and the programmes of the Fund for European Aid to the Most Deprived Persons in the EU play a huge role. With reference to the principles of Catholic social teaching, the sovereignty of individual countries and peoples has been repeatedly emphasised in the teaching of the pope in recent decades, but in order to overcome world poverty, rich countries need to provide poor countries with honest and solidarity-based support. Such an attitude stems, inter alia, from the principle of honesty and justice as there are many countries, e.g., those in Africa and Asia, and Amazon areas (Francis, 2020, sections 10–13, 15–16),

8  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. which are nowadays sophisticatedly exploited, and are unable to gain economic independence and ensure prosperity for their inhabitants. There is no normative definition of extreme poverty in the international law. The notable attempts to define extreme poverty were made by the United Nations; they include the Report of the independent expert on the question of human rights and extreme poverty by Arjun Sengupta (A/HRC/7/15) (UN, 2008, sections 23–43) and the final draft of the guiding principles on extreme poverty and human rights submitted by the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (A/HRC/21/39) (UN, 2012, p.  4). Following these documents, extreme poverty combines three factors: low income, human development poverty and social exclusion (including deprivation of individual rights). From the global perspective, these concepts are highly relative and thus provide the definition which is descriptive rather than operative. A/HRC/7/15 reads as follows: While income and human development poverty focus on individuals, implying deprivation owing to lack of income or failure to achieve a certain level of human development, social exclusion focuses on social relations, thereby implying deprivation because of membership of a certain social group whose interaction with other groups causes that deprivation. (UN, 2008, section 29) People affected by human development poverty are people “without access to, or availability of, certain basic goods and services to make it possible for them to lead a meaningful life” (UN, 2008, section 31). It should be emphasised that social exclusion can be fundamentally limited by social security schemes, i.e., all public fund benefits granted to citizens under the following three pillars: national insurance, social security and social assistance. According to some opinions within the legal doctrine, these systems are complementary and resemble anti-poverty cushions. For these reasons, the potential of policy makers as well as targeted transfers and policies play a substantial role (Ravallion, 2016, p. 547). People who are directly and permanently engaged in work among the poor and with the poor report that in some cases, governments and NGOs provide inadequate forms of assistance to the poorest. In particular, the concealed forms of misuse of a large part of the funds under the so-called administrative fund (excessive earmarking to maintain structures) are reported. As a result, the intended beneficiaries are rarely able to take full advantage of ambitious projects and declarations. Aid institutions often discredit themselves, and those in need of help do not trust them (Francis, 2020, section 24). This results in a totally demanding attitude without the willingness to independently and creatively engage in the process of exiting and overcoming poverty. The sin of omission, resulting from failure to

Poverty prevention as a challenge 9 prepare and reliably implement adequate forms of assistance reaching the poor and stimulate their personal development, is still evident. In this respect, SGD 1.1 should be mentioned as it measures extreme poverty as people living on less than USD 1.25 a day. This definition of extreme poverty is in line with the definition established by the World Bank in 2008 (Cichos  & Salvia, 2019, p.  5). With this approach, the authors of SDGs can easily avoid descriptive and supposedly relative terms. The examples of descriptive and relative terms commonly used to describe extreme poverty are as follows: extreme poverty kills, household is not able to meet its basic needs, lack of access to health care, lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, lack of basic shelter, total failure to meet basic human needs (Sachs & McCord, 2018, p. 4338). On the other hand, it can be argued that numbers, highly dependent on economic factors, are used excessively. In this regard, poverty should be considered in a broader sense, specifying two other manifestations, i.e., moderate and relative poverty. The question to ask here is whether the fact that each developing country has exceeded the level of USD 1.25 by a few cents automatically means that basic human needs have been satisfied. Note that the earlier-mentioned limit expressed in USD should be assessed in relation to 2030 rather than 2015, which is when SDGs were introduced. This is because 2030 sets the goal (attainable or not). Moreover, this issue is not so clear if we take into account uneven global distribution of the risk of poverty (for example, in sub-Saharan Africa, it is huge; while in East Asia – decreased) and doubts as to how to reliably compare the standard of living in different regions of the world (Deaton, 2010). The data cited in SDGs are straightforward and frightening. For example, they say that 10% of the population live in extreme poverty (defined by the limit of 1.9 dollars a day), 55% of the world’s population have no access to social care, while 20% of children live in complete poverty, possibly with no prospects for biological and social development. Geographically speaking, the problem is diverse. The North–South divide is not always fully applicable here, although many aspects relating to this concept remain valid. Poverty is not a simple result of economic factors. Besides geographical and climatic reasons (cf. Landes, 2000), cultural factors have a huge impact here. Whereas just as social inequalities down to the level of poverty exist in rich countries, so, in parallel fashion, in the less developed countries one often sees manifestations of selfishness and a flaunting of wealth which is as disconcerting as it is scandalous. (John Paul II, 1987, section 14) Modern underdevelopment is not only economic but also cultural, political and simply human. (John Paul II, 1987, section 15)

10  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. Lister states that there is no simple definition of poverty, although it probably has its physical dimension. Similarly, there is no uniform definition of social exclusion. The concept of social exclusion often refers to the situation of people most affected by social problems with focus on poverty-based aspects and sociocultural issues (Golinowska  & Broda-Wysocki, 2005, pp. 17–55; Broda-Wysocki, 2018, pp. 321–329). Nevertheless, with a view to operationalisation and the potential to take actions, the aim in each case is to define a poverty limit to separate the extremely poor people from those whose situation seems to be somewhat better though not necessarily favourable. Following this approach, definitions of absolute poverty (referring to basic needs) and relative poverty (based on the standard of living) were established. In the teaching of the Church, poverty, especially extreme poverty, is the result of sinful economic, political and sociocultural structures which have a huge impact on the personal dignity of a specific person. Poverty is a state in which people experience a permanent lack of the means to live in dignity, i.e., food and clean water, education, access to the labour market and decent wages, health care, legal protection, decent living and rest conditions as well as access to technical achievements and the opportunity to use it. Extreme poverty is a state in which people have no access to even the most basic needs of life. Living in neighbourhoods of poverty is like another category of living, with multidimensional violence and permanent disinformation and disintegration. This is where criminal offences, drug trade, prostitution and killing to harvest organs for transplantation are part of daily life. The prolonged state of life in poverty results in a sense of helplessness, low selfesteem and professional inactivity. Puebla and Aparecida indicate that poverty should not be assessed based on the abstract (objective) scale of economic indicators as long as it takes the form specific to individuals (Puebla, sections  31–39; Aparecida, section  397). The distinction between culpable and non-culpable poverty or objective and subjective poverty is legitimate, but in the end, it affects a specific person who needs appropriate help (SVC, 1965, sections  85, 88, 90). Consent to poverty, and even more so to misery, is a sin of omission as it denies and opposes the commandment to love God and neighbour (SVC, 1965, sections 72, 83; Paul VI, 1967, section 8). Any attempts to manipulate or reinterpret the commandments in any way to justify the benefits deriving from exploiting the poorest also constitute a grievous sin (Francis, 2015, sections 56, 198).

Solidarity principle The solidarity principle is an essential element of current international policy, including the European Union (Cichos & Salvia, 2019, pp. 25–29; Mik, 2009, p.  37). If we assume that solidarity is a prerequisite for the

Poverty prevention as a challenge 11 existence of any organisation and community (Laitinen & Pessi, 2014, p. 2), in today’s globalised world, we should expect strengthened global solidarity. Solidarity is also connected with sustainable development, especially given that poverty is increasingly caused by natural disasters which occur, inter alia, as a result of human activity (Kerényi & McIntosh, 2019, p. 75). The solidarity principle always means that a relationship between two or more actors must have been established and filled with a content called solidarity. What is worth noting is that the Catholic Church’s perspective of solidarity with respect to poverty is broader. Since solidarity to fight against poverty is possible, the question is whether solidarity along with the systembased approach can trigger poverty. The responsibility for the existence of sinful structures that legitimise global poverty rests with all the people (SVC, 1965, section 84; Aparecida, section  62) because everyone perpetuates social disparities in some way, for example by making use of the products of slave labour existing in the poorest countries. Seeking to meet, in an unjustified way, multiple needs resulting from excessive consumerism also constitutes a sin (Aparecida, section 397). In order to effectively combat poverty, a strong will to introduce and consistently observe the solidarity principles is required. To achieve this, profound transformations in the way the world societies think and act would have to be triggered. The Oxfam report Reward Work, Not Wealth, published in 2018, reveals possibly even more explicitly than SDGs that eight people in the world have accumulated assets of about USD 426 billion, which is equal to those of the rest of the population. Since 2010, the rate of wealth with respect to the richest people has increased by 11%. Fifty percent of the population has not recorded increase in wealth at all. Eighty-two percent of the entire world’s wealth belongs to 10% of the population. These data are truly meaningful with respect to the question of solidarity. The concept of ordoliberalism partially supported by Catholic social teaching and somewhat forgotten today seems crucial here. Ordoliberalism recognised the rationality of economic space. However, it did not glorify profit and economic performance as a measure of success and did not adopt the winner-takes-it-all model. Ordoliberals remained faithful to the idea of the Christian personalism which gave priority to work over capital. The concepts of welfare, which were based solely on economic performance and ignored the moral condition of human beings, ended in failure or required essential reforms at a certain time, regardless of whether the socialist or capitalist model of management was adopted (Broda-Wysocki, 2018, pp. 321–329). “In order to be genuine, development must be achieved within the framework of solidarity and freedom, without ever sacrificing either of them under whatever pretext” (John Paul II, 1987, section 33). One of the vital aspects of the activity of the Church, besides preaching the Gospel, is defending and restoring human dignity, especially with regard

12  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. to the poorest. Therefore, based on the teaching of Jesus Christ and the life of the Church in the first centuries, the Church emphasises how important it is to have a closer look at the poor and serve the poorest through direct involvement: “For this reason too, those oppressed by poverty are the object of preferential love on the part of the Church. . . . It has done so through countless charitable works which always and everywhere remain indispensable” (Libertatis conscientia, section 68). The call not to objectify the poor has a long history in the teaching and practice of the Church with the following issues raised: human rights (Leo XIII, Rerum novarum), subsidiarity principle (Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno), human dignity (John XXIII, Pacem in terris). However, in the second half of the 20th century, a new understanding of this concept was developed with a transition from the theology of spiritual poverty to the theology of the poor. The Second Vatican Council (SVC) discussed the concept of the Church of the poor while the Medellin CELAM conference held in 1968 established the paradigm of “preferential option for the poor.” The need to view the problem of the poor and poverty in its entirety and to develop adequate solidarity principles was emphasised (Santo Domingo, section 275; Aparecida, sections 396, 409). The approach was new in a sense that besides being available to the poor, one needs to, above all, be with them, live among them and share life with them (Aparecida, sections 94, 397–398). It established a new style of life and direct involvement (John Paul II, 1987, section 15). It was also stated that the Church has a duty to defend and sympathise with the poor by undertaking specific activities because the poor constitute an important part of the community of the Church (Puebla, section 263). The poverty issues are reflected in many papal encyclicals and exhortations (Paul VI, Populorum Progressio; John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, Centesimus Annus, Tertio Millennio Adveniente; Benedict XVI, Caritatis in Veritate; Francis, Laudato Si’). The focus on human dignity in the teaching of the Church brings a number of implications and thus is not readily accepted by the whole Christian world, especially by the opponents of the Church’s teaching. Indeed, the Church’s documents dealing with extreme poverty stress the need to fully respect the personal dignity of every human being, i.e., their subjectivity, self-determination and freedom. They also warn against a sophisticated kind of lawlessness whereby human rights are violated when people are treated objectively and their needs are reduced to material goods (Paul VI, 1971, sections  26–39). Providing help to the poor cannot depend on their consent for methods that are detrimental to personal dignity (dehumanisation). The Church’s teaching considers human rights in connection with fully integral human development and emphasises a holistic (multifaceted) approach to the needs of people in extreme poverty (SVC, 1965, sections 69, 88; Catechism of the Catholic Church, sections 2444–2446).

Poverty prevention as a challenge 13 SDG1 can be seen as an international call for solidarity in the spirit of the teachings of the Catholic Church. John Paul II wrote: “Fight hunger by changing your lifestyle” is a motto which has appeared in Church circles and which shows the people of the rich nations how to become brothers and sisters of the poor. We need to turn to a more austere way of life which will favour a new model of development that gives attention to ethical and religious values. (John Paul II, 1990, section 59) It can be assumed that SDG1 promotes solidarity, but this promotion seems “soft” as it appears to be clear that solidarity is absolutely necessary to be able to achieve the goal. SGD1 does not articulate this principle and does not provide a legal framework for it. However, this does not rule out the necessity to maintain solidarity in the fight against poverty. This can be seen in the example of how hunger as one of the basic manifestations of extreme poverty is dealt with (Caparrós, 2016, p. 405 et seq.). Note that solidarity understood as a principle (or value as it seems more appropriate in SDGs) is not limited to international humanitarian aid. The focus on intrastate solidarity in the fight against poverty is indicated in the targets of SDG1. The responsibility for the social protection of the poor rests with the countries in the first place. The countries are obliged to “implement appropriate social protection systems and measures” (SDG1.3), which entails the necessity to demonstrate social solidarity, and to ensure “equal rights to economic, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance” (SDG1.4). Over the centuries, the Church has gained valuable experience and learnt that the analysis of diverse sociocultural conditions is essential in order to ensure adequate assistance to the poorest (John Paul II, 1987, sections  14–15). The awareness and expectations of the poor living in a mountainous environment, e.g., the Andes or the Himalayas, are completely different from those of people living in lowland and tropical areas, e.g., Amazonia or India. Besides the diverse natural environments, i.e., geographical and climatic conditions, there are also significant differences in cultural and religious dimensions. Hence, in the global dimension, poverty always takes many forms with a slightly diverse character and scale of material, spiritual, psychological and cultural needs and expectations (John Paul II, 1999a, sections 21–22, 58; John Paul II, 1999b, sections 7, 34; John Paul II, 2001, sections 7, 26; John Paul II, 2000, sections 51, 114–115). There is no universal recipe to tackle global poverty. However, if the multiple cultural variables that enable poverty in a particular sociocultural environment are taken into account,

14  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. the poor are eager to accept and creatively engage in aid projects. This, in turn, prevents passive (short-term) use of the aid or deliberate rejection of any form of aid. The inter-state social solidarity is a measure used to achieve the rights laid down in ICESCR (Article 2 of ICESCR; General Comment No. 3, Item 13). Further details can be found in the next section of this chapter.

The role of social security in the fight against poverty The role of social security is particularly highlighted in SDG1.4. Note that from the point of view of the jurisprudence, social rights are the rights of the second generation primarily laid down in ICESCR. Besides, the guarantees referred to in Article 2 and 3 of ICESCR and Article 9 of ICESCR, which regulates the right to social security, including social insurance, play a pivotal role in the fight against poverty. Article 11(1) of ICESCR addresses the “right to an adequate standard of living” and its implications, while Article 11(2) of ICESCR recognises the fundamental “right to be free from hunger.” If we assume the binding nature of UDHR, Article 22 of UDHR plays a significant role: “Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security.” In the global terms, these provisions can also be interpreted as a legal anchor to which SDG1 can be attached. However, the fact that social rights are the rights of the second generation has a direct impact on their implementation which, as opposed to the rights of the first generation, may be progressive (Ploszka, 2019, p. 111). This is in line with the progressive character of SDG1 targets. However, it is still obvious that this document does not guarantee that the goal will be implemented by 2030 in such a way as to eliminate poverty throughout the world. This should be seen as a political will rather than a legal commitment to eradicate poverty. In order to be able to combat poverty, legally defined public tasks that form the system need to be established. This tendency is clearly visible in social security: humanitarian aid, especially the fight against hunger, allows one to survive, but does not eliminate poverty as such (Mędrzycki, 2017, p. 304). It should be stated more precisely what exactly the system should look like. Today, institutionalised and state-organised social security systems almost perfectly reflect a good condition of a modern and developed state. However, the issue which is still not clear is how political instruments, especially democracy, and economic tools, i.e., establishing and observing the rules of a market economy, can respond effectively to challenges, often moral in nature. Sometimes, it is assumed that the welfare state is based on three values/ concepts (White, 2010): Needs. The discussions on the welfare state often focus on the assumption that the welfare state should be a tool to effectively meet basic

Poverty prevention as a challenge 15 needs. The problem, however, is not to agree on this general statement, but to try to estimate the needs in such a way as to move from a moralistic slogan to possible assistance activities. Therefore, one can agree that social rights represent the last stage in the development of rights (following political and economic rights), and determine the scope and types of welfare states (Marshall, 2000). However, they do not give rise to any specific measures with a view to the operationalisation of basic needs. It is necessary to promptly discuss and possibly implement specific directions and ways of redistribution (economic challenges), and consider demographic challenges (intergenerational challenges). Equality. Redistribution activities usually have an equalising value. The welfare state seeks to reduce social problems and this inevitably leads to the promotion of egalitarianism. The interpretation of this concept, the extent of equality and the question of what equality refers to remain unresolved and vary from state to state. In general, egalitarian goals are based on three principles: strong meritocracy (equal opportunities due to natural abilities and talents are provided, regardless of ethnicity, race, gender etc.), implementation of egalitarianism (individuals can choose individually defined good lifestyles) and equality of relations (equal status in society and lack of domination are ensured). Freedom. In the discussions on the welfare state, the issue of so-called negative and positive freedom has been introduced and is constantly raised. To put it in a short and simple way, the negative freedom is the individual’s freedom from intervention. This concept is contrary to the welfare state with its redistribution activities. The question arises, however, as to whether citizens living at the minimum of existence (which obviously also requires definition) should be encouraged to maintain this kind of freedom. Amartaya Sen answers this question very precisely. Freedom is a prerequisite for prosperity, and prosperity is subject to social responsibility. Freedom does not mean being free from intervention. Instead, it is the possibility of developing abilities (according to Sen, “the capability of a person to achieve results is tantamount to the capability of a person to achieve goals”), assuming equal access to the means to achieve them (cf. Sen, 2000, p. 21). This is why innovative individuals perceive it as something important while the excluded as something insignificant. For this reason, aid activities should, instead of focusing on equalising effects or achievements, support opportunities and actions of the poor and excluded people. To ensure effective eradication of poverty, social strata have to be widely accepted (in particular, the political world needs to express the unfeigned will), and the poor themselves need to show interest and commitment (cf. SDG1.1; SDG1.3). To lift people out of poverty, in particular extreme poverty, one has to not only provide them with basic material needs, but also recognise their cultural and spiritual needs. In view of this, it is difficult

16  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. to imagine that over the next 10 years, rich societies will be encouraged to express genuine solidarity with the poor by voluntarily sharing gains and benefits with the poorest strata of the population (cf. SDG1.4.; Francis, 2015, sections  139, 175) while people living in extreme poverty will be invited to accept various forms of assistance and give consent to it. People who experience poverty are often reluctant to accept the solutions offered to them, regardless of whether from Christian, left- or right-wing circles. Providing adequate support and assistance to the poorest is in itself a beautiful and ambitious goal, but assistance, in any form, cannot be imposed by force on anyone as it would bear the hallmarks of modern colonialism (Paul VI, 1967, section 13). The process of creative acceptance of the proposed solutions simply requires more time.

Conclusions SDGs are another one of many global programme documents. SDG1 is axiologically consistent and, together with previous documents on poverty, forms a relatively stable reference point for evaluation with regard to Catholic social teaching. SDG1 in connection with the preamble of Resolution 70/01 indicates that the phenomenon of poverty, especially extreme poverty, is a social evil. In an effort to overcome it, the following principles are introduced: social solidarity and, especially in view of predatory exploitation of natural resources, sustainable development. The authors of SDGs seem to indicate that sustainable development is needed to overcome poverty, while overcoming poverty is a necessary condition for sustainable development. Like in other documents of this type, SDG1’s measures to achieve quite clearly defined goals are underspecified. However, if compared to SDG1, Catholic social teaching sees poverty in a slightly broader context. This is clearly visible in the statement that all people contribute in some way to exploitation of the planet, and in particular that there are “sinful structures that legitimise poverty.” SDG1 priorities are very ambitious, but at the same time very general. Therefore, it is difficult to perceive significant inconsistencies with Catholic social teaching, and see the SDG1 wording (e.g., “to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions,” SDG1: 1.b) as a promise of reliable initiatives. However, doubts may arise as to the measures and methods used to achieve the goals, whether proposed or not. In this respect, Catholic social teaching certainly does and will differ from the solutions proposed by left-wing circles. This covers birth control, i.e., top-down contraceptive measures including compulsory sterilisation, genetically modified crops etc. Ecclesiastical documents indicate a clear and consistent approach to poverty and the poor in the teaching of the Church. Forms of assistance to the poor must respect human dignity, including subjectivity and freedom.

Poverty prevention as a challenge 17 The Church commits itself to promote and defend these principles if there is a risk that they may not be respected. In addition, the need to proclaim the principle of the inviolable dignity of every human person results in the Christian principle of the primacy of the person over things (John Paul II, 1981, sections  12–13), which means that any technology or means are acceptable provided that they not only serve the effective growth of economic development but in no way violate the personal dignity of the poor (Paul VI, 1967, sections 12, 46; John Paul II, 1987, section 42; John Paul II, 1991, sections  57–58). Therefore, the Church cannot develop or support any projects or solutions that are incompatible with the Church’s teaching. As a result, there are a number of misunderstandings and serious tensions, especially in connection with some proposals on poverty eradication offered by left-wing and liberal circles. Particular importance is attached to the solidarity principle (cf. John Paul II, 1987), including the development of the principles of consensus with regard to the good of both the individual and society so that helping the poor does not give rise to resentment, disgust or hidden hostility (SVC, 1965, section 32). In helping the poorest, it is particularly important to reach out directly to a particular person and meet their real needs and expectations, taking into account sociocultural and religious circumstances in which they live. Aid projects must be well thought out and well formulated, with special attention given to competence and consistency. Projects based only on the principles of paternalism usually incorporate concealed contempt for the poor, do not take into account real needs, and are a threat to the freedom and subjectivity of the needy. According to the Church’s teaching, the poorest people should be encouraged in a sensible and responsible way, through education and Christian formation, to become actively and genuinely involved in the process of self-development, strive for self-sufficiency and take responsibility for themselves and others. An example of this approach can be found in the teaching of John Paul II expressed during his pilgrimages to countries affected by pauperisation. The pope appealed to the goodwill of politicians and the richer in society, and encouraged the poorest to make efforts to improve their life status. It is unattainable to solve the complex problem of mass poverty in the world within just one decade. Based on interpretations of top-down poverty figures, reasonable or not, it could be evidenced that poverty was allegedly eradicated. The key point here is, however, to determine whether the aid covered a specific group of people and ensure that they were not assigned to another category, not officially referred to as poverty or extreme poverty – because, above all, it is not about complacency of officials, politicians and other people involved in poverty eradication at the global and local level, but rather real and appropriate help for people enslaved by poverty.

18  Radosław Mędrzycki et al.

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Poverty prevention as a challenge 19 John Paul II. (1990). Redemptoris Mission. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1991). Centesimus Annus. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1994). Tertio Millennio Adveniente. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1999a). Ecclesia in America. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1999b). Ecclesia in Asia. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (2000). Ecclesia in Africa. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (2001). Ecclesia in Oceania. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul XXIII. (1963). Pacem in Terries. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Kerényi, A., & McIntosh, R. W. (2019). Changes on Earth as a Result of Interaction Between the Society and Nature. Sustainable Development in Changing Complex Earth Systems. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Cham: Springer. Laitinen, A., & Pessi, A. B. (2014). Solidarity: Theory and Practice. Introduction. In A. Laitinen & A. B. Pessi (Eds.) Solidarity: Theory and Practice. London: Lexington Books. Landes, D. S. (2000). Bogactwo i nędza narodów. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo MUZA. Lawson, M. (2018). Reward work, not wealth. Oxfam. https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/ s3fs-public/file_attachments/bp-reward-work-not-wealth-220118-summ-en.pdf Leo XIII. (1891). Rerum novarum. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Lister, R. (2007). Bieda. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Sic. Marshall, T. H. (2000). Citizenship and Social Class. In C. H. Pierson & F. G. Castles (Eds.) The Welfare State. A Reader. Cambridge: Polity Press. Mędrzycki, R. (2017). Zadania administracji publicznej w zakresie przeciwdziałania bezdomności – studium administracyjnoprawne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo UKSW. Mik, C. (2009). Solidarność w prawie Unii Europejskiej. Podstawowe problemy teoretyczne. In C. Mik (Ed.) Solidarność jako zasada działania Unii Europejskiej. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Dom Organizatora. Paul VI. (1967). Populorum progressio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Paul VI. (1971). Octogesima adveniens. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Pius XI. (1931). Quadragesimo anno. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Ploszka, A. (2019). Publicznoprawny status jednostki skrajnie ubogiej. Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer Polska. Ravallion, M. (2016). The Economics of Poverty History. Measurement and Policy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.academia.edu/27480851/Martin_Rav allion_The_Economics_of_Poverty_History_Measurement_and_Policy_Oxford_ University_Press_2016_2333 Sachs, J. D., & McCord, G. C. (2018). Extreme Poverty. In The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Sen, A. (2000). Nierówności. Dalsze rozważania. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Znak. SVC [Second Vatican Council]. (1965). Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. UE [European Union]. (2020). Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/char_2012/oj UN [United Nations]. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Resolution 217A. www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights UN [United Nations]. (1976). International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Resolution 2200A. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_2200A(XXI)_civil.pdf UN [United Nations]. (1992). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development adopted at the Rio de Janeiro meeting on 3–14 June  1992, A/CONF.151/26.

20  Radosław Mędrzycki et al. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/ globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf UN [United Nations]. (1993). Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna on 25 June  1993, A.CONF.157/23. www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/vienna.aspx UN [United Nations]. (1995). Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development. A. CONF.166/9. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalas sembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.166_9_Declaration.pdf UN [United Nations]. (1995). Beijing Declaration of 1995 (Fourth World Conference on Women). www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/declar.htm UN [United Nations]. (2000). United Nations Millennium Declaration. Resolution 55/2. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/ docs/globalcompact/A_RES_55_2.pdf UN [United Nations]. (2008). Report of the independent expert on the question of human rights and extreme poverty. Arjun Sengupta (A/HRC/7/15). UN Doc. A/HRC/7/15. UN [United Nations]. (2012). Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights. Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (A/HRC/21/39). www.ohchr.org/Documents/ Issues/Poverty/A-HRC-21-39_en.pdf UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution 70/01. A/RES/70/01. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/ globalcompact/A_RES_70_1_E.pdf White, S. (2010). Ethics. In F. G. Castles, S. Leibfried, J. Lewis, H. Obinger,  & C. Pierson (Eds.) The Welfare State. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2 The issue of hunger in the context of food security in Catholic social teaching Waldemar Cisło, Katarzyna Góralczyk and Mariusz Sulkowski Introduction “Never has the human race enjoyed such abundance of wealth, resources and economic power, and yet a huge proportion of the worlds’ citizens are still tormented by hunger” (Paul VI, 1965, section  4). These words of the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the modern world are even more relevant today than over half a century ago, which is when they were promulgated at the Second Vatican Council (SVC). In mid-2019, 10% of the richest people in the world owned 82% of the world’s wealth while only 1% of the richest people in the world had assets comparable to the rest, i.e., 99% of humanity (Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2019, p. 2). According to the estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), more than 820 million people suffer from hunger and malnutrition, which is around 11% of the world’s population. The situation is particularly difficult in Yemen, where more than a hundred children die of hunger every day (World Food Programme, 2019) as well as in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Afghanistan, Ethiopia and Somalia (Global Hunger Index, 2019, p.  7). Pope Francis called this a “global scandal of hunger” (Glatz, 2013). There are several causes of this situation, including armed conflicts, natural disasters, climate changes, urbanisation and uneven distribution of global wealth. Pope Benedict XVI stresses that the call to “feed the hungry” (cf. Gospel of Matthew 25:35) is an ethical imperative for the universal Church and “the elimination of world hunger has also, in the global era, become a requirement for safeguarding the peace and stability of the planet” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 27). Pope John XXIII claims that although the Holy Church’s primary task is to lead souls to holiness and to ensure their participation in heavenly goods, she also cares for the needs of people’s daily lives; not only their subsistence and living conditions, but also their prosperity and success in various areas. (John XXIII, 1961, section 3)

22  Waldemar Cisło et al. The issue of hunger is also a concern for individual countries (FAO, 2011) and international organisations, especially FAO. The need to strive to eliminate hunger and ensure food security is emphasised in the FAO founding document of 1945 (FAO, 2017, p. 56), while Section 25 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights refers to the right to food. In 1963, the FAO summit met in Rome and issued a manifesto, Man’s Right to Freedom from Hunger (Shaw, 2007, p. 81), while the 1969 UN Declaration on Social Progress and Development called for the eradication of hunger and malnutrition, and the right to adequate nutrition (UNGA, 1969, p. 10). The issue of hunger was addressed at UN summits and raised in the second UN sustainable development goal, which seeks to end hunger, achieve food security and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030. This goal was particularly highlighted by Pope Francis in his speech at the 41st General Conference of the FAO in 2019 (Francis, 2019a). Successive popes track the progress of goals set at the food summits and call for prayer and appropriate actions to achieve them. Note that John Paul II himself spoke at FAO summits several times, including in 1981, which is when the first World Food Day annually held on the 16th of October was established (John Paul II, 1981). It proves that there is a widespread common objection to hunger in the world and in the Church, and hunger becomes a central issue due to severe consequences it may cause. However, note that in view of the Church’s identity, the Church should not be perceived as another charitable organisation since it is not the Church’s mission to work directly on the economic, technical or political levels, or to contribute materially to development. Rather, her mission consists essentially in offering people an opportunity not to “have more” but to “be more” by awakening their consciences through the Gospel. (John Paul II, 1990, section 58; cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2019, section 549) In Catholic social teaching, it is assumed that hunger and prevention of famine have not only a material dimension, but above all – a spiritual one. It is the spiritual dimension that constitutes a specific contribution of the Church to efforts to eradicate hunger. From the theological, doctrinal and pastoral point of view, the issue of hunger entails effects other than just the lack of food and the moral obligation to help another human being, which clearly indicates its eschatological character. This brief analysis is sufficient to conclude that hunger is a common and significant challenge both in 2030 Agenda and in Catholic social teaching (Francis, 2017). However, these two approaches differ since the Church adopts a broader perspective and explores moral, eschatological and transcendent dimensions of hunger (Cor Unum, 1996, p. 1).

The issue of hunger 23 The Church’s teaching is directed not only towards those who are hungry and needy, but also to those who, due to their wealth, are obliged to share it with those in need. The relationship between those in need and those who are able to help is eschatological and transcendent (John Paul II, 1979, section 16; Francis, 2015, section 94). Paradoxically, the Church’s teaching emphasises that those who close their hearts to the hungry experience a worse situation than the hungry themselves (Gospel of Luke 6:20, 24, 25). John Paul II pointed out that, according to the tradition of the Church, care for the poor is at the same time “the option or love of preference for the poor,” i.e., “a special form of primacy in the exercise of Christian charity,” which applies to our social responsibilities and hence to our manner of living, and to the logical decisions to be made concerning the ownership and use of goods.  .  .  . The goods of this world are originally meant for all. The right to private property is valid and necessary, but it does not nullify the value of this principle. Private property, in fact, is under a “social mortgage,” which means that it has an intrinsically social function, based upon and justified precisely by the principle of the universal destination of goods. (John Paul II, 1987, section 42)

The issue of hunger in Catholic social teaching In order to properly understand the issue of hunger from the standpoint of Catholic social teaching, it is necessary to make reference to its biblical origins. Adam and Eve were placed by God in the Garden of Eden, where they experienced genuine happiness. God commanded the man to rule the Earth (Twardziłowski, 2017, pp.  5–24). However, original sin changed the condition of both the world and man. Man’s original happiness was destroyed, and the Earth, which was a blessing for man, became cursed: “in pain you shall eat of it all the days of your life” (Genesis 3:17–19). As a result of original sin, humans have to constantly struggle to meet their needs, including basic needs related to the access to food (cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2019, section  390). The world experiences the lust for goods, the desire to rule, violence and war, and the abuse of the natural world, all of which are the factors that contribute to famine (di Bussolo, 2019). Genesis also stresses that this state cannot be eliminated in the earthly order (cf. John Paul II, 1987, p. 13) and hunger will be permanently eliminated at the Messianic Age. As pointed out by Pius XI, “the world will never be able to rid itself of misery, sorrow and tribulation, which are the portion even of those who seem most prosperous” (Pius XI, 1937, p. 45).

24  Waldemar Cisło et al. However, the fact that human nature was injured does not authorise man to be passive in the face of the evil that occurred. On the contrary, as noticed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, the acceptance by human society of murderous famines, without efforts to remedy them, is a scandalous injustice and a grave offense. Those whose usurious and avaricious dealings lead to the hunger and death of their brethren in the human family indirectly commit homicide, which is imputable to them. (2019, p. 2269) The drama of hunger in the world calls Christians who pray sincerely to exercise responsibility towards their brethren both in their personal behaviour and in their solidarity with the human family. (2019, p. 2831) Even the oldest books of the Old Testament imposed the obligation to take care of the poor and share the goods with them. In particular, sharing portions of the harvest grain, grapes or olives was necessary (Book of Leviticus 19:9–10; Book of Deuteronomy 24:19–22). Also, the institution of the sabbatical year, under which the Israelites were obliged to forgive debts and free slaves once every seven years, indicates that the goods of this world were originally intended for all. In the New Testament, the call to share with the needy takes on a new eschatological meaning. Those who share with the hungry and thirsty actually share with Christ himself who humbled himself and became man: Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the kingdom prepared for you since the creation of the world. For I  was hungry and you gave me something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink. . . . Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me. (Gospel of Matthew 25:31–45) The Christian approach to the needy is specific in a way that it assumes a personal relationship with Christ himself, who identifies himself with a starving and poor person. This goes significantly beyond the form of aid based only on obligation or institutionalisation of philanthropy and becomes eschatological in nature. At the same time, this approach should be seen as a call to share the goods and a warning against spiritual dangers which arise as a result of growing rich (cf. Gospel of Matthew 19:24: Those who want to get rich fall into temptation and a trap and into many foolish and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and

The issue of hunger 25 destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Some people, eager for money, have wandered from the faith and pierced themselves with many griefs. (First Epistle of Paul to Timothy 6:9)) The moral dimension of hunger consists primarily in the fact that a hungry person is not a random individual among all the others, but a needy in the midst of those who are replete with food and who are obliged to share the goods received from the caring God the Father. John Paul II points out that the lack of sensibility to the hungry is due to “a consumer attitude uncontrolled by ethics” (John Paul II, 1979, section 16), and “solving serious national and international problems is not just a matter of economic production or of juridical or social organisation, but also calls for specific ethical and religious values, as well as changes of mentality, behaviour and structures” (John Paul II, 1991, section 60). Pope Francis puts emphasis on this dimension, claiming that hunger is also “the result of a more complex condition of underdevelopment caused by the indifference of many or the selfishness of a few” (Francis, 2017). In the context of “a globalisation of indifference” (Francis, 2013a, section 54; Francis, 2015, section 52), Pope Francis indicates the limitations and weaknesses of international politics, which is “subject to technology and finance” (Francis, 2015, section 54). However, it should be emphasised that the Church is opposed to any ideologies based on neo-Malthusianism, which assumes that hunger or malnutrition is caused by demographic factors. One cannot use hunger as an argument in the fight for the reduction of the number of people or make the financial aid contingent on the adoption of certain eugenic laws. Any ideas to eradicate hunger by way of eradication of the hungry must be strongly resisted. Contrary to this, there are a number of UN agencies which, in order to eradicate poverty, do not hesitate to use means or ideas which undermine human life and health by promoting abortion, contraception or sterilisation. As pointed out by Pope Francis, “at times, developing countries face forms of international pressure which make economic assistance contingent on certain policies of ‘reproductive health’ ” (Francis, 2015, section 50; Peeters, 2019). Catholic teaching opposes ideologies which promote a false belief that poverty can be totally eliminated and propose changes based on utopian or messianic concepts. The issue of hunger should be reconsidered in the context of human ethos because unresolved interpersonal and international moral issues always turn into conflicts which lead to hunger. As noticed by Francis, to blame population growth instead of extreme and selective consumerism on the part of some is one way of refusing to face the issues. It is an attempt to legitimise the present model of distribution, where a minority believes that it has the right to consume in a way which can

26  Waldemar Cisło et al. never be universalised, since the planet could not even contain the waste products of such consumption. (Francis, 2015, section 50) The issue of hunger will not be solved unless human and international justice is ensured. It is not a question of almsgiving, but the relationship between justice and love. To raise awareness of the issue of hunger, John Paul II called for opposing the civilisation of death, promoting the culture of giving, the globalisation of solidarity and the “creativity” in charity.

Food production in terms of climate changes Food is essential for sustaining the life of every human being. According to the definition adopted by the global organisations, including FAO/WHO and the European Commission (EC), food means any substance or product, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption or expected to be consumed by humans. Beverages and all ingredients, including water, which are intentionally added to food during the process its manufacture, preparation or processing, are also treated as food (EC, 2002). The definition of food also covers water intended for consumption and food supplements. Food supplements (dietary supplements) are food products intended to supplement the diet. They are concentrated sources of vitamins, minerals or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect. The definition of food stated previously is essential for examining the issue of global hunger in light of food availability. The problem faced by developed countries is not about food availability, but rather its quality (FAO/WHO, 2018, p. 26). Another problem is food waste. This issue plays a crucial role in respect of global food security and good management of environmental resources (e.g., energy, climate change and water availability), economic resources (e.g., resource efficiency, price volatility, waste management, markets) and social resources (e.g., health, equity in access to food). Unfortunately, studies show that only one-third to one-half of world food production is consumed. Due to the severity of the problem and different areas of human activity being affected, different definitions of food waste are used to precisely describe this phenomenon. Precise definition of the problem will help to trigger appropriate corrective actions, including legal regulations (Stenmarck et al., 2016, p. 80). The issue is serious as Pope Francis did not even hesitate to assert that “food discarded is, in a certain sense, stolen from the table of poor and the starving” (Francis, 2016). In countries with insufficient or lack of food, the situation is completely different. The key point here is to supply food to the hungry, regardless of its quality. Access to food is a very complex issue. It may result from either the general lack of food or the lack of drinking water. Insufficient food has also different causes, including soil erosion, poor crop yields, lack of access to drinking water intakes as a result of climate change, human

The issue of hunger 27 overexploitation and various types of conflicts, whether military or economic (FAO/WHO, 2019a, p. XIX). Access to food Crops require adequate soil, water, sunlight and temperature to grow. The recently published Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on forestry, agriculture, food production and general land use shows that global temperatures cannot be kept at safe levels unless there is a change in food production and land management because agriculture, forestry and other land uses are responsible for almost a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions. This shows that the climate crisis will not be solved even if we reduce carbon dioxide emissions from cars, factories and power plants or, more broadly, completely stop burning fossil fuels (IPCC, 2018, p. 32; cf. Francis, 2015, sections 23–24). It is now 72% of the planet’s ice-free surface that is used to feed and clothe growing human population, and supply them with goods and services. Moreover, climate change does, and will, affect the amount of food produced and the areas of production. Extreme heat events and decrease in precipitation reduce water availability, limit crop yields and increase the risk resulting from other factors, such as mass pests and diseases (FAO/WHO, 2019a, p. 100) with negative effects on agriculture. Francis points out that there is a strong relationship between the fight against climate change and poverty (Francis, 2015, section 25; Francis, 2019b). Competing needs Climate change also results in the decrease in availability of resources, which entails the necessity to modify the food production system and make it more efficient. In particular, it will be necessary to increase yields while reducing dependence on agricultural chemicals, and reduce food waste and limit food consumption while reducing the environmental impact of production, e.g., reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This complex problem requires a coherent and integrated approach (FAO/WHO, Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission To the Syrian Arab Republic; FAO/WHO, The state of food security and nutrition in the world. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns; FAO/WHO, The state of the world’s biodiversity. Commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture). At the global level, the following problems need to be addressed: •

Deforestation to acquire new land for cultivation (e.g., South America) to increase the area under soybean crop (biofuel), avocado and oil palm (palm oil) Deforestation in the Amazon primarily occurs as a result of large areas of rainforest being cut down for agricultural crops or prepared for

28  Waldemar Cisło et al. grazing. Reports of various organisations, e.g., FAO/WHO, reveal that there are only four types of goods, the production of which has an immense impact on tropical deforestation. These are beef (creating increasingly large areas for grazing), soya, palm oil and timber-harvesting. It is estimated that an area the size of Switzerland (14,800 square miles or 38,300 square km) is lost to deforestation every year. Natural fires in tropical forests are rare but intense. By contrast, manmade fire is a common way to obtain large areas of land for human consumption. Wood-harvesting is the first stage of the process of deforestation. The remaining vegetation is fired to make room for crops, e.g., soya, or grazing. In 2019, the number of manmade fires in Brazil rose rapidly, i.e., by about 80% compared to 2018. This is also the case when room for palm oil plantations is made. This is because palm oil is the most frequently produced vegetable oil as it is cheap and has a wide range of applications. The steadily growing demand for palm oil encouraged people to cut down tropical forests to increase the areas of palm cultivation. FAO/WHO estimate that deforestation is responsible for about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions and is the second largest cause of climate change after burning fossil fuels (FAO/WHO, 2019a, p. 239). •

Desertification of large areas due to plundering of timber and unprofitable management of pastures Desertification is a type of soil degradation caused most often by reckless human activities in areas with low or variable rainfall, known as arid areas. Such areas account for over 40% of the world’s land area. Soil degradation can be caused by various factors, such as urbanisation, mineral extraction and agriculture. Due to these activities, trees and other vegetation are removed while the processes of grazing and arable crops impoverish soils. In addition, climate change has a negative impact as it increases the risk of drought (cf. Francis, 2015, section 195). All these processes lead to soil erosion and make soils unable to retain water and vegetation to regrow. According to the European Commission’s World Atlas of Desertification, more than 75% of the Earth’s soil is degraded and more than 90% could be degraded by 2050. Africa and Asia are most affected (ECA, 2018; Heshmati and Squires, 2013, p. 459).

•

Overfishing and illegal fishing WWF data show that more than 30% of the world’s fish stocks are overfished and about 60% are close to overfishing. This overexploitation directly affects the welfare of animals which are not caught for commercial purposes, such as fish, birds, reptiles and mammals, e.g., dolphins, seals and porpoises. Moreover, it leads to

The issue of hunger 29 a significant reduction in the marine fauna and flora, limiting availability of marine food (fish, seafood), and impoverishment of the fishing professions (Grooten & Almond, 2018, p. 114; EJF, 2010, p. 23, EJF & Hen Mpoano, 2019, p. 31). • Loss of biodiversity as a result of the use of growing crops adapted to extremely large areas and disappearance of certain species, i.e., beneficial insects, plants etc. The FAO/WHO report on crop biodiversity and food farming showed a sharp decline in this respect. These findings refer to both the reduction in the number of livestock breeds and diminished crop diversity. Many species which help preserve basic functions of the ecosystem, e.g., pollinating insects, natural enemies of pests, soil organisms and wild species of edible plants, disappear as a result of the destruction and degradation of their habitats, overexploitation, pollution and other threats. For example, almost one-third of wild freshwater fish stocks are overfished, which puts their existence at risk. The report indicates a rapid decline in the number of key ecosystems for food production and agricultural development, fresh water supplies, and habitats of beneficial species, such as fish and pollinating insects (FAO/WHO, 2019b, p. 20; cf. UNGA, 2015, section 33). Francis reminds us of the fact that the Amazon, the Congo basins as well as great aquifers and glaciers are those areas which constitute richly biodiverse lungs of the planet (Francis, 2015, section 38). John Paul II, in turn, claims that it is not possible to maintain biodiversity without solidarity (John Paul II, 2003). Hunger and availability of drinking water It is assumed that fresh water on Earth represents only about 3% of all water resources and its amount is constantly decreasing. Global warming and desertification have a significant impact on the circulation of water in nature and reduce its amount. This concerns the amount of rainfall, water levels in rivers and lakes, soil moisture and snow-cover water resources. As a result, millions of people are deprived of access to water. It is estimated that about 880  million people do not have access to drinking water. For example, Lake Chad in Central Africa has shrunk by as much as 95% since 1960. With this desperate lack of water, individual countries are forced to protect their water resources from their neighbours due to water thefts or appropriations. Such practices include dam-building and reversing rivers as is the case in China, for example. Restricted access to water is one of the most dangerous effects of climate change which puts people’s lives at risk (WHO/UNICEF, Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; WHO/ UNICEF, Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2000–2017; WHO/UNICEF 20, Global baseline report. Wash in health care

30  Waldemar Cisło et al. facilities). As noted by Pope Francis, “access to safe drinkable water is a basic and universal human right” (Francis, 2015, section 30). Ironically, African countries which are least responsible for climate change are most affected. Severe droughts cover the whole east and south of Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, the Republic of South Africa, Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Ethiopia. Pope Francis remarks that “the warming caused by huge consumption on the part of some rich countries has repercussions on the poorest areas of the world, especially Africa, where a rise in temperature, together with drought, has proved devastating for farming” (Francis, 2015, section 51). Consequently, even neighbouring villages struggle to gain access to water, and age-old tribal and religious conflicts re-escalate. This, in turn, leads to wars and genocide. For example, Somalis who experience lack of water engage in piracy while others illegally cross the border with Ethiopia and Kenya to steal drinking water. It is not only the climate change that exacerbates water deficit problems in Africa. The dramatic situation is deteriorated by human actions, such as the uncontrolled growth of cattle herds, soil erosion caused by agricultural practices, the burning of savannahs and grubbing of forests to turn it into fields and pastures. This desperate lack of water also poses a direct threat to human life and indirectly affects food shortages. As a result, the inhabitants experience hunger (WHO/UNICEF, 2018, p. 84).

Peace as a prerequisite for access to food The Church devotes a great deal of space to the issue of peace, with a primary focus on preventing the effects of wars, and in particular hunger which is most severe. In 2013, in connection with the war in Syria and the next G8 summit, Pope Francis emphasised that peace is a prerequisite for the effective fight against hunger (Francis, 2013b). Peace is understood as the effect of justice, and justice, in the world affected by evil, is only possible through actions of love. Only love can radically transform human relations and restore fraternal relationships in the areas of conflict, hatred and exploitation (Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, 2004, p. 4). Christian love assumes openness to cooperation between all people of good will. When hunger affects people on a massive scale, and this is the case during armed conflicts, they instinctively do everything to obtain food while those who have access to food resources become lords of life and death. As a result, hunger becomes a weapon much stronger than money (Francis, 2016). The oldest historical sources refer to the use scorched earth policy or sowing the soil with salt so that it becomes infertile (Bond, 2015, p. 8). Unfortunately, nowadays, we can also observe that access to food or even drinking water is used as a tool to fight, often against civilians as was the case during the warfare in Syria or Iraq.

The issue of hunger 31 Food was widely used as a means of political pressure after it was stipulated in the 1974 secret Kissinger Report that aid to developing countries is contingent on their steps to reduce fertility: There is also some established precedent for taking account of family planning performance in appraisal of assistance requirements by AID [Agency for International Development – editor’s note] and consultative groups. Since population growth is a major determinant of increases in food demand, allocation of scarce PL 480 [the Food for Peace program – editor’s note] resources should take account of what steps a country is taking in population control as well as food production. (NSSM 200, 1974, p. 77) When we observe the conflict in the Middle East or South Sudan, we can easily notice that weak and often corrupt governments have no way but to either accept the proposals of developed countries or face further hunger and death of their citizens. This shows that food is really used as a weapon in foreign policy and war.

The Middle East as a place where food has been used as a weapon In 2014, the so-called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) took over traditional Christian towns near Mosul. As a result, more than 100,000 Christians fled. Many of them took nothing when they left their homes and were left without any means to live. They were completely dependent on outside help. Food and medicines were first to appear on the list of necessities, followed by housing facilities. Pope Francis called for prayers and fasting for peace in Syria at the very beginning of the conflict in Syria (Pullella, 2013). During the ongoing war in Syria, water was turned off in besieged districts of Aleppo, and the supply of food and medicine was blocked to force inhabitants to leave the districts (Human Appeal, 2018, p. 5). During the continuing military operations, crops are scheduled to be destroyed (UN News, 2019). Due to the war, food costs have increased tenfold (FAO, 2018, p.  28). It is estimated that 6.5  million people do not have food security (UNOCHA, 2019, p. 64). It is only thanks to the rapid response of humanitarian organisations that even greater tragedy has not occurred. If not for the immediate aid, hundreds, if not thousands, of people would die of hunger. This information comes from interviews made during stays in Syria.1 It is not difficult to imagine living in a besieged city like Aleppo for a long time. One cannot buy food due to the siege of the city and the lack of money. Many people did not have enough savings to cover several years of war. Only humanitarian organisations, often via the Church institutions, could donate money to buy food, electricity or heating oil in winter.

32  Waldemar Cisło et al. Access to water plays a similar role in the fight against civilians. Water supply to districts is often closed and inhabitants are forced to leave their homes. This was particularly acute for the elderly living on the upper floors. Due to the lack of electricity and lifts being out of order, they had to carry water for food and hygiene purposes (cf. UNOCHA, 2019, p. 25). The lack of infant milk is another issue which the humanitarian organisations had to quickly deal with. Malnourished nursing mothers had no food to feed their children. It turned out that a centre, financed, inter alia, by Poles, which provided mothers with powder milk adequate to the age of their children was the only effective solution in this case. In some regions, such as East Ghouta and Tell Abiad, about one-third of children are malnourished (UNOCHA, 2019, p. 74). Pope Francis referred to the issue of hunger in Syria, Yemen and South Sudan at one of his Wednesday General Audiences. He reminded the faithful of the fact that, the daily bread for which Christians pray in the Lord’s Prayer is “ours,” not “mine,” which entails a commitment to starving children (Merlo, 2019). Wars destabilise the entire region involved. The most recent example of this is Lebanon. At the beginning of December, the situation seemed under control although it was tense. However, the collapse of the banking system caused a great deal of confusion in the country. The practical consequence of this event is that a family can take out no more than USD 100 a week, irrespective of the amount of money in the account. The collapse of the banking system has a major impact on the economic situation. As a result, access to food in war-torn Syria is significantly limited. Until now, aid organisations have used Lebanese banks to transfer money, but this is practically impossible at present. Unfortunately, this leads to further destabilisation of war-torn Syria (Cornish, 2019). Msgr. Samir Nassar, Maronite archbishop of Damascus, stated that “guaranteeing daily bread ‘has become the recurring nightmare’ for ordinary people and the Church is now ‘a wall of tears’ where people come to cry for help or seek silence in the consolation” (Nassar, 2020). Such issues require quick response. Fortunately, the Catholic Church can operate more easily due to her widespread structures. The practical aid is provided via the charitable activity of a number of organisations, including the Pontifical Foundation Aid to the Church in Need (ACN), which is involved in providing aid, mainly food aid, at the very beginning of the conflict. Initially, food parcels feeding a family for a month were provided, and the aid covered 3,000 families (ACN, 2019, p. 70). They were accompanied by the so-called hygiene parcels with things necessary for personal hygiene. Annually, the Association provides assistance to several dozen thousand families. Help is distributed via the local Church institutions. Note that all local churches are engaged, and in Aleppo, for example, there are 10 different Christian churches. The aid is interreligious in nature as it also covers Muslims. The positive information is that Muslims also help Christians in

The issue of hunger 33 areas inaccessible to our organisations. Helping schoolchildren and students is another key aid area. More than 12,000 people were helped (ACN, 2019, p.  70). Helping children is extremely important. As reported by the local institutions, in Aleppo alone, there are about 10,000 street children who, if left unattended and without access to school, would be exposed to radicalisation. ACN’s annual budget to help Syria and Iraq is more than USD 13 million (ACN, 2019, p. 67). Paradoxically, the situation of the region is worsened due to its rich natural resources constituting a significant part of the economies of many countries in the world. As noted by Pope Francis, “once certain resources have been depleted, the scene will be set for new wars, albeit under the guise of noble claims” (Francis, 2015, section 57).

Conclusion The analysis of the goals of 2030 Agenda and the approach of Catholic social teaching reveals a number of common elements. The fight against hunger and the call for broad international cooperation in this respect undoubtedly constitute such a common ground. What makes these two perspectives different is the way the issues are recognised and approached. Agenda primarily focuses on the goals and makes little effort to recognise the problem. Catholic social teaching emphasises that human sin, manifested in people’s desire to meet their own needs at the expense of others, is the main cause of hunger in the world. In his encyclical Laudato Si’, Francis strongly emphasises that we have “a sort of superdevelopment of a wasteful and consumerist kind which forms an unacceptable contrast with the ongoing situations of dehumanizing deprivation”. . . . We fail to see the deepest roots of our present failures, which have to do with the direction, goals, meaning and social implications of technological and economic growth. (Francis, 2015, section 109) The causes of hunger are deeper, exceeding the purely economic or technical dimension. This is why, from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, the moral imperative of the fight against hunger never sets specific deadlines to resolve the issue. In this respect, the approach of the 2030 Agenda should be regarded as utopian. Nevertheless, one should not stop making attempts to reduce hunger by introducing a multifaceted, modern solutions with the purpose of achieving a good quality of life and having regard to limitations of the planet. Pragmatically, to achieve this goal, the concept of the green economy can be adopted. It aims at increasing human well-being and social equality while reducing environmental risks (climate) and preventing overexploitation of natural resources. To this end, a variety of measures are

34  Waldemar Cisło et al. needed, ranging from education and training, research and development, through appropriate economic policies, to sustainable production and consumption (EC, 2019, p. 49). How to approach the issue of hunger is another thing which is perceived differently. From the very beginning, the Church has been emphasising the transcendent and eschatological dimension of help. Help or failure to help a hungry person is tantamount to acceptance or rejection of Christ. To effectively help, personal relationships and experiences with the hungry are needed. Otherwise, the case may be that various declarations made at international meetings, however lofty goals they would assume, will not be followed by actions. This point was raised by Pope Francis in a meaningful way: When all is said and done, they frequently remain at the bottom of the pile. This is due partly to the fact that many professionals, opinion makers, communications media and centres of power, being located in affluent urban areas, are far removed from the poor, with little direct contact with their problems. They live and reason from the comfortable position of a high level of development and a quality of life well beyond the reach of the majority of the world’s population. This lack of physical contact and encounter, encouraged at times by the disintegration of our cities, can lead to a numbing of conscience and to tendentious analyses which neglect parts of reality. (Francis, 2015, section 49) It should be also emphasised that certain goals of the 2030 Agenda related to SDG2 (though all the goals are assumed to be “integrated and indivisible” (UNGA, 2015, section 18)), are in direct conflict with Catholic social teaching. This refers particularly to those goals which make reference to “left-wing” perspective and axiology, i.e., the so-called sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights (SDG3.7 and SDG5.6), which imply the promotion of access to contraception, abortion and sterilisation (Peeters, 2019). As pointed out by Francis, Instead of resolving the problems of the poor and thinking of how the world can be different, some can only propose a reduction in the birth rate. At times, developing countries face forms of international pressure which make economic assistance contingent on certain policies of “reproductive health”. . . . To blame population growth instead of extreme and selective consumerism on the part of some is one way of refusing to face the issues. (Francis, 2015, section 50) Even more emphatic are the words of Pope Paul VI, who asks the question: “Is it not simply a new form of war when some nations try to impose

The issue of hunger 35 restrictive demographic policies on others so that the latter may not claim their just share of the earth’s fruits?” (Paul VI, 1974, section 6). John Paul II, in turn, explicitly states that some circles are “haunted by the current demographic growth and fear that the most prolific and poorest peoples represent a threat for the well-being and peace of their own countries” (John Paul II, 1995, section 16).

Note 1 Most of the information about the internal situation in Syria comes from our own archives. The author runs a humanitarian organisation and visits Syria and other Middle Eastern countries several times a year.

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3 Health care as a personal and social asset Katarzyna Kucharska, Jan Przybyłowski and Sebastian Sikorski

Introduction The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on 25 September 2015 in New York, poses a challenge to all international communities on the key issues referring to health care and preventive care. The aim of this chapter is to discuss both consistency and disproportion of present main issues of health care from the theological, medical, and legal perspective to set priorities for the integrally operating health care system.

Theological perspective In the concept of traditional medicine, which also includes the truth about the creation of man in the image and likeness of God, the human person has an unchangeable nature. In the concept of modern (existentialist) medicine, human nature is treated as an infinite project that can be improved by new techniques. This leads to health improvement and aims at maintaining the quality of life at all costs. The theologian’s response is to indicate the value of suffering and hope for eternal life, which form the foundations of the Christian concept of human quality of life. In this perspective, the principle of medicus curat, natura sanat, Deus salvat can be again promoted in medicine, which implies an agreement on the definition of a human being incorporating psychological, physical, and spiritual integrity. Thus, both secular science (e.g., medicine or law) and theology shall address the subject of health care. The dialogue between both disciplines is feasible if we allow for the anthropological concept that human life is naturally directed at death; as Claude Bernard (1813–1878) put it, La vie, c’est la mort [Life is death] (Ratzinger, 2005, p. 244; Rees, 2016, p. 110). What is more, theology formulates an axiom based on the view that man is an individual created and saved by God; therefore, his value, greatness, dignity, and rights must not be questioned (Przybyłowski, 2019a, pp. 137–157). Health is a kind of welfare comprising the state of body, mind, and spirit of a human. The concept

40  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. of a human is the subject of the Church’s concern, being at the same time the focus of medicine and law. In the personalistic view, when a person is treated, their rights must be protected (Przybyłowski, 2019c, pp.  45–55). Thus, health proves to be something more than just a disease-free condition; “It is a foundation of formed, creative life, which co-creates the system of norms and values” (Roth, 1998, p. 11).

Medical perspective The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development appears to be a challenge for all international communities in the crucial domain of health care and health prevention. The aim of this section is to describe protection of health, being a personal and social value, in the context of Catholic social teaching, and to identify both the consistency and disparity of health care and health prevention, assuming a theological, medical, and legal approach. Protection of human health encompasses various areas, i.e., basic (institutional professional medical help and care of life conditions, hygiene, work, rest, and nutrition), specialist (hospitalisation and specialist medical procedures), subjective (medical personnel), objective (health services, medical care, pharmaceutical and technical-medical companies), individual (a human being), and socioeconomical (politics, economy, ecology). The most significant factors conditioning physical and mental health may include poverty and material inequalities, family structure, physical environment (air, living quarters, leisure, etc.), social attitudes and stigmatisation of some individuals (e.g., the sick), risky behaviours, genetic factors, and accessibility of medical services. The foundation that aims at protection of health and providing care for the quality of human life on everyday basis is dignity of a human being. It is safeguarded by human rights, patients’ rights, and moral and ethical axiology, as well as medical deontology. Equal accessibility to health services, regardless of financial situation of particular individuals, and increased care of individuals requiring special care of the state, i.e., children, the pregnant, the disabled, and the elderly, are of key importance here.

Legal perspective Legal perspective regarding health care is an immensely complex and wideranging matter. Therefore, preliminary conditions should be determined. International norms and principles regarding human and patient rights, which initially were subjected to the regulations enacted within common normative acts, shall be the starting point of consideration. Such a viewpoint proves to be justified by a strict functional relation between these regulations. This becomes particularly evident while comparing the right to life to the right to health care. Narrowing the analysis to the EU regulations,

Health care as a personal and social asset 41 in order to finally demonstrate the examples of domestic solutions in particular countries, is deliberate. According to the principle of subsidiarity, EU member states regulate the structure and the operating rules of their health care systems individually. Germany and Great Britain were selected as the subject of the following analysis, owing to the fact that they are two major representations of health care system models, i.e., the Bismarck model set in Germany and the Beveridge model designed in the UK. In order to indicate the “common denominator” for both systems (taking the Polish solutions into account), which has a great impact on the wide concept of preventive health care, the issues of integrated/coordinated health care should be taken into consideration. This is what the tasks related to health education and prevention focus on. Each and every person is entitled to health care services intending to treat illnesses and maintain the physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. The quality of provided medical services is determined by a number of factors, including the development of studies aimed at broadening the idea of health. The following section provides an analysis of achievements in the field of health in the context of applied medical, legal, and theological sciences.

Health care from the theological perspective From the theological point of view, health care is not only confined to psychophysical well-being as positive openness to the spiritual value of suffering should also play a significant role. The synergy between the health and spiritual spheres relies on the integrity of the human being. Religion and health are, in fact, related with the spiritual needs of a human being, aligned with a broadly understood axiology on both doctrinal and practical levels (Libiszowska-Żółtkowska, 1997, p. 23). Therefore, not only should health care take professionalisation of medical procedures into consideration, but also protect the fundamental right of every person to their religion which satisfies their spiritual needs. Health as individual and social asset While taking complex protection of physical, psychological, and spiritual wellness into account, fundamental health factors along with non-medical conditions should still be considered. As far as public health protection (sociocultural perspective) is concerned, health-promoting activities, which are legally protected especially in terms of human rights, play a vital role. The protection of human life is a social measure of human culture and humanism; however, it requires a clear resolution of the ontological (life in the biological aspect), normative (criminal law and protection of life), and axiological (ethical-moral aspects of life protection) issues. The teaching of the Catholic Church, taking into account the latest medical knowledge, is unchanging: human life begins at conception and its interruption (abortion,

42  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. euthanasia, eugenic practices, and medical experiments) has always been considered by the Church as the most serious crime against man. The protection of human life and health is closely linked to fundamental rights. At the heart of these rights, human dignity is located, together with the system of ethical and moral values. The freedom to take action and to protect life and health is ensured by conscience from a theological, legal, and medical perspective; that is one of the fundamental rights of a human being who must not be forced to act contrary to their worldviews and beliefs. Taking health care into account, the role of the Church in promoting ethics and moral principles based on the natural standards of morality should also be noticed. Moreover, Church, in its pastoral activity, may also demonstrate broadly defined Samaritan behaviours, such as charity and humanitarian actions, mostly directed towards social welfare where the government proves to be unwieldy or noninvolved. Finally, the ministry of Church is needed by the sick, elderly, and disabled people who could be emotionally supported in their suffering. Inasmuch as man remains closely related to this background, the acknowledgement of the value of health is primarily created within a family. That is where the need for integral development arises, obtained by leading a morally worthy and decent life, and appreciation of natural environment (ecology) along with life and health care. Cooperation of the family and health care is essential for the protection of health. Regarding the prophylaxis, it is the family that shapes healthy habits, especially with children. All in all, that is the place where the basic personal hygiene routines are taught, starting with washing hands and the whole body, preparing food, caring for water, taking care of the sick, maintaining good personal hygiene, looking after pets, and showing concern for the environment. Although the Church records do not explicitly mention the details of provisions of hygiene, they do indicate the relevance of family in terms of health and life care, along with the importance of environmental and spiritual education (Francis, 2015, sections 202–245). Involvement of Church in health issues The concern of the Church for the sick and suffering people aligned with the solidarity with them results from the fact that “man is the first and primary way of church” (John Paul II, 1979, section 14). The Gospel urges Christians to take care of other people’s needs, in particular those that are sick, elderly, suffering, or lonely, or who need help and support. The Church has fulfilled the Samaritan behaviour from the very beginning, and the tangible effect of this concern could be noticed in hospices, homeless shelters, nursing homes, and a great number of other facilities providing people with support and care they need. The Church also established ecclesiastical institutions, whose aim is to undertake actions promoting health care, such as the Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers, the

Health care as a personal and social asset 43 Pontifical Council Cor Unum, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pax),1 the Pontifical Academy for Life (Pontificia Accademia per la Vita), and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (Pontificia Academia Scientiarum). All these institutions are engaged in ethical, moral, medical, and life sciences issues; moreover, they analyse the current problems referring to these areas, which undoubtedly have great impact on human life and health. One of the most important ecclesiastical documents is the Charter for Heath Care Workers published in 1995. This document shows birth, life, and death as three dimensions of human existence. It is part of the work of the “new evangelisation” which also aims at preparing health workers to protect life in the manner of the ministry of Christ. The value of the Church’s teaching is appreciated above all by theologians (especially moral theologians and bioethicists, e.g., Piotr Morciniec or Marcin Machinek), but it is also an important voice in discussions with medical scientists, law specialists, and health care professionals. Prevention and health promotion from the theological perspective The Magisterium of Church emphasises that health, to a large extent, is in human hands given that healthy lifestyle comprises an important part of disease prevention that is particularly related to the development of civilisation. In light of the Church’s teaching, the most important measures that should be adopted to preserve health include periodic medical examinations, providing urgent care in case of an illness, and prevention that involves physical exercise aligned with rational, healthy eating habits. Thus, elimination of alcohol, tobacco, and taking other harmful stimulants or medicines not prescribed by the doctor plays a vital role. Additionally, making every effort to ensure a healthy environment (Przybyłowski, 2019b, pp.  11–22) and responding to the needs of body and spirit are also matters of top priority (Francis, 2015, sections 203–208). All these are of supreme significance as people themselves take the consequence for causing diseases and bear their potential impacts. Drug and alcohol dependence or AIDS are the clearest examples. It is man that should be held responsible for environmental threats, caused by disregard for environmental protection. In his encyclical Laudato Si’, Pope Francis issued a long list of the previous measures (Francis, 2015, sections 20–26). Taking care for health is closely related to the moral obligation to preserve a healthy lifestyle and ensure relevant rest. The Church recognises that the overall health of most societies raises legitimate concerns due to diseases of affluence, addictions, famine, lack of access to drinking water, or basic health care. The state of children’s health is particularly worrying and thus poses challenges to health prevention and health care. Economic interests also plead in favour of prophylaxis. As it turns out, preventing diseases proves less costly than restoring health of the sick, where the use of expensive medicines or technologies is required. Taking a

44  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. theological perspective into account, there are two principles included in all the legal, sanitary, and medical systems that are worth considering: (1) the right to be born healthy and lifelong health care (Otowicz, 1998, p. 63; O’Rourke & Brodeur, 1987; O’Rourke & Boyle, 2011) as well as (2) the principle of subsidiarity along with human solidarity, which regulates fair medical care for all individuals.

