Sustainable Construction [2 ed.] 9781138200258, 2018015081, 9781138200289, 9781315514819

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Sustainable Construction The second edition of Sustainable Construction provides a masterclass on the principles and techniques involved in the design and delivery of practical, affordable, high quality sustainable buildings and places. It presents precedents, theory, concepts and principles alongside 120 wide ranging case studies that highlight current best practice and encourage implementation. Topics in the book include: • • • • • • • • • •

the history of ideas in sustainable construction policy materials cost issues appraisal techniques environmental design energy water construction processes and urban ecology.

The book is heavily illustrated in full colour and is an ideal, contemporary, accessible primer to courses in Architecture, Construction Building Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Project Management, Landscape, Urbanism and Development.

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 iii

Sustainable Construction Second edition Sandy Halliday

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iv Sustainable Construction

Second edition published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Sandy Halliday The right of Sandy Halliday to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Butterworth-Heinmann 2008 Reprinted by Routledge 2013 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Halliday, Sandy, author. Title: Sustainable construction / Sandy Halliday. Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2018015081| ISBN 9781138200289 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138200258 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315514819 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable construction. | Sustainable buildings–Design and construction. Classification: LCC TH880 .H345 2018 | DDC 690.028/6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018015081 ISBN: 978-1-138-20025-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-20028-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-51481-9 (ebk) Typeset in ITC Stone Sans by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

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v

Contents About the author

vii

Acknowledgementsix Introductionxi  1 Sustainability drivers

1

 2 Policy and legislation 

33

 3 Cost Issues

69 

 4 Appraisal tools and techniques

109

 5 Materials selection

145

 6 Low-impact construction

181

 7 Environmental design: heating, cooling and ventilation

215

 8 Energy generation

263

 9 Lighting and daylighting

309

10 Water and sewage management

345

11 Construction processes

377

12 Urban ecology

417

Index457

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vi Sustainable Construction

Environment Agency, Dessau-Roßlau Architects: Sauerbruch Hutton. Photo: The Author

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About the author

Sandy Halliday is a chartered engineer and principal of Gaia Research, the practice she founded in 1996 to promote sustainable development of the built environment. Her degree course in Engineering Design and Appropriate Technology (1985) focused on socially purposive and environmentally responsible engineering solutions alongside resourcefulness, creativity and sensitivity.

large portfolio of funded research projects on passive design, resource-efficient and clean technologies, healthy buildings, and benign construction products and materials. She authored Building Services & Environmental Issues (BSRIA 1992) and An Environmental Code of Practice for Buildings & their Services (1994). The latter presented a ground-breaking life-cycle approach to the design and management of building stock.

Sandy worked initially in the product design sector with people who had special needs, and their carers. While working in hospitals she identified a need for building design and management to respond to environmental limits and user aspirations for healthy, efficient and functional buildings.

She has been involved in capacity building since the early 1990s, undertaking design appraisal and guiding projects from inception through to post-occupancy appraisal. This is a role that the RIBA now recognises as a ‘sustainability champion’ and advocates in built development. Her Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book (2000) was updated to become the Sustainability Guide to the RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (2016).

Moving to research management and consultancy, she promoted interdisciplinary design as a way to deliver affordable, resource-efficient, healthy buildings and places that are supportive of biodiversity, and fit for individuals and communities now and in the future. She developed a

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Sandy perceives environmental design of the built environment to be a fundamental aspect of social justice that can improve quality of life and global equity.

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RUCID College for Organic Agriculture, Uganda Architects: Felix Holland Archtects Photo: Will Boase

Naturrummet Lake Tåkern Architects: Wingårdhs Photo: Bruno Erat

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Acknowledgements Many people have contributed to bringing this second edition into print. Many thanks to the team at T&F for inviting a second edition, and for guiding me through what turned out to be an almost total rewrite that is up to date and relevant. I am privileged to have an global network of friends who take a professional interest in the design of buildings and places, and share or simply support my passion for ecological design. My sincere thanks for help, inspiration and good company go to: Bill and Elizabeth Bordass, Chris Butters, Ingun Amundsen, Marianna Leisner, Cath Hassell and Suhith, Paul Jennings, Ben Gunn, Francesca and Ulrich Loening, Frederica Miller and Julio Perez and family, Gyorgy Angelkott Bocz, Eva Dalman and Daniel Ryden, Joachim, Barbara and Fiona-Maria Eble, Declan Kennedy, Rolf Jacobson, Dag Roalkvam, Maria Block, Bruno and Eva Erat, Alice Reite, Sally Starbuck, Paul Leech, Varis Bokalders, Bruce Haglund and Herbert Dreiseitl. I am truly grateful for the ongoing friendship and support of the Gaia Scotland diaspora: Kathryn Robinson, Jan and Sam Foster, Cat Button, Barbara Seel, Robin Baker, Tom Morton, Gill Pemberton and Paul Woodville. They have often been a bridge to sanity. In the process of this second edition I have made new acquaintances and would particularly like to thank Feidhlim Harty, Craig White, Paul Chatterton, Felix Holland and the team at Eco-Living who have been really helpful. Everyone I

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contacted to find out more about their globally relevant work has been generous in supplying information and images, and their work is acknowledged. Keith Halliday, Guy Harris and Mike Gower deserve very special thanks for good humour, help, encouragement and proof reading. I own the bad humour, gaffes, inaccuracies and oversights, and regret and apologise unreservedly for any omissions. My love for, and gratitude to, my late husband, Howard Liddell, is as steadfast as it was ten years ago on publication of the first edition.

Dedication To Iona and Maddy Mackay, Freya and Isaac McLaughlin, and Annabelle, Josie, Ffion and Jude Liddell with the same inestimable love with which I hugged your grandfather. May you also have broad shoulders, genius, talent, passion, wit and guile, and boundless capacity for love, kindness and unflinching support. Sandy www.gaiagroup.org

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x Sustainable Construction

Okohaus, Frankfurt Architects: Joachim Eble Architects Photo: The Author

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Introduction The first edition of this book evolved from a training course in the 1990s eventually finding its way into a book in 2007. It was a response to much talk of sustainable design as holistic at a time when it seemed that very many people knew too little about the constituents of the whole picture to contribute to much-needed change. It aimed to bring together best practice to inspire architects, clients, engineers, planners, landscape and cost professionals seeking to deal with the challenges and opportunities to design sustainable buildings and places. In my experience sustainable design has largely been treated with contempt and cynicism by many in the professions. Thus, in parallel with the original training course, I pursued the development of an evidence-based accreditation scheme in sustainable building design. I hoped to encourage recognition of those with the dedication to see barriers to sustainable design as a challenge rather than as an excuse for failure and to thank them for what they had achieved in practice. There is a very real distinction between aspiration and delivery in sustainable design. The world’s first Accreditation Scheme in Sustainable Design was launched by the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland in 2005. I am grateful to all those who assisted in making it happen. Sustainable development is now the policy of local, national and international governments, and of much industry and commerce. Nearly five decades on from the establishment of World Environment Day by the United Nations in 1972 there appears at last to be a growing commitment – in principle – to reverse unsustainable trends in development. Achieving sustainability requires us to live within the limits of the Earth’s capacity to provide the materials for our activities and to absorb the waste and pollution that our activities generate. The built environment, its construction, fit-out, operation and the ultimate demolition, is a huge factor in human impact on the environment. This is both directly (through material and energy consumption and the consequent pollution and waste) and indirectly through pressures on infrastructure. However, our relationship with the built environment is a symbiotic one. The built environment has a crucial impact on the physical and economic health and well-being of individuals, communities and organisations. A good home, school or office building will benefit our families, enhance our ability to learn, support our communities, or increase our productivity. A poor building will do the opposite. Urban heat islands and pollution really do kill, and poor buildings and built environments really do adversely affect life chances. Where buildings and built environments contribute to ill-health and alienation, undermine community

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and natural habitats and create excessive financial liability – and they often do – they are undesirable and unsustainable. This second edition therefore seeks to move sustainable construction beyond straw bale and clay to the heart and soul of economic and social policy and the ability to contribute to health, well-being and enhancing life chances. There is little of more timely importance for the policy-maker or built environment professional than to understand the world we inhabit, how we shape it and how it shapes us. We have the knowledge to enhance quality of life for all by designing healthy buildings and environments fit for individuals and communities. We must minimise resource throughputs, waste and pollution, and fulfil our responsibility to protect other species and environments. There are good examples at all scales from materials to products to buildings and places. These can help us make progress towards a future that works for us but most design practice still falls far short of applying even the easiest principles. The construction industry outside the realm of designers is dominated by other motives and requires policies and regulation to deliver change. Opportunities that could bring real advantage are being missed every day. To contribute to progress, this book summarises existing sources of best practice guidance on policy, numerous aspects of design, and addresses cost and value. Each chapter provides a narrative on critical aspects of a particular topic, case studies and sources of further guidance by way of a bibliography. This second edition also recognises significant progress, eliminates chapters no longer considered relevant and responds to the demonstrations of holism that do now exist. Hemp and straw buildings are no longer confined to low-impact construction but now rightly find a place as urban ecology, policy and cost exemplars. While respecting that of course there are ancient and native traditions that took cognisance of environmental limits, my precedents consciously begin at the anthropocene. In other chapters I have looked as widely as possible for examples but on occasion used a local example to demonstrate what is very right or very wrong.

“First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you and then you win.” – Ghandi

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Chapter 1 Sustainability drivers In which we present some of the history of ideas that have brought about a shared understanding of the benefits of implementing checks and balances in pursuit of genuine and sustainable progress for everyone, now and in the future.

Carved door There is lots of evidence that the environment is deep rooted in human consciousness. Photo: The Author

“The choice is simple, sustainable development, unsustainable development, or no development at all.” Sandy Halliday, Build Green (1990)

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The Andersen House, Stavanger, 1984 The first modern building designed to be moisture transfusive. Student architects and builders: Dag Roalkvam and Rolf Jacobsen; Photo: Dag Roalkvam

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Sustainability drivers Contents Introduction���������������������������������������������������4 Development��������������������������������������������������5 History of international action����������������������8 The Club of Rome, 1968���������������������������������� 8 Limits to Growth, 1972������������������������������������ 9 A systems approach����������������������������������� 10 UNCHE, 1972������������������������������������������������� 11 Optimism versus pessimism����������������������� 16 Oversimplification versus synergies������������ 16 A note on inertia����������������������������������������� 19 WCED –The Brundtland Commission, 1981���� 20

The Brundtland Report, 1987���������������������� 20 UNCED, 1992������������������������������������������������� 24 UNFCCC, 1992����������������������������������������������� 25 The Millennium Summit, 2000����������������������� 26 WSSD, 2002��������������������������������������������������� 26 Rio+20 Conference, 2012������������������������������ 27 Sustainable Development Summit, 2015�������� 27 UN High Level Political Forum, 2017�������������� 27 Recent progress?�����������������������������������������28 Bibliography������������������������������������������������30

Case studies   1.1   1.2   1.3   1.4   1.5   1.6   1.7   1.8   1.9 1.10

Solar Hemicycle, Wisconsin, USA�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 St George’s School, Wallasey, England���������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Arcosanti, Arizona, USA�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Street Farm House, London, England���������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Walter Segal Self-build Housing, London, England������������������������������������������������������������15 The Ark, Prince Edward Island, Canada�����������������������������������������������������������������������������17 Granada House, Macclesfield, England������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Andersen House, Stavanger, Norway���������������������������������������������������������������������������������22 Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado, USA��������������������������������������������������������������������������23 NMB Bank, Amsterdam, The Netherlands��������������������������������������������������������������������������29

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4 Sustainable Construction

Introduction There can be few within the professions involved in the built environment for whom sustainability is a new idea. Local, national and international policies, professional guidelines, client briefs and architectural competitions mean that it is a subject rarely out of the press. Yet, for an issue this ubiquitous, it is poorly understood, and a source of much debate and disagreement. It is not wholly surprising that the concept is difficult to communicate. Sustainability involves big issues and their complex interaction: the division of wealth and opportunity between the world’s rich and poor, health, welfare, safety, security and useful work as basic needs of societies, and rights of individuals. Much is predicated on the rights of the young, the unborn, those in society least capable of looking after themselves and other species, a concept unimaginable a few generations ago. In essence, sustainability is about how we develop. The state of the environment is a fundamental aspect because the consequences of our activities impact directly on our current and future quality of life, impose burdens on others, and threaten other species. The global, social and cultural issues with which sustainability is concerned can be difficult to translate into the practicalities of what building design and cost professionals do on a daily basis. Appropriate and meaningful responses are genuinely hard to identify and we still know little about what responses are adequate to combat the risks. Human failure to appreciate our dependence on the natural world, and to plan and design accordingly, is widely evident. Many developing countries have adopted styles and scales of

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What the People really NEED:

PEACE CLEAN AIR, CLEAN WATER

“IF EVENTUALLY, WHY NOT NOW?”

FREEDOM& EQUALITY

VICTOR PAPANEK

HEAT DIGNITY LIGHT HOUSING A CLEAN LANDSCAPE

FOOD

COOKING STOVES FOOD STORAGE

CLOTHING EDUCATION

TRANSPORT

ETC. “WORK”: ACTIVITY WITH MEANING

PARTICIPATION IN MAKING GOALS FOR SOCIETY & ONESELF

CHILDREN

THE KNOWLEDGE THAT THE CHILDREN HAVE A CHANCE TO GROW UP & TO BE EDUCATED & HAVE CHILDREN OF THEIR OWN

HEALTH [MENTAL & PHYSICAL]

What people really need After Papanek, Design for the Real World 1971

development established by richer countries, including building forms and transport that are now widely acknowledged as inappropriate and unsustainable. Younger generations across the globe are adopting unsustainable lifestyle choices with adverse local and international effects. With evidence of massive

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Sustainability drivers 5

environmental damage, it may seem pointless to try to do anything about it unless we appreciate that sustainable design is about delivering real benefits. Alongside the environmental destruction in developing countries there are exemplar ecological cities and towns developing in South America, Taiwan, India and the USA. Their ambitions and success or failure will determine life quality for the majority in this millennium. Global movements like Eco-minimalism (Liddell 2008) also challenge us to think about what is appropriate and fulfilling development. Engaging young people in the issues and communicating the benefits to a global generation is invaluable work. This chapter puts forward something of the history of ideas about sustainable development and readers can make their own judgements about what response is required and possible. The case studies illustrate some early initiatives and exploration in living within environmental boundaries while delivering socially beneficial outcomes. Many of the principles that they embody are vital precedents for technical and societal improvements, and have been developed by subsequent cohorts of ecological and sustainable designers. They are not the only precedents, but they have left a lasting impression.

Development ‘Sustainable development’ has suffered from an image problem. It requires us to act in an overtly sensitive manner towards natural systems and has been seen by those who would do otherwise as a restraint on ‘development’ per se. As policies and practice have matured, sustainable development is increasingly recognised as a justified restraint on ‘inappropriate’ development and a driver of improving quality of life for all. It is increasingly attractive to many to put in place long-term policies that can reliably deliver social, environmental and economic improvements, especially against a background of increasing demand on the Earth’s limited resources and escalating pollution. Human skills have transformed the environment. For the developed world and many in the developing world, access to sanitation, vaccination, health awareness and treatment, food hygiene and good diet has vastly extended the quality and quantity of life in recent decades. However, the extent to which our activities are unsustainable has become clearer over the same period. There has been an increasing realisation that changes in the pursuit of progress are often accompanied by unintended consequences that need to be recognised and avoided.

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New Superstore Derelict High Street

New Superstore – Derelict high street Achieving sustainable development requires us to process the consequences of decisions and resist inappropriate development.

There is now overwhelming acceptance that we face major global problems of climate change, ozone depletion, overfishing, species loss, fresh water shortage, resource depletion, soil erosion, noise, deforestation, desertification, chemical and electromagnetic pollution, and congestion. Pollution of air, land, water and food threatens to crucially undermine the security, health and quality of life that humankind has pursued and sought to protect, and it threatens other species. There is increasing wealth but also widening inequality. A significant proportion of the global population still lives with the ever-present threat of floods and/or drought, pestilence and starvation, often exacerbated by wars. Many are subject to scarcity, poor hygiene and unsanitary conditions, often within close proximity of abundance. There is growing awareness of moral responsibility favouring greater equity, and evidence to suggest that those countries with the widest wealth gaps also suffer the greatest incidence of crime and ill-health (Pickett & Wilkinson 2010). Humankind faces an awesome challenge to reverse unsustainable trends. With rising expectation and consumerism, questions must at some time surface. Can we maintain and improve life quality while radically improving the effectiveness in how we use our resources, and reduce pollution and waste? Evidence suggests we can. It is a very positive agenda.

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6 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 1.1

Solar Hemicycle, Wisconsin, USA, 1945 Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright This building was designed on a hemicycle plan. It is an early example of passive solar design and earth shelter.

elliptical solar path. An overhang on the southern façade is designed to provide shade from high-level summer sun.

Earth is piled up against the northern wall for insulation. The southern wall has two-storey glass windows and doors to maximise solar gain in winter and to take advantage of the

It is an important precedent for the widespread move to the use of passive solar design and more recently bioclimatic design.

Photo: Ezra Stoller © Ezra Stoller/Esto

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Sustainability drivers 7

Case Study 1.2

St George’s School, Wallasey, England, 1961 Architect: Emslie Morgan St George’s School at Wallasey, 1961, was designed by Emslie Morgan to provide each classroom with natural daylight and sunlight. A long, narrow-plan, two-storey building, it has large south-facing, double-glazed windows deriving maximum benefit from solar gain. Diffusing glass was used to reduce glare, and clear-glazed, openable windows, positioned at intervals, give the occupants control over the internal environment. The heavyweight structural mass – concrete floors and ceilings – was intended to balance out fluctuations in heat demand, which was first reduced by high levels of insulation and low ventilation rates. Conventional heating in the form of a single radiator beneath each of the openable windows was installed as a precaution against the failure of the passive approach. This auxiliary system was rarely used.

The building is often unfairly criticised for the contribution made by the electric lighting to the heating. In fact Morgan was simply using the waste heat from the lighting technology of the time. Its use of thermal mass, airtightness, occupant control and internal heat gains is an important precedent for passive buildings and – importantly – the recognition – in the 1960s – of the benefits of daylight to learning was advanced thinking. Electrical inefficiency in lighting is no longer a major issue because of improvements in technology, but well-designed twenty-first century schools follow similar principles. They take occupant control, airtightness, and passive solar and internal gains from equipment and children seriously as contributions to the heating demand. There have been significant advances in solar modelling and understanding of moisture mass.

The remainder of the heating was to be met by a combination of the heat produced by the occupants, the solar wall and the heat output of the electric lighting.

Photo: Howard Liddell

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8 Sustainable Construction

History of international action The natural environment has always featured strongly in human expression and creativity – the visual arts, religion, poetry and science. Evidence abounds – from the earliest cave paintings to Monet, from the Garden of Eden to the Gaia Hypothesis – that the natural environment is deeply rooted in human consciousness. It is only relatively recently that its protection has been considered a respectable concern.

In 1968, two significant events established an international foundation for change. One, the first meeting of the Club of Rome, and the other, the UN’s Economic and Social Council called for a meeting, motivated primarily by the acidification of Scandinavian lakes and forests.

In the early part of the twentieth century environmental protection began to form the basis of international agreements. The International Maritime Organization took a lead. Prior to this the approach to environmental problems was largely dispersal – build higher chimney stacks – and little thought was given to efficiency or health. Post-World War II, Western nations experienced unprecedented economic development. Commoner expressed disquiet about air and water pollution, and drew attention to issues of nuclear fall-out, fertilisers and detergents and to the increasingly nonbiodegradable nature of many products (Commoner 1971). However, environmental concerns were largely perceived as a preserve of the elite or of the politically subversive – despite these being unusual bedfellows.

The Club of Rome Held its first meeting in 1968. It remains an influential supporter of original thought and action in respect of sustainable development. Photo: The Author

The Club of Rome, 1968 In 1968, a number of influential people from 10 countries – scientists, educators, economists, humanists, industrialists and civil servants – met in Rome. They shared a common concern that traditional institutions and policies were inadequate to deal with the major problems faced by humankind. This became ‘The Club of Rome’, which aimed to cultivate understanding of the global system and to promote new policy initiatives and action in response.

Widespread pollution Research into toxins played a vital role in bringing environmental concerns to a well-educated public (Carson 1951). Photo: The Author

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The Club of Rome commissioned a report to examine problems considered common to all societies but beyond the ability of individual nations to resolve independently. These included: wealth imbalances; environmental degradation; urban spread; insecurity of employment; alienation of youth; rejection of traditional values; and economic disruptions including inflation. These problems, which remain central issues today, were seen to involve the interaction of technical, social, economic and political aspects. Policy development has increasingly been based around these core principles.

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Sustainability drivers 9

Limits to Growth, 1972 A report of the first meeting published in 1972 as Limits to Growth included a model of five factors thought to determine and limit growth: • Population • Food production • Natural resources • Industrial production • Pollution. The report drew attention to the exponential growth of all five factors and raised concerns that many of the Earth’s assets were being used at rates beyond their ability to regenerate. It predicted that if trends continued, the world’s ability to support growth would be reached within 100 years, probably followed by a sudden decline. The report was based on systems theory – the Meadows-Meadows model. It stated two principles: • that all systems rely on input of resources and emit waste; • that the constraints on any finite system, including the Earth, are the ability to supply the required resources and to absorb the wastes emitted. The report identified many sources utilised by human and economic systems as receding and concluded that, inevitably,

Food production It was an optimistic time. The world had just experienced a huge increase in population accompanied by the so-called ‘Green Revolution’ – a 34% increase in food production from 1951 to 1961.This led to assumptions that technology could provide for exponential growth in human needs. The Club of Rome showed that to deliver this growth, investment in nitrates increased by 146%, expenditure on equipment by 63% and pesticide use by 300%. They speculated that this was unsustainable.

by investing increasing amounts of a resource such as energy to get more energy, then ultimately overall gains are reduced. More and more capital and energy will be needed to obtain future supplies. This is now better known as Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROEI). At the same time, the treatment and storage of waste was identified as becoming more difficult, contentious and expensive as existing sinks became overburdened (such as the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases) and new sites (such as for landfill) become harder to find. It concluded that it was possible to establish sustainable ecological and economic stability, and to meet the material needs and potential of all people, if we decided to make the effort. It also proposed, in 1972, that the sooner we began, the better the chance of success.

PLASTICS PRODUCTION

2014

2050

311 MT

1,124 MT

1:5

>1:1

OIL

OIL

6%

20%

1%

15%

RATIO OF PLASTICS TO FISH IN THE OCEAN (BY WEIGHT)

Sources and sinks – This block of passive houses at Olezbundt will have very low impact throughout their lifetime It is not the numbers of people, cars or goods that put stress on an environment, but the inefficiency with which we use resources and create pollution and waste. There are limits to growth but no limits to development. Development is within our power of choice, design, invention and creativity. Photo: The Author

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PLASTICS’ SHARE OF GLOBAL OIL CONSUMPTION

PLASTICS' SHARE OF CARBON BUDGET

Growth in production of plastics and energy implications

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10 Sustainable Construction

A systems approach: from the Limits to Growth This model describes how a system responds to pressures. The solid lines show population. The dashed lines show the carrying capacity of the Earth.

Continuous A population can grow without interruption as long as the limits (carrying capacity) are far away or growing at the same rate or faster. This is the optimistic scenario, where, for example, a rise in food production matches a rise in population. In reality, it can rarely be sustained without drawing upon additional resources.

Overshoot Overshoot occurs because of failure of control, faulty data or slow response. Natural oscillation is typical of natural competition between populations and occurs when there is opportunity for the system to recover. Examples include fish stocks that are often capable of repair or recovery within limits.

Collapse Going too far beyond a limit will lead to a crash and a permanently impoverished environment, from which recovery is impossible. This is particularly likely when the limits are unknown or when there are unintended feedback loops that exacerbate problems.

Sigmoid A growing population takes resources from and emits pollution into a finite space, and puts pressure on that environment. Negative feedback such as scarcity, pollution and ill-health slows down growth if the feedback and response are rapid and accurate. Growth levels off, and population growth is gradual and stable towards the carrying capacity.

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Sustainability drivers 11

“Infinite growth on a finite planet is an impossibility”

The European import and export of acid rain

92

82

E.F. Schumacher (1973) 64 20 77 36

UNCHE, 1972 The UN Conference on the Human Environment The meeting called, in 1968, by the UN’s Economic and Social Council – motivated primarily by the acidification of Scandinavian lakes and forests – eventually took place in 1972. The UN Conference on the Human Environment was attended by representatives of 122 countries. The meeting was credited with transforming the environment into an internationally important political issue and it made the division of wealth between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres a critical aspect of international policy. The relationship between environment and development was central to intensive negotiations prior to the meeting. Initially, the calls for environmental protection were thought to be elitist and a form of political and economic restraint. Not surprisingly, developing nations were reluctant to be lectured to about environmental constraints by countries that had grown rich through ignoring these same constraints. However,

58

52 58

Britain has 20% import and 80% domestic production

90

85

48

Netherlands has 75% import and 25% domestic production Norway has 92% import and 8% domestic production

65

49 37

30

Germany has 52% import and 48% domestic production

European import and export of acid rain, 1970s The UK’s decision to build higher and higher chimney stacks and to rely on a predominantly westerly wind to take the pollution away led directly to international action on the environment. Ultimately, with global development, everyone catches a westerly. Data: Friends of the Earth

the debate and arguments eventually resulted in an extremely significant agreement that development and the environment were inextricably linked, that no one could “go it alone” and that it could and must be managed in a way that was mutually supportive. For the first time, the environment was identified ‘as a critical dimension of successful development’, and efforts began to resolve the dilemmas of growth, development and environment. This understanding, documented in the seminal publication Only One Earth, marks the origin of the subsequent work on ecofootprinting.