Health care (life protection, general and secondary health care) While performing the synthetic (owing to the volume of this study) analysis of chronological regulations enforcing human and patient’s rights, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, establishing life protection and security of individuals, and Article 25, sanctioning individual’s economic, social, and cultural rights, including health care, shall be mentioned. Article 5 indirectly relates to these rights since it imposes prohibition of tortures. The regulation that in the following context also deserves particular attention is the Treaty of London (1949). Taking European regulations into account, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drafted in 1950 and the European Social Charter established in 1961, where the issues of health protection are many times related to in the context of safety of working environment, should also be pointed out. The right to life protection, however, has been directly referred to in Article 11. Other regulations sanctioning human and patient’s rights jointly are established in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). Special importance should also be given to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights regulation that requires parties to take specific steps to create conditions to ensure equal and timely access to medical services for all (Article 12.2.d). In addition, the Charter of Fundamental Rights enshrines certain rights to respect physical and mental integrity of every individual, and it requires the free and informed consent of the person concerned, along with the prohibition of eugenic practices. The literature highlights that all people, regardless of their places of residence, should have equal rights to joint efforts ensuring protection or improvement of health. Apparently, there are significant differences in accessibility of the same rights concerning the health sphere depending on the geographical location, i.e., a high-income or low-income country (Ooms et  al., 2019, pp. 99–104). Other regulations enact the right to health protection pursuant to separate regulations. The Single European Act, signed on 17 February 1986, included very general provisions on public health. Furthermore, resolutions regarding health care were sequentially passed in the Maastricht Treaty signed on 7 February 1992 (the Treaty on European Union), the Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, the treaties

Health care as a personal and social asset 45 establishing European Communities and certain related acts signed on 2 October 1997, as well as the Treaty of Lisbon. Further declarations regarding health care are enshrined in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Title XIV Public Health). Additionally, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine, known as the Ovido Convention, should be given particular attention. However, in such an important area of regulation concerning the protection of human rights and dignity of the human being, there is no reference to conscience, which allows scientists, doctors, and patients to make decisions according to their own value systems. This document also does not provide clear bioethical guidance as is evident from the identification of human research and transplantation options. In addition, it lacks a clear definition of where the limit to the provision of medical services is, what conditions determine the conduct and termination of persistent therapy; it lacks precise solutions for abortion, euthanasia, and reproduction. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union should also be indicated here, which in the provision of Article 35 explicitly mentions the right of everyone to access protection and medical treatment. Taking Polish medical doctrines into account, as D. Karkowska pertinently indicates, all the previously mentioned regulations (particularly ICCPR, ECHR, ESC, and Oviedo Convention) establish basic human and civil rights held by both healthy and sick individuals (Karkowska, 2016). Accordingly, the subject of functionally related regulations was jointly issued. International agreements, such as the Charter of Patients’ Rights (1984) issued by the European Parliament, the Declaration on the Promotion of Patients’ Rights in Europe (1994), and the European Charter of Patient’s Rights (Cittadinanzattiva  – Active Citizenship) should also be included in resolutions protecting patients’ rights. Considering the relation between the human and patient rights, Article 2.1 of the Declaration on the Promotion of Patients’ Rights ought to be given particular focus. Recitals of the Charter grant the right to preventive health care as well as access to medical services, regardless of the financial situation of the patient, place of residence, type of disease, or the time given. Both international law and the law of the European Union introduce broadly interpreted (including prevention) right to life protection. Regarding the detailed solutions, however, the legal systems of particular countries should be referred to. According to the conventional definition, health care is a maintenance or improvement of health and comprises the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and recovery processes. Health care is considered an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, well-trained professionals, evidenced-based medicine and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies (WHO, Health Systems, 2020).

46  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. Health care is divided into three tiers of service provision, such as primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care. Primary care refers to the work of a general practitioner or a family physician who acts as a first point of consultation for all patients within the whole health care system (NHS, 2019, p. 14). Secondary health care means specialist treatment and support provided by medical professionals for patients who have been referred to them for specific expert care, most often provided in hospitals. Tertiary care is specialised health care in a facility for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, or advanced neonatology services (John Hopkins Medicine. Patient Care: Tertiary Care Definition). According to the Global Monitoring Report on Financial Protection in Health and World Health Organization (WHO & the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2020, p. 3), at least half of the world’s population cannot obtain essential health services. Currently, 800 million people spend at least 10 percent of their household budgets on health expenses for themselves or family members. For almost 100 million people, these expenses are high enough to lead them into extreme poverty and forcing to survive on just $1.90 or less a day. In total, the number of people that are covered with most essential services ranged from 2.3 to 3.5 billion in 2015. This implies that at least half of the world’s 7.3 billion people do not receive the essential health services they need. Furthermore, the previously mentioned report indicated substantial unmet need for a range of specific health interventions. For example, more than 1 billion people live with uncontrolled hypertension; more than 200 million women have inadequate coverage for family planning; and almost 20 million infants fail to start or complete vaccines. The ongoing progress remains very uneven; there are wide gaps in the availability of services in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. In other regions, basic health care services, such as family planning and infant immunisation, are becoming more available, but the lack of financial protection means increasing financial distress for families as they pay for these services out of their own pockets. This is even a challenge in more affluent regions, such as Eastern Asia, Latin America, and Europe, where a growing number of people spend at least 10 percent of their household budgets on out-ofpocket health expenses. The challenge for policy is to ensure that additional resources for health care are channelled through compulsory pooled prepayment mechanisms rather than through out-of-pocket spending (WHO & the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2020, p. 3).

Life-ending and life protection The definition of abortion is the termination of a human pregnancy accompanied by the death of the embryo/foetus. The data on abortions displayed on the Worldometers’ counter is based on the latest statistics on worldwide abortions published by the World Health Organization. According to the

Health care as a personal and social asset 47 WHO, every year in the world, there are an estimated 40–50 million abortions. According to the Guttmacher Institute, approximately 862,320 abortions took place in 2017 in the United States. It means that approximately 18 percent of US pregnancies ended in abortion. As far as European states are concerned, there were over 400,000 abortions in England and Wales in 2018. Most countries in the European Union allow abortion on demand during the first 12 weeks. After the first trimester, abortion is generally allowed only under certain circumstances, such as risk to the woman’s life or health, foetal defects, or other specific situations that may be related to the circumstances of the conception or the woman’s age. Euthanasia is commonly defined as “the practice of intentionally ending a life to relieve pain” or as “assisted suicide and termination of life on request,” or “a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life to relieve intractable suffering.” Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient and is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and in the US  – case Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health. Assisted suicide (with the assistance of a physician) is legal in Switzerland and in the US – the states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, and Vermont. Other categories of euthanasia, such as non-voluntary euthanasia, when patient’s consent is unavailable, and involuntary euthanasia, remain illegal in all countries. According to Vizcarrondo, there is no role for the physician in euthanasia and assisted suicide. The physician must care for the ailing patient with love and compassion, treating physical and emotional pain always with respect, preserving the person’s dignity, and never cause any harm. The taking of innocent life is never a moral act. (Vizcarrondo, 2013, p. 99) When referring to the issue of abortion and euthanasia from the legal point of view, it should be pointed out that the legal regulations of individual countries vary in this respect.

Mental health care The results of the study conducted in 27 EU member states, Switzerland, Iceland, and Norway (Wittchen et al., 2011, pp. 655–679) show that each year 164.8  million inhabitants (38.2%) suffer from psychiatric disorders. Psychiatric disorders are the fourth most common medical cause of disability (WHO, 2017). For instance, depression according to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017, p. 6) is a common illness worldwide, with more than 300 million people affected. Around 800,000 people die due to successful suicide attempts every year, and suicide is the second leading cause of sudden death in the young

48  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. population between 15 and 29-year-olds. The proportion of the global population with anxiety disorders in 2015 was estimated to be 3.6 percent. As with depression, anxiety disorders are more common among females than males (4.6% compared to 2.6% at the global level). In the region of the Americas, as much as 7.7 percent of the female population are estimated to suffer from anxiety disorders (males, 3.6%). The total estimated number of people living with anxiety disorders in the world is 264 million. This total for 2015 reflects a 14.9-percent increase since 2005 (GBD, 2016, p. 15455), as a result of population growth and ageing. Improving the quality of secondary health care services and increasing accessibility to these services are among the essential priorities of WHO. This is of particular importance in Poland, as the psychiatric care reform is being carried out in accordance with the National Mental Healthcare Programme guidelines. According to the results of the project “Maps of Health Needs” (Anczewska et al., 2018, p. 2), the increase in the total number of services in 2010–2014 was mainly seen for outpatient types of care, such as day hospitals, community mental health teams, and outpatient clinics.

Health prevention (health education, prevention of illicit drugs misuse) According to the concepts presented in the introduction, a “common denominator” that has a significant impact on the broad notion of health education and prevention is an integrated/coordinated health care. Taking the WHO definition into account, integrated health care is a concept incorporating initial resources, medical services process, and management and organisation of health care in terms of diagnostics, treatment, rehabilitation, and health promotion (Hermanowski & Rutkowski, 2015, pp. 226– 227). In this context, primary health care headed by a general practitioner, who remains related to the local community and performs the role of a “gatekeeper” of the health care system, plays a key role. As far as the following concept is concerned, the method of financing benefits, i.e., pay-forperformance model, needs to be underlined (Hermanowski & Rutkowski, 2015, pp. 226–227). Its main priority is to prevent fragmentation of health care and, consequently, to ensure a comprehensive approach to the health and social needs of the given population. It must be stressed that health care understood this way is beyond the health care system itself, indicating, at the same time, the demand for cooperation at the local level of health, social care, and education sectors. Right at the start of 1990s, Great Britain implemented the concept of the general practitioners’ role, as the “patients’ ombudsman” of a special kind, in the treatment that involves providing health services and health-related benefits. Changes in the system of general practitioners have been introduced since 1999, when all the solo medical practices were incorporated into group medical practices (Dixon et al., 2001), preserving the status of

Health care as a personal and social asset 49 individual medical practice by particular physicians (Kozierkiewicz, 2011). Primary group practices became operational in April  2000, with a designated 75  percent of the NHS budget. Commission for Improvement, the institution whose main task is the supervision over the quality of patient services, was concurrently established. In the course of adoption of the following amendments, the British government emphasised the necessity of abandonment of budget allocation to general practitioners in favour of group practices. Moreover, high managerial costs related to solo medical practises, fragmentation of the health care system, and two-tier health care was pointed out (Colin-Thome, 2001). At that time, the German model was successively developing multivariate configurations of health care systems (cf. Greß  & Stegmüller, 2009), referred to as “targeted” or “integrated” health care. The legislator enacted regulatory laws comprising two types of solutions, where the first one introduced the regulations permitting entering into individual agreements between health care funds and providers. Those arrangements normalise the primary and tertiary health care delivered within the scope of solo practises, yet they allow the establishment of medical care centres. The second group of regulations, however, introduced the earlier-mentioned principle of a gatekeeper, as well as disease management programmes. Community Health Centres (MVZ) were legally determined as “interdisciplinary facilities led by physicians.” They can be called Community Health Centres as long as they offer various types of medical specialty within one organisation. The centres that put the idea of a onestop facility into practice, in close collaboration with suppliers, combined with efficient management of examination and consultation schedules, enable significant reduction of unnecessary (repeatedly ordered) tests as well as scaling down or even eliminating the redundant way that a patient has to take in the process of treatment. Additionally, thanks to the shared use of equipment, there is a possibility of implementation of an integrated EPD system along with shared management of medical practices, which apparently produces significant effects. To set an example, these could be pharmacies representing the medical branch and fitness clubs exemplifying the non-medical sector, which collectively form health centres. Taking Poland into account, the act from 27 October 2017 on primary health care, which enacted the implementation of solutions that allow coordinated care, however, only at the level of the primary medical care, involving a physician, nurse, and midwife must be mentioned. The following act was intended at enhancing the role of prophylaxis and health education.

Health prevention UNESCO Strategy on Education for Better Health and Well-Being: Contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals of 2016 is an update of previous UNESCO strategies and provides the overarching framework for joint action by UNESCO and its partners at global, regional, and country levels

50  Katarzyna Kucharska et al. during 2016–2021. There are two main strategic priorities in the UNESCO Strategy. First, the main field of the strategic priority is to provide all children and young people with a good quality of comprehensive sexuality education. The key outcomes behind the implementation of the UNESCO Strategy include (a) preventing HIV and other sexually transmitted infections; (b) promoting awareness of HIV testing, knowing one’s status, and HIV treatment; (c) strengthening puberty education; (d) preventing early and unintended pregnancy; and (e) developing attitudes, values, and skills for healthy and respectful relationships. The second main strategic priority of the UNESCO Strategy on Education for Better Health and Well-Being is to lead efforts towards all children and young people to have access to safe, inclusive, health-promoting learning environments. The key outcomes for the implementation of the UNESCO second main strategic priority include the following: (a) eliminating school-related violence and bullying, including school-related gender-based violence; (b) preventing health- and genderrelated discrimination towards learners and educators; and (c) increasing awareness of the importance of good nutrition and the quality physical education.

Conclusions The good quality of individual- and population-based life sets a priority on integrally operating health care. Medical procedures treat, religion brings spiritual comfort, and law protects the patient’s rights. Yet, the final effect also depends on the sick person’s determination to recover. Additionally, health prevention activities designed to indicate how to improve health and prevent disease play a key role. Medical staff treating the diseased, apart from the medical expertise, should also demonstrate integrally combined knowledge of human dignity, the value of human life, possible disease exposure, and health, which is greatly dependent upon individual efforts aligned with efficient health care. The main role in the organisation of functional health care is played by the state and its three authorities: legislative and executive, and in a number of cases – judiciary. Governments of particular countries take the responsibility for the organisation of health care and have impact on the forms and methods of health protection, determining its personal, social, and economic character, along with institutionalising that conditions free access to primary and professional medical benefits. In a broader sense, the liability for people’s health should be taken by international organisations (UN, WHO, UNESCO) and politicians, whose resolutions determine the global standards of health and medical care, and have impact on the improvement of life conditions, hygiene, work, leisure, and food supplies for the entire population. On the other hand, the Church, in the course of caritas, applies the Good Samaritan doctrine. Caring for the diseased and supporting medical staff, giving hope for recovery, are its priority. Although professional credentials are a prior requirement, they

Health care as a personal and social asset 51 prove insufficient. In fact, it is about human beings who need much more than just technically correct caregiving. Regarding the patient’s rights perspective, there are two crucial determinants since, on the one hand, the state has to ensure proper functioning of the health care, which – through its structure and actual commitment  – safeguards the health care rights, and, on the other, an internal structure directed towards health education and prophylaxis is a necessity. Such tasks are performed by the integrated/ coordinated care based on the primary health care supported by the outpatient specialist services. That, in fact, is the level at which education and preventive health care is possible. These are the health centres established in larger urban areas, incorporating both the health care types which, when integrated with other points of the broadly defined medical branch, could eventually produce the desired effect. Nevertheless, smaller centres (villages and towns) should be based on individual practices pursuing the previously mentioned objectives. The management of budget allocated to clinical laboratory sciences sets the crucial challenge. The key issue of the system structured in the way indicated earlier would be the allocation of the budget for specialised medical examinations, which – in the name of erroneous assumptions – should on no account lead to savings at the cost of patients.

Note 1 By the resolution of Pope Francis, Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers, Pontifical Council “Cor Unum” and Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace “Iustitia et Pax” were liquidated and, on 1 January 2017, their functions were taken over by Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development.

Works cited Anczewska, M., Biechowska, D., Gałecki, P., Janas-Kozik, M., Koń, B., SkrzypkowskaBrancewicz, B., Śremska, A., Urbański, F., Więckowska, B., Zięba, M.,  & Kucharska, K. (2018). Analiza świadczeń psychiatrycznych udzielonych osobom dorosłym w latach 2010–2014 na podstawie danych Narodowego Funduszu Zdrowia. Psychiatria Polska 2018. ONLINE FIRST No. 109, pp. 1–16. https:// doi.org/10.12740/PP/OnlineFirst/92219 Cittadinanzattiva – Active Citizenship Network (an European network assembling approximately a 100 of civil organisations from 30 countries) together with Deutsche Gesellschaft für Versicherte und Patienten e. V. (DGVPV); Fédération Belge contre le Cancer; APOVITA, Portugal; Confederacion de Consumidores y usurarios (CECU), Spain; KE.P.KA, Greece; Irish Patients Association Ltd; Danish Consumer Council; Vereniging Samenwerkende Ouder- en Patiëntenorganisaties (VSOP), the Netherlands; International Neurotrauma Research Organization, Austria; Nederlandse Patiënten Consumenten Federatie (NPCF); The Patients Association, UK, thanks to the support of Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, New Jersey USA. http://activecitizenship.net/

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4 The role of education and activities of the Catholic Church and the need to promote sustainable development Beata Zbarachewicz, Jarosław Michalski and Piotr Tomasik Introduction This chapter discusses the importance and the role of education in promoting sustainable development. Currently, over 265  million children do not attend school out of which 22% do not attend primary school. Moreover, even some of those who attend classes cannot read and count. Poor quality of education is caused by the lack of qualified teachers, poor school conditions and unequal access to schools for children from rural areas. Highquality education requires educational scholarship programmes, workshops for teachers, building schools and improving access to water and electricity in schools (UNGA, 2019, p. 11). Such measures are undertaken by international organisations, countries and education-related institutions involved in the implementation of sustainable development objectives and the education activities for sustainable development initiatives. In this respect, UNESCO, the official agency established in 2002 to coordinate the building of sustainable development, plays a pivotal role (UNGA, 2002, pp.  1–2). Its activities for sustainable development are particularly visible. In 2015, UNESCO, together with UNICEF, World Bank, UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women and UNHCR, organised the World Education Forum (attended by more than 1600 participants from 160 countries) and adopted the Incheon Declaration setting out the vision of education development and the commitments to be fulfilled by the international community by 2030. The role of education in sustainable development is emphasised in the document Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) adopted on 25 September 2015, and in particular in its Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) devoted to education. SDG4 of the Agenda succeeded the Millennium Development Goal 2 (MDG2) scheduled for the year 2015 (Millennium Development Goals, 2000). The Agenda highlights the need to ensure high-quality education for all and promote lifelong learning opportunities. In particular, it states that it is necessary to ensure that all girls and boys receive free, equitable, quality primary and

The role of education and activities 55 secondary education, and that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development (UNGA, 2015, section 17). The General Assembly Resolution Education for sustainable development in the framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Resolution 2019) is yet another document raising the issue of education for sustainable development. It calls on the international community to strengthen the role of education in order to achieve the goals of the Agenda by 2030. In particular, it recognises gender barriers with respect to girls’ access to education and the need to provide quality education to children in conflict regions. To contribute to the building of sustainable development, countries, international organisations and educational institutions hold meetings, sign declarations and resolutions, and adopt plans for the implementation of SDGs (Cichos, 2019). The role of declarations, charters and partnerships in promoting sustainable development is reflected by the works of more than 1000 university leaders who signed their commitments to work for sustainable development. Universities have shown particular commitment in this field. Universities around the world make various efforts to ensure sustainable development. They propose new teaching methods, pedagogical approaches, curricula and cooperation with other universities, promote the implementation of sustainable development in university campuses and run training programmes for university teachers (Lozano et al., 2013, pp. 10–19). Unfortunately, these efforts often focus on one or two areas of university sustainable development. This drives further division and prevents adoption of holistic and system-based approach (Filho et  al., 2017, p. 93). Sustainable development efforts are also supported by initiatives of the Catholic Church. To achieve Target 4.c of SDG4, which calls to substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers through teacher-training in developing countries by 2030, the Catholic Church provides missionary volunteer service in the field of education. The aim of this chapter is to explore the role and importance of education in the building of sustainable development and to make reference to Catholic social teaching on education, upbringing and their impact on human development. The first part of the paper discusses the crucial role of education in human life. Further, we explore the documents of Catholic social teaching, especially the teachings of John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. As a summary of how the Target 4.c. is put into effect, we present the statistical data of the missionary work of the Catholic Church in education and charity, with particular emphasis on the Polish missionary activity.

Access to education In pedagogical theory, as in any other scientific theory, conclusions are never final and thus may be questioned. They form a continuous stream

56  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. of thoughts driven by the value of a specific action. In view of this, it may be assumed that the attempt to maintain a uniform approach to education, especially in the face of the dynamic transformation of civilisation, will inevitably lead to a serious crisis in education. All the more so because the need for constant modification of priorities and model of education is determined not only by external changes in the education system, but above all by what evolves inside them. This internal dimension fits into increasingly diverse expectations and capabilities of entities interested in educational activities for sustainable development (Nowak, 2008, p. 28). According to Plato, any crisis is in fact a conflict which arises in a point where objective essence and subjective existence meet; it continues until a human being (and not the institution) starts to balance between what is real, good and beautiful with what is perfectly real, good and beautiful (Michalski, 2012, p. 265). Therefore, further efforts to reform the education system by way of quasi-evolutionary cosmetic improvements without a clear shift of emphasis or solid reinforcement of positivist foundations on which it is based and without some elements of the structure being removed or replaced, which is then inevitable, will not only deepen the crisis, but may contribute to an uncontrolled gradual decline into disorder. Even today, differentiated particularistic interests, opinions and views result in a rapid spread of, often mutually exclusive, educational goals and paradigms. However, this does not necessarily mean that a global revolution is inevitable. History has shown us time and time again that the only change that occurs as a result of a radical break with the past and rapid change in the way we exist is that some people stop being dissatisfied while others, those who preferred to preserve the status quo, object to it. Revolution, or global reform as may be more preferred, does not eliminate individual tragedies and disparities arising from good and evil or falsehood and truth. On the contrary, it often deepens or, at best, preserves them (Filho et al., 2015, p. 114). It is necessary to state in detail which educational activities should be ceased to ensure that the benefits for the public interest do not interfere with benefits for individual and vice versa. Such evolutionary changes require great responsibility and patience of both their originators and those to whom they are directed (Lozano, 2011, p. 68). With over 900  million adult illiterate people, 130  million children not attending primary school and 100  million early school leavers, today’s world urgently needs to repair its education system. Note that these data concern the global community in the 21st century, which is expected to be the “century of education and learning.” With the aim to promote sustainable development, this goal is a challenge in the organisational, methodical, logistical and, above all, educational point of view, even for developed and prosperous societies. Theoretical foundations of education for sustainable development seen as a civilisation challenge or, to put it more firmly, a must or obligation to constantly face new challenges of late-modernity societies are believed to

The role of education and activities 57 be created by sociologists, such as P. Bourdieu, U. Beck and A. Giddens. According to Giddens, the phenomenon mainly results from global access to information and knowledge free from the constraints of time and space. Thanks to new information and communication technologies, we can learn at any time using information sources anywhere on the globe (Giddens, 1991, p. 21). Growing access to sources of knowledge leads to another phenomenon which Giddens calls the detraditionalisation of social life. It turns out that distant sources of information can have a much greater impact on our behaviour than the traditional ones having regional or local character. Due to the erosion of local values and customs, social life is constantly losing its links with local traditions. Giddens claims that late modernity is mainly characterised by a learning society. Globalisation, detraditionalisation and institutionalisation of reflexivity also put learning in a central position in terms of social relations. Lifelong learning becomes a structural feature of societies which determines continuing development and uncertainty. Within this framework, a number of educational tasks have been set for the implementation of Target 4.7 of the Agenda. Beck introduces a new approach to the need of education for sustainable development and to how we understand its consequences. He argues that this phenomenon is a necessary condition for survival in the so-called reflexive modernisation. As he claims, the late-modern society is a “society of risk” since individuals, organisations and societies face risks due to the uncertainty and unpredictability of the social world. He also highlights the negative consequences of the constant need to learn and argues that they are caused by unequal educational opportunities, unequal access to sources of knowledge and diverse competences (Beck & Giddens, 1994, p. 27; Lozano, 2011, p. 74). In the modern world, people without adequate skills, economic and cultural capital, as well as access to information or market power, are increasingly affected by marginalisation as a result of unemployment, inability to articulate their own interests, functional illiteracy and other similar social phenomena. With a view to put into effect the concept of “information society” and “educating society,” it is necessary to cease using routine and conservative “memory-based” school methods and start promoting multilateral development, shaping the world of values and key skills, and equalising educational opportunities for young people, the latter being dealt with by primary school in the first place. This principle should be treated as an educational challenge, both in terms of Target 4.1 and, indirectly, Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda. There is also another concept which should be raised in the context of education and the goals of the Agenda. Education is essential for building a spiritual and material dimension of the contemporary world on the national, European and global level. The educational challenges include the

58  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. excess of knowledge, rapid obsolescence of knowledge and the incompatibility of human classifications and attitudes with the changes and tasks of social, economic and cultural reality. To tackle these problems, the objectives and priorities of education policy along with the ways and tools for their implementation in a long-term perspective need to be clearly defined. It seems that, today and in the future, we will need people who express a realistic approach combined with cautious optimism being aware of the opportunities, challenges and barriers to shape a modern and effective school institutions and education as a whole. Therefore, the preparation and implementation of the education reform requires cooperation and co-responsibility transcending political and environmental divisions (Rutkowiak, 2005, p. 283). However, the role of schools and universities in the overall national education system and in the “information society” should not be overestimated. Educational activities must be multilateral but at the same time directed towards a common goal, i.e., sustainable development. Education constitutes a social value, capital, hope and large area of tasks (Bauman, 2008, p. 314). Its objectives and working methods should express a strong serious opposition to anti-values, negative phenomena and threats to human existence. Human consciousness requires a new perspective on the future. However, seeing the future only “through the prism of the past” is a pitfall. The question then is how to prepare children, young people and adults to live and work in a world of globalisation and the information society so that they can participate in this society in a reasonable way, i.e., promote sustainable development by nurturing the environment and preventing further destruction. The potential to solve it lies in the education for sustainable development. This is because education is in itself valuable and at the same time is an instrument of social change and continuous learning to understand the world, operate in the world and manage oneself. Educational reports, forecast studies of committees and social discussions on education reveal a number of strategies aimed at reforming the education system. All these efforts support the implementation of Goals 1, 2 and 3 and Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda. The most urgent actions for sustainable development include: •

fundamental civilisational curriculum and methodology reform to shape a new human quality • lifelong learning implementation and the model of the humanised “school of the future” • development of technical, vocational and higher education • development of parallel out-of-school forms of adult education and training of qualified teachers. From the legal and organisational point of view, the education development strategy and education reform incorporate the following principles:

The role of education and activities 59 universality (democracy), capacity, flexibility, broad education profile, socialisation of education, uniformity (combined with preserved internal diversity and opportunity to choose from different options), subjectivity and humanisation, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence, scientific character, economics and comparability to solutions adopted in other countries. These principles are undoubtedly not easy to implement and require long-term actions. Besides these principles called for by the Agenda, innovation understood as a creative activity plays a huge role. It has a significant impact on effectiveness of education in the society and links its executors with the educational policy. In the 21st-century society, knowledge, skills and competences are becoming a new criterion of stratification. This is why school and education for sustainable development should take a central place in the strategy of shaping information and lifelong learning society so that it can adapt to work and achieve economic performance. According to V.E. Frankl, human reason is reflected by questions rather than answers (Frankl, 1990, p. 37). In the world of globalisation, the education reform should be based on educational research to explore the following areas: course of action, purposefulness, unity of diagnosis, design, implementation and evaluation of changes, and adoption of necessary corrections and new solutions on the basis of own experiences and education systems of other countries with a view to human-oriented sustainable development. In his speech to the international movement of canonist lawyers, gathered together with the representatives of UN, UNESCO and the Council of Europe, Pope John Paul II said: It should be hoped that every programme, every plan for the social, economic, political and cultural development of Europe will always put the human being, with his or her highest dignity and inalienable rights, first and foremost, at the heart of genuine progress. (John Paul II, 1980, section 52) This is a clear indication of what should be done in the field of education. If we want to promote education in the spirit of sustainable development, we must focus on the human as a fundamental value in the first place. Following the words of John Paul II that a human being is the way of the Church, we could state that the human being is the way of education for sustainable development.

Teaching of the Church and papal documents focused on the need for education and intercultural dialogue The concept of education and upbringing in the teaching of the Catholic Church has constantly evolved over the last two centuries. Education

60  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. has undergone different stages of development, from “shaping thoughts” through integral formation to support in self-education. A student stopped being treated like an object, while a teacher ceased to perform the function of a trainer. The role of the teacher was to support the development of their student. This general tendency is discussed by Dziekoński (2020, pp. 42–53), who analysed the Vatican documents dating back to the 19th and 20th centuries. The trend mentioned previously followed the changes in secular pedagogy. The issue is also raised in the Church’s teaching, which introduces four terms to describe the phenomenon: openness, peace, counteracting violence, and progress. John Paul II emphasises that Christianity is open to brotherhood (John Paul II, 1990, section 43) and missions should not be based on self-interest. Instead, they should be open to understanding those who live in different social conditions and cultural traditions (John Paul II, 1990, section 56). A similar message is given by Pope Francis, who states that a Church which “goes forth” is a Church whose doors are open (Francis, 2013, section 46). He continues these considerations in his reference to the environment. He establishes a relationship between environmental matters and interpersonal relationships, including an attitude of openness (Francis, 2015, section 119). The question of peace is discussed very explicitly in papal teaching. In recent years, the popes responded to the existing threat of war by delivering occasional speeches, messages on the World Day of Peace observed every year since 1968 and major magisterial documents. In view of the matters discussed in this paper, the focus should be made on the issue of education for peace. In his message for 2004, John Paul II indicates that education for peace requires teaching legality and opposition to the temptation of terrorism (John Paul II, 2003, sections, 5, 8). Eighteen years later, the issue of education for peace is raised by Benedict XVI. He argues that every educational setting can be a place of openness to the transcendent and to others; a place of dialogue, cohesiveness and attentive listening, where young people feel appreciated for their personal abilities and inner riches, and can learn to esteem their brothers and sisters. (Benedict XVI, 2011, section 2) He also emphasises the need to exercise freedom properly: The exercise of freedom is intimately linked to the natural moral law, which is universal in character, expresses the dignity of every person and forms the basis of fundamental human rights and duties: consequently, in the final analysis, it forms the basis for just and peaceful coexistence. The right use of freedom, then, is central to the promotion of justice and peace, which require respect for oneself and others, including those whose way of being and living differs greatly from one’s own. This

The role of education and activities 61 attitude engenders the elements without which peace and justice remain merely words without content. (Benedict XVI, 2011, section 3) Important aspects related to a proper understanding of the position of a human being in the world are discussed by Pope Francis. He argues that peace, justice and the preservation of creation should not be treated individually (Francis, 2015, section 92), and this fact constitutes a call on man to sustain a contemplative or balanced lifestyle (Francis, 2015, sections 222, 225). This clearly entails a number of educational tasks compliant with Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda. The relationship between education for peace and opposing violence is obvious. According to Pope Francis, violence is born in human hearts and manifests itself, inter alia, in the destruction and pollution of the environment (Francis, 2015, section 2). Violence results from the assumption that arbitrary power is exercised by the strongest (Francis, 2015, section 82). It violates the principle of distributive justice and this always leads to violence (Francis, 2015, section  157). A  remedy to this can be found in so-called ecological conversion: Natural resources, the many forms of life and the earth itself have been entrusted to us to till and keep, also for future generations, through the responsible and active participation of everyone. We need to change the way we think and see things, and to become more open to encountering others and accepting the gift of creation, which reflects the beauty and wisdom of its Creator. (Francis, 2019, section 4) This principle provides a direct reference to education, both in terms of Target 4.7 and, indirectly, Target 4.1 of the 2030 Agenda. Progress is yet another concept which should be raised in the context of education and the goals of the 2030 Agenda. The concept of progress should not be construed as a cliché as it requires appropriate axiological analysis. John Paul II claims that the ideology of purely earthly progress leads to the devastation of the created world and human societies because it usually succumbs to temptation of selfishness (cf. John Paul II, 1990, section  17). An in-depth analysis of the concept of progress was conducted by Benedict XVI. He links this concept with reason and freedom. Over the centuries, this relationship had diverse forms and led to various actions. He concludes that there is progress is an ambiguous concept since without doubt, it offers new possibilities for good, but it also opens up appalling possibilities for evil  – possibilities that formerly did not exist. We have all witnessed the way in which progress in the wrong hands can become and has indeed become a terrifying progress in evil.

62  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. If technical progress is not matched by corresponding progress in man’s ethical formation, in man’s inner growth (cf. Epistle to Ephesians, 3:16; Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 4:16), then it is not progress at all, but a threat for man and for the world. (Benedict XVI, 2007, sections 22, 17–23) The need for moral progress is also emphasised by Pope Francis (Francis, 2015, section 127). These calls are in line with Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda, but there is an urgent need to define a community of values around their implementation (cf. Francis, 2015, section 229). In order to accomplish this task, one needs, inter alia, to establish intercultural and interreligious dialogue. Papal documents make a distinction between intercultural and interreligious dialogue. Interreligious dialogue does not imply the renunciation of one’s own identity. John Paul II refers to the Council decree Nostra Aetate (cf. SVC, 1965a, section 2) and states that we strive to discern and welcome whatever is good and holy in one another, so that together we can acknowledge, preserve and promote the spiritual and moral truths which alone guarantee the world’s future. In this sense, dialogue is never an attempt to impose our own views upon others, since such a dialogue would become a form of spiritual and cultural domination. This does not mean that we abandon our own convictions. What it means is that, holding firmly to what we believe, we listen respectfully to others, seeking to discern all that is good and holy, all that favours peace and cooperation. (John Paul II, 1999, section 3) A dialogue which avoids confrontation shows respect for otherness and at the same time does not relativise its values leads to intercultural dialogue because religion is closely related to culture. John Paul II defines culture as the key which gives access to the deepest and most jealously guarded secrets of the life of peoples. . . . To say “culture” means to express in a single word the national identity which is the soul of these peoples and which continues, in spite of unfavourable conditions, all kinds of trials, historical or natural disasters, to be a single and cohesive one, that has been living for centuries. (John Paul II, 1981, section 6) Such appreciation for culture leads to the formulation of the principles of dialogue between cultures. On the one hand, it calls for the meeting of cultures as a result of progressive globalisation, and on the other hand, it calls for preventing colonisation of culture. Pope Francis describes it as the acceptance of a culture of encounter and dialogue and a clear opposition to

The role of education and activities 63 the culture of rejection and exclusion, which is a culture of degradation and domination of the stronger (Francis, 2015, section 30; Francis, 2020). This is how the area of dialogue opens to create the community of values with the possibility of defining a catalogue of fundamental values that determine the directions of education. Note, however, that the papal teaching clearly states that no dictates are allowed. This means that the compromise cannot be unlimited.

Missions as an institutional response of the Catholic Church to education Education for sustainable development in the framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development resolution (2019) shows that a significant progress was made in the global agenda. In particular, the network of key partners enabled 26  million students to learn about sustainable development and provided training to two million teachers in this field. It emphasises that the support for member states in their efforts to promote education for sustainable development is needed. To respond institutionally to the Target 4.c of SDG4, which calls to substantially increase in developing countries the supply of qualified teachers by 2030, including through international cooperation, the Catholic Church conducts global missionary volunteering. In the following, the statistical data of the missionary work of the Catholic Church in education and charity with particular emphasis on the activity of Polish male and female missionaries are presented. According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for the Missions of 1 October 2018, 2004 Polish male and female missionaries served in the missions on five continents. Figures on persons who served in the missions in 2018 based on the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for the Missions are shown in Table 4.1. According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for the Missions of 1 October 2019, 1903 Polish male and female missionaries served

Table 4.1  Persons who served in the missions in 2018 (www.misje.pl) Continent Africa and Madagascar Latin America and the Caribbean North America Asia and Asia Minor Oceania Total

Total

Fidei Donum (diocesan priest)

Lay person

Nun

Monk

775 805

78 178

21 19

371 182

305 426

20 337 67 2004

5 46 14 321

1 7 1 49

1 136 6 696

13 148 46 938

64  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. Table 4.2  Persons who served in the missions in 2019 (www.misje.pl) Continent Africa and Madagascar Latin America and the Caribbean North America Asia and Asia Minor Oceania Total

Total

Fidei Donum (diocesan priest)

Lay person

Nun

Monk

730

73

17

349

291

766

168

17

178

403

17 328 62 1903

4 44 11 300

1 6 1 42

– 133 7 667

12 145 43 894

in the missions in 99 countries on five continents. The data are presented in Table 4.2. The Agenzia Fides report of 21 October 2018 provides information on the Catholic Church’s commitment to education, charity and social assistance. In 2016, the Catholic Church headed 217,261 institutions worldwide, including 72,826 preschools, 96,573 primary schools and 47,862 secondary schools. Catholic colleges were attended by 2,509,457 young people, while universities were attended by 3,049,548 students. The data shown in Table 4.3 are as of 31 December 2017. According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for Missions of 1 October  2019, Polish male and female missionaries ran about 150 preschools representing about 8000 children, about 500 primary schools representing about 100,000 students, and about 150 secondary schools representing about 45,000 students. Vocational education, often providing informal training, e.g., vocational courses, also brings some added value. Polish missionaries are also involved in the development of higher education in Africa, which may deepen the cooperation between Catholic universities in Africa and Poland (MIVA). The Target 4.c of SDG4 was also fulfilled by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warszawa (UKSW). In 2015, the University started to offer English-language study programmes directed mainly to students coming from religious and ethnic minorities, especially from Africa. UKSW offers classes in the field of learning, teaching, psychology, culture and pastoral work. The academic year 2018/2019 covered 20 students, while 2019/2020 30 students. The students come from the following countries: Ethiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia. As assumed, the education and formation initiative makes a significant contribution to education of future academic staff in the students’ countries of origin. The Catholic Church is also actively engaged in charity and assistance activities. According to Ad Gentes, in 2016, the Catholic Church headed

Preschools

18,813 15,205 13,460 22,327 1,500 71,305

Continent

Africa America Asia Europe Oceania Total

2,251,425 1,242,021 1,861,409 1,873,860 75,124 7,303,839

Preschool children 45,088 20,599 15,841 15,590 4,409 101,527

Primary schools 19,179,537 6,012,055 5,536,204 3,066,847 772,884 34,558,527

Primary school students 15,238 11,828 11,270 9,511 713 48,560

Secondary schools 6,367,769 3,905,640 5,909,398 3,637,840 499,945 20,320,592

Secondary school students

Table 4.3 Overview of the educational activities of the Catholic Church (https://missio.org.pl)

114,086 612,964 1,287,231 320,777 10,741 2,345,799

Higher education students

127,009 1,776,150 421,364 585,140 35,632 2,945,295

University students

The role of education and activities 65

66  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. 111,405 centres of charitable assistance worldwide: 5287 hospitals, mainly in America (1530) and Africa (1321); 15,937 clinics, mainly in Africa (5177), America (4430) and Asia (3300); 610 leprosaria, mainly in Asia (352) and Africa (192); 15,722 homes for the elderly, chronically ill and disabled, mainly in Europe (8127) and America (3763); 9552 orphanages, mainly in Asia (3660); 11,758 care centres for children, mainly in America (3191) and Asia (3295); 13,897 marriage counselling centres, in Europe (5664) and America (4984); 3506 social education and reeducation centres and 35,746 other institutions. The data shown in Table 4.4 are as of 31 December 2017. The missionary activity of the Church was described in the documents issued at the Second Vatican Council (SVC) and in the post-conciliar period. The Council Decree Ad Gentes indicates that “the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature since it is from the mission of the Son and the mission of the Holy Spirit that she draws her origin, in accordance with the decree of God the Father” (SVC, 1965b, section  2). This theological concept provides guidance to the faithful on conduct. However, it should be emphasised that the missionary activity of the Church does not imply the rejection of other sensitivities. Openness does not mean that one gives its consent to lose its identity. Instead, its aim is to build community leading to homogenisation. In his encyclical Redemptoris Missio, John Paul II refers to the issue of missionary activity in relation to the concept of human freedom. He emphasises that the proclamation of Jesus Christ always supports the development of humans, and at the same time he points out that the missionary activity of the Church must respect human freedom. The mission of the Church “does not restrict freedom but rather promotes it” (John Paul II, 1990, section 39). A great impulse for the missionary activity was given by Pope Francis. In the exhortation Evangelii Gaudium, he notes that the mission is a call to “go forth from our own comfort zone in order to reach all the peripheries in need of the light of the Gospel” (Francis, 2013, section  20). He also describes the features of an evangelising community: it “has an endless desire to show mercy . . . gets involved by word and deed in people’s daily lives; it bridges distances, it is willing to abase itself if necessary, and it embraces human life,” and consists of “patience and disregard for constraints of time” (Francis, 2015, section 24). Following these guidelines, the missionary activity transcends the limits imposed by denominations.

Conclusions In spite of notable achievements in higher education for sustainable development in the last 15  years, there are still many challenges to overcome (Filho et al., 2015, p. 116). The 2030 Agenda calls us to ensure inclusive and equitable education as well as lifelong learning opportunities for all. Despite the UN endeavours to

Hospitals

1367 1399 1160 1038 305 5269

Continent

Africa America Asia Europe Oceania Total

55907 44330 22919 22361 5551 16068

Clinics

683 3,596 2,620 8,475 361 15,735

Homes for the elderly, chronically ill and disabled 1663 2308 3473 2269 100 9813

Orphanages

1,765 3,153 2,900 2,533 141 10,492

Care centres for children 1,504 4,798 863 5,676 224 13,065

Marriage counselling centres

245 1577 503 778 66 3169

Education and re-education centres

Table 4.4 Overview of the charity and assistance centres run by the Catholic Church (https://missio.org.pl)

1,137 12,458 2,372 14,977 238 31,182

Other institutions

The role of education and activities 67

68  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. support countries in their efforts to fulfil these requirements, some reports are disturbing. Despite significant progress in access to education, there were 262 million children and young people aged between 6 and 17 in 2017 who still did not attend school, while more than half of them did not meet minimum standards of proficiency in reading and mathematics (UN, 2019, p. 11; UNGA, 2019, p. 1). High-quality education is essential for improving people’s lives and sustainable development. Universal access to education will improve the quality of life and provide innovative solutions to the biggest challenges of the modern world. The international community’s call for inclusive and equitable quality education at all levels, i.e., early childhood, primary and secondary education, higher education and distance learning, including technical and vocational training, remains valid. The aim is to ensure that all people, irrespective of gender, age, race or ethnic origin, including people with disabilities, migrants, indigenous peoples, children and young people, especially the most disadvantaged, have access to lifelong learning opportunities. The actions aimed at fulfilling these tasks will provide people with knowledge and skills needed to fully participate in society, and at the same time will promote sustainable development. As underlined in the Resolution, education for sustainable development is an essential factor to achieve all other goals of the 2030 Agenda (UNGA, 2019, p. 2). However, education understood in this way should not constitute a means to release oneself from the “compulsion of facts,” or irrationally constrain the “dictatorship of values.” Education should represent a defined integral whole which indicates a necessary – i.e., rational, effective, practical etc. – path in the search for a free and diverse existence, on the one hand, and a free – i.e., expected, desired, needed, trusted etc. – path in the search for necessity and uniform existence, on the other. In other words, education should not seek to provide a precise estimation and full preparation for future events, but rather develop and shape a certain state of creative expectation to ensure that the quality of the ideal and imagined action has an impact on the quality of real and sensual action, and vice versa. By following this approach, education would prepare and enrich the soil so that improved Homo sapiens’ states of affairs can be seeded in the future. This is because ideas can sprout in artificial conditions, but they should grow in natural conditions on the best possible soil structure. The idea cannot be put into effect if it does not refer to specific values, expectations and capabilities of those towards whom it is directed. This is why the culture-forming and creative factor of education, i.e., pancreationism of values and facts at different levels of novelty and definition of goals and ways of execution, should constitute an inseparable part of human education. Progress has been made in increasing access to education at all levels and the number of people in education, especially women and girls. The number

The role of education and activities 69 of people with basic literacy skills has increased dramatically. However, further efforts are needed to achieve the universal education goal. Member states need to be supported in their efforts to promote education for sustainable development. The modern teaching of the Catholic Church follows the goals of the Agenda in a specific way. Freedom is understood as the affirmation of human in relation to ethical values. Dialogue does not imply the rejection of identity or submission to cultural colonisation, but is understood as a search for the truth, education for persistence to serve the truth, and acceptance the plurality of reality. These principles should be followed not only by religious schools or any school system where religion is taught, but also by all other areas of the education system.

Works cited Bauman, Z. (2008). Wieloznaczność nowoczesna  – nowoczesność wieloznac­ zna. PWN. Beck, U., & Giddens, A. (1994). Reflexive Modernization. Polity Press. Benedict XVI. (2007). Spe salvi. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Benedict XVI. (2011). Message for the Celebration of the World Day of Peace 2012: Educating Young People in Justice and Peace. www.vatican.va/content/benedictxvi/en/messages/peace/documents/hf_ben-xvi_mes_20111208_xlv-world-daypeace.html Cichos, K. (2019). Sustainability, Declarations, Effectiveness. In Encyclopedia of Sustainability in Higher Education. Springer. Dziekoński, S. (2020). Wychowanie w nauczaniu Kościoła. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego. Filho, L. W., Manolas, E., & Pace, P. (2015). The Future We Want: Key Issues on Sustainable Development in Higher Education After Rio and the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. International Journal of Sustainable Higher Education, 16, pp. 112–129. Filho, L. W., Wu, J. Y., Londero Brandli, L., Veiga Avila, L., Azeiteiro, U. M., Caeiro, S., Rejane da Rosa, L., & Madruga, G. (2017). Identifying and Overcoming Obstacles to the Implementation of Sustainable Development at Universities. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 14(1), pp. 93–108. Francis. (2013). Evangelii gaudium. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2015). Laudato Si’. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2019). Message of His Holiness Pope Francis for the Celebration of the 53rd World Day of Peace 2020: “Peace as a Journey of Hope: Dialogue, Reconciliation and Ecological Conversion.” www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/ messages/peace/documents/papa-francesco_20191208_messaggio-53giornata mondiale-pace2020.html Francis. (2020). Address of His Holiness Pope Francis to the Members of the Diplomatic Corps Accredited to the Holy See for the Traditional Exchange of New Year Greetings. www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2020/january/ documents/papa-francesco_20200109_corpo-diplomatico.html

70  Beata Zbarachewicz et al. Frankl, V. E. (1990). Der mensch auf der Suche nach Sinn. Zur Rehumanisierung der Psychotherapie. Herder. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self-Identity. Polity Press. John Paul II. (1980). Per construire L’Europa degli uomini. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1981). Stolica Apostolska wobec problemów ludzkości. Przemówienie do Korpusu Dyplomatycznego. L’Osservatore Romano, 2nd Polish edition, No. 2, pp. 6–7. John Paul II. (1990). Redemptoris missio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1999). Meeting with representatives of other Religions and other Christian Confessions New Delhi – Vigyan Bawan. www.vatican.va/content/johnpaul-ii/en/travels/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_07111999_new-delhi_meetingother-religions.html John Paul II. (2003). Message of His Holiness Pope John Paul II for the Celebration of the World Day of Peace: Pacem in Terris: A  Permanent Commitment. www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/messages/peace/documents/hf_jp-ii_ mes_20021217_xxxvi-world-day-for-peace.html Lozano, R. (2011). The State of Sustainability Reporting in Universities. International Journal of Sustainable Higher Education, 12(1), pp. 67–78. Lozano, R., Lukman, R., Lozano, F. J., Huisingh, D.,  & Lambrechts, W. (2013). Declarations for Sustainability in Higher Education: Becoming Better Leaders, Through Addressing the University System. Journal of Cleaner Production, 48, pp. 1019. Michalski, J. (2012). Sens życia a pedagogika. Impulsy myśli Viktora E. Frankla. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK. Millennium Development Goals. www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ MIVA. www.miva.pl Nowak, M. (2008). Teorie i koncepcje wychowania. Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne. Ramos, T. B., Caeiro, S., van Hoof, B., Lozano, R., Huisingh, D.,  & Ceulemans, K. (2015). Experiences from the Implementation of Sustainable Development in Higher Education Institutions: Environmental Management for Sustainable Universities. Journal of Cleaner Production, 106, pp. 3–10. Rutkowiak, J. (2005). Odmiany myślenia o edukacji. Impuls. Statystyka Kościoła Katolickiego. Rocznik Statystyczny Kościoła (as at 31 December  2017). https://missio.org.pl/pontyfikat/kongregacja-ewangelizacji-narodow/ statystyki SVC [Second Vatican Council]. (1965a). Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions Nostra Aetate. www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html SVC [Second Vatican Council]. (1965b). Decree of the Mission Activity of the Church Ad Gentes. UNGA [United nations General Assembly]. (2002). Resolution 57/254. United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. https://undocs.org/ en/A/RES/57/254 UNGA [United nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. (A/RES/70/1). www.un.org/ga/search/ view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E

The role of education and activities 71 UNGA [United nations General Assembly]. (2019). Resolution 2019. Education for Sustainable Development in the Framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 19(h). United Nations [UN]. (2019). Report of the Secretary-General on SDG Progress 2019. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24978Report_ of_the_SG_on_SDG_Progress_2019.pdf World Education Forum. (2015). Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action Towards Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Lifelong Learning for All. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000233813

5 Combating legal and cultural forms of discrimination against women from the point of view of Catholic social teaching Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska, Małgorzata Pawlus and Andrzej Waleszczyński Introduction Leaving no one behind is the central promise of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Women and girls, to whom the Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG5) “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” is devoted, are still threatened to be left behind (UN, 2016). The proponents of gender equality note that only 1 of the 17 SDGs comprehensively addresses gender equality. They interpret it as a decreased commitment to women’s issues compared to how these issues are addressed in one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Kim, 2017, p. 240). However, it should be noted that MDGs devoted to gender equality were limited to the access of women and girls to education and the reduction of maternal mortality. SDGs are extended to include gender equality. In particular, the emphasis is put on elimination of gender inequalities in education (Targets 4.3, 4.5 and 4.6), malnutrition of pregnant and lactating mothers (Target 2.2), access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning (Target 3.7), promotion of safe and secure working environments, in particular for women migrants (Target 8.8), providing access to safe public transport (Target 11.2) and access to adequate sanitation and hygiene with a special attention paid to the needs of women and girls (Target 6.2). SDGs also recognise the need to prevent gender-based violence and early marriages, ensure women’s rights to economic resources, such as land ownership and management, and value unpaid care and domestic work. Despite their deficiencies, SDGs address the needs of women worldwide in a more comprehensive way than MDGs (Abebe & Faraday, 2019, p. 4). Note that the 2030 Agenda provides the follow-up to the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (UN, 1995, section  19, §252), both in terms of problem areas and the use of gender mainstreaming in development policies. This chapter explores the tasks of SDG5 of the 2030 Agenda with respect to Targets 5.1 and 5.4 from the perspective of Catholic social teaching.

Combating discrimination against women 73 Target 5.1 provides a general call to end all forms of discrimination against women and girls everywhere. Target 5.4 is more specific and calls to recognise and value the unpaid care and domestic work of women. The 2030 Agenda states that the implementation of these tasks requires both public actions, especially actions of national governments with the support of NGOs, primarily aimed at providing public services, developing infrastructure and ensuring broad social security, and private actions. It also promotes joint responsibility of women and men for family and household. Importantly, Target 5.4 is not intended to be implemented equally in all countries. Its implementation depends on national circumstances. It is assumed that shared responsibility of spouses or partners for family and household is determined by legal, cultural, social, economic and geographical conditions. The discussion on Targets 5.1 and 5.4 shows the position of women and girls both in the public and private sphere. These two equally important perspectives influence and complement each other. “The personal is political,” a slogan of the Women’s Liberation Movement transformed into the second-wave feminism from the 1960s, is still relevant (Hannam, 2007, pp. 142–144). Women’s issues are raised by both the UN and the Catholic Church. Their goals and objectives aimed at counteracting discrimination against women and girls are consistent with each other but differ in scope and nature, and assume different anti-discrimination measures. Family and in particular unpaid care and domestic work by women are the key issues which are perceived differently. The assumptions of the 2030 Agenda constitute a sui generis model-based approach even though the legal systems recognise them in domestic legislation. Other UN documents, headed by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, also impose on the signatory states the obligation to ensure that the principles of equality between women and men are put into practice, either through legislation, including legal acts of constitutional rank, or by other available means (UN, 1979, Article 3(a)). The 2030 Agenda sees sustainable development as the building of the world of justice, fairness and tolerance, open and conducive to social inclusion, and ready to meet the needs of the weakest, including women and girls. The Catholic Church does not stand by. She is aware of the multiple forms of gender discrimination around the world. On 22–24 May 2015 in Rome, prior to the summit of the 2030 Agenda, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, in collaboration with the World Union of Women’s Catholic Organisations and the World Women’s Alliance for Life and Family, held an international conference on women’s issues entitled “Women and the Post-2015 Development Agenda: The Challenges of the Sustainable Development Goals?” Since the Second Vatican Council, women’s issues have been frequently discussed in the teaching of the Catholic Church, especially by John Paul II. The Catholic Church contributes to improving the situation of women and girls in the world through the formation of conscience, but at the same time is perceived as a patriarchal institution which

74  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. restricts women’s rights and supports gender inequality. Therefore, it seems that a broader space for dialogue and cooperation is needed and can be only achieved when common points and differences between the mainstream international gender equality policy and Catholic social teaching for the implementation of SDG5 are identified.

Unpaid care and domestic work of women from the cultural and legal point of view Unpaid care and domestic work of women and their position on the labour market are the issues raised by the second-wave and subsequent feminists (Hannam, 2007, pp.  133–156, passim; Mendes, 2011, pp.  483–498; Ferree & Tripp, 2006, pp. 112–114). The timeless slogan “done paid” continues to call for affirmation of women’s work in the household and makes its meaning more than just symbolic. It is emphasised that work for the family brings real benefits from the economic point of view, even though it does not generate a direct nominal profit. The literature also highlights how important this type of activity is for the individual, society and economy (Titkow et  al., 2004, passim; Zachorowska-Mazurkiewicz, 2016, p.  121). Unpaid domestic work is still generally performed by women, which is culturally and in particular historically justified. In the past, family work performed by women exclusively in households was underestimated due to the progressive urbanisation of countries. This was particularly noticeable in Western Europe. As a result of the social and economic changes of the modern age, men started to leave, in the literal sense, their households to take up paid work, inherently associated with professional and gainful activity performed outside, and generating a financial profit, i.e., remuneration (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). Consequently, women’s work in a private sphere was perceived to be inferior (as it was unprofitable), less necessary (as it did not directly affect the material security of the family), and free from special qualifications and external verification. As a result, the activity of women was reduced to three areas corresponding to three components of the later slogan of the 19thcentury German tradition: “children, kitchen, church” (Zaiceva  & Zimmermann, 2007, p. 6). Moreover, in view of early forms of capitalism in the 16th and 18th centuries, new goods, such as sewing clothes or food production, which were previously produced in households only and primarily by women, started to be accessible on the external market. The standard of living started to be dependent on the earnings of the husband. This, in turn, exacerbated the conflicts associated with gender relations, especially in cities (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). Paradoxically, then, the tendency was that the economic backwardness of a given country with the resulting slower urban processes translated into a stronger position of women in the family. For example, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which faced relatively weaker urbanisation processes compared to Western European countries, the division of labour between husbands and wives was more balanced. This

Combating discrimination against women 75 is why historians describe the intra-family relations in Poland as soft patriarchy (Pietrow-Ennker, 1992, p.  13). As a side note, the relatively strong position of women in this part of Europe was also determined by religious conditions. The reformation which began in Poland in the 16th century had a special character and was socially limited to the nobility and few large cities. It was thus primarily targeted to the elites. Moreover, at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, the nobility experienced the rebirth of Catholicism. In the Protestant states, by contrast, the reformation dissolved monasteries and abolished celibacy, and thus women had no other option than married life. Marriage became the absolute centre of social life (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). This shows that the modern age did not result in women’s emancipation. On the other hand, a new cultural model of the family and image of the woman began to be strengthened. It was assumed that mothers and wives express themselves exclusively through domestic work. It also led to the social conviction that women’s activity in a private sphere is obvious and should not result in any remuneration. In addition, women were thought to be created and biologically predestined to perform domestic work and to sacrifice themselves for the family as it lies in their nature. In the issue of the position of women in society, researchers claim that the modern age shifted us back in the development, even more than in the Middle Ages (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). This universal approach to the position of women in society strengthened in the 19th century and took a specific form in Poland, at the time when the country was partitioned in three stages by the Kingdom of Prussia, the Russia Empire and Austria (1795–1918). After the November Uprising (1830– 1831), the perfect attitude of the woman known as a Polish Mother was promoted. This concept derives from literature (Mickiewicz, 1830). A Polish Mother became an archetypal image of a woman who expresses herself through raising her children in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism, a concept seemingly unprecedented compared to other countries. Woman is thus responsible for taking care of home and the welfare of the family, but at the same time is obliged to promote civil virtues in captivity. Given that the largest and most aggressive partitioners, Prussia and Russia, were predominantly Protestant and Orthodox, respectively, there is no doubt that this attitude was politically justified. The term “Pole” started to be identified with a Catholic over time; however, this term is also understood as a “selective perception of the national history” (this opinion is mentioned by J. Staśkiewicz after B. Porter-Szucs (Staśkiewicz, 2016, p. 142). However, as early as in the 19th century, when the first emancipatory movements emerged, the role of a woman as a Catholic Polish Mother transformed into a different form. The postulates of feminist ideology to change the position of women in society were formulated. Izabela Moszczeńska (1864–1941), one of the first Polish women engaged in emancipation movements, adopted the concept of the materialistic interpretation of history. This concept describes the phenomenon which dates

76  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. back to prehistoric times. It assumes that women and men hold equal positions while motherhood is the only criterion which differentiates women from men. Over time, with the emergence of the concept of private property, work started to be divided between men and women. As a result, women could not equally participate in the process of civilisation. Emancipatory movements began to promote the idea of the exchange of gender roles. The aim was to introduce a moral revival of man and creative development of woman (Pietrow-Ennker, 1992, p. 21). However, the established patterns related to the role of a woman in the society proved deeply rooted. Suffice it to say that failure to follow the traditional concept of the Polish Mother was seen as a betrayal of national and religious values. The postulates formulated by emancipatory movements were considered harmful (Pietrow-Ennker, 1992, p.  21). Interestingly, in the 20th and 21st centuries, along with rapid changes in society, the concept of the Polish Mother considerably evolved (Titkow, 2012, pp. 27–47). In extreme cases, women who treat sacrificing themselves for the family as the only goal in life have been, and keep being, stigmatised. On the other hand, women who seek self-fulfilment in all possible areas of life, from the family to professional and social activities, are also negatively judged. Women who blindly follow the idealised concept of perfection in every sphere of life are denounced, while their attitude is thought to generate frustration and exhaustion (about the “superwoman” syndrome allowing “demystification” of the Mother of Poland figure, cf. Titkow, 2012, pp. 27–28, 30–31, 41–44). Therefore, in recent decades, more attention has been paid to the informed choices of women and the dangers resulting from hasty judgments on women’s professional work and their choices regarding unpaid domestic work (about the “assertive woman” being aware of her rights, cf. Titkow, 2012, pp. 42–44). Note that life choices of women are always good, albeit subjectively good, i.e., good for particular women. From the legal point of view, special tools which enable women to fulfil their plans should be developed. The family model as well as women’s struggle for access to food, drinking water and better education of their children, i.e., the problems faced by America in the 19th and early 20th centuries and explored by ecofeminism in the 1970s and 1980s (Mann, 2011, p.  7), are the issues which are still relevant in Africa today. The experts emphasise that the economic empowerment of African women is essential to the success of the African Union Agenda 2063, the long-term development plan for Africa. They also point out that there are six goals of the 2030 Agenda which directly address African countries: SDG1 (to end poverty), SDG2 (to achieve food security), SDG3 (to promote health and well-being), SDG5 (to achieve gender equality), SDG8 (to promote full employment and decent wages for all) and SDG10 (to reduce inequality). The example of Africa also proves that the concept of sustainable development in combating discrimination between women and men has a different meaning in different parts of the world. While highly and moderately developed countries undertake actions

Combating discrimination against women 77 which address equal access for women to managerial positions, reproductive rights and the shared responsibility of partners in the household, underdeveloped countries require grassroots work in the first place. In particular, women should not bear full responsibility for running the household and should have access to the labour market. As a general rule, the family model observed in a particular culture or epoch should not be compared with another one. However, it is worth noting that the situation faced by European and American women a hundred years ago is quite similar to the current situation of African women. This proves that women’s rights evolve and are determined by culture, religion, mentality, economic development and policies of the country. Note that, like the 19th-century Polish Mothers, African women bear the responsibility for the well-being of the family and at the same time face discrimination in the public sphere and are obliged to strictly follow the rules of patriarchal community. These women are called unsung heroes (Ighobor, 2019). According to the UN Research Institute for Social Development, unpaid work by women in Africa yields profits ranging from 10% to 39% of GDP (Ighobor, 2019). The International Labour Organisation points out that women in Africa are disproportionately burdened by domestic work and unpaid care. For example, the share of women in the labour force, including in the grey market, is 86% in Rwanda, 77% in Ethiopia and 70% in Tanzania (Ighobor, 2019). The responsibility for the well-being of the family is not only about raising children. Women are also engaged in land and animal farming, which is a hard physical work in unfavourable climatic conditions. Today, in most developing countries, women perform the functions of transport animals, farmers and water or fuel suppliers (Pathania, 2017, pp. 72, 77; UNW, 2017, No. 8, p. 3). Note that these obligations are imposed on very young girls who get married early, before they finish their education. “In our culture, people believe education is for boys and that the women must marry and stay at home,” said S. Haidara, Special Adviser to Mali’s Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development (Ighobor, 2019). In contrast, the economic empowerment of African women should be based primarily on education. This is because uneducated women are inevitably expelled from the labour market. However, changes are happening, though slowly. According to the report Women, Business and the Law 2019: A  Decade of Reform, prepared by the World Bank, most reforms promoting gender equality have been carried out in sub-Saharan African countries, especially the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Malawi, Mauritius, Sao Tomé and Principe and Zambia (Ighobor, 2019). The Democratic Republic of Congo, despite the political crisis, carried out the reforms to enable women to do business, open bank accounts, become active on the labour market and choose their place of residence. Mauritius took steps to counteract sexual harassment of women at work and gender-based restrictions on access to credit. Sao Tomé and Principe equalised the retirement age

78  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. of women and men, including the age entitling women and men to receive full pension benefits (Ighobor, 2019). Discrimination against women on the labour market is economically unprofitable. The calculations show that sub-Saharan African countries lose 95 trillion dollars every year as a result of discriminatory behaviours (Ighobor, 2019). According to the Global Financial Inclusion Database, only in eight African countries, i.e., Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Namibia, the Republic of South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe, do over 50% of women have their own bank accounts (Ighobor, 2019). This problem is also recognised by the Catholic Church. At the threshold of the millennium, Pope John Paul II, in his speech to the faithful in Africa, highlighted the considerable diversity of Africa in the aftermath of colonialism. He pointed out that Africans appreciate the role of the family and, more broadly, the community despite a number of problems, including acute poverty. One of the key challenges for Africa is the emancipation of women. Importantly, this challenge is considered to be among the most pressing problems facing this part of the world, including extreme poverty, tribal struggles, arms trade, slavery and demographic issues. John Paul II also emphasised that all changes must respect the distinctiveness of African peoples. The countries in the northern hemisphere cannot treat Africa as a cog on a gigantic wheel. They must respect the distinctness of its cultural makeup, give due consideration to the priorities and problems of individual African countries and, above all, not impose a distorted vision of life and man since this fails to respond to the demands of true development (John Paul II, 2000, section 52). This shows that the priority should be given to the emancipation of women in Africa and other pressing problems, including the fight against poverty. Secondly, the changes must respect the cultural diversity of Africa. As pointed out earlier, the implementation of SDGs, especially Target 5.4 of the 2030 Agenda, should have regard to the socioeconomic conditions of a given country. In this respect, the view of the UN is consistent with Catholic social teaching. Modern European women are also forced to experience professional inactivity, although due to other reasons. According to the report of the Institute for Structural Research (IBS) prepared by I. Magda, in Poland, 37% of women aged 15–64 are professionally inactive for reasons other than their own choices, and young mothers are most threatened with being pushed out of the labour market. This accounts for 5% more than the European Union average. In countries with the highest female professional activity rate, such as Sweden, the percentage of women active in the labour market is as high as 80% (Magda, 2020, p. 1). The IBS report concludes that a low female employment rate is a waste of human capital (Magda, 2020, p. 2). It states that the issue of the professional inactivity of women could be addressed by proposing a friendly labour market with flexible employment opportunities for women, including work at home. It was also emphasised that greater care for households on the part of fathers, especially care for children, plays a significant role here (Magda, 2020, pp.  11–12). This approach reveals

Combating discrimination against women 79 a trend typical of liberal societies with deep historical connotations. The value of women, or people in general, is strictly determined by their activity in the labour market and the profit they are able to generate as they are employed. The waste of human capital resulting from the low rate of gainful employment of women, as mentioned earlier, is a prominent example of this attitude. This shows that the concept of homo economicus contrasts with family values. However, the impression that family values do not fit in economic profits is only apparent (cf. Fineman & Dougherty, 2005, IX–XVII). It was recognised that unequal distribution of unpaid care work is one of the obstacles to achieving gender equality and women’s economic empowerment. In Target 5.4, the international community committed itself to tackling this problem. Unpaid care work concerns all free activities performed in households and aimed at maintaining them. This covers both direct care of persons, such as children and adult dependents, and indirect care, i.e., housework. Although unpaid care work is of key importance to people, it is often invisible. Moreover, globally, it is unevenly distributed in households: 75% of work is performed by women and girls. Inequalities in unpaid care work affect women’s employment opportunities, labour market opportunities and time budget (Moreira da Silva, 2019). There is also a correlation between the low position of women in the social structure and their burden of unpaid work for households (Titkow et al., 2004, p. 153). Therefore, one of the goals of the 2030 Agenda is to solve the problem of unpaid care and release the economic potential of women (Moreira da Silva, 2019). Political recommendations for the implementation of Target 5.4 address the following areas: public services, infrastructure, social protection and responsibility-sharing. These actions, including the actions undertaken by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), are based on the so-called 3R strategy (recognise, reduce, redistribute) (OECD, 2018, p. 1). For recognising the economic contribution of unpaid care work, it is necessary to measure it by means of time-budget surveys and include time-use modules in household surveys. Another way is to create the Household Satellite Account within the system of social statistics to estimate and record the volume of non-market output produced in households (Ferrant et al., 2014, p. 11). The measurement of unpaid care work and the collection of data on the time budget of women and men are particularly challenging tasks in developing countries and the OECD declares its support in this respect (OECD, 2018, p. 4). For reducing the burden associated with unpaid care work, it is necessary to improve technical infrastructure. This will save time and can also have a positive impact on the environment (electrification, water and sewage infrastructure, transport, communications, biogas plants). The development of social infrastructure and public services in the field of health, education and care is also particularly important. The care infrastructure can relieve women of the burden of care and support the creation of jobs for women. The conflict of roles can also be reduced by adequate social protection.