Impact of greenhouse gases From Kolbas (1972)

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Many countries went on to establish environment agencies and ministries. Legislation followed. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created to promote awareness and action within the UN. A number of international and regional agreements were signed related to marine pollution, dumping and trans-boundary movement of waste. It was at this time that protection of the ozone layer became an international issue, eventually leading to the Montreal Protocol.

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12 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 1.3

Arcosanti, Arizona, USA, 1970 Architect: Paulo Soleri Arcosanti was founded as a ‘laboratory’ for urban living based on principles of innovative design, community and environmental accountability. Its founder Paulo Soleri (an Italian architect: 1919–2013) had a strong antimaterialist philosophy and aimed to demonstrate a Lean Alternative to hyper-consumption through efficient and elegant design of the city as a healthy living system. The Arcosanti Community also actively seeks clean energy production systems in place of hydrocarbon and nuclear-based energy. Arcosanti has mixed-use buildings and public spaces where people live, work, visit and participate in educational and cultural programmes. These combine practical construction activity with teaching on Arcology (architecture + ecology) and Cosanti (‘against things’).

The principles: PROXIMITY – A 24/7 mixed-use urban environment that combines living, working, learning and leisure within minutes, and immediate access to open space and nature. URBAN-HUMAN SCALE – Dense urban spatial arrangements eliminating cars and providing good pedestrian and cyclist mobility reduces pollution and improves health. ECOLOGICAL ENVELOPE – No sprawling development. LESS CONSUMPTION – Appropriate technologies: passive climate control, innovative water/sewage treatment, recycling and green building materials to reduce material and energy consumption and increase embodied efficiency.

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A “better kind of wrongness” (Paolo Soleri) • Solar panels on a single suburban family home with an inefficient construction. • Hybrid cars driven in gridlocks of daily commute. • “Green-washed” products driven by hyper-consumption. Arcosanti is a vital precedent in permaculture, the urban ecology movement and the walkable city. It is increasingly evident, with the strong move to urbanism, that low-rise high-density, mixed-use development offers the best opportunity for sustainable communities and a sustainable planet.

ENERGY APRON – Urban agriculture to bring food production closer to where ­consumption occurs and to reduce ecological footprints. Creation of microclimate conditions – terraced greenhouses – to extend the growing season, provide diversified crops, conserve water and utilise excess heat for space heating. ELEGANT FRUGALITY (creative resourcefulness) – ‘Doing more with less’ through using available materials and resources creatively. EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES (Environment as a Learning Asset) – Arcosanti is a prototype, exempt from perfection, and requires to be constantly fine-tuned, as a laboratory that provides educational opportunities.

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Arcosanti Photo: Tomiaki Tamura

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14 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 1.4

Street Farm House, London, England, 1974 Architects: ‘Street Farmers’ – Graham Caine, Bruce Haggart An experimental temporary structure constructed in 1974 by Graham Caine and Bruce Haggart on a sports field owned by Thames Polytechnic. The aim was to provide integrated shelter, heat, food, water, cooking facilities and an ecologically sound waste disposal system for a small family in an urban context. The structure was timber frame and insulated with wood wool. An integral attached semicircular south-facing greenhouse was used to live in, grow food, collect rain and act as a heat source. It incorporated hydroponic beds and a fishpond fertilised with effluent from a methane digester. Warm, oxygenated air from the greenhouse could be vented to the first-floor living space and an openable flap could vent excessively hot air to the outside.

Auxiliary heating was provided by a paraffin heater. Domestic hot water was provided by black-painted panel radiators with a total surface area of 8.4m2, glazed with two layers of polythene. This thermo-siphoned directly to an insulated 225-litre water cylinder. Rainwater was collected off the greenhouse roof, passed through a sand filter and used, with excess diverted to the fishpond. The design was relatively cheap. Graham Caine and family lived in the building for 18 months before it was dismantled. The Street Farm House is a barely recognised precedent of circular economy, global ­gardening and autonomous buildings.

Photo: Howard Liddell

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Case Study 1.5

Walter Segal Self-build Housing, London, England, 1976 In 1962, Walter Segal created a temporary shelter – the Little House in the Garden – while he built his home. The wooden-framed, insulated and weatherproofed cabin cost £800 and took two weeks to build. It attracted attention as a quick and economical way of building and became the prototype for ‘the Segal Self-build method’. It lasted for over 50 years. Segal refined the building process to make it accessible to all and popular with low-income households. It uses lightweight construction techniques, simple timber frames and widely available building materials. In 1976, 27 families worked with Segal-trained architects to design their own homes. They went to evening classes for training in basic building methods. This radically reduced construction costs and the homes were made more affordable through the use of a shared ownership financial mechanism. The houses in Segal Close and subsequently Walters Way were completed in the early 1980s and since then many such homes have been built throughout the UK. The housing achieved a BSHF Habitat Award in 1986.

A version of the house with enhanced energysaving features was built at the Centre for Alternative Technology in 1993. The Centre arranged a self-build course for eight participants – who had no prior building knowledge – under the guidance of architect Jon Broome. The structure was complete, under cover and partly enclosed after 10 days. As well as being exceptionally well insulated and with improved airtightness over the original design, it incorporates a south-facing, passive solar ­conservatory extending the full width of the house. This acts as a buffer between the inside and outside of the building, and provides pre-heated ventilation air. The building also includes solar panels for hot water heating with a wood-burning stove for heating. The housing forms a precedent at a number of levels. As a self-build prototype it is still being used by architects across the globe and it has encouraged many other self-build initiatives and communities to break the normal housing mould and to take action over their own housing.

Photo: The Author

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16 Sustainable Construction

A strident and pervasive culture of technological optimism, particularly strong in the 1950s and 1960s, invited confidence in the ability of the Earth to provide for human needs in perpetuity. As a consequence, environmental concerns were often seen as scaremongering, especially when demands for urgent action preceded positive proof that the concerns were fully justified. It was widely believed that any action in the face of uncertainty was wasteful, expensive and obstructive to innovation.

State of the World Optimists Right

Pessimists Right

Optimistic Policy

High

Disaster

Pessimistic Policy

Moderate

Tolerable

State of the world – Optimism versus pessimism This matrix dates from the 1970s. It suggests that within a risk scenario, if the optimists are right and we pursue a policy of optimism, then the potential gains are high. However, if the pessimistic scenario is accurate, following an optimistic policy leads to disaster. Prudent policies based on precautionary action offer least risk to future generations.

Increasing awareness of the costs of postponing action – for instance, the potential costs imposed by global warming or the escalating cost of crime and disaffection – has moved opinion to favour precautionary and preventative actions. This precautionary approach is now enshrined in sustainable development principles.

Oversimplification versus synergies Too often the scope of concerns and complexity of issues regarding sustainability are oversimplified. Many equate it solely to climate change. While undeniably a vitally important issue, a

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holistic approach to energy efficiency is needed. For example, enhancing building fabric can create adverse health impacts if indoor environmental issues of material specification and moisture management are not also addressed. It is also clear that community development is vital to achieving a workable low/ no-carbon future. Oversimplification is dangerous in that it encourages blinkered views and one-dimensional solutions. This can lead to illconsidered short cuts, shallow questions and poor policy. It also diverts attention from broader understanding and excludes people who need to be engaged. In terms of the built environment, single issues can result in exclusion of people who need to be involved, including designers familiar with complexity. Most importantly, we need to move from the current truism that sustainability involves environmental, economic and social aspects to actively making and demonstrating the synergies. A lack of evidence of these links is a barrier to providing long-term solutions to our most basic development problems.

Minimise pollutants

lea

ds t

o

Healthy Housing

justifies

Optimism versus pessimism

ds

Reduced medication costs

lea

to

Synergistic solutions Prescribing housing improvements for patients with breathing disabilities makes financial sense. Research (Howieson 2003) on housing improvements indicated that the cost of providing an allergy-resistant environment could be paid back in 23 months from savings in NHS medication. An environmental intervention (green) leads to a social benefit (red) and a beneficial economic outcome (blue). A demonstration of joined-up thinking.

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Case Study 1.6

The Ark, Prince Edward Island, Canada, 1976 The New Alchemy Institute and Solsearch Architects The New Alchemy Institute was founded in 1971 by biologists John Todd, Nancy Jack Todd and Bill McLarney in Massachusetts. They later moved to Vermont, where they built a series of buildings to house their experiments. They had a strong academic knowledge of ecology and wanted to develop this knowledge by implementing solutions to problems of pollution. Where alchemy is the turning of base metals into gold, so new alchemy was proposed as turning pollution and toxic sludge into clear air and clean water. The New Alchemy Institute developed ‘Living Machines’, where they grew plants and farmed fish, usually housed in great glass domes. These machines replicated various ecosystems to treat sewage and water and to grow ­vegetables and fish. A number of bio-shelters

were built, including for extreme northern ­climates. They developed ­precedents of autonomous water treatment and cyclic systems. “We asked ourselves the question: is it possible to grow the food needs of a small group of people in a small space without harming the environment and without enormous recourse to external sources of energy and materials on a continuing basis? The whole idea was: could we design a system that is self-sustainable and capable of functioning as a system?” – John Todd, in Design Outlaws on the Ecological Frontier (2000)

Photo: Howard Liddell

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18 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 1.7

Granada House, Macclesfield, England, 1976 Architect: Don Wilson Experimental passive and active heating technology was implanted in this 125m2 four-­ bedroom house, which was the subject of Granada Television’s House for the Future series in 1976. A conservatory attached to the south-west elevation provided solar heat, which was delivered to the ground floor by opening the connecting doors and the first-floor bedrooms through flaps at the base of each bedroom window. Excess heat could be stored in the 12m3 insulated rock store located underneath the conservatory floor. A trickle-type flat plate collector (42m2) was installed on the south-west-facing roof at a pitch of 34° to the horizontal. Thermal storage was provided by tanks containing 5,400 litres of water. A 1.5kW heat pump transferred lowgrade heat from a 2,000-litre tank (at below 25°C) to a 3,000-litre space heating tank (at 25–45°C). NB: Legionella legislation would not now allow this. The heat was ­distributed by

oversized thermostatically controlled radiators operating at 25 to 30°C. A 3.5kW solid fuel boiler provided auxiliary heat. After a year-long monitoring programme, it was estimated that the passive heating provided 21% of the heat required, the heat pump another 7% and the flat plate collector a further 2%, totalling 30%. The vast majority of the benefits were due to the improved ­insulation. Although well publicised at the time, the lessons of Granada House did not communicate themselves within the building community. Builders and architects made many mistakes and chased eco-bling and false efficiencies for decades to follow. Only recently has the knowledge permeated sufficiently to support the development of a “passive first” approach from which the other efficiencies can then follow.

Photo: Howard Liddell

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A note on inertia A contributing element to a shift in attitude is recognition of the significant time lag between initial concerns and coordinated action on issues as diverse as climate change, desertification, ozone depletion, acid rain and asbestosis. These man-made disasters have all taken place with prior warning and have been met by slow response. Humankind is now confronted with the consequences of foot dragging and talking down of concerns by previous generations. The construction industry, its designers and suppliers are among the worst offenders. The industry did not start to implement controls on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) until the mid-1990s, despite evidence of adverse effects. Much of the industry continues to design resource-inefficient buildings, utilise polluting materials, over-specify inefficient equipment, rely on polluting forms of transport and transform natural habitats into places where species other than humans struggle to exist. There is little attention to the long-term needs of communities. It is simply bad design, but there is also good practice.

Climate change The Swedish chemist Arrhenius is credited with recognising that increases in CO2 would lead to global warming. Scientific papers appeared from the 1930s, but there was little interest until the 1970s and no major consensus until the late 1990s. Current predictions are not very different from those predicted 40 years ago. The issue is on the political agenda, but energy conservation remains a largely unattractive commercial proposition. Proposed solutions include carbon sequestration (in underground caverns!) and nuclear power, despite the lack of a waste management strategy and spiralling costs.

Ozone-depleting substances In 1974, two independent scientific papers suggested that CFCs were breaking up in the stratosphere, releasing chlorine. and that these atoms were ozone destroyers. Devastating consequences were forecast. In 1978, the USA banned the use of CFCs as propellants but manufacturers found new markets – cheap refrigerants and blowing agents for insulation. By the mid-1980s, CFC production surpassed its previous peak. In 1984, a 40% drop in stratospheric ozone was measured in the Antarctic and an ozone hole was identified in the Southern Hemisphere. In 1987, stratospheric chlorine was confirmed as the cause. The Montreal Protocol was signed. In 1988, major manufacturers agreed to phase out CFCs. The Northern ozone hole was identified in 1991. If the international agreement had been fully applied, CFCs would have dissipated from the atmosphere within 100 years. However, illegal trading in ozone-depleting substances (ODS) started immediately CFC phase-outs began. By 2000, the cash value of ODS trade from South to North America exceeded that of cocaine. Subsequent meetings of the Montreal Protocol team have set trading targets for HCFCs aimed at an eventual phase-out but illegal trade has increased.

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Housing in Scotland

Ground floor brick meets the local planning requirements of a 1,000-year flood event Photo: © Icosis Architects

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WCED – The Brundtland Commission, 1981: The World Commission on Environment and Development The term ‘sustainable development’ was first used by the World Conservation Union in ‘The World Conservation Strategy’, 1980. It became the focus of the Brundtland Commission which was established to investigate concerns that had been raised in the 1960s and 1970s that human activity was adversely affecting the planet. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), Garrett Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968), Barry Commoner’s The Closing Circle (1971), the Ecologist magazine Blueprint for Survival (1972) and the Club of Rome’s Limits to Growth (1972) all contributed to early awareness of environmental harm.

It is vital that the rights of the young are respected in development Photo: The Author

The Brundtland Report, 1987 “Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable – to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. “ – Our Common Future (WCED 1987)

Over three years the commission examined testimony from government, scientists, industrialists, NGOs and the general public. Our Common Future, also known as The Brundtland Report, was published in 1987 and firmly established sustainable development, at an international policy level, as a matter of interest for individuals and society. The report was undertaken with an emphasis on social equity, stewardship and responsibility to this and future generations. Many of the sustainability principles now embodied in national and international agreements and policy stem from this report, including: The precautionary principle: where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage to the environment, lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. A precautionary approach should be adopted. Inter-generational equity: fairness and justice for current and future members of a community.

The Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies, Oberlin, Ohio

Precedents such as The Ark, Stavanger and Granada Houses, Rocky Mountain Institute, St Georges School also used building physics and natural cycles. Photo: Bruce Haglund

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Intra-generational equity: fairness and justice for all people in a community – locally and globally. Conservation of biodiversity: sustainable use of global assets and sharing benefits from genetic resources equally. Internalised environmental costs: the cost of a service or product includes the cost of the environmental damage.

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City Quarter, Loretto, Tübingen

Precedents like Street Farm and Arcosanti led the way for designers looking to deliver safe, walkable, healthy, ecologically diverse urban communities that optimise the use of natural resources. Photo: The Author

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22 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 1.8

Andersen House, Stavanger, Norway, 1984 Architects: Dag Roalkvam and Rolf Jacobsen This 210m2 wood and stone pentagonal building is the first modern example of the moisture transfusive wall, a construction technique that is now a norm among building designers concerned about indoor environments. It was designed and built by Dag Roalkvam and Rolf Jacobsen, now of Gaia Lista, in 1984 as their final-year architecture project at the University of Oslo. It was constructed avoiding the use of materials known to contain toxic substances, in keeping with the Gaia architectural philosophy, and was designed with passive air exchange. It is zoned for temperature with all the warm rooms facing south and cold rooms facing north-west and the prevailing wind. A greenhouse on one side of the house provides pre-warmed air.

It has a double skin – or raincoat – hanging 600mm away from the walls on the weatherfacing sides. This sacrificial wall keeps wind away from the main walls. This wooden skin is broken by gaps to admit light to the windows. On the south-west aspect a double-height, central room with a glazed external wall acts as an intermediate space, providing light and solar heat to the adjoining rooms through internal windows. A vitally important but slow-to-permeate design strategy is recognition of the role of fabric and materials in moisture management and the elimination of toxic materials from buildings – both crucial to addressing the effects of buildings on health.

Photo: Dag Roalkvam

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Case Study 1.9

Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado, USA, 1984 Designers: Lovins & Lovins Situated at 2,200m above sea level, outdoor temperatures during the winter can fall as low as –44°C. Ninety-nine per cent of the heating needs of the building are provided by passive solar and 1 per cent from two small wood-burning stoves. The heavy thermal mass stores heat and a large glazed south-facing façade allows threequarters of the light and half of the solar energy to enter the building and then retain it. The walls, made from two leaves of 150mmthick masonry faced with local stone inside and out, achieve a U-value of 0.14W/m2K. The highly insulated, earth-covered roof has a U-value of 0.09W/m2K. Incoming air is pre-heated by outgoing air through air-to-air heat exchangers. Hot water is provided by a bank of solar collectors

­ onnected to a 7,000-litre super-insulated c water storage tank. Low-energy appliances are used throughout, including a purposebuilt super-insulated fridge and freezer and compact fluorescent luminaires. This results in a 90% saving in household electricity over the norm. The extra cost of installing the passive and active systems in the house was repaid after 10 months at 1984 prices, and the energy savings will pay for the house in about 40 years. The building was a very well-publicised demonstration of the benefits of a passive solar design aided by a cost-benefit analysis to support the business case. It was not widely replicated in the 1980s or 1990s but there is more interest now. The Rocky Mountain Institute has gone on to develop advanced forms of this approach in later buildings.

Photo permission: Rocky Mountain Institute: www.rmi.org

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24 Sustainable Construction

UNCED, 1992: UN Conference on Environment and Development By the early 1990s, there was a groundswell of opinion that international action on environment and development was needed. In 1992, the Rio Earth Summit brought together 170 heads of state to determine the requirements of achieving sustainable development and to agree a worldwide response. One of its biggest challenges proved to be the ‘only-one-Earth’ approach. By proposing a unified international response it was perceived as threatening the sovereignty of nation states. Many were disappointed by the outcomes, but with hindsight a significant amount was achieved when compared to subsequent events. There were five documents produced, the UNCED Agreements. All share a concern about evidence-based research into chemical dispersal and climate change.

The UNCED AGREEMENTS The Framework Convention on Climate Change is one of two ‘International Agreements’ signed by most governments at Rio. It established that: • Climate change was potentially a serious problem; • Action could not wait for the resolution of scientific uncertainties; • Developed countries should take the lead in mitigation; • They should compensate developing countries for any additional costs they incurred in meeting the measures. • It established a process of government reporting on policies, projections and progress, but no binding commitments were ratified except that GHG emissions were to return to 1990 levels by 2000. The Convention on Biological Diversity was the second of the ‘International Agreements’ signed by most governments. It aimed to preserve biological diversity through protection of species and ecosystems, and to establish terms for the use of biological resources and technology. It affirmed that states have ‘sovereign rights’ over biological resources on their territory and that benefits should be shared equitably. It set out the guidelines that countries needed to follow in order to put into place a strategy to protect biodiversity. The Rio Declaration was one of two ‘Statements of 27 Principles’ for guiding action on environment and development. They stressed the need for development and poverty alleviation and the rights and roles of special groups. They are often ambiguous on principles of trade and environment. The Forest Principles was the second of the ‘Statements of Principles’. It is generally agreed to be a failed Convention on Forests. It emphasises the sovereign right to exploit forest resources but does include principles that are intended to guide their management, conservation and sustainable development.

Source: www.theecologist.org

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Agenda 21 – an agenda for action – was intended to provide a blueprint for socially, economically and environmentally sustainable development. Agenda 21 was intended to form the key intergovernmental guide and reference document up until the millennium. It is widely recognised for putting ‘bottom-up’, participatory and community-based approaches into the forefront of policymaking in many areas, including population policy.

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Sustainability drivers 25

UNFCCC, 1992: UN Framework Convention on Climate Change In 1992, an international treaty, the UNFCC, was drawn up to limit average global temperature increases and to cope with the already inevitable impacts. In 1997, after demands to strengthen the global response to climate change, 175 countries met and signed the Kyoto Protocol, legally binding them to reduce emissions of CO2 and five other greenhouse gases (GHGs) – methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride.

History of climate change commitments 1800 – von Humboldt, a Prussian geographer and explorer, predicts human-induced climate change. 1895 – A Swedish chemist, Arrhenius, presents a paper proposing that emissions of CO2 would lead to global warming and quantifying the impact. 1979 – The First World Climate Conference (WCC).

Carbon majors The US Department of Energy identifies cumulative global emissions of 1,323 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2 or 1,450GtCO2e including methane since 1751. It attributes 63 per cent of the CO2 and methane emitted between 1751 and 2010 to 90 organisations. Nine are government-run, 50 are investor-owned and 31 are state-owned companies. There are 56 oil and natural gas companies, 37 coal producers and 7 cement manufacturers.

In Paris in 2015, all countries agreed to reduce GHGs to keep global temperature increase to ‘well below’ 2°C above pre-­ industrial levels with a target of no more than 1.5°C. The Agreement entered into force in 2016. It presents a real challenge. Assuming little change in current emissions then it is only achievable by total removal of new emissions from 2020. There is not a good understanding of how the world could quickly achieve such a substantial emission reduction. It signifies an emphasis on investment in new technologies of carbon capture, raising fears of a renewed dependence on technological ­optimism.

1988 – The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is established. Partial Results - GHG* Emissions

1990 – IPCC’s first assessment report is released and calls for a global treaty on climate change. UN General Assembly begins negotiations on a framework convention. 1997 – Kyoto Protocol formally adopted. 2001 – 164 countries agree a methodology for applying the Kyoto agreement. 2003 – Russia ratifies the Kyoto Protocol. 2005 – Entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. 2008 – Australia signs the Kyoto Protocol. Rating

2012 – The Doha Amendment: promotes greater ambition and action. 2015 – Adoption of the Paris Agreement. 2017 – The USA pulls out of the Paris Agreement but China opens a Cap and Trade scheme.

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*Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Very High High Medium Low Very Low Not included in assessment

Global emissions by country

From: Germanwatch: www.germanwatch.org

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26 Sustainable Construction

The Millennium Summit, New York, 2000 Following UNCED, a number of international meetings were convened and agreements were reached on a variety of environmental issues of international relevance. The Millennium Summit was the largest gathering of world leaders in history, comprising 149 Heads of State and Government plus high-ranking officials from over 40 other countries. The UN Millennium Declaration stated that no efforts must be spared to counter the threat of the planet being irredeemably spoiled by human activities and committed all participating nations to a global partnership to reduce extreme poverty. It was unanimously adopted. It sets out targets on the basic human rights to health, education, shelter and security for each person on the planet. These, known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), had a deadline for delivery of 2015.

The MDGs: To (1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; (2) achieve universal primary education; (3) promote gender equality and empower women; (4) reduce child mortality; (5) improve maternal health; (6) combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases; (7) ensure environmental sustainability; and (8) develop a global partnership for ­development.

WSSD, 2002: World Summit for Sustainable Development The WSSD in Johannesburg is generally considered as a failure, with few commitments made. A factual account of what was agreed makes interesting reading (Middleton & O’Keefe 2003).

Children’s EcoCity, Belfast, 2000, where children lived physically close together separated by peace walls. The EcoCity project brought together communities to think about the future of their city. Photo: Children’s Parliament. www.childrensparliament.org.uk

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Sustainability drivers 27

Rio+20 Conference, 2012

UN High Level Political Forum, 2017

Two decades after the first Earth Summit, more than 80 Presidents and Prime Ministers and thousands from governments, civil society and the private sector worldwide gathered to “assess progress, plug the gaps, consider new and emerging challenges and secure further commitment to sustainable development.” The outcome document, The Future We Want, contained the following agreements:

This meeting aimed to review the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with a focus on “Eradicating poverty and promoting prosperity in a changing world”. A number of the SDGs were singled out for in-depth review.

• To develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); to replace the MDGs due to expire in 2015; • To establish a new high-level international governing body for sustainable development; • To launch an intergovernmental process to develop a sustainable development financing strategy. There were many voluntary commitments by governments and corporations to advance global sustainability. Over time these have grown to over 1,400 commitments with a value of nearly 1% of global annual GDP. To date a few companies have fulfilled a pledge to become carbon neutral. Eight multilateral development banks have committed US$175 billion towards sustainable transportation. Brazil has committed US$235 billion to sustainable energy. Australia is progressing a pledge to create the world’s largest network of marine protected areas.

Sustainable Development Summit, 2015 The 2015 meeting established 17 SDGs to build on what the MDGs had failed to achieve. The SDGs call for action by all countries to end poverty, fight inequalities, protect the environmental and tackle climate change. They promote strategies that build economic growth and address social needs: education, health, social protection and job opportunities. They claim to be the “bold and transformative steps that are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path”. The SDGs are not legally binding. Governments are simply expected to establish frameworks to implement and then review progress made in achieving them.

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• Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere. • Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. • Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. • Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. • Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation. • Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development People: We are determined to end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment. Planet: We are determined to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations. Prosperity: We are determined to ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature. Peace: We are determined to foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies that are free from fear and violence. There can be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development. Partnership: We are determined to mobilise the means required to implement this Agenda through a revitalised Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, based on a spirit of strengthened global solidarity, focused in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people.

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28 Sustainable Construction

continue to be exported ahead of twenty-first-century knowledge, and all the worst scenarios seem likely to be fulfilled. Arguments are polarised. The moral high ground is claimed by invoking needs ahead of outcomes. The need for housing is used to override any argument for housing to be affordable, healthy, resilient, resource-efficient and in the right place. That it could be all these things is a travesty of missed opportunity. There are signs of change. Widespread concern is being translated into policy. Regulations and taxation are slowly taming polluters. Some rivers are getting cleaner. Many people remain optimistically wedded to the idea that humankind will find solutions to any problems that arise.

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030

Recent progress? Throughout the 1960s and 1970s the concept of sustainability was largely marginalised as a restraint on development. Only in the past few years has there been an evolution of awareness such that sustainability is now recognised as a restraint on inappropriate development. It is a principal driver of improving quality of life for this and future generations and protecting other species. Yet, environmental and social problems are immense and increasing. Pervasive toxicity remains an immense problem, as evidenced by the oceanic plastics. Global warming is running out of control. Fifty years on from the original widespread concerns (and over 200 years since human-induced climate change was identified), there is no excuse for not addressing these serious issues seriously. However, the signs are not good. Rio had limited success, Johannesburg had less. The Paris Agreement may be too ambitious or just too technically optimistic. All the best possible scenarios seem likely to be frustrated. In most countries resource consumption and pollution are growing in pursuit of economic development, on an assumption that there is no alternative. The division between rich and poor continues to increase. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century models of development

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Global population is growing at about 1.1% per annum and resource consumption, waste and land-use impacts are growing at about 3.5% per annum, doubling every 20 years. That growth swallows up most of our progress. Over a generation, for example, we gain 30% efficiency in building energy use, but triple the floor space we need to heat, cool and light.

If, as all international agreements claim, we aim to promote environmental quality, precaution, equity and biodiversity as fundamental aspects of development, then strenuous efforts and constant vigilance are required to reverse unsustainable trends and support sustainable ones. The built environment offers plenty of evidence of the links between the economy, the environment and society, and great opportunity to reinforce the positive links that deliver benefit. There is movement in the right direction and there is useful guidance emerging on the design of objects and buildings that demonstrate the breadth of opportunities. However, sustainable construction is still too often marginalised and unsustainable building too often lauded. We are burdened with unsustainable schools, offices and housing that are less healthy, affordable and supportive of individuals and community than they might be. Ample knowledge exists to do otherwise. The remainder of this book seeks to show some examples of genuine progress.

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Case Study 1.10

NMB Bank, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1991 Architect: Ton Alberts Located south-east of Amsterdam, this was the largest bank in The Netherlands. The building (48,600m2) consists of a series of 10 towers strung together by an internal street forming an ‘S’ shape. Along the street are conference rooms, a lecture theatre, a winter garden, restaurants and eating places. Different-coloured towers create distinct identities for each department. An integrated approach was adopted at the outset, looking at the overall operation of the organisation and allowing architects, engineers and landscapers to contribute their ideas. Energy efficiency was given a high priority. The building was designed to operate without airconditioning, and a passive system controls all the heating, cooling and ventilation needs. Located at the top of each tower are a solar collector and a heat recovery unit. The windows are designed to provide an average 500 lux, while excluding external traffic noise and preventing excessive heat loss and unwanted gains. Integration of good insulation levels and careful use of passive heating and ventilation backed up by well-controlled mechanical

­ ervices mean that it has an energy consumps tion of 96kWh/m2 per annum, approximately 90% less energy than a typical 1970s office block. Compared to the consumption of the previous HQ building, built ten years earlier, it afforded savings in fuel bills of over £1m/year. Ton Alberts set a precedent in the design of work environments incorporating solar design and heat recovery as well as attention to good natural lighting and noise elimination, all of which enhanced worker satisfaction. The overall layout was also designed to encourage use of the stairs for energy efficiency and health and well-being – a technique still considered innovative today! At the time there was little attention to the design of office buildings in respect of how an organisation could benefit from an appropriate building and from occupant satisfaction. As with the Rocky Mountain Institute, by this time the importance of making a business case was also recognised, although in this case it was clearly of secondary importance.

Photos: Howard Liddell

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30 Sustainable Construction

Bibliography Carson, R. (1951) The Sea Around Us. Oxford University Press. One-third of a remarkable trilogy. Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin. McHarg, I. (1968) Design with Nature. MIT Press. Hardin, G. (1968) Tragedy of the Commons. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Soleri, P. (1970) Arcology: City in the Image of Man. MIT Press.

Girardet, H. (1992) The Gaia Atlas of Cities. Gaia Books. Grubb, M. (1993) The Earth Summit Agreements – A guide and assessment. RIIA. Keating, M. (1993) Agenda for Change. Centre for Our Common Future. A summary of the Rio agreements. Brenton, T. (1994) The Greening of Machiavelli. Earthscan/RIIA. Brilliant summary of how international agreements have evolved.

Brand, S. (ed.) (1971) The Whole Earth Catalogue. Penguin Books. The bible of its day.

Von Weizsacker, E., Lovins, A.B. & Lovins, L.H. (1995) Factor Four – Doubling wealth, halving resource use. Earthscan. Upbeat, JFDI classic.

Papanek, V. (1971) Design for the Real World – Human ecology and social change. Granada. The foundation of all sustainable design practice.

Gilpin, A. (1996) Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable Development. Wiley.

Commoner, B. (1971) The Closing Circle – Nature, man and technology. Knopf. The beginning of circular ecology. Meadows, D., Meadows, D., Randers, J. & Behrens, W.W. (1972) The Limits to Growth. Signet. Ward, B. & Dubois, R. (1972) Only One Earth. Norton. Kolbas, G.H. (1972) Basic Biology in Colour, Vol. V. Ecology – Cycle and recycle. Sterling Publishing Co. My school textbook. Schumacher, E.F. (1973) Small is Beautiful: A study of economics as if people mattered. Blond Briggs. Bacon, I. et al. (1973) Shelter. Shelter/Random House. McLaughlin, T.P. (1976) A House for the Future. TV Times Family Books.

Tenner, E. (1996) Why Things Bite Back – Predicting the problems of progress. Fourth Estate. McNeil, I. (2000) Something New Under the Sun. Penguin. Morrison, C. & Halliday, S.P. (2000) Working with Participation No. 5: EcoCity – A model for children’s participation in the planning and regeneration of their local environment. Children in Scotland. Zelov C. (ed.) (2000) Design Outlaws on the Ecological Frontier. Knossus Publishers. Meadows, D., Meadows, D. & Randers, J. (2002) Limits to Growth – The thirty-year update. Earthscan. Middleton, N. & O’Keefe, P. (2003) Rio plus Ten – Politics, poverty and the environment. Pluto Press.

Gorz, A. (1980) Ecology as Politics. Pluto Press.

Howieson, S.G. (2003) Housing and Health: Are our homes causing the asthma pandemic? University of Strathclyde.

Myers, M. (ed.) (1985) The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management. Pan Books.

Sacquet, A-M. (2005) World Atlas of Sustainable Development. Anthem Press.

Kennedy, M. (1986) Oko-Stadt. Fischer alternative.

Diamond, J. (2006) Collapse – How societies choose to fail or survive. Penguin.

WCED (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Pearson, D. (1989) The Natural House Book. Gaia Books. Kemp, D.D. (1990) Global Environmental Issues – A climatological approach. Routledge. Saywell, D.L. (1991) World Habitat Awards 1985–89. Building and Social Housing Foundation. Vale, R. & Vale, B. (1991) Green Architecture: Design for a sustainable future. Thames & Hudson. Meadows, D., Meadows, D. & Randers, J. (1992). Beyond the Limits. Earthscan.

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Architecture for Humanity (ed.) (2006) Design Like You Give a Damn. Thames & Hudson. Liddell, H. (2008) Eco-minimalism – The antidote to eco-bling. RIBA Publications. Pickett, K. & Wilkinson, R. (2010) The Spirit Level: Why equality is better for everyone. Penguin. Goldsmith, S. (ed.) (2012) Vitamin Green. Phaidon. Heede, R. (2013) Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers,

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1854–2010. Journal of Climatic Change. http://carbonmajors.org/ download-the-study/. Cutter, A. & Lingán, J. (2013) Fulfilling the Rio+20 Promises. Natural Resources Defense Council.

Sustainable development journals and information sources The Club of Rome: www.clubofrome.org

Hunt, S. (2014)The Revolutionary Urbanism of Street Farm EcoAnarchism, Architecture & Alternative Technology in the 1970’s. Tangent Book.

The Ecologist: www.theecologist.org

Ableman, M. (2016) Street Farm – Growing food, jobs, and hope on the urban frontier. Chelsea Green.

New Internationalist: www.newint.org

SEDA (2017) 100 Sustainable Scottish Buildings. Bell & Bain.

United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform: www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org

Hawken P. (2017) Drawdown – The most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming. Penguin.

Ethical Consumer: www.ethicalconsumer.org Resurgence: www.resurgence.gn.apc.uk

The Rocky Mountain Institute: www.rmi.org

Walters Way – Segal Self-Build Housing

Winner of a BSHF Habitat Award, 1986. Photo: The Author

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Chapter 2 Policy and legislation In which we highlight the key policy drivers for the creation of more sustainable construction, the legislative requirements that the promoters, designers and constructors of built development need to meet, and some proactive policy initiatives on the part of those striving to implement a sustainable approach.

The Circular Economy increasingly a consideration in the built environment.

Photo: The Author

“Nature, or Pachamama, where life is reproduced and occurs, has the right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes. All persons, communities, peoples and nations can call upon public authorities to enforce the rights of nature.” Ecuador – Rights of Nature constitutional provisions

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Rise and Win Public House, Kamikatz, Japan

A brewery and public house made from recycled materials. Credit: Koji Fujii/Nacasa & Partners Inc.

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Policy and legislation Contents Introduction�������������������������������������������������36 The impact of construction��������������������������37 Changes in attitude�������������������������������������37 Policy integration����������������������������������������42 Policy responses������������������������������������������42

Legislation in the UK�����������������������������������57 The environmental legal framework�����������60 Environmental liability����������������������������������� 60 Wider legislation �����������������������������������������61 Handy hints and tips�����������������������������������64

Key players��������������������������������������������������43 Development of UK policy on sustainable development�������������������������46 How does sustainable development challenge us?��������������������������������������������54

Limitations of policies���������������������������������65 Bibliography������������������������������������������������66

Case studies   2.1   2.2   2.3   2.4   2.5   2.6   2.7   2.8   2.9 2.10

Design Quality Standard, Tübingen, Germany�������������������������������������������������������������������38 Professional policy and implementation, RIAS, Scotland��������������������������������������������������40 Comparing success and failure in financing energy upgrading, UK and Germany������������44 Piloting climate neutrality, FutureBuilt, Norway����������������������������������������������������������������49 Reconciling access and conservation, Glencoe Visitor Management Facility, Scotland�����50 Federal Environment Agency, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany����������������������������������������������������52 One Planet Development, Wales����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55 Manifesto for Ethical Sourcing in Construction, England��������������������������������������������������56 Examples of contraventions in environmental legislation, UK������������������������������������������58 The Law of the Rights of Mother Earth, Bolivia�����������������������������������������������������������������62

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36 Sustainable Construction

Introduction Significant changes in attitudes towards the role of construction have taken place recently. Buildings and places are increasingly recognised as having significant impacts on sustainability – economic, social and environmental. This is gradually being translated into policies issued by international, regional, national, city and local governments, industry bodies, professional institutions and companies. In many places stricter rules and guidelines have been introduced to seek to minimise adverse impacts and to encourage more sustainable behaviour. In some cases legal frameworks have been strengthened. The emerging policies, changing legislation and increasing awareness have resulted in many more architects, engineers and builders working to demonstrate sustainable built development in houses, offices and cities.

Rocky Mountain Institute Innovation Center, Basalt A building is the opportunity for an organisation to make a statement about the kind of world it wants. Photo: Permission www.rmi.org

The best examples are simultaneously more efficient and profitable, much more socially accountable, and much less damaging to the environment than before. This is called sustainable construction. While understanding and adoption of environmentally and socially responsible design and construction has vastly increased in this millennium, it is none the less still largely marginalised. Most clients and nations are far from fully exploiting the benefits of the underlying principles. Some legislation has failed spectacularly to achieve its objectives, and some issues – such as indoor environmental health – are still barely addressed except by a diligent minority. Worse, despite ample justification for the direction of policy and legislation there is still cynicism and resistance and bad practice that has no place in a modern enlightened world. Given current understanding of the adverse impacts human activity is having on the natural environment, and the risks this imposes to future quality of life, the continuing dominance of unsustainable practices is disheartening.

The Enterprise Centre, University of East Anglia Architects: Architype; Photo: Mike Gower

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There is an assumption that the way we currently build is optimised and that change is unnecessary. In reality the vast majority of buildings are less efficient, more polluting,

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less healthy, generate more waste, cause more damage to biodiversity, are less supportive of community and are much more costly to run than they could be. This chapter looks at a range of policy initiatives at all scales around the world that are setting examples and changes in legislation that are having positive impacts.

The impact of construction The construction sector plays an enormous role in our lives. It provides for one of our most basic needs. The quality of buildings and places has a huge impact on our health and well-being. It is an immense factor in the economy as a major employer and through the colossal value of property assets. Quantifying environmental impact is complex but construction accounts for more than 11% of global GDP and about 40% of raw materials flows. UK construction accounts for around 90% of all non-fuel mineral use. UK buildings account for 50% of CO2 emissions and construction activity another 7%. The sector generates 19% of waste by volume and is responsible for over 25% of industryrelated pollution incidents. Many countries share similar statistics, and resource flows in developing countries are increasing. There is a need for construction to adopt an ecological approach. There is uncertainty about the extent of the action required. Legislation and policy, including economic policy, has been moving to reverse unsustainable trends through a range of measures, including changes in building standards, waste

Construction generates nearly one-fifth of the UK’s waste by volume

Most of it could be used in a way that retains its value. Photo: The Author

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and pollution regulation and economic instruments such as congestion charging, landfill tax and a carbon levy. Transport is also recognised as fundamental to health and well-being, sustainable lifestyles and resource conservation. Legislation can penalise the worst behaviour but could be more proactive in moving to eliminate unsustainable practices. Benefits in health and well-being would follow.

Changes in attitude Changes in attitudes, policies and legislation have been prompted by a range of factors, including: • disturbing results of research into climate change, depletion of the ozone layer and widespread environmental pollution; • increased awareness of these and other environmental issues and their increasing presence and importance on the political agenda – locally, nationally and internationally; • increasing concern about adverse impacts of construction activity on neighbours and the environment; • the action of individuals and groups to challenge norms about resource consumption, waste generation and damage to biodiversity; • increasing concern about poor indoor air quality; • increasing concern about poor urban air quality; • increasing concerns about developments that are imposed upon communities, rather than meeting identified needs; • challenges to conventional arguments about the cost of construction and the cost of externalities; • better understanding of the relationship between highquality environments, productivity, education and health, in turn leading to financial benefits and improvements in quality of life and business performance; • increasing focus on corporate responsibilities, leading to greater emphasis on good business practice and fair trade; • an improved palette of good-quality non-toxic materials and products; • growth of appraisal tools and techniques to guide, compare and contrast achievements; • dissemination of good practice demonstrating high quality and affordability in lighting, solar design, energy efficiency, materials selection, controls and place-making; • evidence from post-occupancy studies that demonstrate the benefits of good design; • legislation to prevent pollution; • successful use of economic instruments to encourage improved behaviour and professional practice; • exciting design.

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38 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 2.1

Design Quality Standard, Tübingen, Germany Architects: Various The city of Tübingen decided to undertake the development of a derelict French barracks into a new city quarter in the 1990s. They developed a number of innovative strategies for procurement and for environmental protection. Rather than selling land to a developer, the municipal building department determined to oversee the project themselves. They decided to go beyond the regulatory framework in setting environmental guidelines for the development and instead established a contractual agreement, Design Quality Standard, that forms the basis for compliance with the conditions for environmental protection. They were able to maintain control and to recycle the profits into the infrastructure, including transport, active frontages and landscape. Design Quality Standard The architect/engineer commits to: • include the following regulations in planning and tendering; • guarantee the compliance of the following regulations in the submission as well as in the project monitoring. This commitment is part of the contract. 1 Protection of wood: The use of wood preserver is not allowed. If the construction necessitates wood preserver (see examples in DIN 68 800 Part 3. April 1990) the following products are allowed: inside the building only pure boric salt products and outside the building beech distillates or CKB salts (chromate/potassium/boric acid). 2 Paint, varnish, adhesives (for carpets, coverings. etc.): Only non-solvent materials signed with RAL-UZ 12 (Blue Angel. Environmental Label No. 12) are allowed. 3 Halogen-free materials: Exceptions are admitted in the field of electric cables as well as tubes for the sewage system. In the latter case the tender must include the following sentence: ‘The contractor is committed to recycle PVC waste from the building site separately.’

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4 Materials containing CFCs: The use of materials containing totally halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (for example, R 11 and R 12) is not permitted. The use of partly halogenated chlorofluorocarbons is exceptionally not allowed but reasons must be given for each individual case. 5 Tropical timber: The use of tropical timber is not allowed. 6 Mineral fibrous insulating material: Only mineral fibrous insulating material with carcinogenic index lower than 40 is allowed. (Carcinogenic index in the meaning of technical guideline for hazardous materials 905.) 7 Resolution of the City Council to the use of greywater. 7 Resolution of the City Council to the low energy standard. 8 Consideration of the accident prevention regulations. 9 Sometimes the architect or engineer may think it unavoidable to use a material not in accordance with the above. In this case the deviation must be explained, the municipality must agree and valid alternatives must be nominated precisely in the tender.

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Tübingen

Photo: The Author

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Case Study 2.2

RIAS Professional policy and implementation, RIAS, Scotland, 1997 The Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland (RIAS) has a policy and implementation strategy on sustainable design (RIAS 2016). The policy has been regularly updated since it was first written by Gaia in 1997 with the intention of: • encouraging recognition of the holistic influence that the built environment has on individuals and communities; • promoting awareness of responsibilities and appropriate responses by members of the RIAS. It is a thorough policy which: • promotes a whole-life approach to design, construction, maintenance, adaptation and eventual disposal of buildings and their constituent parts. • promotes place-making that minimises environmental harm, and respects, sustains and promotes cultural value, biodiversity, inter-generational and intra-generational responsibility and social equity. • supports the objectives incorporated into the Sustainable Development Goals, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Precautionary Principle, international action to mitigate climate change, the UIA Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future, and subsequent UIA declarations and communications on sustainable development. • recognises the six strategic considerations for responsible interventions (Halliday

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2007) that are now incorporated into professional guidance. • incorporates numerous specific objectives, such as improved briefing, interdisciplinary working, the Construction Products Directive (CPD), post-occupancy evaluation and social responsibility to support sustainable design and sustainable development. • includes continued commitment to, and promotion of, the RIAS Accreditation Scheme in Sustainable Architecture. The policy is underpinned by a Mission Statement to encourage interventions in the built environment that improve the social, environmental and economic wellbeing of those directly involved, wider society and to support sustainable development internationally. • Maximum Architectural Value, • Minimum Environmental Harm.

In parallel to the development of policy the RIAS also developed the Accreditation Scheme in Sustainable Architecture. It was launched in in 2005 to acknowledge the contribution of accomplished sustainable building designers. It is the only such scheme in the world. Individual accreditation is by peer review of a personal statement and at least three built projects.

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Bute Recycling Centre (2004) Submitted by Chris Stewart of Collective Architecture as one of his three projects for peer-reviewed entry to the RIAS Accreditation scheme. It is a processing plant for aluminium and steel constructed entirely from recycled, reclaimed and locally sourced materials. The windows and doors are salvaged from a local housing project. The bricks are ‘seconds’ reclaimed from a builders yard and the glazing is partially formed from broken bottles gathered on the island by the local community. Photo: Andrew Lee

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42 Sustainable Construction

Policy integration The holistic nature of the sustainable construction agenda, and the fact that the built environment affects the quality of our lives so fundamentally, and in so many diverse ways, means that buildings have the potential to be a focus for a wide range of policy. Policy on architectural quality, planning and community participation, pollution prevention, biodiversity and animal habitats, transport infrastructure, the relationship between town and hinterland, health at home, crime in communities, energy use and generation, and developing appropriate new jobs and skills are all intrinsically connected to the environments in which we live and work. The integrative aspects are increasingly apparent and interesting, and the overarching indicators of sustainable development have much to do with the quality of construction. This has been acknowledged in policy development.

Kirkheim Technical School Sustainable Construction Learning from failures

In a tour of German and Norwegian schools those using traditional procurement routes had the greater user satisfaction. Photo: The Author

Reviewing performance Establishing a Voluntary Code of Reporting Setting and promoting targets Spreading best practice Stakeholder dialogue Demonstrating a clear business case for more sustainable buildings and construction Monitoring and observing performance Collecting practical examples of sustainability in action Collecting information on sustainability initiatives Promoting awareness and educating people Unsustainable Construction

The sustainability ladder

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Policy responses Sustainability policies represent the stated priorities, aims, aspirations and objectives of international bodies, national governments, professions and companies. They are increasingly used by a wide range of players in the construction scene as a means of communicating commitment to improving practice beyond the regulatory/legislative standard and to show evidence of improving sustainability performance and to raise standards. There is now a lot of knowledge and great opportunity to develop improved buildings and built environments. In order to move forward the industry needs to commit to firm deliverables, but also requires education on product and process issues. Clients have the opportunity to look at best practice and to recognise the benefits that can accrue from it. Governments need to take a more forthright role in raising the legislative requirements at an ambitious pace commensurate with delivering much-needed changes.

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Key players Leading-edge organisations and individuals: It is largely the actions of individual clients, committed designers and agencies with special interests and knowledge that have been at the forefront of change. Some have been applying their knowledge to address concerns about unsustainable patterns of development for decades, well in advance of governments, clients or the professional bodies. Taking a wide perspective of the role of construction, and linking this to contemporary issues, they have pushed the forefront of building design in relation to communities, materials, health and resource effectiveness, and by highlighting the positive benefits of sustainable design through the delivery of good-quality, healthy, efficient, value-for-money buildings. It is notable that they may be the least likely to have formal policies, instead operating from a base understanding. Government, government agencies and local authorities have been addressing the issue seriously since the early 1990s, and are gradually cascading requirements. Local authorities became more proactive across a wide range of issues, including construction, in response to the Agenda 21 commitments made in Rio in 1992. As well as developing local environmental and community plans, many drew up checklists and began developing policies for sustainable construction and the natural environment.

© Germanwatch 2017

Overall Results CCPI 2018

Leading-edge contractors, developers, suppliers and constructors are beginning to use sustainability policies to bring about change in the way they carry out their operations. Expectations, rising costs and legal precautions have significantly changed behaviour in site operations and these have been formalised, particularly in larger companies. While the aspirations they contain are often laudable, they are largely reactive and most fail to acknowledge the extent of action required, to identify tools and techniques by which to implement effective change, and therefore to provide for adequate and decisive action. Many more preach the virtues of sustainability than deliver in practice. In part this may result from lack of real commitment, but there are also knowledge gaps and real difficulties encountered in practice. The fact that many policies lack targets or timescales for implementation is a notable aspect. Industry and professional bodies are developing policies and action plans to be adopted by their members, including introducing sustainability as a fundamental requirement in undergraduate education, leading to a professional qualification. They are also bringing demonstration projects to the fore through seminars, professional development opportunities and award schemes in order to help disseminate good practice. The Institution of Civil Engineers has a Sustainable Development Charter. Clients, conventional businesses, designers and developers are increasingly aware of consumer power and trends to ensure that business impacts on the environment and society are positive. There is curiosity and concern about how this will impact on bottom-line profits. Indeed, the triple bottom line – meeting social, environmental and economic obligations to consumers and shareholders – is increasingly on the boardroom agenda. Understanding and adoption of sustainable construction is evolving. Few businesses now seem to openly commit to unsustainable building, although there is much confusion about what it means in practice. As a consequence, increasing numbers of developers and designers are prepared to indicate sustainable design among their services, although the claims are often in advance of the evidence and results can be disappointing.

Very High High Medium Low Very Low Not included in assessment

© Germanwatch 2017

Rating

Overall performance with respect to climate change policy

Credit: Germanwatch www.germanwatch.org

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The European Union is very actively supporting sustainable development through directives and guidance. It consolidates and disseminates best practice from leading-edge countries and uses this to drive up standards and the regulatory benchmark. It enables individuals and national governments to use this as a precedent.