80  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. However, according to OECD experts, social benefits can also result in the increase in women’s unequal burden of unpaid work. This is the case when social protection programmes reinforce traditional patriarchal family structures based on stereotyped gender roles. Another step to recognise the value of unpaid work of women is to share work with other household members and redistribute it through public and private care services. Since the population ages, the number of people in need of care will increase and women will not be able to cope with this task. Experts believe that measures to redistribute care work should be combined with combating gender stereotypes. The aim is to break with traditional sociocultural gender roles, encourage men to start to do more work in the household, and make women more involved in professional and public activities. To affect the unpaid care work at the national policy level, the state should influence the change of social norms and defeminisation of care through family and fiscal policies, social security and influencing the change of attitudes via the media and education. However, support, including financial support, from state bodies should be based on the principle of subsidiarity which is also discussed in Catholic social teaching, starting from the Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891). The principle of subsidiarity applies to all social groups, not only women and girls. Special protection should also be given to maternity. Policy papers provide a clear view in this respect. In this respect, the maternity protection should extend enough even if it gives rise to concerns as to whether it does not cause discrimination against other entities. Article 4(2) of CEDAW states that the issue of any orders under national legislation to protect maternity shall not be considered an act of discrimination. Article 12 of CEDAW extends this provision by emphasising that anti-discrimination measures should also cover health care, family-planning services, and special care for women during pregnancy and childbirth, including adequate nutrition, also during child feeding. However, the state should not put itself in the position of being omnipotent since the family and home are the most intimate areas of human life. Public entities should not unduly and unnecessarily interfere with this order and the assistance should respect the rights of women and men to protect family life. The fact that the 2030 Agenda addresses this issue can provide a platform for cooperation since the Church also calls for recognising and respecting women’s domestic work (John Paul II, 1981b, section 23). However, note that the way the Church’s teaching sees maternity is not just a function or role. It is a vocation and essential dimension to the fulfilment of the female personality. The role of the mother in the family is special, important and irreplaceable (Paul VI, 1971, section 13; John Paul II, 1981a, section  19) and makes an invaluable contribution to social well-being and progress (John Paul II, 1995c, section 9). In his call for social appreciation for maternal tasks, John Paul II proposes to abolish the economic coercion

Combating discrimination against women 81 regarding work of mothers by introducing family wages or social benefits and adapting the work system to the needs and forms of human life (John Paul II, 1981a, section 19). At present, a balance between work and private life is appreciated. According to Catholic social teaching, roles and professions should be harmoniously combined, but with respect for the primary and inalienable right to work for home and raising children (John Paul II, 1981b, section 23). Note, however, that the teaching of the Catholic Church assumes that the diversity of the tasks of women and men stems from the specific character of their roles as mothers and fathers, whereas equality policies see the diversity of gender roles in the family as inequality of opportunity and attempt to eliminate it through institutionalisation of care, equal sharing of parental leave and individualisation of social rights.

Mulieris Dignitatem and new feminism Women have a unique role to play in thought and action, and promotion of new feminism which rejects the temptation of imitating models of male domination. The aim of the new feminism is to recognise and express genuine female genius in all manifestations of social life, and to make efforts to overcome all forms of discrimination, violence and exploitation (John Paul II, 1995a, section 99). In Catholic social teaching, the issue of women is primarily discussed in the apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem on women’s dignity and vocation. The document is still relevant today and fits very well into contemporary discussions on sustainable development. It provides a new look at women and, more importantly, a new look at human person and interpersonal bonds. A human being should always exist as a woman or a man (John Paul II, 1988, section 1). Both woman and man were created in the image of God (John Paul II, 1988, section 6). Given the sexual life and procreation as well as due to the responsibility for and involvement in home and family life, these aspects of human existence are extremely important. Christian anthropology can be seen as a way of perpetuating stereotypes. This is because male and female identities are presented in relation to their biological nature and the social function they perform in the family: woman acts as wife and mother, while man as husband and father. By contrast, the feminist gender anthropology introduced a distinction between the biological dimension (sex) and sociocultural dimension (gender). It rejected the concepts of natural gender differences in favour of the belief that gender roles are socially determined. Since the 1990s, there has been a tendency to promote cultural determinism in the feminist and equality discourse while ignoring biological sex. Following the Beijing conference, the concepts of gender and gendermainstreaming have been permanently introduced into the international language, and gender equality has been mainstreamed into social policy at the

82  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. national and global level. The implementation of gender equality in societies has become a key objective, and efforts have been made to transform gender identities and family roles. The aim of the current social changes is to invalidate traditional and stereotypical roles, and to achieve gender symmetry or balance, both in the public and private sphere. This strategy is oriented towards personal freedom and strengthening the economic independence of women. At the same time, the traditional family culture is underestimated, while the concept of motherhood is denied and replaced by the concept of unpaid domestic care work. The influence of liberal feminist thought is also present in Catholic feminist theology (Beattie, 2006). However, it ignores the view on understanding women and their role in the Church and the world discussed in the encyclical Mulieris Dignitatem. It brings to the fore the issue of autonomy and refers to the philosophical output of I. Kant, M. Heidegger, J. Butler and L. Irigaray. In anthropological terms, the ethics of care adopted by feminists (Noddings, 1984, passim; Held, 2006, passim) which concentrates on interpersonal relationships is much closer to Catholic social teaching. Looking at SDGs through the prism of anthropology, it seems that they support the vision of a woman who remains in relation to her needs, other people and the surrounding reality. However, it is necessary to ensure that, as a result of the calls to implement SDGs, woman is not seen solely in terms of personal autonomy. This approach was advocated, inter alia, by ecofeminism in its initial form (d’Eaubonne, 1981, p. 236, passim). In order to explain class struggle, it introduced the concept of gender war. It supported cooperation and equality between sexes as a response to existing inequalities and dominance structures. The pursuit of women’s liberation from rigid cultural norms cannot lead to their masculinisation (John Paul II, 1988, section 10). The call to maintain the primacy of relations, as emphasised by feminists and discussed in theology of relations (Harrison, 1985, pp. 15–16), fits into the vision of man presented by Catholic social teaching and indicates the way SDGs should be implemented. Pope Francis points out that the recognition of women’s rights and their participation in public life have significantly improved, but the process is not complete (Francis, 2016, section  54). Many nations still face gender discrimination resulting from legal conditions and social norms. Until 2014, 52 countries around the world lacked constitutional guarantees of equality between women and men (UNW, 2017, p.  13). This trend continues. Another key challenge is to eradicate unacceptable practices, such as verbal and physical violence against women, domestic harassment and various forms of slavery. According to the UN, 35% of women worldwide have experienced physical or sexual violence (UNW, 2017, p. 13). This directly undermines women’s dignity and vocation, and forms a shameful vision of man. The abuses in marriage are contrary to the very nature of marital unity (Francis, 2016, section 54). The sin of a human, as a result of which man begins to rule over woman, breaks the unity of the two and diminish

Combating discrimination against women 83 the true dignity of woman and dignity of man (John Paul II, 1988, section 10). “The woman cannot become the object of domination and male possession” (John Paul II, 1988, section  10). The fact that humans, due to their sinful nature, have a tendency to violate the moral order does not justify the improper relation between man and woman. This refers both to marriage and social life “in which the woman remains disadvantaged or discriminated against by the fact of being a woman” (John Paul II, 1988, section 10). D. Elson points out that the disproportionate responsibility that women bear for carrying out unpaid work is an important constraint on their capacity to realise their rights. . . . Both women and men need time to care for their families and communities, and time free from such care. (Pathania, 2017, p. 72) Her view is closely related to SDG5 and section 20 of the SDGs, which indicates that all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls can be eliminated if men and boys will be included in the process. “Man [should] be fully aware that in their shared parenthood he owes a special debt to the woman. No programme of equal rights between women and men is valid unless it takes this fact fully into account” (John Paul II, 1988, section 18). Extreme individualism and masculinism criticised in Catholic social teaching also refers to men. Man should be more engaged in domestic matters to better understand himself as a human. Similarly, he needs to devote more time to the direct care of children to better understand himself as a father. Women “assume, together with men, a common responsibility for the destiny of humanity” (John Paul II, 1988, section 31). Therefore, it seems that the UNW HeForShe initiative, which seeks to encourage men and boys to promote gender equality (UNW, 2019, p. 13), supports Catholic social teaching in its vision of man as a unity of the two. Anti-discrimination measures should not be limited to new development opportunities for women. In addition to legal changes, this issue requires in-depth philosophical and theological discussion to inspire legislative and political processes, and initiate cultural changes. This profound transformation is necessary because discrimination against women is still based on strong patriarchal values (Park, 1993; Chung, 1994; Kim & Lee, 2011).

Conclusions The contribution of women is necessary to achieve sustainable development. Therefore, the role of women in the family and society needs to be redefined. Currently, domestic work primarily performed by women starts to be perceived in a different way. Domestic work, including maternal duties, is a type of activity which contributes to the development of a person

84  Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska et al. and should therefore be socially recognised and appreciated (John Paul II, 1981a, section  19; John Paul II, 1981b, section  23), also in the form of appropriate remuneration, at least equivalent to other works (John Paul II, 1994, section 17). Nevertheless, societies are just beginning to understand that unpaid domestic work by women is immensely valuable and can be measured with economic parameters. Historically, revolutionary events took place. However, revolution does not mean violent, dynamic and rapid changes here. Rather, metaphorically, it refers to deep social transformations. The 2030 Agenda calls for equality of position between men and women in terms of shared responsibility for the home and family. However, its calls still serve as programmatic recommendations. Nevertheless, they are also rooted in Catholic social teaching. Note, however, that the Catholic theology does not seek to equal women and men and does not completely ignore gender differences. Instead, it emphasises equality from the perspective of dignity. In the modern world, the level of material prosperity we are able to achieve is unprecedented in human history. However, the achievements of some groups marginalise other groups and left them behind. This refers specifically to women from developing countries. This situation can lead to the gradual loss of sensitivity for other people. John Paul II points out that “our time in particular awaits the manifestation of that genius which belongs to women, and which can ensure sensitivity for human beings in every circumstance: because they are human!” (John Paul II, 1988, section 30). This, in turn, should support the eradication of all forms of discrimination against people, whether social, cultural or based on sex (Paul VI, 1961, section 29). According to Catholic social teaching, the programmes aimed at improving the situation of women should be based on respect for their dignity and vocation to motherhood or, more broadly, the possibility of achieving full female humanity (John Paul II, 1981b, section 23). The social advancement of women should not reject natural sex differences and should not lead to standardisation and masculinisation (Paul VI, 1971, section 13). Rather, the specific character of woman’s nature should be recognised, and the multilateral contribution of women to the life of societies and human progress should be appreciated (John Paul II, 1995b, section 8). At the same time, the requirements of Catholic social teaching regarding women’s empowerment in family and social life must be implemented by the institutions and organisations run by the Catholic Church (Peterson-Iyer, 2019, p. 103). This is the only way the Catholic Church can stand honestly at the side of women and the sustainable development of humanity.

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6 Access to water as common good of humanity in the context of Catholic social teaching Wojciech Kluj, Małgorzata Laskowska and Marek Rzotkiewicz Introduction Access to water is a fundamental right of every human being. Its rational and joint distribution is one of the tasks of utmost priority for local communities and global environments (Francis, 2015, section 28). Statistics on access to water and sanitation around the world show a sad picture. According to data provided by the United Nations Information Centre section (UNIC): 3 in 10 people lack access to safely managed drinking water services and 6 in 10 people lack access to safely managed sanitation facilities. . . . Water scarcity affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is projected to rise. Over 1.7 billion people are currently living in river basins where water use exceeds recharge. 2.4 billion people lack access to basic sanitation services, such as toilets or latrines. More than 80 per cent of wastewater resulting from human activities is discharged into rivers or sea without any pollution removal. (UNGA, 2015; cf. UNDP, 2006; UNESCO-WWAP, 2012) The Catholic Church is aware of the seriousness of this problem. This is seen in the official teaching and in various missionary social campaigns on the access to water as part of the idea of sustainable development. The aim of this chapter is to present water as the common good of humanity and access to water as a human right – the way it is seen in the social teaching of the Church. Legal and ethical perspectives will also be taken into account.

Water as common good of all the people The social teaching of the Church is not part of the deposit of faith. It develops gradually. As awareness of social problems increases, it becomes analysed from the perspective of faith. In the past, this was the case with the efforts to abolish slavery, raised by popes and many Christians. Towards the end of the 19th century, issues related to the developing working class began

88  Wojciech Kluj et al. to be considered from the perspective of faith. Today, from the perspective of faith, Christians see the violation of basic human rights. In the context of civil international relations, the term “global public goods” is used more often (Kaul et al., 1999, pp. 9–10). Among the newly emerging issues, there is also the question of the protection of aquatic ecosystems and the right of people for the universal access to clean water. Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the [Catholic] Church of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (PCJP) briefly states that “the goods of the earth were created by God to be used wisely by all. They must be shared equitably, in accordance with justice and charity” (PCJP, 2004, section 481). The principle of the universal access of goods applies especially to water. As a gift from God, water is a vital element essential to survival; thus, everyone has a right to it. . . . By its very nature water cannot be treated as just another commodity among many, and it must be used rationally and in solidarity with others. (PCJP, 2004, section 485) As a conclusion, it is said that “the right to safe drinking water is a universal and inalienable right” (PCJP, 2004, section 485). Problems linked to the increasing water shortage The social teaching of the Catholic Church officially started with Leo XIII and his encyclical letter Rerum Novarum (1891). It was continued by Pius XI in Quadrogesimo Anno (1931). John XXIII added his voice in Mater et Magistra (1961) as well as in Pacem in Terris (1963). Second Vatican Council presented Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World “Gaudium et spes” (1965). Paul VI wrote his encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967) and apostolic letter Octogesima Adveniens (1971). John Paul II was the author of three encyclical letters on social issues: Laborem Exercens (1981), Sollicitudo Rei Socialis (1987), and Centesimus Annus (1991). Pope Francis often takes up social issues, especially human promotion, from the perspective of evangelisation. This is the background of the Catholic Church’s understanding of the problems linked to water (Dorr, 2016, pp. 17–134). In recent teaching of Pope Francis, in his encyclical Laudato Si’, one reads: Fresh drinking water is an issue of primary importance, since it is indispensable for human life and for supporting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Sources of fresh water are necessary for health care, agriculture and industry. Water supplies used to be relatively constant, but now in many places demand exceeds the sustainable supply, with dramatic consequences in the short and long term. (Francis, 2015, section 28)

Access to water as common good of humanity 89 The pope in particular mentions two cases: large cities and some regions of Africa. The encyclical notes that the problem of poor people’s access to good water is becoming particularly serious. The absence of clean water leads to illness and even death. Every day, unsafe water results in many deaths and the spread of waterrelated diseases, including those caused by microorganisms and chemical substances. Dysentery and cholera, linked to inadequate hygiene and water supplies, are a significant cause of suffering and of infant mortality. Underground water sources in many places are threatened by the pollution produced in certain mining, farming and industrial activities, especially in countries lacking adequate regulation or controls. It is not only a question of industrial waste. Detergents and chemical products, commonly used in many places of the world, continue to pour into our rivers, lakes and seas. (Francis, 2015, section 29) This phenomenon is dangerous because, due to the lack of general access to this common good, a tendency to privatise these scarce resources arises. Water, intended to serve everyone, becomes a commodity that not everyone can afford. In this matter, the pope speaks firmly: Access to safe drinkable water is a basic and universal human right, since it is essential to human survival and, as such, is a condition for the exercise of other human rights. Our world has a grave social debt towards the poor who lack access to drinking water, because they are denied the right to a life consistent with their inalienable dignity. This debt can be paid partly by an increase in funding to provide clean water and sanitary services among the poor. (Francis, 2015, section 30) This is not only a social issue. It is also an educational and cultural one since there is still little awareness of this serious problem. Failure to address this issue at an international level may result in serious consequences. It may happen that “the control of water by large multinational businesses may become a major source of conflict in this century” (Francis, 2015, section  31). Pope Francis writes explicitly that “once certain resources have been depleted, the scene will be set for new wars, albeit under the guise of noble claims” (Francis, 2015, section 57). Inspirations Already in 2001, John Paul II spoke about the need for a global “ecological conversion.” The final document of the Synod for Amazon (2019) also addresses the issue of “ecological conversion,” using even the expression

90  Wojciech Kluj et al. an “ecological sin.” It reminds of the need to provide everyone with the access to drinking water. By ensuring that the defence of human rights flows from the faith, the Fathers of the Synod recognised that local peoples must play a key role in protecting the nature of the Amazon. Pope Francis also mentioned the need for ecological conversion in his most recent Message for World Peace Day on 1 January 2020. On various occasions, the figure of St. Francis of Assisi is recalled. Through his openness to nature, he became the patron of the Catholic – and not only  – ecological movement. He called water his sister, when saying, “Praised be you, my Lord, through Sister Water, who is very useful and humble and precious and chaste” (St. Francis, Letter to the Faithful). Pope Francis is convinced that the Christian faith has an important role to play in the education and creation of a new model of development, progress and human solidarity. “The problem of water is partly an educational and cultural issue, since there is little awareness of the seriousness of such behaviour within a context of great inequality” (Francis, 2015, section 30). The laws and regulations alone are insufficient in the long run. Only education can implement ways of reducing water consumption. This may be effected especially through the effort of asceticism and development of correct conscience. This process should start from seminaries and formation houses (Francis, 2015, section 214). However, just a sense of duty and moral responsibility is not enough. One also needs inspiration, and nature itself may serve this purpose. Jesus Himself lived in full harmony with the creation. Soil, water, mountains: everything is, as it were, a caress of God. . . . Anyone who has grown up in the hills or used to sit by the spring to drink, or played outdoors in the neighbourhood square; going back to these places is a chance to recover something of their true selves. (Francis, 2015, section 84) But this is not all: Christians have an even greater source of inspiration. The privileged way in which nature is accepted by God and transformed in the mediation of supernatural life are the sacraments. Water, oil, fire and colours are taken up in all their symbolic power and incorporated in our act of praise. . . . Water poured over the body of a child in Baptism is a sign of new life. Encountering God does not mean fleeing from this world or turning our back on nature. (Francis, 2015, section 235) Examples of specific actions Encyclical Laudato Si’ reminds: “A  global consensus is essential for confronting the deeper problems  .  .  . for example  .  .  . promoting a better

Access to water as common good of humanity 91 management of marine and forest resources, and ensuring universal access to drinking water” (Francis, 2015, section 164); or “water is a scarce and indispensable resource and a fundamental right which conditions the exercise of other human rights” (Francis, 2015, section 185). Although we cannot take responsibility for everything in the existing world order, something can be changed locally. A special role in this field is played by missionaries. Very often they support local efforts to build and manage educational, medical and cultural facilities to promote the integrity of creation, including water issues. Christian missions are currently building many local wells and creating new irrigation systems. A lot of effort on the water issues was taken by agricultural missionaries. The missions are constantly stimulating the development of the new socio-ecological ethics. As early as 1991, the US Catholic bishops issued a pastoral letter entitled Renewing the Earth, where some issues related to water protection and free access were taken up (US Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1991, section  1). Ecological awareness is growing in the field of recent missiological reflection (Kaoma et al., 2015, including 19 interesting papers; Dorr, 2016; Zenner, 2018; McAnally, 2018). During his recent meeting with fishermen from southern Italy (20 January 2020), Pope Francis praised them for the voluntary action of collecting plastic waste in water. He supported their efforts to establish a specific law in this matter. Pope Francis is not afraid to refer to interreligious cooperation in this matter (Kluj, 2014; McAnally, 2018, pp. 26–30, Przybyłowski, 2019, p. 137). In Abu Dhabi, in February 2019, together with the great imam Sheikh Ahmad al-Tayyeb from the University of Cairo al-Azhar, he signed the document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together, where we read, for example: “lack of equitable distribution of natural resources . . . have generated, and continue to generate, vast numbers of poor, infirm and deceased persons. This leads to catastrophic crises that various countries have fallen victim to” (Francis & Al-Tayyeb, 2019).

Access to water as a human right Human rights are a notion of international law. But access to water as a human right is a novelty. In 2002, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) adopted the General Comment No. 15 (The Right to Water, Articles 11 and 12 of the Covenant), where it established that right to be indispensable for leading a life in dignity and a prerequisite for the realisation of other human rights. In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) formally recognised the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights (Resolution A/RES/64/292 of 28 July 2010). In the international law, most attention has always been devoted to seas and rivers; however, regarding water

92  Wojciech Kluj et al. from the perspective of human rights, freshwater, i.e., rivers, lakes and groundwater, should be considered. Navigational use For a long time, international law treated rivers, and other bodies of water, from the commercial (navigational) point of view, not from the human rights perspective. The dawn of the international river law is linked with the Treaty of Münster of 1648 and the Natural Law theory, especially with the ideas of Grotius, who created the doctrine of free (inoffensive) passage justified by necessity (H. Grotius, 1625, Vol. II, Chapter III, section XII). Grotius argued that rivers, differently than seas, can be subject to property because they are confined within their banks. So a River, considered merely as such, is the Property of the People through whose Lands it flows, or of him under whose Jurisdiction that People are; and they may, if they please, make Sluices, and appropriate to themselves whatever that River produces. (H. Grotius, 1625, Vol. II, Chapter II, section XII) Rivers are open to occupation. No nation has the right to hinder another from trading with distant nations. The usage of rivers was of interest to many prominent international law writers (S. Pufendorf, E. Vattel), but they still view rivers as venues to international trade, not from the human rights perspective. This view influenced later legal and political documents. To mention just the Decree on the Opening the Navigation of the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers (16 November 1792), the Treaty of Paris (30 May 1814), the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (9 June 1815), the Final Act of the Berlin Convention of 1885, the Treaty of Versailles of 1918, and the Barcelona Convention and the Statute on the Regime of Navigable Waterways of International Concern of 20 April 1921. The last step in the development of the international river law on the navigable utilisation of rivers was the signing of the European Agreement on Main Inland Waterways of International Importance (AGN), (UNECE Transport Agreements and Conventions No. 6, 19 January 1996). Non-navigational use From the second half of the 19th century, it has been possible to observe new ways of rivers usage, other than navigational. At the same time, when the use of rivers exclusively for the transport of goods diminished, they were utilised for other purposes, e.g., for electricity production or for irrigation projects. Since the 20th century, a new prominent factor has come out, i.e., the protection of the environment. The environmental element

Access to water as common good of humanity 93 cannot be considered as new, but earlier it had often been ignored as not sufficiently important. The first example of this “new” tendency is the International Regulation regarding the use of international watercourses for purposes other than navigation (Declaration of Madrid of 20 April  1911 by the International Law Association [ILA]). In this regulation, ILA stated that riparian states with a common river are in a position of permanent physical dependence on one another. That precludes the idea of the complete autonomy of each state in the section of the natural watercourse under its sovereignty. The fact that this document was issued and signed by a non-governmental organisation (ILA) may explain its rather blunt statement that riparian countries’ physical dependence on one another precludes the idea of the complete autonomy of each state in the section of the natural watercourse under its sovereignty. The next contributions of the ILA with respect to international river law came in 1966, when it issued the Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers, and in 2004  – with the Berlin Rules on Water Resources. In these documents, a greater emphasis was placed on the protection of the environment and on different ways of river use. Among these, navigational use was only one of many, and not even the most important. This warrants the opinion that after the Helsinki and the Berlin Rules, the statement – e.g., the 1911 Declaration of Madrid – that the right of navigation by virtue of a title recognised in international law may not be violated in any way whatsoever lost its credibility. The Helsinki Rules and the Berlin Rules prioritised different ways of use of water resources in general, which also included rivers. Under Article 14 of the Berlin Rules, in determining an equitable and reasonable use, states shall first allocate waters to satisfy vital human needs. No other use or category of uses shall have an inherent preference over any other use or category of uses, which applies also to navigation. Navigation along rivers is not the only means of competing modes of transport as there are other means, such as train, road or air. It is not even the most important, as others, especially train, are less time-consuming. But while the Helsinki Rules still referred to international rivers, the Berlin Rules not only departed from international rivers, but from any rivers. They referred to water, not to rivers. That, however, does not warrant a possible opinion that the Berlin Rules do not apply to rivers and they have no importance in international river law. Quite the contrary; these rules emphasise that water is a resource, which is illustrated by provisions on aquifers (a subsurface layer or layers of geological strata of sufficient porosity and permeability to allow either a flow of or the withdrawal of usable quantities of groundwater). Aquifers are the subject of separate document (Rules on International Groundwaters, Seoul, 1986). This means that one of the founding presumptions on which international river law is based, i.e., the right of navigation along foreign rivers, has been

94  Wojciech Kluj et al. challenged. Rivers are no longer to be differentiated from their waters as a resource. They are no longer seen as inexhaustible. The last noteworthy steps in the development of international river law were the Helsinki Convention on the Protection and the Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (17 March  1992) and the New York Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (adopted by the UN General Assembly on 21 May 1997). The New York Convention applies to the uses of international watercourses and of their waters for purposes other than navigation and to measures of protection, preservation and management related to the uses of these watercourses and their waters. It constitutes the first universal act of transboundary waters as the acts before that convention were of a regional character only. Access to water and its sustainable development The previously described changes in the international river law have widened the scope of different kinds of river uses. It is possible to say that they emancipated some non-navigational kinds of river usages; however, they still refer to commercial uses (regardless if navigational or nonnavigational). Even when it comes to the protection of the environment, they are slightly related to human rights or to sustainable development goals. But that changes. There are voices that new and different types of river uses are justified (Goldmann, 1990, pp. 741–802; Nijssen et al., 2001, pp.  143–175). Under Article IV of the Helsinki Rules, each basin state is entitled, within its territory, to a reasonable and equitable share in the beneficial uses of the waters of an international drainage basin. States should use water with a view of its sustainable usage. Such a use requires resource management which yields the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations (Munro  & Lammers, 1987, p.  251. Sustainable use is closely related to, and an essential measure for, the achievement of the objective of sustainable development (Barral, 2016, pp. 3–25). Article V of these rules stipulates then that a reasonable and equitable share within the meaning of Article IV is to be determined in light of all the relevant factors in each particular case. It may thus be necessary to take into account different and sometimes unrelated factors. They may include, for example, climate changes and their impact on a given river system, lowering of the water level and the deterioration of navigation conditions, limitation of fishing or agricultural conditions. It may also be appropriate, and sometimes necessary, to take into account the need to protect human rights. The access to water has been recognised by CESCR in 2002 (the General Comment No. 15) and later by the United Nations General Assembly in 2010 (Resolution A/RES/64/292). According to the United Nations General Assembly, approximately 884  million people lack access to safe

Access to water as common good of humanity 95 drinking water and more than 2.6 billion do not have access to basic sanitation. Approximately 1.5  million children under five years of age die, and 443  million school days are lost each year as a result of water- and sanitation-related diseases. Due to these reasons, Resolution 64/292 called upon states and international organisations to provide financial resources, help capacity-building and technology transfer to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all. Even though the Helsinki and the Berlin Rules are not formal sources of law, they do, however, codify the customary law and establish certain recommended solutions. It is thus possible that they can be resorted to by states using different ways of river exploitation or in international disputes between states. That may be the case, e.g., in a simmering dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia, which may eventually destabilise the whole Horn of Africa (Zeidan, 2015, p. 49). Climate change–induced variations in water supply mean that the states through which the Nile River flows will have little choice in the long run but to make adjustments to their overall water management approaches and strategies. As the Nile basin may experience greater variability in rainfall patterns in the future – with more years featuring droughts or extreme floods – the greater cooperation between all riparian countries may be necessary to avoid environmental shocks up and down the basin (Siam & Eltahir, 2017, pp. 350–354). Human rights arguments can also be used by individuals, even against their own states. That was the case in Ominayak v. Canada, where a group of Lubicon Cree Indians brought an application before the Human Rights Committee (HRC, 1990) for the breach of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The case arose from the granting of leases by the province of Alberta in Canada to certain oil companies on the ancestral community’s lands, which threatened the traditional way of life of applicants. In the next noteworthy case of this kind, Sawhoyamaxa Community v. Paraguay (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2006) the InterAmerican Court of Human Rights found that Paraguay breached applicants’ (individuals’) right to life enshrined in Article 4(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights. In that case, the Court found that members of the Sawhoyamaxa Community were affected (among others) by the limitations to drinking water and sanitation facilities. In the third such case, Ogoni v. Nigeria, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights concerned the deprivation of natural resources and the environmental and health consequences of the oil development activities. The applicants claimed that the Nigerian government violated the right to health and the right to clean environment as recognised under Articles 16 and 24 of the African Charter. This resulted from direct participation by the Nigerian government in the contamination of air, water and soil. These human rights cases, which have arisen on three different continents, show a new prominent trend. This trend, even at its early stage of legal

96  Wojciech Kluj et al. development, in addition to empowering individuals and communities, may potentially have impact on the key normative requirements existing under national law (McIntyre, 2016, p. 311). It may even stop the national governments from taking national actions, which may have broad international consequences. The most striking example of such cases is the overuse of the waters of Amu Darya and Syr Darya for agriculture (growing cotton), which resulted in the almost-disappearance of the Aral Sea. Prior to the 1960s and 1970s, water from these rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on a massive scale. The almost-disappearance of the Aral Sea supports the argument that, from the perspective of human rights, it does not matter if a river is regarded as international or purely national. The significance of human rights in water law Human rights and their impact on water law is a new factor, which have a great perspective ahead. It has already been noticed and formally recognised in international law (i.e., the General Comment No. 15 and the United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/64/292). It has been considered by international courts and tribunals and may be used in disputes before national courts. It is unknown, however, if human rights can be used to stop national governments from taking national actions, which can have international consequences, like the case of the Aral Sea.

Distribution of water (rationality and solidarity) The problem of access to clear water and SDG6 is also present in mass media. Since water is an important aspect of local and global policy (Chaisemartin, 2019, pp.  60–65), information management (and the idea of sustainable development) is presented in different ways. Mass media are the main, sometimes the only, source of information about the environment, including the distribution of water in the world (Coyle, 2005, p. X). They are also very important sources of communication about sustainable development. Therefore, the question is how and to what extent local and global media deal with the topic of water, and especially SDG6. There are not many studies completed so far on this. Nevertheless, one can indicate those which undertook such an analysis. Svatava Janoušková, Tomáš Hák and Vlastimil Necas conducted a quantitative analysis, the purpose of which was to determine the number of publications on sustainable development in English newspapers. Global press was selected for the study, and the articles analysed came from the period between 2009 and 2018 exactly. In total, 9553 press titles were allocated to the study (including The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones Newswires, The New York Times, The Sydney Morning Herald, South China Morning Post, and The Times of India). Based on the analysis of the media content, it has

Access to water as common good of humanity 97 been shown that the five most published themes on sustainable development were “climate change” (SDG13), then “renewable energy” (SDG7), “gender equality” (SDG5), “extreme poverty” (SDG1) and “access to justice” (SDG16). On the other hand, neglected topics include “access to water and sanitation” (SDG6) (Janoušková et al., 2019). Researchers noticed that the world press does deal with sustainable development (1.5 million articles on the subject in 10 years), but not all of its goals attract journalists equally. A similar conclusion was reached by other scientists, including Pierre Legagneux, Nicolas Casajus, Kevin Cazelles (Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada). Analysing the American, Canadian and British press from 1991 to 2016 in terms of climate change issues, they showed that “media coverage of climate change was up to eight times higher compared to biodiversity” (Legagneux et  al., 2018, pp.  2–3). Other topics, such as access to water for local or larger societies, are not readily and often addressed by journalists. Coming back to the issues of SDG6, it is worth noting the invaluable role of the media in popularising theological, legal and ethical approaches to the problem. The concept of “water ethics” is relatively new. It has been used since ca. 2006, mainly by environmental ethicists and researchers on sustainable development (Grunwald, 2016; Llamas et al., 2009). Based on the UNESCO document Water Ethics and Water Resource Management (2011), Armin Grunwald prepared the following ethical principles relating to water distribution: (1) Principle of human dignity and the right to water; (2) Principle of equity in availability and applicability of water; (3) Principle of eco-centric ethics; (4) Principle of vicinity; (5) Principle of frugality; (6) Principle of transaction; (7) Principle of multiple and beneficial use of water; (8) Principle of mandatory application of quantity and quality measures; (9) Principle of compensation and user pays; (10) Principle of polluter pays; (11) Principle of participation; (12) Principle of equitable and reasonable utilisation (Grunwald, 2016). These principles also include the need for rational and solidary water distribution, also in the context of the protection and restoration of water-dependent ecosystems (mountain areas, forests, wetlands, rivers, lakes and underground waters) and the participation of local communities in improving water management and sanitation (Ellinor et al., 2017). In water ethics, “solidarity reminds us of what may be called our ‘upstream and downstream interdependence’ ” (Jennings et  al., 2009, p. 27). Social solidarity and rational use of water begins with local communities. It is there where the awareness of the need to save water and its reasonable use is built. This has a huge impact on global awareness (Hattingh, 2019, p. 28). In order to build this social awareness, it is necessary to help develop specific skills and acquire relevant knowledge from an early age. Becoming familiar with basic information about the dependence of life and the environment on water, especially about the lack of access to clean water, is a necessity. In terms of skills, one should mention, among other things, the

98  Wojciech Kluj et al. need to develop the skills of saving natural resources, sharing, economical daily water use, caring for the well-being of loved ones and neighbours in access to water, and caring for local water-dependent ecosystems. Education focused on this subject is, therefore, not only education in the area of knowledge and skills, but also attitudes, which is decisive in achieving the objectives of sustainable development. Due to the anthropocentric and bio-/eco-centric element of education on water ethics, one can see the important role not only of lawyers but also of theologians and educators in popularising the assumptions of this education and ethics at first the local and then national and global levels. Mass media is a necessary means without which it is difficult to deal with this topic today. They not only play an informational and educational role, but they can also help to spread attitudes about water ethics. Thanks to the supervisory function of the media, the citizen of the “large” world and of smaller society has a chance to access to reliable and full information on water policy and management.

Conclusions In this chapter, access to clean drinking water and to sanitation facilities has been presented from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, human rights and media/ethics. The right to water was officially recognised as a human right in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 and by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’. Access to clean drinking water and to sanitary facilities was also recognised by international courts in disputes concerning violations of human rights. Failure to comply with these laws may not be only an abstract ethical problem, but it can lead to serious conflicts, great migrations and even wars. In the pastoral practice of the Catholic Church, especially in Africa, America and Asia, various actions are taken to give access to clean water, especially for poor people. There is also a growing awareness of the importance of this problem, especially the need for moral reflection on this issue. Journalists and scientists have a great impact on educating the public in the area of ethical principles relating to the proper distribution of water. Education on ethical principles of water use is necessary both locally and globally.

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7 Prospects for sustainable development of the energy sector in the times of global climate change and environmental threats Zbigniew Łepko, Marek Niezgódka, Piotr Burgoński and Dominika Żukowska-Gardzińska Introduction Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) of the document Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) calls for access to sustainable energy to withstand global climate change and growing environmental threats. It proposes to search for a balance between energy expectations of civilised humanity and respect for animate and inanimate natural resources. The goal refers to the concept of sustainable development according to which the security of current and future generations can be guaranteed only if the balance of natural, economic and social components of the natural environment is maintained. To this end, a number of challenges need to be addressed, in particular technical/technological, geographical/natural, economic, sociopolitical, legal/administrative and moral/ ethical. Each of these challenges can be discussed separately based on a specific area of sustainable energy. However, the aim of this paper is to focus primarily on those areas which explore a common ground between technological and ethical challenges. This way, local energy projects can be prepared and their global future effects can be predicted. Also, it is possible to explore technological challenges related to energy acquisition, transmission and use with respect to the guidelines of Catholic social teaching. It is particularly worth exploring sustainable energy from the perspective of the common good, social justice and broadly understood poverty.

Sustainable energy in light of the principle of the common good From the point of view of Catholic social teaching, the energy sector should be discussed in relation to the issues pertaining to the common good. The concept of the common good refers to a set of natural and cultural conditions

Prospects for sustainable development 103 conducive to comprehensive human development (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1992, section 1906). The common good is a set of particularistic goods of individuals forming an organised system of social organism. The common good understood in this way is indivisible and can be achieved, multiplied and protected only on a common basis. Moreover, the good of one person cannot be used to multiply the good of another. The common good acquires its full meaning if discussed in connection with the principle of solidarity which assumes the readiness to accept and carry out certain duties to search for appropriate ways of broadly understood cooperation in various areas of activity and exchange different types of knowledge. Catholic social teaching is a firmly established component of the doctrine of the Catholic Church, but it is still open to new impulses as evidenced by officially documented responses of popes to the signs of the times, i.e., critical events of the modern world. Special attention should be paid to official statements of those popes who headed the Church at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, i.e., John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. Their statements often refer, either explicitly or implicitly, to the growing importance of environmental issues. They prove that the issue of sustainable energy goes far beyond technological factors and quantified analysis of environmental profits and losses. To fully explore the issue, one has to adopt a specific ethical perspective and qualitatively assess complex living conditions of current and future human generations – hence the need and necessity to discuss the issue of sustainable energy in relation to those principles of Catholic social teaching which explore a relationship between the development of technological civilisation and ethical, or even religious and spiritual, dilemmas (Zagończyk, 2015, pp. 79–92; Sadowski, 2020). The popes mentioned previously refer primarily to the rich achievements of their predecessors in the field of doctrinal approach to social issues. The discussion was initiated in 1891 by Leo XIII with his encyclical Rerum Novarum. There are strong indications that the popes explore the pioneering and original approach adopted by Teilhard de Chardin in Christianity and Evolution, in the 1920s (Teilhard de Chardin, 2002). He emphasised the need to open Catholic social thought to environmental issues. He pointed out that it is necessary to examine the relationship between all determinants of the human condition and the human living environment. In other words, human personal development is a function of the quality of the natural environment, while the state of the natural environment is a function of ethical sensitivity and maturity of man. Following this framework, John Paul II and the succeeding popes use the term “human ecology.” They point out that the care for the environment is probably best reflected by the care for safeguarding human dignity (John Paul II, 1991, section 38). It is thus clear that the discussion on environmental protection should involve not only natural and technological matters, but also an ethical dimension (John Paul II, 1999, section 41). This general principle applies to a number of issues, including safeguarding the quality of human life in terms

104  Zbigniew Łepko et al. of energy. Energy development should recognise human dignity and treat it as a guiding principle for any improvements, modernisations and reforms. Research reports (Energy Watch Group) clearly show that the challenges which the energy sector has to face include not only technological development, but also ethical matters resulting from the need to develop principles of a new human solidarity. Adopting this approach would normalise the economic and political relations of various countries with different levels of wealth and different technical capabilities to meet sustainable energy challenges. The need to introduce these principles is also clearly highlighted by the European Union. Out of the 28 EU member states, 26 countries declared to stop investing in coal-fired power following 2020. However, it is estimated that Germany, for example, will be able to cease to produce energy by burning coal in 2038 at the latest (Greenpeace), while the draft Polish Energy Policy (PEP) until 2040 does not assume such a scenario at all. The analysis of the global energy policy clearly shows that the abilities of individual countries to effectively address the demand for sustainable energy vary greatly. Each country has to be treated on an individual basis with a reference to the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity postulated by Catholic social teaching within a given treaty-based community of states. Catholic social teaching plays its part in improving technological processes aimed at enhancing environmental energy efficiency by setting out the ethical dimension. The principles of solidarity and subsidiarity are regulatory and provide a balance between the energy progress of civilised humanity and the material, social and spiritual well-being of man (John Paul II, 1987, section 41; Francis, 2015). It seems that the need to explore the ethical dimension of implementation of sustainable energy also results from its purely technical aspects. This is because we face a number of specific challenges leading to a complex interrelationship between technological and ethical dilemmas. This interrelationship of dilemmas gives rise to the interrelationship of questions which require reasonable answers. Particular emphasis should be put on the principle which says that the noble goal of sustainable energy policy cannot fully serve to justify the means used to achieve it, however effective they would be. Such questions arise in the face of well-recognised technical limitations in terms of energy production, energy storage and estimation of local energy needs. One of the questions is whether it is possible to make international actions for sustainable energy fully consistent in the face of diverse geographical and weather conditions, and diverse natural resources. These general questions are narrowed down to the more specific ones. Pursuant to section  7 of the Agenda, transitional energy can be managed according to the model of the so-called energy mix, i.e., combination of conventional and renewable sources of energy. This energy-mix model of energy management assumes that in the next few years certain regions and countries will not be able to obtain sufficient amount of energy from

Prospects for sustainable development 105 renewable sources and, due to social and economic reasons, will not be able to cease to obtain energy from conventional sources, in particular from burning hard coal and lignite. The situation is diverse, which is well illustrated by the examples of individual EU countries who manage the energy mix. In Poland, for example, the energy-mix model relies 80% on hard coal and lignite, and only a few percent on wind and water, i.e., 7.9% and 1.7% respectively. In Sweden, on the other hand, hydropower and wind power account for 23% and 26% of the total energy consumption respectively. According to Catholic social teaching, diverse energy management in different parts of Europe and the world proves that SDG7 should be construed as a heuristic recommendation for long-term energy projects. In each case, one should seek to find the optimal path to achieve the right level of sustainable energy, following specific socioeconomic circumstances (Łepko, 2011, pp. 78–87). There is also another factor which proves the interrelationship of technological and ethical dilemmas. Energy management not only concerns raising the standard of living, but also affects a moral aspect of dignified living, expressed, for example, by the human right to heating or lighting. From this point of view, one should also take account of the Jevons paradox which occurs when the increase in efficiency of use of primary energy resources results in the increase rather than decrease in the rate of consumption. The phenomenon, widely known in technological development, arises because of a greater energy demand. Easy access to cheaper energy increases energy needs, and this, in turn, leads to an increase in energy consumption and a greater burden on the natural environment. All this proves that in the pursuit of energy efficiency for sustainable energy, a number of environmental and ethical dilemmas have to be taken into account. The dilemmas include the issue of currently observed indirect negative environmental effects of technical instrumentation used to manage renewable energy sources and storage of waste from nuclear energy production (Łepko, 2012, p. 13). The environmental aspect of sustainable energy policy is evident, given the need to execute a great range of tasks, i.e., converting primary energy into electricity or heat and defining the ways of supply to individual and collective customers. Sustainable energy not only deals with the ways of energy generation and energy sources, but also covers all other areas of the system of energy management. The energy development strategy until 2050 adopted by the European Union seems to take account of these circumstances. It aims at increasing the share of gas at the expense of more environmentally harmful solid fuels. It is also scheduled to stop using gas after 2050. Given the side effects of unconventional energy sources on the environment, the EU strategy is a kind of the lesser evil in ethical terms. This perspective for sustainable energy progressively reduces ambivalent aspects. This is in line with the heuristic approach embedded in section  7 of the Agenda, which assumes that major sustainable energy projects may include locally diverse

106  Zbigniew Łepko et al. implementation programmes. In each case, the changes expected in the field of sustainable energy for the sake of high standard and quality of life for today’s and future human generations should be evolutionary rather than revolutionary (Hawken et al., 1999). This way of introducing technological changes in the field of energy generation, transmission and use, which is in line with the guidelines of Catholic social teaching, can be found in EU legislation, e.g., the Regulation 2018/1999 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action. Its aim is to achieve and consolidate a stable energy union that provides EU consumers, including households and businesses, with secure, sustainable, competitive and affordable energy supplies and to stimulate research and innovation by attracting investment through a major transformation of the European energy system. Article 1(1) of the Regulation provides that the governance of the energy union shall be based on long-term strategies, integrated national energy and climate plans covering 10  years (2021–2030), corresponding integrated national energy and climate progress reports prepared by individual member states and the integrated monitoring system of the European Commission. As shown earlier, the EU legislation moves towards a change in the legal framework of the energy market. The sector is expected to be governed by the principle of sustainable development and the principle of energy security to secure individual EU citizens and societies.

The problem of energy poverty and the EU’s equality and anti-discrimination policy in the context of Catholic social teaching The issue of poverty is of interest to both the Church and the European Union. There are a number of similarities and differences in how these two institutions approach poverty. In both cases, it is emphasised that in today’s Europe, relative poverty, measured in relation to the average standard of living in a given country, is a more severe problem than absolute poverty, defined as the complete inability to meet basic personal needs. Both approaches also assume a multidimensional character of poverty. However, they put emphasis on different aspects and dimensions. In the EU’s view, poverty is defined as a situation in which resources of individuals or families are “so small as to exclude them from the minimum acceptable way of life of the members of the Member State in which they live” (EC, 1975, 1.2). The resources are not limited to money. They also cover health, education, housing and services, including banking and energy services (EC, 2010, p. 2). Catholic social teaching also recognises multidimensional poverty but explores slightly different aspects: material, economic, cultural and sociopolitical. It also emphasises the spiritual dimension and introduces the concepts of moral and religious poverty, which are to describe a situation in which moral or religious human development is not nurtured (John Paul II,

Prospects for sustainable development 107 1982). Interestingly, the Church’s teaching also assumes a positive view of poverty understood as a freely chosen simplicity of life (Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8:9). Catholic social teaching does not recognise the concept of energy poverty. However, new types of poverty and a “scenario of poverty [which] can extend indefinitely” are introduced (John Paul II, 2001, sections  50–51). Therefore, it should be assumed that energy poverty also falls within the scope of issues addressed by the Church. The 2016 statement of the Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community (COMECE) on poverty and social exclusion in Europe reads that poverty does not only refer to the lack of financial resources, but also covers those spheres of life which hamper human development, e.g., insufficient access to energy (COMECE, 2016). This shows that the issue of access to energy appears in Catholic social teaching, even though the documents of the Holy See do not refer to it. It is perceived as a form of poverty, but the Church has not incorporated the concept of energy poverty into her teaching so far. By contrast, the EU documents issued in 2009 or later often refer to energy poverty as a specific form of poverty. They define it as a lack of access to energy services providing heating, cooling, lighting and energy used to supply equipment. Access to these services ensures health and adequate standard of living, and enables European citizens to fulfil their potential and strengthen social inclusion. According to the EU documents, the reasons why energy-poor households do not have access to a sufficient level of essential energy services are as follows: high energy expenditure, low household incomes, low energy efficiency of housing and appliances, and specific energy needs of households. Moreover, the EU identified key energy poverty indicators: low absolute energy expenditure, arrears on utility bills, high share of energy expenditure in income and inability to keep home adequately warm (EPOV, 2020). The similarity between the Church’s teaching and EU policies is also exhibited in the way the poor are treated. Catholic social teaching adopts the concept of “preferential option for the poor,” which implies that practice of charity should give priority to the poor since the poor are those who need the help of others, and Jesus identified with them, cared for them and was one of them (PCJP, 2004, sections 182–184). The preferential option for the poor is echoed in EU documents. The European Commission claims that it “has placed the fight against poverty at the heart of its economic, employment and social agenda” (EC, 2010, p. 1). Directive 2019/944 states that “Member States should take the necessary measures to protect vulnerable and energy poor customers” and establishes disconnection safeguards (EC, 2019, pp. 5, 28). COMECE places the issue of poverty resulting from lack of access to energy services mainly in the context of social justice. According to the COMECE bishops, all those who are deprived of these services should be entitled to obtain them, and the services can be subject to demands in

108  Zbigniew Łepko et al. accordance with the positive law. Further in the statement, a reference to the eradication of poverty is made in the context of human dignity, the common good, the preferential option for the poor, responsibility for others, solidarity and subsidiarity (COMECE, 2016). To support the reasons for addressing the issue of energy poverty, the EU documents usually refer to the need to promote social justice and fundamental rights as key objectives of the EU, and human dignity and solidarity as the EU’s cornerstone (EC, 2010, p. 1). Moreover, the necessity to guarantee a decent standard of living and well-being of citizens, realise their potential and increase social inclusion is emphasised (EC, 2019, p. 59). This proves that Catholic social teaching and the EU policies rely on a partially common axiology (dignity, justice, solidarity) when they refer to the poor or poverty, including energy poverty. These two approaches are also similar in the way they tackle the issue of anti-discrimination. The Church does not raise the issue of discrimination in access to energy services, but she postulates that everyone should have equal access to economic, cultural, political and social life, and benefit equally from national wealth (Paul VI, 1971, section  16). The Church’s teaching devotes much space to the discussion on discrimination against women, supporting the defence and promotion of the personal dignity of women, and equality of men and women (John Paul II, 2001, sections 50–51). The EU documents prohibit gender and race discrimination in access to all publicly available goods and services, including energy as may be assumed (FRA, 2018, p. 133), and require that men and women benefit equally from national energy policies. The EU recognises that women are at greater risk of energy poverty than are men due to lower average incomes (EP, 2017, p. 36).

Energy competition in the context of the principle of the common good and knowledge-sharing The efficiency of energy management, in terms of production, distribution and consumption, depends on how particular data are used given their wide variety. This is what defines the importance of sustainable energy development. There is a necessity for large-scale transformation of the entire energy sector, from a network level to an individual scale, i.e., a single unit of energy production or consumption. In physical terms, this transformation is another step in the field of global digital transformation, which occurred as a result of development of extensive computer and telecommunications networks. The development of the Internet initiated the processes which were the beginning of revolutionary technological and social changes in a global scale. The transformation of network-based sectors of the economy achieved thanks to digital technologies went far beyond the area of power engineering and sparked a civilisation revolution on a scale larger than ever

Prospects for sustainable development 109 before. The discussion on energy competition in the context of the principle of the common good and knowledge-sharing should recognise social aspects and provide the rationalisation of consumption models. Therefore, highlighting the importance of new models of energy distribution based on the digital infrastructure of energy systems is equally important. Still, the prevalent unsustainable energy economy leads to inefficient use of natural resources and undermines the sustainability of the whole economy. This is particularly associated with the energy balance of heating, air conditioning system and all forms of transport. The electrification which results in significant savings in consumption costs and ensures a substantial reduction in air pollution, especially in confined spaces, requires a transition to sustainable energy production technologies. Full transition to a sustainable economy requires the transformation of consumer behaviour. Rather than seeking to own a variety of goods, one should encourage collective forms of ownership based on publicly available services and other resource-sharing methods. To further discuss the rationalisation of energy consumption, it is worth referring to new solutions in the field of individualised use of electric vehicles, not necessarily in the possession of their owners, equipped with digital data infrastructures and management systems. It is frequently reported that the efficiency of the transition to a sustainable energy economy is limited. This is because start-up investment costs are significant. Actions to raise consumers’ awareness play a huge role here. It is necessary to encourage lifestyle change and promote environmentally sustainable standards of behaviour. The UNESCO strategic documents indicate that science and education are critical in this respect and show that the models of Open Science and Open Education should be widely implemented and thus ensure that paradigms of open access to scientific content and data are effectively adopted (UNESCO, 2015). The UNESCO strategy refers explicitly to the implementation of SDG7 (sustainable clean energy) and SDG13 (climate action) and assumes that science and education systems need to undergo transformation following the principles of openness. This issue has become a keynote of the TWI2050 (IIASA, 2018) panel reporting cycle launched in 2018 and prepared by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) (IIASA, 2018). The aim of the reports is to provide an integral view of system-related problems connected with the Agenda implementation and draw knowledge from virtually all disciplines based on an interdisciplinary model. The reports cover the period up to 2050 in order to propose multiple scenarios for achieving the goals of the Agenda. As evidenced by documents, since the traditional model of operation of scientific institutions and educational programmes arranged by discipline and field of science currently prevails, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve a breakthrough progress in addressing complex global problems today and even more so in the future. Note that the TWI2050 reports strongly emphasise that social aspects of sustainable development

110  Zbigniew Łepko et al. challenges prevail over all other aspects. The reports focus on six key areas (IIASA, 2018) when discussing the goals of the Agenda: • • • • • •

human capacity and demography consumption and production decarbonisation and energy food, biosphere and water smart cities digital revolution.

Wherever the generation of renewable energy, especially electricity, is of paramount importance, production and demand need to be balanced on an ongoing basis. This gives rise to a variety of problems connected with the stabilisation of, mostly networked but sometimes local, energy systems. This, in turn, entails the necessity of balancing energy, which can be only achieved by the construction of appropriately dimensioned energy storage modules or redistribution processes carried out in extreme time regimes. In each case, the decision-making processes have to take place in near realtime. For this purpose, it is necessary to develop high-performance digital, IT and telecommunications infrastructures, including data acquisition and transmission networks, advanced computer processing and storage systems, and intelligent algorithmic solutions, including multi-level data analysis and computational models to streamline adaptive processes, following machinelearning paradigms or, as referred to more commonly, artificial intelligence (IIASA, 2019).

Conclusions As shown previously, SDG7 of the Agenda for sustainable energy policy explored in the context of Catholic social teaching clearly indicates the need to seek agreement between technological and ethical challenges. From the standpoint of Catholic social teaching, the progress of civilisation driven by sustainable energy can be fully achieved only if the solidarity-based respect for human dignity is ensured. All forms of energy poverty and uneven development of countries and regions of the world pose a great challenge to those who propose and develop sustainable energy solutions. This challenge should inspire people to seek diverse ways of implementation of sustainable energy targets encompassing international and inter-state solidarity issues. The analysis of Catholic social teaching shows that the Agenda should apply the approach according to which the energy development and energy progress assume not only the improvement of the standard of living, e.g., enhanced access to lighting or heating, but also increased respect for the values constituting the basis for any strategy of energy changes. This position is particularly highlighted by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’. He claims that the spirit of solidarity and brotherhood is a necessary

Prospects for sustainable development 111 condition for the creation of the society which respects the idea of integral development (Francis, 2015, section 18). According to the pope, the onedimensional perspective aimed at building the energy potential of civilised humanity should be abandoned in favour of a perspective encompassing at least two dimensions so that the technological commitment is accompanied by ethical commitment. This is because the chances are that technological changes in the energy sector, based solely on the respect for the natural environment and ignoring the principle of brotherly solidarity, may slow down the development of civilised humanity or even preclude it. Therefore, it is worth reiterating the view of Catholic social teaching, which is that the progress of civilised humanity should be based on respect for human dignity (Bołoz et al., 2016, pp. 109–128). Before any actions are initiated in this respect, the view should be promoted and encouraged via education and upbringing activities for the young generation. Through the conscious change of mentality, it will be possible to implement the provisions of the Agenda (Preamble, Introduction and section 8), which say that it is necessary to build a world with a universal respect for dignity and justice. These provisions could be supplemented by a clear reference to the human person to help establish a full correspondence between technological aspects in the field of energy acquisition, transmission and ethical guidelines formulated by Catholic social teaching. This also would enable various decision-making bodies to establish the hierarchy of importance in global matters requiring changes. This hierarchy, covering matters critical for civilised humanity, sets minimum conditions for achieving the goals of the Agenda. Such conditions are the only way to see the pure forms of energy, i.e., having regard to the environment and broadly understood habitat, as the common good. The efforts to achieve the goal of section 7 of the Agenda should be followed by a fundamental reconstruction of principles governing the operation of the energy market and related mechanisms. The processes of decentralisation of the energy system implemented in this way and closely related development of mobile forms of energy consumption, e.g., electromobility, would lead to a natural need to search for new settlement models with adequate flexibility and ability to respond to the high dynamics of future system-based changes. This area of study is highly interdisciplinary in nature and thus requires a high level of cooperation and focus on social processes and conditions (LealArcas, 2019). In particular, the processes leading to the implementation of a sustainable model of the energy system and the entire energy economy should take into account the problems of universal availability of energy and support actions aimed at eradicating poverty. Open Innovation is one of the future economic mechanisms that should be adopted to support such activities. On the basis of commonly used models of Open Science, made possible thanks to a wide availability of scientific data based on FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable), the upcoming European Union Framework

112  Zbigniew Łepko et al. Programme Horizon Europe 2021 is scheduled to adopt the following keynote: Open Innovation, Open Science, Open to the World (EC, 2019).

Works cited Bołoz, W., Jaromi, S., Karaczun, Z., Łepko, Z., Papuziński, A., & Sadowski, R. F. (2016). Ekologiczne przesłanie encykliki Laudato Si’. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, 14(4), pp. 109–128. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UKSW. Catechism of the Catholic Church. (1992). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. COMECE [Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community]. (2016). Rescue the Weak and the Poor. COMECE Statement on Poverty and Social Exclusion in Europe. www.comece.eu/dl/OrrsJKJKollkJqx4KJK/COM ECE_poverty_Statement_EN_FINAL.pdf EC [European Commission]. (1975). Council of the European Communities. Council Decision of 22 July  1975 Concerning the Programme of Pilot Schemes and Studies to Combat Poverty, 75/458/EEC. EC [European Commission]. (2010). European Platform Against Poverty and Social Exclusion: A  European Framework for Social and Territorial Cohesion, COM(2010) 758 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=C OM%3A2010%3A0758%3AFIN%3AEN%3APDF EC [European Commission]. (2019). Directive 2019/944 of the European Parliament and the Council of 5 June 2019 on Common Rules for the Internal Market for Electricity and Amending Directive2012/27/EU. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ legal-ontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32019L0944 EP [European Parliament]. (2017). Gender Perspective on Access to Energy in the EU. https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/gender-perspective-on-access-toenergy-in-the-eu EPOV [EU Energy Poverty Observatory]. (2020). www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S2589791820300037 FRA [European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights]. (2018). Handbook on European Non-Discrimination Law. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uplo ads/fra-2018-handbook-non-discrimination-law-2018_en.pdf Francis. (2015). Laudato Si’. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Hawken, P., Lovins, A., & Lovins, H. (1999). Natural Capitalism. Little, Brown and Company. IIASA [International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis]. (2018). TWI2050. The World in 2050. https://iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/twi/Report2018.html IIASA [International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis]. (2019). TWI2050. The Digital Revolution and Sustainable Development: Opportunities and Challenges. https://iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/twi/Report2019.html John Paul II. (1982). Address to Young People from the “Fourth World.” Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1987). Sollicitudo rei socialis. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1991). Centesimus Annus. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (2001). Novo Milennio Ineunte. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1999). Ecclesia in Asia. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Leal-Arcas, R. (2019). Solutions for Sustainability: How the International Trade, Energy and Climate Change Regimes Can Help. Springer.

Prospects for sustainable development 113 Łepko, Z. (2011). W sprawie polityki dla zrównoważonego rozwoju. Seminare, 29, pp. 75–98. Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego. Łepko, Z. (2012). W sprawie techniki dla zrównoważonego rozwoju. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, 10(1), pp. 9–28. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UKSW. Paul VI. (1971). Octogesima adveniens. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. PCJP [Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace]. (2004). Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Sadowski, R. F. (2020). The Role of Religious Argumentation in Shaping ProEcological Attitudes of Christians in Poland. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae, 18(1), pp. 7–22. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UKSW. Teilhard de Chardin, P. (2002). Christianity and Evolution. Harcourt. UNESCO. (2015). Science Report Towards 2030. UNESCO Publishing. Zagończyk, D. (2015). Ekologiczny wymiar dobra wspólnego w świetle encyklik społecznych papieży posoborowych. Seminare, 36(4), pp.  79–92. Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego.

8 Decent work and economic growth from the perspective of sustainable development and Catholic social teaching Katarzyna Roszewska, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak and Artur Wysocki Introduction The issue of decent work was recognised as a target under Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG1) (Millennium Development Goals) (MDGs) (UN, 2000a). However, this happened as late as in 2007. Initially, MDG1 was composed of two targets calling to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. The concept was developed primarily thanks to the contribution of the International Labour Organisation. Its origins are connected with the report of the Director-General of 1999 (ILO, Decent Work for All). Theoretical and methodological foundations of the report were established by specialists cooperating with ILO, including Gerry Rodgers (2001), Dharam Ghai (2003) and Gary. S. Fields (2003). The report was incorporated into the prominent document of the UN Economic and Social Council of 2006 on the right to work (ECOSOC). This gave an impulse to recognise the importance of the concept in a broader context from the perspective of sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda highlights both the importance of decent work and its relationship with economic growth. These two issues are at the heart of Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG8): Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all (UN, 2020a). The term “decent work for all” used in the report of 1999 frequently appears in the 2030 Agenda, not only in the wording of the goal, but also, for example, in Sections 3, 9 and 27. The aim of this chapter is to present the concept of decent work and its relationship with economic growth from the perspective of sustainable development and Catholic social teaching. Particular focus is made on four Targets of SDG8 which directly address the concept of decent work, i.e., Targets from 8.5 to 8.8. It has been a long time since the Catholic Church started to discuss the dignity of work and the right to work for everyone. Work was one of the first social issues gradually incorporated into her teaching. For example, it is discussed in the writings of Clement of Alexandria, who lived at the turn of the second and third centuries. Major contribution to the concept of work

Decent work and economic growth 115 is from significant social documents of the Church, starting from Leo XIII’s Rerum novarum, developed to respond to contemporary changes and new socioeconomic realities. To compare properly the Church’s teaching with the view of the 2030 Agenda, it is necessary to discuss how man is perceived and show the differences in how work and decent work, and its importance for man and society, are viewed. The first part of this chapter discusses the anthropological aspects of work. The second part presents the Church’s teaching on work in the face of changing socioeconomic circumstances and major ideological concepts. The third part discusses decent work and its impact on economic growth from the legal and institutional perspective, with references to the documents of ILO as the UN major supporter of decent work.

Anthropological aspects In the anthropological foundations of Catholic social teaching, the work in man’s life is discussed from the perspective of vocation. Work is an intrinsic part of human nature and is connected with his involvement in the work of creation and redemption (John Paul II, 1981, sections  4, 27). Work is a “fundamental dimension of man’s existence,” and thus has also a social dimension covering both family and society as a whole. At the same time, the Church emphasises that work is not an end in itself and should be subordinated to the ultimate goal of man and society. Thanks to work, man can improve himself, i.e., grow in his humanity and take care of his needs and the welfare of their loved ones and society as a whole. As a fundamental principle in the Church’s social teaching, all aspects of work incorporate the distinction between the subjective and objective senses of work (John Paul II, 1981, sections 5–6). The Church clearly emphasises the paramount importance of the subjective dimension which regards the development of man himself and his relations with other people. Therefore, it is necessary to respect the hierarchy of values; otherwise, man becomes alienated at work. The involvement of man in the work of creation and redemption The document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission (PBC) of 2019, which is entirely devoted to anthropological issues, indicates that any manifestation of human activity should always have regard to the holistic vocation of man. It also illustrates the concept of following God in His creative work. According to this concept, God entrusted man with the care of the Earth, and not the control over it. This means that man is a guardian rather than a master of creation (PBC, 2019, p. 104). Through his work, man can improve himself and the outside world. For this purpose, man must respect the laws governing the nature of all creation. Work should be perceived as a gift and task which give man an opportunity to develop and continue the work of God. Due to the original sin and its consequences, man has to make

116  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. an effort to overcome difficulties while working. However, the original sense of work is preserved. Work is a room for further development of man with the respect for his dignity: Work is a good thing for man – a good thing for his humanity – because through work man not only transforms nature, adapting it to his own needs, but he also achieves fulfilment as a human being and indeed, in a sense, becomes “more a human being.” (John Paul II, 1981, section 9) Man’s work leads to the transformation and humanisation of the whole external reality, and leads him to other people. It also contributes to the growth of social well-being, although the Church’s teaching does not see it as a paramount goal. Man is the goal and subject of work, and thus all socioeconomic activities must be directed towards him (PCJP, 2004, p.  106). This hierarchy is a way to true and sustainable social development. Work is an essential part of integral development as referred to in Paul VI’s encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967). Integral development fosters the development “of each man and of the whole man” (Paul VI, 1967, section 14). The “each” means every human being, irrespective of origin, race, colour or material situation. The “whole” means all areas of human activity, including spiritual sphere. This integrity reveals a strong relationship, essential for a proper understanding of sustainable development, between economy and morality (PCJP, 2004, p. 331), and the influence of religious values on economic activity, regardless of geographical or cultural context (Nnamene, 2010, p. 70). This is also in line with human autotelicity, which assumes that the purpose of people’s lives is predefined in their internal structure and thus cannot be a tool for achieving goals which reach far beyond the scope of their integral development. Since human life is a vocation, work is an expression of the person, i.e., “actus personae” (PCJP, 2004, p. 271). Man gives dignity to work by the fact that he performs work as a man. In other words, human dignity is a “measure” of the dignity of work. Work as a gift vs. human alienation at work In view of the Church’s teaching discussed previously, work is perceived as a gift. Another approach that should be presented here sees work as a necessity or even a curse (Carter, 2012), which makes man alienated from his primary goal. The Church Fathers use different terms to define these two diverse approaches to work. In the former case, work is called opus humanae, while in the latter, it is referred to as opus servile to indicate that work is neither a gift nor a service. In fact, it is a slavish attitude to the reality of the world which tells man to await for the moment of liberation from work. In practical terms, there are far-reaching consequences of this distinction. Work seen as an intrinsic part of human nature calls man to transform

Decent work and economic growth 117 the world; whereas work seen as a curse is a necessary evil and only a means to obtain money. In the latter case, this leads to the conclusion that one may decide to give up work if they find another way of earning money. Consequently, all known pathologies, such as corruption and appropriation, could be easily excused. Therefore, in confrontation with the concept of sustainable development, the Catholic view on the virtue of moderation can play a significant role (Sadowski, 2009, pp. 141–144). Man is a “measure,” which means that moderation should be a tool to arrange human activity, including work, based on vocation. Man’s personal self is revealed primarily in vocation. Therefore, man cannot be perceived only through the prism of his needs. Man defines a new measure of the “self-consciously restrained.” The approach which sees work as a gift or task is closely related with the concept of rest. It assumes that leisure time gives rest, i.e., recovery and restoration of harmony with oneself, with the world, with other people and with God (John Paul II, 1998, section 64–68). The essence of this approach can be grasped at the level of the very words as the terms creatio and recreatio mean, respectively, the creation and restoration of forces inherent in man. In contrast, in the approach which sees work as a necessity or a curse (alienation), rest is treated more individualistically and perceived as an abandonment or cessation. In the alienation-based approach to work, people who retire cease to work, while, in the approach proposed in the Church’s teaching, they end a certain form of their professional work, but do not abandon work in its essence. They do not stop working, but make an attempt to adapt their forces to their work possibilities to fulfil their vocation. They can use their professional experience in a completely new way, e.g., in vocational guidance, to follow the concept of solidarity of work (PCJP, 2004, p. 264).

Catholic social teaching in the face of changes in the reality of work Contemporary models of growth and the current reality of the world of work were originally determined by the civilisational changes following the industrial revolution and the emergence of new political systems shaped by new ideological currents, such as liberalism, socialism or modernism. Until the 18th century, the issue of economic growth was virtually not discussed. Adam Smith’s concept of the wealth of nations undoubtedly laid the foundations for this discussion. He assumed that the country’s total annual production based on the work of its citizens is a measure of wealth and abandoned the mercantilist approach based on nation’s precious metals (Smith, 2007). The pursuit of maximising production and profit was further developed in the approach adopted by David Ricardo, the successor to the father of economics. His concept of socialism of the 19th century, followed, in particular, by Karl Marx, primarily resulted in the exploitation of workers and class antagonism between capital and labour. Leo XIII emphasises

118  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. that due to sharp antagonism between capital and the needs of the people of the world of work, “the elements of the conflict now raging are unmistakable” (Leo XIII, 1981, section 1). The idea of decent work in Catholic social teaching Capital and labour are central issues discussed in Rerum Novarum. The document was the first great social encyclical of the Catholic Church and largely determined its further development. It presents the foundations of Christian anthropology and the principles of social life. Leo XIII criticises both the abuses of the liberal model of economic development and the false solutions to problems proposed by contemporary socialists. However, he is particularly sensitive to the defects of socialism. Pius XI, in his comment on his predecessor’s document, calls socialism “a remedy far worse than the evil itself, would have plunged human society into great dangers” (Pius XI, 1931a, section 10). Leo XIII stresses the importance of private property, which is an inherently fundamental value in socioeconomic development. However, he does not absolutise this idea as he follows the principle of the universal destination of goods. In order to improve the living conditions of workers, he puts forward the concept of fair wages whose aim is to secure their livelihood, support them with a little savings and enable them to create their ownership. In the teaching of Pius XI, this concept is extended to the so-called family wage, i.e., wage which supports the entire family. Leo XIII also proposes to spread the ownership of businesses (through the purchase of shares) so that workers can feel that they work on their own and have benefits from it. These efforts undoubtedly reflect the struggle for what is today called decent work and productive employment (UNGA, 2015). The call for what is today defined as solidarity is yet another key point of this document. The aim was to cooperate for the common good of the world of work (trade unions), entrepreneurs, the state and religious associations. This concept is also one of the fundamental goals of the contemporary ILO document Decent Work Agenda (ILO, 2010). The approach was in opposition to both the liberal stance and, perhaps above all, to the demands of socialism which assumed that the class antagonism (class struggle) cannot be solved and would inevitably lead to the elimination of the capitalist class. In the Church’s teaching, appropriate cooperation between capital and labour is essential for the proper functioning of the economy. Another key goal of the Decent Work Agenda is to provide social protection of workers. Note that the call to ensure health protection of workers as well as accident and death insurance, though primarily directed towards professional associations, is already present in the writings of Leo XIII (Leo XIII, 1981, section 36). However, the involvement of states was still weak and social legislation was not sufficiently developed at that time. The Great Depression of the 1930s brought about the collapse of liberal concepts and at the same time the development of the statist movement;

Decent work and economic growth 119 however, Pius XI did not call for a radical increase in the involvement of the state. Instead, he proposed “wise provision on the part of public authority” (Pius XI, 1931a, section 73). Unlike his predecessor, he criticises mainly liberal concepts, but the primary area in which he sees the problem is the collapse of so-called intermediate structures in economic life and the decline of morality. Therefore, the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno clearly emphasises the importance of the principle of subsidiarity (Pius XI, 1931a, section 79–81). The task of the state is to create the right institutional and legal conditions, to defend justice, to eliminate abuse, especially in the case of wage workers, and to take special care of the weakest and the poor. The care for the most disadvantaged was reflected in Nova Impendet (1931b), the document on unemployment issued in the same year. In the face of further political and socioeconomic changes, Catholic social teaching introduced new aspects or explored in more detail the existing ones. In this chapter, the key points of this approach directly related to the central issues are discussed. In his encyclical Mater et Magistra (1961), John XXIII refers to the rights of nations in the context of the development of post-colonial dependence. He points out that developed countries use political and economic power in their former colonies. The major contribution of Paul VI and his encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967) has been already discussed in the concept of integral development. The encyclical is also the first large document of the Church’s teaching to discuss in so much detail the concept and principle of solidarity. Laborem Exercens (1981) of Pope John Paul II explores important anthropological aspects of work and redefines the need for a proper hierarchy of values to avoid alienation at work, either in the capitalist system or in the socialist system still existing at that time. John Paul II indicates that these systems are based on objectification of man at work since they reduce man to the material dimension to maximise profit or volume of production available to people. He argues that this total reductionism was the main source of the collapse of the communist bloc, as previously mentioned in his encyclical Centesimus Annus (1991). In the face of the financial crisis, Benedict XVI, in his encyclical Caritas in Veritate (2009), highlights the need to find a relationship between economics and morality and to restore the distorted hierarchy of values. The Church’s position on environmental issues in relation to the concept of sustainable development is most clearly expressed by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’ (2015). The Church’s view on decent work from the perspective of economic growth The concepts of Catholic social teaching presented previously are fairly consistent with the modern concept of decent work and its goals. Now, focus

120  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. is made on how the Church’s teaching sees the relationship between decent work, in its essence, and economic growth. According to Catholic social teaching, properly performed work leads to the development of man and his relationships with others, and thus to the growth of what is defined as human and social capital. Referring to the aid for developing countries, Benedict XVI claims that “the most valuable resources in countries receiving development aid are human resources: herein lies the real capital that needs to accumulate in order to guarantee a truly autonomous future for the poorest countries” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section  58). The growth of human capital is the basis for social and economic development, and makes it stable and sustainable, as indicated in SDG8 of the 2030 Agenda. Note that the subjectivity of work present in the Church’s teaching applies to all types of work, including nonprofit work, e.g., women’s housework and other types of housework, helping others etc. This is because work fosters human development even if it is not quantitatively measured by economic activity indicators and is not recognised in GDP. Irrespective of any other reasons, GDP growth rate is not a sufficient indicator to describe changes in the economy. Therefore, the Church warns against absolutising the amount of profit of a company (Francis, 2015, section 195) and the amount of indicators of changes in the economy as a whole, including in particular GDP. When discussing the wrongly understood potential of economic growth, Pope Francis emphasises that this has made it easy to accept the idea of infinite or unlimited growth, which proves so attractive to economists, financiers and experts in technology. It is based on the lie that there is an infinite supply of the earth’s goods, and this leads to the planet being squeezed dry beyond every limit. (Francis, 2015, section 106) This approach profoundly affects not only the operations of enterprises, but also the actions of economic politicians. As a result, efforts are often made to strengthen the quantitative growth of the economy, without due regard to their harmful effects on integral human development and their long-term harmful effects on the economy as a whole. The processes of the so-called financialisation of the economy, which were to a large extent the cause of the crisis in 2008–2009, are a good example here. In this respect, Laudato Si’ calls to slow down some inappropriate economic processes: if in some cases sustainable development were to involve new forms of growth, then in other cases, given the insatiable and irresponsible

Decent work and economic growth 121 growth produced over many decades, we need also to think of containing growth by setting some reasonable limits and even retracing our steps before it is too late. Francis, 2015, section 193) This artificial, in a sense, economic growth, which does not recognise the real needs of people, is the first victim of the economic crisis of 2020 which erupted as a result of the pandemic. In spite of the specific character of the Catholic approach, some concepts of sustainable development are in line with the Church’s teaching. The concept of so-called degrowth, which originated as a result of the report of the Club of Rome of 1972, may serve as an example here (Jackson, 2009). Human work, which is the basis for sustainable growth, serves, first and foremost, the development of man, which is a primary reason why it is essential for him, irrespective of whether work is performed for the sake of gaining a livelihood or transforming the reality, or for any other reasons: The goal should not be that technological progress increasingly replaces human work, for this would be detrimental to humanity. Work is a necessity, part of the meaning of life on this earth, a path to growth, human development and personal fulfilment. Helping the poor financially must always be a provisional solution in the face of pressing needs. The broader objective should always be to allow them a dignified life through work. (Francis, 2015, section 128). The fact that human work is essential for man entails the necessity to care for availability of work for everyone. The Church in the face of various contemporary dilemmas The relationship between decent work and economic growth puts certain social groups in a specific situation. This particularly refers to young people who combine the idea of development with the concept of development through work. As indicated earlier, Catholic social teaching places a strong emphasis on the primacy of people over capital. Furthermore, people cannot be deprived of material goods and development opportunities which respond to their needs and constitute an essential condition for their existence. Therefore, to ensure the primacy of man, it is necessary to provide work possibilities and at the same time see man through its measure. However, in order to support people in acquiring knowledge or learning creativity, one has to refer to the concept of human capital (PCJP, 2004, p. 278). In the name of the principle of subsidiarity, institutions responsible for the organisation of work structures are obliged to create opportunities

122  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. for full employment of young people and to revise the notion of the “indirect employer,” i.e., a person who specifies the institutional, organisational and legal dimension of work (PCJP, 2004, p.  288), prepares employment policies and defines the form of the economic system. In view of the diverse levels of development in individual countries, regional and national policies are not sufficient. It is necessary to establish the international cooperation for development primarily focused on the implementation of organisational and legal framework within which justice and solidarity prevail over market logic (PCJP, 2004, p. 448). This is where the Church’s teaching largely corresponds to the goals of the 2030 Agenda. Another area requiring the dignity of work is women’s work. Catholic social teaching emphasises the pivotal role of women in the family and in raising children. This entails the necessity to reconsider the form of women’s work and remuneration. Seeing women’s work only through the prism of cost structure is utterly unacceptable. Since family is a vocation of people, especially women, remuneration must reflect this fact by taking account of both the contribution to work and the family dimension of a worker (PCJP, 2004, pp. 91, 250). The question of finding appropriate wage solutions is obviously not easy and remains open since it is necessary to reconcile the interests of the employer and the state as an institution which establishes the institutional and legal order. Note, however, that the state, a leading entity until recently, transfers some of its powers to other entities which organise social life in the area of work. The question of family is also important for the employment of immigrants. The issue is raised by Pope Francis in the Message of His Holiness Pope Francis for the 104th World Day of Migrants and Refugees: Welcoming, Protecting, Promoting and Integrating Migrants and Refugees. Francis proposes four verbs guiding the conscious help for immigrants: to welcome, to protect, to promote and to integrate. The pope distinguishes between three stages of assistance: prior to leaving the country of origin, during the stay in the country of destination, and in the return to homeland. At each stage, specific forms of help are needed. At the first stage, it is necessary to provide full and certified information, and protection against illegal recruitment practices. At the second stage, immigrants should be given adequate consular assistance, the right to carry their identity papers with them at all times, equal access to justice, the opportunity to open bank accounts and guarantee of a living wage. They should also be able to communicate freely, work and have access to telecommunications facilities. At the third stage, it is necessary to implement social and professional reintegration programmes (Francis, 2018). This shows that migration is a big challenge and multidimensional phenomenon. On the one hand, it can have a negative impact. It can give rise to exploitation of minors, women’s work without proper protection of their rights as well as development of technologies giving birth to new professions and overruling the old ones,

Decent work and economic growth 123 which can cause the expansion of areas of poverty. On the other hand, migration can help people to better adapt their personal predispositions to the labour market. With respect to women’s rights in the world of work, particular attention should be paid to women’s capacity-building, the development of programmes to support women’s development in the professional dimension, wider representation of women in support programmes, access to knowledge management education regarding innovative practices for women’s empowerment and the specific role of women in personnel management. The Church’s teaching starts to identify more clearly the need to make greater use of women’s potential in different aspects of life and society. However, some commentators believe that the Church most often addresses the second-wave feminism associated with the sexual revolution while the first-wave feminism related to the demand for greater influence of women on social problems is left aside (Stanley, 2017). It is worth noting here again that the idea of sustainable development identifies certain work-related issues which are consistent with the Church’s teaching (Okereke, 2008, pp. 146–148). This refers primarily to the understanding of the poor and to the need to recognise the relationship between technological development and the organisation of social life. Other questions include the concept of a good life with particular emphasis on the environment and culture, the role of the state, which cannot be diminished and neutralised, the approach to the right of ownership, and the concept of the common good which most clearly shows the relationship between sustainable development and the human integrity reaching beyond the individualistic dimension (Okereke, 2008, pp. 150–167). The question which should be now addressed is what the key challenges of international organisations are in the context of decent work. First and foremost, it is necessary to promote education which teaches proactive attitudes and self-organisation. The ability to design life and acquire competences in this respect should be an important element of this education. Another key issue is the ability to shape one’s own development and the so-called narrative identity to facilitate the understanding of one’s own experiences, especially painful ones. Re-examination of experiences is often an essential element of further development, also through work (Drabik-Podgórna  & Podórny, 2018, p. 330). International organisations should also strive to adopt the right attitude towards Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). It is fairly easy to see that companies and corporations embrace this concept as their new policy due to the pressure from anti-corporate movements rather than their own conviction and new understanding of the social implications of business (Luke, 2015, p. 323). The relationship between sustainable development and development in general should also be highlighted. To describe this relationship, companies often refer exclusively to the idea of empowerment of employees

124  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. to evoke a sense of moral correctness (Luke, 2015, p. 330). As a common practice, the aim of these activities is to build image. The Catholic Church can significantly contribute to this discussion. Firstly, she extends the idea of sustainable development to include the integrality of man. Secondly, she can effectively deepen the idea of development in confrontation with the reality of social life, as indicated in Paul VI’s encyclical Populorum Progressio of 1967 and subsequent documents.

The response of international organisations to the problems of the world of work The struggle for the rights of the world of work, both at the national and international level, resulted in the establishment of the International Labour Organisation at the beginning of the 20th century (1919). The organisation became a broad platform for the debate on the protection of workers and sought to improve their situation. In recent years, this attitude was expressed in the issue of decent work, which is also a central concept of the 2030 Agenda. In one of the recent documents of the 2030 Agenda on decent work, the idea of decent work is seen not only as one of the main goals of the 2030 Agenda, but also as a driver which can be found in all other goals (ILO, 2010). In the search for a broad consensus, ILO also initiates a dialogue with religions. This attitude is expressed in its document on how the fundamental objectives of decent work are reflected in the teaching of individual religions, including the Catholic Church (ILO, 2012a). Current situation in the world of work The rapid development of technology in recent decades, particularly accelerated by computerisation, has reduced the importance of human labour in the global economy. Labour-intensive production is quite commonly shifted to underdeveloped countries with insufficient protection of labour rights. Automation of production and progressive robotisation cause serious problems in searching for new jobs. Although the continuous decline in the volume of work has been forecast for years (Rifkin, 2001, p. 168), global labour productivity has risen and global unemployment has returned to pre-crisis levels. The still-widespread informal employment affects the wages, health and safety at work, and working conditions. In three quarters of the countries which report data in this respect, it accounts for more than half of all non-agricultural workers (UN, 2019, p.  14). Since the economic crisis, the average annual growth rate in the global economy as a whole has varied between 1.5 and 2% (UN, 2020b). It is estimated that, in 2018, 172  million people (5%) worldwide were unemployed. The number of the unemployed is expected to grow by

Decent work and economic growth 125 1 million each year. In 2018, approx. 700 million workers lived in extreme or moderate poverty, i.e., for less than USD 3.20 a day. The precariat has become a fairly common social phenomenon. In total, in 2016, as many as 2 billion workers were employed informally, which account for 61% of the global workforce (UN, 2020a). Given the contemporary forms of slavery, the situation is even more serious. According to the ILO report on modern slavery, in 2016, approx. 40.3  million people were subject to modern forms of slavery, of which 24.9  million to forced labour and 15.4  million to forced marriages. This means that 5.4 per thousand people in the world are victims of modern slavery. One per four victims of modern slavery is a child. Of the 24.9 million people subject to forced labour, 16 million are exploited in the private sector, such as domestic work, construction and agriculture, 4.8  million are sexually exploited and 4  million are forced to work as designated by state authorities. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by forced labour. They account for 99% of victims in the sex services sector and 58% in other sectors (ILO, 2017, pp. 9–11). Moreover, the situation of many workers who seem to have a good job is very unstable. In this case, adequate protection usually affordable only to rich countries is required. The pandemic which occurred in 2020 is yet another challenge in this regard. It caused a rapid increase in unemployment in many countries, but its overall impact on the global economy is still unknown and difficult to estimate. Action of the LO and other organisations to promote decent work Besides the International Labour Organisation (ILO), labour standards are also set by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which shapes international trade policy. Trade has a broad impact not only on the economy and the environment, but also on jobs and labour standards, and thus on social cohesion. The General System of Preferences is a manifestation of respect for workers’ rights at the level of international trade relations. Its aim is to guarantee access to European markets for developing countries in return for ratifying and observing, inter alia, conventions on workers’ rights or introducing social clauses into international trade agreements. The scope of these agreements has been extended, especially after the Lisbon Treaty (van den Putte, 2015, p. 280). The European Union–Singapore Free Trade Agreement is one of the recent examples (EU, 2019). Attempts to reconcile capital and labour are not always successful. In a series of rulings concerning the relationship between the Treaty, freedom of economic activity and the right to collective bargaining (the so-called Laval Quartet, 2007–2008), the Court of Justice had to deal with the collision between wage-dumping and the interests of service providers who offer

126  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. cheaper services and protect their own jobs. The Court assumed that the right to conduct a collective dispute in protection against wage-dumping may justify a restriction of other freedoms, but the exercise of that right shall be subject to the principle of proportionality. This was assessed as a step backwards in workers’ rights (Bercusson, 2007, p. 285). Another ongoing dispute connected with trade relations concerns the chapters of Trade and Sustainable Development of the Free Trade Agreement between the European Union and South Korea. The employment standards in Korean companies are a key point in the dispute. The EU is pressing for the implementation of the core ILO conventions. Despite some concessions from Korea, subsequent meetings under the Committee on Trade and Sustainable Development have not yet produced satisfactory results (UN, 2019). ILO seeks to shape an appropriate perception of work, not only in economic terms, but also in a broader social dimension. Its initiatives in favour of decent work have been an integral part of its activities since Juan Somavia, ILO Director General, presented a report on decent work stating that “the overall goal . . . should be to provide opportunities for decent work for all women and men to obtain in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity” (ILO, 1999, p. 10). However, the extended scope of work is also sometimes criticised and assessed as incomplete. Currently, some researchers point out yet another dimension of work. Work can be understood as an activity which has a significant impact on the well-being of the individual as it mobilises the body, mind and soul of workers, while the ILO focuses primarily on the economic dimension of work and the accompanying social relations (Deranty & MacMillan, 2012, p. 387). Work is a challenge to human cognitive and emotional abilities and can be a means of self-development (Deranty & MacMillan, 2012, p. 396). The assumption that work is not a commodity laid the foundations of ILO. G. Standing even pointed out that institutional activities of ILO limit the objectified nature of work (Standing, 2008, p.  358). ILO Centenary Declaration for the Future of Work clearly states that labour issues should focus on the individual. The rights, needs and aspirations of the individual should be at the heart of economic, social and environmental policies (ILO, 2019, pp. 4–8). The activities of ILO contributed to the gradual extension of the scope of work covered by international standards of protection. Currently, this extends beyond the employment within the formal economy, i.e., under the employment relationship and in the industrial sector (cf. separate ILO conventions on work, e.g., work in agriculture, work on the farm, domestic workers). Before the 2030 Agenda was adopted, on 12 June 2015, the 104th Session of the International Labour Conference in Geneva adopted the Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy Recommendation

Decent work and economic growth 127 (2015, No. 204). It states that member states should adopt, review and enforce national laws and regulations or other measures to ensure adequate coverage and protection for all categories of workers. They should also ensure that the integrated policy framework facilitating the transition to the formal economy is included in national development plans or strategies. Activities undertaken by countries should address, inter alia, the promotion of strategies for sustainable development, poverty eradication, social inclusion growth and creation of decent jobs in the formal economy (ILO, 2019). Sustainable development goals promote sustainable economic growth, higher productivity levels and technological innovation. To reach this, it is necessary to encourage entrepreneurship and job creation. The aim is to achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all by 2030. Social protection is an important tool to prevent and reduce poverty, social inequalities and social exclusion, to promote equal opportunities, gender and racial equality, and to support the transition from informal to formal employment. Having this in mind, the Social Protection Floors Recommendation (2012b, No. 202) was adopted. It was designed to complement existing ILO standards on social protection. It provides guidance to member states on establishing social protection floors within comprehensive social protection systems in line with national needs and development levels (ILO, 2012b, No. 202). Finally, in order to eliminate gaps in the implementation of the Forced Labour Convention (1930, No. 29), the Forced Labour (Supplementary Measures) Recommendation (2014, No. 203) was adopted. It advises member states to take protective measures for the benefit of migrants who have fallen victim to forced or compulsory labour, regardless of their legal status on the territory of the country, and to conduct coherent policies, employment and labour migration with due regard to the risks faced by particular groups of migrants, including those in an irregular situation, and circumstances which may result in forced labour (ILO, 2014, (No. 203).

Conclusions The 2030 Agenda addressing full and productive employment and decent work for all is largely consistent with the approach to work adopted by the Catholic Church. However, as briefly discussed earlier, there are also some differences since man and his work are perceived differently. Common points include the empowerment of employees to increase their participation in decision-making and the shared responsibility for setting organisational objectives and strategic planning (cf. Blewitt, 2018, p. 146). The latter is particularly consistent with the Catholic doctrine of business economics, which defines an enterprise as a community of people who seek

128  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. to achieve a common goal. Decent work is work performed by people who, through associations and trade unions, have a greater influence on employment policy and working conditions. In this case, social dialogue also plays a huge role. Other common concepts include activities to eradicate injustice, violence and modern forms of slavery, and to provide all working people, including those in informal work, with basic social protection, and recognition of the need to ensure good labour productivity to foster economic growth. Enterprise growth and profit can be indicators of good work organisation and of the pursuit of creating good living conditions for all people. There are some inconsistencies regarding the nature of development (Elliott, 2013, pp. 20–21). However, note that they result from different anthropological foundations. The Catholic Church emphasises that focus on improving only the material conditions of life makes man alienated from his primary goal, God, another man and himself. It is therefore necessary to maintain a proper axiological order and the integrity of development for the proper formation of the socioeconomic reality. These tasks can be implemented, inter alia, by appreciating the value of voluntary poverty or by devoting time to acquiring true human wisdom based on the experience of the Church’s people and beyond. In the issue of work, the Church emphasises the need to see the dignity of man since, in a rapidly changing world, the knowledge-based technological processes stopped following the organisation of life based on this widely understood human wisdom. Wisdom is a factor which often held mankind back from the technical imperative: the technically capable must become morally acceptable. Note that, in some of the issues discussed earlier, the actions taken under the 2030 Agenda also become, to a certain degree, consistent with Catholic social teaching. The issues concerned include, inter alia, the broader understanding of work and guidelines to take actions directed specifically towards man. The problem which remains unresolved is the perception of man and his primary goal. It should be also noted that the 2030 Agenda has institutional and legal tools to address and implement a great number of objectives defined in Catholic social teaching. For these reasons, dialogue and joint action in this respect are undoubtedly highly desirable.

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130  Katarzyna Roszewska et al. ILO [International Labor Organization]. (2018). Decent Work and the Agenda for Sustainable Development. ILO [International Labour Organization]. (2019). ILO Centenary Declaration for the Future of Work. www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/mission-and-objectives/ centenary-declaration/lang – en/index.htm ILOSTAT. (2020). The ILO Department of Statistics. https://ilostat.ilo.org/ Jackson, T. (2009). Prosperity Without Growth? The Transition to a Sustainable Economy. Report of Sustainable Development Commission. www.sd-commis sion.org.uk John Paul II. (1981). Laborem Exercens. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1991). Centesimus Annus. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1998). Dies Domini. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul XXIII. (1961). Mater et magistra. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Leo XIII. (1981). Rerum novarum. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Luke, T. (2015). Sustainable Business. A Critique of Corporate Social Responsibility Policies and Practices. In M. Reclift & D. Springett (Eds.) Routledge International Handbook of Sustainable Development. Routledge. Nnamene, E. C. (2010). Participatory Communication Promoted by Religious Values in Community Based Organizations. The Basis for Sustainable Rural Development. Pontifical Gregorian University. Okereke, C. (2008). Global Justice and Neoliberal Environmental Governance. Ethics, Sustainable Development and International Co-Operation. Routledge. Paul VI. (1967). Populorum Progressio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. PBC [Pontifical Biblical Commission]. (2019). Che cosa è l’uomo? Un itinerario di antropologia biblica. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. PCJP [Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace]. (2004). Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Pius XI. (1931a). Quadragesimo anno. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Pius XI. (1931b). Nova impendet. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Rifkin, J. (2001). Koniec pracy. Schyłek siły roboczej na świecie i początek ery postrynkowej. Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. Rodgers, G. (2001). Decent Work as a Development Objective. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 44(1), pp. 15–26. Sadowski, R. F. (2009). The Role of Religion in the World and in Poland in the Formulation and Implementation of the Sustainable Development Strategy. In Z. Łepko & R. F. Sadowski (Eds.) A Humanist Approach to Sustainable Development. UKSW. Smith, A. (2007). The Wealth of Nations: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Harriman House. Standing, G. (2008). The ILO: An Agency for Globalisation? Development and Change, 39(3). Stanley, S. (2017). Working Humans, Working Women. Religion & Liberty, 27(3). https://acton.org/ UN [United Nations]. (2019). Progress Towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Report of the Secretary-General. Special Edition of Economic and Social Council. https://undocs.org/ UN [United Nations]. (2000). UN Millennium Declaration [MDG]. A/RES/55/2. UN [United Nations]. (2020a). UN Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. www.undp.org/

Decent work and economic growth 131 UN [United Nations]. (2020b). Global SDG Indicators Database. https://unstats. un.org/ UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution adopted by the GA, A/RES/70/1. van den Putte, L., & Orbie, J. (2015). EU Bilateral Trade Agreements and the Surprising Rise of Labour Provisions. The International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations, 31(3).

9 Development or revolution? Industrialisation in the perspective of Catholic social teaching Andrzej Rudowski, Marek Robak and Piotr Łuczuk Introduction In the 19th and 20th centuries, industrialisation – with all its consequences – became one of key milestones (and challenges) in the social development. Still, it has a considerable impact on people’s lives both in the field of technology and management, as well as in the social sphere. In practice, it touches all dimensions of human existence, asking such questions as what its purpose is and how we should live in this reality. The fundamental nature of these questions makes the issue of industrialisation one of the most important threats of the Catholic social teaching. In this chapter, we will analyse how far and in what direction the social changes caused by technology have evolved in the last two centuries, i.e., from the industrial revolution in the 19th century to the information revolution in the 21st century, looking from the perspective of both Sustainable Development Goals and Catholic social teaching, and showing how these perspectives complement, but sometimes also how they differ in some priorities. The first part of this analysis concentrates on more general questions, based on the analysis of papal encyclicals  – from Pope Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum (1891) to Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ (2015), which allows us to capture the entire cross section of the Church’s social teaching on this subject. In subsequent parts of the chapter, the impact on the society of the digital revolution in communication will be analysed, including its ethical and moral aspect. The Catholic social teaching will be referred to the examples of issues related to the digital divide, information overload, fake news and FOMO (the fear of missing out); it will trace the impact of industrialisation in the context of media, communication sciences and theology.

Documents of the Catholic Church addressing the issue of industrialisation One of the central goals of the sustainable development policy, formulated both in theory and in strategic documents, such as the Transforming Our

Development or revolution? 133 World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UNGA, 2015), Goal 9, is to promote sustainable industrialisation, to build related resilient infrastructure and foster innovation. It is, therefore, justified to state that it was unrestrained industrialisation of Europe and then of other regions, and its complex – economic, sociopolitical and cultural – effects that constitute the starting point for the sustainable development thinking. The 19th-century European economic miracle, for which the steam engine, both metaphorically and literally, was the flywheel, followed by subsequent revolutions (electricity, digitisation and the Internet), determined the changes that shaped the contemporary world, improving the quality of life but also bringing huge imbalance. In the global scale, it was most intensely manifested in the 20th century, dividing the world practically into the industrialised and the developing parts. These euphemisms masked the real abyss dividing people in many dimensions of their existence, ranging from the access to potable water in their places of living (approximately 33% of the world population are deprived of it) to the access to the Internet (used by merely a half of the humankind, i.e., 57%).1 How are the problems linked with industrialisation, including the accompanying development of infrastructure and the innovation conditioning its durability, perceived by the authors of the Agenda? Analysing the tasks formulated under Goal 9, it can be seen that their leitmotif is the attempt to limit inequalities among various entities (especially states and regions). This is to be supported by the following: • Development of both regional and trans-border infrastructure; • Further development of industry and even increasing its share in economy; • Support of small-scale enterprises by offering them credit facilities and thus improving their position in value chains and on markets; • Support of technological changes enabling greater efficiency of resources management and greater use of ecology-friendly solutions; • Enhancement of scientific research by supporting innovativeness, increasing the number of research and development (R&D) employees and private spending on development; • Increase in the access to information and communication technologies (ICT), with particular emphasis on providing universal (and thus affordable) access to the Internet. The 2030 Agenda emphasises that, in the context of these tasks, the African countries, i.e., the least-developed inland countries and small developing island countries, require external support in order to accomplish these tasks. To sum it up, the creators of the 2030 Agenda perceive further development of industry, both qualitative (related to innovations and research) and quantitative (especially in poorer counties), as an important factor

134  Andrzej Rudowski et al. allowing them to decrease the imbalance in the contemporary world. What is the Catholic social teaching in this area? To what extent does it constitute a reference point, giving us an opportunity to look at the previously described challenges/tasks formulated in the 2030 Agenda from a new perspective? “Fill the earth and subdue it” (Genesis 1:28) is the first and fundamental guideline directing the Church teaching on development. In this context, it is understandable that the reflection on modernisation, including industrialisation, found in consecutive encyclicals, beginning with Pope Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum, looks favourably at the development itself, despite critical attitude to some selected effects. What is then the source of anxiety? Apart from the issues undertaken with reference to current challenges, there is visible and constant ambivalence in the popes’ attitude to the problem of the development of techniques and technologies determining the industrialisation process. On the one hand, we can see them being accepted and accompanied by (not only) theological justifications – it usually happens when the development (industrialisation and its consecutive stages of development) and inseparably related innovations or changes in the infrastructure are the instruments used by mankind to improve living standards, enhance peace, justice and solidarity. On the other hand, they are always considered with some anxiety related to the risk that mankind becomes an instrument in the unhindered development (industrialisation and consecutive stages of development), freed from moral, social or political control. It is this kind of a progress that finally becomes a source of revolution, bringing us nothing but destruction. How is the Catholic social teaching manifested in this context? The theologically and morally adopted assumption that people and their well-being should be in the centre of reflection on development and its implications has governed consecutive documents of the Catholic social teaching. The first and the most important encyclical devoted to social issues, in which the Church related to the broadly understood industrial revolution, was Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum. The document emphasised that the development of industry is one of the main sources of common welfare of a state (Leo XIII, 1891, section  26). The awareness of the scope and the nature of changes that accompanied the industrialisation encouraged the pope to adopt a complex position on the principles governing the social order. Thus, in Rerum Novarum we can find statements on human dignity, regardless of people’s status, as well as on the common good, family property or the state’s tasks resulting from it, e.g., “Among the many and grave duties of rulers who would do their best for the people, the first and chief is to act with strict justice – with that justice which is called distributive – towards each and every class alike.” (Leo XIII, 1891, section 27) The proposals included in Rerum Novarum are echoed in both economic thought (Freiburg School) and the political doctrines of Christian Democratic and Social Democratic parties, which, like the Pope Leo XIII, referred to social solidarity.

Development or revolution? 135 The next encyclicals upkeep and develop proposals included in Rerum Novarum (for example Quadrogesimo Anno), but also supplement it in the context of new challenges. Of particular importance is Mater et Magistra, an encyclical published by Pope John XXIII 70 years after the publication of Rerum Novarum. In this encyclical, we can find the whole catalogue of proposals, which closely correspond to the then–sustainable development agenda and its goals, concerning industrialisation, development of infrastructure and innovation. The pope believed that “Scientific and technical progress, economic development and the betterment of living conditions, are certainly valuable elements in a civilization” (John XXIII, 1961, section  175). He warns, however, “But we must realise that they are essentially instrumental in character. They are not supreme values in themselves” (John XXIII, 1961, section 175). Thus, the personalistic perspective remains valid. And this perspective gives rise to the following proposals: justice between branches of economy (especially activities aimed at reducing the rural development negligence), restoration of economic balance and support for underdeveloped areas, both inside the country and globally. The pope indicates that help should result not only from excess, but from “the solidarity of the human race and Christian brotherhood” (John XXIII, 1961, section 155). Moral and religious considerations should encourage us to support underdeveloped states through technology transfers and financial support, but also by educating the personnel; all this should lead to strengthening economic growth in these countries. These actions should be accompanied, on the side of the beneficiaries, by development planning, understood both as taking advantage of the experience of the countries advanced in progress and even of sector development. The significance of economic development for the human community was equally clearly emphasised in the constitution of the Second Vatican Council (SVC) – Gaudium et Spes, which stated that: technical progress, an inventive spirit, an eagerness to create and to expand enterprises, the application of methods of production, and the strenuous efforts of all who engage in production – in a word, all the elements making for such development – must be promoted. The fundamental finality of this production is not the mere increase of products nor profit or control but rather the service of man, and indeed of the whole man with regard for the full range of his material needs and the demands of his intellectual, moral, spiritual, and religious life. (SVC, 1965, section 64) In order to accomplish this goal, we must respect the principles governing social life, such as honest and fairly rewarded work, with the associated right to rest; the subjectivity of relations between an employer and an employee; responsible private ownership; honesty in investment and credit relations.

136  Andrzej Rudowski et al. In Centesimus Annus, an encyclical announced by Pope John Paul II just after the fall of the communism, he emphasised particularly the significance of proper diagnosis of the human state, which cannot be reduced to the role of an element in the socioeconomic machinery of the state. The subjectivity of an individual and the society lies at the foundations of shaping the economic order, which is not only socially desirable and acceptable. The apt diagnosis of who man is and what principles govern the social life allows for, according to the pope, humankind development and offers hope for good relations between nations. Pope John Paul II even admitted, “Therefore ‘development’ is the second name to peace” (John Paul II, 1991, section 52). John Paul II points at the factors related to zeitgeist, which further contribute to the already-diagnosed causes of the development imbalance; it is not only land and capital, but most of all knowledge (ownership of knowledge, technology, technique and skills) which accounts for the distance (and even its growth) between developed countries and the Third World countries. This concept, however, should be mainly used to describe all areas where there are phenomena of ill use of human potential, resulting from inability to keep up with modernity, either due to economic conditions, education deficits or discrimination, as often experienced by women (John Paul II, 1991, section 33). Eighteen years later, Pope Benedict XVI in his encyclical Caritas in Veritate diagnosed the world which – following the breakdown of the bipolar order – develops polycentrically. In spite of the increasing global wealth, the inequalities are still growing. Apart from the phenomena observed earlier, we are witnessing the movement of production, which creates new areas of poverty where there has been no poverty before. Therefore, Benedict XVI emphasises that globalisation processes, properly understood and managed, offer a great opportunity to redistribute wealth all over the planet, and this is something that has never been seen before; however, if badly managed, they may contribute to the growth of poverty and inequalities as well as bring crisis to the whole world. (Benedict XVI, 2009a, section 42) Pope Benedict XVI also points at one more dimension of responsibility, i.e., the one referring to the relations between generations. We must seek technological capabilities which will allow us to balance human economic activity so that we leave this world not deprived of its riches to the future generations (Benedict XVI, 2009a, section 50). Christian anthropology remains the ceaseless source of hope which permeates consecutive social encyclicals. As Pope Benedict XVI wrote in his encyclical Spe Salvi, Christian hope is the synonym of progress (Benedict XVI, 2007a, section 16). He draws our attention to the fact that if technical progress is not matched by corresponding progress in man’s ethical formation, in man’s inner growth (cf. Epistle to Ephesians 3:16;

Development or revolution? 137 Second Epistle to Corinthians 4:16), then it is not progress at all, but a threat for man and for the world. (Benedict XVI, 2007a, section 22) Without knowing what is good and what is bad  – here the pope quotes T. Adorno – progress will mean moving from a slingshot to a mega-bomb. This makes Benedict XVI believe that our mind (which stands behind all revolutions, not only technological ones) needs faith so that it does not become the source of self-destruction. This is the source of the warning developed in all previously quoted documents – against the tendency to adopt the vision of the world in which the man is treated like an object. These fears are best expressed by Pope Francis, who refers to his predecessors in his encyclical Laudato Si’. He deals with the interdependence between the contemporary anthropocentrism (where man is perceived as freed from social bonds and as a master of the universe), and the purposes for which the knowledge of technology and economics is used. Pope Francis states that development which led people to release nuclear energy and analyse DNA was not accompanied by “development of humankind in such areas as responsibility, values and conscience” (Francis, 2015, section 105). This is evidenced not only in the atomic bomb, but also in the whole range of technologies used by Nazism, Communism and other regimes that led to annihilation of millions of human beings. Man deprived of references to transcendence becomes powerless to his own power, which is continuously growing (Francis, 2015, section 105). It is not only humankind, but also the whole world around us that is the victim of this situation. By concentrating on possessing, dominating and transforming, we look at the surrounding reality as shapeless and susceptible to unlimited interference. Thus, we no longer accept what nature offers us, but we confront it and cause its degradation in practice (Francis, 2015, sections 106–107). However, in fact technology aims at leaving nothing outside its iron logic, and “the contemporary man knows very well that technology is not about usefulness or welfare, but only about power and the ruling over the new structure of the world.” (Francis, 2015, section 108) Lost man destroys himself and his surroundings – this is what the Church seems to be saying through the writings of Pope Francis  – and therefore needs transformation more than ever. There is a deficit of common origin, mutual belongingness and mutual future for all people. This basic awareness will facilitate the development of new beliefs, attitudes and styles of living. And thus we are faced with great cultural, spiritual and educational challenge marking lengthy processes of renovation. (Francis, 2015, section 202)

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Digital revolution in communication and its impact on society The Internet is a good example of the phenomenon where a technical tool first turns into a means of communication and then becomes a social environment in which it is difficult to clearly separate social phenomena from technical processes (Robak, 2010, pp. 9–14). Initially launched in 1969, the ARPANET network was simply an advanced technical invention, although the latest research shows that its creators were aware of the social consequences of using this technology and even at that early stage understood its global potential and risks (Orliński, 2019, pp. 195–204). The rapid adaptation of the Internet by the scientific community in the Seventies began to affect the way knowledge is shared in the scientific environment. It began the process of creating the idea of ​​open science in the technical environment; the hacker movement of the time led to the later phenomenon of open source software (Castells, 2001, pp. 17–27; Himanen, 2009), a technology based on which Google and Facebook would not be invented. However, this process was not yet a social breakthrough; the Internet was little known, unavailable and specialised. A social change occurred in the second half of the 1990s, a few years after the British physicist Tim Berners-Lee developed the World-Wide Web foundation for CERN. The development of a graphical web browser and navigation with the help of links gave the opportunity to place the technology outside the narrow circle of specialists. In just a few years, Internet from an elite form of communication acquired a mass character, and within a decade, it became the basic tool for exchanging thoughts. Innovations like Google Search, YouTube and Facebook have changed the perspective of using, creating and publishing information. However, when we call this process a digital revolution, we do not mean that a new invention appeared. Rather, we mean that a completely new way of communication was created that deeply changed the society and even became part of it. The duration of this process was record-breaking, and there was not enough time to adapt societies to the new reality (Baldwin, 2019, p. 16). Suffice it to mention that in 2019 Facebook, according to official statistics, had nearly 2.5 billion users, which means that in 15 years its range has become larger than the number of followers of any major religion in the world. It also means that, regardless of how familiar with the Internet, too little time has passed to predict the long-term effects of this invention, as well as to create good practices or sound ethical standards. It is noteworthy that the information revolution is not just about communication, but it has an impact on the entire “real” economy. Already Toffler predicted the creation of a “third wave society,” in which the post-industrial economy is based more on the exchange of information than on industrial raw materials (Toffler, 1980). A characteristic feature of the Economy 4.0

Development or revolution? 139 is a change in its geographical, or rather ageographical, distribution. This can be seen both on a small scale, when online sellers in small towns deliver much more goods via the Internet than they could sell locally, as well as on a large scale – when rich Northern countries with reduced industry order many goods outside their borders (Baldwin, 2016, pp. 2–16). However, the information revolution does not end with the impact of information exchange on the smoothness and globality of delivering goods. An even more serious challenge seems to be that a large proportion of new technologies are developed based on information-processing. This observation is not limited only to the information technology–related areas, such as Big Data, artificial intelligence or blockchain technologies. Several of the current research projects in the field of chemistry, physics, pharmacy, materials engineering and device construction are based in large part on computer simulations, knowledge bases and the increasingly better ability to analyse large data sets that allow not only to discover new things, but also improve their performance and limit the negative impact of technology on the environment. Currently, the development of industry is not based on building monumental plants, but rather on enabling the creation of new technologies and their sharing through initiatives, such as technology clusters, cross-border cooperation, supporting science and business cooperation and private-public partnerships. Such initiatives enable the development of not only typical digital immaterial technologies, but also solutions in the field of biotechnology, nanotechnology, 3D printing (including medical applications), green technologies, drones and satellites (UNCTAD, 2018). Network and information society The increase in the degree of the Internet use in more and more spheres of life raises many questions in the area of ​​society, psychology, health, communication, ethics and religion. These questions are even more difficult because communication via the Internet is a complex system, whose degree of complexity and difficulty of forecasting resembles weather phenomena. Studies of the 1990s have already shown that the basis of such a communication system is the interpenetration of the technical layer with the social layer, which means that technology can interact or even shape societies, or – in some sense  – influence ethical decisions (Johnson, 1994, p.  84). Already then, there was a concern about the impact of the Internet on the quality and security of communication among people and online identity (Turkle, 1997, pp. 233–270). A playful illustration of these dilemmas was the most often cited illustration of Peter Steiner, published in 1993 in the New Yorker, i.e., a dog sitting in front of a computer screen who says to another dog: “On the Internet, nobody knows you’re a dog.” Internet and computers were seen as something outside of “real life,” which led to the creation of a dualistic way of talking about the “real” and “virtual world.” This way of

140  Andrzej Rudowski et al. thinking from the current point of view does not seem to be accurate, but it is still present in the contemporary language. At the same time, sociologist Manuel Castells proposed a theory of network society, which explained the relationship between the electronic network and society in a completely different way. As the network evolves, Castells argued, it will gradually intertwine with the society, leading to the phenomenon he called “real virtuality” – a situation in which the society uses the network to the extent that it becomes its binder (Castells, 2000, pp. 403–406). Castells’s theory was confirmed in the following years and decades. Currently, almost in every study, the Internet users asked about the purpose of using the Internet mention contacting others (Batorski, 2015, pp. 386–388). Email and social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat, LinkedIn) are among the most popular services on the web. This is not just about the private sphere since several governments are investing in building online services (official matters, taxes or medical records). Today’s Internet is no longer just an interesting invention or an entertainment tool; it functions as a nervous system of the society. It can already be assumed that disconnection from the Internet could lead to destabilisation of the functioning of individuals, companies, governments and associations in many developed countries. This theory was confirmed during the crisis caused by the coronavirus, when despite the mass isolation of hundreds of millions of inhabitants of Asia, Europe and America, the societies continued to function thanks to the Internet. Online communication systems used in high-tech corporations became the main way of conducting mass education. Some information-based companies switched to online work entirely. To the surprise of some, many social and religious organisations became interested in the phenomenon of the Internet very early. In one of the earliest publications on the subject (Fox, 1996), the author documented the existence of hundreds of Catholic-related websites. Already in those early years, Vatican sought to register its own. va global domain (Foley, 2001). In both Protestant and Catholic circles, conferences on the phenomenon of the Internet were organised. Contrary to appearances, this interest was not limited to the topic of launching websites or online evangelism; social changes caused by the network seemed to be a much more serious subject. Since 2002 (John Paul II, 2002; PCSC, 2002b), the Catholic Church has published more than 20 documents concentrated on the Internet communication issues. The supra-religious and universal nature of these works is surprising. They discuss issues, such as the impact of the Internet on building society (Benedict XVI, 2013; Francis, 2019), new collaboration opportunities (Benedict XVI, 2006, 2009b), Internet ethics (PCSC, 2002a), protecting children (Benedict XVI, 2007b), the quality and accuracy of information (Francis, 2018), and protecting the Internet users from information overload (John Paul II, 2002; Benedict XVI, 2011; Francis, 2015).

Development or revolution? 141 Digital divide Pretty soon, during the popularisation of the Internet, it turned out that the development potential of the network is not evenly distributed and can cause large social inequalities. At the beginning, the digital divide problem was understood very technically as the lack of the Internet connection leading to social exclusion. Therefore, over the past 20 years, many local and global development programmes have set themselves a goal of increasing the Internet availability and improving the quality of infrastructure, e.g., in the Digital Agenda of the European Commission (EC, 2010), where the improvement of the coverage and quality of the Internet access is mentioned as one of the main goals. The current understanding of the concept of digital divide is evolving. First, more attention was paid not so much to the mere possibility of connecting to the Internet as to its quality and bandwidth. As a result of the development of broadband technologies (DSL, optical fibres, CDMA, 4G Internet and future 5G), and backbone networks, the theoretical range of the Internet has increased. From today’s point of view, the problem of digital divide is rather social and much more difficult to measure. In the area of​​ communication, it is associated with the following phenomena: 1 Older people may have weaker skills in obtaining information by electronic means. 2 People brought up in a pre-digital society can avoid digital services, which in the long run slows down digitisation processes and the need to maintain less effective paper processes only for this group of people. 3 Children and adolescents, although technically demonstrating high proficiency in using electronics, have difficulties with critical reception of the Internet’s content and are unable to verify the quality of sources. 4 Less-educated people and emigrants may experience difficulties using some online content because of the language literacy; for this reason, the obligation to use a simple basic language in public services is being discussed in many countries. 5 People with lower levels of Internet skills may be more often victims of cyber criminals (phishing attacks, network viruses etc.). Truth, quality and objectivity on the web Parallel to the development of the Internet, print press readership has declined globally. The online form of providing information turned out to be more efficient than on paper in many respects, so possible problems of traditional publishers were explained by their stagnation. After several years of steady decline in press readership, it began to be seen that this has negative qualitative effects. Paper press has not been replaced by a parallel

142  Andrzej Rudowski et al. digital press, and currently there are no similar law regulations like press law, imposing publisher responsibility for the quality of the content and guaranteeing the right to rectification. From today’s point of view, you can see the negative sides of this process. Traditional media played a social role known as the fourth power. Although traditional media published more slowly than the current online publication process, they were stronger focused on quality, like in texts which underwent double review and language proofreading. The internal standards of some public broadcasters, such as the BBC or many national news agencies, obliged journalists to check information in two sources, which was considered a model of journalism. Throughout the Catholic Church’s teaching about the media, there is trust in the social mission of journalists and the high value of truth and objectivity in the message. In the case of the Internet transmission, many phenomena can be seen, which are moving away from these values. The digital information market has been greatly fragmented among small entities with the quality difficult to verify; a large part of the circulation of information has moved to social media and blogs, whose legal status in the context of press law is widely discussed. From the perspective of the Catholic Church, although the power of digital communication has many advantages for society, the libertarian characteristic of absolutising freedom of expression without taking into account other values is unacceptable (PCSC, 2002a, section 8). Content aggregators, such as search engines, have become one of the major challenges for publishers. Search engines themselves do not create any content; however, by providing cumulated information acquired from many sources, they accustom recipients to their services, which publishers lose (deep linking problem). In 2019, European Union was looking for a solution to this problem through a digital tax imposed on large Internet companies for the benefit of the content providers, for using the content the companies do not create. However, this discussion seems to have taken place extremely late. Therefore, it can be observed that the process of digitising information is accompanied by the phenomenon of quality reduction and strong content dispersion. It is true that many arguments indicate that online content engages audiences more than traditional media does. However, from the recipient’s point of view, this can be an adverse and dangerous phenomenon. Even if the Internet content is attractive from the entertainment point of view, the recipient has no guarantee that the information is true and has been carefully prepared. The Internet-dominant model of monetisation on advertising gratifies a large number of clicks and recipients. This leads to the phenomenon of publishing unproven sensational information on a large scale; some also believe that this process leads to the degradation of democracy (Crouch, 2004, pp. 1–30; Castells, 2018, pp. 9–13).

Development or revolution? 143 The phenomenon of fake news seems to be the most serious problem in recent years. Pope Francis directly writes about this phenomenon in Fake News and Journalism for Peace, claiming that even a slight distortion of the truth can have dangerous consequences (Francis, 2018, section 2). Research conducted in the United Kingdom in 2018 by the National Literacy Trust shows that only 2% of British children can recognise fake news, and more than half of teachers think that the school is unable to teach children to recognise such news. Increasingly, attention is drawn to the fact that professional media scholars currently do not have good research tools or methods to detect false information and hidden attempts at social impact (Robak, 2019, pp. 34–35). The Facebook scandal of Cambridge Analytica (Davies, 2015) showed that the lack of transparency of Internet communication processes can be used to precisely influence political views and, consequently, the results of elections. Similar problems could appear with low-quality educational materials or health information; thus, fake news can lead not only to mistakes, but also to death. The problem of misinformation in health became particularly apparent during the coronavirus crisis: much of the information circulating on the Internet turned out to be fake news, shared on a massive scale. Information overload and contemplation The huge amount of information available on the Internet for a long time was considered its advantage. However, many authors – from philosophers to psychiatrists  – point out the potential danger of information overload (Toffler, 1970; Virilio, 2015; Spitzer, 2014; Baldwin, 2019). This can lead – as we assume – to some dangerous consequences. A large amount of information may cause cognitive confusion for the recipients, who are unable to create a coherent picture of the world, and, despite the information flowing in, they stop understanding their surroundings. Difficulties can be caused by separating important information from insignificant information, which results in focusing on trivial matters in life. The stream of information can cause severe stress associated with the lack of ability to separate from them or, vice versa, with the anxiety associated with overlooking something (FOMO syndrome). People who are bombarded with information may also be more susceptible to the attempts of influencing their opinions and forms of manipulation. There are also reports of a negative impact of the stream of information from social media during work, causing distraction of attention and loss of efficiency. For example, in France, in 2017, the right not to reply to emails and phone calls outside of business hours was introduced, after a long discussion about the burnout of managers. The problem is not only the technical ability to process a large amount of information and maintain attention, but above all the ability to lead a meaningful good-quality life, keep the work-life balance, use the possibilities

144  Andrzej Rudowski et al. of personal development, and enjoy private time for reflection. Similar demands can be found in the documents of the Catholic Church (Benedict XVI, 2011). Pope Francis (2015, section 47) warns, for example, that when the digital world becomes ubiquitous, it is not conducive to wise life and deep thinking. Even before the massification of the network, the problem was also signalled by John Paul II, who in a document devoted entirely to the Internet, entitled Internet: A New Forum for Proclaiming the Gospel (2002), drew attention to the value of contemplation for human development; a decade later, Benedict XVI stated in Silence and Word: Path of Evangelization (2012) that without silence man would not find himself and would not be able to communicate with others.

Digital revolution in communication and its ethical and moral context When addressing the issues of industrialisation, and especially of the digital revolution that has progressed in recent years, one cannot ignore the ethical and moral aspect in the context of social communication. The authors of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development rightly pointed out that in recent years there has been a process of systematic departure from production and industrial activities remaining at a low level of technological advancement towards those technologically advanced. It is worth noticing the fact that the term Economy 4.0, commonly used in this context today, was announced by German scientists gathered as part of a team of experts by the authorities during the Hanover Fair in 2011. Their task was clear: to assess the effects of changes from the so-called high technologies. It was at that time that the thesis was made, which showed that the third stage of the industrial revolution, which is considered to be computerisation, should be considered completed. It was in 2014 that the need to develop a coherent strategy for the fourth industrial revolution, understood as the digitisation of production and service processes, was verbalised. To illustrate the complexity of the issue, it is worth mentioning that industrialisation version 4.0 is synonymous with the unification of the real world of production machines with the virtual world of the Internet and new technologies. As a consequence, this means a real digital revolution in communication, where the implementation of the processes described earlier gives access to any information on a scale so far unimaginable, and this is happening practically without time and geographical restrictions (Grzegorzewski, 2020, pp. 116–117). Ethical aspect of digital divide The breakthrough cloud technology, social media and the entire mobile market enabled customers to almost unlimited access to information literally from anywhere on Earth, while guaranteeing choice options and greater flexibility than ever before. As a result, more than half of consumers (58%)

Development or revolution? 145 admit that technology has significantly changed their expectations of how companies should communicate with them; 55% of them count on personalisation of the offer. Every fifth customer expects that by 2020, companies will anticipate their needs and suggest the right product accordingly (Łuczuk, 2017, pp. 86–89) This, however, is related with the quite important issue of the demand for products increasingly dependent on technology. This means that with the increase in demand for technology-dependent goods, products and services – from home appliances to computers and smartphones – their users also become increasingly dependent on, and maybe even addicted to, such technology and the access to its latest solutions. Interestingly, the ethical and moral aspect of this phenomenon is not often raised in the context of political, scientific and even media debates devoted to the development of industrialisation, with particular emphasis on the digital revolution. However, often referring to ethics, the thesis is raised that technological development, especially in the context of artificial intelligence, carries the risk of automating many jobs, and thus a situation in which a person would be deprived of work by a machine. It is true that there are also voices that this scenario is far from reality. The latest research and analysis provided by Gartner, an independent analytical and research company specialising in the issues of strategic use of technology and technology management, shows that the development of technology and artificial intelligence in a similar way as the creation and development of the steam engine and the Internet will be not so much a threat as an opportunity and a consequence; it will lead to the flooding of the market with jobs and new types of jobs, including jobs that we do not even know today. As an example, in this context, the jobs of employees responsible for training artificial intelligence and inventing new ways of using it are given. At this point, it is worth noting that the analysis of the 2030 Agenda clearly shows that the share of intermediate and technologically advanced industries in the total Market Value Added (MVA) increased from 40.5% in 2000 to 44.7% in 2016, with significant divergences between regions. However, the data compiled by the statistics department of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs in relation to the discussed subject lead to extremely intriguing considerations. In terms of communication, indicators proving that although today virtually all people on Earth live within the range of mobile cellular networks are particularly important, for some access to this technology significantly improving communication is still out of reach. The fact is that in recent years, both the range of mobile signal and broadband Internet has significantly expanded. In 2018, as much as 96% of humanity was within the range of a cellular signal and 90% could connect to the Internet thanks to 3G or higherquality networks. However, it turns out that nowadays not so much the access to modern technologies, but basically the lack of technologies is the main problem. As usual, it is the bulging wallet of the users that decides whether they can or cannot have access to modern technologies and the

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Figure 9.1 Manufacturing value added share in GDP, 2008 and 2018 (percentage) Source: unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-09/ (23.01.2020]

necessary equipment. The quoted data clearly show that the cost of access to broadband mobile Internet and mobile telephony is too expensive for many inhabitants of our planet. The actual level of access to broadly understood communication is about 50%, and in the case of least developed countries, it reaches only 20%. Meanwhile, according to the content of the 2030 Agenda, it is “information dissemination, communication technologies and global connectivity that bring enormous potential in accelerating progress in eliminating digital exclusion and building knowledge-based societies, as well as scientific and technological innovations in such various fields as medicine and energy” (UNGA, 2015, section 15). One of the key assumptions of SDG9 was striving to provide affordable and, above all, universal access to the Internet in the least-developed countries. A deadline has been set for this goal, i.e., 2020. At this point, we reach the ethical aspect of technological and economic development, which was already mentioned by Pope Paul VI in the Address to FAO on the 25th Anniversary of its Institution. Already then, he was talking about the threat of “provoking a veritable ecological catastrophe,” which could be greatly influenced by the “explosion of industrial civilisation” (Paul VI, 1970, section 3). What deserves special attention is the warning that shows that “the most remarkable scientific advances, the most amazing technical achievements, the most wonderful economic development, if they are not connected

Development or revolution? 147

Note: LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a standard for high-speed wireless communication that allows for faster speeds than 3G technologies but does not meet the technical criteria of a 4G wireless service.