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44 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 2.3

Comparing success and failure in financing energy upgrading in the UK and Germany KfW (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau/ Reconstruction Credit Institute) was created (1948) to finance Germany’s post-World War II rebuilding, KfW is backed by federal and regional governments and is the centrepiece of energy upgrading strategy. It is one of the most successful energy efficiency financing programmes worldwide. In 1996 KfW launched a scheme to support energy efficiency renovation for households, business and local government. It grants loans via the existing network of public and private banks at rates never exceeding 1%. To be eligible, a project is subject to a forecast of the outcomes, which must be no more than 115% of the maximum primary energy requirement of a building designed to the current regulations. There is a sliding scale of support with most available when a target of 55% is achieved. The grant is transferred after completion of the refurbishment measures. The programme is well known and 60,000 to 150,000 projects are funded every year – aiding transition to a low carbon economy. KfW generates €1.5 billion per annum from the sale of carbon credits through the EU CO2 emissions trading scheme. Also, for each €1 invested, €2 to 4 returns to the public purse in taxes levied on the jobs and economic activity created. It demonstrates that energy transition benefits jobs and the environment. If complete refurbishment is impractical or too costly, single measures can be implemented. Finance is available for: • Thermal insulation of walls, roof and floor space. • Renewal of windows and exterior doors. • Installation/renewal of a ventilation system. • Renewal of the heating system. • Optimisation of heat distribution for existing systems.

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The scheme is developing to encourage new technologies and transitions to passive house standard. In 2012 the UK government launched the Green Deal to provide loans to homeowners or businesses to: • allow them to benefit from building energy efficiency improvements; • enhance the environmental performance of buildings; • make progress towards the UK’s emission reduction target; • create a market for skills and jobs in energy conservation. A Golden Rule aimed to ensure that improvements were ‘cost-effective’ and that savings outweighed the cost of loan repayments. These loan repayments were to be paid to energy providers as a supplement to bills. Interest rates varied from 7.9 to 10.3% APR, significantly higher than other loan options, and lasted between 10 and 25 years. The loan would live with the property and transfer to new owners at point of sale. The scheme had upfront assessment costs, an initial set-up charge and an annual fee, all of which acted as a deterrent. Also, as the estimates were based only on predicted savings, this provided little confidence, especially as charges would be applied even if the savings did not materialise, the owner being required to take responsibility for the professionalism of the advisers and installers. There was little awareness among the general public of the scheme and little interest from government in using anything other than market forces to raise awareness. The UK industry undertook training and ­registration to qualify as accredited advisers and installers for what was perceived to be a game changer in the energy market – but lack of demand left the sector struggling. In its first six months, 38,259 Green Deal

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Case Study 2.3 (Continued)

Comparing success and failure in financing energy upgrading in the UK and Germany ­ ssessments took place with only four deals a made. In total, 15,000 Green Deals were issued before it was scrapped in 2015, having failed. An independent audit of the scheme found that households did not see the loans as

attractive. Subsequent reviews and comparisons blame the failure on over-complexity, unreasonable interest rates and charges, lack of public awareness and shortage of technical skills.

In Armenia, Bosnia Herzegovina and North Macedonia

Homeowner associations can borrow collectively for energy improvements to make their homes more affordable, and improve their health and well-being – reducing pollution and creating employment. Photo credit: World Habitat

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46 Sustainable Construction

Development of UK policy on sustainable development It is worthwhile reflecting on one country’s approach to sustainable construction. The UK made significant strides towards delivering sustainable construction between 1990 and 2005. Policies and consultations addressed issues, from carbon emissions to jobs and sustainable communities. There appeared to be both an understanding of the potential benefits and a genuine commitment to delivering them. It makes the lack of subsequent progress even more disheartening. 1990: This Common Inheritance The UK government formally set out its environmental aims in this White Paper. It proposed four principles of sustainability: 1 Decisions should be based on the best scientific information and analysis of risks. 2 Where there is uncertainty and potentially serious risks exist, precautionary action may be necessary. 3 Ecological impacts must be considered, particularly where resources are non-renewable or effects may be irreversible. 4 Cost implications should be brought home directly to the people responsible: ‘polluter pays’.

Brick recycling

Industry has changed its behaviour and become more resource efficient and imaginative in response to policy and legislation. Photo: The Author

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1994: The UK strategy Published following UNCED 1992, it identified sectors of the economy significant to sustainable development: • Minerals extraction. • Energy. • Transport. • Manufacturing and services. • Development and construction. • Waste.

1999: A Better Quality of Life: A strategy for sustainable development in the UK This strategy was produced after consultation with business, tourism, forestry, biodiversity and construction. It emphasised that ‘one of the fundamental principles of sustainable development is that it is a process with economic, social and ethical, as well as environmental dimensions’. The consultation paper that led to the strategy included four tenets of sustainable development: 1 Social progress, which recognises the needs of everyone. Everyone should share in the benefits of increased prosperity and a clean, safe environment. Priority areas: improve access to services, tackle social exclusion, reduce the harm to health caused by poverty, poor housing, unemployment and pollution. Current needs should not unfairly treat future generations or people elsewhere in the world. 2 Effective protection of the environment. We must act to limit global environmental threats, such as climate change; to protect human health from hazards, such as poor air quality and toxic chemicals; and to protect things that people need or value, such as wildlife, landscapes and historic buildings. 3 Prudent use of natural resources. Use non-renewable resources efficiently and develop alternatives to replace them. Renewable resources should be used in ways that do not endanger them or cause serious damage or pollution. 4 Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment. Everyone can then share in high living standards and greater job opportunities. Businesses must produce high-quality goods and services at prices they are prepared to pay. The workforce should be equipped with the education and skills for the twenty-first century. We need businesses ready to invest and an infrastructure to support them.

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2000: Achieving Sustainability in Construction Procurement This set out how government construction clients would take forward sustainable development through better procurement of new works, maintenance and refurbishment. A target was that from 2003 all new projects should achieve an excellent BREEAM rating or equivalent. They didn’t.

2001: Building a Better Quality of Life: A strategy for more sustainable construction in the UK The construction industry has a huge contribution to make to our quality of life. It provides the delivery mechanism for many aspects of government policy aimed at the provision and modernisation of the nation’s built environment. The economic, social and environmental benefits which can flow from more efficient and sustainable construction are potentially immense. The strategy indicated that a sustainable construction approach involves all the following actions: • delivering buildings and structures that provide greater satisfaction, well-being and value to customers and users; • respecting and treating its stakeholders more fairly; • enhancing and better protecting the natural environment; • minimising its impact on the consumption of energy (especially carbon-based energy) and natural resources; • being more profitable and more competitive.

Then 2002: Reputation, Risk and Reward – the business case for more sustainable construction. 2005: An updated strategy for sustainable development indicated that the UK government wished to be a leader in the EU on sustainable procurement by 2009. 2006: Procuring the Future – findings and recommendations of the Sustainable Procurement Task Force (SPTF). 2006: The Sustainable Construction Strategy Report – an overview of initiatives to support sustainable construction, including skills development, and links to more information.

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The Wise Building Centre for Alternative Technology

Owner/occupiers with long-term interests are more inclined towards sustainable design. Architect: Pat Borer Photo credit: Tim Soare

It’s a moving target There is strong evidence that while standards are improving, underlying trends are preventing progress. • Concerns about many of the materials in common use and their impact on environmental health. • Houses are getting bigger, so improving energy efficiency standards on a per m2 basis is unlikely to keep pace with real consumption. • Patterns of consumption. • The non-biodegradeable nature of many products, in particular single-use products. • Proliferation of appliances and associated standing losses. • Waste. • Increasing urban temperature. • Weather patterns, flooding and stronger winds. • Health associated with buildings. Improvements in performance are therefore necessary even to maintain a level playing field, to protect biodiversity, to ensure built quality and to keep within available resource limits. Making improvements that can deliver the health, environmental and economic benefits is a major challenge.

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48 Sustainable Construction

Significant changes since the publication of Building a Better Quality of Life: • UK Climate Change Programme. • The Energy Efficiency Commitment • The UK and EU Emissions Trading Schemes. • Aggregates levy and landfill tax. • Launch of Respect for People Code of Good Working Health and Safety Practices. • Improvements in energy efficiency in buildings. • Code for Sustainable Homes. • Site Waste Management Plans. • The Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act. • Design for manufacture. • Minimum standards for products/product labels. • The Green Deal. • Code for sustainable homes withdrawn. • Green Deal dies.

Many international, European, national and professional initiatives have taken place in the intervening period, which impact on policy, regulation, legislation and the roles and responsibilities of construction professionals. This includes: • UN Sustainable Development Goals:Transforming our World – 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. • The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). • The Precautionary Principle: A statutory requirement in areas of EU law. • The Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future agreed at the International Union of Architects (UIA) World Congress 1993 and reinforced by subsequent UIA declarations and communications.

Vauban District, Freiburg

Some cities have placed design for communities at the heart of their policy on house building. Photo: Varis Bokalders

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Case Study 2.4

Piloting climate neutrality: 31 FutureBuilt, Norway, 2011 to 2020 FutureBuilt is a ten-year collaboration between municipal authorities of the Oslo region, local government, the State Housing Bank, building regulations, Green Building Alliance and the Architects Association. Building regulations are moving towards passive housing and EU regulations for near-net-zero energy buildings are forecast from 2020. FutureBuilt aims to prepare for this and is supporting at least 50 climate-neutral pilot projects – buildings and urban areas – that demonstrate high-quality architecture are inspiring and encouraging innovation in the private and public sectors. There are specific criteria for pilot projects: • compact development attractive for walking and cycling with access to public transport; • carbon footprint reduced by at least 50% compared to current regulations, close to net zero; • reduce GHG from transport, energy and materials and design for dismantling and reuse; • located near transport hubs with highquality facilities for pedestrians and cyclists; • high urban and architectural quality, especially with respect to the outdoor spaces, universal design, safety and comfort, and their relationship to the city; • innovative and showcase qualities: plusenergy housing, new products, concepts and processes.

• Geothermal heat, solar panels, solar thermal collectors, greywater recycling. • Ventilation with heat recycling. • Solid wood construction. • Good bicycle facilities.

Ullsholtveien 31 As part of FutureBuilt an existing residential building has been rehabilitated and converted into nine flats with a communal area on the ground floor and two new buildings with 27 flats constructed with cross-laminated timber. The low carbon first homes offer affordable environmental and social sustainability. They are arranged around a large communal garden that is open to a recreational area to the south. A shared geothermal heat pump is the main energy source for heating and water for all the houses. The building envelope of the existing building has been upgraded to present-day standards and the new housing is passive house standard. There is solar thermal collection on the roof and heat recycling of greywater. There are charging stations for electric cars, a bicycle pavilion with workshop and a bicycle pool.

The first houses have been delivered that produce more energy than they consume and sell the excess. FutureBuilt now aims to demonstrate energypositive offices, schools, kindergartens, sports centres and businesses. FutureBuilt+ is a series of plus-energy housing competitions.

LOW CARBON STRATEGIES • Compact building and area-efficient homes. • New buildings built as passive houses.

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Ullsholtveien 31 – FutureBuilt

Haugen/Zohar Arkitekter, Steinsvik Arkitektkontor and Dronninga Landskap. Photo: Ake Carlsen

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50 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 2.5

Reconciling access and conservation: Glencoe Visitor Management Facility, Scotland, 2002 Architects: Gaia Architects In 2001, the Sustainable Construction Strategy Group set out 13 measures that form the backdrop to this case study.  1 Reuse and improve existing built assets. Resolving the dilemma of providing access while preserving nature and heritage was the driver when a decision was made to replace the outdated Glencoe Visitor Centre. The former centre was badly situated in the heart of the Glen. It had damaged the ambience and was facilitating the destruction of one of Scotland’s most treasured environments. To renovate or develop in the same place would have compounded an earlier error. A decision was made to seek another site and to return the existing one to its former ecology. The old centre was dismantled and recycled locally.  2  Locate appropriately. Gaia responded with a low-lying, modern building on a brownfield site close to Glencoe village and adjacent to the campsite. The Centre now forms a link between these places. It is designed as a small village or hamlet (clachan in Scotland) to reflect the massing, proportions and scale of local villages. The building (1500m2) comprises a café, exhibition area, viewing platform, shop, toilets, education centre, offices and a warden’s house. The building and parking were fitted into the existing matured Sylvia Crowe landscape. Careful siting avoided the loss of healthy trees and strict site boundaries avoided contractor damage. Pad foundations minimised disruption to roots and groundwater. All topsoil was retained for reuse.  3 Relate land-use planning to transport infrastructure. The aim was to allow visitors to experience a uniquely beautiful and evocative place while avoiding or mitigating any damage. Locating the

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building next to the campsite with a safe pathway to the local village has opened up access that otherwise required transport. Visitors can take advantage of local services and businesses. There was a tradition of fly-parking, which is hazardous and deleterious to the local fauna. Off-road parking facilities have been enhanced, and walkers are encouraged to begin and end walks at the Centre, which is also more secure.  4 Design for effective resource use. All the timber – bolted and demountable portal frames, larch cladding and roofing, oak windows and doors, nail-free oak and sycamore floors, and birch ceiling finishes – is Scottish and untreated. Non-galvanised tin roofing was sourced from the mining industry. Now rusted, it reflects a strong west coast vernacular. After a failed attempt to reopen the Ballachullish quarry, Gaia resorted to recycled Ballachullish and Cumbrian slate.  5 Design for life. The clachan form allows for future expansion or contraction. All the materials are easy to dismantle, separate and identify for repair, reuse or recycling. Few materials used

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Case Study 2.5 (Continued)

Reconciling access and conservation: Glencoe Visitor Management Facility, Scotland, 2002 Architects: Gaia Architects are polymeric or bonded and all but sacrificial elements of the construction are nail-free so that they are removable for maintenance or replacement.  6 Aim for lean construction. The project delivers value for money and high environmental quality at a cost yardstick at, or below, equivalent buildings.  7 Minimise energy use. Cellulose fibre super-insulated breathing walls (250mm), floors and roofs are airtight construction. Windows and doors are sealed with sheep’s wool, which provides permanently flexible airtight detail, unlike toxic hard-setting sprays that are inflexible. Ventilation is through designed fanlights. Daylighting is extensive with energy-efficient fittings. Heating is simple with domestic-style thermostats and manual controls.  8 Utilise renewable energy sources. Hot water from wood-CHP (combined heat and power) district heating serves the building and caravan site.  9 Do not pollute the wider environment. The building has 100% untreated timber, carbon-neutral fuel, is PVC and glue-free, only natural paints and stains, on-site water gathering and treatment.

10 Preserve/enhance biodiversity. Significant flora from the building footprint were relocated. The interplay between buildings, stream and new planting was balanced to optimise diverse ecologies, including sunlight and shade. Existing healthy, mature trees were supplemented with new growth. All planting was sourced from the bioregion. 11 Conserve water resources. Water off the hill serves the Centre and caravan site. It is collected, filtered, conserved, recycled and treated on site, and delivered pure to the River Coe. 12 Respect people and local environment. Consultation ensured that the project benefited the local community. Attention was given to the size of restaurant, its opening hours and contents of the shop to ensure it complements the local economy. A path to the village opens up access to local businesses. 13 Set targets. Gaia had a two-year involvement beyond handover, to ensure that the operation and maintenance is in sympathy with the design intentions.

Photos: Michael Wolchover

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52 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 2.6

Showcasing: Federal Environment Agency, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany, 2005 Architects: Sauerbruch Hutton The UBA or German Federal Environment Agency headquarters in Dessau-Roßlau – designed as a showcase ecological building – was awarded the 2009 German gold medal for sustainable construction. The main four-storey office wing for 790 people is a reinforced concrete skeleton with exposed ceiling slabs, an atrium and central area. Other parts of the complex include a canteen and ‘Wörlitzer Bahnhof’ railway station. The external façade of glass, steel and timber has openable windows for night ventilation. It uses district heating until the outdoor temperature is particularly high (+22ºC) or low (5ºC), when supply air to the offices is conditioned in an earth-to-air heat exchanger. The contaminated site required treatment and provided the opportunity to create this geothermal network with more than 5km of pipe. The offices on the atrium side are ventilated from the atrium in summer but external offices exposed to noise are supplied with air mechanically which is exhausted via the atrium. The atrium and forum are not part of the insulated envelope and not heated or cooled. The atrium is protected with greenery and serves as a thermal buffer. The energy strategy includes 460m² of solar panels – 32kWp – built into the roof of the public entrance area that includes a glazed north–south-facing sawtooth form. These provide solar-powered air-conditioning

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to the lecture theatre and IT areas using an adsorption chiller. The cooling agent (water) is adsorbed on a silica gel which is then primarily regenerated using solar-heated hot water. The roofs of the main building and the canteen are flat and partially planted with vegetation. The room layout consists of small single offices and larger common and service areas. Energy performance and indoor air hygiene issues were examined as part of the monitoring which concluded that the commissioning of energy-optimised buildings requires at least a one-year fine-tuning to optimise the services. At the outset of the building planning the aim was to exceed the energy performance requirements by 50%. This target was achieved and the UBA building is at the forefront in terms of energy performance. Going forward, the EU Buildings Directive 2019 requires government buildings to certify that they have met energy performance requirements over a one-year period. The agency decided that all ongoing new and renovation projects should meet the requirements in advance of the Directive. In 2013 the BerlinMarienfelde office became the government’s first zero-energy building and the new wing of the Dessau-Roßlau site (completion 2018) is aiming to be a net exporter of energy to supply the existing site.

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Federal Environment Agency, Dessau-Roßlau

Photo: The Author

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54 Sustainable Construction

How does sustainable development challenge us?

Technical innovation in product design and manufacture

Spools of bioplastic PHA. Photo: Mango Materials

Sustainability challenges us to ensure that we do not cause harm while maintaining a non-declining stock of capital assets, including environmental assets, to meet the needs of society in the future. Success relies on action at different levels. Consider the actions required on transport:

Regulatory Challenge: Demonstrating an equivalent or better outcome A research project assisted in confirming the performance of unfired clay brick in this modern earth building in Perthshire. A client, designer or developer who wants to seem to be precluded from innovation by regulation often needs to focus on the outcome that the regulation seeks to achieve. Demonstrating how an alternative provides an equal or better outcome can lead to a change in the regulations. Architects and Photo: ARC Architects

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• At product design and manufacturing levels: Eco-efficiencies and innovation are needed to reduce unnecessary resource use and to generate products and services that minimise waste and pollution. • At an industry level: Joined-up thinking and action are needed to provide a joined-up local, regional and national transport infrastructure (i.e. trains, buses, safe cycle and walk routes). This already happens very effectively in many European countries and successful policies have been implemented, but it is not helped by privatisations that do not make it a requirement. • At national and international levels: Policies and actions to motivate use of alternative modes of transport are vital. • At business levels: Much could be done in terms of mixed-use development and IT infrastructure to reduce the need or desire to travel. • At a societal level: People and communities need to be better served by local facilities and designed environments, so that they can alter their travel habits and expectations in ways that are compatible with improving their health and life quality.

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Case Study 2.7

One Planet Development, Wales, 2011 It is important that cities address their sustainability but that it is also possible to have a low-impact rural life. The Welsh government has introduced a One Planet Development (OPD) policy intended to support anyone interested in sustainable land use and the need to live within the bounds of the one planet. OPD is a policy that hardly anyone knows about. Simon and Jasmine moved to Wales encouraged by Pembrokeshire’s policy 22, a forerunner of the Welsh government’s policy. They were given a seven-acre plot on condition that within five years they could become 75% self-sufficient – if not, they would be asked to leave. The requirements include producing energy and creating shelter, managing their own waste, growing their own food and increasing biodiversity on their plot as well as creating a land-based business. The policy requires them to be audited every year by local government officers. They designed and built their three-bedroom house while Jasmine ran horticultural courses and Simon provided consultancy on low-impact buildings. It cost £27,000 plus home-grown food for visitor/volunteers. A roundpole timber frame was felled and prepared on site. Polystyrene packaging was donated for ­underfloor insulation. The windows and kitchen units are second-hand. The floor is linseed oil-coated compacted soil, polished with beeswax – insulated by donated polystyrene packaging granules. The walls are straw bales coated in lime. With the exception of a damp-proof membrane in the walls and on the turf roof, and £2,000 of sheepswool insulation, most of the materials were produced on site. The water-flushing lavatory separates solids – which are piped to a reed bed, dried, composted used for irrigation. The Well-Being of Future Generations Act requires Welsh Ministers to:

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• promote sustainable development; • publish national indicators to measure progress towards the achievement of the well-being goals; • take account of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and of the UK’s assessment of the risks of the current and predicted impact of climate change; • report on progress every year. This forward-thinking planning policy provides a way for people to live and work sustainably on their own land, bringing social, economic and environmental benefits. It is recognised as imperfect in that it excludes non-land-based activities such as crafts, ­teaching and care services so cannot promote a rounded rural economy. In addition, the financial targets are onerous. That aside, it is a forward-thinking policy which offers a possible pathway to a renewed rural society, and a model for living with the Earth and not just on it.

One Planet Development at Lammas On New Year’s Day 2018 an electrical fault ignited the polystyrene under the floor The straw walls stood unburnt many hours into the blaze. No one was hurt. Photo credit: wwwSimonDale.net

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Case Study 2.8

Manifesto for Ethical Sourcing in Construction Responsible Solutions Ltd and the Action Programme for Responsible Sourcing There are demands on the construction sector to consider social and environmental aspects of its activities, including ethical sourcing. The Ethical Sourcing – Design Guide aims to help the industry to specify with ethical intent. The Guide looks at local sourcing, protecting specification, product data sheets and the role of digital design. It includes case studies that have addressed ethical sourcing challenges. Crossrail is Europe’s largest construction project. As a major public sector project with significant purchasing power, a requirement was included that all contractors must, where possible, source materials as per the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) code. It transpired that materials and products used in civil engineering have little or no certification to provide assurance of how they have been processed or manufactured. Crossrail committed to investigate and created the Crossrail Ethical Supply Chains in Construction Working Group to better understand the supply chain and issues surrounding ethical sourcing. The group created commodity/product sheets to provide a summary of issues to be considered in procuring the materials: • a description of key materials; • any ethical sourcing issues linked to them; • the availability of certifications; • processes for mitigating risk and residual risk. The group also developed a checklist to evaluate how organisations manage social impact. It addresses competency, knowledge, protocols for audits, audit questions, action plans and follow-up. It is now sharing best practice, to improve ethical practices in complex global supply chains.

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MANIFESTO  1 Procure labour, materials, products and services only from organisations demonstrating and implementing zero tolerance to bribery and corruption.  2  Adopt the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) Base Code and work collaboratively with all supply chain organisations on its implementation.  3  Evaluate and address together the economic, social and environmental sustainability challenges and impacts of sourcing labour, materials, products and services.  4  Demonstrate a traceable and transparent supply chain for labour, materials, products and services.   5  Benefit the health, safety and well-being of all stakeholders, including the natural environment.  6  Demonstrate that materials are of legal origin.  7  Optimise social, environmental and economic impacts and opportunities of complex/manufactured products over their entire life cycle.   8  Design, specify and procure materials, products and services with the greatest circular-economy benefits.  9  Design, specify and procure using credible and recognised responsible sourcing and certification schemes, where available. 10  Foster and communicate a business culture of openness, collaboration and accountability in order to achieve and demonstrate the principles of this manifesto.

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Legislation in the UK The previous section concentrated on the shift in attitudes towards the environment, and showed how political statements have, over the past decade, filtered down to a local and practical level of action. This section deals with the established legal framework, which partly goes back to before the 1992 Rio Conference, and has partly come into force as a result of renewed government commitment in response to Rio and the ‘Sustainable Development’ pledge. There is no common legislation in the countries that make up the UK. Neither is there any specific legislation, Act of Parliament, regulation or by-law that requires designers, builders, developers or clients of construction to adopt a sustainable approach. Planning, building control and environmental legislation do control and influence three significant aspects of construction: what can be built, where it can be built and how it can or should be built. There is a considerable body of legislation on environmental assessment and protection, employment practice, nuisance to neighbours, quality of indoor environments and financial propriety with which construction must comply. Regulations are increasingly strict and many countries are developing better standards and implementing financial and other incentives to move towards passive and energy-plus housing types.

Primary legislation in Scotland, the Building (Scotland) Act 2003, made provision for ministers to draw up building regulations for the purpose of ‘furthering the achievements of sustainable development’. This was an important shift. By going beyond the framework of purely sustainable construction, the bill acknowledges the role of buildings and the built environment in responding to social, economic and cultural imperatives. Anyone involved in development is required to keep up to date with the latest position. A number of online sources of information are listed in the Bibliography. The nature of legislation is that it is continually changing, so the sites are for information only and do not constitute legal advice. Legislation controlling or influencing how you can build includes: • Building law and regulations. • Environmental Protection Act 1990. • Water pollution control law, especially the Water Resources Act. • Waste law. • Contaminated land law. • Noise control law. • Other pollution control law. • Wildlife and countryside law. • Land drainage law. • Dumping at sea provisions. • Enabling acts for individual projects (e.g. Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) Act 1996). Legislation controlling or influencing what and where you can build includes: • Planning law. • Environmental impact assessment regulations. • Pollution control law, especially the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive, Water Resources and Clean Air Acts. • Wildlife and countryside law. • Contaminated land law. • Land drainage law. • Highway law. • Reservoirs Act. • Enabling Acts for individual projects (e.g. CTRL Act 1996).