Figure 9.2 Number of people covered by a mobile network, by technology, 2007– 2018 (billions) Source: unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-09/ (23.01.2020)

Table 10.1 Number of people covered worldwide by a mobile network, by technology, 2007–2018 Year

LTE or higher 3G

2G

Internet users

World population

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018†

0 0 72,854,841 171,865,643 385,234,312 775,254,948 1,327,222,287 2,690,509,662 3,471,518,613 4,867,764,406 5,238,436,048 5,524,498,541

4,450,768,783 4,289,014,094 3,681,098,807 3,303,310,524 3,100,753,184 2,815,738,745 2,715,766,728 1,868,771,036 1,189,910,506 819,175,609 686,775,229 444,356,399

1,359,130,442 1,560,602,869 1,750,662,808 2,014,187,440 2,215,526,594 2,458,832,540 2,660,184,259 2,892,092,636 3,169,827,121 3,416,851,943 3,666,926,142 3,907,565,321

6,667,003,342 6,747,362,592 6,828,253,046 6,919,905,230 6,993,272,164 7,075,255,649 7,157,204,343 7,236,018,690 7,377,915,424 7,461,848,723 7,545,115,520 7,631,963,519

1,029,477,787 1,352,359,898 2,159,083,065 2,545,924,305 2,774,867,882 2,855,165,341 2,663,871,160 2,284,786,180 2,342,923,782 1,431,269,138 1,318,804,270 1,375,766,195

with real social and moral progress, they ultimately turn against man” (AAS 62, 1970, section 833). Digital revolution – blessing or curse for humanity The analysis of the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching in the context of ethical challenges shows that there is an overall agreement in noting

148  Andrzej Rudowski et al. industrial development, technological changes and related challenges. The thought taken by Pope Paul VI today is continued by Pope Francis, who, unlike the UN documents, draws more attention to the issues related to ethics and morality. For example, the Holy Father indicates that global changes are inextricably linked to effects on entire societies. The Pope warns against the consequences of some technological innovations; he indicates, among other things, social exclusion, and inequality in the availability of certain technological products, and even the emergence of completely new forms of social aggression and the threat of losing identity. (Francis, 2015, section 46). Pope Francis points out in his teaching particularly that the development observed over the past two decades, contrary to many predictions and assurances of individual governments and international organisations, often has not meant real progress aimed at improving the quality of life. In this context, the Catholic social teaching is quite seriously accused; in many respects, instead of social integration, progress has given way to degradation and has led to “breaking the bonds of social integration” (Francis, 2015, section 46). Particular attention in this aspect should be given to the dynamics of the media and the digital world. In the context of the further development of the digital revolution, we face a key moral challenge, which is the ubiquity of modern technologies. Leaving its development without any ethical and moral framework threatens human beings’ ability to live wisely and think deeply. It should be noted, however, that the Holy See does not deny the benefits of modern technologies. Pope Francis, however, calls for action to ensure that these completely new technologies to humanity will be a stimulus for new development and not sociocultural degradation. What are exactly the threats? In the context of digital communication, it is even the suppression of wisdom in the information jungle and the distracting noise of overwhelming messages (Francis, 2015, section 47). The digital revolution in the sphere of communication carries a specific risk, which is highlighted by Catholic social teaching. We are talking about the trend to replace real interpersonal relationships with relationships based on a completely new type of communication via the Internet and new technologies. To some extent, before our eyes, face-to-face relations have been evolving into “Facebook-to-Facebook” communication, and we are just on the threshold of the digital revolution in this aspect. This state of affairs is burdened with a serious moral threat and the appearance of artificial emotions that bind the user to technology and equipment much more than the man on the other side of the screen (Francis, 2015, section 47). In the field of communication, the concept of the global village of McLuhan does not lose much relevance; however, in ethical and moral terms, there is now a challenge of communication without direct contact and separating users from the entire emotional layer of communication with the screen of mobile devices (McLuhan, 1962). In order to present the whole situation more vividly, Martin Ford gives an example of a moving car we get in and gradually increase the speed. In the first minute, we drive the car at a speed of 5 km/h.

Development or revolution? 149 Next minute, we accelerate to 10 km/h. After driving another minute at such speed, we double it. And so on, and so forth. How does it work? In the first minute, we have driven about 83 metres. The distance covered will already be 333 metres. In the fifth minute of driving and at a speed of 80 km/h, we will have driven 1300 meters. The sixth minute will require a much faster car and race track. And this is only the sixth minute. . . . So, if we doubled the initial speed 27 times (since the invention of the integrated circuit in 1958, it was possible to double the computing power of computers); then after 27 accelerations, the vehicle speed would be 671 million km/h. In the last minute, we would travel the equivalent of over 11 million kilometres. This means that at such a speed, a trip to Mars would take approximately only 5 minutes. This is more or less what today’s information technology looks like as compared to the first simplified integrated circuits that appeared in the late 1950s.

Conclusions It is important to notice the constant interest of the Holy See in the question of both industrialisation and the development of technology; however, the attitude of the Pope towards the challenges of the modern times may be described as conservative and reserved. On the one hand, we are dealing with acceptance here, having its theological (and not only) justifications. Development (industrialisation and subsequent stages of development) and the inherent innovations or changes in infrastructure are an instrument that serves people – by improving living conditions, strengthening peace, justice and solidarity. On the other hand, there is anxiety related to the risk that a human being becomes an instrument in unfettered development (industrialisation and subsequent development stages), freed from moral, social or political control. There is a fear, therefore, that progress understood in this way will become a source of revolution that brings a threat to humanity. In many respects, Catholic social teaching is the same as the insights and concepts contained in the 2030 Agenda. The main discrepancies consist in the Holy See’s emphasis on ethical and moral issues in the development of technology, which the authors of the United Nations study do not seem to notice or simply ignore in their considerations, guiding the logic of reasoning to a completely different path. Meanwhile, as the heirs of two centuries of technological development and the industrial revolution, we are at crossroads. In his teaching, Pope Francis clearly indicates that we should draw on these achievements and enjoy new opportunities. He also warns against ignoring the fact that “nuclear energy, biotechnology, IT, knowledge of our DNA and other opportunities that we have gained, offer us terrible power (Francis, 2015, sections 102–104). The digital revolution that we are witnessing certainly requires not only in-depth reflection of scientists and technology specialists, but also, and above all, it cannot be deprived of ethical and moral reflection, which in this aspect seems to be the key to sustainable development in future.

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Note 1 According to the data available at: https://wearesocial.com/blog/2019/01/digital2019-global-internet-use-accelerates

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152  Andrzej Rudowski et al. PCSC [Pontifical Council for Social Communications]. (2002b). The Church and Internet. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/ pccs/documents/rc_pc_pccs_doc_20020228_church-internet_en.html Robak, M. (2010). Internet  – od nowego medium do sieci społecznej.” In E. Laskowska & M. Kuciński (Eds.) Internet a relacje międzyludzkie. Wydawnictwo UKW, pp. 9–18. Robak, M. (2019). Mass Automated Internet Analysis and Cyberspace Transparency. Social Communication, 2, pp. 32–44. DOI: 10.2478/sc-2019-0007, https:// doi.org/10.2478/sc-2019-0007 Spitzer, M. (2014). Digitale Demenz: Wie wir uns und unsere Kinder um den Verstand bringen. Droemer Taschenbuch. SVC [Second Vatican Council]. (1965). Gaudium et Spes. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_ const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. Bantam Books. Toffler, A. (1980). The Third Wave. Bantam Books. Turkle, S. (1997). Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. Simon & Schuster. UNCTAD [United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]. (2018). Technology and Innovation Report 2018. Harnessing Frontier Technologies for Sustainable Development. UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Virilio, P. (2015). The Information Bomb. Verso Books.

10 Reducing inequality (social inclusion, social capital and protection of migrants in the context of Catholic social teaching) Anna Fidelus, Elżbieta H. Morawska and Artur Wysocki Introduction Goal 10 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) aims to reduce inequalities within and among countries. The nature of these inequalities is developed by the targets assigned to it, which show a very broad understanding of them, especially when compared to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Existing differences in the world and among people are not always something that should be levelled. They can be enriching, inspirational and creative (e.g., many cultural differences), and sometimes they are almost inviolable – related to the nature of the environment of human life and people themselves (such as differences in personality or appearance). However, differing in many respects, we are all together the same – equal in dignity and fundamental rights we are entitled to, which give each person appropriate opportunities to develop and shape their lives and relationships with others. These inequalities related to differences in basic human rights and development opportunities undoubtedly need to be removed. The aim of actions taken as part of sustainable development is to guarantee everyone, regardless of the country of origin, social status, religion, race or sex, equal opportunities for development, but also to provide the specific opportunities necessary for this. This is due to the equal dignity of each person, very strongly emphasised in the social teaching of the Church. Respect for human dignity has been also secured at a global level by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Inequalities are manifested in various spheres of human life and concern both individual relations and relations between nations or groups of nations. Out of the many aspects of inequality, three important issues have been addressed in this text. Firstly, from the perspective of social pedagogy, the problem of inclusion will be presented – the inclusion in the socioeconomic

154  Anna Fidelus et al. development of people living in its periphery because of experienced inequalities, both individuals and entire social groups or nations. Secondly, from the sociological and political perspective, the problem of reducing basic economic inequalities will be analysed, which is associated with the pursuit of the fuller development of human capital and supporting inclusive growth. Thirdly, the legal perspective will be taken into account with reference to one of the important groups still experiencing unequal treatment and rejection, i.e., migrants. They will all be highlighted with relevant references to the Catholic social teaching.

Social inclusion in reducing inequality In line with Goal 10 of the Agenda, contemporary efforts for the development should focus on tackling inequalities in all manifestations, supporting the construction of a fair economic system and an inclusive society. The need for inclusive actions has been very widely taken up in this document, being present practically in most of the enumerated goals. One of the Agenda’s main slogans is the phrase, “No one must be left behind” (UNGA, 2015, section 26). “No one” means both an individual in a given state and entire states and nations on the international stage. It relates to the strong conviction that every person and every nation can contribute a lot to building a better future together if they are provided with the right conditions for development. At the same time, it should be remembered that “inclusive growth, not inclusive misery” is promoted, i.e., that everyone must care to build a common good that can be used by all (Ostry et al., 2019, p. 108). Circumstances of contemporary inclusive actions Living in the 21st century, we constantly observe, on different continents and in different countries, many people excluded from the possibility of normal functioning in society, whether for economic, social, political or religious reasons. More economically developed societies are not always societies that allow everyone to participate properly in social life. Various inequalities in them are often higher than in less-developed countries (Ostry et  al., 2019, pp.  15–19, 107–108). Moreover, progressing destruction of social bonds and strong individualism can be frequently observed. There is a false belief that it is enough to ensure an adequate economic level of life to solve all problems. In this context, the so-called social entrepreneurship may play a significant role in the process of building inclusive growth (Kummitha, 2017). On the other hand, one must see the real needs of broad social groups, especially in developing countries, related to the lack of basic livelihoods and means for development. In these countries, there are often persistent ideas about mutual differences between people of different ethnic groups, races and religions, or about the negative perception of different sexes – especially

Reducing inequality 155 women, the disabled, the sick and the elderly. There is even a statement of a stigmatisation of some groups. An example here may be one of the analysed cases of stigmatising disabled people in the Zambian district of Mbala (Caritas Africa, 2019 pp. 19–20). When showing the problem, it is worth adding that 80% of people with disabilities live in developing countries (UN, 2020a, p. 2). For these reasons, the Agenda, presenting its idea of the world, speaks of a vision of a world free of poverty, hunger, disease and want, where all life can thrive. . . . A world free of fear and violence. A world with universal literacy. A world with equitable and universal access to quality education at all levels, to health care and social protection, where physical, mental and social well-being are assured. (UNGA, 2015, section 7) Important factors in transforming people’s attitudes in order to achieve the adopted goals are strictly connected with such processes as getting to know each other, developing knowledge, and teaching respect for the others, even though we differ. The societies in which we live are not only societies of inequality, but also societies of uncertainty (Beck, 2002). In conditions of uncertainty and danger, a person often reacts in an uncontrolled, aggressive manner, showing fears and anxieties that may seem unreasonable to an outsider. They are often the reasons for isolation and exclusion. Relational model of inclusion and the recommendations of the 2030 Agenda Common concern over various problems of inequality and exclusion is associated with the processes of increasing interdependence in development (UN, 2020b, p.  2). The problems of others can no longer be left behind, because they are becoming our problems to a greater or lesser extent. In the inclusion process, many factors play a role, which can be basically divided into internal, i.e., related to the person or group in the process of inclusion, and external, regarding the conditions of their life and the actions of other people. The fastest and best effect to achieve the goal of social inclusion set in the Agenda can be achieved by properly combining these two resources, i.e., diagnosing and “extracting” internal resources, as well as mobilising and strengthening external resources. This approach belongs to the essence of the relational model of inclusion understood as a systematic process of exchange and cooperation between a person, community and culture, giving an opportunity for the integral development of the individual and the society (Fidelus, 2016, pp. 57–60). The basic assumptions of the relational model of inclusion are universal; they can strengthen the processes envisaged in the Agenda (cf. UNGA,

156  Anna Fidelus et al. 2015, section 74d) and allow compliance with the principles included in it, “irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status” (UNGA, 2015, Target 10.2). The assumptions of the current Agenda focus on removing all barriers to the life and development of people, in creating specific conditions that will also shape the motivation for action on the part of excluded people (cf. Target 10.3). According to the relational model, however, not only the assessment of the phenomenon and necessary actions by those who help in inclusion, like the developed countries, should be considered, but also the perspective of the countries to which assistance is addressed (Francis, 2015, section 50). In these actions, as mentioned earlier, proper upbringing, shaping the right attitudes of people and entire societies, seems crucial. One needs to transfer knowledge and sensitise people to the fate of excluded people, without justifying oneself with improperly understood human freedom. People living prosperously in developed countries, where there is a highly concentrated resource of economic wealth (cf. Figures 10.1 and 10.2), often do not realise the basic shortcomings of people living in poor countries as well as the fact that sometimes it would be enough to allocate a small part of their excess of goods to save the lives or health of these people. Few people are aware that nowadays leprosy disease is taking a lethal toll in many countries, such as Madagascar, despite the possibility of full recovery from it today. Sometimes, it is a matter of relatively small financial resources and basic medical infrastructure. The process of upbringing and shaping attitudes also requires appropriate institutional support, mass media cooperation and an appropriate system of promoting fundamental values. Its implementation is supported by proper legal regulations as well as a social control system resulting from the sharing of the same values by the vast majority of the society. To this end, it is also important to promote appropriate personal role models, just as the

Figure 10.1  World regions by total wealth in 2019 (trillions $) Own elaboration. Data source: Credit Suisse, The Global Wealth Report, 2019a

Reducing inequality 157

Figure 10.2  World regions by wealth per adult in 2019 ($) Own elaboration. Data source: Credit Suisse, The Global Wealth Report, 2019a

Catholic Church does by proclaiming saints. A special figure that connects the Church and everyone involved in ecological activities is St. Francis of Assisi, who was declared the patron of ecologists and ecology by John Paul II in 1979. Inclusion in the social teaching of the Church Shaping mutual relations between people, crucial for all social activities for the common good, also belongs to the essence of the Christian religion itself, whose guiding light left by Christ is love of neighbour. This means getting rid by a human being of mutual attitudes of rejection and non-acceptance of other people and related activities, and creating an atmosphere of mutual respect, listening to the others and perceiving their needs. Pope Francis very often describes these opposing attitudes and actions called in the literature of social sciences as exclusion and inclusion in two terms: culture of rejection and culture of encounter (Wysocki, 2014, pp. 347–362). This is a very important issue in his social teaching, in which he shows deeper sources of wrong attitudes related to rejection and, on the other hand, a broader perspective of inclusion expressed not only in acceptance and help, but in full brotherhood towards others. Although different socioeconomic systems may favour one or the other approach, their main source lies in shaping the right attitudes for the neighbour, also capable of some sacrifices, limiting one’s comfort, and overcoming various prejudices and bad emotions, perceiving universal bonds connecting all people and even all beings as created by one Father (Francis, 2015, section 220). On the initiative of Pope Francis, the Catholic Church celebrated World Day for the Poor in 2017, which was to remind those who always feel

158  Anna Fidelus et al. excluded from the possibility of a dignified life and development in the society. In the first letter on this occasion, he wrote: We are called to reach out to the poor, meet them, look them in the eye, hug them so that they can feel the warmth of love that breaks the circle of loneliness. Their hand stretched out toward us is also an invitation to come out of our confidence and comfort, and to recognise the value that poverty has in itself. (Francis, 2017, section 3) It shows not only the need to integrate them into social life, but the need to truly approach them, as well as to learn the value of renunciation of material goods, which emphasises the true dignity of man and allows you to discover the depth of your own heart. Recalling Paul VI’s speech of 1963, Francis stated that “All the poor belong to the Church through the ‘evangelical law’ ” (Francis, 2017, sections 4–5).

The role of social capital in the inclusive growth The Agenda in relation to the MDGs contains an expanded understanding of inequality; it considers more aspects of inequality, i.e., not only economic, but also social, legal or environmental. Nevertheless, economic inequalities are still a basic indicator of inequality among people and countries, and are a significant reference point for other differences. There is no doubt that the vast majority of migratory flows in recent years are primarily due to economic differences between and within countries. The summary of the MDGs highlighted the fact that the assumptions were substantially implemented; and one of the most important achievements was the reduction in the number of people living below the poverty threshold in developing countries from nearly 50% in 1990 to 14% in 2015 (this meant that nearly 1  billion people were recovered from extreme poverty) (UN, 2015a, p. 4). Although this change has been significant and demonstrates the importance of joint efforts to solve global problems, two important points should be highlighted in a more complete assessment of these achievements. Firstly, no change in the adopted poverty line has been made during this period despite the actual change in the purchasing power of money. Such a change was made by the World Bank in its methodology only in 2015 (from $1.25 to $1.90). Secondly, these achievements did not adequately take into account what the current Goal 10 and its Target 1 specifically address, namely the problem of the increase/decrease of economic inequalities. Discussion around economic inequalities The issue of economic inequality is nowadays one of the most discussed both among economists/scientists and among publicists dealing with the

Reducing inequality 159 economy. Undoubtedly, important studies of such economists as Joseph Stigiltz, a Nobel Prize winner, or Thomas Piketty, with his groundbreaking work Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2014) contributed to this. The literature in this respect is indeed very vast; one can mention here even the popular annual reports of the British organisation Oxfam (cf. Oxfam, 2020). In journalism and among politicians, the dispute over the direction and nature of these inequalities takes on more popularised versions that justify their own positions. On the one hand, especially the supporters of the left underline the steady rapid increase in the wealth of the most prosperous and, consequently, an increase in inequality. In this regard, there are numerous, sometimes even shocking lists which can be found. For example, in the latest Oxfam report of 2020, the “22 richest men have more wealth than all the women in Africa; only 2,153 people have more wealth than 4.6 billion people; the world’s richest 1% have more than twice as much wealth as 6.9  billion people” (Oxfam, 2020, p.  10). These differences and their highlighting are the source of new radical aspirations that coincide with important sociopolitical changes and new social movements, as exemplified by the idea of ​​a new socialist manifesto (Sunkara, 2019). On the other hand, it is necessary to show the position of those who dispute the radical claims about the continuous increase in global economic inequalities and, at the same time, point to the positive aspects of the existence of certain inequalities. They emphasise the significant increase in income of the poorest social groups, which, according to some of them, contradicts the increase in differences, and then justify that inequalities are necessary, especially at the initial stage of the economy’s development, in order to accumulate investment capital. In this camp, you can find primarily economists from the neoclassical school, supporters of liberal and conservative-liberal parties. In his book The Price of Inequality, Joseph Stiglitz explicitly points to the close connection of politics and economy in creating differences and inequalities because, according to him, they are to promote both strong business groups and party groups. He considers this approach as a threat to the very essence of democracy and to the rule of law (Stiglitz, 2012, chapter 5 and 7), as a denial of the idea of equal ​​ opportunities (Stiglitz, 2012, p. 129). Attempts to show their different nature, depending on the reasons for their occurrence and their impact in specific socioeconomic conditions, are also present in the debate on inequality. Therefore, some authors distinguish them into so-called positive and negative inequality or constructive and destructive inequality (Rewizorski, 2017, pp.  141–142). This means that inequalities which result, for example, from various work commitments and motivate to work, are something positive and do not give rise to protests and social unrest, but are conducive to economic growth and development of the country. Efforts to level out differences, by their very nature, entail greater state participation, which is difficult to be accepted by the liberal stance and the

160  Anna Fidelus et al. supporters of a minimal state. Instead, they fall under the etatist approach which, in turn, many radical thinkers and activists want to transform into a strictly socialist construction. In this discussion between extreme approaches, supporters of various moderate approaches are somewhat lost, those whose political colour in individual countries depends on the cultural and historical context. It is worth mentioning at least the example of the so-called German ordoliberals, who for decades after World War II decided on the socioeconomic order of Germany. The context of this system was, of course, the transformation of the previous highly-controlled-by-state national-socialist system; efforts were made to combine the principles of the market economy with Catholic social teaching and social conservatism. The concept of sustainable development also promoted in the 2030 Agenda seems to be, however, the most in line with the concept of the welfare state, with a broader focus on ecological, global and intergenerational issues. The essence of the problem according to ’2030 Agenda’ and an analysis of empirical data Various assessments of existing differences in wealth and income depend largely on the data and indicators chosen, which unfortunately are sometimes instrumentalised to justify a given position. The basic idea related to the sustainable development and supported by the current Agenda indicates the need to shape inclusive growth, possibly covering every member of the society and each state as “no one must be left behind” (UNGA, 2015, section 26). The increase in the income of the poorest does not, of course, mean a decrease in inequality, as it results primarily from an overall increase in income in the global economy and in individual countries. The current document differently emphasises various aspects of this issue in comparison with the MDGs, which mainly addressed the problem of eradicating hunger and extreme poverty. Target 10.1 states that by 2030, it should be “progressively achieved and sustained income growth of the bottom 40% of the population at a rate higher than the national average” (UNGA, 2015, Target 10.1). Not only the group below the poverty line, but as much as 40% of the poorest are of particular interest. So, this Target promotes the achievement and maintenance of faster-than-average growth of income by this segment in relation to the entire population, which in turn is to lead to narrowing the differences. Therefore, it is not only about the absolute increase in the income of the poorest, but also about eliminating the relative increase in poverty. This approach refers to recent research and analysis carried out by the World Bank and OECD experts, which shows the special vulnerability of the entire segment to economic exclusion and, as a consequence, little chance of development and levelling of differences. These analysts point to

Reducing inequality 161 empirical data from many countries as a basis for stating that larger inequalities mean weaker economic growth (OECD, 2015, pp. 26–27, 60–70; cf.; Ostry et  al., 2019, pp.  31–33). The fundamental justification associated with these observations indicates that growing inequality “reduces the capacity of the poorer segments – the poorest 40% of the population, to be precise – to invest in their skills and education”, to develop their potential, which weakens the basic human capital for economic development (OECD, 2015, p. 27). The inclusion of the 40% segment of the poorest population is particularly related to the study of income differences and the resulting indicator of the British economist José Gabriel Palma (Palma ratio). The indicator he created compares to the income of 10% of the richest with the income of 40% of the poorest. His analysis of data from 135 countries showed that the 50% middle segment is the most stable in terms of income (Palma, 2011, 2016). This indicator is becoming more and more popular, although it is not as common as the most-known Gini coefficient. It is therefore worth analysing the data collected by the World Bank regarding the situation of the 40% segment of people with the lowest income and consumption. Looking globally, based on data from the Global Database of Shared Prosperity (GDSP) from 2010–2017, it can be stated that the achievement of the set goal is realistic because in this period, in the 60 out of the 94 studied countries, the income per capita of the poorest 40% increased faster than on average for the entire population. Here are a few selected changes in the countries with different levels of income and from different continents: in the UK, in the studied segment, there was an average annual increase in per capita income by 0.42% against 0.27% for the entire population; in Poland, it was 2.54% against 2.10%; in the PRC – 9.13% against 7.39%; in Bolivia – 2.63% against 0.77%; in Rwanda, an increase of 0.31% against a decrease of 0.17% for the entire population; and in the US – 1.31% against 1.67% (World Bank, 2011–2017). The reverse is the case only for the USA; i.e., the average annual income per capita for the entire population has grown faster than the income of 40% of the poorest. Such a change in the world’s largest economy was the basis for some economists’ claims that the time of the last crisis was a time of increasing differences, especially that a similar trend took place in other countries important for the global economy, such as Germany, Italy, Spain, Canada, Mexico or even Sweden and Norway. The observed increase in income of the 40% segment versus the income for the entire population, although worth appreciating, is generally, however, except for some countries, relatively small. In this context, when thinking about eliminating economic inequalities within and among countries, it is necessary to realise not only the existing differences in current income, but also in the wealth possessed. The summary of data for the most important regions is shown in Figure 10.1.

162  Anna Fidelus et al. This comparison shows huge differences in existing wealth, which is further compounded by considering the number of inhabitants in the region, i.e., possessed wealth per capita (Figure 10.2). However, significant changes are possible, as shown by the example of the Chinese economy, in which between 2000 and 2019, there was on average more than ninefold increase in wealth per capita. In the same period, similar growth in Europe was just over 1.5 times, and in North America less than 1.5 times (CSRI, 2019b, p. 143). However, surprisingly for many, the PRC, and therefore the country in which the communist system still officially prevails, is characterised by very large social inequalities, even higher than in the US (cf. Wysocki, 2015, p. 290). The perspective of Catholic social teaching in the face of economic inequalities The issue of ensuring a dignified life for every human being and the need for joint action to this end are at the heart of the social teaching of the Church. However, this does not mean communist equality because both private property and subsidiarity in action are appreciated in it. The problem of the development of nations and the need to eliminate inequalities between them in a broader dimension was initiated by Pope Paul VI, who introduced the concept of integral development understood as “the development of each man and of the whole man” (Paul VI, 1967, section 14). He pointed to the need for an integral approach to the problem of inequality, which can also be seen in the 2030 Agenda. Considering the differences in the development of societies, Pope John Paul II stated, among others, that “the frontiers of wealth and poverty intersect within the societies themselves, whether developed or developing” (John Paul II, 1987, section 14), which remains valid today and to which the formulation of the Goal 10 of the current Agenda is close. Bridging differences and creating opportunities for the development of every person was associated by him with the belief that man is the main capital in the economy (John Paul II, 1991, section 32). This thought was taken up very strongly by Pope Benedict XVI, who wrote that “the primary capital to be safeguarded and valued is man, the human person in his or her integrity” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 25). In the face of the financial crisis since the end of 2007, he pointed out that inequality was one of its sources. Benedict XVI argued that it is not true that such significant inequalities must exist, and the need to reduce them is determined by the dignity of the person and the requirements of justice, but this is also the requirement of the “economic reason”: the massive increase in relative poverty .  .  ., not only does social cohesion suffer, but so too does the economy, through the progressive erosion of ‘social capital,’  .  .  . structural insecurity generates

Reducing inequality 163 anti-productive attitudes wasteful of human resources.  .  .  . Human costs always include economic costs, and economic dysfunctions always involve human costs. (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 32) Other aspects of the issue of economic inequality were also pointed out by Pope Francis in the encyclical Laudato Si’, which presents the concept of integral ecology, in which he combines the issues of economic inequality with ecological issues, i.e., access to water and other basic resources (Francis, 2015, section 46). In addition, the problem of inequality should be linked to the history of development to our time and the issue of so-called ecological debt, which concerns not only the issue of pollution, but also the robbery export of raw materials from underdeveloped countries or the export of toxic waste to these countries (Francis, 2015, section 51). After all, the problem of differences is not only the impossibility for some to use their potential, but also the inefficient use of goods by those who have them in excess (Francis, 2015, section 90).

Dignity and protection of migrants Migration has become a global phenomenon over the last century. This is because in recent years, millions have decided to leave their current homes. Some did so because of poor living conditions; others because of justified fear for their lives caused by war or other armed conflicts (Panizzon  & Riemsdijk, 2019, pp.  1225–1232). As a result, an unprecedented number of migrants with different customs and cultural traditions have reached the high-income countries, which sometimes creates serious social tensions. This situation has not gone unnoticed of the international community, which realised the need to include migration as such and migration-related issues in the 2030 Agenda. It was not an easy task, especially given the fact that the MDGs had failed to do it. Furthermore, the UN Road Map Towards the Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration (UN, 2001) refers to migration only in negative terms. The credo of the 2030 Agenda Turning to the 2030 Agenda, it should be emphasised that it recognises “the positive contribution of migrants to inclusive growth” (UNGA, 2015, section 25) and thus defines its significant contribution to achieving sustainable development goals. Furthermore, it obliges states to strengthen international cooperation to ensure safe, orderly and legal migration in full respect of human rights and humanitarian treatment of migrants, irrespective of their status. Finally, it stresses the vulnerability of migrants, refugees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), and recognises that migrants should be considered

164  Anna Fidelus et al. under the cross-cutting principle of leaving no one behind, the credo of the SDGs (Nijenhuis & Maggi, 2017, p. 57), which strongly reflects the human rights principles of equality and non-discrimination (Filskov  & Feiring, 2018, p. 4). Thus, the 2030 Agenda proposes a new approach to international migration. Above all, it assumes that migration directly benefits individuals and societies (O’Reilly, 2015, p. 9). It is not treated as a problem which should be solved, but as a mechanism that can contribute to the achievement of many of the goals (Foresti & Hagen-Zanker, 2017, p. 3). The cornerstone of migration in the 2030 Agenda The 2030 Agenda refers to international migration-related issues in a number of SDGs. The cornerstone of migration is, however, Target 10.7 under the Goal 10. It calls for the facilitation of “orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people” and the implementation of “planned and well-managed migration policies”. As a result, migration should be “managed in an integrated and holistic manner” (IOM, MiGOF, 2020, p. 20). So, the Target 10.7 is addressed exclusively to states and shows a valuable and important central point: migrant issues are inherently political (Betts & Lescher, 2011, p. 134). That is why Target 7 is considered as a guideline of good migration management since “effective governance and regulation of migration is manifestly essential to realising orderly, safe and regular migration” (IOM, MiGF, p. 1). On the other hand, however, Target 10.7 is recognised to be “both the most and in many respects, the opaquest call to action on migration” (Solomon & Sheldon, 2018, p. 584). This is due, inter alia, to the lack of precision in the previously given terms, although it has been the subject of multilateral consultations since 2004. This justifies presenting the definitions of the previous terms included in the IOM glossary (IOM, 2011). Thus, the term orderly migration refers to the movement of a person from his or her usual place of residence to a new place residencies, in keeping with the laws and regulations governing exit of the country of origin and travel, transit and entry into the host country. (IOM, 2011) Under Target 7, the sovereign power of the states to control their borders and to regulate the conditions of entry and transit of migrant remains unchanged (Morawska, 2017, pp. 15–18) A similar pro-state approach can be seen in the definition of regular migration as it means “migration that occurs through recognised, authorised channels” (IOM, 2011). In other words, the regularity of migration shall be based primarily on the method used to cross a country’s border as

Reducing inequality 165 migrants can enter a country in a regular manner (through regular channels). Whereas the condition of safe migration seems to have complex structure covering many dynamic aspects of migration, it is strongly oriented to migrants: their life, their well-being and reduction of risk for them. And, in this regard, it could be closely linked to the condition of reasonable migration. The safety of migrants depends on several factors, such as the nature and extent of the risk, but the vulnerability is the most important of all. It should not be considered as a permanent state for it is a process consisting of many stages (IOM, 2016). The final issue under Target 10.7 is the states’ obligation, namely facilitation, and the measures of performing the obligation in question. These measures include migration policies that are to be planned first, then implemented and finally well managed by states. It follows that this obligation requires taking the indicated actions, and therefore has a positive character. Hence, if the states are obliged to facilitate, then their authorities may not create risks, difficulties or restrictions on migration. They cannot be passive, either. The migration itself should not be associated with great effort. In view thereof and considering the remarks set out previously, the obligation in question is essential for combating migrant smuggling and human trafficking (UNODC, 2020). At this point, it should be noted that the Addis Ababa Action Agenda (AAAA), an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, calls on states to ensure that migration is governed with full respect for human rights, to combat xenophobia and to facilitate migrant integration through education of migrant and of refugee children and through social communication strategies (UN, 2015b). The migration-related SDGs and the migration cross-cutting connections In addition to Target 10.7, many other targets have references to migration; for at least 10 targets migration-related issues are explicitly stated and for others migration is a cross-cutting issue. All of them should be considered because the 2030 Agenda is indivisible in a sense that it must be implemented as a whole, in an integrated rather than a fragmented manner, recognising that the different goals and targets are closely interlinked. They also help to understand properly a central principle of the 2030 Agenda. That principle is inclusivity; its very essence is to “leave no one behind” and to try to reach the furthest behind first. To achieve this aim, migrants must be considered inclusively in three dimensions of sustainable development, i.e., economic, social and environmental (UNGA, 2015, Preamble). To sum up, the 2030 Agenda refers to migration-related issues in a number of places, including in the Preamble and in the SDGs. It significantly contributed to ensuring an important place on the international agenda for

166  Anna Fidelus et al. the migration-related issues and thereby ensuring respect for the dignity and human rights of migrants. The real strength of the migration provisions in the 2030 Agenda is, however, demonstrated by further steps taken to strengthen and improve mechanisms for enhancing the good governance of migration. The first was the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants (2016), and the following were the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (2018) and the Global Compact on Refugees (2018). It is, however, clear that all of the previously mentioned instruments are just the beginning and not the end of the international community’s renewed effort to enhance its capacity for good management of the migration and mobility of persons while respecting their dignity and human rights. The migration issues in Catholic social teaching Referring the migration issues developed in the legal analysis of Target 7 Goal 10 of the 2030 Agenda to Catholic social teaching, it should be observed at the outset that the Catholic Church participated in a debate and discussion, which was a follow-up to the migration crisis over the period 2014–2016. However, it is also worth noting that migration and its related problems have long been a concern of the Magisterium of the Church. Suffice it to say that in 2019, the World Day of Migrants and Refugees was celebrated for the 105th time, and the Popes used to communicate special messages for the Day. Respect for migrants’ dignity, protection of their rights and ensuring adequate living and development conditions are the key issues for the social teaching of the Church. From the very beginning, the Church has encouraged states to have a positive view of persons changing place of residence or immigrating to the other countries and has strongly underlined that they cannot be considered solely as representing danger, but also as a chance for the common good. By developing themselves, they can also contribute to the good of the region or country in which they settled. In Caritas in veritate, Pope Benedict XVI stated that “every migrant is a human person who, as such, possesses fundamental, inalienable rights that must be respected by everyone and in every circumstance.” Respect for these persons is also connected with rejection of treating them only as an instrument, solely as cheap labour. Their situation requires proper cooperation of all countries, introduction of relevant international regulations, so as “to safeguard the needs and rights of individual migrants and their families, and at the same time, those of the host countries”. The Pope recognised that migrants, “despite any difficulties concerning integration, make a significant contribution to the economic development of the host country through their labour, besides that which they make to their country of origin through the money they send home” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 62).

Reducing inequality 167 There is no doubt that Pope Francis treats this issue in a unique way, also in connection with the crisis, indicating the need from everyone, in particular from someone who believes to “welcome, protect, promote and integrate” everyone who is in need. In his message, on the last Day of Migrants and Refugees, Francis stressed the great indifference towards migrants, which he combined with individualism and utilitarian mentality, stating that the most economically advanced societies are witnessing a growing trend towards extreme individualism which, combined with a utilitarian mentality and reinforced by the media, is producing a globalization of indifference. In this scenario, migrants, refugees, displaced persons and victims of trafficking have become emblems of exclusion. (Francis, 2019)

Conclusions Catholic social teaching, as the encyclical of Pope Francis Laudato Si’ shows very well, coincides in many respects with the concept of sustainable development, which finds its special expression in the current 2030 Agenda. The various aspects of inequality related to its Goal 10 analysed in this chapter show these convergences very fine. The basis and starting point for the reflection for each of these aspects from the perspective of Catholic social teaching is respect for a human person, firstly because of the very fact of being a human, and secondly because of the human capital that they contribute to the life and functioning of the society. The concept of sustainable development, by the very fact of being one of the models of socioeconomic development, emphasises to a greater extent this aspect of the practical significance of every human being, the wealth that they bring into the life of the society. Given the richness inherent in a human being, the interests of every society and – looking globally – of all of us, there are activities that will ensure that the differences between individual people and countries are properly levelled to enable everyone to participate properly in social life. This relates to the need to ensure an adequate level of income in those segments that do not provide opportunities or pose a high risk of lack of development opportunities. Goal 10 sets a broad 40% segment in this respect, whose revenues should increase more than the average for the entire population. Bridging economic disparities is undoubtedly an essential tool in alleviating the tensions associated with mass migration of people. However, there is also a need for protection related to the adoption of relevant regulations by international institutions and accepted by individual states. They must include safeguarding the fundamental rights of every migrant, as well as safeguarding the rights of the host country. This issue can never be solved

168  Anna Fidelus et al. unilaterally or at the expense of others; joint action by all concerned is needed here (cf. Benedict XVI, 2009, section 62). Perhaps the least so far, apart from discussing the rights of migrants, their importance for the countries they come to and the situation arising there, the situation in the countries from which they emigrate is discussed. Their support in development, real – not just declared willingness to help, is something extremely important and urgent, contributing to levelling simultaneously inequality within and between countries.

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11 The Church vs. the issue of cultural heritage and social integration in the context of the Agenda 2030 Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska, Grzegorz Kęsik and Henryk Skorowski Introduction Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG11) of the UN document Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) (UNGA, 2015) calls to “make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.” It deals with different areas of life, including infrastructural, cultural and natural issues. Each case, however, has a social dimension and assumes care for people in need and those who are most affected by unfavourable changes. The demand to ensure accessibility of flats and services seeks to improve living conditions in the poorest districts. The call for improving road infrastructure pays special attention to the needs of women, children, the disabled and the elderly. The sustainable urbanisation requirement is intended to foster the involvement of local communities in the spatial planning and promote the widest possible public interest. The only point which lacks “social remark” is the protection of cultural and natural heritage. The social aspect of environmental protection is raised further in SDG11 of the Agenda. The focus is made on how a city affects the natural environment. The call is to reduce the effects of natural disasters, increase air quality and improve municipal waste management. The Agenda also promotes easy and universal access to safe green and public spaces conducive to social integration with primary focus on the previously mentioned people in vulnerable situations. Following this brief overview, special attention should be paid both on the areas which can be further discussed by Catholic social teaching for moral guidelines and on insufficiently defined issues requiring in-depth analysis. The area of the Agenda, which undoubtedly requires a more detailed social discussion, is the protection of cultural heritage. The reference to cultural heritage, general in content, tends to bring us to the documents prepared by circles of architects and monument conservators. This is because experts and professionals have adequate tools and are authorised to provide detailed guidelines. However, professional paradigms adopted over the last century by architects and conservators are often highly inconsistent with

172  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. social expectations regarding the shape and character of heritage spaces. The strong ideological influence of modernism on these paradigms can, and should, be balanced by Catholic social teaching. This is in the interest of local communities which are increasingly demanding respect for their cultural traditions. The communities expect a coherent historical space which will significantly help them shape local identity, both individually and collectively. Therefore, in addition to the issue of protection of cultural heritage, this chapter also addresses the social aspect frequently mentioned in SDG11 of the Agenda. In this respect, some clarification is made since the interpretation may vary depending on the ideological and moral perspective. The chapter also discusses the concepts and assumptions of Catholic social teaching to make an attempt to respond to the SDG11’s social integration challenges with regard to sustainable development of the contemporary city.

Functions of cultural heritage in the context of the Agenda UN recognises the importance of integration of urban areas and promotes understanding and respect for the natural and cultural diversity of the world. The Agenda indicates that all cultures and civilisations can contribute to promoting sustainable development. The specific targets of SDG11 call for strengthening efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. However, as mentioned before, the issues of protection of cultural heritage require further clarification. This is because the interpretation based only on contemporary conservation paradigms does not provide a full, socially inclusive answer to the question of what cultural heritage is. In simplified terms, the contemporary approach to historic space and monument preservation originates from materialistic concepts dated back to the beginning of the 20th century which put particular emphasis on preserving tangible values and ignoring or diminishing the meaning of other monument values, especially aesthetic and cultural ones (Riegl, 1903, p. 9. At the same time, throughout the 20th century and nowadays, there is a tendency to improve the aesthetics of monuments and enhance their cultural influence. These trends, ideologically analogous to reconstructions, especially in the face of two world wars, are accelerated by strong social expectations which in some cases translate into political decisions. However, the conservation community decided to maintain the materialistic approach of monument care. In 1964, the so-called Venice Charter was adopted, and a large part of demands of modernist architects were accepted. As a result, monument care was virtually devoid of traditional art and, in the event of damage or destruction, the reconstruction process had to follow the spirit of the times (2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, 1964, article 9). The subsequent doctrinal documents, e.g., The Charter of Kraków, largely followed the Venice

Cultural heritage and social integration 173 pattern, also in terms of the extension of monuments (International Conference on Conservation “Kraków 2000”, 2000, sections  1–4). However, as practice shows, the actions which incorporate modern architecture into a historic building retain its tangible values, but at the same time permanently destroy its stylish and cultural values. Paradoxically, then, strictly expert monument care devoid of social dimension is a real threat for the protection of cultural heritage. Local communities and nations are often deprived of the right to assess the aesthetics of monuments, constituting their cultural carriers, especially if they are destroyed or damaged. R. Scruton points out that contemporary art, including architecture, manifests a strong tendency to “escape from beauty” caused by our moral burden of aesthetic judgement, which assumes that art is supposed to elevate man and challenge man to face a certain perfect world (Scruton, 2011, p. 84). According to Scruton, this escape takes the form of kitsch (trivialised view of aesthetics) or profanity (rejection of aesthetics). As a result, modern architecture exposes monuments, i.e., important determinants of cultural identity of local communities, to the event “of escape from beauty.” This process adds certain elements to the monument or its surroundings and thus can seriously disrupt or even preclude its ideological message for a contemporary human being. This clearly shows that conservation paradigms are not sufficient to take care of the cultural heritage for the benefit of the local community, and further moral interpretation is required. The goals and challenges for states and world organisations set out by the Agenda have been recognised by the Catholic Church for years. The documents of Catholic social teaching address the cultural, social and economic challenges of the city. The city is a place where people live and work, but also an architectural space and area of cultural, artistic and natural development. In recent years, Catholic social teaching has put a great emphasis on the right for every person to use the city. Contemporary anthropologists and sociologists of varying worldviews pay attention to the progressing city consumerism, exclusion of individuals and narrow social groups appropriating the right to city centres (Harvey, 2012; Tagg, 1994). This is one of the reasons why both Catholic social teaching and contemporary social thought consider the right to the city as an essential human right. The aim is to eliminate poverty and social exclusion as well as to provide access to housing and ensure the protection of cultural assets and the natural environment. According to Pope Francis, contemporary multicultural cities (understood here either as the interpenetration of cultures or complete separation of cultures) are formed by groups of people preferring similar lifestyles. These people build cultural territories referred to as “invisible cities” (Francis, 2013b, section  74). Urban multiculturalism promotes the coexistence of different forms of culture and at the same time contributes to segregation and violence. The city brings both opportunities and threats. It develops individuals and fosters social integration, but also generates divisions and perpetuates unfair differences. The modern city is a place and object of

174  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. consumption in which the subject experiences pleasure and fear, mobility and confinement, spaciousness and fragmentation. This trend is particularly visible in commercial leisure areas (Tagg, 1994, p. 22). Contemporary cities reveal unequal divisions caused by financial resources which categorise people into citizens and second-class citizens or, as emphatically called by Francis, “urban waste.” The Pope denounces a prevailing dominant culture of rejection and, in return, proposes a culture of encounter which has the potential to be effectively implemented in urban spaces. The culture of encounter has become the leitmotif of the ministry of Francis. He devotes one of the chapters of Evangelii Gaudium to the challenges of urban cultures (Francis, 2013b, section 75). The serious problems, the socalled urban diseases, include, inter alia, human trafficking, drug trafficking, harassment, exploitation, corruption, and neglect of the elderly and sick. Instead of being meeting spaces, cities become areas of escape and division. Contemporary houses, housing estates and districts are designed to separate rather than merge, integrate and host. This is one of the most important contemporary problems, critical for both the Agenda and Catholic social teaching. The right to the city is understood as a “unity in extraordinary diversity.” Cities should foster the integration of different environments and cultures. That is why Evangelii Gaudium strongly highlights the role of urban spaces in sustaining and deepening the culture of encounter. It is necessary to create areas which promote the meetings of local cultures with foreign ones and forge a cultural synthesis. Rome is an example of the city which preserves its heritage and promotes social integration (Francis, 2019). The capital of Italy has been integrating people of different social and economic status for almost 3,000 years without prejudice to the cultural heritage and identity of particular groups. It is a place of intercultural dialogue and the resulting new identities. Rome combines two diverse civilisations, Germanic and Latin, and diverse cultural areas, continental in the north and Mediterranean. It also mixes the sacred and the profane. The Pope equates it with a treasure chest in which spiritual, historical, artistic and institutional elements are stored. However, this does not mean that the city does not have to constantly take care of its heritage, stability, balance and social integration. The ongoing extension of line C of the Roman metro between San Giovanni and Colosseo, which runs under the oldest part of the city, fully respects the existing cultural heritage and provides an opportunity to improve communication and encourage further development (Romani et al., 2019, p. 167). The city is part of culture and at the same time a place where culture can be created and preserved. John Paul II emphasises that the world is given by God to people and at the same time constitutes a commitment, as is also mentioned in the Book of Genesis. “Be fertile and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it” is the most basic definition of culture. Culture develops people and reinforces their “being.” A  nation is governed by the same rules. It is primarily united by culture. “The nation exists because of its culture

Cultural heritage and social integration 175 and for its culture.” Thanks to culture, we exist in the community, and the community has a much longer history than the family (John Paul II, 1980, section  14; John Paul II, 2005, p.  79). Therefore, cultural identity and cultural heritage require special care. They cover different categories of culture, including group, nation, human and global culture. The protection of cultural and natural heritage takes an important place in Catholic social teaching and the teaching of subsequent popes; e.g., John Paul II, An Address to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) delivered in 1980 in Paris; John Paul II, The Church and Culture: An Address to the UNESCO Ambassadors, delivered in 2004 in Paris; Benedict XVI, An Address to the Members of the Pontifical Institute of Christian Archaeology; Francis, A Speech in Puerto Maldonado, delivered in 2018. Francis strongly emphasises that together with the patrimony of nature, there is also a historic, artistic and cultural patrimony which is likewise under threat. This patrimony is a part of the shared identity of each place and a foundation upon which to build a habitable city. (Francis, 2015, section 143) Building new urban spaces or reorganising the existing ones should take account of the original identity of the place determined by its history, architecture or culture. Cultural heritage includes both monuments of the past which shape human being and human generations, and growing, dynamic and vibrant local cultures specific to a given place. It should be fostered, especially in the face of cultural homogenisation which currently takes place. The Pope claims (which was already mentioned in the teaching of the Church, e.g., Redemptoris Missio) that cultural diversity is the heritage of mankind which constitutes an essential element of development. Every national and local culture has its value and must not be forgotten when new areas of the city are created. This point of the Agenda is fully in line with Catholic social teaching. When solving local problems, the voice of inhabitants should be taken into account, respecting their identity and special character. The use of the same technical or legal solutions in each case is inadvisable. The solutions found beneficial in a given space or at a given level may not be suitable for another. As was stressed by David Harvey in Rebel Cities, the measures taken require flexibility and dynamics. Fostering the development of local and global culture and their sustainable coexistence as well as enhancement, preservation and transfer of cultural heritage constitute a part of cultural ecology. The rights of local communities to participate in deciding about their nearest environment, including aesthetics, clearly emerge from these considerations. The historical space and cultural heritage of the city cannot be deprived of an expert voice, i.e., architects and conservators. However, it

176  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. must be balanced with a clear social voice. To this end, local politicians who are representatives of the interests of the local community have a significant role to play. Contrary to appearances, this role is not clear. Contemporary politicians tend to delegate the spatial planning to experts, often virtually not associated with the space concerned, and are influenced by individual investors who focus on the maximisation of profits. External experts and profit-oriented developers may significantly reduce the essential factors of cultural heritage or even deprive the local community of them by transforming or destroying the carriers of cultural heritage, i.e., monuments and the surrounding cultural landscape, as a result of the ignorance of local rules or the lack of interest. John Paul II calls for the proper relationship between economy and culture “without destroying this greater human good for the sake of profit, in deference to the overwhelming power of one-sided market forces” (John Paul II, 2005, pp. 83–84). Therefore, a responsible local government official should act in line with the goals of the Agenda and Catholic social teaching by standing up for the local community and its cultural heritage, and protecting it from uniformisation, exploitation and degradation. In the face of deepening environmental problems and the Earth’s shrinking resources, Catholic social teaching makes a loud call for integral ecology (Francis, 2015, section 137) with a significant focus on culture and its products. The exploitation and degradation of nature threatens local livelihoods and destroys social resources used to sustain lifestyles and cultural identities. This is why Francis strongly insists on the holistic protection and care of the Earth. The Amazon synod emphasises the problem of the so-called ecological sin understood as a sin against the environment and thus against God, neighbour and future generations. The protection of plant and animal species is equally as important as the maintenance of those human products which originate from the compliance with nature. Francis calls for the care of the indigenous cultures, especially in those areas which introduce new economic projects for cultivation, breeding or extraction (Francis, 2015, section 146). Due to the local character of cultures, sustainable development and respect for vulnerable and less influential groups are required. Culture can be stored and transmitted only if it is created freely (John Paul II, 1979, section 2). The heritage of local groups contributes to the cultural heritage of humanity. If this principle is not followed, the global balance is upset. The Church also perceives the role of the city in preserving the cultural heritage. Similarly to Scruton’s philosophy, she refers to the concept of beauty, i.e., aesthetic category with theological connotations, the idea being once strongly developed by John Paul II. Her dimension of the city differs slightly from the one proposed in the Agenda. Pope Francis provides a strong comment to this issue: How beautiful are those cities which overcome paralysing mistrust, integrate those who are different and make this very integration a new

Cultural heritage and social integration 177 factor of development! How attractive are those cities which, even in their architectural design, are full of spaces which connect, relate and favour the recognition of others! (Francis, 2013b, section 210) Real urban spaces for the culture of encounter are needed, especially given the digital equivalents of contemporary cities (Mitchell, 2003). Digital cities eliminate the need to leave home, meet with others and integrate into the society. The question that arises, however, is whether these places can be solid and safe, and serve social inclusion. The issue seems clear both for the Agenda and Catholic social teaching. On the other hand, thanks to advanced technologies, digital city twins may be used to test essential urban solutions without disturbing everyday life. Digital cities can test prospective urban solutions in the field of architecture and communication and enable precise reconstruction of destroyed components of urban architecture. For example, the digital twin of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris can rebuild the temple, down to the smallest detail, without the need to reuse architectural plans (Purdy et al., 2020). Catholic social teaching also recognises faith-based metaphorical, symbolic, contemplative and eschatological dimensions of the city, which is beyond the scope of the Agenda. The encyclical Lumen Fidei combines human cultural heritage with the metaphor of building. Those who believe in the one God and build on his foundation, e.g., Noah and Abraham, hope for a city prepared by God who is an architect and builder (Francis, 2013b, section  50) since “the fullness of humanity and of history is realised in a city” (Francis, 2013a, section  71). The Letter of St. Paul to the Hebrews reads that God has prepared the city that awaits them after death. This does not mean that one should not care for the temporal city. On the contrary, the Earth should be a place where spaces conducive to human development are established to build human trust and social stability. Faith, having the power to provide integration between different cultures, is understood as a common good that helps to build society as well as develop and transmit cultural heritage (Delbrel, 2016, pp. 697–702). The Agenda is largely in line with Catholic social teaching with respect to sustainable urban development. However, Catholic social teaching also strongly emphasises the importance of human dignity and the resulting rights of local communities and nations to respect their cultural diversity. A huge role in this respect is played by local politicians who act for and on behalf of their communities. It is their duty to meet the challenges of sustainable development at the design stage and take appropriate measures in the field of land use and larger density of city centres to prevent development of suburban areas and enable residents to commute to work by bike or on foot. They should also take care of the cultural aspects of urban space and protect the identity of local communities from economic exploitation and aesthetic

178  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. devastation. Similarly to contemporary philosophers, Catholic social teaching treats the category of beauty as an essential factor of sustainable urban development and a challenge for future generations.

The role of social integration in the context of the Agenda SDG11 of the Agenda obliges its signatories to make cities and human settlements safe, solid, sustainable and inclusive. Its targets call to provide easy access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces, especially for women, children, the elderly and persons with disabilities. Its vision of the world assumes that human rights and human dignity are respected, regardless of gender, race or ethnic origin. Special attention is paid to the most vulnerable people, especially those who are at risk of exclusion, and need protection and support. It also strongly indicates that economic growth and wealth affect social inclusion. Sustainable economic development and rational use of natural resources are essential conditions necessary to combat poverty and hunger, and ensure that the international community lives in harmony with nature. The Agenda reveals various social inequalities in the contemporary world which may, and do, result in social disintegration. Disparities in access to wealth and power, the issue of equal opportunities, poverty, gender discrimination and unemployment constitute a real threat to life of an individual and directly undermine human dignity. There are also other global threats which people face, including natural disasters, terrorism and climate change. For all these phenomena and processes, the Agenda discusses opportunities and challenges. It lists the achievements in the field of development challenges and indicates the need to continue activities for building more peaceful and inclusive societies. Social integration and counteracting social exclusion are the issues addressed by a great number of scientific disciplines. The notion of social exclusion was disseminated in the 1970s in France as an alternative to the Anglo-Saxon definition of poverty. During the presidency of François Mitterrand, it was institutionalised and officially defined as “severing social bonds, rupturing social tissue and impairing solidarity” (Silver, 2019, pp. 1–6). Further, Giddens claims that exclusion is “not about gradations of inequality, but about mechanisms that act to detach groups of people from the social mainstream” (Giddens, 1998, p. 104). Currently, the achievements of social sciences include a great number of publications relating both to the theory of social exclusion and the problems of particular social groups: women, children, the elderly and the disabled (Peleah  & Ivanov, 2013; Burchardt et al., 2002; Jordan, 2003; Prattleya et al., 2020; Pannilage, 2012). These issues are also of interest to Catholic social thinking. It seems that the Agenda and Catholic social teaching have a similar view on the condition of the modern world, opportunities and threats of globalisation,

Cultural heritage and social integration 179 and related new phenomena. However, the Church puts a strong emphasis on complexity of the processes of globalisation. She firmly and decisively addresses all threats to the individual and society, and the unpredictability of the processes. Particular emphasis is placed on the acceleration of beneficial development processes at the economic level accompanied by increasingly deeper social inequalities (John Paul II, 1987, section 14). John Paul II claims that “the challenge . . . is to ensure a globalisation in solidarity, a globalisation without marginalisation” (John Paul II, 1998, section 3). The Pope repeatedly refers to global issues and problems relating to particular groups at risk of exclusion. At the threshold of the millennium, in the Apostolic Letter to bishops, clergy and lay faithful on preparation for the Jubilee of the year 2000, the Pope clearly stresses the tasks of the Church: Thus, in the spirit of the Book of Leviticus (25:8–12), Christians will have to raise their voice on behalf of all the poor of the world, proposing the Jubilee as an appropriate time to give thought, among other things, to reducing substantially, if not cancelling outright, the international debt which seriously threatens the future of many nations. The Jubilee can also offer an opportunity for reflecting on other challenges of our time, such as the difficulties of dialogue between different cultures and the problems connected with respect for women’s rights and the promotion of the family and marriage. (John Paul II, 1994, section 51) The social consequences of globalisation are also pointed out by Pope Francis. Social exclusion, inequality in the availability and consumption of energy and other services, social divisions, violence and aggression prove that the technological progress and civilisational development of humanity are not integral parts of all areas of life (Francis, 2015, section 35). Moreover, they lead to the breakdown of the harmony which is needed to initiate integration processes. The pope makes a clear reference to the issues discussed in SDG11 of the Agenda. Large makeshift neighbourhoods of extreme poverty on the outskirts of cities encourage antisocial behaviour, a sense of uprooting and violence (Francis, 2015, section 120). The pope insists on the rights of the weak and excluded. Sustainable development entails the necessity to address the problems of the poor: “true ecological approach always becomes a social approach; it must integrate questions of justice in debates on the environment, so as to hear both the cry of the earth and the cry of the poor” (Francis, 2015, section 49). The pope points out that Christians “are called to care for the vulnerable of the earth” (Francis, 2013b, section 209). He puts a great emphasis on women and children who have fewer opportunities to defend their rights and thus are at greater risk of exclusion. True social peace is established only if social life is organised in a way to respect human rights, promote the inclusion of the weak and

180  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. the poor, and ensure a fair distribution of goods. The pope clearly opposes the neoliberal logic leading to the economy of rejection and alienation of different social groups: The culture of relativism is the same disorder which drives one person to take advantage of another, to treat others as mere objects, imposing forced labour on them or enslaving them to pay their debts. The same kind of thinking leads to the sexual exploitation of children and abandonment of the elderly who no longer serve our interests. It is also the mindset of those who say: “Let us allow the invisible forces of the market to regulate the economy, and consider their impact on society and nature as collateral damage.” In the absence of objective truths or sound principles other than the satisfaction of our own desires and immediate needs, what limits can be placed on human trafficking, organised crime, the drug trade, commerce in blood diamonds and the fur of endangered species? Is it not the same relativistic logic which justifies buying the organs of the poor for resale or use in experimentation, or eliminating children because they are not what their parents wanted? This same “use and throw away” logic generates so much waste, because of the disordered desire to consume more than what is really necessary. We should not think that political efforts or the force of law will be sufficient to prevent actions which affect the environment because, when the culture itself is corrupt and objective truth and universally valid principles are no longer upheld, then laws can only be seen as arbitrary impositions or obstacles to be avoided. (Francis, 2015, section 123) Pope Francis shows commitment to sustainable development when he makes a direct reference to the Agenda in the Annex to the letter dated 25 September  2016 from the Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General. The pope expresses his support for the Agenda’s development goals, but he also stresses that the actions cannot end with empty declarations. The document gives hope that the world’s problems can be solved, but for this to happen, reliable and effective action of the international community is required. It formulates a number of general principles, including those relating to SDG11 of the Agenda. It refers to the problems of the poor and those at risk of social exclusion due to poverty. It indicates that they should not be objectified and should be responsible for their integral development. Full exercise of human dignity cannot be imposed on them, but rather allowed for them by shaping right relationships in social life (UNGA, 2015, section 7). It also highlights a huge role of women in society. Due to their role as mothers, in physical and spiritual terms, they should be protected from all forms of violence to foster both their informal development and formal participation in public life.

Cultural heritage and social integration 181

Conclusions SDG11 of the Agenda sets out a number of tasks to be fulfilled for sustainable urban development. Each of them assumes a specific social commitment. The call to protect cultural heritage is the only one which was not adequately discussed in the Agenda and thus requires in-depth interpretation which goes beyond the conservation paradigms. As evidenced in this chapter, conservation paradigms, i.e., internal documents of particular professional groups, do not fully meet contemporary social expectations towards monuments. This is because local communities do not treat monuments as buildings with tangible values only and demand that local politicians make sure that cultural space is not devastated by modernist transformations and its ideological code is preserved as opposed to what contemporary architects and conservators often do. The vision of a multicultural city of the future presented in the Agenda is largely identical to the years-old vision of Catholic social teaching. The Church recognises the right to a city for all individuals, and sees the city as a place of integral ecology, culture of encounter, area of culture production and storage, and space for nature conservation. People create cities while cities create and develop people. Therefore, it is extremely important that urban space is organised and managed in a way to promote meetings, cultural exchange, and the transmission of cultural and natural heritage to future generations. With a view to the sustainable development of the city, Catholic social teaching also recognises two more aspects, i.e., the category of beauty (the city should generate and promote beauty) and faith (a wellorganised and friendly worldly city which takes care of culture and shows respect for nature should guide us to the eternal city of God). The sustainable development seen from the perspective of social integration and counteracting social exclusion is discussed both in the Agenda and by Catholic social teaching. Both approaches recognise the need to protect people at risk of social exclusion. However, the UN documents more strongly emphasise the achievements of the international community in this respect and see the challenges as an opportunity for the future. Catholic social teaching, on the other hand, focuses on the threats arising from contemporary globalisation and integration processes and related social phenomena. It clearly defines current world problems and refers to the needs of all social groups requiring support and protection.

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182  Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska et al. Burchardt, T., Le Grand, J., & Piachaud, D. (2002). Degrees of Exclusion: Developing a Dynamic, Multidimensional Measure. In J. Hills, J. Le Grand, & D. Piachaud (Eds.) Understanding Social Exclusion. Oxford University Press. Delbrel, M. (2016). We, the Ordinary People of the Streets. Communio. International Catholic Review. Communio, Inc. www.communio-icr.com/files/43.4_Del brel_We_the_Ordinary.pdf Francis. (2013a). Lumen Fidei. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2013b). Evanagelii Gaudium. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2015). Laudato Si’. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2018). A Speech in Puerto Maldonado. https://opoka.org.pl/biblioteka/W/ WP/franciszek_i/przemowienia/peru-puertom_19012018.html Francis. (2019). Visit of the Holy Father at the Capitoline Hill. www.vatican.va/con tent/francesco/it/speeches/2019/march/documents/papa-francesco_20190326_vis ita-campidoglio.html Giddens, A. (1998). The Third Way. The Renewal of Social Democracy. Polity Press. Harvey, D. (2012). Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. Verso Books. The Holy See. (2016). Annex to the Letter Dated 25 September  2016 from the Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General. www.laudatosi.org/action/sdgs/ International Conference on Conservation “Krakow 2000”. (2000). The Charter of Krakow. http://smartheritage.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/KRAKOVCHARTER-2000.pdf John Paul II. (1979). An Address to the Young People of Gniezno. www.vatican.va/ content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1979/june/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19790603_ polonia-gniezno-giovani.html John Paul II. (1980). To the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/it/speeches/1980/ june/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19800602_unesco.html John Paul II. (1987). Sollicitudo Rei Socialis. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1990). Redemtoris Missio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana John Paul II. (1994). Tertio Millennio Adveniente. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1998). From the Justice of Each Comes Peace for All. Message of His Holiness Pope John Paul II for the Celebration of the World Day of Peace 1 January 1998. www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/messages/peace/documents/hf_ jp-ii_mes_08121997_xxxi-world-day-for-peace.html John Paul II. (2004). The Church and Culture: An Address to the UNESCO Ambassadors. https://opoka.org.pl/biblioteka/W/WP/jan_pawel_ii/przemowienia/une sco_08052004.html John Paul II. (2005). Memory and Identity. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Jordan, B. (2003). Welfare and Social Exclusion. In R. Bellamy & A. Mason (Eds.) Political Concepts. Manchester University Press. Mitchell, W. J. (2003). Me++: The Cyborg Self and the Networked City. The MIT Press. Pannilage, U. (2012). Disability, Poverty and Social Exclusion. Development with Disabled Network. Peleah, M.,  & Ivanov, A. (2013). Measuring Intersecting Inequalities Through the Social Exclusion Index: A  Proposal for Europe and Central Asia. Working

Cultural heritage and social integration 183 Paper No. 22, UNECE. www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/ ge.15/2013/WP_22_UNDP_D_En.pdf Prattleya, J., Buffela, T., Marshallb, A.,  & Nazroo, J. (2020). Area Effects on the Level and Development of Social Exclusion in Later Life. Social Science & Medicine, 246, Elsevier. Purdy, M., Eitel-Porter, R., Krüger, R.,  & Deblaere, T. (2020, January  14). How Digital Twins Are Reinventing Innovation. MIT Sloan Management Review. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Riegl, A. (1903). Der Moderne Denkmalkultus, Sein Wesen, Seine Entstehung. W. Braumüller. Romani, E., D’Angelo, M., & Foti, V. (2019). Line C in Rome: San Giovanni, the First Archaeological Station. In D. Peila, G. Viggiani, & T. Celestino (Eds.) Tunnels and Underground Cities. Engineering and Innovation Meet Archaeology, Architecture and Art. CRC Press. Second International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments. (1964). The Venice Charter. www.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf Scruton, R. (2011). Beauty: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Silver, H. (2019). Social Exclusion. In A. M. Orum (Ed.) The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Studies. Wiley Blackwell. www.researchgate.net/ publication/332426012_Social_Exclusion Tagg, J. (1994). Picturing and the Discursive Field. In N. Bryson, M. A. Holly, & K. Moxey (Eds.) Visual Culture. Images and Interpretations. Middletown. UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/ resource-pdf/Resolution_A_RES_70_1_EN.pdf

12 Harmony, consumption and lifestyle in Catholic social teaching Mariusz Boguszewski, Piotr Burgoński and Małgorzata Starzomska-Romanowska Introduction “Consumer” and “consumption” are the commonly known terms widely associated with goods and services. Modern societies have developed a consumption pattern based on the conviction that the more goods or services we produce, own and use, the better. However, currently, the negative effects of this approach on man and the environment are also widely recognised. This chapter discusses the issues set out in section  12.8 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) (UNGA, 2015), which recognises the need to adopt lifestyles in harmony with nature in the face of the threats posed by modern consumption patterns. There are three aspects of the problem which are discussed here. First of all, the chapter defines human needs and discusses how they should be satisfied to ensure that the lifestyle is in harmony with nature. Then, moral principles which should govern the activity and behaviour of human as a consumer are examined. Finally, the potential consequences resulting from the lifestyles of contemporary consumers are discussed. The issue of the modern consumption pattern is explored not only by the UN, but also by the Catholic Church. Like the UN, she addresses the human good and concentrates on universal values and global matters. The aim of this chapter is to compare the approach of the UN set out in the Agenda with the approach of the Catholic Church expressed in its social documents with reference to those three aspects.

The measure of human needs The Agenda says that people can develop properly and live lifestyles in harmony with nature only if their human needs are fulfilled (UNGA, 2015, section 12). The classification of needs proposed by Epicurus (Zalega, 2008, p. 23) is considered to be the oldest. He distinguishes between three types of desires: natural and necessary (e.g., breathing and eating), natural but non-necessary (e.g., sexual need), and empty (e.g., the pursuit of

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 185 popularity). Over the last two centuries, many other classifications of needs have been established. Pieter offers a classification of existential needs (livelihood), freedom needs, erotic needs (sexual partner) and faith needs (beliefs, ideals) (Obuchowski, 1983, p.  93), while McClelland indicates the needs of power, affiliation and achievements (Zalega, 2007, p.  168). Kocowski refers to existential needs (food, recreation, health, safety, housing and clothing), procreation and development needs (reproduction, care for offspring, education, upbringing, family and selffulfilment), functional needs (information and freedom of choice), social needs (belonging, communication with other people, emotional bond, individual autonomy and submission to social norms) and mental needs (organisation of personality, aesthetics, entertainment and socialisation) (Kocowski, 1982, p. 145). The theory, which is among the most widely recognised theories of needs, is Maslov’s hierarchy of needs. Maslov (Zalega, 2008, p. 26) is one of the main representatives of humanistic psychology. His hierarchy of needs includes physiological needs (e.g., hunger, sleep and species propagation), safety (e.g., care for health, protection against physical and emotional harm), belonging (e.g., love, friendship and sense of acceptance), self-esteem (e.g., independence and respect from others) and self-actualisation. According to Maslov, human behaviour is governed by two principles: homeostasis and reinforcement. The homeostatic principle seeks to achieve a balance for lower-order needs, i.e., the first two categories of needs. Failure to satisfy the lower-order needs violates the balance of the human body, while their satisfaction restores it, and the state of tension disappears. Higher-order needs, i.e., the remaining three categories of needs, are governed by the principle of reinforcement. It assumes that higher needs do not disappear even if satisfied. Instead, the human recognises them as pleasant and strives to reinforce them. In order to satisfy the higher needs, it is necessary to satisfy the lower ones. A similar categorisation is proposed by the UN Research Institute for Social Development (Zalega, 2008, p.  28). It distinguishes between basic material needs (food, housing and health), cultural needs (leisure and social security) and higher-order needs which can be satisfied only if lower-order needs are met. The same classification is adopted by Hodoly and Jevons (Zalega, 2008, p.  28). Maslov emphasises that in the case of failure to meet one of the basic needs, we primarily focus on this need and stop fulfilling higher needs. He also claims that a satisfied need ceases to have a motivational effect, and the human starts to “aim higher” (Zalega, 2008, pp.  27–28). Maslov states that another need cannot be met if the earlier one is not satisfied (Lester, 2013, p. 1027; Taormina & Gao, 2013, p. 155). However, whether he is right remains questionable. His view is widely accepted and considered universal, but it sometimes may be the case that people seek self-actualisation even if their basic needs are not met. This phenomenon is closely related with transgression.

186  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. Mature people meet all the needs mentioned previously in a harmonious and consistent manner. Giving the preference to one of the needs over others may slightly or severely affect mental health. For example, people who concentrate on earning money or self-actualisation at the expense of the need to strengthen a bond with others may begin to feel emptiness or even despair, while people who achieve fame feel very lonely and unhappy inside (Sękalski, 2017, pp. 38–39). Głaz claims that humans struggle to satisfy different needs. For example, the need for safety and security is a basic mental need which determines normal human functioning and development in every period of life. However, people are often forced to make a choice between satisfying this need and supporting their development, for example. Similarly, people often have to choose between satisfying the need for affiliation and demonstrating maturity. These issues are not easy and often require addressing the moral dimension of human functioning (Głaz, 2009, pp. 107–108; Kahoe & Meadow, pp. 8–9; Wenger & Yarbrough, 2005, p. 5). From the Christian perspective, the help of the Holy Spirit is also necessary to resolve all the difficulties with satisfying needs and to enter the path of spiritual development. In this respect, pastoral ministry, confession and spiritual direction may play a huge role (Sękalski, 2017, pp. 38–39). According to John Paul II, basic human needs cannot remain unsatisfied and human lives cannot be destroyed in the name of justice and truth. It is also necessary to help people in need to acquire knowledge, join the system of interconnections and develop appropriate habits so that they can better manage their abilities and resources. John Paul II points out that “even prior to the logic of a fair exchange of goods and the forms of justice appropriate to it, there exists something which is due to man because he is man, by reason of his lofty dignity” (John Paul II, 1991, section 34). He also draws a clear distinction between human needs and so-called artificially created needs. Unfortunately, the economic system lacks criteria needed to make a correct differentiation, and thus the Church has a huge prophetic, evaluative and educational role to play in reducing the consumption-based lifestyle (John Paul II, 1991, section 20). According to the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, an economic system does not possess criteria for correctly distinguishing new and higher forms of satisfying human needs from artificial new needs which hinder the formation of a mature personality. Thus a great deal of educational and cultural work is urgently needed, including the education of consumers in the responsible use of their power of choice, the formation of a strong sense of responsibility among producers and among people in the mass media in particular, as well as the necessary intervention by public authorities (PCJP, 2004, section 376). The document says that serious ecological problems call for an effective change of mentality leading to the adoption of new lifestyles, “in which the quest for truth, beauty, goodness and communion with others for the sake of the

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 187 common good are the factors that determine consumer choices, savings and investments.” . . . There is a need to break with the logic of mere consumption and promote forms of agricultural and industrial production that respect the order of creation and satisfy the basic human needs of all. These attitudes, sustained by a renewed awareness of the interdependence of all the inhabitants of the earth, will contribute to eliminating the numerous causes of ecological disasters as well as guaranteeing the ability to respond quickly when such disasters strike peoples and territories. (PCJP, 2004, section 486) “The human being is a person, not just an individual. The term ‘person’ indicates ‘a nature endowed with intelligence and free will”; he is therefore a reality that is far superior to that of a subject defined by the needs arising solely from his material dimension. The human person, in fact, although participating actively in projects designed to satisfy his needs within the family and within civil and political society, does not find complete self-fulfilment until he moves beyond the mentality of needs and enters into that of gratuitousness and gift, which fully corresponds to his essence and community vocation. (PCJP, 2004, section 391) According to the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern Word “Gaudium et spes” adopted by the Second Vatican Council in 1965, any way of organising and directing it which may be detrimental to any working men and women would be wrong and inhuman. It happens too often, however, even in our days, that workers are reduced to the level of being slaves to their own work. This is by no means justified by the so-called economic laws. The entire process of productive work, therefore, must be adapted to the needs of the person and to his way of life, above all to his domestic life, especially in respect to mothers of families, always with due regard for sex and age. The opportunity, moreover, should be granted to workers to unfold their own abilities and personality. . . . They should also all enjoy sufficient rest and leisure to cultivate their familial, cultural, social and religious life. They should also have the opportunity freely to develop the energies and potentialities which perhaps they cannot bring to much fruition in their professional work. (SVC, 1965, section 67) It should be stressed that the obligations of justice and love are fulfilled only if each person, contributing to the common good, according to his own abilities and the

188  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. needs of others, also promotes and assists the public and private institutions dedicated to bettering the conditions of human life. Yet, there are those who, while possessing grand and rather noble sentiments, nevertheless in reality live always as if they cared nothing for the needs of society. Many in various places even make light of social laws and precepts, and do not hesitate to resort to various frauds and deceptions in avoiding just taxes or other debts due to society. Others think little of certain norms of social life, for example those designed for the protection of health, or laws establishing speed limits; they do not even avert to the fact that by such indifference they imperil their own life and that of others. (SVC, 1965, section 30) To sum up, psychological theories propose the classifications of needs and in some cases discuss the principles governing the fulfilment of needs, while the documents of the Catholic Church stress the importance of respect for human dignity and point out that national governments should demonstrate such respect.

Justice and solidarity in the context of consumption This section addresses moral principles, especially justice and solidarity, which should govern human consumer behaviour. Pope Francis reminds us that “every effort to protect and improve our world entails profound changes in ‘lifestyles, models of production and consumption, and the established structures of power which today govern societies’ ” (Francis, 2015, section 5). Catholic discussion on consumption compels us to think about the rules governing society and, above all, justice, solidarity and the role man has to play in the society. “Human” and “giving” are the key concepts here. Pope Benedict XVI reminds us that “charity goes beyond justice,” because to love is to give, to offer what is “mine” to the other; but it never lacks justice, which prompts us to give the other what is “his,” what is due to him by reason of his being or his acting. I cannot “give” what is mine to the other, without first giving him what pertains to him in justice. If we love others with charity, then first of all we are just towards them. Not only is justice not extraneous to charity, not only is it not an alternative or parallel path to charity: justice is inseparable from charity, and intrinsic to it. Justice is the primary way of charity or . . . “the minimum measure” of it, an integral part of the love “in deed and in truth” (1 Jn 3:18), to which Saint John exhorts us. On the one hand, charity demands justice: recognition and respect for the legitimate rights of individuals and peoples. It strives to build the earthly city according to law and justice. On the other hand,

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 189 charity transcends justice and completes it in the logic of giving and forgiving. (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 6) Justice understood in this way, inseparable from charity, requires “the logic of giving and forgiving.” This logic seems to guard the logical order of the world, i.e., the sensible order of the world. Ultimately, this logic is revealed and explained by the One who comes into human society and is the Logos (cf. Gospel of John 1:1–14), who reveals love and gives himself to man and God. The discussion on justice helps us understand solidarity. Note that proper understanding of the concept of “solidarity” and the related “duty of solidarity” (John Paul II, 1987, section 9) enables us to ensure “united cooperation” (John Paul II, 1987, section 22) in the international order to create conditions for a happy life, peace and access to goods for all, and facilitates full development of every human being. The duty of solidarity implies a moral duty of those representatives of rich countries who are responsible for public affairs of the human community reaching beyond the local scope. Their decisions should be guided by a moral evaluation of all actions with a focus on universal values. Failure to fulfil the duty of solidarity leads to selfish attitudes which give rise to the forms of power over one another contrary to justice and cause various forms of imperialism and neocolonialism from the political point of view. The duty of solidarity which refers to the interdependence between individuals and groups of people means that one should seek a sense of the common good and reject all other ideologies. John Paul II describes the contemporary world in the following way: A world which is divided into blocs, sustained by rigid ideologies, and in which instead of interdependence and solidarity different forms of imperialism hold sway, can only be a world subject to structures of sin. The sum total of the negative factors working against a true awareness of the universal common good, and the need to further it, gives the impression of creating, in persons and institutions, an obstacle which is difficult to overcome. (John Paul II, 1987, section 36) Solidarity based on free will, love of neighbour and understanding of the common good in its universal dimension is particularly close to the Christian tradition, but, due to its universality, it transcends the boundaries of the religious community. Solidarity, therefore, should not be interpreted on the basis of subjectivism or psychologism implying a temporary fight against injustice to others or interim gesture of philanthropy, for example. Instead, “it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good; that is to say to the good of all and of each individual, because we are all really responsible for all” (John Paul II, 1987, section 38).

190  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. Based on this discussion, we can proceed with the issue of consumption. Note that ecclesiastical texts, e.g., those of John Paul II, also often use the term “consumerism” (John Paul II, 1987, section 28; John Paul II, 1991, sections 36, 37, 57), which is a broader concept than consumption. Consumerism not only defines consumer behaviours, but also reflects the ideology of shaping individuals in society so that they become perfect consumers of goods and services and perfect consumer of sociopolitical ideas, i.e., perfect voters, in the systems of representative power. Consumption determines the “being” and “having” of individuals and their social forms of existence. The consumption centres on man and their relation to other people, processes, ideas and things rather than what is consumed. This is a personalistic approach to man which highlights the “being” and focuses particularly on human development. Human development is threatened when people become slaves of consumption correlated with economic relations, productive forces, produced items and conceived ideas. This is because freedom of man is closely related to economic relations, productive forces, produced items and conceived ideas. In this regard, the primacy of person over things and the primacy of spirit over matter are required. This issue is raised by John Paul II: All phases of present-day progress must be followed attentively. Each stage of that progress must, so to speak, be x-rayed from this point of view. What is in question is the advancement of persons, not just the multiplying of things that people can use. . . . Indeed there is already a real perceptible danger that, while man’s dominion over the world of things is making enormous advances, he should lose the essential threads of his dominion and in various ways let his humanity be subjected to the world and become himself something subject to manipulation in many ways – even if the manipulation is often not perceptible directly  – through the whole of the organization of community life, through the production system and through pressure from the means of social communication. Man cannot relinquish himself or the place in the visible world that belongs to him; he cannot become the slave of things, the slave of economic systems, the slave of production, the slave of his own products. (John Paul II, 1979, section 16) The enslavement of man is a particularly important concept here because it puts emphasis on the personal freedom of man. A free person can fully reveal the truth about him- or herself and become the one who bestows others. The discussion on justice and solidarity, which are the concepts of particular interest for us in this place, would be incomplete if that particular human capacity to give was not taken into account. A  human being can make a gift of her- or himself and give all kinds of material and spiritual

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 191 goods. These goods should include conceived ideas, produced items, humanoriented economic relations and productive forces. The discussion on consumption requires us to focus on human development rather than multiplying the things we use. It is reasonable to assume that human development can occur only if man is allowed to be himself at the very beginning of the process. A person who is not able to cooperate with justice and solidarity is not her- or himself in full. The cooperation with justice and solidarity takes place through giving oneself, one’s own products and collective products and at the same time building capacity for accepting a gift, i.e., other people and communities (e.g., work community, political community, economic community), their products and collective products. Following the Catholic approach to common life and creation of culture of common life, actions for justice and solidarity require prior reflection on man and his freedom so that “being” rather than “having” constitutes the basis for a gift, either given or received. This aspect of actions for justice and solidarity seems to be particularly distinctive in the Catholic approach. It is “being,” individual and collective, and not “having,” that initiates and determines the ability to give. A person deprived of freedom, unable to give and receive a gift and guided by the consumption principle of “having,” becomes inevitably objectified. In such a case, interpersonal contacts are reduced to physical contacts between things and cease to form a state of being with other people, i.e., a relationship. Relationships can only be formed by free people. This reduction occurs because the role and the very existence of things are wrongly interpreted. The correct interpretation of the role and existence of things is essential for creating a culture of common life based on justice and solidarity because things are the means to be used in this process. When “having” is the goal of human life, the quality of life will be measured solely by the level of consumption, the economic growth and the amount of pleasure. As a result, the concepts which undermine the economic and materialistic values of human existence are marginalised. In practice, if there is no ontological and ethical basis for balancing the proportions between “being” and “having,” people struggle to achieve ever higher levels of possession. This leads to a radical dissatisfaction and growing desire for things. John Paul II describes this process in the following way: All of us experience firsthand the sad effects of this blind submission to pure consumerism: in the first place a crass materialism, and at the same time a radical dissatisfaction, because one quickly learns – unless one is shielded from the flood of publicity and the ceaseless and tempting offers of products – that the more one possesses the more one wants, while deeper aspirations remain unsatisfied and perhaps even stifled. (John Paul II, 1987, section 28)

192  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. Radical dissatisfaction and stifled deeper aspirations easily prove to inhibit the promotion of justice and solidarity in relationships between people and in society. A person perceived through the prism of consumption and reduced to a consumer is deprived of the ability to establish relations of solidarity and community with others. Through various kinds of efforts, works and actions in society, man can give himself, which plays a pivotal role in the process of building human solidarity. As a person, he can give himself to another person or to other persons, and ultimately to God, who is the author of his being and who alone can fully accept his gift. A man is alienated if he refuses to transcend himself and to live the experience of self-giving and of the formation of an authentic human community oriented towards his final destiny, which is God. A society is alienated if its forms of social organisation, production and consumption make it more difficult to offer this gift of self and to establish this solidarity between people. (John Paul II, 1991, section 41) A world of exacerbated consumption is at the same time a world which mistreats life in all its forms. (Francis, 2015, section 230) Christian spirituality proposes an alternative understanding of the quality of life, and encourages a prophetic and contemplative lifestyle, one capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession with consumption. We need to take up an ancient lesson, found in different religious traditions and also in the Bible. It is the conviction that “less is more.” A constant flood of new consumer goods can baffle the heart and prevent us from cherishing each thing and each moment. To be serenely present to each reality, however small it may be, opens us to much greater horizons of understanding and personal fulfilment. (Francis, 2015, section 222)

Consequences of the contemporary lifestyles of consumers Both the Agenda and Catholic social teaching show that the consumptionbased lifestyle leads to negative consequences. Both approaches assume that the modern human being does not use goods in a sustainable way (UNGA, 2015, section 28) because s/he is “unable to set limits on their immediate needs” (Francis, 2015, section 11). With respect to unlimited consumption, the Agenda and Catholic social teaching define the types and the extent of consequences of consumption in a different way. With respect to the consequences for individuals, the Agenda refers to the degradation of physical health only (UNGA, 2015,

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 193 section 12.4). The Church implies a much broader range of consequences. In addition to the degradation of physical health, she assumes damage to mental, moral and spiritual life (John Paul II, 1991, section 36). The Church claims that immoderate consumption comes from an attitude of selfishness since “human beings place themselves at the centre [and] give absolute priority to immediate convenience.” She indicates that this results in the development of an attitude of practical relativism which “sees everything as irrelevant unless it serves one’s own immediate interests” (Francis, 2015, section 122). People’s subordination to the ad hoc needs and egoism also results in a distortion of freedom because people become “slaves of possession and of immediate gratification” and can be easily manipulated (John Paul II, 1987, section 28). In addition, the obsessive focus on consumption makes man stop thinking and acting with a view to great goals and values, and his life becomes superficial (Francis, 2015, section 113–114). “The culture of consumerism, which prioritises short-term gain and private interest, can make it easy to rubber-stamp authorisations or to conceal information” (Francis, 2015, section 184). Moreover, individuals find it difficult to develop habits other than consumption (Francis, Laudato Si’ 209). The Church also points out that focus on unlimited consumption can deprive people of inner peace, reduce their ability to appreciate reality, resulting in a loss of the ability to enjoy life, and even cause sadness about what they do not possess (Francis, 2015, section 222). Social effects of uninhibited consumption perceived by the Agenda and the Church are consistent. In both cases, it is claimed that the current model of consumption threatens whole societies, especially the poor (UNGA, 2015, section 12c; Francis, 2015, section 50). The Church more clearly defines the mechanism which leads to this threat and describes the nature of this phenomenon. According to the Church’s teaching, negative effects are caused by the individual’s focus on oneself, which entails the inability to perceive problems and think about others. Moreover, the logic of instrumental reason is transferred from the way things are treated to the way people are approached. Uninhibited consumption leads not only to the treatment of goods in terms of usefulness, but also to the objectification of man (Francis, 2013, section 53; Francis, 2015, section 162). There is also indifference to other people’s problems which results from the desire to maintain a consumer lifestyle (Francis, 2013, section  54). This attitude leaves no space for the common good. The Church argues that if the society is dominated by self-centred people, the norms will be respected “only to the extent that they do not clash with personal needs,” which will certainly result in a social crisis (Francis, 2015, section 204). Another reason why the consequences of uninhibited consumption affect poor societies is because they find it more difficult than rich countries to cope with the climate change caused by consumption, e.g., global warming, especially since many of them are located in places where climate conditions have been difficult for centuries. There is also the damage caused by the export of toxic waste from rich countries and

194  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. the pollution produced by companies which operate in developing countries in a way they could never do in rich countries (Francis, 2015, section 51). Another consequence of the current consumption pattern for the poor countries is that almost a third of the food produced in developed countries is discarded. Pope Francis reminds us that “whenever food is thrown out it is as if it were stolen from the table of the poor” (Francis, 2015, section 50). The Agenda also raises the issue of food waste. It argues that food waste occurs not only during the consumption, but also during the harvest, production, distribution and retail sale (UNGA, 2015, section 12.3). Both the Agenda and Catholic social teaching recognise the consequences of the consumer lifestyle for future generations (UNGA, 2015, section 2; Francis, 2015, section 160). In contrast to the Agenda, the Church discusses the consequences of the consumer lifestyle for the culture which, shaped by the consumer lifestyle, becomes a culture of rejection. The culture of rejection encourages the quick use of objects so that they become rubbish, and promotes an attitude of rejection towards people so that they become “leftovers” (Francis, 2013, section 53). Moreover, a consumer culture supported by the mechanisms of today’s globalised economy becomes a hegemonic lifestyle, weakens cultural diversity and contributes to the cultural homogenisation of societies (Francis, 2015, section  144). Interestingly, Pope Francis expresses the conviction that contemporary architecture, its megastructures and drab apartment blocks reflect consumerism, combining “new products” with a “tedious monotony” (Francis, 2015, section 113). In contrast to the Agenda, Catholic social teaching discusses political consequences. The culture of consumption makes politicians reluctant to undertake actions which could affect the existing consumption levels or threaten foreign investments. As a result, politics focuses on immediate results and fails to develop farsighted programmes, including environmental agenda (Francis, 2015, section 178). The Agenda and Catholic social teaching are fundamentally consistent in the way they address the environmental consequences of consumption. The Agenda points out that pollution by chemicals and all types of waste and the release of harmful substances into the air, water and soil adversely affect human health and the environment (UNGA, 2015, section 12.4). The Church also raises the issue of waste-induced pollution, with particular attention to hazardous waste and its effects on human health. It also indicates negative climate change, global warming, depletion of natural resources, drought and decline in crop productivity (Francis, 2015, sections 21–27, 51). The unlimited consumption and its consequences are a new challenge for the Agenda as it was not included in the preceding Millennium Development Goals. Catholic social teaching explored this issue before. In particular, John Paul II discussed it in his encyclicals, e.g., Centesimus Annus. This previous message is, however, significantly expanded to include consequences for poor societies and the environment. The Church’s discussion on the negative consequences for the natural environment is expanded in a way

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 195 consistent with a trend that emerged in non-ecclesiastical circles. Currently, the growing interest in the issue is evident in these circles. The previously mentioned differences between the way the consequences of consumption are discussed in the Agenda and by Catholic social teaching reflect different anthropological assumptions. The Agenda reduces the discussion on humans to the physical and mental dimensions, while the Church explores it in more depth. It extends the approach of the Agenda to the spiritual dimension, including the moral sphere, and suggests the possibility of human degradation in this respect. It is also worth adding that a brief reference to the human is made in the introduction to the Agenda, which emphasises a fundamental role of human dignity. Both approaches widely accept human relations and treat the human as a social being. Different anthropological assumptions are reflected by different suggestions on types of consequences of the consumer lifestyle. The Agenda focuses on human health and the natural environment, while the Church goes beyond that to discuss the inner life of a human being. In the Church’s teaching, human good, especially the spiritual good, is the primary goal of all activities. Therefore, it should be assumed that she treats the consequences of the consumer lifestyle for the spiritual sphere of man very seriously. Despite these differences, both approaches recognise that the responsibility for the negative consequences of the consumer lifestyle lies with man. In their calls for actions aimed at changing lifestyles, neither approach objectifies a human being. They agree that a person is able to make conscious choices on consumption (UNGA, 2015, section 12.8). Both approaches also assume the principle of the primacy of human being in the event that actions to change reality are undertaken. This view is not explicitly expressed in the Agenda in its section on consumption, but its introduction clearly states that the actions set out in the Agenda are taken for human reasons (UNGA, 2015, section  2). The Church’s teaching, on the other hand, has always treated a human being as an end in themselves and argued that all activities must be subordinated to the human good (PCJP, 2004, section 132).

Conclusions In view of the rapid changes in the life of a modern human being, the issue of consumption seems increasingly important and topical. It is more and more often the case that the way man operates in the contemporary world is described as “instant.” This term reflects the attitude and behaviour which demand immediate satisfaction of, often artificial, needs. On the other hand, the question that arises is whether man living in this superficial culture is free from unconscious enslavement. The objectification of the contemporary man becomes more and more visible. This is because the requirements of contemporary decision-makers are very stringent and recognise only the value of money and possession. Therefore, the call of the Catholic Church seems extremely important, or even urgent, here. She warns

196  Mariusz Boguszewski et al. against consumerism enslavement and encourages a contemplative lifestyle that brings true joy. The difference in how the Agenda and the Catholic Church approach the consequences of consumerism should be also clearly emphasised. The Church’s view is much deeper. She says much more than the Agenda about the influence of consumerism on man and concentrates not only on the body, but also on the psyche, spirituality and morality. Pope John Paul II was particularly sensitive to this threat. In his encyclical Redemptor Hominis, he warns against a new form of man’s enslavement caused by economic relations, things, production and even his own products. It is possession and not existence that matters. Man focuses on “having” and not on “being.” In this respect, emphatic words of Pope Francis are worth noting. He uses strong metaphorical terms to show how much contemporary consumerism objectifies man. The Catholic Church has the courage to look at the real situation of contemporary people who become “rubbish” for those who have reached a high social position. The previous analysis leads to the conclusion that further research is required to understand specific problems which occur when the subjective needs of consumers are confronted with moral principles of the Church’s teaching. It should be assumed that consumer needs are often largely consistent with Catholic social teaching. However, there are probably also such areas which are completely contrary to it. Further analysis may require the used in social sciences and reaching beyond theology. The tasks set before the research teams should be to resolve issues arising out of the drama of human life and to provide common and coherent answers with the participation of scientists representing different fields of knowledge.

Works cited Benedict XVI. (2009). Caritas in veritate. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2013). Evangelii gaudium. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Francis. (2015). Laudato Si’. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Głaz, J. (2009). Preferencja wartości instrumentalnych a poczucie bezpieczeństwa singli oraz osób żyjących w stałym związku małżeńskim. Studia Psychologica, 9, pp. 105–124. John Paul II. (1979). Redemptor Hominis. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1987). Sollicitudo rei socialis. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. (1991). Centesimus Annus. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Kahoe, R. D., & Meadow, M. J. (1981). A Developmental Perspective on Religious Orientation Dimensions. Journal of Religion and Health, 20(1), pp. 8–17. Kocowski, T. (1982). Potrzeby człowieka. Koncepcja systemów. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. Lester, D. (2013). Measuring Maslov’s Hierarchy of Needs. Psychological Reports, 113(1), pp. 1027–1029. Obuchowski, K. (1983). Psychologia dążeń ludzkich. PWN. PCJP [Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace]. (2004). Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church. Libreria Editrice Vaticana.

Harmony, consumption and lifestyle 197 Sękalski, C. (2017). Potrzeby psychiczne a bieda. La Salette, 1, pp. 38–39. SVC [Second Vatican Council]. (1965). Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern Word “Gaudium et spes.” Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Taormina, R. J.,  & Gao, J. H. (2013). Maslow and the Motivation Hierarchy: Measuring Satisfaction of the Needs. American Journal of Psychology, 126(2), pp. 155–177. UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Wenger, J. L., & Yarbrough, T. D. (2005). Religious Individuals: Evaluating Their Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations at the Implicit Level of Awareness. Journal of Social Psychology, 145(1), pp. 5–16. Zalega, T. (2007). Potrzeby ludzkie i ich hierarchizacja a współczesne koncepcje konsumpcji. Problemy Zarządzania, 17(3), pp. 158–176. Zalega, T. (2008). Hierarchia potrzeb konsumpcyjnych na przykładzie mazowieckich gospodarstw domowych dotkniętych bezrobociem. Studia i Materiały, 1, pp. 23–37.

13 Climate changes as a challenge in the Anthropocene in the context of Catholic social teaching Dominika Dzwonkowska, Izabella Olejniczak and Kazimierz Pawlik Introduction People have a tremendous impact on the natural ecosystems of our planet. There is even a discussion that could possibly lead to naming the geological era after humankind. The name “Anthropocene” sounds quite ironic in this context because we have led to irreversible changes in many ecosystems, and yet the geological era’s name will commemorate us. However, there is also the other side of the coin, namely if we have led to the changes, we are responsible for making an effort to care for what is left and not allow any further destruction. This needs a joint effort of all people and a dedicated support of governments. We, however, claim that any willingness to make a change needs a determination that arises not from outer force, but from an inner one, i.e., from morality. Thus, ethical and religious motivations are, in our opinion, a crucial factor in taking care of the Earth. This chapter aims at presenting the extent of human impact on climate changes (Part 3) and the influence of climate changes on the well-being of the poorest (Part 2). The latter is the reason why there arises a moral obligation to care for the poorest along with the care for the Earth. This obligation is strongly emphasised in Catholic social teaching, which we present in Part 4. The Catholic perspective is described and presented along with the ethical and political perspectives. These two provide a wide background and ability to compare the position of conservative and liberal perspectives.

Climate change in the age of humans Human activity is one of the major causes of the observed climate warming since the mid-20th century (IPCC, 2018, p. 53). From 1880 until 2012, the global surface temperature has risen by 0.85 °C. This has a very profound impact on many ecosystems. The most serious ones include increase in droughts, floods and other extreme weather events, biodiversity losses and sea-level rise (IPCC, 2012, p.  214). Global warming has influence not only on natural ecosystems, but also on people, especially those most

Climate changes as a challenge 199 vulnerable. As it is presented in the SR15,1 many regions of the world experience greater warming than 0.85 °C, and 20–40% of the global human population (depending on the temperature dataset used) have experienced over 1.5 °C of warming in at least one season (IPCC, 2018, p.  51). This creates unprecedented risk for vulnerable people and has a severe impact on numerous ecosystems. In this chapter, we will focus mostly on the social aspect of climate changes, emphasising the human factor in contributing to the occurrence of these extreme conditions and its agential power in the age of humans, the Anthropocene. Human influence is recognised as a major cause; thus, people are obliged to take a responsibility for their actions and for the decision to either mitigate or adapt to climate changes. The “human influence has become a principal agent of change on the planet, shifting the world out of the relatively stable Holocene period into a new geological era, often termed the ‘Anthropocene’ ” (IPCC, 2018, 53). The term “Anthropocene” itself presupposes a great human impact on the Earth systems and has been proposed by Paul Crutzen (Crutzen & Stoemer, 2000). Even though the time when our species has been present on the planet is just a tiny slice of the Earth’s history, human activity has already altered or severely unbalanced some ecosystems. Geological arguments for the new geological epoch are analysed by the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) for the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), which is to decide about the formalisation of a new geological era. The beginning of the Industrial Revolution was believed to be the official start of the Anthropocene. This date has been competing with another possible starting time for the Anthropocene – the co-called early-Anthropocene proposal. According to this concept, the beginning of the new era is connected with the “expansion of agriculture and livestock cultivation more than 5,000 years ago, or a surge in mining 3,000 years ago” (Monastersky, 2015, p. 146). However, neither the Industrial Revolution nor early-Anthropocene proposal as a starting date for the new geological era were supported with unambiguous geological evidence. Thus, the Working Group came up with the idea of treating the atomic age as a start of a new era (the so-called lateAnthropocene proposal). Between 1945 and 1963, when the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty took effect, nations conducted some 500 above-ground nuclear blasts. Debris from those explosions circled the globe and created an identifiable layer of radioactive elements in sediments. At the same time, people were making geological impressions in a number of other ways – all part of what has been called the Great Acceleration of the modern world. Plastics started flooding the environment, along with aluminium, artificial fertilizers, concrete and leaded petrol, all of which have left signals in the sedimentary record. (Monastersky, 2015, p. 147)

200  Dominika Dzwonkowska et al. The group even suggested choosing the day of the first atomic-bomb blast (16.07.1945) for the official date when the Anthropocene has been started, since the sediments after the blast are a compelling geological evidence for future geologists.

Human activity and climate changes Biogeochemical cycles (e.g., of carbon and nitrogen) and water cycles have been taking place on our planet for billions of years, generating mutual interactions between land, water and atmosphere. As a result of human activity, these cycles have been disturbed, the consequences of which are already visible. Huge amounts of greenhouse gases (GHG) (e.g., CO2, CH4, N2O), especially CO2, emitted into the Earth’s atmosphere as a result of fossil fuel combustion, and land use have contributed to climate changes unprecedented in the last 800,000 years (Boyle, 2018, p. 759). The effects of climate changes are already being felt not only globally but also regionally or even locally, i.e., global temperature increases, regional weather anomalies appearing with varying degrees of intensity and frequency, desertification, rising oceans levels and biological changes, such as a decrease in biodiversity. The data contained in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports clearly indicate that the temperature of both air and oceans is rising. The average land surface air temperature recorded between 1999 and 2018 increased by 1.44 °C as compared to the pre-industrial period, i.e., to the years from 1850 to 1900 (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 141). The effect of global warming is the massive melting of glaciers and snow cover, thereby reducing freshwater resources. Permafrost melting due to rising temperatures can lead to the release of carbon into the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect. In the permafrost, a huge amount of coal is stored. According to Tarnocai et al. (2009, p. 11), it accounts for about 50% of the underground coal reserve. With global warming, changes in the length of the growing season and plant phenology are observed. For example, in the Himalaya acceleration of vegetation was found by 10 days in the spring, while shortening by a few days in autumn. Such a shift of the growing season can adversely affect the survival and reproduction of plants (Bawa et al., 2003, p. 877). In addition, the consequence of phenological changes may be the movement of vegetation into areas previously covered with glaciers and snow. Satellite research conducted at the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Himalaya showed a significant decrease in ice and snow cover, which in 2004 covered only 35% of the area as compared to 90% in 1986. Such a change caused the plant cover in the study areas of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve to increase from 1% to over 22% of the area (Singh, 2008, p. 56). Similarly to high mountain areas, also in high northern latitudes the earlier melting of snow and greening of areas are observed (e.g., Goetz et al., 2005). The lengthening of

Climate changes as a challenge 201 the growing season in some regions corresponds in others to its shortening due to high temperatures and low rainfall. Extreme weather conditions related to climate change negatively affect crops, which is associated with a threat to food security. Studies carried out in recent years indicate a decrease in yield, of 18–43%, of four staple crops, i.e., maize, soybeans, rice and spring wheat (Shevliakova et al., 2019. p. 143). Fires are considered to be an important factor shaping terrestrial ecosystems because they affect the abiotic and biotic properties of the environment. Climate can significantly affect the occurrence and severity of the fires through the production and structure of vegetation, and thus  – by the fuel availability – its distribution and flammability (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 148). With temperature rise and precipitation decline, frequent, prolonged and severe fires can be expected (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149) in spite of strenuous actions aimed at limiting the risk of fires by controlling the amount of fuel, preventing the spread of fire or finally extinguishing fires. For example, between 1979 and 2013, the fire period increased by 18.7% (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149). In addition, researchers indicate that by 2050, the frequency of fires will increase by almost 27% as compared to 2000 (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 150). It can be assumed that mainly forest ecosystems will be exposed to fires. For example, in recent decades, there has been observed an increase in burnt areas in the boreal forests (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 150). Similar scenarios are predicted for the tundra, where a considerable intensity of occurrence of severe fires can be observed. An example might be the 2007 tundra fire at Anaktuvuk River in Alaska, with the strength unprecedented for at least 5,000 years, which resulted in the burning of an area of 100,000 hectares (Jones et  al., 2009, p.  309). The amount of carbon released in this fire corresponded to the average amount of carbon absorbed by the Arctic tundra during the year throughout the last 25 years of the 20th century (Mack et al., 2011, p. 489). However, not only climate changes but also human activity is a common cause of fires around the world (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 148), although both of these factors appear to favour the emergence of fires. An example would be the tropical forest fires, which are caused on the one hand by weather anomalies (reduced rainfall, drought) and on the other by human activities related to agricultural expansion and deforestation (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149). Huge amounts of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere contribute to the observed global warming. We have a decisive share in this because the main source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), is agriculture, forestry, urbanisation and industry. It is estimated that areas for food production occupy 25% to 33% of the Earth’s surface. Agricultural areas emit huge amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. Unfortunately, further areas are deforested, drained and managed for

202  Dominika Dzwonkowska et al. agriculture, which contributes to the increase in the already high greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2. Agriculture also contributes to the enormous emissions of methane and nitrous oxide to the atmosphere. It is believed that half of the global emissions of CH4 are the result of agricultural production, particularly livestock and rice cultivation (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 159). For example, in the last decade, as much as 61% of methane emissions were of anthropogenic origin (Van Dingenen et al., 2018, p. 9). Grazing lands have been found to contribute to high N2O emissions (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 132). It is believed that more than 1/3 of the total anthropogenic N2O emissions originate from grazing lands (pastures and rangelands) (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 132). Emission of nitrous oxide is associated with the use of excessive doses of nitrogen fertilisers, often not synchronised with plants phenology (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 162). Other sources of greenhouse gases are the cities and the urbanisation processes. Although cities constitute only 0.4–0.9% of the Earth’s surface, over half of the human population lives in them (according to United Nations (2018, p.  1), by the mid-21st century, about 70% of humanity will live in cities), contributing to nearly three-quarters of global carbon emissions (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 186). Degradation of vegetation (forests, waste agricultural or semi-natural areas), both within and outside cities, contributes to the increased emissions not only of CO2, but also of other greenhouse gases (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 186). Cities are heat islands. It is believed that in cities and their surroundings, the average annual temperature near the ground can increase by up to 2.6 °C, while in the cities themselves, even by 4 °C (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 187). The increase in temperature is accompanied by deterioration of air quality, which is a major threat to the health of urban residents (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 187). If we do not realise the enormity of threats resulting from climate changes and do not take quick actions, even with optimistic scenarios (i.e., implementation of the Paris Agreement 2015), it will be difficult to keep the temperature rise below 2 °C (Boyle, 2018, p. 760), which will be catastrophic for the life of our planet.

What could be done to mitigate and adapt to climate changes? Ethical and Catholic social teaching perspective Climate changes are one of the biggest threats for the quality of lives of vulnerable people. Even though the poor have very little impact on global emissions, they will suffer climate changes the most, since most of them earn their living working in agriculture and fisheries; thus, any changes in the weather, especially extreme weather events, can threaten their crops or catch. This is the reason why climate variabilities and extreme weather events are declared as factors that contribute to “inequalities, especially for those disadvantaged by gender, age, race, class, caste, indigeneity and (dis)ability” (IPCC, 2018, p. 451). The latest research shows that there is a

Climate changes as a challenge 203 link between socioeconomic status and climate change, and climate change will exacerbate poverty (Fankhauser  & Stern, 2016). Exposure to floods or drought influences food and water security; it is also a factor that might have negative influence on health, exposing poor people to diseases (due to the weather conditions like heat stress or lack of proper sanitary conditions). On the national scale, any extreme weather event will influence the country’s economy, and low- and lower-middle-income2 economies are especially vulnerable to such changes. According to research, the rise of temperature to the level of 1.5 °C, in comparison to the level from pre-industrial revolution, could lead to 8% loss of GDP per capita; if the temperature rises to 2 °C, the loss in GDP per capita may reach 13% (Pretis et  al., 2018). This will affect mostly poor countries, thus increasing inequalities between nations. We decided to approach this issue from two perspectives, i.e., the ethical and political one. Both of them apply to the Catholic social teaching and the conservative thought. The ethical and Catholic social teaching perspective The situation of the most vulnerable raises the issue of global justice. Definitely, the global wealth distribution is extremely unequal. The so-called bottom of the pyramid or Base of the Pyramid (BOP), which denotes the lowest socio-economic segment, refers to two-thirds of the economic human pyramid. The term “BOP” was coined by Prahlad and his colleagues (cf. Prahlad,  & Lieberthal, 1998; Prahlad  & Hammond, 2002; Prahlad & Hart, 2002; Prahlad, 2004), who “define the BOP segment as people with an annual income in 2005 PPP3 terms of less than $3,260” (Ramdorai & Herstatt, 2015, p. 8). Since the 1980s, the number of extremely poor has been reduced significantly; however, still most of people at risk of poverty and BOP form the biggest group in the human economies pyramid. Such a shape of the pyramid raises a very serious question about global justice and whether we have a moral obligation to take care of the least-privileged ones. Since the publication of John Rawls’ book A Theory of Justice (1971), the question of social justice is widely discussed in philosophy. Even though Rawls himself did not mean to discuss justice in international terms, many philosophers analyse his theories in terms of global moral obligations. The very crucial ethical questions in this context are whether we are morally obliged to all people; whether the disproportions between people’s income all over the world are of any moral relevance; and whether the world’s wealth should be distributed in a more equal way. These questions about global justice are answered in various ways by moral philosophers (cf. Gillian, 2017). For example, some claim that Rawlsian principles (mainly fair equality and opportunity and difference principles) should be applied on a global scale (Caney, 2005a, 2005b; Moellendorf, 2002), while other thinkers believe that we should ground justice on the basis of capabilities (Nussbaum, 2006)

204  Dominika Dzwonkowska et al. or human rights (Pogge, 2008). Apart from philosophers, also theologians are more and more concerned about the issue of global justice. The care for the poor has been always an important issue for Catholic social teaching. The encyclical Laudato Si’ has pushed theologians to employ a new perspective on this issue, namely, to frame the care of the poorest in the context of climate changes. The encyclical sheds also a new light on previous environmental ethics’ discussions since it strongly emphasises the care for the poor as intertwined with climate changes. Thus, the encyclical is unique in both ways: it offers an ecological background for the situation of the poor, and it emphasises the necessity for care of the poor in the context of climate changes. The biggest inspiration for this pontificate and for the encyclical is Saint Francis of Assisi, who “shows us just how inseparable the bond is between concern for nature, justice for the poor, commitment to society, and interior peace” (Francis, 2015, section  10). And the main claim of the encyciclal is that we are obliged to care for nature as God’s creation; however, in our endeavours, we should always remember about the least-privileged ones and take care of the poor whom climate changes influence the most. In other words, the pope reminds us that “ecological crisis is not so much talk about the extinction of polar bears and exotic pandas, but about the plight of millions of our less fortunate brothers and sisters, members of our common household” (Kureethadam, 2019, p. 35). The harm that is done to the environment is defined by the pope as a sign of terrible social injustice, and is a sign of myopia (Francis, 2015, section  27). Caring for nature demands farsightedness that will enable one seeing further benefits not only as temporary economic gains. It needs appreciation of the intrinsic value of species and resources. It needs recognition of the kind of value that cannot be calculated in financial terms: the value that is unprecedented for current and future generations. The terrible social injustice mentioned previously is that we try to benefit “by making the rest of humanity, present and future, pay the extremely high costs of environmental deterioration” (Francis, 2015, section 27). We simply overestimate the value of economic gains and allow the economies to worsen the possibilities of using resources by many people in present and future generations. This is nothing else but a sign of intra- and inter-generational injustice that ignores the right of other living and future generations to have access to natural resources. As the pope writes, these “have caused sister Earth, along with all the abandoned of our world, to cry out, pleading that we take another course” (Francis, 2015, section 39). However, the problem is that we lack the culture that is able to deal with the care for current and future generations. In a moral sense, we lack moral competencies, character traits or simply virtues that will enable us protecting nature (Dzwonkowska, 2019). Thus, the pope introduces in his encyclical the concept of ecological virtue that

Climate changes as a challenge 205 is a moral competence enabling one to act for goodness in nature and in society. As he emphasises, only by cultivating sound virtues will people be able to make a selfless ecological commitment. A person who could afford to spend and consume more but regularly uses less heating and wears warmer clothes, shows the kind of convictions and attitudes which help to protect the environment. There is some nobility in the duty to care for creation through little daily actions. (Francis, 2015, section 154) In other words, this is only the virtue that makes us undertake activities which serve the goodness of all humanity and nature. What is more, this virtue also serves as an instrument to shape human excellence and the moral progress of a moral agent that cultivates them. Thus, environmental virtues serve as a tool to eradicate social injustice and as medium of personal moral progress. The political and Catholic social teaching perspective The fight against climate changes due to the complexity of the factors influencing the temperature change and the unpredictability of the effectiveness of the measures taken, as highlighted in the scientific debate and literature (Lever-Tracy, 2010), must be based on long-term, integrated and multilateral measures taken by different actors with a special role for states. Their obligation and the postulated directions of change have been variously evaluated by political actors. As Pope Francis emphasised, “a healthy politics is sorely needed, capable of reforming and co-ordinating institutions, promoting best practices and overcoming undue pressure and bureaucratic inertia” (Francis, 2015, section 133). Efforts made by representatives of state governments, particularly since the 1970s, have been inspired, at least in part, by local protests and campaigns staged by newly formed ecological organisations. Their activities have formed part of a broader current of contestation against the existing political and social order which has brought together socialists, representatives of the far left, anarchists and ecologists. This way, environmental problems have entered the traditional domain of left-wing politics (DośpiałBorysiak, 2019, p. 40). Naturally, of fundamental importance for the analysed topic are the programs of green parties which have set the direction and pace of proecological changes in each country. In particular, the activity of the Green Party in Germany should be noted as it was one of the first such parties in Europe to enter the Parliament in 1983. It popularised the direction of energy transformation (Energiewende), which postulated such changes as

206  Dominika Dzwonkowska et al. would result in the domination of energy from renewable sources combined with improved energy efficiency. The name of this current was first used in 1980 in a publication of the German Institute of Applied Ecology. Since then, the Energiewende direction has been recognised as a major issue by most German political parties. The increasing significance of ecological parties and their electoral successes in the 1980s and 1990s, coupled with the growing social pressure, have resulted in environmental issues, including prevention of climate change, being included in the political agendas of not only social democratic parties, but liberal and conservative ones as well. This does not mean, however, that the positions of the left and the right wing are identical. An analysis of this aspect of the political agendas of centre-left and centreright parties in Western Europe shows that all of them present both postulates aimed at climate protection and proposals whose implementation in fact contradicts the pro-ecological approach. Taking into account these two kinds of postulates, climate policy is more explicitly and consistently emphasised by left-wing parties (Minas & Ntousas, 2018), even though this does not automatically translate into a commitment to pro-ecological policy after they win the elections. In theoretical terms, efforts aimed at counteracting climate change are based on the principle of sustainable development, which is also referred to in the Agenda. It is worth noting that this principle is a relatively new concept, which only gained wider recognition in the last two decades of the 20th century. The principle of sustainable development and the principle of ecological modernisation (ecological modernism) are two concepts related to the current of environmental reform (Buttel, 2003). Ecological modernism, whose assumptions have been developed by the German sociologist Joseph Hubner, argues that the interest of economic development and industrial growth needs to be integrated with the interest of environmentalism by employing market economy mechanisms used in active state interventionism (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019, 49). In this approach, also the market should overcome the ecological crisis, which has already grown to an extent that it represents a threat to mankind. This concept implies changes which are not radical and do not undermine the existing social order (Rokicka  & Woźniak, 2016). An entirely different, more comprehensive concept is that of sustainable development, which has been popularised in the context of concern for climate protection by Barbara Ward (Satterhwaite, 2006). The British economist stressed that if humankind is to survive, its only chance is to rationalise the management of resources present on the Earth, against the conflict of two, competing factors: humanity’s drive towards a high standard of living (internal factor) – on the one hand – and the physically limited natural resources (external factor) – on the other. She linked the duty of a rational management of these resources to Christian values, which suggests a degree of convergence between the concept of sustainable development and the social teaching of the Church.

Climate changes as a challenge 207 The concept was developed in Our Common Future, a report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, which defined the term, emphasising the need for cohesion and balance between three areas: ecology (the environment), society and economy – for the sake of intergenerational solidarity. This did not result in the establishment of a uniform definition; it was more of an introduction to the discussion held on the fora of international conferences and the scientific community. Also, the mutual relationship between the concepts of eco-development and sustainable development is defined in various ways. Depending on the approach, they may be seen as synonymous, or eco-development may be seen as broader, or narrower, than the concept of sustainable development (Trzepacz, 2012). When attempting to define sustainable development, reference is made to the ideal, strong, weak and treadmill approach (Baker, 1997). The ideal model postulates comprehensive changes in production and consumption, decentralisation of political or economic institutions, and bottom-up community control. The most popular model of weak sustainable development, in turn, provides for such social and economic changes which do not disturb the functioning of ecosystems (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019). Given the divergent definitions, it is sometimes argued that it is not possible to provide a fixed definition of the concept of sustainable development (Marx & Wulsdorf, 2002). While taking into account these divergent tendencies, it is possible to conclude, however, that in each model of sustainable development, a significant role is played by the specific goal of achieving a state of equity. This is reflected in the teaching of the Church. In Laudato Si’, Pope Francis says that “we can no longer speak of sustainable development apart from intergenerational solidarity” (Francis, 2015, section 118). Some convergence is manifested in the perception of equity in the literature of the subject, when it is claimed to have two dimensions: that of equitable distribution of resources in the generational perspective (intergenerational dimension) and of equitable distribution of resources within a single generation alive at a time (intra-generational dimension). It should be noted, however, that an appropriate balance between the goals of the inter-generational and intra-generational dimensions is not easy to achieve as it is not possible to precisely identify the needs of future generations. In its extreme form, this may even lead to limiting consumption for the sake of safeguarding resources for generations to come to such an extent that it is not possible to achieve the expected improvement in the situation of less-developed countries, and consequently the projected intra-generational dimension becomes upset. The achievement of social equity postulated by the principle of sustainable development requires active state participation. The thesis, made from the perspective of political science, that equity in both the intra-generational and inter-generational dimensions as regards the climate may best be achieved in the conditions of national states seems to be quite right; due to axiological and institutional reasons, however, an international policy for climate protection is difficult to effectively implement

208  Dominika Dzwonkowska et al. (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019). Despite concerns related even to the very definition of sustainable development, it may be considered the most significant concept to have become a motto of social, economic and first of all environmental change over the past years. No wonder, then, that also the 2030 Agenda makes a reference to the postulate of sustainable development when discussing the problems of counteracting climate change. The concept is referred to not only in national or international documents, but also in the social teaching of the Catholic Church. Pope Francis seeks equity in concern for the poorest, which comes together with the commitment to protecting the creation.

Conclusions Particular responsibility for the proper implementation of climate policy and cooperation in this regard rests on the states. Efforts made by governments in this area have been particularly visible since the 1970s, to a large extent as a result of grassroots initiatives of citizens staging local protests or becoming involved in organised activities in the form of ecological organisations. These organisations and the newly formed ecological parties have become part of the traditional domain of left-wing political formations. In practice, however, postulates to counteract climate changes and projects aimed at preventing a further rise in temperature have also become reflected in liberal or even conservative thought. The fundamental difference between conservatives and liberals is their approach to the social issues. Liberals tend to focus on environmental issues and sometimes blame people for the situation; this can be seen in the criticism of anthropocentrism. On the other side of the ideological barricade, there are conservatives who include care for the poorest, thus making social issues a part of the environmental problem. Pope Francis criticises a distorted anthropocentrism and keeps a weak anthropocentrism, which is very much in line with Catholic social teaching. This means that they keep Catholic belief in the privileged position of people; however, this is only a form of weak anthropocentrism that includes a certain obligation towards nature. Namely, there is a qualitative difference between people and the rest of creation, but this presupposes care for the Earth, not its exploitation. This belief induced Pope Francis to take care of the poorest – the cornerstone of the care for the environment. Thus, environmental strategy is much more holistic because it includes caring for all beings without excluding any of them.

Notes 1 Global Warming of 1.5 °C. IPCC Special Report on the impact of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial level and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty.

Climate changes as a challenge 209 2 Low-income economies are those with a GNI (gross national income) per capita of $1,025 or less in 2015; lower-middle-income economies are those with a GNI of $1,026–$4,035 per capita (World Bank, 2017). The World Bank includes in its reports two other types of economies: upper-middle income ($4,036–$12,475) and high income ($12,476 or more). 3 PPP = Purchasing Power Parity.

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14 The protection of seas and oceans in light of international law and Catholic social teaching Katarzyna Cichos, Barbara Strzałkowska, Monika M. Brzezińska and Krzysztof Opaliński Introduction Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG14) of the UN’s Resolution 70/1 adopted on 25 September  2015 (2030 Agenda) (UNGA, 2015) addresses inappropriate management of seas and oceans. Pollution and climate change, including temperature rise and global warming, affect not only ecosystems of seas and oceans, but also the lives of billions of people around the world. The aim of this chapter is to compare the global policy and legal framework with Catholic social teaching in the area of the protection of seas and oceans. It discusses the reasons for the protection of seas and oceans from the social and environmental point of view as well as from the perspective of the Bible and Catholic social teaching. It also attempts to determine how the protection of seas and oceans is addressed in international law and documents of the Catholic Church, and to what extent these two approaches are consistent with each other. The final section presents an example of the Baltic Sea as a practical implementation of Target 14.5 and attempts to assess the coherence of ideas, legal approaches and practical solutions in this respect.

The need for constant environmental protection of seas, oceans and marine resources, and the genesis of the idea The oceans contain 97% of the world’s water, account for 99% of the Earth’s living space and cover three-quarters of its surface. Since the 1980s, the oceans have absorbed about 20–30% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions and become more acidified. Combined atmospheric and oceans processes drive weather and climate on Earth. The oceans absorb most of the solar radiation reaching Earth, and this can lead to extreme weather events, such as drought and rain. Hurricanes and cyclones are also increasingly caused by condensation of water. Most of the rain that falls on Earth comes from the tropics. Over the last 50,000 years, large and sudden climate changes have been caused by changes in oceans circulation (OL, 2020).

The protection of seas and oceans 213 According to the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, “it is virtually certain that the global ocean has warmed unabated since 1970 and has taken up more than 90% of the excess heat in the climate system” (Gattuso, 2019). In addition, the ocean warming trend revealed in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report from 2015 continues. Since 1993, “the rate of ocean warming has more than doubled.” The consequences of this are as follows: • Ice sheets and glaciers worldwide have lost mass. • Permafrost temperatures have increased to record high levels (1980s– present), with the recent increase by 0.29 °C ± 0.12 °C from 2007 to 2016 averaged across polar and high mountain regions globally. • Anthropogenic climate change has increased observed precipitation and extreme sea level events associated with some tropical cyclones. • Since about 1950, many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes (rates of poleward shifts in distributions are 52 ± 33 km per decade and 29 ± 16 km per decade for organisms in the epipelagic zone, i.e., the layer up to 200 m from the sea surface, and seafloor ecosystems, respectively). • Nearly 50% of coastal wetlands (which protect the coastline from storms and erosion and help buffer the impacts of sea level rise) have been lost over the last 100 years. • Marine heat waves have already resulted in large-scale coral bleaching events at increasing frequency causing worldwide reef degradation since 1997. Prolonged periods of high environmental temperature and dehydration of the organisms pose high risk to rocky shore ecosystems (Gattuso, 2019). Changes in marine ecosystems have a strong impact on human communities. The areas particularly exposed to ocean and cryosphere change include human communities in close connection with coastal environments, small islands (including Small Island Developing States [SIDS]), polar areas and high mountains. Other communities, i.e., those which do not have direct access to the coast, are also exposed to changes in the oceans, e.g., through extreme weather events. Today, around 4 million people live permanently in the Arctic region. The low-lying coastal zone is currently home to around 680 million people (nearly 10% of the 2010 global population), projected to reach more than one billion by 2050. SIDS are home to 65 million people. Another 670  million people (nearly 10% of the 2010 global population) live in high mountain regions (Gattuso, 2019). Marine and coastal biodiversity keeps 3 billion people alive, about 200 million people in the world (largely from developing countries) are engaged in fisheries and the market value of global industrial production is about 5% of global GDP. For more than 3 billion people, marine resources are the main source of protein.

214  Katarzyna Cichos et al. According to Constanza et  al. (1997), the value of the Earth’s ecosystem services is USD 33 trillion (33 × 1012) per year, which is many times higher than the global GDP (about USD 85 billion), while the value of the open ocean services is estimated at USD 22,832 per hectare per year (Constanza et al., 2017). However, studies on the state of the seas and oceans show that one-third (33.1%) of the world’s fish stocks are fished unsustainably (FAO, 2018) and the size of the marine population decreased by almost half (49%) between 1970 and 2012 (WWF, 2015). Despite the fact that the relationship of seas and oceans with the life of each individual is evident, it is widely believed that climate change is a fabrication of lobbyists while Earth is subject to man and its resources may be exploited without limitations. Climate change may become a direct existential threat to life in seas and oceans, and affect the lives of millions of people around the world. Therefore, given the role of the Catholic Church in shaping social attitudes, it seems reasonable to look at how seas and oceans are perceived in the Bible and Catholic social teaching. Although, in biblical times, people were not aware of the existence of oceans and their role in the whole ecosystem, as this knowledge was acquired by mankind many centuries later, biblical narratives emphasise that seas and all waters, and the creatures living in them, are an important part of creation and emerged before the earthly creatures and man came into existence (cf. Genesis 1:1–2:4a). In the biblical narrative of creation (Genesis 1–3), seas and oceans (Hebr. Yam, Yammim; Genesis 1:10) are part of the created world to be supervised, maintained and taken care of by man according to God’s command. This interpretation of Genesis is also present in the teaching of John Paul II (cf. John Paul II, 1990, section  3). Further, according to the biblical narrative, many aquatic creatures were to serve as food for man. Some seafood and many species of fish were deemed kosher and edible by the Israelites (cf. Majewski, 2019). Some biblical stories imply fishing (cf. the stories on Jesus’ disciples by the Sea of Galilee, i.e., the Lake Tiberias, which, in fact, is a freshwater lake). Nevertheless, seas and oceans is not a common topic in the biblical stories. This is because Israelites belonged to the “peoples of the desert” and did not possess extensive sailing skills in large areas of water, excluding lakes, in ancient times. Even more surprisingly, it was believed that the great seas, i.e., the neighbouring seas of Israel, the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, give rise to monsters and dangers (cf. The Book of Job). This is also why the Bible does not tell about great sea voyages (cf. one of a few such stories in the Book of Jonah and the voyages of St. Paul described in the Acts of the Apostles). As a result, the desire to “subdue” the seas to act in accordance with God’s commandment to subdue the Earth is rarely expressed. The anthropocentric approach which assumes that people “rule” the oceans was developed only after “new lands” were discovered and the process of industrialisation was accelerated. At that time, misinterpretations of biblical texts inspired some to exploit

The protection of seas and oceans 215 earthly and marine resources (cf. L. T. White Jr., 1967, pp.  1203–1207). The expansion of mankind led to the development of theological reflection in this respect. In the mid-20th century, with the increase in the use of the natural environment, the proper interpretation of the biblical text and God’s command became an urgent need. Among the new ways of biblical interpretation, the ecological hermeneutics of the Bible is one of the possible contextual approaches to Scripture recommended by the Pontifical Biblical Commission (PBC) in its well-known document of 1993 The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church. The concept was fully developed in recent years (cf. Palmer, 2006; Horell, 2008; Habel, 2012, 2013; Twardziłowski, 2015, 2017b). This new study approach in biblical sciences resulted in the creation of the Earth Bible Project, which was introduced at the Symposium on Ecology and Religion in Adelaide, Australia, in 1997 (cf. Habel, 2012, p. 97). The document was published in five volumes under the common title The Earth Bible (cf. Readings from the Perspective of Earth; The Earth Story in Genesis; The Earth Story in Wisdom Traditions; The Earth Story in the Psalms and Prophets; The Earth Story in the New Testament). Currently, there are a number of ecological studies of the Bible (e.g., The Earth Bible Commentary, with its last volume published in 2016; cf. Tonstad, 2016; Błąd, 2016; Twardziłowski, 2017a; Majewski, 2019). The new interpretation of the Bible with reference to ecological issues appeared in papal teaching long before that. Referring to Genesis 1–3, John Paul II emphasises that biblical narratives “help us to understand better the relationship between human activity and the whole of creation. When man turns his back on the Creator’s plan, he provokes a disorder which has inevitable repercussions on the rest of the created order” (cf. John Paul II, 1990, section 5). Human history recorded various abuses of the environment. It should be stressed that the teaching of the Catholic Church has always treated man’s failure to take care of creation or harm caused by man in this respect as a sin which required conversion. As a result, the “ecological problem” has become a relevant concept in biblical studies, moral theology and Catholic social teaching. The urgent need for “ecological conversion” from “ecological sin” has been highlighted (both terms, used for the first time by John Paul II, have been widely developed by the current pope).

Catholic social teaching and legal framework  for the protection of seas and oceans At the international level, regulations on territorial waters, sea routes and ocean resources are defined as the law of the sea. They are primarily based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 preceded by the four Geneva Conventions of 1958. One of the aims of the

216  Katarzyna Cichos et al. Convention was to clarify and define the scope of responsibility for marine resources in order to encourage all signatories to the Convention to “protect and preserve the marine environment” (Barboza et al., 2019). The Convention of 1982 established the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the International Seabed Authority responsible for the so-called Mineral Exploration Code of Practice, and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf engaged in scientific and technical advice. Besides the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, the international community adopted the Convention of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and a number of local conventions whose primary aim was to reduce and combat marine pollution, i.e., the International Convention on Oil Pollution, London, 1954; the International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, Brussels, 1969; the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, Brussels, 1969; the Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil, Bonn, 1969; the Agreement concerning Co-operation in Measures to Deal With Pollution of the Sea by Oil, Copenhagen, 1971; the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972; and a number of other instruments. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Regional Seas Programme were also established to protect seas and oceans and to promote the sustainable use of their resources. The Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG14) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the UN in 2015 addresses the protection of seas. Under the Agenda, countries committed themselves, inter alia, to prevent and significantly reduce the level of marine pollution, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution, protect and sustainably manage marine and coastal ecosystems by strengthening their resilience and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans. In addition to the pollution, climate change and, in particular, global warming which rises, ocean temperatures are a big challenge for marine and ocean ecosystems in future. Due to ocean warming, coral reefs will decline by 70 to 90  percent at 1.5 degrees Celsius warming and become all but nonexistent at 2 degrees Celsius warming. Therefore, as clearly indicated in the IPCC Report, ocean warming can have tragic consequences for billions of people on Earth (Gattuso, 2019). For this reason, it is reasonable to assume that the Paris Agreement of 2015 is essential for the implementation of SDG14. The Agreement proposes to reduce emissions, keep the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels to reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.