Scottish Parliament building Legislation allows for regulations to further sustainable development, going beyond the framework of purely sustainable construction. Photo: Howard Liddell

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58 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 2.9

Examples of contraventions of environmental legislation, UK Contravention of waste legislation Case 1 Illegal transportation and dumping of controlled waste The Environmental Protection Act 1990 makes it an offence for any person to deposit controlled waste, knowingly cause or knowingly permit controlled waste to be deposited where they act otherwise than in accordance with a valid environmental permit. Controlled waste includes household, commercial and industrial waste. In 2015, Individual A was fined £660 plus costs following two offences of illegal transportation and dumping of controlled construction and demolition waste without permission and without a valid waste carrier’s licence. The Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) is home to a protected population of great crested newts – and within a catchment area that supports significant populations of rare and

­ rotected fish. Contaminants had a direct link p to the river. The prosecution identified that the crime was committed for financial gain and required significant clean-up costs.

Care may be required to ensure that definitions of waste do not disrupt a creative approach to resource efficiency. For example, it may become clear during the construction phase of a project that it would be possible and advantageous (to the environment as well as to the developer) to use more of the excavation arising on site than the original design had included; for example, to create noise bunds. Very careful steps must be taken in conjunction to ensure that such bunds are not designated as waste disposal sites, requiring licensing and active management long into the future.

Contraventions of water legislation Case 2 Discharge of silt-laden water In 2017 construction Company B was fined £54,000 plus costs after admitting discharging silt-laden water into a tributary and polluting an East Sussex river. The company was contracted to improve South East Water’s water treatment but a member of the public reported discoloured water. The fine reflected previous good character and evidence that no local wildlife was adversely affected. Case 3 Discharge of site water containing silt and sediment Waste management Laws have been extended to take control of construction waste. Photo: The Author

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In 2016 housing development Firm C was fined £100,000 after water containing silt and sediment was discharged into

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Case Study 2.9 (Continued)

Examples of contraventions of environmental legislation, UK aw ­ atercourse without permission. Firm C had instructed Subcontractor D to construct storage lagoons to reduce the risk of flooding downstream. Straw bales were used to prevent silt from leaving the site. Following heavy rainfall, Subcontractor D removed the bales to allow the lower lagoon to drain. Silt water ran directly into the watercourse, affecting water quality. A member of the public reported the pollution incident to the Environment Agency, and Subcontractor D was fined £9,000.

Contraventions of wildlife legislation Bats play an important role, including as pest controllers, in many environments around the world. In the UK bat populations have declined considerably over the past century. They are under threat from development that affects roosts, loss of habitat, disruption of transit routes and some chemical treatments of building materials. There are laws in place to protect them.

attempting to discuss this with the company over many months without success, the BCT placed a complaint with the ASA which was upheld, and the ASA requested Company F to remove the claim from their website. Case 6 Japanese knotweed A contractor knew that the site contained Japanese knotweed but ignored warnings about how to handle the soil in which it was growing. They transferred a small amount of contaminated soil to a stockpile within the site and before long the stockpile had been colonised. As a result they had to treat far more material than if they had dealt with it more carefully in the first place. This cost the contractor in excess of £50,000. Japanese knotweed is a highly invasive plant which the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 makes it illegal to plant or otherwise introduce into the wild.

Case 4 Record fines for UK property developer who destroyed bat roost In 2014 the Bat Conservation Trust (BCT) reported the conviction of an Individual and Company E for destroying a roost used by brown long-eared bats. A hearing agreed that the offenders had benefited financially from crime. Company E was fined £3,000 plus costs and a confiscation order of £5,730 was made under the Proceeds of Crime Act. Case 5 Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) complaint In 2015 the Bat Conservation Trust (BCT) were made aware that manufacturing Company F who make a breathable roofing membrane were advertising a product as ‘bat safe’. After

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Japanese knotweed: an invasive species Photo credit: John Newton

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The environmental legal framework There has been a substantial increase both in the amount and the scope of environmental legislation and regulation in the past two decades globally and especially in Europe. However, as many environmental problems continue to accelerate, it is increasingly clear that some vitally important issues have been neglected, such as responsibility for plastic pollution, and that other regulations and policies are simply inadequate to deal with the scale of the problems.

Comparison of China's reported exports of HCFC-22 to Malaysia and Malaysia's reported imports from China (tonnes) 12,000

Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) smuggling Illicit trade in ODS has been a reality since the first phaseout of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) regulations were put in place following the Montreal Protocol. There are ongoing seizures of CFCs even though they were officially phased out in 2010. False labelling, misdeclaration of documents, concealment, fake recycled materials and transhipment fraud have all been identified as methods for smuggling. Comparison of one country’s reported HCFC-22 exports in 2013 and 2014 with reported imports from all trading partners reveals that, on average, reported imports of HCFC-22 are 28% lower than the reported exports. Possible explanations for these discrepancies are: Comparison of China's reported HCFC-22 • lack of reporting of imports by partnerreported countries; exports to Pakistan and Pakistan's • export/import dates fallChina in different calendar years; imports from (tonnes) • incorrect end destination reported by exporter (e.g. 4,000 reporting transit country in place of end destination); • importers/exporters using incorrect product identification; • illegal ODS trade. 3,500

10,000 3,000 Many organisations do respect that environmental issues are

a serious concern which influences their success and potential survival, but many others will flout regulations. Directors are 2,500 more likely to be subject to criminal proceedings than before and may be personally liable for crimes committed in the course of running a company if they commit to a criminal course of 2,000 action or give instructions for an offence to be committed,

8,000

6,000

Criminal prosecution may be brought by anyone whether or not they have suffered any special harm. However, in practice, regulatory authorities carry out most environmental prosecutions. A criminal offence is followed by a fine or 1,000 imprisonment. Criminal courts have the power to make compensation orders; for example, fish restocking to rivers after a500 pollution incident. 1,500

4,000

2,000

2013

2014

2015

China’s reported HCRC-22 exports to Malaysia (tonnes) Malaysia’s reported HCRC-22 imports from china (tonnes)

Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) – reporting of imports and exports

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Environmental liability 2012 2013 2014

Any person may commit an offence if they perform an act that China’s reported HCRC-22 exports to Pakistan (tonnes) is prohibited by statute. In general, the crucial factor will be Pakistan’s reported‘connivance’ HCRC-22 imports from china Employees (tonnes) evidence of ‘consent’, or ‘neglect’. have a duty of care for their actions. They can be prosecuted personally for non-compliance in the event of an offence being committed and can be sued for compensation for damage to persons and/or property.

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Wider legislation There has been significant EU legislation that has impacted directly on the construction industry and had a positive environmental impact. UK governments are obliged to incorporate this legislation, which is often based on following best practice, established by leading-edge organisations in member states, within a given period of time. Construction Products Directive (CPD) – Was introduced to reduce barriers to free trade in construction products. It requires member states to replace their national standards for construction products with European Technical Assessments (ETAs) leading to European Certification (CEN). All products within building and civil engineering are covered by the Directive. Bringing construction more closely in line with environmental objectives will involve looking at: • life-cycle costs of products in relation to disposal and reuse; • energy over the life cycle of a construction; • risk assessment to comply with the precautionary principle. Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (2006) – Aims to help meet climate change commitments and create a common framework for calculating energy performance of buildings. A level playing field for energy assessment provides transparency for owners and tenants but each country can set discretionary minimum performance levels. It applies to new buildings, renovation of large buildings and certification at point of sale or transfer. It requires mandatory inspections of boilers and air-conditioning systems. Environmental Impact Assessment (1999) – Local authorities decide on whether an application for planning permission needs an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and what its scope should be. Information about positive and negative impacts of a new development, and alternative schemes, are gathered by the developer and taken into account by the local authority in deciding whether or not to grant planning permission. Developers may undertake voluntary appraisals to aid the planning process. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive (2003) – Aims to minimise the impact of electrical and electronic equipment on the environment during their lifetimes and beyond. They are some of the most hazardous when landfilled. Manufacturers retain responsibility for their products throughout the life cycle. It sets criteria for the collection, treatment, recycling and recovery all financed by producers. Private householders can return WEEE without

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charge. It encourages manufacturers to recycle and use more benign materials and processes because long-term management is ultimately their responsibility. Restrictions of the use of certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS) (2003) – Bans new electrical and electronic equipment containing above agreed levels of lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants, with a small number of exemptions. It broadly follows the WEEE Directive in that manufacturers have to ensure that products and components comply. It introduced the concept of cradle-tograve considerations for products.

“Manufacturers […] will provide information on the material composition and the consumption of energy and/or resources of their components […] and, where available, the results of environmental assessments and/or case reference studies which concern the use and end-of-life management of the components.” (Article 11.2) from RoHS (2003) Carbon trading (1997) – Carbon trading was introduced with the aim to reverse unsustainable trends in energy use. It allows countries to buy and sell quotas for CO2 emissions. Organisations can volunteer to reduce emissions in return for a financial incentive. Participants need to establish a baseline. If they overachieve they can either sell the excess allowances or bank the excess for subsequent years. Underachievement means they have to buy more allowances. There is a direct financial gain both from incentives and savings that accrue from reducing emissions. Climate Change Levy (2001) – Applies to energy used in industry, commerce and the public sector. The aim is to provide an incentive for businesses to opt for ‘green’ electricity. Revenue from the levy is recycled to businesses via a reduction in employers’ National Insurance contributions and extra support for energy efficiency measures. EU energy efficiency labelling scheme (1995) – Covers most domestic white goods. Labels must be displayed, and range from ‘A’ for the most energy efficient to ‘G’ for the least efficient. The aim is to make it easy to make like-for-Iike comparisons in energy consumption when choosing white goods. The scheme is based solely on self-assessment by manufacturers and there is no scheme for commercial appliances. The scheme has been extended to cover public buildings.

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Case Study 2.10

The Law of the Rights of Mother Earth: Bolivia, 2010 Many countries have legislation that recognises the human right to a healthy environment. However, there is growing recognition that this right will not be achieved without securing rights for the environment itself. This means recognising in law the right of nature to thrive and be healthy. The Rights of Nature is a growing global movement of governments, civilians and indigenous communities in India, Nepal, Australia, Cameroon, Colombia, the United States and elsewhere. In 2008 Ecuador became the first country to recognise the Rights of Nature in its constitution. The first cases have now been brought and include a lawsuit brought in the name of the Vilcabamba River. The healthy functioning and flow of the river was threatened by a government road-widening construction project. The river was a plaintiff in the case, seeking to enforce its own constitutional rights to exist and thrive. In 2011, the Provincial Justice Court of Loja ruled in favour of the Vilcabamba River – the first time that a court upheld the constitutional rights of nature. In 2010, Bolivia passed The Law of the Rights of Mother Earth (Ley de Derechos de la Madre Tierra). It gives Mother Earth, human communities and ecosystems rights in law. It includes social, cultural and economic dimensions of human communities. The law established Mother Earth as ‘collective subject of public interest’ with a legal personality. Any human representative can bring an action to defend the rights of Mother Earth. Work is currently progressing to recognise the rights of the Ganga River Basin and the people of India to a healthy river ecosystem. In the USA there are a number of cases including a township in Pennsylvania, where a local watershed is defending its rights not to have frack waste injected into the ­ecosystem.

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Mother Earth is defined as “the dynamic living system formed by the indivisible community of all life systems and living beings who are interrelated, interdependent, and complementary, which share a common destiny.” The law details seven specific rights to which Mother Earth and her life systems, including human communities, are entitled: • To life: The maintenance of the integrity of life systems and natural processes which sustain them, as well as the capacities and conditions for their renewal. • To the diversity of life: The preservation of the differentiation and variety of the beings that comprise Mother Earth, without being genetically altered, nor artificially modified in their structure, in such a manner that threatens their existence, functioning and future potential/ • To water: The preservation of the quality and composition of water to sustain life systems and their protection with regard to contamination, for renewal of the life of Mother Earth and all its components. • To clean air: The preservation of the quality and composition of air to sustain life systems and their protection with regard to contamination, for renewal of the life of Mother Earth and all its components. • To equilibrium: To maintenance or restoration of the interrelation, interdependence, ability to complement and functionality of the components of Mother Earth, in a balanced manner for the continuation of its cycles and the renewal of its vital processes. • To restoration: To the effective and opportune restoration of life systems affected by direct or indirect human activities. • To live free of contamination: To preservation of Mother Earth and any of its components with regard to toxic and radioactive waste generated by human activities.

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Rights of Mother Earth Ecuador became the first country to recognise that Nature, including rivers, has legal rights. Photo: The Author

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Handy hints and tips The principal requirements on water pollution, waste and wildlife, especially during construction, are: • Do not pollute inland waters, groundwater/aquifers or the sea. • Do not discharge specified substances into a foul sewer without a licence. • Do not disturb birds or their nests during the breeding season. • Do not disturb or handle protected mammals, invertebrates or birds specified in the Wildlife and Countryside Act; for example, badgers, bats or great crested newts. • Do not uproot any wild flower without the landowner’s permission • Respect and avoid damaging special habitats such as those designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSls), Sites of Nature Conservation Importance (SNCls) or similar. • Know that construction waste is always ‘controlled waste’ and that much of it is ‘special waste’. • Exercise the duty of care for waste, including subcontractors’ waste if you are the principal contractor. • Ensure that licensed waste carriers are used, and that all waste has correctly completed waste transfer notes. • Know when a Waste Management Licence is required. • Know that some exemptions are possible; for example, when waste is kept as a planned part of a development such as noise bunds. But a material can still be regarded as waste in law even if someone else can use it as a primary material; it stops being waste when received by the transferee. • Keep records of waste disposal and transfers for at least two years. • Keep waste in appropriate, labelled containers. • Prevent and report: – corrosion or damage to containers – accidental spillages or leaks; – waste escaping or blowing away – scavenging; – vandalism. • Do not store waste or allow it to accumulate in such a way that it could harm the environment or be prejudicial to human health – a statutory nuisance. • Plan for waste management. It is important that reclaimed and recycled products are traceable, with an available product history, so that dangerous products are not reintroduced into buildings. The lack of traceability and hence variable risk entailed in reusing construction products has hampered attempts to gain greater acceptance. Also, there is a strong suggestion that efforts to move to a solution have been hampered because reuse is seen by many as diminishing market share for new products.

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Many urban environments are full of timber coated in copper, chrome and arsenic (CCA) It is vital that communities are inventive in supporting habitats for bees and insects. Photo: The Author

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Limitations of policies Responsibilities lie with governments to legislate against unsustainable practices and to penalise failure. The rules are changing and increasing global enforcement is a reality, but progress is slow. The international community increasingly acknowledges that current legislation is inadequate and that it is ethically reprehensible to do nothing in the face of current threats. Taking a lead through policy commitments ahead of legislation represents a real opportunity. Increasing numbers of international bodies, national governments, professions, clients, builders and designers are embracing the need to improve the performance of buildings and places. Many have sustainable construction policies. Published policies exhibit a degree of consensus on sustainability issues but little agreement on the extent of the problems, priorities and action required. In part this may result from lack of real commitment, but there are also knowledge gaps and real difficulties encountered in practice.

If the construction industry is to be accountable then it must develop its policies such that it is in a position to adequately respond to current threats and reverse unsustainable trends. All those involved must embrace commitment to education on design and process, and to agreeing the targets that will deliver the required change. The best policies would have firm targets based on real limits, and have an integrative, overarching aspect to link business, economic, social and environmental policies. Examples of failure to fully implement government commitments often reflect a lack of public engagement in the problems that can empower and support the actions of politicians. There is huge reason for optimism with a new global generation of young designers, policy-makers and legislators ready to meet the challenges. In parallel to development of legislation and policies, a vast and expanding variety of tools and techniques have emerged to promote, guide and appraise sustainable construction. Chapter 4 (this volume) considers the scope of tools available.

The Welsh National Assembly – launched the Well-being of Future Generations Act (2015) Photo: Copyright © Redshift Photography 2006

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Bibliography Klinckenberg Consultants (2006) Better Buildings through Energy Efficiency: A roadmap for Europe. Eurima. Halliday, S.P. (2007) The Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book 2nd edn. RIBA Publications. Treanor, D. (2015) Housing Policies in Europe. Treanor Books. Draws attention to policies in different countries and the impact on housing. Responsible Solutions Ltd (2015) Ethical Sourcing: A designer’s guide vol. 1. APRES. Halliday, S.P. & Atkins, R. (2016) Sustainability: RIBA plan of work 2013 guide. RIBA. EIA (2016) Update on the Illegal Trade in Ozone-depleting Substances Briefing to the 38th Meeting of the Open-ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol.

Guidance on current legislation CIRIA C587 (2004) Working with Wildlife Resource and Training Pack. Contains a 20-page table of wildlife law affecting construction projects. Croner’s Environmental Management. An overview of UK and EU systems of environmental law and enforcement. Signposts legislation concerned with environmental management in key areas. https://croner.co.uk/health-safety/environmental/ ICE manual of construction law (2011) www.icemanuals.com. Netregs www.netregs.gov.uk.

Useful organisations The Action Programme for Responsible Sourcing (APRES): A network open to new members from all relevant organisations – committed to embedding responsible sourcing in the construction industry. http://apres.lboro.ac.uk

Commission for Architecture and The Built Environment (CABE): a non-departmental public body of UK government until it merged into the Design Council – numerous useful publications. www.designcouncil.org.uk/our-services/built-environment-cabe The Institution of Civil Engineers: Awards professional qualifications and provides training, knowledge and insight. They have a sustainable development charter. www.ice.org.uk/ICEDevelopmentWebPortal/media/Documents/ Regions/UK%20Regions/ICE-Charter-for-SustainableDevelopment.pdf International Union of Architects (UIA): The only international non-governmental organisation that represents the world’s architects. www.uia.archi/sites/default/files/EN_Declaration_Durban.pdf The One Planet Council: An independent voluntary body that enables and promotes One Planet Development. www.oneplanetcouncil.org.uk Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland (RIAS): The professional body for all chartered architects in Scotland. It manages the only Accreditation Scheme in Sustainable Architecture in the world. www.rias.org.uk/directory/sustainability/ United Nations (UN): A global organisation that brings together its member states to confront common challenges, manage shared responsibilities and exercise collective action. www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-developmentgoals/ Waste and Resources Action Programme: works to achieve a circular economy, helping reduce waste, develop sustainable products and use resources in an efficient way. www.wrap.org.uk World Habitat: seek out and share the best solutions to housing problems from around the world. Was the Building and Social Housing Foundation (BSHF). www.world-habitat.org

Bat Conservation Trust: An umbrella organisation for the growing network of bat groups, providing support, training and advice. www.bats.org.uk

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WEEE Man at the Eden Project, – Cornwall Sculpted from waste electrical and electronic goods. Photo: Bill Bordass, William Bordass Associates

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Chapter 3 Cost issues In which we address the recurring themes around the cost of sustainable construction and challenge conventional assumptions about money, cost, value and price that drive most projects.

Prisma rainwater half pipes Achieving the same outcome with less material. Architect: Joachim Eble Photo: The Author

“Perfection is achieved not when there is nothing more to add, but when there is nothing left to take away.” Antoine de Saint-Exupery

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Gelsenkirchen School

The social impact was the principal driver of the design. Architect: Peter Hubner Architects. Photo: The Author

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Cost issues Contents Introduction�������������������������������������������������72 The role of construction������������������������������73 Can we afford sustainable buildings?���������73 Policy trends������������������������������������������������74 Resource effectiveness��������������������������������74

Cost and quality benefits�����������������������������87 What are the economic benefits of sustainable buildings?�����������������������������92 Reduced operating costs�������������������������������� 92 Reduced waste���������������������������������������������� 92

Old idealism versus modern realism����������75 Old idealism�������������������������������������������������� 75 Modern realism���������������������������������������������� 75 What do sustainable buildings cost?�����������82 Cost information�����������������������������������������83 Elemental costs���������������������������������������������� 83 Comparison of overall costs�������������������������� 84 Costed exemplars������������������������������������������ 85 Adding value through design����������������������87 Environmental design������������������������������������ 87 Interdisciplinary design��������������������������������� 87

Reduced liability�������������������������������������������� 92 Enhanced productivity and learning��������������� 92 Whole-life costs�������������������������������������������96 Environmental economics: external costs���������������������������������������������������������97 Economic instruments����������������������������������� 97 Redefining progress����������������������������������102 Ethical investment�������������������������������������104 Money��������������������������������������������������������� 104 Alternatives to money���������������������������������� 104 Conclusion: a discussion on capital����������105 Bibliography����������������������������������������������106

Case studies   3.1 Window repair or replacement?�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76   3.2 Circular economy for the future: leap-frogging the ‘take-make-waste’������������������������������77   3.3 Funding innovation: the ModCell TAM housing system�����������������������������������������������������78   3.4 Passive cool storage: Adnams Distribution Centre, Suffolk, England��������������������������������80   3.5 Fabric before services: Arup Campus, Solihull, England���������������������������������������������������86   3.6 Design value: a European research project������������������������������������������������������������������������88   3.7 Car parking: the hidden cost����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90   3.8 Affordable low-allergy housing: Toll House Gardens, Perth, Scotland�������������������������������94   3.9 Air leakage – new-build townhouse������������������������������������������������������������������������������������98 3.10 LILAC Housing: an affordable housing model, Leeds, England���������������������������������������100

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72 Sustainable Construction

Introduction Cost, not quality, is the primary aspect of discussion on sustainable building with a dominant view in recent decades that we cannot afford to build sustainably� The perceived additional cost of sustainable building and the low perceived value of environmental and social quality have limited positive action except by the most committed individuals and nations� Recently the perception of additional cost has been challenged worldwide in part due to wider dissemination and critique of cost information but also due to recognition of sustainable design as a new approach rather than as simply additive to unsustainable design� Design can add value, and optimised design can prevent the waste of space, capital and running costs created by overengineered building services. Taking a serious look at how design decisions can benefit social, economic and environmental goals can prevent irrational procurement. Much contemporary literature now supports this view.

The value of good design Credit: www.dqi.org.uk

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“What used to be innovative madness, is now the natural way of thinking.” Tore Opdal Hansen, Mayor Drammen Municipality

Until recently there was little information on how much more sustainable buildings cost and any amount of ‘more’ was apparently too much. Given purchasing trends in other sectors, it is not credible that clients want leaky, inefficient, polluting buildings that contribute to ill-health or poor productivity. With increasing choice and better information on best value, clients are empowered to drive change. There is growing awareness that good design can result in more sustainable buildings at a justifiable price and add value. There is also increasing evidence of business branding which seeks to synergise with social benefit. These are tricky times with too few greenwash filters! “How long can we go on and safely pretend that the environment is not the economy, is not health, is not the prerequisite to development, is not recreation?” C. Caccia, WCED Public Hearing, Ottawa, 1986 There has been a long-standing tendency for clients and policymakers to think that sustainable design is primarily concerned with adding on expensive elements such as photovoltaic panels or geothermal heat pumps. Increasingly the evidence points to sustainable design leaving out elements, reducing the size of mechanical plant and hence space requirements, and replacing service voids with room heights that minimise cooling requirements. This chapter questions both the perceived additional cost but also lays a foundation for the benefits to be more widely recognised. It introduces the background to evolving attitudes to environmental and social costs. It describes the underlying criticism of traditional economic systems which put the financial bottom line before environmental protection or quality of life, and the emerging policy responses, including alternative indicators. It draws upon international evidence to highlight the significant trends in policy, consumerism and investment, which impact on our built environment, and draws upon a number of sources and built projects to explain how we can do better. This chapter does not seek to revisit the traditional approaches to construction cost evaluation covered in most textbooks.

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The role of construction The built environment has financial impact through its influence on the physical and economic health and well-being of individuals, communities and organisations. Poorly designed buildings and built environments contribute to ill-health, crime and disaffection, undermine community and create excessive financial liability in the long term. If they are well designed they can do the opposite. Sustainable design involves considering impacts on infrastructure, the health and well-being of individuals and society – at the design stage – to improve the quality of an environment or workplace and to add value to what may be a basic need or a long-term investment. Poor environmental performance will be penalised in future and the benefits of good performance will be increasingly apparent as economic instruments begin to penalise and reward. However, short-termism is rife.

innovators will be penalised and their profit margins reduced when put in direct competition with unsustainable practice. This is within cultures where environmental concerns are largely perceived as a luxury, or derided as ‘moralising’ rather than as fundamental to social justice. There has been limited reflection on the benefits that can flow from sustainable construction. So, lack of innovation and unsustainable building is the norm, but thankfully abnormalities can guide us.

Thimpu Tshechu celebrations The King of Bhutan declared Gross National Happiness more important than Gross National Product. Photo: Ingun B. Amundsen

Making Sense: Affordable energy efficient and healthy housing. Architects: Gaia Architects. Photo: The Author

Can we afford sustainable buildings? The overriding assumption is that sustainable building inevitably costs more or is less profitable. It appears self-evident. If it were cheaper or more profitable, then in market-driven economies it would be the norm. It is also not unreasonable to assume that the innovation required has a cost implication – time, planning, risk, superior information and education – so inevitably

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These negative attitudes are increasingly challenged by more socially purposive and joined-up approaches to development, health and well-being, long-term thinking and actual cost data. Clients, managers and designers better understand political and fiscal trends and the business case (responsibilities and benefits) of engagement with sustainability initiatives, and to a lesser degree the risks associated with non-compliance with regulations. The interest in working towards a more sustainable construction industry with a better process and product is more widely apparent now than ten years ago. Environmental concerns are more likely to be viewed as socially and economically responsible. Waste minimisation and energy efficiency are seen as good sense, while healthy housing, affordable warmth and clean air are recognised as aspects of social justice that should be available to all. Clients are also looking to life-cycle implications of design choices, which favour a resilient sustainable approach.

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Policy trends The reasons for attention to environmental issues in construction and the built environment have changed over the past 60 years. In the 1960s the primary concerns were with resource limits and the perceived need to travel further to get decreasing levels of resources. In the 1970s an additional concern about security of supply was introduced. By the 1980s the impact on the economy of having to expend more money on finite resources became an additional concern. By the 1990s climate change had become a significant driver along with more general concerns about pollution. By the turn of the millennium, social aspects of affordable warmth, mitigation of crime and deprivation were increasingly recognised as aspects of social justice that should be available to all. In the past decade the cumulative effects of these concerns and increasing information on all issues – including who bears the cost of externalities – have become apparent. Most of the information provided in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s on the potential cost benefits of resource conservation and environmental improvement was generated by the voluntary sector. The information and benefits were not widely acknowledged, appreciated or exploited. Changing attitudes have led to more mainstream pursuit of economic, social and environmental benefits, with some surprising results. International policy has become increasingly proactive in looking to such direct financial benefits, but also in using economic policy to meet social and environmental goals. More may be anticipated to reverse unacceptable pollution of all types – locally and globally. A note on products and materials

Awareness of issues, responsibilities, liabilities and mitigation strategies in materials, products and component manufacture has increased in Europe as taxes and regulation have increasingly sought to eliminate worst practice. This is not the case everywhere. There is an abundant supply of high-performance goods such as super-efficient lights, no/low pollution boilers and non-toxic paints. Competition has increased and they are increasingly cost competitive against less benign alternatives, making it easier to deliver competitive sustainable buildings. When the best option really does cost more, then the life-cycle benefits are more likely to be known and understood, making it easier to make choices. There is real opportunity for employment and downstream benefits of benign manufacturing and design.

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Waterblade – winner of a SWIG award Provides water and energy savings, with no loss of function. Photo credit: Waterblade © Nigel Bamford at Bamfordswaterblade.com

Resource effectiveness Resource conservation has suffered from poor image and public relations. It is widely interpreted as meaning that we should expect less, for example, in the way of quality/heating/cooling or space. Communicating the importance of doing more with less by focusing on using resources more effectively and reducing waste is vitally important. The 1995 report to the Club of Rome ‘Factor Four’ documents a wide range of examples to demonstrate ‘resource productivity’ – the case for a fourfold increase in wealth by using resources more effectively and by a shift in our approach to progress from increasing labour productivity to resource productivity. A combination of instruments, including financial incentives, taxation and regulation, are creating a more level playing field between clean and dirty technology, to help meet stringent targets, A significant proportion of existing buildings will be unfit for the economic and social demands of the future because they have not been designed for long life or flexibility in use.

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Old idealism versus modern realism To meet sustainability criteria, a number of imbalances need to be redressed, including the following.

Old idealism • Clean energy should be cheaper than dirty energy, which has ‘external costs’, and requires society to repair social and environmental damage. • Business, clients and designers of inefficient and polluting buildings should be penalised for their contribution to global warming and ill-health of employees. • Manufacturers of products should be responsible for control, management and remediation of the pollution they cause in manufacture, use or at end of life and beyond. • Looking at investment over a building life should be the norm. Not lowest capital cost. • Designers should be rewarded on the basis of designing out long-term costs. • The risk of future penalties should encourage investors to seek clients and buildings which minimise that risk. • Whole-life costs and revenue budgets should be a vital aspect of publicly funded projects.

Modern realism • A combination of financial incentives, taxation and regulation has created a more level playing field between clean and dirty technology to help meet targets. • There is evidence of business benefits of sustainable building, not just energy and maintenance but health, productivity and performance. Responsible clients are being rewarded; perhaps one day designers will be too. • Polluters are being expected to pay. This is likely to become more severe as environmental controls move towards more stringent regulatory requirements. • Whole-life costing is an increasingly common aspect of building design approaches. • There is increasing evidence that small investments in design time deliver capital and running cost benefits. • Many of today’s buildings will be unfit for tomorrow’s business, economic and societal demand. • Inadequate revenue forecasts and funding have led to the failure of many projects.

Modern realism increasingly recognises that linear development patterns introduce externalities that must be paid for. While design of closed cycles embodies these costs and drives innovation. Sketches: Gaia

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Case Study 3.1

Window repair or replacement? The following conversation took place in Leeds in relation to the care and management of two timber windows fronting a house:

Architect So if we were to use the same rate of £80 an hour you could do it for, say, £300 including materials.

Architect How much would it cost to replace the bottom sill on this timber window?

Joiner Yes.

Joiner It’s not worth it – just take the whole window out and replace it with UPVC. Timber windows are virtually obsolete. Architect How much would that cost? Joiner About £600 Architect How much of that do you get? Joiner £80 per window – and we can usually fit them in an hour – so it’s good money. Architect Okay, just humour me. Let us say for a moment I really insist on having this bottom sill replaced. How long would it take to strip out the bottom three panes of glass – refit the bottom astragals and the sill and then put the glass back in?

Architect Doesn’t that mean that you get all the benefit – at least three times more to yourself and you are not having to pay for the UPVC window – but just a small amount of timber? Joiner [Pause] Tell you what – I’ll do it for £200 a window. Architect Would you give a 30-year guarantee on that? Joiner Yes. Architect And what kind of guarantee would you give on PVC windows? Joiner I wouldn’t. With thanks to Howard Liddell, Joyce Heaton and the Joiner

Joiner About three to four hours.

Photo: The Author

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Case Study 3.2

Circular economy for the future: leap-frogging the ‘take-make-waste’ India’s economic growth (more than 7% p.a.) will make it the fourth-largest global economy within 20 years. At this pace it will triple its demand for resources by 2030. The implications for consumerism, pollution, resources, urbanisation and quality of life are momentous. By 2020, the Indian construction industry is set to be the greatest material-consuming sector in India. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation estimated benefits of 30% of India’s current GDP from applying circular economy thinking. This would create competitive advantage over mature economies by avoiding wasteful linear models and reduce negative externalities compared with current development scenarios: • GHG emissions reduced by 23% by 2030 and by 44% by 2050. • Virgin material consumption reduced by 24% by 2030 and by 38% by 2050. • Water use by the construction industry reduced by19% by 2030 and by 24% by 2050. • Synthetic fertiliser and pesticide use reduced by 45% by 2030 and by 71% by 2050. • Vehicle kilometres reduced by 38% by 2050 with benefits to mobility, pollution and health.

• Energy consumption in residential buildings is predicted to rise more than eightfold by 2050. The construction industry offers significant opportunities to decouple economic growth from consumption of finite materials and nonrenewable energy: • Replacing concrete and bricks with local, renewable resources such as bamboo, engineered clay bricks and recycled aggregates. • Utilising waste produced by the agricultural sector – 24 million tonnes of rice husks discarded/year – as binders, building panels, bricks and insulation. • Passive heating and cooling, use of insulation, optimisation of natural light, and efficient lighting are adaptable to local climate conditions. Coupled with renewable sources, these solutions could create netzero or even energy-positive buildings. The Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) has been developed to aid energy conservation solutions specific to India.

Implications and opportunities for the built environment in India are significant: • Construction accounts for about 20% of total materials. • The building industry consumes almost 34% of the country’s energy, making it one of the largest GHG emitters. • Cement is responsible for 7% of GHG emissions. • Construction and demolition waste are estimated at 531Mt in 2013, about one-third of the total solid waste. • Seventy per cent of the buildings expected to stand in India by 2030 are not yet built – 700 to 900 million m2 of new commercial and residential space a year.

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The Torrent Centre in Ahmedabad In a hot, dry climate natural ventilation with passive downdraught cooling provides indoor comfort without extensive use of air-conditioning. The system achieved energy savings of 64% and electricity savings over 13 years of operation recouped the entire cost of the building. © Courtesy of architect/Abhikram (photographer).

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78 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.3

Funding innovation: the ModCell TAM housing system Hamilton House Client Co-exist, Bristol White Design, ModCell & Coobio Circular Materials In the UK, personal investments that would traditionally have gone into now deregulated banking and pension sectors are instead being invested in second homes and buy-tolet housing. This is driving costs beyond the reach of young working people. The average cost of a house in Bristol has risen from 3.6 × annual income in the 1990s to around 8.2 × annual income in 2017. Also a legal cap on rental increases is failing to protect tenants. Instead landlords are bypassing the cap with short-term lets that allow them to increase prices regularly, further fuelling the spiralling cost of renting and increasing homelessness. An architecture practice, a manufacturer of prefabricated building systems and a materials innovation company joined forces to create an affordable, responsible and timely solution to the UK’s current housing crisis: the Modcell TAM. The construction is essentially straw and timber. The floor, walls, partition and roof are compressed strawboard elements, certified to the Passivhaus component standard and prefabricated to a system design that is adequate to meet English building regulations up to 2020 with a 60-year design life. Importantly, it also conforms to the three requirements of the Caravan Act, which requires it to: • Consist of two sections separately constructed and joined as a final act of assembly. • Be capable of being moved by road without structural damage. • Be no bigger than 20 × 6.8m with floor-toceiling height no more than 3.05m. Since it conforms to the requirements of the Caravan Act, it is not dependent on a mortgage but can qualify for alternative forms of capital.

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A ModCell TAM can be secured against a lease hire or purchase – as with a car or a mobile home. VAT is only 5%. Payment terms can vary from 5 to 15 years.

Costs TAM cost for a 36m2 £90,000 1-bedroom unit Deposit £9,000 Lease amount

£81,000

Interest rate

3%

Lease duration

120 months – 10 years

Monthly payment

£674.80

Final payment

£15,000

A typical one-bedroom Mod Cell uses five tonnes of straw. The UK produces around 12Mt of straw/yr of which 6Mt is ploughed back into the soil to little benefit. There is enough straw to build 600,000 × one-bedroom homes. Depending on context, preference and budget a variety of cladding options are available and the modular system can be combined to create a wide variety of interiors and exteriors. As well as being cheap to build, it also uses 90% less energy to heat and light than the UK house average. Because it is lightweight it can be used to extend buildings upward, as in the case of Hamilton House rooftop eco-hostel. As the straw is preserved rather than being burned or rotting, it locks in atmospheric CO2. The net CO2 equivalent stored – taking account of embodied energy in retrieval, manufacture, process and delivery – could be as much as 15 tonnes of CO2 for a 36m2 house.

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Cost issues 79

Hamilton House Rooftop Eco-Hostel Bristol Photo credit: White Design, ModCell & Coobio Circular Materials

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80 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.4

Passive cool storage: Adnams Distribution Centre, Suffolk, England Architect: Aukett Fitzroy Robinson. Services consultants: Hoare Lea The 4400m2 distribution centre stores bottled and casked beers. The design considered water consumption, energy in use, embodied energy, and CO2 and visual impact, along with numerous intangible benefits such as socially responsible product branding. The main requirement was to provide a consistent year-round internal temperature close to 11ºC. It achieves this with no cooling or mechanical ventilation. It became the first commercial building in the UK to use lime hemp construction a by-product of production of paper, clothing and interior panels for cars. The starting point was substantial thermal mass with low embodied energy and the options considered for the walls – rather than concrete – included rammed earth, straw bales and lime hemp, at the time limited to a handful of domestic buildings in the UK. The 480mm-thick walls comprise two skins of unfired 19kg Sumatec blocks (100mm × 254mm × 356mm) laid using a lime-based mortar and interlinked by laying blocks crossways every metre. The blocks were manufactured off site by compressing limestone quarry waste, hydrated lime, blast furnace slag and hemp. Each embodies around one-tenth of the CO2 of a conventional concrete block. A high ­percentage of lime and a stone dust aggregate is required to give strength. Thermal performance is provided by filling the cavity with fibrous hemp insulation, to give a U-value of 0.18W/m²K. The walls are finished with white lime render, and sit on a brick plinth. An estimated 150 tonnes of CO2 are locked in the walls – absorbed as hemp grows and as the lime mortar and render sets. The emissions for a traditional building were calculated at around 450 tonnes; when added to the 150

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tonnes that is sequestered in the hemp bricks, it equates to a 600-tonne net carbon saving. A column-free storage space was important and 41.6m curved Glulam beams – the longest ever installed in the UK – are supported on steel columns. The beams overhang to provide solar shading. The south-facing offices have vertical blinds manufactured from sailcloth. The building sits in the hollow of a disused gravel pit on the outskirts of Southwold and the roof is planted with sedum on a thin layer of topsoil, which contributes to the insulation. Water use was an important consideration. Rainwater is collected from the roof and stored underground for toilet flushing, irrigation and to supply the vehicle wash. To date 1,000,000 litres of water have been captured. For each 180-litre wash 60% is reclaimed, pumped through sand filters and reused. The remainder is supplied by rainwater collection and a mains supply after long periods of dry weather. Estimates vary regarding the cost compared to a conventional building. Adnams, which has a wide range of environmental commitments, including bee keeping, is content with its significantly reduced operational costs and brand awareness. Recently there has been concern that increasing average air temperatures might cause internal temperature rise, so the ‘cold store’ area has been better enclosed by an additional speed door. In addition, large wall-mounted thermometers installed internally and externally allow staff to identify when the outside air is cooler than the inside air and open doors. Night cooling is perceived as a security risk and instead person hours have been extended on site to assist in ­management.

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Cost issues 81

Adnams Distribution Centre Photo: Sarah Groves, Adnams

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82 Sustainable Construction

What do sustainable buildings cost? The construction industry is notoriously shy in revealing information on building cost, including what is and is not included. So, little is really known about the cost of sustainable building. Many beneficial features have little or no additional capital cost but deliver cost benefits in use; for example, site and window orientation, eliminating oversizing and attention to layout and form. Some requirements that were in the past assumed to increase costs – efficient lighting, daylighting, sustainable drainage systems and high insulation levels – are currently proving to be cost neutral or better. Transfer of expenditure to fabric and design time and away from services equipment, which is taking an increasingly large share of the cost of buildings, is one means of balancing budgets. High insulation levels and passive moisture management may cost more initially but then require a smaller heating and ventilation system, giving both capital and running cost benefits. Extra costs may accrue from high-performance products, benign materials and extra design time but deliver downstream benefits of resource effectiveness and improved well-being. Savings accumulate from: • Simplicity • Passive design • Orientation • Native landscaping • Lighting efficiency • Design for flexibility • Energy conservation • Avoiding oversizing • Attention to power • Water conservation • Reduction of emissions • Design for operation and maintenance • Waste management • Good-quality air • Materials efficiency • Design for recycling.

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Ullsholtveien 31 – A FutureBuilt Project If young people have nowhere independent to live then what future can they envisage that is in any way sustainable? Haugen/Zohar Arkitekter, Steinsvik Arkitektkontor and Dronninga Landskap. Photo: Ake Carlsen

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Cost issues 83

Cost information Cost information is now beginning to emerge, and with it questions about impacts on infrastructure and people, running costs, the quality of an environment or workplace, and maintaining the value of long-term investments. The biggest change has been the increasing use of frameworks within which to establish appropriate economic behaviours, including the circular economy and natural capital. Neither yet seems to be delivering any specific advances for construction, although this may be expected. The available information on cost is essentially of three types: • Elemental costing of sustainable attributes, resulting in figures for the additional costs of buildings accredited through assessment schemes such as BREEAM, LEED and locally specific national schemes. These give some comfort in that the additional costs are perhaps much lower than people might assume. However, the buildings themselves are not identified and questions must be raised about the priorities, weightings and response to context embodied in such assessment. • Comparisons of overall building costs that have and have not been appraised in terms of their sustainability attributes, which demonstrate no discernible cost associated with sustainability – such as a comparison of US offices and libraries.

• Costed exemplars open to third-party assessment, which demonstrate evidence of costs comparable with less sustainable buildings and additional life-cycle benefits.

Elemental costs Estimates based on UK projects certified under the Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) indicate less than 1% increase in capital cost to achieve certification. To achieve the highest rating, cost implications can be more than 10%. The figures are of a similar order to projects worldwide certified under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) scheme. However, the data have to be treated with caution, as with all building costs there are so many unknowns. Since the buildings themselves are not presented, or discussed in detail, it is unclear whether the costs were additional to fundamentally good projects or to poor ones. It is also unclear whether the projects involved experienced designers, which would be likely to reduce costs. Nor do we know whether the uncertified projects might achieve a classification if they were assessed. This last issue is important. Experience in Scotland, with the launch of the RIAS Accreditation Scheme for Sustainable Architecture, suggests that those at the forefront of design may be the least inclined to use third-party assessment methods in

Increase in capital costs for different building types and certification levels

Education

Industrial

Retail

Office

Mixed Use

School

Industrial

Retail

Office

Mixed Use

Very Good

0.2%

0.1%

0.2%

0.2%

0.15

Excellent

0.7%

0.4%

1.8%

0.8%

1.5%

Outstanding

5.8%

4.8%

10.1%

9.8%

4.8%

Rating

Source: Tata Steel, British Constructional Steelwork Association Limited, AECOM, Cyril Sweett, The Steel Construction Institute, Development Securities PLC, 2012.

Capital cost premium of achieving BREEAM in the UK

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84 Sustainable Construction

$0/SF

$50/SF

$100/SF

$150/SF

$200/SF

$250/SF

$300/SF

$350/SF

$400/SF

$450/SF

Overall costs of US academic buildings: US$/sq.ft.

Use of Building Physics at 22–26 in Lustenau delivered capital and running cost savings

$0/SF

$50/SF

$100/SF

$150/SF

$200/SF

$250/SF

$300/SF

$350/SF

$400/SF

a formal manner. While such schemes can provide a client with evidence, in the hands of experienced designers accruing credits through assessment schemes, and paying external assessors, may not always be the best use of limited resources. Importantly, German research indicates that increasing design time to integrate sustainability at the outset tends to save on capital and running costs while late considerations tend to increase costs significantly.

Comparison of overall costs These additional costs appear to contrast with other American data which looked at the overall costs of buildings rather than isolating specifics. These look at buildings that had been appraised under LEED. LEED uses a green, silver, gold and platinum (none noted) rating for projects. These are reproduced to indicate the cost/square foot of a range of libraries and academic buildings. Blue buildings were not assessed and we do not know how they would rate. The study found no statistical

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Overall costs of US library buildings: US$/sq.ft.

evidence for increased capital cost for the better-rated buildings. The appraised buildings are distributed through the range of costs and are among both the cheapest and the most expensive. The conclusion of this research was that there is already a vast range of building costs and that the sustainability aspects were simply one aspect ‘lost in the noise’.

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Cost issues 85

Costed exemplars

McLaren Community Leisure Facility A sports and swimming pool completed in 1998 at £875/ m2, significantly lower than the benchmark costs supplied by Glasgow Council at £1350/m2 for a lower specification dry-only project. It had an innovative ventilation strategy as part of a sportscotland policy of Healthy Buildings for Healthy Pursuits. The services content was only 16% of the costs, much lower than other swimming pools. It was one of three projects submitted with costs to the RIAS accreditation scheme. Each was assessed to be in the top class of sustainable design and each fell within benchmark costs. Architects and Photo Credit: Gaia Architects

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Herefordshire Archive and Record Centre A Fabric First approach combined with close attention to functionality meant that this Archive Centre completed in 2015 had a capital cost saving of 4.5% compared to the original brief and running costs of 25% of similar facilities. Construction cost of £1,900/m² compared well to estimates in the region of £3,600/m². Architects: Architype Photo Credit: ©Dennis Gilbert/VIEW

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86 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.5

Fabric before services Arup Campus, Solihull, England The brief called for a well-equipped, socially cohesive and productive environment for 350 staff of diverse design and engineering disciplines. The distinctive feature is a brief stating that it should fully satisfy developer requirements for market acceptability: be cost effective, flexible and commercially viable. In the early stages of the design development (1998), cost benchmarking was established. A typical Midlands-based commercial office of similar scale (with air-conditioning) was identified against which the cost effectiveness of the design was to be monitored. A tender target of £89/sq.ft. was used for the alternative naturally ventilated building. Shell and core, cat a only (fit-out excluded) Midlands office % of total cost

Arup campus % of total cost

Roof

 4.19

11.57

External cladding

13.70

26.13

Mechanical services

22.36

 4.82

the roof and extensive glazing in the façades. Solar gain and glare are controlled by shutters and louvres, electrically or manually operated depending on their orientation. Automatic lighting controls include daylight linking to dim the direct (down) element of lighting and balance the natural light. Where possible, the design allows for occupant control; for example, manual operation of the windows. Differential costs of the roof, external cladding and mechanical installation are particularly notable owing to the disparity between the completed design and the benchmark office. There was only marginal differentiation between other elements. The final tender was 5% over the base model but some of this was identified as due to preplanning infrastructure for Phase 2 of the development.

From the British Council for Offices Guide to Sustainability 2002. Phase 1 of the development was completed in 2001. It consists of two pavilions that accommodate design studios. The pavilions are large, long, single volumes with interconnections between floors to encourage social cohesiveness through visual and actual linkages. The central facilities (café, fitness room, library, and a 150-seat auditorium) link the two pavilions. The 24m-deep building is naturally ventilated via roof openings with passive climate control assisted by the use of thermal mass. The option to retrofit air-conditioning has been maintained by defined service areas and plant room spaces. Reliance on artificial lighting is minimised with daylighting from Photo: The Author

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Cost issues 87

Adding value through design The design fees and construction costs of a typical office building are a tiny proportion of the total costs of a building. Operations, maintenance, finance and employees often account for as much as 99%. Arguments for increased investment at the design stage are persuasive. It makes excellent business sense to seek a design and construction process that minimises capital cost, maximises those attributes that contribute to better business operation and minimises those elements that will be a financial drain over the building’s life. Evidence on these aspects is slowly beginning to emerge, as are cost comparisons between passive and mechanical solutions. There has been discussion for many years about the need to move from a fee basis that rewards expenditure on services equipment to one that rewards a reduction in long-term running and maintenance costs. Over a 50-year life, the services and space plan become the most significant costs of a building and it makes sense to design them out as far as possible.

Environmental design The services and space planning are the most significant aspects of the whole-life costs of most buildings. Mechanical services are an escalating aspect of building costs and typically account for

more than 25% of capital costs – 50% has been known. Since the mechanical services have to be replaced frequently within the life of a building, have significant maintenance implications and are responsible for much of the resource consumption, there is keen interest in ensuring that their whole-life costs are well understood and minimised. Designers are increasingly tending to adopt a fabric-first approach that allows trade-offs between fabric and services. For example, increasing insulation levels does not produce a pro-rata reduction in energy saving. Thus, traditionally the return on additional insulation beyond a certain – relatively low – level is considered so close to zero that it cannot justify the additional energy required to manufacture, transport and install higher levels. However, if increased insulation can create a step-change that completely removes the need for a heating system then the benefits in capital, space, and running costs are potentially enormous.

Interdisciplinary design If individuals working independently undertake fabric, services and financial appraisals, it does not facilitate the best decisionmaking. Evidence suggests that cost savings can be optimised when the issues are addressed at the conceptual design phase by an integrated/interdisciplinary design team. This ensures that a project is designed as one system rather than as a collection of stand-alone components.

Cost and quality benefits BUILDING COSTS – cumulative 50 Years Cumulative total over 50 years

Capital Costs

Space plan

Traditional view of building costs Space plan 5.7 years

Services

Services 15.20 years Structure 50 years

A significant issue for environmental designers is the extent to which good environmental design (e.g. air quality and lighting) contributes to operational efficiency and simultaneously to improving the performance of people and processes within buildings. A review of 30 green schools across the USA concluded that: “based on a very substantial data set on productivity and test performance of healthier, more comfortable study and learning environments, a 3–5% improvement in learning ability and test scores in green schools appears reasonable and conservative.”

Structure

1988 1998 2008 2018 2028 2038

Kats (2006) costs over time

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88 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.6

Design value A European research project This German SolarBau funding programme provided support for demonstration projects in energy saving. It consciously did not provide capital funding but instead supported design work. A review of completed demonstration projects concluded that in most cases the expenditure on energy conservation and environmental aspects was marginal. Another aspect of the review related the demonstration projects to the ‘normal’ building industry. The costs of construction and services were considered (exclusive of planning/design and the associated SolarBau funding). The buildings were largely delivered at below-average costs and indicated that energy-related measures integrated at an early stage do not adversely impact on building costs. If this trend to comparable lower costs continued then it would appear conclusive that: • additional design input leads to savings in capital costs and/or

• additional costs are entirely compensated through lower costs elsewhere (shifted priorities), for example, in fit-out standards. In Germany, fee scales are percentage linked to the construction costs. These are strictly controlled within agreed limits and have not fallen into the downward competitive spiral now evident in the United Kingdom. These results supported the demand for a reform of the fee structure for architects and ­engineers in Germany to decouple the design fee from the capital cost. Similar arguments have been made about costs of building services in the United Kingdom. Some practices claim to operate on a percentage of building rather than on services costs with incentive bonuses to design out services. However, there has been little movement on the issue on the part of the professional bodies. In the United Kingdom there are no incentives currently operating to encourage more design input at the early stages. See www.solaroffice.de/home/.