The protection of seas and oceans 217 For the commitments to be fulfilled, the consensus has to be reached not only in legal terms (which probably has already been done over the last few decades), but also at the level of ideas, goals and implementation activities. In this respect, the attitude of the representatives of the Catholic Church seems extremely important. The Catholic Church, which, over the centuries, has raised issues essential for the international community, is currently still perceived as an authority by many people. Since the protection of nature results directly from the biblical texts, it seems vitally important to interpret them correctly. This interpretation, in turn, falls within the area of expertise of Catholic social teaching. The passage of the Book of Genesis referred to earlier is also explored by Pope Francis in his speech to the participants of the International Conference on the Care of the Oceans in Malta. He argues that science and faith can be fruitfully complementary to each other, for the common good: “The Book of Genesis teaches that in the beginning ‘the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters’ ” (Francis, 2017, pp. 1–2). This verse reminds us that the oceans hold particular importance for many religions. Spirituality can provide powerful incentives for the protection of the oceans, and, more generally, for the care of all creation (cf. Francis, 2015, section 216; Francis, 2017). According to the principles of the integral ecology proposed by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’, man has a duty to commit himself to the protection of a gift from God. Man’s failure to care for creation has a number of consequences: “The complaint, cry and call of creation are above all calls for the improvement of men. The fate of the world is integrally connected with the spiritual and moral condition of mankind, i.e. every man” (cf. Chrostowski, 2016, p. 165). Pope Francis emphasises that authentic human development has a moral character. It presumes full respect for the human person, but it must also be concerned for the world around us and “take into account the nature of each being and of its mutual connection in an ordered system.” (Francis, 2015, section 5) The contemporary social doctrine of the Church follows the biblical discussion on ecological issues. It recognises the need to protect the Earth, oceans and their resources, and to take responsibility for the created world and its stewardship (Chrostowski, 2016, pp.  164–165; cf. Müller, 2016). The first reference in the teaching of the Catholic Church on the protection of seas, oceans and other water resources within the framework of environmental protection appears in the writings of Pope Paul VI. Ecological discussion of the Church held by Leo XIII and Pius XI do not refer to oceans at all. Note, however, that, in 1922, Pius XI created the so-called Apostleship of the Sea to care for sailors, fishermen, their families, sea and port personnel and those who travel by sea. In 1972, the Holy See prepared

218  Katarzyna Cichos et al. the document for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm (June, 5–17, 1972). It presents the opinion of a group of experts who discuss the fundamental relationship between human life and care for the environment: “Human dependence on the environment as directly proportional to the rate of resource exploitation, environmental devastation” (cf. Mazur, 1993, pp. 4–5). This idea was later expanded by successive popes: John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. The pressing need to care for the oceans, which “contain the bulk of our planet’s water supply, and also most of the immense variety of living creatures, many of which are threatened for various reasons,” is underlined in the papal video message accompanying the Holy Father’s intentions of prayers for September 2019. Pope Francis proclaimed them on 31 August 2019 as part of the Pope’s Worldwide Prayer Network of the Apostleship of Prayer (cf. Apostleship of Prayer, 2019). The same idea is expressed by the Pope in his encyclical Laudato Si’, combining the care for the oceans with concerns about the greenhouse effect: Warming has effects on the carbon cycle. It creates a vicious circle which aggravates the situation even more, affecting the availability of essential resources like drinking water, energy and agricultural production in warmer regions, and leading to the extinction of part of the planet’s biodiversity. The melting in the polar ice caps and in high altitude plains can lead to the dangerous release of methane gas, while the decomposition of frozen organic material can further increase the emission of carbon dioxide. . . . Carbon dioxide pollution increases the acidification of the oceans and compromises the marine food chain. If present trends continue, this century may well witness extraordinary climate change and an unprecedented destruction of ecosystems, with serious consequences for all of us. A rise in the sea level, for example, can create extremely serious situations, if we consider that a quarter of the world’s population lives on the coast or nearby, and that the majority of our megacities are situated in coastal areas. (Francis, 2015, section 24) Francis praises those countries which made large efforts to protect the oceans, for example by creating the so-called “sanctuaries on land and in the ocean,” i.e., places in which any human intervention which may disturb the environment is prohibited (Francis, 2015, section  37). He emphasises that such places must be under special protection because they are vitally important for the entire global ecosystem and protect other forms of life (Francis, 2015, section 37). Characteristically, Pope Francis combines care for the oceans and seas with care for the poor. In fact, most poor countries are to a certain extent dependent on seas or oceans. This way, the concern for the environment does not only affect ecology, but also fosters the development of societies, at

The protection of seas and oceans 219 the national and international level, and every human being. It perfectly fits into the Christian anthropology and gives the concern for the natural environment a universal and integral value (Francis, 2015, sections 172, 175). This point is also discussed by Pope John Paul II in the Message for the Celebration of the XXIII World Day of Peace, especially in section 8, and in the important Post-Synodal Exhortation Ecclesia in Oceania, which emphasises, especially in section 31, that the entire Oceania is largely dependent on seas and oceans, and the concern for them is a natural extension of concern for man and society. When resources are exploited, the poor coastal countries are those which suffer most, both economically and existentially. The rise of ocean levels threatens the livelihoods of many of them. The practical implementation of papal teaching is reflected in initiatives undertaken by the Catholic Church and her organisations, e.g., Caritas in Oceania. Such Catholic organisations perfectly reflect the idea of promoting sustainable and integral development in which the concern for the environment assumes the concern for man and vice versa. The teaching of the Catholic Church is largely consistent with anthropology and remains open to the issues raised by international organisations. This point is also explored by Pope Francis in his speech addressed to people gathered at the Fourth International Conference on Our Ocean, an Ocean for Life in Malta (Francis, 2017). With respect to oceans, Francis strongly encourages a concerted effort to address a number of pressing issues that directly affect the welfare of countless men and women: human trafficking, slave labour and inhumane working conditions associated with the fishing industry and commercial shipping, the standard of living and development opportunities in coastal communities and the families of those who fish, and the situation of islands threatened by rising sea levels. (Francis, 2017) In the letter, the pope uses a precise language similar to the one used in documents of international organisations. This shows that the Church goes beyond theoretical reflections on general topics. She proposes specific actions and addresses real problems associated with seas and oceans. The letter ends with two final conclusions, crucial for all the ecological teaching of Pope Francis: The first is recognition of our duty to care for the oceans as part of an integrated vision of human development. The second concerns the need for multilateral governance aimed at the pursuit of the common good and equipped to operate at the global and regional levels, guided by international law and inspired by the principle of subsidiarity and respect for the dignity of each human person. (cf. Francis, 2015, section 174; Francis, 2017)

220  Katarzyna Cichos et al. According to the Pope: The oceans are the common heritage of the human family. Only with a deep sense of humility, wonder and gratitude can we rightly speak of the ocean as “ours.” . . . We cannot pretend to ignore the problems of ocean pollution resulting, for example, from plastic and micro-plastics that enter the food chain and cause grave consequences for the health of marine and human life. Nor can we remain indifferent before the loss of coral reefs, essential places for the survival of marine biodiversity and the health of the oceans, as we witness a marvellous marine world being transformed into an underwater cemetery, bereft of colour and life. (cf. Francis, 2015, section 41; Francis, 2017) The documents of the Church referred to previously provide a clear and coherent picture which confirms that the concern for seas and oceans, which is part of the concern for the environment, should always be multidimensional. It should extend beyond the integrated actions addressing various elements of nature to include, above all, the concern for man who is dependent on nature and at the same time acts as its caring guardian. This vision is also underlined by Francis in the very current Message of His Holiness Pope Francis for the Celebration of the LIII World Day of Peace on January 1, 2020: Peace as a Journey of Hope: Dialogue, Reconciliation and Ecological Conversion (cf. Francis, 2020). Seas and oceans are “a gift and a task,” a guarantee of human existence and, at the same time, a subject of human concern reflected in the concern for sustainable development.

Implementation challenges – the Baltic Sea case The sea is the lifeblood of Europe. It has about 70,000  km of coastline bordering two oceans and four seas, which accounts for about 40% of its GDP and population. The EU waters are legally protected under Articles 191–193 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Furthermore, the protection of Europe’s marine waters is based on four regional sea conventions: the OSPAR Convention of 1992 (for the Atlantic), the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM) of 1992, the Barcelona Convention (UNEPMAP) of 1995 (for the Mediterranean Sea) and the Bucharest Convention of 1992 (for the Black Sea). Interregional cooperation on marine and river basin environment protection has resulted in several macro-regional EU strategies: the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (2009), the EU Strategy for the Danube Region (2011) and the EU Strategy for the Adriatic-Ionian Region (2014). In addition, member states adopted the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (17 June 2008, 2008/56/EC), the Directive on ShipSource Pollution and on the Introduction of Penalties for Infringements

The protection of seas and oceans 221 (7 September  2005, 2005/35/EC) and the amending Directive to Ensure That Persons Responsible for Discharges of Polluting Substances into the Sea Are Subject to Effective and Dissuasive Criminal or Administrative Penalties (21 October  2009, 2009/123/EC). Following the Erika accident in 1999, the EU established the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) to strengthen maritime safety. The Agency is responsible, inter alia, for preventing and responding to pollution caused by ships and installations. In response to the IPCC Report (Gattuso, 2019), the Council adopted conclusions (19 November 2019, 14249/19) on seas and oceans emphasising that climate change is an immediate existential threat to life in seas and oceans around the world. The Council also called for increased political action at all levels of governance to protect marine and coastal ecosystems. It should be noted that the EU has been making efforts to protect marine resources for years. Action to achieve Target 14.5 of 2030 Agenda, i.e., the protection of coastal waters, is a notable example of such efforts. The EU establishes, inter alia, Marine Reserves, i.e., strictly protected marine areas in which the extraction and exploitation of living and mineral resources is not permitted. According to the Atlas of Marine Protection, only 4.8% of the world ocean is currently under protection, in any form, and only 2.2% is covered by Marine Reserves. The percentage of marine areas under protection in individual European countries varies between 5% and 30%. Lunney et al. (1997) suggested that European countries should protect 20% of their marine areas. In Poland, Nature 2000 Marine Areas, Marine Reserves, National Parks and Marine Landscape Parks cover 20% of Polish Marine Areas (Węsławski et al., 2010), which theoretically means that, locally, the Target 14.5 of the 2030 Agenda has already been achieved in the Baltic region. Despite the legal protection, the Baltic remains one of the most polluted seas in the world, which is due to a number of factors. Nutrients causing eutrophication and pharmaceutical waste are the most dangerous pollutants (Vieno et  al., 2007). The Baltic Sea is surrounded by nine countries. Only three of them, i.e., Denmark, Poland and Sweden, have a downward trend in the amount of nutrients discharged into the Baltic Sea. Latvia and Russia have increased their inflows. The agricultural inflow of nutrients has remained at the same level or increased (ECA, 2016). The use of myogens in agriculture has been slightly reduced, but this has not yet reduced the eutrophication of the Baltic coastal waters. The effects may be visible after several years. The discharge of brine is yet another challenge for the Baltic Sea. Brine waste is discharged to the Bay of Puck (South Baltic Sea) with a salinity of 4–8 PSU from wash-out deposits of salt of 300 PSU at 300 m3 per hour. The investor (state company) measures the composition of brine, heavy metals and other substances, but it does not make them available to the public, claiming that the brine does not threaten the marine ecosystem (Sokołowski

222  Katarzyna Cichos et al. et al., 2019). However, it can be observed that fish in the bay are all but nonexistent as well as pinched and ulcerated. Undoubtedly, the ecosystems will also be negatively affected by the construction of the channel through the Vistula Spit to connect the Vistula Lagoon with the open Baltic Sea and the creation of a 5-metre-deep navigable channel through a lagoon with an average depth of 1.5 m. The channel will be dug through semiliquid bottom sediments (detritus gyttja) with a thickness of 10 m (Kotliński, 1991; Szymczak, 2019). The ecological effects of this investment can be easily predicted. They include water turbidity, reduction of primary production and collapse of the entire food chain, including the destruction of the spawning grounds of Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) (Fey et  al., 2014). This may lead to a hundredfold reduction of the value of Ecosystem Services of this marine area from the estuary level (USD 22,832 per hectare per year) to the open ocean level (USD 252) (Węsławski, Andrulewicz et al., 2006; Węsławski, Urbański et al., 2010). Dunes and beaches can be adversely affected by tourism. The littoral zone has so far been considered as an insignificant biotope. However, recent studies have shown that marine littoral and sandy beaches play an important role in the transfer of energy and matter from the marine ecosystem and act as effective biological filters (Urban-Malinga, Kotwicki et al., 2004; UrbanMalinga Gherskire et al., 2008; Opaliński et al., 2010). The human impact (tourism, recreation, trampling, cleaning, fertilisation) on this biotope is not sufficiently understood (Węsławski et al., 2000). The Baltic Sea may also be threatened by offshore wind farms. Until now, they seemed to be the optimal solution for energy production. However, the hardening of the sandy seabed for the foundations of windmills may have a very negative impact on the benthic ecosystems of the coastal marine waters (Węsławski et al., 2010; Vanaverbeke et al., 2020). According to Węsławski et al., Polish coastal waters of the Baltic Sea are potentially the greatest asset of the marine ecosystem of the Polish Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea as they provide approx. EUR 700 million annually (Węsławski et al., 2006). Environmentalists have cooperated with the Catholic Church in relatively few areas so far. In 2003, the Fifth Symposium “The Baltic Sea, Common Heritage, Shared Responsibility,” took place. The event was held by Bartholomew I, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Representatives of various churches and religions, scientists, politicians and experts spent over a week on a ship sailing on the Baltic Sea to discuss ethical issues related to the principles of eco-justice, development issues regarding the world and the Baltic region, and specific issues on the state of the environment of the Baltic Sea and the whole region. This was the fifth edition of ecological symposium held by Bartholomew I, sometimes called the Green Patriarch by the media. “Religion, Science and the Environment” is a guiding principle of the symposiums. The first symposium took place in 1995 on a ship sailing on

The protection of seas and oceans 223 the Aegean Sea. In 2002, during the fourth symposium held on the Adriatic Sea, Patriarch Bartholomew I  cosigned the joint Venice Declaration with Pope John Paul II. The declaration addressed the need to articulate a code of environmental ethics (Jaromi, 2003). Hopefully, more such initiatives will be launched, also on the part of the Polish Church.

Conclusions Although the 2030 Agenda and the teaching of the Catholic Church are deemed mutually exclusive, the former being eccentric while the latter purely anthropocentric, they seem largely consistent with each other and with the current regulations of international law. Both approaches indicate very clearly that the degradation of the environment indirectly affects man, both economically and existentially. Pope Francis repeatedly addresses the issues associated with the protection of the environment and indicates the challenges which humanity has to confront to protect the world. Referring to seas and oceans, he lists, like the 2030 Agenda, specific threats, such as uncontrolled fishing, disappearing species of creatures living in seas and oceans, especially in coral reefs, and other dangers which threaten man (Francis, 2015, sections 40–41). Unfortunately, extensive efforts to reduce pollution of seas and oceans, protect coastal and marine areas, and restore their ecosystems face a number of difficulties. The studies and statistics prove this. It is evidenced that the state of seas, oceans and marine resources, e.g., the Baltic Sea, continue to deteriorate. On the other hand, the growing awareness of the benefits which humanity derives from seas and oceans seems optimistic. The data for 2000–2018, which indicate the increase of protected areas of marine biodiversity from 30% to 44% (UN, 2019, p. 13) and the protection of 104 out of 220 areas of the coastline under target 14.5 of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2019, p. 52), are also promising. To define and institutionalise the problems, and to create a legal order in this respect, one needs time and appropriate tools and mechanisms. The effectiveness of measures is determined by multilateral discussions and negotiations at the international, national and local level. The aim is to deal with the diverse national interests which often prevail over shared responsibility for the common good. This is a complex and years-long process. In light of these factors, the urgency for continuous ecological conversion is even more highlighted. In his letter to the participants of the conference on oceans, Pope Francis points out the need to establish a fruitful collaboration between science and faith, acquire knowledge and express concern in accordance with the principles of integral ecology; he says: “Science and religion, with their distinctive approaches to understanding reality, can enter into an intense dialogue fruitful for both” (cf. Francis, 2015, section  62; Francis, 2017). Therefore, it seems necessary to intensify cooperation regarding the

224  Katarzyna Cichos et al. implementation of the 2030 Agenda. The UN, the EU, state authorities and the Church should endeavour to protect seas and oceans at both the global and local level with the involvement of local Church representatives who influence the awareness of coastal residents.

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226  Katarzyna Cichos et al. Influence on Puck Bay Ecosystem. www.iopan.gda.pl/kbm/pl/StanowiskoKBM_ solanka_30052019.pdf Szymczak, E. (2019). Characteristics of Sediments in a Changing Environmental Condition in Vistula Lagoon (Poland). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 362, 012048. Tonstad, S. K. (2016). The Letter to the Romans: Paul Among the Ecologists. The Earth Bible Commentary 7. Sheffield Academic Press. Twardziłowski, T. (2015). Ekologiczna hermeneutyka Biblii: cele, rezultaty, zastosowania. Wydawnictwo UKSW. Twardziłowski, T. (2017a). Ocalić stworzenie. Teoria i zastosowanie ekologicznej hermeneutyki Biblii. Instytut Papieża Jana Pawła II. Twardziłowski, T. (2017b). Polecenie panowania nad stworzeniem (Rdz 1,26–28) w ekologicznej hermeneutyce Biblii. Collectanea Theologica, 87(1), pp. 5–24. UN [United Nations]. (2018). The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2018. UN. UN [United Nations]. (2019). The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019. UN. UNGA [United Nations General Assembly]. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Urban-Malinga, B., Kotwicki, L., Gheskiere, T. L. A., Jankowska, K.,  Opaliński, K. W., & Malinga, M. (2004). Composition and Distribution of Meiofauna, Including Nematode Genera, in Two Contrasting Arctic Beaches. Polar Biology, 27(8), pp. 447–445. Urban-Malinga, B., Gherskire, T., Degraer, S., Derycke, M., Opalinski, K. W.,  & Moens, T. (2008). Gradients in Biodiversity and Macroalgal Wrack Decomposition Rate Across a Macrotidal, Ultradissipative Sandy Beach. Marine Biology, 155, pp. 79–90. Vanaverbeke, J., Van Colen, C., Moens, T., et  al. (2020). Project PERSUADE: Experimental Approaches Towards Future Sustainable Use of North Sea Artificial Hard Substrates. www.researchgate.net/project/PERSUADE Vieno, N., Tuhkanen, T., & Kronberg, L. (2007). Elimination of Pharmaceuticals in Sewage Treatement Plants in Finland. Water Research, 41, pp. 1001–1012. Węsławski, J. M., Andrulewicz, E., Kotwicki, L., et al. (2006). Basis for a Valuation of the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea: Rationale and Quest for Tools. Oceanologia, 48, pp. 145–167. Węsławski, J. M., Urban-Malinga, B., Kotwicki, L., Opaliński, K. W., Szymelfenig, M., & Dutkowski, M. (2000). Sandy Coastlines – Are There Conflicts Between Recreation and Natural Values? Oceanological Studies, 29(2), pp. 5–18. Węsławski, J. M., Urbański, J., Kryla-Staszewska, L., et al. (2010). The Difference Uses of Sea Space in Polish Marine Areas: Is Conflict Inevitable? Oceanologia, 52. White JR., L. T. (1967). The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis. Science, 155, pp. 1203–1207. WWF [World Wide Fund for Nature]. (2015). WWF’s Living Blue Planet Report 2015. WWF International. www.worldwildlife.org/publications/living-blue-planetreport-2015

15 Land and soil sustainable management in SDG15 and in Catholic social teaching Bartosz Adamczewski, Krassimira Ilieva-Makulec, Agnieszka Klimska and Agata Kosieradzka-Federczyk Introduction One of the most important goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development concerns life on land (SDG15). It seems that among the issues mentioned in SDG15, soil degradation and preservation is the matter which is least studied in theory and most neglected in practice. Therefore, this chapter particularly refers to the problems of soil degradation and preservation in both SDG15 and Catholic social teaching, in the context of the most recent ecological, theological, ethical and legal discussions on this matter.

The role of soil to achieve SDG15 over other soil-related Sustainable Development Goals “Soil is the key to life on this planet – the foundation for all terrestrial ecosystems” (Montgomery, 2012, p. 6). For centuries, soil has mainly been seen as a source of goods. However, with the increasing human impact on the environment, the close links between soil and a number of environmental issues, such as sustainability, climate change, and loss of soil organic matter and nutrients, have been recognised (FAO & ITPS, 2015, pp. 7–8). It became apparent that the importance of soil can be attributed to the range of ecosystems’ functions and the services it provides. Apart from the supplying of services (food, water, fibre and fuel supply, stable platform for buildings, habitats for the huge variety of soil organisms) known for ages, soil provides a number of very important regulating (storing and filtering water, absorbing pollutants, acting as a carbon reservoir), supporting (soil formation, plant production, nutrient cycles) and cultural (heritage values, archaeological records, aesthetics and recreation) services (FAO  & ITPS, 2015, pp. 10–11; EASAC, 2018, pp. 4–5; Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 3). The unique role of soil and the sphere of its influence accounts for why more than a half of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the United Nations under the 2030 Agenda (UNGA, 2015) are directly (SDG2, SDG3, SDG6, SDG11, SDG13, SDG14 and SDG15) or indirectly

228  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. (SDG7 and SDG12) linked to soil resources (Tóth et  al., 2018, pp.  1–2; Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 3). For example, SDG2, which focuses on ending hunger and achieving food security, and SDG3, which aims at ensuring healthy lives for people, rely mainly on soil, which serves as a basis for more than 95% of global food production. In addition, acting as a carbon pool, soil can regulate emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and thus help to mitigate or reverse climate change, which are the tasks defined in SDG13. All soil functions depend on its physical, chemical and biological properties. They determine the quality of the soil. This in turn guarantees whether or not the soil can provide its services (FAO  & ITPS, 2015, p.  34). The declining ability of the soil to provide ecosystem goods and services indicates its degradation (FAO, 2015, p. 3). According to different assessments of the soil status, in 2015, when the SDGs were adopted, degraded soils covered approximately from 24% (Karlen & Rice, 2015, p. 12492) to 33% (FAO & ITPS, 2015, p. VII) of the global land area. The development of the concept of soil degradation and its recognition as a major and complex global environmental challenge is addressed in SDG15. This is the only soil-related SDG in which soil is viewed not through the perspective of its productivity and fertility, but above all through its sustainability. Some tasks of SDG15 are aimed to halt and reverse land degradation and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. And so, the SDG Target 15.3 is entirely devoted to soil degradation. In this target, soil degradation is characterised mainly in two aspects: physical degradation (focusing on water and wind erosion, compaction and waterlogging) and chemical deterioration (mainly focusing on loss of nutrients and/or organic matter, salinisation, acidification, pollution). The third aspect of soil degradation, namely, the decline in biodiversity, is taken into consideration in the SDG Target 15.5, despite the lack of a direct reference to the soil. Halting the loss of biodiversity is a very important task, especially as this issue has been neglected for years, despite the great importance of soil fauna and flora for proper soil functioning. Using a Soil Biodiversity Pressure Index, Gardi et al. (2013, p. 1543) estimated that 56% of soil within the European Union has some degree of threat to soil biodiversity. It should be pointed out that although SDGs were adopted by the UN members in 2015, the implementation of SDG15.3 and 15.5 is up to now still under discussion (Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 2). According to Tóth et al. (2018, pp. 1–4), in order to achieve the SDGs, standardised assessments (based on physical, chemical and biological indicators) and regular monitoring of soil properties that affect the threats to soil should be carried out. Currently, the soil monitoring system is not fully prepared, and there are no soil indicators assigned to soil-related SDGs (Tóth et al., 2018, p. 1). Specific indicators need to be defined and monitored to track ongoing changes in the soil. Keesstra et al. (2018, pp. 7–11) proposed four concepts (systems thinking, connectivity, nature-based solutions and regenerative economics) that

Land and soil sustainable management 229 should be considered in order to achieve by 2030 the most important task of SDG15.3, namely, land degradation neutrality, meaning that the balance between ongoing land degradation and land restoration should be zero. According to the earlier-mentioned authors, we should move from “excessive exploitation” or “full protection” to the “sustainable use and management” of natural systems. Furthermore, from a more anthropocentric point of view, which is typical of Catholic social teaching, it can be argued that relevant soil functions should be implemented in ways that are adapted to the social, ecological and economic needs of human communities (Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 14).

The human being and the soil in the theological perspective of creation The Catholic social teaching on soil degradation and preservation is primarily based on the Bible, whose study is regarded by the Catholic Church as the soul of all theology. Therefore, the analysis of human–soil interrelationships in the context of Catholic social teaching should begin with the analysis of the biblical perspective on the human being and the soil, as it is presented in the biblical primeval history (Genesis 1–11). This important text in an easily understandable, morally challenging and universally applicable way presents the relationship between the man and the soil as well as the role of humans in soil preservation, degradation and restoration. In the first account of creation, which is contained in the biblical book of Genesis 1:1–2:3, the earth/land is presented as created by God (Genesis 1:1) and transformed from the initial state of wasteness and emptiness (Genesis 1:2) to the state of abundant fertility (Genesis 1:11–12, 22, 24). This fertility of the soil created by God is praised in various documents of Catholic social teaching (e.g., John Paul II, 2001, section 6). In the biblical account, the humans are presented as commanded by God to have dominion (rādāh) over the land with its animals (Genesis 1:26, 28) and to subdue (kābaš) the land (Genesis 1:28). In contrast to the ecologically oriented views of many modern scholars (e.g., Hansjürgens et  al., 2018, pp. 3–4), this military imagery of subduing the land (Genesis 1:28) causes a great tension between the biblical and the modern ecological views of the relationships between the humans and the land (Twardziłowski, 2017, pp. 10–19). It should, however, first of all be noted that this imagery was borrowed from the biblical narratives of the military conquest of the Promised Land (Joshua 18:1; cf. Numbers 32:22, 29) and only by extension applied to the human–land interrelationships in general (Genesis 1:28) (Adamczewski, 2012, pp.  36–38). Moreover, it should be noted that the first account of creation (Genesis 1:1–2:3) depicts the relationship between the humans and wild, not domesticated nature. Therefore, when confronted with wild nature, humans are called to have dominion over the land with its

230  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. animals and to subdue the land (Genesis 1:26, 28), primarily in the sense of not being terrified by them and not worshipping them as powerful gods (cf. Deuteronomy 4:16–18) (Adamczewski, 2012, p. 39). This biblical idea of not worshipping living beings which are on the land (Deuteronomy 4:16–18) may also, however, generate tensions between the Jewish and Christian doctrine of the world as created by God as a “Promised Land” for humans (Genesis 1:26, 28) and some modern forms of caring for wild nature up to the point of venerating it. In fact, the statement, “In the Creator’s plan, created realities, which are good in themselves, exist for man’s use” (PCJP, 2004, section  255) may seem controversial to those ecological activists whose views border on what both Pope Benedict XVI, widely regarded as more “conservative,” and Pope Francis, widely regarded as more “progressive,” call ecocentrism and biocentrism (Benedict XVI, 2010, section 13; Francis, 2015a, section 118; cf. Schindler, 2015, pp. 580–581). In order to defuse this tension, modern Catholic social teaching reinterprets the military imagery of subduing the land in more irenic terms (e.g., PCJP, 2004, section  255). Pope Francis argues forcefully, “Soil, water, mountains: everything is, as it were, a caress of God” (Francis, 2015a, section  84). In fact, modern Catholic social teaching usually reinterprets the biblical idea of dominion over the land in theological-ecological terms of responsible stewardship (Benedict XVI, 2010, section  13; Francis, 2014, section 9; Francis, 2015a, sections 116, 236; Hansjürgens et al., 2018, p. 3). The second account of creation (Genesis 2:4–25) likewise presents the field in the land as initially barren and wild because the Lord God did not send rain upon the land and there was no man to till the ground/soil (Genesis 2:5). In this view, the soil, in order to be fertile, needs both non-human (divine-natural) and human influence. In contrast to some modern ecological views which advocate radical diminishing of human presence in the environment, the humans are here perceived not as threatening the natural state of the soil but as necessary for soil preservation. On the other hand, this biblical account presents the human person (adam) as formed from the dust of the soil (adamah), an idea which is also highlighted by Pope Francis (2015a, section  2). Accordingly, in this view the human and the soil are closely interrelated; they both need each other to produce their respective fruits (Błąd, 2016, pp. 29–32). The related biblical image of the Lord God taking the man and putting him in the paradisiacal garden of Eden to cultivate/serve it and keep it (Genesis 2:15) has significant ecological overtones (Hansjürgens et  al., 2018, p. 4). Catholic social teaching usually interprets the cultivation of the soil in terms of wisely caring for it, being responsible for it and not abandoning it to itself (PCJP, 2004, section  255), a view which greatly agrees with SDG15. At times, however, Catholic social teaching goes beyond these ecologically oriented terms to present the cultivation of the soil as a both practical and spiritual task in which also the human soul is rendered fertile

Land and soil sustainable management 231 (Benedict XVI, 2007, section  15). This personal and spiritual dimension of cultivating the soil seems to be neglected in SDG15, although it could greatly enrich its understanding and applicability in various personalistically oriented cultures. On the other hand, the biblical curse of being expelled from this garden to the dust of the desert (Genesis 3:14, 19), which only produces thorns and thistles (Genesis 3:18), presents the danger of soil desertification and, in contrast to the forested garden of Eden (Genesis 2:9), deforestation. In this respect, the biblical imagery, which points to human sins as partly responsible for living on a degraded soil, shows possible human causes of the situation described in SDG15 and its Targets 15.2 and 15.3. In the following account of the two brothers Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:1– 16), the reasons of the barrenness of the soil are described in more detail. It is the blood of a murdered human which remains in the soil and cries from the soil, and consequently makes it unprofitable for humans (Genesis 4:10–12). This metaphor may be applied to all human conflicts which render the soil unproductive, although the soil and subsoil, for example in Africa, often contain in themselves abundant resources (cf. Benedict XVI, 2011, section 13). We should here especially think of the effects of the use of modern weapons, including various forms of chemical and radioactive pollution, which lead to soil contamination and degradation. Alas, SDG15 and its targets seem to neglect this important negative effect of many modern military conflicts and other misuses of economic and political power. It can be argued that disregarding such root causes of ecological problems is one of the weaknesses of the 2030 Agenda and many other UN documents (Sachs, 2017, p. 2582). On the other hand, these factors are taken into consideration in modern Catholic social teaching. As Pope Francis formulates it, “the violence present in our hearts, wounded by sin, is also reflected in the symptoms of sickness evident in the soil” (Francis, 2015a, section 2). The following biblical account of the flood (Genesis 6:5–8:19) presents a natural disaster which causes the destruction of the soil and all living beings on it as a consequence of human wickedness (Genesis 6:5). The problem of the human involvement in causing great natural disasters which are destructive for the soil (floods, fires etc.) again seems not to be adequately reflected in SDG15 and its particular targets. On the other hand, the image of the biblical hero Noah, who protected all land animal species from a natural disaster, strongly agrees with SDG15 and its Targets 15.5, 15.7, 15.8 and 15.C, which promote conscious human interventions in natural processes to protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species, presumably including those living in the soil. The subsequent biblical account of the planting of the first vineyard after the destructive flood (Genesis 9:20–27) describes Noah as “a man of the soil” (Genesis 9:20). His activity was intended to reverse the outcomes of the natural disaster and to restore soil productivity. Therefore, the biblical idea of conscious replantation (Genesis 9:20) broadly agrees with SDG15

232  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. and its Targets 15.2 and 15.B, which promote conscious reforestation of degraded soils. Accordingly, the rather arid description of SDG15 and its targets could be enriched by the biblical and Catholic theological ideas concerning the human relationship to the land and the soil (Bernat et al., 2017, pp. 129–130).

The ethical message of Catholic social teaching in relation to SDG15 The authors of Goal 15 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SDG15) are facing us with such facts as continually shrinking forest areas, loss of arable land, soil degradation and the threat of extinction of further animal species. SDG15 proposes the urgent need for the protection of land ecosystems and stopping environmentally harmful phenomena. These issues need to be consistently updated, not only in terms of legislation, but also in terms of meticulous ethical decisions, enhanced with the practice of multifaceted educational implementations. In classic Catholic anthropology, it is only man who, due to reason, can control the world in a responsible and safe manner. This stance is related to adopting the personalistic ethical principle, which emphasises the personal character of man, relying on his constituent rationality and liberty. It is a line of thinking accepted by Church doctrine, in which there is no consent for absolutising the nature and exalting it above man. However, this is not equivalent to allowing that nature be treated like an object, either. This “weak” anthropocentrism views the ecological crisis as “an external manifestation of problems related to the respect for human personal dignity, as well as the broadly-defined ethical, cultural and spiritual crisis of modern times” (Przybyłowski, 2019, pp. 141–142). Therefore, the crisis situations of today form a single, global crisis, implicated by the human attitude towards the environment and most heavily affecting poor people. Pope Francis, when addressing the problem of global injustice, emphasises that “the gravest effects of all attacks on the environment are suffered by the poorest” (Francis, 2015a, section 48). With this in mind, he points out that we must regain the conviction that we need one another, that we have a shared responsibility for others and the world, and that being good and decent are worth it. We have had enough of immorality and the mockery of ethics, goodness, faith and honesty. (Francis, 2015a, section 229) These words of the pope are in line with the strategy for the poor which is adopted in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Thus, the postulates expressed in SDG15, e.g., those related to soil protection, are in agreement not only with the pro-environmental strategy but also with

Land and soil sustainable management 233 helping the poor. In fact, maintaining adequate resources of arable land and making better use of its biodiversity is of key importance for guaranteeing food security and the development of agriculture, which is the main source of income for poor rural households (UNGA, 2015). Similarly, deforestation and desertification resulting from human activity are processes that “have affected the lives and livelihoods of millions of people in the fight against poverty,” placing them among the biggest challenges for sustainable development (UNGA, 2015). Pope Francis states that we are facing a global degradation of the environment (Francis, 2015a, section 3) and we have to realise that as humans, “God has joined us so closely to the world around us that we can feel the desertification of the soil almost as a physical ailment, and the extinction of a species as a painful disfigurement” (Francis, 2015a, section 89). Addressing environmental issues was already present in the teachings of Paul VI, who is regarded as the first pope to recognise the importance of environmental problems and connect them to the moral teaching of the Church. In one of his speeches, he appealed for a responsible consideration of the human being’s interference with nature and paying attention to the consequences of such an activity. He also called for a change in the human being’s moral attitude for the sake of preserving life on Earth (Paul VI, 1970, section  62). His teachings were continued by John Paul II, who pointed to the strict correlation between environmental protection and creating a peaceful society. He saw this relationship primarily in the community of moral values underlying those goals, determining a coherent moral vision of the world (John Paul II, 1989, section 7). Nowadays, it is more and more evident that the foundation of global problems, including those related to threatening life on Earth and soil degradation, has its source and cause in the moral attitudes of man. It was indicated by John Paul II, when he said that “the seriousness of the ecological issue lays bare the depth of man’s moral crisis” (John Paul II, 1990, section 13). Therefore, we need a true conversion both in thought and action. Gilles Lipovetsky remarks that we came to live in times with no clear moral signposts, in the era of passivity, torpor, discouragement and piercing void (Lipovetsky, 2005), which has led us to practicing postmodern morality (Bauman, 1993) towards the environment and other people. The moral crisis is thus manifested both in the distorted attitude of a person towards a person, and a person towards nature. We can see here an illustration of anthropology based on imperialistic anthropocentrism, which stems from anti-ecological philosophies and which is in opposition to the pro-ecological anthropology promoted by Catholic social teaching. Such an imperialistic paradigm of human dominance over nature is unfortunately prevalent in today’s political, social and economic life. Pope Francis, preaching the need for environmental conversion, remarks that “we can be silent witnesses to terrible injustices” (Francis, 2015a, section  36) or be driven by the ethical category of duty, responsibility

234  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. and solidarity, and start the changes with ourselves. The crisis of morality and the destruction of normativity – so characteristic of contemporary societies – make us aware of the need to develop axiological-normative programmes. This is because pursuing the introduction of a global economic, social, cultural and environmental order requires axiological foundations. Sustainable development axiologies point to values that may become the regulators of human actions and orient us, among other things, towards the goals of sustainable development. Therefore, ethical justification for the need to execute the postulates of sustainable development, including the observance of legal acts concerning life on Earth and protection of soil from degradation, is the groundwork of discussion on the future of the world. Mutual relief for both human being and nature may be achieved, to some extent, by global ethics. It focuses on problems that stretch far beyond the limits of competence of local communities and require actions on the part of all humanity. This surely includes the postulates of SDG15 and its detailed tasks. In response to these goals, the biocentric and holocentric factions of global ethics posit the preservation of all biological life (Lanza & Berman, 2009). On the other hand, proponents of the anthropocentric trend of global ethics argue for the necessity of preserving the human community not just as a biological entity, but also, or even more so, as a spiritual one (Boddice, 2011; Kortenkamp & Moore, 2001). In this context, they justify the need to protect land ecosystems, restore biodiversity, combat desertification as well as reverse the soil degradation process. The latter stream of ethics seems to be more compatible with Catholic social teaching (Francis, 2015a, section 118). Global ethics, together with the related particular branches of ethics (e.g., environmental ethics, ethics of duty, ethics of virtues, ethics of responsibility and ethics of utility) maps out the lines of action, pinpoints specific values and settles axiological disputes (Klimska & Leźnicki, 2017, pp. 169–173). Caring for life on Earth requires establishing an axiological and normative order, which identifies specific ethical values as available for becoming the criteria taken into account in passing judgements and decision-making, also in the process of formulating legal regulations concerning sustainable development. The implementation of individual tasks included in SDG15 is reinforced by legal regulations that might significantly influence the social response and practice with regard to the protection of all beings, especially when they are supported with ethical and axiological arguments. Therefore, the ethical context may considerably extend the contents of SDG15, e.g., by axiologies based on the premises of weak anthropocentrism, which seeks to eliminate the anthropological error consisting in man’s arbitrary use of the Earth not as God’s cooperator but as tyrannising it. John Paul II pointed to this error as the root of the senseless destruction of the natural environment (John Paul II, 1991, section 37). The evolution of human attitudes is highly influenced by education in ethics. It is thus imperative that the process of education advocating the

Land and soil sustainable management 235 protection of the social and natural environment incorporate global ethics, including environmental ethics prioritising efficient theoretical and practical prevention of the negative effects of human activity (Kaniewska & Klimski, 2017). This ethics serves as a didactic and educational tool by stimulating a proper mindset and reactions to the phenomena that endanger, among others, land ecosystems. Ethics-based education shapes the awareness of moral duties and integrates them with the principles of social, economic and political action. Practical ethics should thus be part of education for sustainable development, also with reference to the achievement of SDG15, and it should aim to introduce sustainability-promoting rules and standards in practical life and activity.

Legal perspectives The first part of the chapter shows the progressive degradation of the soil. From the legal point of view, although the soil was and continues to be heavily degraded, so much as other environmental components, such as water and air, the necessity for soil protection has not been recognised by the international community as quickly as the latter components have. Internationally, regulations in this area have appeared since the second half of the last century. Now, soil protection regulations can be found in many international documents of various legal natures. The existence and creation of such acts of international law can both be based on global ethics and serve as a basis for building global ethics, which was discussed in the previous part of the chapter. The role of the UN and its structures in building the foundations for soil protection is significant, and the recourse to the need for soil protection in SDG15 is the culmination of the needs expressed in this respect so far. The protection of soil, mentioned in SDG15, cannot be seen in isolation from other activities of the UN and its agencies. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, which for the first time put global environmental issues on the international agenda, marked the first phase of international soil protection law (Boer et al., 2017, p. 51). The second international environmental conference, the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, issued Agenda 21, whose several chapters focused on land management, desertification, drought and sustainable agriculture. This document highlighted the fact that the most fundamental goals of sustainable development are not only to maintain and improve the productive potential of land resources for current and future needs of the population, but also to maintain multiple use of critical ecosystems functions and land resources (Fritzsche et al., 2018, p. 400). Recognition that “desertification claims more and more fertile land” was the achievement of the 2002 Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development. In this document, land degradation in all forms was

236  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. recognised as a challenge “of a global dimension,” and the joint commitment “to strive for a land-degradation-neutral world” was proclaimed. The connection with SDG is here more than obvious as SDG15.3 adopts exactly the same wording. The second area of ​​legal regulations indicating the need to protect the soil are international agreements. They also contribute to the current need for land protection in SDG15. Soil protection contained in such regulations is dispersed. Undoubtedly, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD), prepared under the framework of Agenda 21, deserves the most attention. According to this document, land degradation is associated with loss of ecological, economic or agricultural value. Placing human beings in the centre of actions taken to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought betrays the decisively anthropocentric approach of this convention. The soil plays an important role in various ecosystem protection strategies, e.g., protection of biodiversity and climate change mitigation activities, which are expressed in various SDG targets. Therefore, when considering soil protection, other legally binding regulations, like the globally oriented Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or the more local Alpine Convention Soil Protection Protocol (ACSPP), should be applied. Other documents also contribute to achieving SDG15. Soil protection was a matter of concern of the Council of Europe, FAO Council, UNEP, EU and others. The Revised Montevideo Programme identifies the conservation of soil as a priority legal issue. Such documents, which indicate actions to protect soil from degradation and to maintain the soil in good condition, dominate among international regulations devoted to soil protection. They are non-binding instruments establishing general guidelines, but they create a basis for an axiological and normative ecological order. In the European Union, the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme 2002–2012 marks the beginning of the most important phase of development legislation dedicated to soil protection. Consequently, in the 2002 Communication Towards a Thematic Strategy on Soil Protection, the European Commission identified eight key soil threats: organic matter decline, soil biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and soil contamination as priority aspects, as well as the additional aspects of soil sealing, soil compaction, and salinisation, as well as floods and landslides (Heuser, 2017, p. 457). A specific thematic strategy for soil protection was presented in 2006. However, the proposal of a soil protection framework directive was never adopted. Till now, there has been no extensive, independent legal instrument for soil protection in EU environmental law. The previously cited international regulations are primarily focused on solving selected problems regarding the soil, which include deforestation or loss of agricultural assets. Among the few transnational regulations

Land and soil sustainable management 237 regarding the removal of soil pollution, one should mention the EU Directive 2004/35/EC on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage. Using the “polluter pays” principle, it imposes an obligation to repair damages to nature, water and soil, posing a significant risk to human health. The obligation to take action covers preventive measures taken in the event of imminent threat of damage. The UN 2030 Agenda is first and foremost a political and not a legally binding document, and this fact determines its role in environmental protection policy. It should be read as giving directions to activities in various dimensions: political, economic and social, but also legal. However, until now, many gaps remain in the legal area of soil ​​ protection. One of the main challenges is the lack of globally binding regulations on responsibility for soil pollution. Certain regulations in this respect contained in the previously mentioned EU directive may serve as an example for future solutions. From the point of view of Catholic social teaching, an important ethical and legal stance was taken by Pope Francis in his speech to the United Nations General Assembly. He argued that “a true ‘right of the environment’ does exist, for two reasons. First, because we human beings are part of the environment. (. . .) Second, because every creature, particularly a living creature, has an intrinsic value” (Francis, 2015b, section 46). In this way, he suggested both an anthropocentric and biocentric base for future legal documents on soil protection. Alas, there is no legal proposal to implement the pope’s call and to abandon the decisively anthropocentric approach that dominates the international legal acts adopted so far.

Conclusions The problems of soil degradation and preservation certainly deserve a much greater role in ecological discussions than has been practised so far. The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goal 15 points to various aspects of land ecosystems, forests and soil degradation and preservation. From the point of view of modern Catholic social teaching, this goal is certainly commendable, but it would greatly benefit from laying a more theological and humanistic background to its quite arid descriptions of ecological problems and its somewhat isolated aims to achieve. An interesting and fairly universalistic theological background to the matters referred to in SDG15 can be found in the biblical primeval creation story. Notwithstanding the tensions created by the apparently anthropocentric idea of humans being called to have dominion over the land and to subdue it (Genesis 1:26, 28), the theological approach to soil degradation points to otherwise neglected causes of this problem, including military conflicts and other kinds of evil in human hearts. On the other hand, it promotes conscious preservation of endangered land species as well as land replantation, aims which are also very important in SDG15.

238  Bartosz Adamczewski et al. The more systematic theological and ethical insights of modern Catholic teaching on the subject of soil degradation and preservation significantly broaden the scope of SDG15 by pointing to the issues which are rarely discussed in modern ecological discussions, like poverty, injustice and general modern weakening of the ethics of responsibility and normativity. In terms of ecologically oriented legal measures, the modern Catholic suggestion of the existence of the “right of the environment,” if it does not lead to overly ecocentric or biocentric approaches, constitutes a positive challenge to the hitherto rather vague international legal initiatives to combat soil degradation and promote sustainable soil management. It seems that joining the efforts of both ecological activists and Catholic leaders in the matter of soil degradation and management can lead to diagnosing the problems in much more realistic ways and achieving the ecological aims in much more effective ways than was hitherto assumed.

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16 Conditions for the effectiveness of guarantees of the individual’s freedom in the modern state Irena Lipowicz, Krzysztof Cebul and Grzegorz Embros Introduction This chapter discusses the conditions for the effective protection and embodiment of the individual’s freedom in the modern state. Its main aim is to identify and explore elements, institutions of social life and their interrelationships which can be treated as a guarantee of individual’s freedom in different dimensions of public life in line with the Sustainable Development Goal 16 (SDG16) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. SDG16 calls to promote peaceful and inclusive societies, provides access to justice for all, and builds effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. The key challenge of SDGs is to transform the world, which is to happen by way of social changes. Before any change, it is necessary to define a goal to strive for, i.e., to specify what we want to change, why we want to make a change and in what way. To this end, one needs to answer the question of who a human being is since, as Mieczysław Gogacz argues, our actions depend on the concept of a human being (Gogacz, 1974, p.  10). Helmut Juros claims that a social scientist is responsible for the methodological structure of the theory, which should be free from ideological entanglements and the sociological effects on the shape of social ethos and social policy. There is no doubt that people’s social attitudes and behaviours affect the theories of social life. Moreover, the contemporary social sciences very clearly prove that scientific theories may be transformed into ideologies and then social perversions (Juros, 1992, p. 89). The Catholic Church is an observer. Her aim is to trace the social changes carefully and critically. Catholic social teaching focuses on society and reflectively watches the dignity of a human being, their rights and social nature, and the interdependence of man and society to introduce the relevant principles of freedom and responsibility with reference to the common good, solidarity, subsidiarity, participation, organic concept of social life, and universal character of goods in order to direct and govern social life (Juros, 1992, p. 97). Therefore, it seems that selected sustainable development issues should be discussed here in relation to the assumptions of Catholic social teaching.

242  Irena Lipowicz et al. Catholic social teaching clearly indicates that all people are equal and free. As a result, every human person has the natural right to be recognised as a free and responsible being. Since people are considered to be reasonable and prudent, one should assume that they are able to exercise and recognise their freedoms, and that everyone remains equal in this exercise of the right of freedom. John Paul II indicates that the value of a human being comes not from what they have, but on who they are (John Paul II, 1988, section 37), and that the value of the human person’s dignity is measured by an attitude towards this dignity (John Paul II, 1979, section  12). Consequently, the concept of human dignity covers an inalienable right and a lasting predisposition to the exercise of freedom by every human being. If this is the case, this right should be recognised and protected by state authorities. For this to happen, however, the essence and principle of state authorities should not be in conflict with this right, and state authorities should be guided by the common good, i.e., public order, when protecting this right. However, as pointed out by John Paul II, “the common good that authority in the State serves is brought to full realisation only when all the citizens are sure of their rights” (John Paul II, 1979, section 17). This observation seems particularly important since “man’s true freedom is not found in everything that the various systems and individuals see and propagate as freedom” (John Paul II, 1979, section  12). Therefore, it is worth following the approach of Aniela Dylus, who claims the existence of a political community is only possible when a minimum consensus on fundamental humanistic values is achieved (Dylus, 2016, p.  118), even though this may be hard to achieve (Cebul, 2019, p.  58). However, the consensus in this matter is particularly important given the state reality of the collision of values expressed by fundamental rights which often takes place since unambiguous decisions are sought and made on the legal grounds (Tuleja, 1997, p. 6). Note that without res publica, which means a common public thing, there are no citizens. If everyone, through the implementation of their individual skills and interests, became a private person, the public matter would become only a matter of specific institutions and people. Such a state of affairs would be tantamount to a loss of equality, and this would inevitably lead to the end of freedom (Spaemann, 2011, p. 60). In view of the goal outlined earlier and the complexity of the problem discussed, we believe that three issues should be explored in the first place. Firstly, we attempt to define the general relationship between the way in which freedom and equality of individual(s) are perceived and the recognised concept of human nature. Secondly, we examine in detail the institutional form of protection of the individual’s freedom, with a special emphasis on free information and free legal assistance. Thirdly, we discuss the role of local government as another institutional form of protection of the individual’s freedom.

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 243

The individual’s freedom in the context of human nature Christian culture laid the foundation for modern democracies (Mazurkiewicz, 2007, p.  137). The influence of Christianity must have been very strong since its basic ideas on human value were also adopted by those philosophers of the Enlightenment who departed from the Catholic faith (Wandycz  & Frendl, 1965, p.  18). Intriguingly, the problem of equality and freedom is considered on the basis of human nature and the natural state, which is an alleged stage preceding the establishment of the state, the point specific to the social contract theories developed in the Enlightenment. Even if the concepts of the social contract are to be considered completely hypothetical, it is worth noting that they reveal quite clearly the dilemma regarding the assessment of human nature and show how human nature determines the way the contract is entered into and the state organisation is shaped. Irrespective of the possible answers to the question about human nature, it should be noted that the very fact that relations between people are affected by power is definitely a sign of human imperfection (Tinder, 2003, p. 108). This also proves that there is no unity among people (Tinder, 2003, p. 107). Nevertheless, despite social tensions, however severe they would be, attention should be paid to people’s constant attempts to maintain a relatively permanent order (Tinder, 2003, p.  107). Society is constantly looking for ways to minimise or eliminate these tensions so that it can survive in its existing form. This reveals the politically motivated socialisation and repulsion forces which are not necessarily opposed to each other (Ryszka, 1984, p.  11) and paradoxically confirms that human nature is positive since a human person finds salvation in the community, in their neighbour, and discovers human rights in their dignity in spite of supposedly increasing human despair, which results in various forms of objectification. The image of the world and a human being shaped by moderate realism (Hugon, 2018, p. XVI) affects the decision-making process. Undoubtedly, people can develop, also in a moral sense, and materially and spiritually enrich their environment, including others who have contact with this environment, by way of action. However, their action may also lead to degradation of the environment, including other people, and of themselves (Wojtyła, 2011, pp.  146–149). Identification of praxeological or axiological determinants of the decision-making process (cf. Embros, 2016, pp.  122–124) directs attention to the anthropological determinant. Note that all axiological tensions result in a question about the concept of man (Gierycz, 2017, p.  17). Thus, as can be clearly seen, different anthropological positions translate into different approaches to the understanding and hierarchy of values. Following Michał Gierycz’s discussion, we can refer to Thomas Sowell, who distinguishes between two ideal types: (1) limited anthropology and (2) unlimited anthropology. These types represent two opposing sources of

244  Irena Lipowicz et al. human vision (Sowell, 2007). The primary limitation is related to imperfections resulting from human nature, while the secondary limitation concerns the mechanisms of power control to prevent abuse (check and balance). However, there is still a broad spectrum of the individual’s freedom so that a person can develop and implement the common good. This is because it is human dignity that determines the objective, though flexible, truly human limits of choices (Gierycz, 2017, p. 271). John Paul II indicates that democracy cannot encourage situations in which the power of the state is usurped for individual interests or ideological purposes (John Paul II, 1991, section 46). He points out that authentic democracy can develop only if two conditions are met: (1) the state is ruled by law, and (2) a correct concept of the human person is adopted. Further, he argues that for these conditions to be met, it is necessary to ensure (1) the education and formation of a human being in true ideals, and (2) the creation of structures of participation and shared responsibility, i.e., the subjectivity of society (John Paul II, 1991, section 46). John Paul II rejects the view that agnosticism and sceptical relativism according to which truth is reduced to randomness and temporality are the philosophy and attitude which correspond to democratic forms of politics. If one assumes that there is no ultimate truth to guide political activity, democracy becomes democracy without values. This, in turn, gives rise to the danger of manipulation of ideas and convictions and objectification for reasons of power (John Paul II, 1991, section 46). It may be reasonable here to go beyond the objectification of social consciousness leading to the situation in which democracy is treated as an event based on the laws of mechanics while the problem of political life is reduced to an electoral act with its functionality and legitimacy based on the narrowly understood decision-making function of the vectors of the main forces in society (Pawluczuk, 1994, p. 262), in which the actual level of participation may become insignificant since the right to participate is the only sufficient guarantee of democracy (Etzioni-Halevy, 2005, p. 119). Note that it is sometimes the case that the right itself “pumps” responsibility out of society and transfers it into an impersonal dimension in which society can quite easily forget about responsibility since in the event of any suspicion of risk, lawmakers immediately try to eliminate it by means of their orders and regulations (Scruton, 2017, p. 108). Man discovers his nature and its specific actions by means of reason, which fosters his integral development. As a result, the emphasis is shifted from the possibility of action (“is it possible?”) towards the reasonability of action (“is it allowed?”). The boundaries are determined by human nature, which defines the proper space of human normality and freedom (Gierycz, 2017, p. 271; Krokos, 2008, pp. 33–42). Human ecology understood as the agathological definition of the boundaries of human activities is of key importance here. Man can cross these boundaries due to their

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 245 internal character since their social or legal dimensions are only secondary. However, once crossed, they lead to some form of dehumanisation. In this respect, humanity is strongly associated with nature, and specifically with its moral rather than physical dimension (Gierycz, 2017, p.  272). These boundaries also apply to the ways politics and the state implement a good life as a whole, though the content of good life is not defined by politics and the state (Spaemann, 2006, p. 95). The limited anthropology is confronted with unlimited anthropology which assumes that human nature has no limitations. This approach, developed in late modernity, assumes that human nature does not entail any fixed aspects, including the biological ones. Any limitations imposed are treated as a violation of human freedom. The human is a supreme being and an autocrat (Gierycz, 2017, pp.  274–276). Anthropological limitlessness assumes the lack of anthropological boundaries, understood in ontological rather than practical or declaratory terms, since it is possible to establish and shift boundaries independently and freely (Gierycz, 2017, p. 277). Comparing these two approaches, it is easy to note that in limited anthropology, as opposed to unlimited anthropology, man is aware of his limitations (boundaries), and thus tries to identify and understand the determinants and conditions of the decision-making process. In other words, man knows his weaknesses and limitations, and tries to increase the chances and effectiveness of his actions by taking the account of the determinants of the decision-making process. In this case, the decision-making process covers the necessary aspects or factors of the context. Moreover, it accounts for risks and responsibilities, including the consequences of one’s own decisions and actions and has regard to limitations (Francis, 2015, sections 183–187). The previous descriptions are exemplified by the oikophilia approach adopted by Roger Scruton. Scruton claims that grassroots activities driven by oikophilia, i.e., empathy and love for one’s own home and its surroundings (Scruton, 2017, p. 28), is only possible in communities with local roots. Such communities typically choose homeostatic solutions for organisation purposes. The systems based on these solutions are equipped with a corrective mechanism which is activated in response to destabilising change. Markets, traditions, customs, families and civic associations are all examples of such systems (Scruton, 2017, pp. 18–19). These systems feature territorial attachment, which helps them to maintain their social and environmental balance inherited from ancestors. According to Scruton, if these systems are not followed, entropy grows. Therefore, traditional communities deserve protection from sudden external changes (Scruton, 2017, pp. 29–30). In light of these considerations, one can assume two ways the society is organised: (1) by movements focused on their own aims; and (2) by civic associations which are an end in themselves. Scruton argues that the former constitutes a threat to homeostasis while the latter is a form of homeostasis (Scruton, 2017, p. 96). Similarly, there are two possible approaches to

246  Irena Lipowicz et al. politics. In the first approach, politics is a collective pursuit of an egalitarian goal, while in the second, a free relation between individuals in which former generations and modern hierarchies do their part (Francis, 2015, sections 176–181). Man is a subject, a rational individual who settled and started to act in a specific place (oikos). His actions can be judged positively and identified with such virtues as prudence, thriftiness, purity, mutual respect and attitude to others, which Jonas calls a sense of responsibility (Jonas, 1996; Dzwonkowska, 2007, pp. 143–156). All of these characteristics of human condition affect oikophilia and shape us as “the rulers and guardians of our common settlement” as they emerge during “our growth as individuals” (Scruton, 2017, p. 222). These issues are part of the problem area currently identified with the environmental virtue ethics (Dzwonkowska, 2019). Undoubtedly, the rules guiding the behaviours of a rational entity should encourage them to adopt a strategy of resilience, and thus to take risks and responsibility for their actions since those who avoid risk may transfer it not only to other contemporary people, but also to future generations (Birnbacher, 1999).

Equal access to justice as a foundation of individual’s freedom (Target 16.3) There is no doubt that civil liberties can be guaranteed only if equal access to justice is ensured. Access to free information and free legal assistance are the examples of initiatives which foster the implementation of this call. However, in the face of the progressing complexity of the modern legal system, the support provided by means of legal information turns out to be insufficient. Therefore, to ensure a genuine inclusiveness, it is necessary to develop an effective system of legal assistance in the first place. In particular, the scope of responsibilities of the Ombudsman should be extended. Equality before the law does not work by itself, and thus institutionalised solutions supporting and protecting a weak side of the legal relationship should be proposed. Human rights which take account of humanistic values have priority over state-related matters, but a positive legal order is needed to ensure that they can be implemented and protected (Dylus, 2016, p. 125). The problem outlined earlier is exacerbated by the special feature of liberalism which affects the representative democracy and establishes its order, namely the legitimisation of indeterminacy. Liberalism consistently disregards the relations that give meaning to life and replaces the language of the real and ordinary social experience with the language of abstract and unreal possibilities of enjoying certain benefits (Holmes, 1998, p. 308). Note that this is an objective and inevitable process because the abstractness is a necessary condition for establishing the universality of all the resulting

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 247 deficiencies. Thus, the ethical obligation to treat all equally becomes an ultimate institution which upholds the validity of abstractness (Holmes, 1998, p. 309). Equal access to justice becomes more and more difficult in the modern world due to the complexity of law, and the growth of new state bodies and other public entities. At the same time, social acceptance of the existing legal system and its institutions becomes increasingly important. Justice becomes inaccessible and thus requires costly professional agents. As a result, citizens feel abandoned by the state and confused by the great number of legal institutions. They find it increasingly difficult to determine their own rights and obligations, which is a prerequisite for access to court. It is a common practice now that large corporations and companies set up their own compliance departments. This shows that it becomes difficult to comply with the standards, and determination of the law in force in its entirety is a particularly difficult task which requires a lot of time and money and is unavailable for small businesses, and even more so for migrants and other entities at risk or socially excluded. Uncertainty of one’s own legal situation and access to court increases the risk of economic activity. The awareness that state authorities can accuse an entity of being in breach of the law gives rise to feelings of alienation and frustration. As a result, people tend to be aggressive, reject the democratic state of law as a whole, attribute privileges to certain social forces and search for a powerful “guardian” to give them freedom in exchange for security, including legal security (Krastev, 2013, p. 5 et seq.). The danger of commercialisation of legal information and blocking access to information about the law for the poor was the first issue identified. It was pointed out that due to increased migration and numerous international contacts, ensuring access to information on the law of other countries plays an increasingly important role. Blocking this possibility, e.g., due to the lack of financial means to obtain information, constituted a serious violation of human rights. Countries reacted to this danger in different ways. They built legal information systems based on universities, parliaments, independent legal information institutes and foundations, including state-funded foundations (Petzel, 2014, pp.  30–33). A  variety of solutions were proposed, including joint action, and a need for standardisation arose. International soft law acts were also developed to address the expansion of legal information systems, including free-of-charge information. It was also recognised that legal information systems may be commercialised and concentrated in a few large global publishing companies, which could exclude a large amount of the population from access to legal information. The provisions of the Montreal Declaration became the basis for standardisation and evaluation of the state to provide the citizens with proper access to public information. The Montreal Declaration on Free Access to Law states that the public legal information of each country and international institution is part of

248  Irena Lipowicz et al. humanity’s common heritage and a digital universal property which should be accessible to everyone free of charge on a nonprofit basis. In 2006, universal and free access to the information about law seemed to be a distant future. However, according to the SDG16 progress report, this has already been implemented in 125 countries (cf. UN, 2019, p. 55). It should now be determined whether there are any points in the Montreal Declaration which have not been implemented so far or should be explored in a new light. First, the issue of anonymous access should be clarified. The Montreal Declaration states that legal information institutes the world, and other nonprofit institutions provide free and anonymous public access to legal information. Anonymity is currently an extremely important issue. Access to information should not be considered to be free of charge, given that users of the information system “pay” for access with their data. This is sometimes the case because not all countries adopted the same rigorous regulations on data reuse typical of the European Union. Also, note that gaining knowledge, especially in authoritarian countries, about the search for legal information on freedom and human rights in a given country may make it easier to direct the attention of the authorities of that country to human rights activists or victims seeking legal assistance. The commercial use of such information can also have far-reaching consequences. The Hague Declaration of 2008 emphasises that free access to the law should be extended to include sources of the law made available in the form of consolidated texts drawn up by the parliament administration, judgments of administrative tribunals, other court judgments and international agreements. In this respect, there are two opposite views, though outdated in the times of Google. The first one assumes full and free access to the law and responsibility of the state, while the second one recognises the need for competition and diversity of commercial legal information systems (Petzel, 2014, pp. 37–39). In this regard, the independent body of appeal being a part of the standard assessed by the United Nations was mainly established, but still felt in 40 countries from 123 (cf. UN, 2019, p. 55). As a result, it was found that the issue has a global scope, and international cooperation was established. In countries in which legal texts, decisions and court rulings are not covered by copyright, i.e., in the vast majority of countries, it was easier to cooperate in this field. Consequently, a number of global initiatives were launched (cf. IIASA, 2018, p. 6 et seq.). The idea of a global system of access to legal information should be highlighted here in the first place. The non-commercial bases supported by parliaments and universities constituted separate legal information institutes and were connected to legal advice systems or not. The most important acts are mainly due to the Free Access to Law Movement (FALM). The next stages of development came with the World Wide Web (WWW).

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 249 However, one should have been under no illusion that universal digitisation, search engines and public Internet sites would ultimately contribute to the breakthrough and that public information pages, court websites and legal acts placed on the Internet would serve their purpose. In recent years, users become more and more helpless while advertising and profiling companies which analyse, with the use of the Big Data mechanism, i.e., the data of persons seeking information about the law, expand their operations (Mayer-Schönberger & Cukier, 2014, pp. 202–203). As a result, those who seek information about the law are the target of attacks and may become permanently aggrieved. The fact that legal systems wrongly assume the knowledge of law becomes a growing threat. Normative acts, administrative decisions and judgments, even if fully accessible, are unintelligible to many of those to whom the regulations are addressed, and thus it is difficult to fully exercise the right to court. The question is what solution, reaching beyond simple access to legal information, can be proposed. First of all, a new look at legal assistance available to an average citizen or foreigner should be adopted. The systems of free legal assistance are directed towards the poorest people. The information is available to everyone, but its addressees are often helpless in the face of a complex legal text or may be misled by online guides which often manipulate the information to encourage them to take unfavourable legal steps. Moreover, people who seek free legal information often actually pay for it with their data (Schneier, 2015, pp. 107–110). Legal assistance should be widely available. However, in the face of its rising costs, universal insurance providing cheap and professional legal services should be also implemented. Since it is recognised that residents should be given access to communication via universal online services, the state support for legal insurance or for advanced legal assistance, not limited to the poorest people, should also be considered. Currently, this is a basic condition for the effectiveness of the right of access to court. Otherwise, this right, solemnly declared in the Constitution and in laws, will turn into an institutional fiction. The question of where free legal aid facilities are to be located should be another point explored here. Law, administrative policy and practice provide two separate approaches. On the one hand, it is wrongly assumed that informed citizens know their rights well and are able to make free decisions and commitments, and, in the event that they decide not to use professional legal assistance, they do this at their own risk. The activity of advocates and legal advisers is seen as a normal business activity with no interference from the state and respect for economic freedom. It is the market that should shape the prices of such legal services. The other approach, i.e., the one which we support and which is in line with Catholic social teaching, is that legal assistance may be available both at a basic and advanced level. However, the state is responsible not only for the possibility of exercising

250  Irena Lipowicz et al. the right of access to legal information, but also for the effectiveness of availability of legal assistance for all its citizens, e.g., via the Ombudsman, as part of its concern for the common good. Secondly, the texts published should be easy to read and should not be limited to the acts of public authority. Even the consumer access to the full content of bank, insurance, energy supply and telecommunication contracts does not fully ensure equal rights to the court since their content is unintelligible and inaccessible for the average citizen, which is often done intentionally. As a future course of action, it is necessary to impose the publication of texts which are widely intelligible, i.e., not limited to people with disabilities, and constitute legally binding regulations rather than sui generis translation. This approach was pioneered by the Provincial Government of Upper Austria.