Energy and Cost-Efficient Buildings German Case Studies contributed for Green Building Challenge GBC 98 WAT Karlsruhe Building Cost Index as Reference = 100%

Usable Floor Area / Gross Floor Area EnergyDemand / WSV 95 Building Costs / Reference Building acc. to BCI DATAPEC Gniebel Usable Floor Area / Gross Floor Area EnergyDemand / WSV 95 Building Costs / Reference Building acc. to BCI PRISMA Nürnberg Usable Floor Area / Gross Floor Area EnergyDemand / WSV 95 Building Costs / Reference Building acc. to BCI ratios in % 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Solºidºar planungswerkstatt Berlin, Dr Günter Löhnert

SolarBau (solar buildings). From www.solaroffice.de/home/

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PRISMA, Nuremburg Architects: Joachim Eble Architects. Permission: Joachim Eble

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90 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.7

Car parking: the hidden cost Gaia Architects A study undertaken by Gaia Architects into the impact of car parking revealed some interesting outcomes.

The resulting ratios indicate that detached housing dedicates 32 × as much footprint to the car per occupant per house of use as it does to the house.

40 35 sq.m/person/hour

The study compared the footprint assigned to the car compared to the footprint assigned to people for a number of different building arrangements – a detached house, and terraced housing with a range of alternative parking arrangements.

Relative space requirements: Car versus house

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

HOUSING TYPE DETACHED with double garage

House Car Space required per occupant per hour of use

Ratio Relative Importance

1.07

34.25

32.01

TERRACED with double parking bay and wide access road

1.07

14.25

13.32

TERRACED with single parking bay and wide access road

1.07

8.75

8.18

TERRACED with remote parking area

1.07

6.25

5.84

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DETACHED with double garage

TERRACED with double parking bay and wide access road

TERRACED with single parking bay and narrow access road

TERRACED with remote parking area

House types House space required per occupant per hour of use (sq.m/person/hr) Car/parking/access space requried per occupant per hour of use (sq.m/person/hr)

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16 Garden area: 200sq.m House footprint: 60sq.m Garage footprint: 30sq.m Additional tarmac area: 35sq.m

1

Total hard area (garage, tarmac, road): 137sq.m

6

8

1

20

Associated road footprint: 72sq.m

7.5

Assumed no. of house occupants: 4 Assumed time of house occupancy: 14 hrs/day 60sq.m ÷ 4 occupants = 15sq.m/occupant

4

15sq.m/occupant ÷ 14 hrs = 1.07 sq.m/occupant/hr

1.5

Assumed no. of car occupants: 2 Assumed time of car occupancy: 2 hrs/day

4.5

137sq.m ÷ 2 occupants = 68.5sq.m/occupant 66sq.m/occupant ÷ 2 hrs = 34.25sq.m/occupant/hour

34.25/1.07 = 32

10

6

Garden area: 60sq.m House footprint: 60sq.m

Assumed no. of house occupants: 4

10

Total hard area (tarmac, road): 57sq.m

25

Tarmac area: 30sq.m Associated road footprint: 27sq.m

Assumed time of house occupancy: 14 hrs/day 60sq.m ÷ 4 occupants = 15sq.m/occupant

1.07 sq.m/occupant/hr

5

15sq.m/occupant ÷ 14 hrs =

Assumed time of car occupancy: 2 hrs/day 57sq.m ÷ 2 occupants = 28.5sq.m/occupant 28.5sq.m/occupant ÷ 2 hrs = 14.25sq.m/occupant/hour

1.5

Assumed no. of car occupants: 2

4.5

TERRACED HOUSE, DOUBLE PARKING SPACE IN FRONT OF HOUSE, WIDE ACCESS ROAD

DETACHED HOUSE, DOUBLE PARKING SPACE IN FRONT OF DOUBLE GARAGE, WIDE ACCESS ROAD

Cost issues 91

14.25/1.07 = 13.3

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92 Sustainable Construction

What are the economic benefits of sustainable buildings?

Reduced waste

A significant aspect of the growing interest in sustainable building design can be attributed to the recognition, on the part of clients, that there are direct economic benefits from sustainable building: from real savings and by improving the financial performance of a building. Claims are also made for benefits from public relations, niche marketing and streamlined approvals for more responsible design. Of course, many clients and planners are still largely unmoved by life-cycle considerations and resist rather than encourage innovation.

Change Index (2000 = 100)

130

Decoupling UK GDP and CO2 Emissions, 2000–2014 GDP

120 110 100 CO2

90 80 70 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

Evidence suggests that the link between CO2 emissions and economic growth has decoupled. We may be developing rather than growing!

Reduced operating costs It is possible to reduce resource use from regulatory requirements within the constraints of most building budgets. Attention to basic details, simplicity, passive solutions and avoiding oversizing should be the first considerations, before add-on technology.

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Construction activity gives rise to the largest quantity of solid waste of any sector in the UK. Reductions are possible with major savings in construction and demolition costs. But efficient use of land, energy and water conservation, native landscaping and solid waste management all have financial benefits. This offers a useful policy fit with the Limits to Growth model described in Chapter 1 and provides the basis for many of the case studies in Factor Four (Von Weizsacker et al. 1998). Designing buildings for long life and with flexible spaces can significantly reduce waste and disruption during maintenance and refurbishment, and facilitate recycling.

Reduced liability Legislation is now a vital consideration, as environmental bodies show increased willingness to introduce and use the law to prevent poor environmental practice. Future proofing is important, as changes in regulatory requirements can have significant associated costs if they lead to major contract variations. There is also a clear intention that if we are to reverse unsustainable trends then fiscal and regulatory policy will increasingly tax pollution and inefficiency, and impose increasingly higher targets for environmental performance and social responsibility. This is reinforcing of good practice. Selection of systems that are long lasting and readily manageable and maintainable, and selection of building materials that are non-polluting in use and at the end of their life, are becoming standard good-practice elements of future proofing. Attention to the indoor environment reduces the risk of ‘building-related ill-health’, with legal and productivity implications.

Enhanced productivity and learning Many studies have shown improvements in productivity and performance when good air quality, personal environmental control, daylight, and a connection to plant features and the outdoors are provided.

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2226, Lustenau, Austria Architect: be baumschlager eberle; Photo: The Author

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94 Sustainable Construction

Case Study 3.8

Affordable low-allergy housing Toll House Gardens, Fairfield, Perth, Scotland Social costs and the environment There is a cost associated with ill-health. The National Asthma Campaign statistics indicate that in the UK 1 in 25 adults and 1 in 7 children have asthma. Asthma accounts for 1,500 deaths each year. Seven million lost work days due to asthma result in £350 million in lost productivity and costs approximately £60 million in sickness benefit. The cost of asthma treatment to the NHS is £850 million a year. The noticeable rise in asthma/allergies in the United Kingdom in recent years provided motivation for research to identify whether the removal of dust mite colonies and their allergens from domestic dwellings has any effect on asthmatic/allergic symptoms.

winning development which boasts numerous firsts for social housing. • Specification of no/low emission materials to eliminate off-gassing, improve indoor air quality and reduce allergic reactions. • Ventilation strategies and materials with hygroscopic properties to maintain relative humidity at acceptable levels and reduce damp conditions that provide a host environment for asthma triggers – dust mites and mould.

Gaia Architects introduced ecological design into social housing at Fairfield over a period of 17 years. A commission for 14 houses and a small research grant provided an opportunity to extend the environmentally benign specification to barrier-free design for people with breathing disabilities – thereby giving the same importance in building design to allergies/asthma as is presently the case for physical access. The overall aim was to enable tenants with breathing-related problems to lead a relatively normal life, with reduced risk of attacks, and to develop guidelines for the creation of low allergen/asthma-friendly ­buildings. With Gaia Research they developed affordable low-allergy buildings that avoid, where possible, known and suspected building-related allergens and minimise the conditions in which they can have an adverse impact on the health of the occupants. The result is the award-

Photos: Gaia Architects

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Cost issues 95

Case Study 3.8 (Continued)

Affordable low-allergy housing Toll House Gardens, Fairfield, Perth, Scotland Incoming residents were provided with information on the design. If they wanted to pursue aspects outside the Housing Association provision, then Gaia assisted with flooring finishes, treatments, low-allergy beds and bedding. The dwellings were examined shortly after occupation, and if there was evidence of dust mites brought from elsewhere the opportunity for steam cleaning was provided. The costs were £781.26/m2 (2000), well within the guideline range for mainstream social housing in the region. Case study: female aged 50 Before (g)

After (g)

Reduction (%)

700

520

31

Beclamethasone 875

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Cost saving in drugs based on MIMS September 2001 = £176. Number of GP visits April 1997 to March 1999 = 17 @ £20 = £340.

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Number of GP visits April 1999 to March 2001 = 4 @ £20 = £80. Total saving on medical costs (£176 + £260) = £436. Cost of intervention = £492. Payback period < 27 months.

Results of a University of Strathclyde study into GP visits and medication following interventions to remove dust mites from 45 existing homes (Howieson 2003). Every 13 weeks researchers collected data to determine any change in dust mite colonies and compared these with results from a study of 45 existing dwellings. Questionnaires determined whether there was a reduction in asthmatic symptoms for the occupants. Residents had notable improvements in health.

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Whole-life costs Estimates vary, but typical relative figures for buildings’ whole life are: for every 1 unit spent on construction, 5 are spent on operation and 200 units on salaries. Only 0.1 units are spent on design. A 20% reduction in operating costs is negligible compared to salaries but is equivalent to the construction costs. Designing an environment in which employees are 5% more productive is equivalent to 10 times the construction costs. Interest in whole-life costing has vastly increased with the recognition that first costs are a very small part of the overall cost of buildings. Clients are increasingly keen to have a realistic indication of the ongoing operational costs to ensure that buildings are affordable long term. Potential benefits may include reduced running costs (maintenance, cleaning, energy, water) or because design increases productivity, image and/or business opportunities.

However, predicting whole-life costs is still in its infancy and it is very difficult to obtain data even on relatively simple aspects such as long-term performance, durability and maintenance requirements of components. Even operating costs can be unpredictable. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) or life-cycle analysis: measures and evaluates the environmental burdens associated with a product, system or activity, by assessing inputs and outputs over its lifetime. This ‘cradle-to-grave’ appraisal is the basis of most product labelling.

Increasing scrutiny of a wide range of issues from the impacts of climate change to built environments that contribute to deprivation and ill-health are also recognisable as having financial implications. They are gaining the attention of policy‑makers, property managers, businesses and investors. Attention to these issues is considered good business and regulatory practice. Human health and well-being

Typical Whole-Life Costs

The quality of our natural environment is vitally important. Photo: Gaia Architects

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An upfront investment of less than 2% of construction costs yields life-cycle savings of over 10 times the initial investment

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Whole-life cost (WLC) or life-cycle costing (LCC) is the assessment of costs and revenues over an agreed period. It may include costs associated with: • Procurement – feasibility, design, construction, purchase/lease, interest, fees. • Operating – energy, water/sewage, waste disposal, cleaning, security and management. • Recurring – rent, rates, maintenance, repair, refurbishment, replacement/renewal. • End of life – decommissioning, dismantling or disposal. • Revenue – sales of recycled materials, rental income, and asset value accrued. A variety of techniques are still emerging.

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Economic instruments Economic instruments are policies that affect price; for example, to enable clean products and services to compete with unclean alternatives. They are also referred to as ‘measures that internalise externalised costs’ and take the form of regulatory controls and market-based measures, including pollution charges, user charges, deposit refunds and tradable pollution permits/resource rights.

Externalities Poor-quality buildings have excess energy costs, a short life and may give rise to health issues. Developers do not currently pay the cost of externalities – tenants do. Photo: The Author

Environmental economics: external costs Environmental economics promotes development through market incentives to reduce conflict between economic growth and environmental protection. There is recognition that natural resources have an economic value and the impact of unsustainable development – inefficiency, ill-health, community dissatisfaction, pollution, resource depletion and toxicity – impact on quality of life and require financial remediation. For example: • The ozone layer and clean air have economic value – their deterioration has health cost implications. • Inefficient use of resources increases future extraction costs, reducing net gains. • Climate change leads to higher frequency and strength of storms and flooding, and infrastructure costs. The social and financial implications of unsustainable development (external costs) are creating change. There are an increasing number of measures aimed at protecting resources by internalising costs through taxation, legislation, changes in building standards and incentives.

Fairness of economic instruments is an issue. They can penalise those least advantaged or adversely affect business competitiveness. It is recommended that all tax revenue is recycled into business through awareness, advice and incentives so as to promote the required change and maintain international competitiveness. The use of economic instruments to assist in delivering environmental and sustainable development objectives was investigated in relation to energy matters in the 1990s (Marshall Report). A mixed approach of economic instruments alongside regulation, voluntary and negotiated agreements was advocated. The review recommended that taxation be related to carbon content of fuels and be introduced in a gradual and predictable way to give businesses time to plan and respond. A role was recognised for tradable permits and taxation. The former was agreed as part of the Kyoto Protocol. By setting caps on emissions the scheme provides incentives for investment in energy efficiency and cleaner technologies. Possible economic instruments for use in promoting sustainable construction. Many of these are already being implemented.  1 Preferential credit conditions.  2 Reimbursement, rebates and investment aid offered by water or energy utilities.  3 Preferential insurance conditions.  4 Specialised funds: grants, subsidies.  5 Fiscal bonus for new or renovated green buildings.  6 Heavier fiscal burden on unsustainable construction.  7 Density bonus.  8 Accelerated building permit processing.  9 Business rating to include sustainable management. 10 Trade of CO2 certificates.

A report by the UK Round Table on SD (2000) identified energy, transport, agriculture, waste, consumer behaviour, poverty and social exclusion as areas where economic instruments could help reverse unsustainable trends.

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Case Study 3.9

Air leakage: new-build townhouse A newly built three-storey mid-terrace townhouse was tested as part of an Airtightness Champions training course a decade ago. It was of masonry construction, with cavity walls, a suspended concrete ground floor and timber intermediate floors, and was part of a substantial development by a volume house builder.

sites – identified below – were found repeatedly throughout the house: • beneath the window-sill in the ground-floor kitchen; • through a hole in plasterboard dry lining in the kitchen; • through gaps around water pipes from the gas boiler; • through the room thermostat mounted on an internal partition wall; • through gaps in the boxing around the bath and hand basin;

For testing to ATTMA TSL1, extract fans from two internal bathrooms and the cooker hood extract were sealed. The house achieved an air change rate of 9.8 air changes/hour (ACH) and an air permeability of 9.7m3/h/m2 of total surface area at 50Pa. Many of the leakage

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Case Study 3.9 (Continued)

Air leakage: new-build townhouse • through spotlights mounted in the ceiling, and around ceiling roses and other light fittings; • around hot and cold water pipes, and wastepipes passing through the backs of kitchen units; • through gaps around plumbing and wastepipes in the bathroom on the ground floor; • through wiring to the gas boiler; • through gaps around a ceiling-mounted extract vent; • around and through French doors; • along a top edge of skirting board; • around and through electricity sockets and switches, and television connections, in internal and external walls; • at the sides of the internal staircase; • through and around the cooker hood extract. There was no effective air barrier between the cavity in the external wall and the hollow first and second floors. With plasterboard drylining and hollow partition walls, leakage connects to

every part of the house and remedial sealing is very difficult. Despite all of this, the building met the Building Regulations Air Permeability target of 10 m3/h/m2 at 50Pa. It was significantly worse than the then ‘best-practice’ target of ≤ 5.0 at the time. Due to general deterioration over time, if retested it would probably fail. The current best-practice target of ≤ 1.0 may be readily achieved with a little care and attention to detail during the design and construction phases. Good design for low infiltration and controllable ventilation can save substantial energy and up to £1,000 per annum off fuel bills over a badly designed and constructed building. In addition, the infiltration can lead to building deterioration and ill-health. Air carries moisture and if the air is within the structure then so is the moisture. Yet volume house builders still deliver poorly built dwellings which will still be around in 2050 and beyond.

Leakage sites. Photos: Paul Jennings

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Case Study 3.10

LILAC Housing: an affordable housing model, Leeds, England Architect: White Design In 2006 five Leeds residents got together to discuss building their own homes. In 2009 with additional members they set up LILAC Mutual Home Ownership Society Ltd (MHOS) as a registered Co-operative Society.

Mutual Home Ownership is the legal ­structure that enables people to club together to buy or build homes that they may not ­otherwise afford. In return for their investment (which may comprise capital and a mortgage), members receive equity shares in the ­collective mortgage and the use of a home. MHOS has a number of benefits: 1 Makes home ownership more accessible/affordable. 2 Builds community. 3 Provides greater financial security. 4 Shares finance and maintenance responsibility and workload. 5 Provides greater control over housing than renting. 6 Provides affordability in perpetuity.

Building began in 2012 with a bigger group, development capital, a builder and architect. The houses use ModCell, a super-insulated, prefabricated wall panel with locally sourced straw and timber. The development comprises 20 houses arranged around car-free communal gardens, pond and play area. This reflects the Danish co-housing model: mixing people’s need for private space with shared facilities that facilitate social interaction. A shared building houses a post room, communal cooking and dining ­facilities, a pantry for food bought in bulk, kitchen, ­multifunction rooms, office, workshop, guest-rooms and laundry facilities. The overall plot also has bike sheds, allotments – including some for use by the local

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community – and a communal space for car parking. It was completed and occupied in May 2013. Car sharing, pooling equipment and tools, sharing meals twice a week, and meeting needs, including sourcing food locally, are all part of the LILAC ethos. LILAC has become a resource for the wider community for events. The common house is used for meetings, film nights, gatherings and workshops. It has been used as the local polling station and hosts a delivery hub for several co-operatives and smaller organic suppliers. In the UK, house prices have increased dramatically as people have increasingly seen ‘bricks and mortar’ as a safer investment than traditional pensions. Increasing numbers of professional people are excluded from the housing market and required to rent, with housing ownership increasingly concentrated in the hands of the few. Members of the society are the residents who live in the homes it provides and each member has a lease. Members pay an equity share to the co-operative which pays the mortgage, maintenance and insurance costs. Payments are set at around 35% of net income. Costs are spread across the group according to ability to pay, and more affluent households can buy more equity shares than the value of their home, making other homes in the scheme more affordable for households on modest incomes. As members leave, they can sell their equity shares, releasing the capital to buy a home elsewhere, and existing members can buy more equity shares. As income levels change, equity share commitments can also change. The overall equity increases and the company keeps a set percentage of any increase. A share of the increase is only ­accessible to people leaving after longer than three years.

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LILAC allotments, Photo: Mike Gower

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Redefining progress Sustainable development is about ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, now and for future generations. It is important that our economic, social and environmental policies all improve our quality of life, and we should be looking to set policy, indicators and targets that promote and measure progress towards those aspects of our economic activity that meet real needs and improve our quality of life. The principal indicator of well-being and quality of life for the past century has been gross domestic product (GDP) – the sum of all the money we spend. GDP is the indicator of progress, but its value has been challenged for decades. GDP takes no account of social or environmental issues. It favours cures rather than prevention – good health has no economic value but pills do. Rising oil consumption increases GDP, as does crime and environmental disasters such as storms, where money is spent on remediation. Inevitably, GDP promotes the pursuit of quantity over quality. GDP also fails to reflect the underlying sustainability of any pattern of economic activity. An economy that grows on the basis of depleting oil reserves is spending a non-renewable asset. This should be reflected in accounts, but this is not the case.

“A new single measure of welfare could play a very useful part in increasing awareness of the different elements that contribute to the well-being of society and to the achievement of sustainable development. The government should examine this concept with a view to developing and publishing an index of this kind by the year 2000.” Parliamentary Committee from the minutes of evidence to the Select Committee on Environmental Audit – 1999

With a rise in enlightened attitudes towards development economics and amid concern for resource depletion, environmental quality, social stability and downstream costs, criticism of GDP is increasing. There is a move towards forms of social and environmental costing that provides a framework for sustainable development. There is real activity to develop indicators that relate economic change to quality of life. The EU’s Fifth Environmental Action Programme committed members to developing pilot systems of ‘environmental adjusted national accounts’ by 1995, with a view to adopting them by 2000.

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Edinburgh of the Future – Current costs do not cover the future cost of climate change

Externalities An externality is a positive or negative effect resulting from a transaction that is not accounted for in the market. Pollution is an example of a negative externality. Fossil fuel energy is unrealistically cheap because it does not take account of the social cost of externalities such as global warming, which is likely to have the greatest impact on those least responsible for it, nor for the costs of remediation. Not all externalities need be negative effects and there may be social externalities such as job creation or enhanced wellbeing. In recent years fiscal and regulatory policies have developed to seek to incorporate externalities by imposing taxes and charges to adjust prices to reflect true social and environmental costs. Examples include congestion charging, the carbon levy and waste disposal. In general the private sector is only interested in the ‘bottom line’, but there will be occasions when including externalities in investment appraisals makes sense. For example, where social or environmental considerations may improve access to funding, if there is a likelihood that fiscal and regulatory policy will be tightened to internalise externalities and therefore costs of negative externalities will rise or positive impacts will be rewarded.

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Flood events have become increasingly common

Elegant flood management is now a fundamental aspect of urban protection and place-making. Image: Herbert Dreiseitl, New Waterscapes

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Ethical investment Ethical investment involves investing to support environmentally and socially responsible activities. Ethical trusts avoid firms involved in environmental harm, pollution, weapons, arms trading, nuclear activities and support of oppressive regimes. An ethical portfolio will normally be tied to a published set of principles. These have developed from the formative ‘Valdez’ principles established following the Alaskan oil pollution disaster. There is increasing awareness of the business benefits of a sustainable approach that involves responsibilities, precautionary judgements and use of resources in a sustainable manner. Benefits are increasingly evident because of tax trends, risk assessments and public image, and some ethical investment portfolios are highly competitive. The Pension Act 2000 makes it mandatory for fund managers to disclose to what extent social, environmental and ethical considerations affect their investment strategy. More information EIRIS, www.eirisfoundation.org.

Ecology Building Society HQ, Silsden, Yorkshire Architects: Hodson Architects; Photo permission: EBS www.ecology.co.uk

Money Money is the measure in which most – but not all – economic concepts are expressed. It allows individuals to specialise in a particular area and transcend beyond a basic exchange economy by putting a price on activities. However, money has developed an existence in its own right, and there is increasing criticism of the way that it is used. Exponential growth, in particular, is a dilemma that makes our economic system less sustainable than one which follows a natural growth curve. It is among the most important issues of today and one that has to be resolved for long-term sustainability to be possible. Importantly, there are some meaningful proposals for alternatives, which could be better able to deliver sustainable development and prevent centralisation of wealth (Kennedy 1995).

Alternatives to money A Local Exchange Trading Scheme (LETS) began in Canada in the 1980s with the aim of achieving similar ends to money based on barter that extended trading from a two-person activity to an interdisciplinary one with access to a wide and varied group of services. They operate, but not exclusively, at a local level. Members receive LET units in return for goods or services and pay for services from others in the same units. The initiative has largely been overtaken by Timebanking, which began in Japan and now extends to over 40 countries. This is a

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means of exchange used to organise people and organisations around a purpose, where time is the principal currency.

One penny invested in AD 1 at 4% interest would have bought a ball of gold the weight of the Earth in 1821, two in 1839 and over 2,000 by 2018. At 5% interest it would have bought over 500 billion gold earths. The invisible wrecking machine of compound interest

After Kennedy 1995

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Conclusion: a discussion on capital The Brundtland Commission gave a precise definition to sustainable development – each generation should pass on to the next at least the same or equivalent assets. This is at the core of most understandings of sustainable development. It also went further than previous international development strategies in that it highlights the damaging impact on the environment of the wrong sort of economic policy. It identified that the right economic policy could be a positive force in environmental terms. The Commission introduced the notion of a non-declining stock of capital assets, combined knowledge, understanding, technology, man-made capital and environmental assets to meet the needs of industry, individual consumers and society in the future.

Pearce and colleagues took the theory further in the late 1980s and early 1990s by investigating the concept of economically valuing the environment; that is, placing proper values on the services it provides. The work highlighted that some vital services provided by the environment – such as the ozone layer – have no cost directly associated with them, and hence there is no incentive for individuals to protect them. As we now know, its depletion has major cost (protection and health) implications. Pearce produced a number of case studies and a methodology in which man-made and natural capital were largely inter-tradable (except for some critical natural capital). This provided the basis for establishing environmental taxation. Other studies looked at ways of valuing the environment by assessing markets; hedonic pricing (i.e. the value of a lake) was estimated from what people were prepared to pay to live next to it.

Liander The first “Circular” building in The Netherlands conforming to the ReSOLVE Framework It generates more energy then it consumes. Photographer: Horizon Photoworks and Fokkema & Partners Architecten.

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Bibliography Mishan, E.J. (1967) The Costs of Economic Growth. Pelican. A social sciences classic.

Sargisson, L. (2012) ‘Second wave cohousing: a modern utopia?’, Utopian Studies, 21:1, 28–57.

Schumacher, E.F. (1973) Small is Beautiful: A study of economics as if people mattered. Blond Briggs.

LafargeHolcim (2013) The Economic Performance of Sustainable Construction. Ruby Press Berlin.

Pearce, D. (1989) Blueprint for a Green Economy. Earthscan.