Local government as a barrier against centralisation (Target 16.7) To ensure a flexible, open, participatory and representative decision-making process, it is necessary to establish self-government (at a local and supralocal level), which is a bottom-up institution counterbalancing the central authority and performing complementary functions in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity. Self-government reduces tensions and systematically resolves the growing conflicts between the central and local authority as the responsibility for the common good is shared with other entities and the circle of those who can effectively define and implement the common good is significantly broadened (Huber, 2014, p.  25). Giovanni Sartori rightly points out that the situation, in which every authority has little power, both in terms of scope and intensity, should be considered to be most comfortable for citizens (Sartori, 1998, p. 197). Self-government can be a barrier against centralisation. Why does centralisation need to be inhibited and controlled by other authorities? The Catholic Church and Catholic social teaching got involved in the dispute between centralisation and decentralisation very early. This was in connection with the principle of subsidiarity, which is probably the most important practical political fruit of Catholic social teaching in the 19th and 20th centuries, and in the name of human dignity and the ability to manage one’s own affairs as an expression of human freedom as well as local and supra-local affairs not to be replaced without justification by rigid and centralist structures of the state and an imperious way of acting. As a result, self-government, local initiative of respect for the identity of man and little homelands were strongly supported. The discussion on the concept of subsidiarity initiated by Leo XIII was continued by John Paul II (John Paul II, 1991, sections 15, 48). His universal approach, which treats centralisation as “social evil and disruption of the system,” providing that

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 251 basic matters which communities can resolve on their own are wrested from them, was of crucial importance for the perception of the prospects of local government, especially in Europe. Note that self-government is not an institution opposed to the state. Instead, it complements other forms of citizen participation in the exercise of public authority (Winczorek, 1998, p.  144) since the involvement in the local reality is not in opposition to the involvement in the state reality. These two realities do not contradict each other (Skorowski, 1998/99, p. 187). Decentralisation assumes that no one knows the needs of a local region better than the community which lives in this region (Banaszak, 2001, p. 585). This is why self-government is defined as a group of inhabitants of a given area of the country organised to jointly solve their own problems (Redelbach et al., 1993, p. 46). It is at the level of local government institutions that people can face the challenges and dangers of collective actions. This way, they learn how to be engaged and find out how the interdependence of interests affects their quality of life. The need to cope with difficult situations makes them less likely to pass responsibility to others. Citizens observe distant politics, but at the same time, they have the possibility of learning active participation in their local communities (Ostrom, 1994, p. 227). Central administration is necessary in every country to resolve matters critical for the existence of the state as a whole. However, it should not encroach on human freedom and the rights of small communities, and unnecessarily take over their basic tasks of meeting collective needs (Dolnicki, 2019, pp.  373–374). The importance of self-government in the state may be reduced in various ways. One of them is to seemingly broaden the scope of decentralisation by extending tasks while adequate financial resources are not ensured. The deliberate underfunding of tasks, despite a constitutional requirement to provide adequate resources, along with the leniency of the courts undermines the trust of the inhabitants and usually gives rise to the centralisation and crisis of the democratic government. The central government should find this unfavourable because the attention, energy and measures are shifted to small though media-friendly issues to the detriment of strategic issues and long-term management. This shows that self-government is part of a complex system of division and balance of power and is applied in various cultural and civilisational circles as evidenced by both the European Charter of Local Self-Government and the Global Charter of Local Self-Government (Kasiński, 2006, pp. 180–182). The universal character of the principle of subsidiarity is also confirmed by the fact that it constitutes a barrier to the centralisation of the European Union. The principle of subsidiarity is a fundamental principle of the European Union which defines its philosophy and the limits of the autonomy of the member states (cf. Millon-Delsol, 1995, p.  67). Similarly, the EU

252  Irena Lipowicz et al. cannot take over from the member states the tasks which they can handle on their own. This view inspired other world organisations which operate at the local level. It safeguards freedom and allows for justified interference (Wesołowski, 1993, pp. 268–269). However, one could ask if the oppositional attitude towards centralisation can be justified in a different way, i.e., without referring to the dignity and freedom of man and small communities. This is because it might be the case that centralisation constitutes a part of justified economisation of public administration and responds better to a number of threats of today’s world. Note that centralisation is, especially in the circle of the European civilisation, but also in other civilisations, a very old principle of state organisation. Even in the 18th and 19th centuries, the administration was still understood as dealing with affairs of poorly educated or even illiterate people. The state paternalistically built its oppressive way of acting using theoretical concepts, such as public welfare. It was even argued that the local community is similar to an underage person who has to be cared for; otherwise, it can cause irreparable damage due to gaps in its knowledge and preparation. Since then, many years have passed (Lipowicz, 2019, pp.  32–33). It is difficult to compare a Prussian or French subject from the 19th century with the current users of administrative functions who use e-administration efficiently and search for appropriate information on the global network before they contact an official to resolve a significant issue. Since it was formerly possible to hand over certain local matters to local authorities, one could assume that “self-administration”, i.e., selfgovernment should be even more advanced in today’s reality (Loughlin, 1996, pp. 80–82). However, the question that should be also asked is whether the unique challenges of today’s world can be tackled by decentralised bodies. The challenges include depopulation, nomadisation and deindustrialisation. However, the digitisation of the economy and administration, as well as the digitisation of production and the resulting massive job losses, is a key challenge. These challenges require strategic actions, setting directions and securing legal means for the implementation of the tasks (Szafrański, 2014, p. 14). The burden of actions, and the related creativity and respect for diversity to counteract contemporary unfavourable phenomena in a new manner, must be placed in a local government which is close to people. In Poland, communes, districts and provinces constitute such units. In most countries, these are at least two levels of local authority. Quick and rapid changes require an appropriate reaction in close connection with the affected environments. Rigid actions on a national scale cannot bring positive results due to a complex mosaic of threats. Trust in the local government provides confidence in its competence as well as freedom from corruption and nepotism. The system of apolitical and impartial examinations to the local government is a prerequisite for success and social acceptance.

Guarantees of the individual’s freedom 253

Conclusions Catholic social teaching recognises that all people are equal and free, and clearly indicates that every human person has the natural right to be recognised as a free and responsible being. In an increasingly complex reality (in terms of technology, law etc.), the risk of losing subjectivity seems to be a serious problem. Looking through the prism of community matters and human dignity, one can see structural deficiencies which weaken human subjectivity. This way of thinking is followed by the call to effectively protect the human person, which embodies the individual’s freedom in the modern state. The guarantees of subjectivity can be made permanent and real only if they are institutionalised and support the individual. At the same time, these functions cannot not be limited by access barriers and cannot be selective in nature. The solutions proposed in this paper, regarding legal assistance, legal information and local government, are undoubtedly the good examples of such open bottom-up activities. This is because they provide an institutionalised form of protection, are conducive to the self-fulfilment of man and raise his awareness and ability to participate actively and responsibly in state life.

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17 The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs Ryszard F. Sadowski, Janusz Balicki and Rafał Leśniczak Introduction There are strong indications that the Catholic Church can significantly contribute to the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs. This chapter explores the Sustainable Development Goal 17 (SDG17), calling for the partnership which needs to be rebuilt, strengthened and implemented at the economic, technological and system-based level for the implementation of all and each of SDGs. SDGs are interdependent and indivisible, and ensure a balance between the three components of sustainable development (UNGA, 2015, p. 1). The partnership understood in this way is based on dialogue. Since the beginning of the 1960s, the Catholic Church has been discussing the role of dialogue in resolving the world problems. Thanks to the awareness of the importance of dialogue and rich experience of the Catholic Church, countries, religions and local communities can significantly contribute to the well-being of our planet through the implementation of the goals set out in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The concept of dialogue understood as a method and measure which determines the approach of the Church regarding the cooperation in the face of humanity’s challenges was explored in the Church’s teaching not earlier than during the pontificate of Pius XII. Specifically, the issue was raised in two encyclicals of John XXIII, Mater et Magistra (1961) and Pacem in Terris (1963). The fundamental documents in the Church’s teaching, which discuss the issue of dialogue and cooperation, include Paul VI’s encyclical Ecclesiam Suam (1964) and the Pastoral Constitution on The Church in The Modern World “Gaudium et Spes” (1965). They clearly indicate that the Catholic Church treats dialogue as a principle and structural element of her life (Gocko, 2003, p. 246). The Church’s teaching further explores the discussion on dialogue for building the widest possible partnership and solving world problems. In the encyclical Populorum Progressio, Pope Paul VI calls for dialogue between developed and developing countries in order to eradicate poverty, inequality and injustice, and to build the world order (Paul VI, 1967,

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 257 section 54). The Church also calls for a “lasting atmosphere of dialogue” (WSCB, 1971, section 28). The responsibility for creating and sustaining this atmosphere of dialogue lies with the countries and all people who should rise above geopolitical, ideological or socioeconomic differences (Gocko, 2003, p. 247). The Catholic discussion on dialogue is continued by successive popes. In his programmatic encyclical Redemptor Hominis, John Paul II defines the Church’s efforts for dialogue and partnership as a “new stage in the Church’s life” (John Paul II, 1979, section 6). The speeches of Pope Benedict XVI, in turn, focus more on dialogue between cultures than on dialogue between religions. In his approach, the issues which were not generally raised in the dialogue between religions are discussed: human dignity, respect for women and respect for religious freedom. The concept of dialogue is also discussed by Pope Francis, who indicates that dialogue is necessary to overcome the environmental crisis. In his encyclical Laudato Si’, he encourages the building of the universal partnership for the Earth, which is our common home, by means of dialogue with all (Francis, 2015a, section 3; Jaromi, 2020). Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the Church’s commitment to dialogue between countries, religions and local communities gives hope for the creation of the genuine partnership which, as expected by the Church, leads to the implementation of the common good and has the potential to significantly contribute to the implementation of SDGs if managed properly.

The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership between countries for the implementation of SDGs Relations between the Holy See and the UN at the institutional level In international relations, the Holy See officially acts as the Vatican City. The state was established as a result of the Lateran Treaties and the Concordat of 11 February 1929, which guarantees the Holy See freedom of action and care on the part of the Italian state (Sitarz, 2014, p. 275). This authorises the Holy See to conduct diplomatic relations with countries and international organisations. The Vatican City is not a member of the UN, but it has the status of a permanent observer, which gives it the right to participate in all sessions of the UN General Assembly, the UN Security Council and the UN Economic and Social Council. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Timothy A. Byrnes, it would be wrong to look at the pope as the head of the Vatican City only. He acts through formal diplomatic channels as the embodiment of the Holy See, as the leader and, in other words, “the supreme organ of government of the Catholic Church” (Byrnes, 2017, p. 2).

258  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. The cooperation between the Vatican City and the UN was established under the pontificate of Pius XII. In 1952, Archbishop Giuseppe A. Roncalli, later Pope John XXIII, was appointed the first observer of the Holy See at UNESCO. He initiated actions aimed at opening the institutional Church to contacts with the international community. This attitude can be clearly seen in his encyclical Pacem in Terris (1963), in which the whole chapter is devoted to the UN. Pope Paul VI continued his cooperation with the UN and was the first to host the UN Secretary-Generals, Sithu U Thant (1963) and Kurt Waldheim (1977), in the Vatican City. He also appointed the first permanent observer at the UN headquarters in New York (1964). The cooperation between the Holy See and the United Nations is also evidenced by the visits of successive popes to the UN headquarters in New York. Paul VI (1965) was the first to visit the UN. His successors also visited New York. The first time John Paul II was there was in 1979, i.e., a year after his election. In his speech, he expressed the conviction that the Holy See is linked with the United Nations by the “special bond of cooperation.” His next visit took place in 1995, on the 50th anniversary of the UN. Pope Benedict XVI paid a visit to the UN in 2008, on the 60th anniversary of the Declaration of Human Rights (Gołębiowski, 2014). With respect to the partnership for the implementation of SDGs, the visit of Pope Francis to the UN headquarters in 2015, shortly after the announcement of his encyclical Laudato Si’, proved extremely important. At the UN General Assembly, he called for a fundamental reform of the organisation and called the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development “an important sign of hope.” He also pointed out that pillars of integral human development have a common foundation, which is the right to life and, more generally, what we could call the right to existence of human nature itself. The ecological crisis and the large-scale destruction of biodiversity can threaten the very existence of the human species. (Francis, 2015b) He highlighted “the painful situation of the entire Middle East, North Africa and other African countries.” He argued that “these realities should serve as a grave summons to an examination of conscience on the part of those charged with the conduct of international affairs” (Francis, 2015b). As regards the Church’s contribution to the building of the partnership in the face of contemporary global challenges, the message delivered by Francis on the occasion of the visit of UN Secretary-General António Guterres to the Vatican on 15 December 2019 played a pivotal role. In his call for responsibility for the state of our planet, Pope Francis urged all to “take care of our land which, generation after generation, has been entrusted to

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 259 our custody by God so that we may cultivate it and hand it over to our children.” He stressed the urgency and need for commitment “to reduce polluting emissions and to an integral ecology saying, ‘let us do something before it is too late!’ ” (Gomes, 2019). The Holy See is not only an observer of the United Nations, but also has a close relationship with a number of international organisations, including the Organisation of American States and World Trade Organisation (U.S. Department of State, 2019). The Holy See has diplomatic relations with all the countries of the world, except four, including Palestine (since 25 October  1994), the People’s Republic of China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The Holy See has also diplomatic relations with the European Union. It participates in many various Intergovernmental Organisations and Bodies, and International Programmes (POMHSUN, 2020). The building of international partnerships is also governed by special agreements of the Holy See with some countries referred to as the Concordat. The agreements are applied to countries with a large percentage of Catholic citizens. They govern the relations between a given country and the Catholic Church, and, typically, affect the relations between a country and other religious associations. The cooperation between the Catholic Church and the European Union is yet another key area which supports the building of the international partnership. The cooperation takes place via the Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Union (COMECE), which monitors the political process of the European Union in all areas of interest to the Church. Its headquarters is based in Brussels. The mission of COMECE is supported by a number of commissions and working groups made up of experts appointed by the national Bishops’ Conferences and Catholic organisations. They operate in the following fields: Migration & Asylum (Working Group on Migration and Asylum); Ethics, Research  & Health (Working Group on Ethics); Ecology & Sustainability; Justice & Fundamental Rights (Legal Affairs Commission); Intercultural Dialogue  & Education; Social  & Economic Policies (Commission on Social Affairs); External Action (Commission on the External Relations of the European Union); Religious Freedom (COMECE, 2020). However, according to Byrnes, the international political roles of the Holy See and the Pope stretch far beyond the confines of these formal diplomatic matters: The Pope, in addition to his leadership of the global diplomatic corps and the Roman Curia, is also the uncontested central leader of a religious community numbering over a billion souls and present in virtually every corner of the globe. (Byrnes, 2017, p. 10)

260  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. Cooperation between the Catholic Church and the international community – axiological challenges Demographic processes in developing countries, especially in Africa, pose one of the challenges in the building of the partnership between the Catholic Church and the international community. Since the very beginning of its existence, the UN has taken steps to slow down the pace of demographic processes. This was because the rate of population growth was higher than ever before. Since the beginning of the 19th century, which is when the world population reached one billion for the first time in history, it has been growing rapidly. In 2019, the world population reached 7.7 billion (UNDESA, 2019, p. 6). The Catholic Church is also aware of the challenges of rapid demographic development. This issue has been raised in the speeches of successive popes since the mid-1960s. The Second Vatican Council calls for a broad international cooperation “for those peoples who, besides facing so many other difficulties, likewise undergo pressures due to a rapid increase in population” (SVC, 1965b, section 87). The urgency of demographic issues in the Church is also highlighted by Pope John Paul II: The Church is certainly aware of the many complex problems which couples in many countries face today in their task of transmitting life in a responsible way. She also recognises the serious problem of population growth in the form it has taken in many parts of the world and its moral implications. (John Paul II, 1981, section 31) Having recognised the importance of demographic issues, the UN initiated the organisation of periodic conferences on population and society. Both the world population conferences, i.e., in Bucharest (1974), Mexico (1984) and Cairo (1994), and conferences devoted to specific social issues, i.e., environment (Rio de Janeiro 1992), social inequalities (Copenhagen 1995), women’s rights (Beijing 1995), and housing (Istanbul 1996), generated sharp disputes on how to approach demographic growth. The conferences were attended by experts, politicians, representatives of NGOs and a delegation from the Holy See. In 1999, five years after the Cairo conference, the meeting of the member states of the so-called “Cairo + five” was held at the UN. Since then, sessions of the Commission on Population and Development have been held in New York to verify to what extent the Cairo Conference commitments are fulfilled and to address current population issues (Balicki et al., 2007, pp. 342–362). Clear differences of opinion at the UN conferences occurred not only between the Holy See and countries (usually developed ones), but also

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 261 between developed and developing countries. For example, at the Bucharest conference, developed countries made economic aid to developing countries contingent on taking specific measures to reduce population growth (Newton, 1992, p. 6). This was not well received by developing countries, which saw it as a new manifestation of imperialism and colonialism. Some poor countries claimed that population growth is a desirable phenomenon which proves the potential of the country, and opposed population control programmes (Cliquet & Thienpont, 1995, p. 58). The Holy See recognises the importance of demographic challenges, but cannot give consent to some ways of solving them. This is a consequence of the axiological foundations of Catholic social teaching. Successive popes pointed out that the demographic issue has not only an economic dimension, but also a moral one. Pope John Paul II recognised the necessity of dealing with the effects of high birth rates, but warned against the practices of birth control, reminiscent of the biblical actions undertaken by the pharaoh towards the Israelites to limit their birth rate (John Paul II, 1995, section 16). Differences in the approach to demographic challenges were particularly evident at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994. According to the Holy See, the final document of the Cairo Conference, unlike earlier documents of the conferences in Bucharest and Mexico, recognised abortion as a part of population policy and even basic medical care, even though it also stressed that abortion should not be promoted as a means of family planning and recommended that governments seek alternatives to abortion. In its Reservations, the delegation from the Holy See expressed the opinion that the final document of the conference (chapters 7 and 8) contains certain statements which could be interpreted as the acceptance of extramarital sexual activity, especially among young people. The Holy See claims that the document features an individualistic vision of sexuality which does not pay due attention to factors specific to married life, such as mutual love and joint decision-making (Reservations of the Holy See, 1994, p. 48). The Cairo controversy continued in connection with the 25th anniversary of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Nairobi conference in 2019. The Holy See did not accept the invitation and issued a statement that the 1994 Cairo Conference was an important event, especially given that the opposition to all forms of coercion in the politics of the population was expressed. However, in Nairobi, the focus of the conference on a few controversial and divisive issues that do not enjoy international consensus and that do not reflect accurately the broader population and development agenda outlined by the ICPD, is regrettable. The ICPD and its encompassing Programme of Action within the international community’s broad development agenda should

262  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. not be reduced to so-called “sexual and reproductive health and rights and comprehensive sexuality education.” (POMHSUN, 2019) In addition, the Holy See regretted that no substantive consultation on this issue had been held and that the conference had been organised outside the scope of the UN as it precludes transparent intergovernmental negotiations and conveys the misleading impression that the actors of Nairobi Declaration reached a consensus. These examples indicate that the Catholic Church faces huge challenges. The values proclaimed by the Church for the past two millennia clash with contemporary views, such as the right to abortion or euthanasia, based on the assumption of the individual’s unlimited right to make decisions. Abortion deals with the women’s right to make decisions about their own bodies, while euthanasia intentionally ends one’s life. It is the Church’s task to show that her position in this regard is not only religiously justified, but also is based on human dignity and the resulting inviolability of human life from conception to natural death. In the ongoing discussion, the Church also refers to the individual and social consequences of undermining this principle. They include severe cases of post-abortion syndrome and the slipperyslope effect of social acceptance of euthanasia, which results in the use of solutions adopted in the first half of the 20th century. As evidenced previously, the documents of Catholic social teaching indicate that the Holy See did not oppose the view of some countries regarding the need to address the consequences of the rapid population growth. It never even treated the population growth as a threat to the world. Instead, it put a great emphasis on the proper treatment of poor countries, respect for the freedom of decision of spouses and, above all, looking at the population issues from the perspective of the dignity of every human being (Balicki et al., 2007, pp. 431–433).

The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership between religions for the implementation of SDGs The attitude of the Catholic Church to dialogue with other religions has changed significantly thanks to Pope Paul VI and the Second Vatican Council. In his encyclical Ecclesiam Suam, the Pope points out that dialogue with all, including representatives of other religions and other Christian denominations, is essential for achieving the common good of humanity (Paul VI, 1964, sections 107–111). The Church’s openness to interreligious dialogue is also declared in Nostra aetate: Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non-Christian Religions: “We cannot truly call on God, the Father of all, if we refuse to treat in a brotherly way any man, created as he is in the image of God” (SVC, 1965a, section 5). The Church calls its believers and

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 263 followers of other religions to “work sincerely for mutual understanding and to preserve as well as to promote together for the benefit of all mankind social justice and moral welfare, as well as peace and freedom” (SVC, 1965a, section 3). However, dialogue is not an end in itself. It should bring a change in the mindset of its participants and encourage responsibility for the problems it causes and commitment to overcome them. A genuine dialogue forms a human fraternity and recognises different aspects of the bond which binds its members. Pope John Paul II claims that economic, cultural, political and religious interrelationships of humanity have a moral dimension and require genuine solidarity (John Paul II, 1987, section 38). The Catholic Church recognises her responsibility for the implementation of the common good and thus encourages dialogue with all Christian denominations and other religions to establish cooperation in many areas of human activity (PCJP, 2014, sections 535, 537). This shows that the Catholic social teaching not only permits its faithful to cooperate with representatives of other religions, but also encourages them to do so. The aim of these activities is to promote the integration of the human community and joint response to the challenges of today. The Christian involvement in the environmental issue was inspired by the publications of well-known Christian theologians and the discussion triggered by the article of Lynn White, The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis (White, 1967), on how Christianity contributed to the ecological crisis. The discussion resulted in the broad interdisciplinary research on the involvement of Christianity in the environmental crisis which revealed the complexity of the crisis and the part Christianity plays in inducing and overcoming the crisis. Over time, the research was extended to include the role of other religious traditions and religion as such. The research made religious leaders aware of the necessity to re-examine the doctrine of the religious texts of individual religions from the environmental point of view. A significant contribution in this respect is from Mary E. Tucker and John A. Grim, the creators of the Forum on Religion and Ecology, which provides a platform for the exchange of ideas between scholars representing all the world’s religions and offers training materials on how all major religious traditions approach the environment (Sadowski, 2009a). The potential of religions for the environmental issue was also recognised by the Worldwatch Institute, which devoted a whole chapter to this topic in its annual report State of the World 2003. The report highlights five environmental assets of religions which foster the development of the sustainable world: (1) The capacity to shape cosmologies (worldviews); (2) Moral authority; (3) Large base of adherents; (4) Significant material resources; and (5) Community-building capacity (Gardner, 2003, p. 152). The fact that religions were recognised as important allies in the fight against the modern environmental crisis triggered a number of non-religious initiatives to build the interreligious partnership for improving the condition

264  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. of our planet. The Interfaith Partnership for the Environment established in 1996 is a good example of such initiatives. It holds symposia, publishes books and prepares materials on nature conservation for various religious communities (Tucker & Grim, 2005, p. 2613). Another similar non-religious initiative devoted to interreligious partnership is the Alliance for Religion and Conservation (ARC), established in 1997. It was founded by Prince Philip, who recognised the need to coordinate the activities of secular environmental organisations and structures of individual religions. Currently, ARC works for the 12 largest world’s religions, which accounts for about 82% of the human population. There are also many initiatives supported by the religions themselves to integrate their efforts to address the issue of creation. In this respect, common declarations of the recent popes and Bartholomew I, the Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, are particularly noteworthy. They refer directly to the contemporary environmental challenges faced by humanity and encourage actions which promote caring for the Earth (John Paul II, Bartholomew I; Benedict XVI, Bartholomew I; Francis, Bartholomew I). The proclamation of the encyclical Laudato Si’ by Pope Francis on 24 May 2015 undoubtedly had the most significant influence on the cooperation between religions for the care of the Earth, our common home. The encyclical became a catalyst for pro-ecological speeches and calls of religious leaders representing all major religious traditions. The speeches were addressed to state leaders in connection with the upcoming Climate Change Conference in Paris (COP21). All speeches received a wide reception by the general public and undoubtedly influenced the formation of environmental awareness of many believers and state leaders who attended the meeting (Sadowski, 2016, pp. 89–112). Similarly, religious leaders, inspired by Laudato Si’, took joint initiatives for climate protection in connection with the upcoming COP21 in Paris. Since then, joint calls of world religious leaders to government representatives and the general public to take real action to protect the climate have become a common practice. Joint declarations of religious representatives were made at COP22 in Marrakech, COP23 in Bonn, COP24 in Katowice and COP25 in Madrid. It seems that numerous environmental initiatives of the Catholic Church have brought the expected results: a platform for dialogue and joint actions of all major world religious traditions have been built. Representatives of environmental organisations, which act for religious reasons and ordinary followers of various religions, have been supported and motivated by their leaders for several years. Religious leaders call for action to protect the environment and build the sustainable world. This gives hope the SDGs can be implemented not only at the international and governmental level by means of legal acts, but also at the universal level with the support of local religious communities, schools, hospitals, families and individual believers.

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 265

The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership in local communities for the implementation of SDGs With respect to the implementation of SDGs, partnership is understood as motivating and encouraging members of a given community to engage in various forms of cooperation to enable them to define and solve their problems. This attitude develops awareness and responsibility for joint actions to support social capital, the common good and social activation (Bexell & Jönsson, 2017, pp. 13–29). The local community is one of the main components of the social structure reflected, in institutional and political terms, by a village, estate, parish, commune, district or municipality (Warner  & Rountree, 1997, pp.  520–536). The distinguishable features of the local community include a permanent system of social ties and interactions, a sense of rootedness and belonging to the place, ties resulting from common interests and needs, and social cooperation supported by, inter alia, organised social groups, local associations and NGOs (Szczudlińska-Kanoś, 2013, p. 46). In its efforts to build partnerships in local communities for the implementation of SDGs, the Catholic Church should, inter alia, re-address basic principles of Catholic social teaching. Catholic social teaching concentrates on human dignity and the common good. The former has a biblical reference. It refers to the fact that man was created in the image of God, which emphasises an inherent connection with the human person. Given the social nature of man, people uphold their innate dignity in its entirety if they maintain relations with others (Donaldson, 2012, p.  123). Catholic social teaching also recognises the principle of solidarity which assumes mutual responsibility for each other. The Church sees it as a social principle and moral virtue requiring practice and development (Scholz, 2015, p. 726). Its evangelical message is that we lose ourselves in service to others. With respect to the building of the partnership in local communities, it is legitimate to interpret solidarity as a motive for action which strengthens an attitude of altruism individually and collectively. The aim is to adopt the logic of thinking which excludes attitudes strictly based on self-interest and devoid of social empathy (Stjernø, 2009, p. 2; Thalos, 2012, pp. 57–95). Catholic social teaching also refers to the principle of subsidiarity, which concerns the proper organisation of social structures and respect for autonomy in the exercise of functions by citizens, families and civil society (Lu, 2017, pp. 7–20). The Catholic Church proposes “the option or love of preference for the poor” (John Paul II, 1987, section 42). John Paul II claims that society is judged based on how it treats its most vulnerable members (Donaldson & Belanger, 2012, pp. 123–124). The current pontificate of Pope Francis, his teachings on the poorest, and his apostolate, addressing e.g. migration and the refugee crisis, prove that the Church’s view on social issues is broader and has regard for the poor (Sedmak, 2016, p. 2018).

266  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. The Church’s mission is to act for the common good in the spirit of tolerance, dialogue, understanding, compromise and the common goal to achieve social peace. The Church should not support one particular political faction if she wants to contribute to the building of the partnership (Borowik, 2002, pp. 83–84). The Church plays an important role in the integration of communities. She defines clear objectives in order to implement the partnership strategy at the local level. The environmental issue which addresses human responsibility constitutes an important area of action. Leaders of religious communities, including the Catholic Church, inspire commitment to nature conservation (Sadowski, 2009b, pp. 157–159, 2013, p. 87). The Catholic Climate Covenant aimed at increasing environmental awareness and implementing the principles of Catholic social teaching is an example of an interesting ecclesiastical initiative in USA. The organisation focuses its efforts on reducing CO2 emissions. It brings together over 17,000 American Catholic parishes and millions of Catholics. It is an example of an environmental organisation which builds the partnership in the community at the local level. Other organisations of this type include Global Catholic Climate Movement (GCCM), International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture, and Alliance of Religion and Conservation (Bergmann, 2015, pp. 389–392). The American Catholic Church cooperates in the field of climate pacts with 18 national partners, including Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities USA, the Catholic Health Association, congregations of religious men and women, and other national organisations (CCC, 2006). Note that the concept of building the partnership for the implementation of SDGs for which the Catholic Church sets theoretical foundations is universal, i.e., encompasses all local communities, but the practical implementation of this concept in individual communities is determined by political, social and cultural circumstances. The American Commission on International Religious Freedom is an institution which monitors the global situation with respect to religious freedom and publishes an annual report identifying countries which violate citizens’ freedom of conscience (Glendon, 2018, pp. 329–339). In Iran, Saudi Arabia, China and North Korea, the activities of the Catholic Church are strongly limited. China adopted Confucianism as its leading philosophy. Its citizens follow the concept of the ideal state, and all structures, including the Catholic Church, are subordinated to the state. For this reason, the efforts of the Church in the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs are severely limited and manifested through the activity of the underground church (Madsen, 2019, pp. 5–23). Countries which enjoy religious freedom launch many initiatives at the local level for the implementation of SDG17. They include actions to support the poor and eliminate social injustice. In local communities of developing countries, the Catholic Church supports and encourages the activities promoting the preferential option for the poor. Catholic parishes hold the

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 267 projects in cooperation with local community institutions. For example, the Catholic Diocese of Eldoret in Kenya manages five key programmes supporting poor children in sponsored schools. These are Education for Life, Gender and Women Development, Small Internal Lending Communities, Catholic Justice and Peace Commission, Caritas (Richard, 2018, pp. 84–108). Caritas Internationalis, established by Pope Pius XII, has regional structures to conduct charitable activities around the world. It brings help to those who suffer from military conflicts, disasters, hunger, inadequate medical care, migration and exile. The support provided by Caritas Internationalis in 2018 is estimated at around EUR 5 million. The Caritas Internationalis Annual Report 2018 presents selected activities of the organisation, including the fight against HIV and AIDS. In 2018, Caritas launched a new project known as GRAIL with the support of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) in Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo. GRAIL stands for Galvanising Religious Leaders for Accelerated Identification and Linkage to Paediatric Antiretroviral Therapy. Caritas worked with UNAIDS, PEPFAR and other organisations to press the heads of major pharmaceutical companies for child-friendly medicines and testing tools at affordable prices (Caritas, 2018, pp. 31, 11). How the partnership for the implementation of SDGs in local communities is built depends both on the religious cross section of the country’s population and the constitutional models of relations between the state and the Catholic Church (Christoffersen, 2006, pp. 107–126). In Italy, in which Catholics are in majority, parishes of the Catholic Church offer a range of initiatives to local communities: educational (parish schools, vocational schools, foreign language courses), charitable (permanent assistance to the poorest) and fostering integration (e.g., integrating refugees and migrants into the local community) (Zani, 2016, pp. 13–28; Wierzbicki, 2018, pp. 103–116). Every year, since 2011, Verona hosts the Festival of Catholic Social Teaching, mainly held by the Catholic foundation of Giuseppe Toniolo. The project provides information on the teaching of the Catholic Church in the field of social matters. The initiative is attended by representatives of local businesses who want to conduct activities in accordance with the principles of moral theology in order to build the partnership (Dottrinasociale.it, 2020). In countries in which Christians make up a small percentage, e.g., in most Asian countries and in North African countries, the opportunities are significantly limited. In Morocco, a country in which Muslim account for more than 99% of the population and sharia is in force, Catholics cooperate with Muslims mainly in the area of combating poverty, intolerance and discrimination. The Enseignement Catholique au Maroc, which operates in Rabat, focuses primarily on building the culture of interreligious and

268  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. intercultural dialogue, and mutual respect between Muslims and Christians (Nikles, 2017, pp. 105–116; Boucrot, 2003, pp. 83–89). In atheist societies, for example in the Czech Republic, the activities of the Catholic Church at the local level are aimed at building the partnership with non-believers and non-Catholic believers. The initiative which is worth noting here is the activity of the Catholic kindergarten in České Budějovice which is run by nuns from the congregation of the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament. This is an educational facility which incorporates the basics of Maria Montessori’s method, integrates people of different faiths and teaches children about multiculturalism. The institution also provides care, therapy and rehabilitation for children with developmental disabilities (Surma, 2016, pp. 135–140). Thanks to the model of friendly cooperation between the state and the Catholic Church, activities can be undertaken at the local level. However, the principle of secularity may make it more difficult, e.g., due to the fact that the state is not allowed to provide financial support to ecclesiastical initiatives (Kuru, 2009, pp.  103–158). To sum up, the role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership in local communities for the implementation of SDGs is a complex issue and largely depends on political, social and cultural circumstances. Other issues, which play a significant role here, include freedom of religion and democratisation of social structures. At the theoretical level, the Church addresses the main lines of action in the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs, while at the practical level, she tries to implement SDGs in a way appropriate for the communities and promotes openness to others to encourage joint response to people’s needs.

Conclusions Due to the contemporary challenges, humanity takes ambitious and urgent actions to care for the Earth and all its inhabitants, both people and nonhuman beings. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is one of the most important contemporary attempts to respond to these challenges. There are strong indications that the adoption of 17 SDGs by the UN is the best possible response to the threat faced by the world. There are scholars who criticise SDGs “for being too ambitious, universal, expansive and with potential inconsistencies, particularly between the socio-economic development and the environmental sustainability goals,” but it seems that this is the best solution the international community could adopt (Bali Swain & Yang-Wallentin, 2019, p. 1). SDG17, the last on the list, stands out from the others. It recognises the need to build the partnership at the global, regional and local level. The building of the partnership and cooperation between individual communities is the only way which gives hope to the implementation of all and each of SDGs. This chapter highlights the potential of the Catholic Church and

Partnership for the implementation of SDGs 269 her contribution to the building of the partnership. It should be emphasised that the potential of Catholic social teaching is much greater than actual efforts put to build the partnership between nations, religions and local communities. To use the full potential is a challenge and opportunity. It is a challenge because it requires greater commitment from religious leaders and all the faithful. It is an opportunity because the commitment can significantly contribute to the implementation of SDGs at the global, regional, national, local and even individual level. This is confirmed by studies which prove that the role played by Christianity in this regard and its potential are extraordinary. Christians in general and North Atlantic Christians in particular may have more of an impact on mitigating climate change than any other religious group. However, such a contribution would only be authentic and liberative if they can retrieve the ecological wisdom in the deepest roots of their own traditions. (Conradie & Koster, 2019, p. 6) It should be also noted that the potential of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs depends both on religious and social factors as well as on political and economic ones. The fact that the Holy See attends and participates in international meetings is widely known and appreciated. However, the prospects for the activity of the Catholic Church in particular countries or regions of the world highly depend on a number of factors. The voice of the Church is better heard by the leaders of countries in which Catholicism is a dominant religion or is represented by a significant percentage of society. In countries in which Catholics are small minorities, the situation is different. The ability of the Catholic Church to influence also depends on the level of religious freedom and democracy in a given country. For example, the activity of the Church in North Korea, China or Saudi Arabia is likely to be completely different than in Poland, Germany, Colombia or the USA. Therefore, all initiatives of the Church aimed at building the partnership between countries, religions and local communities differ in scope and nature depending on local conditions. The Catholic Church is also involved to varying degree in the implementation of individual SDGs. This results not only from external conditions, but also from the axiology constituting the foundation of Catholic social teaching. The so-called demographic issue and environmental issue discussed in this paper are both good examples of this dependence. The Church recognises and highlights the importance of both these issues. However, while the Church’s activity of the Catholic Church in solving the environmental issue is relatively uncontroversial and the Church is heavily engaged in it, her activity in solving the demographic issue is limited. The Church generally shares the view on the demographic issue presented by the UN, but she

270  Ryszard F. Sadowski et al. differs in the way she addresses the issue. As a result, the Church is actively engaged in actions addressing women and children living in extreme poverty, migration, literacy and education, promotion of the culture of peace, and support for the family as the basic unit of society, but it opposes the limitation of the procreative freedom and the promotion of euthanasia and abortion. This is why the Church is involved in the implementation of SDGs, morally controversial in nature, only to the extent and with the methods she considers acceptable from the Catholic point of view. There are strong indications that the Catholic Church has many assets thanks to which she is an important ally in the building of dialogue and cooperation. She follows the call of the Second Vatican Council: “If we have been summoned to the same destiny, human and divine, we can and we should work together without violence and deceit in order to build up the world in genuine peace” (SVC, 1965b, section 92). Seemingly, the key assets of the Church include the following: • The Holy See has a high status at the UN, which is due to its moral authority and the fact that it represents about 1.3 billion Catholics. • The Church uses ecclesiastical structures (international, regional, national and local) and has extensive experience in working with the UN, other international organisations, countries, religions, NGOs, foundations and other actors to fight poverty and solve various social and educational problems. • The Catholic Church has great merit and experience in mediating in international and social conflicts. • The Catholic Church pays attention to the broad moral perspective, which is often overlooked in favour of economic and political perspectives, and this seems to be her greatest asset.

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Conclusion

The comparative analysis of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching shows that these two approaches have many common points. One of them is a shared belief that the growing global problems should be tackled by means of specific actions of the entire international community with respect for the autonomy and rights of ethnic, national or regional communities. Both approaches also jointly emphasise that humanity uses the same common natural and social resources, though the degree to which and the way in which they are used vary significantly. It is often the case that actions taken in one part of the world affect its other parts, bringing about unexpected consequences. The fundamental shared actions and objectives include striving to respect equal dignity of all people and ensure the appropriate legal, political and economic means to protect it. Common actions include the promotion of inclusive development for any person or nation, including in particular the poorest and those who are deprived of the tools necessary for their own development. Generally speaking, almost all objectives of the 2030 Agenda are fairly consistent with the principles of Catholic social teaching, but this is due to the fact that the objectives are expressed in very general terms and refer to quite obvious rights of individuals and entire social groups. The differences include the way the objectives are prioritised and, in terms of operationalisation, the directions for specific actions, i.e., the tools and methods of implementation. This monograph clearly shows that, in terms of ecological issues, generally considered to be closer to the left-wing worldview, i.e., ecology, care for the Earth and the role of man in the process, Catholic social teaching is surprisingly close to the views of those who are not indifferent to environmental issues, and precedes them in some cases. The modern teaching of the Catholic Church on environmental care coincides with the assumptions of international and regional organisations, and new interpretations of the biblical texts shed light on environmental care in a variety of areas. Differences in the worldview in this respect often result only from different axioms: we can treat the care for the environment only as an end in itself (this is how ecology is sometimes understood) or see it in a broader perspective as the

Conclusion 275 relationship between creation, of which man is also part, and the Creator. Nevertheless, it seems that both approaches will eventually coincide, especially in practical terms, as they both care about the environment even though for other reasons. Laudato Si’, the encyclical of Pope Francis of 2015, which received a wide reception, not only from the Catholic world, best reflects the care for the Earth. The pope calls the Earth “our common home.” The Earth perceived as a home results from the etymology of the term “ecology.” The term consists of two Greek words: “oikos,” denoting household, home or place of residence, and “logos,” meaning word or science. It was first used in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel to denote the part of biology that deals with the relationships between organisms and the environment. The encyclical and other documents of the Church (also prior to Pope Francis, especially those of Pope Paul VI and John Paul II) emphasise that such an approach to the planet is deeply rooted in the truth of Revelation concerning the creation, the Creator and the special role of man in his care for the planet as a home. Interpretations of the biblical texts show that God’s command to “subdue the Earth,” so often misinterpreted, has never meant to denote the abuse or overuse of its resources. In fact, these words imply the care for what was given to man. In this respect, the Christian view of ecology is anthropological in nature as it shows the essential role of man in the process and the concern for man as a part of the creation, and at the same time is directed towards the Creator to whom both the Earth and man owe their existence. The interdisciplinary study of the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda presented in this monograph shows very clearly how the Christian view and the approach proposed by international organisations can complement each other, in particular in practical terms, and how much they can offer if come together, especially given that today’s world urgently needs the increased efforts of many circles to achieve the common good in the areas concerned. In declaratory terms, there are no major differences in the approach to building partnerships between the Catholic Church and SDGs. The Catholic Church is open to engaging in building an international partnership for the implementation of SDGs, but at the same time she strives to observe her own methods of achieving the goals and intends to implement them on the basis of strictly axiological grounds. One of the fundamental values is human freedom. Catholic social teaching recognises that all people are equal and free, and clearly indicates that every person has the natural right to be recognised as a free and responsible being. In an increasingly complex reality (in terms of technology, law etc.), the risk of losing subjectivity seems to be a serious problem. Looking through the prism of community matters and human dignity, one can see structural deficiencies which weaken human subjectivity. This way of thinking is followed by the call to effectively protect the human person, which embodies the individual’s freedom in the modern state. The guarantees of subjectivity can be made permanent and real only if they are institutionalised and

276  Conclusion support the individual. At the same time, these functions cannot be limited by access barriers and cannot be selective in nature. The solutions proposed in this monograph (in particular for SDG16), regarding legal assistance, legal information and local government, are undoubtedly good examples of such open bottom-up activities. In this respect, the issue of education and implementation of SDG4 should be highlighted since, despite the UN’s efforts and significant progress, this area remains a big challenge for the international community. As noted in the monograph, the modern teaching of the Catholic Church fits into the implementation of the 2030 Agenda in a fairly unique way. The Church strongly emphasises that freedom should be understood as the affirmation of humans in relation to ethical values, and that dialogue should not imply the rejection of identity or submission to cultural colonisation, but should lead to the search for the truth, education for persistence to serve the truth and acceptance of the multiplicity of forms and structures of social life. Some of the guidelines of sustainable development of the 2030 Agenda are criticised simply because it is assumed that the efforts of the protagonists of sustainable development focus, first and foremost, on nature while Catholic social teaching fulfils the anthropocentric vision. More precisely, there is a discrepancy, seemingly inevitable, between the anthropocentric and ecocentric perspective established within the framework of the definition of development. However, it seems that this conflict is only theoretical. Note that development was originally perceived in a strictly economic sense and was measured by means of economic growth. Despite the original enthusiasm for the economic concept, in the early 1960s, it was recognised that social aspects of development should also be taken into account. In the 1980s, the concept of sustainable development was adopted. The concept assumed the development in relation to both the human population and the Earth’s ecosystems and natural resources under the so-called holistic approach encompassing social, economic and environmental aspects. The global crisis of the 1980s which exacerbated global poverty contributed to the revaluation of the concept of development and directed it towards human development. Article 1 of the Declaration on the Right to Development of 1986 states that the human being is a central entity entitled to development, and highlights the individual’s responsibility for their own development and the development of community in which they live. This is the origin of the concept of the so-called human development which defines development as a process of increasing the spectrum of human choices and puts a long life with access to health care, education and the possibility of participating in the social and political life of the country at the centre of efforts for development. It seems that this concept, undoubtedly anthropocentric in nature, played a key role in shaping the Millennium Development Goals focused on education and health and the succeeding Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda which are mostly centred around social matters, undoubtedly in opposition to the purely economic perspective of development. The

Conclusion 277 concept of development expressed in the 2030 Agenda seem to be consistent with the so-called “integral ecology,” a concept introduced by Pope Francis, also commonly called “integral development.” In his encyclical Laudato Si’, Pope Francis suggests that “since everything is closely interrelated . . . we now consider some elements of an integral ecology, one which clearly respects its human and social dimensions” (section 139). In section 141 of the encyclical, he refers to the concept of economic growth. He notes that economic growth, for its part, tends to produce predictable reactions and certain standardisation with the aim of simplifying procedures and reducing costs. This suggests the need for an economic ecology capable of appealing to a broader vision of reality. The protection of the environment is in fact an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. [section  114] We urgently need a humanism capable of bringing together the different fields of knowledge, including economics, in the service of a more integral and integrating vision. The concept of integral ecology indicates that man, as an individual, is both at the centre of development and co-responsible for his own development and the development of all creation, i.e., society and the environment. The factor which makes the concept of integral ecology different from other concepts of development is that it centres around God and seeks justification in the Bible. The common point for the concepts of sustainable, human or integral development is the concern for the future of humanity in the context of life of the human being living on the Earth. One of the problems which is challenging for the Church and precludes her from building a universal partnership is the population policy pertaining, in particular, to eradication of poverty. Similarly to the Catholic Church, SDG1 clearly states that poverty, especially extreme poverty, is a social evil which needs to be counteracted, following the principles of social solidarity and sustainable development. However, the measures and methods to achieve quite clearly defined goals are underspecified in SDG1. In this respect, Catholic social teaching certainly does and will differ from the solutions proposed by left-wing circles, not directly indicated in the 2030 Agenda, e.g., birth control or projects based on paternalism. The differences became particularly apparent at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994 and at the Nairobi Conference in 2019 in connection with the 25th anniversary of the Cairo Conference. According to Catholic social teaching, forms of assistance to the poor must respect human dignity, primacy of the person over things, human subjectivity and human freedom. Women’s rights and the role of the family in social life and individual development are also perceived in a different way, and this constitutes another significant area of dispute. As shown in the chapter on SDG5, the

278  Conclusion 2030 Agenda highlights, inter alia, the need to recognise and value the unpaid care work provided by women regardless of their country of origin. Based on the retrospective view on the issue (Polish Mother) and the contemporary perspective (e.g., the situation of women in Africa), it has been noted that women in many parts of the world still perform the vast majority of domestic and caring activities which men are reluctant to do. Moreover, as highlighted in the concept of ecofeminism, women are also engaged in farming, animal husbandry and drawing drinking water in difficult climatic conditions. On the other hand, based on the lessons from history, the “social contract between sexes” is currently being reformulated. The 2030 Agenda emphasises that men (and other household members) need to systematically engage in direct household works and take co-responsibility for the daily life of their families, i.e., take care of children, prepare meals, maintain cleanliness, arrange free time etc. This is supposed to be one of the ways to counteract the forced professional inactivity of women. This trend has been followed by the Catholic Church since the Second Vatican Council. The apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem on women’s dignity and vocation was a breakthrough in the issue. However, this position of the Church is not widely known. The Church is a priori perceived as a patriarchal institution which restricts women to their role as a wife and mother and perpetuates the centuries-old division into male and female tasks. In reality, the Catholic Church is a proponent of antidiscrimination measures. However, it should be noted that this pursuit of equality does not imply the masculinisation of women or the unification of the social concept of sex. This attitude is reflected in the encyclical Evangelium Vitae of Pope John Paul II. The Pope calls women to engage in the creation of a “new feminism” which warns against the blind imitation of men and shows the “feminine genius” in its entirety. This shows that Catholic social teaching does not deny the natural differences between the sexes and emphasises equality in dignity. The differences between the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching are often driven by motivation. For example, leaving aside the issue of so-called reproductive rights, including attitudes towards abortion, the theological reflections under the analysis of SDG3 devoted to health care emphasise the spiritual needs of man. In addition to the ultimate goal of health care, which is to ensure the quality of life for the healthy and ill (suffering), particular attention is given to the respect for human dignity and the need to protect human rights, including the right to religious freedom. Similar conclusions are drawn in the analysis of SDG7. From the point of view of Catholic social teaching, the call to create sustainable energy deserves attention and promotion, provided that technological and ethical dilemmas are resolved. In Catholic social teaching, respect for human dignity constitutes a measure of progress of civilised humanity. Therefore, before any actions for progress are initiated, human dignity should be promoted and encouraged via education and upbringing activities for the young generation.

Conclusion 279 A similar conclusion is presented in the discussion on hunger eradication (SDG2), overconsumption (SDG12) and the protection of terrestrial and marine ecosystems (SDG13, SDG14 and SDG15). Both Catholic social teaching and the 2030 Agenda conclude that the current pattern of consumption threatens whole societies and the environment. What makes these two perspectives different is the way the issues are recognised and approached. The 2030 Agenda makes little effort to recognise the problem. Catholic social teaching emphasises that hunger (or overconsumption) is not only due to purely economic or technical reasons. It is caused by human sin, manifested in people’s desire to meet their own needs at the expense of others, resulting in the moral crisis, the destruction of normativity and the pace of life called “rapidification” (Francis, Laudato Si’, section 18). This shows that the care of the Church is not limited to human health and the environment. The Church also discusses the destructive consequences of the issue for mental, moral, spiritual, cultural and political life. The chapters of the monograph also frequently conclude that the “social dimension” of the implementation of the goals of the 2030 Agenda is insufficient. Following Catholic social teaching, they repeatedly point out the need to increase the involvement of local communities in activities for the implementation of SDGs, e.g., SDG2, SDG6, SDG9, SDG11 and SDG16, and promote their broader empowerment, including through the principle of subsidiarity. One of the solutions they propose is to encourage greater participation of authorities and local communities in decision-making processes. The monograph repeatedly highlights the role of the Catholic Church, stressing that the Church goes beyond the theoretical scope and undertakes practical activities all over the world. It also indicates the complementarity between the activities of the Church’s institutions and of secular institutions. The Church adopts the multidimensional approach to man to diagnose the problems and drives a deeper, spiritual motivation to solve them, whereas secular institutions are complementary in relation to the activities of the Church, drawing on the achievements of science and providing practical solutions to the problems. Whether SDGs will remain just another concept of development or will contribute to the creation of a measurable platform of cooperation and action for the good of the individual and the environment depends on the practical implementation of the 17 SDGs. The analysis of each of SDGs has shown that, despite some differences, there is a broad space for cooperation and dialogue between the Catholic Church and other stakeholders for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda.

Index

3D printing 139 3R strategy 79 4G internet and future 5G 141 abortion 25, 34, 41, 45 – 47, 261 – 262, 270, 278 access to law 247 – 248 access to water 29, 30, 32, 54, 87, 91, 94, 97 – 98, 163 ACN 32 aesthetics 172 – 173, 175, 185, 227 Africa 7, 9, 28 – 30, 46, 63, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 76 – 78, 89, 95, 98, 155, 159, 231, 236, 258, 260, 278 African Union Agenda 2063 76 Agenda 21 235 – 236 Aid to the Church in Need see ACN alienation 116 – 117, 119, 180, 247 Anthropocene 198 – 200 anthropocentrism 137, 208, 232 – 234 architects 171 – 172, 175, 181 architecture 173, 175, 177, 194 Arctic 201, 213 ARPANET 138 artificial intelligence 110, 139, 145 Asia 7, 9, 28, 46, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 98, 140 axiology 34, 40, 41, 108, 234, 269 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 72 Big Data 139, 249 biodiversity 27, 29, 97, 198, 200, 213, 218, 220, 223, 228, 233 – 234, 236, 258 biotechnology 139, 149 blockchain technology 139 Book of Genesis 174, 217, 229 Cairo Conference (1994) 260 – 261, 277 Caritas 219, 267

CEDAW 73, 80 central administration 251 centres of charitable assistance 66 charity 23, 42, 55, 63, 64, 67, 88, 107, 188 – 189 Charter of Kraków 172 children, kitchen, church 74 Christian anthropology 81, 118, 136, 219 Church of the Poor 5, 12 Church’s mission 22, 66, 266 Church’s teaching 10, 12, 16 – 17, 23, 43, 59 – 60, 80, 87, 107 – 108, 115 – 123, 142, 153, 157, 162, 166, 175, 193, 195 – 196, 206 – 207, 233, 256 city 31, 171 – 177, 181, 188 climate change 21, 26 – 30, 94 – 95, 97, 102, 178, 193 – 194, 198 – 206, 208, 208n1, 212 – 214, 216, 218, 221, 227 – 228, 236, 264, 269 COMECE 107 – 108, 259 Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community see COMECE common good 3, 87, 89, 102 – 103, 108 – 109, 111, 118, 123, 134, 154, 157, 166, 177, 187, 189, 193, 217, 219, 223, 241 – 242, 244, 250, 257, 262 – 263, 265 – 266, 275 common heritage 220, 222, 248 conservatives 208 consumer 25, 106, 109, 144, 184, 186 – 188, 190, 192 – 196, 250 consumerism 11, 25, 34, 173, 190 – 191, 193 – 194, 196 consumption 26 – 28, 30, 34, 90, 105, 108 – 111, 161, 174, 179, 184, 186 – 188, 190 – 195, 207, 279

Index  281 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women see CEDAW coordinated care 49, 51 cultural diversity 78, 172, 175, 177, 194 cultural heritage 171 – 177, 181 culture of rejection 63, 157, 174, 194 decentralisation 6, 111, 207, 250 – 251 decent work 114 – 115, 118 – 121, 123 – 128 decision making 110 – 111, 127, 234, 243 – 245, 250, 261, 279 democracy 14, 59, 142, 159, 244, 246, 269 desert 214, 231 destruction of normativity 234, 279 digital divide 132, 141, 144 digital revolution 110, 132, 138, 144 – 145, 147 – 149 dignity 2, 6, 10 – 12, 16 – 17, 39 – 40, 42, 45, 47, 50, 59 – 60, 81 – 84, 89, 91, 97, 103 – 104, 108 – 111, 114, 116, 122, 126, 128, 134, 153, 158, 162 – 163, 166, 177 – 178, 180, 186, 188, 195, 219, 232, 241 – 244, 250, 252 – 253, 257, 262, 265, 274 – 275, 277 – 278 dignity of work 114, 116, 122 domestic work 72 – 77, 80, 83 – 84 drinking water 9, 26, 29 – 30, 43, 76, 87 – 91, 95, 98, 218, 278 ecofeminism 76, 82, 278 ecological conversion 61, 89 – 90, 215, 223 ecological sin 90, 176, 215 ecological virtue 204 ecology 1, 40, 42, 103, 133, 157, 163, 175 – 176, 181, 206 – 207, 215, 217 – 218, 223, 244, 259, 263, 274 – 275, 277 economic growth 33, 114 – 115, 117, 119 – 121, 127 – 128, 135, 159, 161, 178, 191, 276 – 277 economic inequality 154, 158 – 159, 161 – 163 economy 14, 33, 40, 74, 108 – 109, 111, 116, 118, 120, 124 – 127, 133, 135, 138, 144, 159 – 162, 176, 180, 194, 203, 206 – 207, 252 education for sustainable development 55 – 59, 63, 66, 68 – 69 egoism 193

energy consumption 105, 109, 111 energy mix 104 – 105 energy poverty 106 – 108, 110 energy poverty indicators 107 Energy Watch Group see EWG environmental protection 43, 103, 171, 212, 217, 233, 237 environmental virtue 205 equality 15, 33, 59, 72 – 74, 76 – 77, 79, 81 – 84, 97, 106, 108, 127, 162, 164, 203, 242 – 243, 246, 278 equality before the law 246 EU 5, 7, 10, 40 – 41, 44 – 45, 47, 78, 104 – 108, 111, 125 – 126, 142, 220 – 221, 228, 236 – 237, 248, 251, 259 Europe 46, 59, 65, 66, 67, 74 – 75, 105 – 107, 133, 140, 162, 205 – 206, 220, 251 European Charter of Patients’ Rights 45 European Union see EU euthanasia 42, 45, 47, 262, 270 EWG 104 extreme poverty 5 – 10, 12 – 13, 15 – 17, 46, 78, 97, 114, 158, 160, 179, 270, 277 extreme weather conditions 201 fear of missing out see FOMO FOMO 132, 143 food 10, 21 – 23, 25 – 27, 29 – 32, 42, 50, 74, 76, 110, 185, 194, 201, 203, 214, 218, 220, 222, 227 – 228, 233 food waste 26 – 27, 194 freedom 3, 7, 11 – 12, 15 – 17, 22, 42, 44, 60 – 61, 66, 69, 82, 125 – 126, 142, 156, 185, 190 – 191, 193, 241 – 253, 257, 259, 262 – 263, 266, 268 – 270, 275 – 278 gender 15, 50, 55, 59, 68, 72 – 74, 76 – 77, 79 – 84, 97, 108, 127, 178, 202, 267 gender equality 59, 72, 74, 76 – 77, 79, 81 – 83, 97 gender relations 74 global ethics 234 – 235 globalisation 25 – 26, 57 – 59, 62, 136, 167, 178 – 179, 181 global justice 203 – 204 global warming 29, 193 – 194, 198, 200 – 201, 208n1, 212, 216 Google Search 138 greenhouse effect 200, 218

282 Index greenhouse gas 27 – 28, 200 – 202, 208n1, 228 Green Party 205 Greenpeace 104 Haidara, Souhayata 77 harmony 90, 117, 178 – 179, 184 health care: primary 48 – 49, 51; secondary 44, 46, 48; tertiary 46, 49 health prevention 40, 43, 48 – 50 Holy See 107, 148 – 149, 180, 217, 257 – 262, 265, 270 human capital 78 – 79, 120 – 121, 154, 161, 167 human development 1, 8, 12, 51n1, 55, 103, 106 – 107, 120 – 121, 144, 177, 190 – 191, 217, 219, 258, 276 human dignity 6, 11 – 12, 16, 42, 50, 97, 103 – 104, 108, 110 – 111, 116, 126, 134, 153, 177 – 178, 180, 188, 195, 242, 244, 250, 253, 257, 262, 265, 275, 277 – 278 human health 40, 194 – 195, 237, 279 humanisation 59, 116 human labour 124 human life 25, 30, 39 – 43, 50, 55, 66, 80 – 81, 88, 103, 116, 153, 188, 191, 196, 218, 220, 262 human needs 9, 93, 184, 186 – 187 human rights 6 – 8, 12, 22, 40 – 41, 44 – 45, 59 – 60, 88 – 92, 94 – 96, 98, 153, 163 – 166, 178 – 179, 204, 243, 246 – 248, 258, 278 hunger 5, 13 – 14, 21 – 26, 29 – 34, 114, 155, 160, 178, 185, 228, 267, 279 ICESCR 7, 14, 44 ICT 57, 133 ILO 77, 114 – 115, 118, 124 – 127 inclusive growth [154, 158, 160, 163] inclusive society 154, 178, 241 industrialisation 132 – 135, 144 – 145, 149, 214 inequality 6, 9, 40, 72, 74, 76, 79, 81 – 82, 90, 127, 133, 136, 141, 148, 153 – 155, 158 – 163, 167 – 168, 178 – 179, 202 – 203, 256, 260 information and communication technologies see ICT integral development 42, 111, 116, 119, 155, 162, 180, 219, 244, 277 integral ecology 1, 163, 176, 181, 217, 223, 259, 277

intercultural dialogue 59, 62, 174, 259, 268 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights see ICESCR International Labour Organisation see ILO international law 6, 8, 45, 91 – 93, 96, 212, 219, 223, 235 interreligious dialogue 62, 262 intrinsic value of nature 204, 237 Jevons paradox 105 Jevons, William Stanley 105, 185 justice 7, 26, 30, 43, 51n1, 60 – 61, 73, 88, 97, 102, 107 – 108, 111, 119, 122, 125, 134 – 135, 149, 162, 179, 186 – 192, 203 – 204, 241, 246 – 247, 259, 263, 267 Kissinger Report 31 Latin America 46, 63, 64 legal assistance 242, 246, 248 – 250, 253, 276 legal protection 10, 221 liberals 208 lifelong learning 54, 57 – 59, 66, 68 lifestyle 13, 15, 43, 61, 109, 173, 176, 184, 186, 188, 192 – 196 local community 48, 87, 97, 171 – 173, 175 – 177, 181, 234, 251 – 252, 256 – 257, 265 – 269, 279 local government 176, 242, 250 – 253, 276 logic of giving and forgiving 189 mankind 128, 133 – 134, 175, 206, 214 – 215, 217, 263 marine ecosystem 213, 221 – 222, 279 marine resources 212 – 213, 215 – 216, 221, 223 media 34, 80, 96 – 98, 132, 142 – 145, 148, 156, 167, 186, 222, 251 medical care centre 49 mental health 40, 45, 47 – 48, 186 Middle East 31, 35n1, 258 migration 98, 122 – 123, 127, 163 – 167, 247, 259, 265, 267, 270 misery 10, 23, 154 missionary activity 55, 66 modernism 117, 172, 206 modern medicine 39 modern technologies 145, 148

Index  283 monument conservators 171 moral crisis 233, 279 Nairobi Conference (2019) 261, 277 Nassar, Samir 32 neo-Malthusianism 25 network society 140 new evangelisation 43 new feminism 81, 278 NGO 8, 73, 93, 260, 265, 270 Noah 177, 231 non-governmental organisation see NGO ocean 200, 212 – 221, 223 – 224 OECD 79 – 80, 160 – 161 oikophilia 245 – 246 Open Innovation 111 – 112 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development see OECD original sin 23, 115 Palma ratio 161 papal documents 59, 62 papal teaching 60, 63, 215, 219 partnership 55, 139, 256 – 260, 262 – 269, 275, 277 pastoral care 42, 51n1 patient rights 40, 44 – 45, 50 – 51 PCJP 43, 51n1, 73, 88 physical health 40, 45, 192 – 193 Polish Mother 75 – 77, 278 pollution 29, 61, 87, 89, 109, 163, 194, 212, 216, 218, 220 – 221, 223, 228, 231, 237 Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace see PCJP poverty 5 – 17, 25, 27, 40, 46, 76, 78, 97, 102, 106 – 108, 110 – 111, 114, 123, 125, 127 – 128, 136, 155, 158, 160, 162, 173, 178 – 180, 203, 208n1, 233, 238, 256, 267, 270, 276 – 277 poverty line 158, 160 practical ethics 235 principle of solidarity 7, 10 – 12, 17, 103 – 104, 119, 265 principle of subsidiarity 12, 41, 44, 80, 119, 121, 219, 250 – 251, 265, 279 protection of migrants 153, 163 protection of seas 212, 216 – 217 public health 41, 44 – 45 public information 247, 249

R&D 34, 133 reformation 75 refugee 122, 163, 165 – 167, 265, 267 relational model of inclusion 155 – 156 reproductive rights 34, 77, 278 research and development see R&D responsibility 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17, 24, 50, 56, 58, 73, 77, 79, 81, 83 – 84, 90 – 91, 108, 123, 127, 136 – 137, 142, 186, 195, 199, 208, 216 – 217, 222 – 223, 232 – 234, 237 – 238, 241, 244, 246, 248, 250 – 251, 257 – 258, 263, 265 – 266, 276, 278 Riegl, Alois 172 Samaritan behaviour 42 Scruton, Roger 173, 176, 244 – 246 sea 87, 89, 91 – 92, 96, 198, 212 – 224 second account of creation 230 Second Vatican Council see SVC self-actualisation 185 – 186 sin 5, 8, 10 – 11, 23, 33, 82, 90, 115, 176, 189, 215, 231, 279 SIDS 213 slavery 78, 82, 87, 125, 128 Small Island Developing States see SIDS social capital 120, 153, 158, 162, 265 social exclusion 7, 8, 10, 107, 127, 141, 148, 173, 178 – 181 social inclusion 73, 107 – 108, 127, 153 – 155, 177 – 178 social integration 148, 171 – 174, 178, 181 social media 142 – 144 social pedagogy 153 social protection 13, 79 – 80, 118, 127 – 128, 155 soil biodiversity 228, 236 soil degradation 28, 227 – 229, 232 – 234, 237 – 238 soil quality 228 soil quality indicators 228 solidarity 3, 5, 7, 10 – 14, 16 – 17, 24, 26, 29, 42, 44, 88, 90, 96 – 97, 103 – 104, 108, 110 – 111, 117 – 119, 122, 134 – 135, 149, 178 – 179, 188 – 192, 207, 234, 241, 263, 265, 277; see also principle of solidarity spiritual dimension 22, 106, 195, 231 spiritual education 42 subsidiarity 3, 12, 41, 44, 80, 104, 108, 119, 121, 162, 219, 241, 250 – 251,

284 Index 265, 279; see also principle of subsidiarity sustainable energy 102 – 106, 108 – 110, 278 SVC 2, 3, 10 – 12, 17, 21, 62, 66, 73, 88, 135, 187 – 188, 260, 262 – 263, 270, 278 Teilhard de Chardin Pierre SJ 103 theology of liberation 3 The World in 2050 see TWI2050 third wave society 138 tourism 222 traditional medicine 39 TWI2050 109 UDHR 7, 14, 22, 44, 153 UNCCD 236 UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa see UNCCD UNDP 54, 87 UNEP 216, 236 United Nation Development Programme see UNDP United Nations Environment Programme see UNEP Universal Declaration of Human Rights see UDHR

universal destination of goods 3, 23, 118 unpaid care 72 – 74, 77, 79 – 80, 278 UN Research Institute for Social Development 77, 185 urban space 174 – 175, 177, 181 Venice Charter 172 virtuality 140 water 9, 10, 26 – 32, 42 – 43, 54, 76 – 77, 79, 87 – 98, 105, 110, 133, 163, 194, 200, 203, 212, 214 – 215, 217 – 218, 220 – 222, 227 – 228, 230, 235, 237, 278 water distribution 96 – 98 water ethics 97 – 98 water law 96 water shortage 88 weak anthropocentrism 208, 232, 234 women’s empowerment 76 – 77, 79, 84, 123 Women’s Liberation Movement 73 work as a gift 116 – 117 World Bank 7, 9, 54, 77, 158, 160 – 161, 209n2 World Union of Women’s Catholic Organisations 73 World-Wide Web 138, 248 World Women’s Alliance for Life and Family 73