Lietaer, B. & Dunne, J. (2013) Rethinking Money: How new currencies turn scarcity into prosperity. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Pearce, D. (ed.) (1991) Blueprint 2. Earthscan. Cairncross, F. (1991) Costing the Earth. Economist Books. Pearce, D. & Barde, J-P. (1991) Valuing the Environment. Earthscan. Douthwaite, R. (1992) The Growth Illusion – How economic growth has enriched the few, impoverished the many and endangered the planet. Green Books. The clue is in the title! Kennedy, M. (1995) Interest and Inflation-free Money – Creating an exchange mechanism that works for everybody. Seva International. Or how money doesn’t work – in particular the ‘invisible wrecking machine’ of compound interest. Henderson, H. (1996) Creating Alternative Futures. Kumarian. Von Weizsacker, E., Lovins A.B. & Lovins, L.H. (1998) Factor 4 – Doubling wealth & halving resource use. Earthscan. Hawken, P., Lovins, A.B. & Lovins, L.H. (1999) Natural Capitalism. Earthscan. Tackling the oxymoron and win-win winning! Kats, G. (2003) The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings. California’s Sustainable Building Task Force. http://evanmills.lbl. gov/pubs/pdf/green_buildings.pdf. Howieson, S.G. (2003) Housing & Health: Are our homes causing the asthma pandemic? University of Strathclyde. Stahel, W. (2006) The Performance Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. Kats, G. (2006) Greening America’s Schools: Costs and benefits. Capital E. www.usgbc.org/resources/greening-america039sschools-costs-and-benefits. Dawson, J. (2006) Ecovillages: New frontiers for sustainability (Schumacher Briefings). Green Books. Mathiessen, L.F. & Morris, P. (2007) Cost of Green Revisited: Reexamining the feasibility and cost impact of sustainable design in the light of increased market adoption. Davis Langdon. Jackson, T. (2009) Prosperity without Growth. SDC. http:// happymuseumproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ Prosperity_without_growth_report.pdf. Woodin, T., Crook, D. & Carpentier, V. (2010) Community and Mutual Ownership: A historical review. Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

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Ellingham, I. & Fawcett, W. (2013) Whole Life Sustainability. RIBA Publishing. Bragadottir, H. (2014) The Use of Economic Instruments in Nordic Environmental Policy 1999–2001. TemaNord. Douthwaite, R. & Lietaer, B. (2015) The Ecology of Money (Schumacher Briefings). Green Books. Chatterton, P. (2015) Low Impact Living – A field guide to ecological, affordable, community building. Earthscan.

Sustainable development networks AECB (Association of Environment Conscious Building) – aims to promote the use of safe, healthy and sustainable materials and products. The website contains information and guidance on construction products, methods and projects. www.aecb. net. Ethical Consumer – an independent resource for information on products and investments. EIRIS Foundation – provides advice on ethical investment. www. eirisfoundation.org. Lietaer – proposes currency solutions for a wiser world. www. lietaer.com/. Mutual Home Ownership Societies – information and resources in the UK. https://ukmhos.weebly.com. SEDA (Scottish Ecological Design Association) – set up to promote design that improves quality of life and that is not harmful to the environment. www.seda2.org. SUSTRANS – promotes sustainable transport through initiatives, including the UK cycle network, safe routes to schools, and a wide range of practical and recreational transport options. www. sustrans.org. Timebanking – a resource for people interested in timebanking. www.timebanking.org. The UK cohousing network – membership organisation for merging groups. www.cohousing.org.uk.

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Integrated SuDS scheme at Springhill

Some requirements that were in the past assumed to increase costs are currently proving to be cost neutral or better. An example is sustainable urban drainage schemes, where savings are evident from the reduced costs of pipes and hard drainage. Architects: Architype; Photo: The Author

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Chapter 4 Appraisal tools and techniques In which we look at a range of tools and techniques that promote, assist and measure achievements in sustainable construction, and provide a hierarchy to assist in finding the best for a particular purpose.

Grey to Green, Sheffield Urban Greening – winner of a CEEQUAL Award. Photo: The Author

“Truth must take precedence over public relations, because nature can’t be fooled.” Richard Feynman

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Plummerswood Winner of Scottish Homes Award for Architectural Excellence (small projects) in 2012. Photo: Michael Wolchover

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Appraisal tools and techniques Contents Introduction�����������������������������������������������112 Overview: A hierarchy of tools������������������113 Lower order tools��������������������������������������116 Regulation��������������������������������������������������� 116 Policy���������������������������������������������������������� 116 Awards�������������������������������������������������������� 117 Checklists���������������������������������������������������� 117 Middle order: labels and certification tools��������������������������������������������������������124 Materials and products�������������������������������� 125 Build elements��������������������������������������������� 125 Buildings����������������������������������������������������� 127

Projects������������������������������������������������������� 130 Considerate Constructors’ scheme������������ 130 The Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment Scheme (CEEQUAL)���� 130 Middle order: benchmarking tools������������134 Higher order: targeting tools��������������������135 Factor X������������������������������������������������������� 135 Ecological footprints������������������������������������ 135 Higher order: critical path tools����������������138 Promote awareness of the process��������������� 138 Conclusion�������������������������������������������������141 Bibliography����������������������������������������������142

Case studies   4.1   4.2   4.3   4.4   4.5   4.6   4.7   4.8   4.9 4.10

Award: Building and Social Housing Foundation – Global�����������������������������������������������114 Award: COTE, The Brock Centre, USA – Global�����������������������������������������������������������������120 Checklist: Copenhagen: Home of Sustainable Meetings, Denmark����������������������������������122 Product label: Nordic Swan, Denmark������������������������������������������������������������������������������126 Building label: The Living Building Standard – The Bullitt Center, – USA/Global�������������128 Project label: CEEQUAL Grey to Green, England��������������������������������������������������������������131 Benchmark: DQI, Welsh Assembly, Wales������������������������������������������������������������������������132 Targeting: PIMWAG, Helsinki, Finland������������������������������������������������������������������������������136 Critical path: Regeneration through SNAP, Paisley, Scotland�������������������������������������������139 Critical path: Sustainability Guide to the Plan of Work 2013 – UK�����������������������������������140

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112 Sustainable Construction

Introduction Market forces, fiscal changes, legislation, international and national government and private sector policy have all provided incentives to improve construction practice globally and to set in place procedures for continual improvement. This has resulted in the development of numerous tools and techniques to promote, assist and measure achievements. The number and type is expanding rapidly, and some have a useful role to play.

broader concerns or discrete interactions. However, some can be a useful addition to project briefing and management and contribute to positive change. They need to be applied with caution and intelligence. There is no intention to endorse all of the tools shown here, but rather to encourage critical engagement with them.

All appraisal tools and techniques act as both a measure of achievement and also, importantly, through the selection of parameters and values, as a guide to users. These tools therefore bear a heavy responsibility to address the important issues, relevant to the context, and not just the measurable ones. They should inspire adequate action appropriate to the challenges, threats and constraints that we face and add value, not cost. A great building must begin with the unmeasurable. Must go through measurable means when it is being designed and in the end must be unmeasurable. Louis Kahn

To those with scant knowledge, or little care, appraisal tools and techniques may be perceived as a constraint or a source of conflict, or they may be used too rigidly and become a prescription or a crutch. Many of the techniques can be faulted for taking a complex array of issues and weightings to arrive at a single figure, which may not always be a fair assessment in any given context. They can give undue emphasis to what is readily measurable at the expense of

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Bourne House, Weem by Aberfeldy UK House of the Year, 1993. Photo: Gaia Architects

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Overview: a hierarchy of tools It is important that designers and clients are able to understand the breadth and comparative value of different techniques in order to best assess their real contribution to sustainable construction. There is growing consensus on the issues to be addressed but little agreement on priorities and targets. This would require agreement on the severity of the problems, and there is little robust information. An attempt has been made here to provide a structure with which to navigate the vast range of the tools and techniques available. It is presented as a hierarchy led by high-level tools that potentially have the greatest influence by setting real limitations on permissible resource use and impacts and establishing pathways through the process. These are underpinned by middle-order tools that function predominantly to encourage and reward effort, and then by lower level tools that can usefully engage a project team in the considerations. At the base is regulation – the lowest possible denominator aimed at eliminating worst practice. Above this, at a simple level, policies seek to encourage affirmative action, awards reward better practice, while checklists require conforming to addressing specific issues or enhanced targets. They have a place. They

Critical Path Targeting Benchmarking

contribute to driving forward regulatory requirements, aspirations and hence best practice. They are all considered here but the majority of this chapter is dedicated to higher level tools and techniques. At a higher level, labels and a wide range of third-party validated labels and certificates may be used to guide design and specification and to encourage and reward achieving specific targets. Benchmarks provide a means for useful comparisons for assessing performance. They tend to follow rather than lead best practice. Targeting tools include the analytical methods used in modelling which are necessary to provide the evidence to validate design decisions. They also include global footprinting and Factor X. At the highest level are critical path tools that embrace all of the other techniques and advise not only what is required but also when. These provide pathways through the construction process and, when used properly, assure that matters are dealt with at the right time to best influence the outcomes.

Range of tools Tools exist for the appraisal of materials, resources, products, places, occupant satisfaction, components, buildings, professions, processes, projects, leadership, social factors, business performance, investment, and sometimes amalgamate aspects of these into a compound appraisal. Issues covered include: energy use; water use; light quantity; emissions; land use; cost; speed; design quality; noise; waste; volatile organic compounds (VOCs); embodied energy; embodied toxicity; quality of place; quality of life; professional competence; indoor air quality; biodiversity; transport; occupant satisfaction, business impact and more.

Labels and Certification Checklists Awards Policy Regulation A hierarchy of appraisal tools and techniques

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Case Study 4.1

Award: Building and Social Housing Foundation (BSHF) – Global The Awards were established in 1985, to identify and promote good habitat practices – as BSHF’s (now World Habitat) contribution to the UN International Year of Shelter.The World Habitat Awards (WHA) are an international competition to identify, and publicise, innovative and successful housing solutions that make a real difference to the lives of poor people in challenging circumstances. The concept of ‘good practice’ was virtually unknown. The Awards were supposed to run for three years but the response was so positive that it has gone from strength to strength. Projects tackle a wide range of housing issues. The focus is on good housing practices and sharing of knowledge and experience. The first international exchange to a WHA project winner was in 1987 and exchanges have continued. The roots of BSHF are in 1946 when a group of homeless ex-servicemen set up the East Midlands Housing Association (EMHA) with capital of under £40. It successfully provided affordable housing for rent and sale. It divided into profit-/non-profit-making sectors in 1974 following changes in legislation and in 1976 BSHF was formed with a gift from EMHA of all its non-state-aided assets. The aim was to share the most inspiring good housing practice and to highlight much-needed innovation that embraced technology, finance, community development and urbanism. In the 1970s BSHF commissioned a design for a self-supporting co-operative village that pioneered sustainable lifestyles, renewable energy, home-based working and recycling of waste products. Even today this would be considered forward thinking. BSHF publishes extensively on sustainable and innovative housing to advance thinking and understanding on housing concerns and to develop a practical agenda for solutions. They have a global network of innovative organisations that share the goal of better housing and social justice. BSHF has always sought to encourage self-

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help and self-reliance, encouraging people to recognise and use their own skills and abilities. They supported and promoted a fledgling Care and Repair service, which pioneered new ways of aiding older and disabled people to live independently. There is now a national network of nearly 200 home improvement agencies and handyperson providers across England.

Batikent Project, Ankara, Turkey Winner 1986. Credit: World Habitat

The Batikent Project provides 50,000 dwellings on a co-operative basis to lower and middleincome groups. It demonstrates that large new towns can be rapidly and successfully built using the self-help efforts of local people and support from the government. It provides a viable alternative to the haphazard squatter settlements which multiply in and around many of the world’s cities and an example of how change can be achieved if all sectors of the community, including young people, are involved. Partnership: NGO, private sector, local government, national government.

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Case Study 4.1 (Continued)

Award: Building and Social Housing Foundation (BSHF) – Global The National Housing Initiative introduced a ‘progressive habitat’ policy to provide homes for those on lowest incomes. One result was the development of El Cartanel (WHA winner 1989) on the outskirts of Caracas as an ordered, planned development unlike the many unplanned squatter developments in Latin America.

Urbanización Nueva Casarapa Credit: World Habitat

HOUSING POLICY

Multifamily Houses Improved Unifamily Unifamily Houses

Progressive Urban development

Habitat credits

Progressive Habitat Project

Improvement of Squatter Areas

‘Progressive habitat’ After: World Habitat

In 1999 Urbanización Nueva Casarapa was a WHA finalist. Over 6,000 people have been housed in quickly constructed prefabricated homes with individual water and electricity. Homes may be bought through a social housing law that promotes mortgage loans at low interest rates. Social integration is facilitated and an established recreational complex has developed.

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Partnership: Private sector, academic/research. Credit: World Habitat Many formerly state-owned multi-apartment blocks in former Eastern Bloc countries fell into disrepair after privatisation in the early 1990s. The REELIH project involves creating homeowner associations, so that residents can borrow collectively to carry out energy efficiency improvements to make their homes more affordable and improve their health and well-being. REELIH began in Macedonia and transferred to other countries with similar problems but adapting to meet their different needs. Awareness of the benefits of energy efficiency has spread and funding available has continued to increase. Partnership: individuals, homeowner associations, local governments, banks.

World Habitat recognise the early twentyfirst century as a period of change with polarising wealth and a growing population exploiting limited resources. The effects are felt by the most vulnerable.

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Lower order tools Regulation (the minimum requirement) Regulation is the lowest common denominator, the recognised legal requirement to which all buildings must conform, yet often don’t. It is the moving platform that seeks to eliminate worst practice. Regulation changes over time and in the context of sustainable construction may be seen as an attempt to embrace those controllable issues perceived as socially, environmentally and economically relevant at a pace the industry will tolerate.

relation to other important sustainability issues such as indoor air quality – an area of increasing global concern. Regulation can be used to support radical change; for example, the WEEE directive and landfill tax have had a significant impact on waste reduction and recycling. The EU energy label for white goods has also proved useful in both informing purchasers and progressively eliminating poorest performance. The EU Regulation on Building Labelling has arguably to date only introduced bureaucracy without accountability.

In some respects, such as in relation to carbon emissions from buildings, the regulatory benchmark in many countries has made steady progress. However, there has been less progress in

Simon and Jasmine Dale’s house developed on the basis of One Planet Development an imaginative, exciting, innovative Welsh government policy that sadly few know very much about. Source: SimonDale.net

Policy (the stated priorities, aims and objectives)

Peer-reviewed guidance Awards serve a useful purpose but there is sometimes no substitute for peer review. SEDA’s 100 Sustainable Scottish Buildings aims to overcome misunderstandings and correct preconceptions about the nature of sustainable building.

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Policy is an indication of strategy, with stated priorities, aims and objectives. Central and local government, the professional and private sector are developing policies for sustainable built development to drive change. These are welcome – and often interesting and innovative – but can be ineffective and enigmatic unless they have full stakeholder involvement and are accompanied by targets, actions, monitoring and timescales.

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places. They include a range of product, professional or business awards for design or environmental quality. Many fail because they are driven by people or by policies that fall from favour. A UK award aimed to recognise projects and initiatives that contribute to making towns and cities better places in which to live and work, and people whose commitment and enthusiasm was making a significant contribution towards thriving and successful communities. It was short-lived.

Checklists (highlight actions)

Pou Chen’s Green World Kindergarten – Vo Trong Nghia Architects (2013) Designed and constructed as a prototype of sustainable education space in tropical climates. It has a triple-ring green roof enclosing three secure playgrounds with 70% of its area covered by trees. It received the Vietnamese Green Building Council LOTUS award. Photo: Vietnam Green Building Council

Checklists are a valuable way to introduce and highlight important and actionable issues to promote sustainable construction, but they are often limited because they have no integrating aspect and provide no targets. They do provide a simple way to promote better practice. Many local authorities followed the Agenda 21 model and developed checklists, including ‘green’ purchasing strategies, to influence building procurement. They provide a simple and legal way for specifiers to adopt best practice.

Awards (raise awareness of issues) In general, awards aim to raise awareness of, and promote best practice in, specific aspects of sustainable construction. Many civic and professional bodies and environmental agencies distribute awards for sustainability considerations in built development in a range of fields. Some companies even run their own internal and external competitions. Care is needed as they are often used as a marketing tool – the backbone of blacktie dinners and corporate tables. They can be misleading if they have no clear systematic, qualified or peer review. They may also be short-lived if there is insufficient commercially to be gained from them. Awards embrace resource use, waste management, product design, business operation and professional leadership as well as social, environmental and cultural benefits of design interventions and environmental management of buildings and

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Sustainability checklist and fact sheets The City of Melbourne provides guidance on expectations for those involved in new and refurbishment building. It takes the form of sustainability checklists and fact sheets alongside action plans and manuals on biodiversity, life cycle, heritage, materials and waste management, on-site management, water consumption and stormwater.

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David Douglas Pavilion Robin Baker Architects Winner of the Wood Award 2003. Photo: The Author

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Federal Environment Agency Dessau Architects: Sauerbruch Hutton. Photo The Author

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Case Study 4.2

Award: COTE, The Brock Center, USA – Global The American Institute of Architects COTE (Committee on the Environment) Top Ten Awards is an award programme founded on the idea that sustainability is essential to design excellence and vice versa. Until 2017, the award was based largely on predicted performance but has been developing over time into something more. Awards are now required to evidence actual performance as well as design intent. The change resulted from a review of rating systems (such as LEED, WELL, LBC) and a consultation with an aim to reflect criteria for deep sustainability that would be meaningful to both professionals and nonprofessionals. Projects are evaluated on a definition of design quality that includes performance, aesthetics, community connection and resilience, and stewardship of the natural environment. New measures were introduced, such as Design for Community, to help create strong and healthy neighbourhoods. Measure 1  Design for Integration Measure 2  Design for Community Measure 3  Design for Ecology

Architects committed to sustainable design have argued that quantitative assessment methods and indicators are irreconcilable with the qualitative nature of the design process. Quantitative indicators can lead to reductionism, sometimes to a single digit, and reward the measurable at the expense

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Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure

4  5  6  7  8  9  10

Design Design Design Design Design Design Design

for for for for for for for

Water Economy Energy Wellness Resources Change Discovery

However, the changes were more fundamental. As well as criteria for awarding projects, there is now a roadmap to guide design: COTE’s Top Ten Measures of Design. The roadmap encourages open-ended questions, coupled with good facilitation at an early stage. It encourages setting a quantitative approach early in design. While currently classed as an award scheme it is also clearly in some respects a ­certification scheme, as it uses standard LEED credits (for energy modelling, commissioning, measurement and verification). Since these new ­measures are only in place for the 2018 Awards it is yet to be seen whether it will establish itself as a useful and credible ­critical path tool.

of the important. Few respond to context, so urban, ­suburban and rural projects are subject to similar rules. Instead, indicators and guidance must encourage and excite design professionals to creative problemsolving. This Award scheme appears to meet this requirement.

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COTE Award winner – The Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies, Oberlin, Ohio. Architect: William McDonough + Partners 2000 Photo: Bruce Haglund

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Checklist: Copenhagen, home of sustainable meetings, Denmark Copenhagen promotes itself as the capital of sustainable meetings and provides comprehensive guidance on best practice� It has good credentials� It hosted the first-ever ecocertified political summit, the UN Climate Change Conference, in 2009 when 75% of the food for 30,000+ participants was organic� It was Europe’s Green Capital of 2014 and aims to become the world’s first CO2-neutral capital by 2025� Denmark’s targets and policy for reducing CO2 have it ranked first in the Climate Change Performance Index for three consecutive years� Denmark’s EU Presidency (2012) was attentive to the environmental impact of meeting activities and actively encouraged sustainable and innovative thinking�

Nearly 70% of hotel rooms are eco-certified with the Nordic Ecolabel, the Green Key or ISO 14001� These recognise reducing energy and water consumption, minimising waste, introducing organic produce and creating a healthy environment� One chain donates sheets, towels and furniture to homeless shelters� The city offers support in organising eco-events from members of Green Globe, a worldwide organisation working for sustainable tourism� There is also a Nordic eco-labelled chain of print shops� The national airline, SAS, offers a carbon offset programme for international events�

Copenhagen airport is well connected by efficient public transport to the city, which is regularly ranked among the world’s most walkable – although bicycles outnumber cars and 60% of the population commutes by bicycle�

The metabolism of cities Useful frameworks exist to compare qualities of a product or an environment.

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Carbon offset SAS offers a carbon offset programme for international events. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 4.3 (Continued)

Checklist: Copenhagen, home of sustainable meetings, Denmark Sustainable meeting checklist summary A list of questions to ask before your next event.

Your transportation • Is the venue conveniently located for public transport or within biking/walking distance? • Are your guests able to borrow or rent bikes? • Do you offset carbon emissions when flying to your destination?

Your food • Is water provided from jugs rather than from bottles? • Are foods, coffee and beverages locally produced or Fairtrade? • Are foods, coffee and beverages organic where appropriate? • Is your food waste composted? • Is individually wrapped food avoided?

Your waste • Do you use cups, glasses and cutlery rather than plastic drinking vessels and plates? • Do your printed materials use recycled paper and card? • Do you use reusable displays, banners and name badges? • Do guests have an option to separate their waste? • Do you specify where waste-paper and used ­batteries may be deposited?

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Your venue and hotel • Does the venue or the hotel have an environmental strategy signed by the management group? • Has the venue or the hotel established written environmental objectives and drafted an action plan on how to achieve them? • Are environmental issues taken into account when purchasing bathroom, kitchen and office equipment in order to minimise water and power consumption? • Is rainwater collected and used (e.g. for WC cisterns and irrigation)? • Are only dispensers used for hand soap and shampoo? • Are paper towels and toilet paper made from non-chlorine-bleached paper or ­eco-labelled paper? • Are low-energy strip lights/bulbs used where ­possible? • Is the water flow from showers, taps and toilet flush systems controlled and ­minimised? • Are detergents, soap, etc. eco-labelled? • Does the hotel or venue use chemical ­herbicides on their surrounding parks and lawns? • Does the company use renewable energy, such as solar, wind energy, biofuels or underground heating? • Is heat governance installed so that the ­temperature is lowered in rooms that are unoccupied?

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Middle-order: labels and certification tools (traceable performance standards)

that do not have experience in sustainable design to meet the aspirations of funders and clients. However, they are rarely sensitive to context and focus heavily on rewarding quantifiable elements. Some of the most common schemes include the following.

Certification and labelling is useful where it provides an objective evaluation of the environmental impact of a product or a process or a professional. There are schemes available to appraise a wide range of construction-related products (paints, fabrics, cleaning products, materials and white goods) and buildings (covering energy efficiency, noise, water consumption, biodiversity and air quality), and there are labels for construction processes, larger projects and professionals. Labels enable specifiers and buyers to voice a preference for the kind of world they want and to have confidence in the integrity of a professional, building, materials or product. Labels are run by charities, industry and trade bodies, governments and interested parties.

For materials:

They are useful for clients and design teams who recognise that regulations are inadequate to provide resilience against future challenges and who wish to develop more resilient solutions. They often include a combination of requirements and may embrace an element of peer review. They are a record of achievements set against traceable performance standards. These can be particularly useful in motivating design teams

For white goods:

• FSC (Forestry Stewardship Council) for products from sustainably managed forests. • UKWAS (the UK Woodland Assurance Standard) for sustainable UK timber. • Green Building Press has developed an online product directory that evaluates products under six criteria: building, energy, health, nature, ozone and resource. • The British Allergy Foundation Seal of Approval. • BASTA – Building Materials Assessment Criteria – Sweden http://www.bastaonline.se. • Natureplus. • The European Energy Label – white goods are labelled according to their energy efficiency from A++ down to G. For buildings: • The Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). • The US-based Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), also adopted in Canada and India. • Australia’s Green Star. • Vietnam’s LOTUS. • Japan’s Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE). For site practice and civil engineering: • The Considerate Constructors Scheme – now commonplace in appraising environmental and social performance on site. • The Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment and Award Scheme (CEEQUAL) for guiding, monitoring and assessing the quality of civil engineering projects. For professionals: • The professional evidence-based accreditation scheme for sustainable architects in Scotland – the first in the world to acknowledge the practical achievements of designers.

One Carter Lane, 2016 The first project in Europe to achieve certification through the WELL Building Standard™. Credit: Cundall and Dirk Lindner

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National eco-labels

There are a number of established national eco-labels. These include the following: • The Nordic Swan Ecolabel has been developed primarily for the Scandinavian market. The website includes information on a wide range of products, including many of relevance to the construction industry, and also details the criteria that each product must meet in order to gain certification. • Natureplus is a German-based international label specialising in sustainable building materials, products and furnishings. It will only certify products that contain a minimum of 85% recycled materials or that are from mineral-based materials. Further restrictions are placed on materials that are deemed to pose a risk to health, and consideration is also given to life-cycle analysis. The Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland run the only accreditation scheme in the world for sustainable architecture. It is a peer-reviewed personal award. Signal Stations House – Euan Millar – Icosis Architects. Photo: Torquil Cramer

Materials and products: labels and certificates

Background criticism that the criteria reflect vested interests inherent in the sponsored appraisal has never been rebuffed and this compromises the independence of assessments. Traditional and innovative design solutions with no commercial champion remain unassessed. The predominance of ‘A’ ratings also indicates little genuine discrimination. The guide does not ‘blacklist’ despite known adverse impact, but does present arguments for avoiding certain materials.

The EU’s Eco-Iabel scheme was introduced to allow comparability of products on a pan-European basis, but has made slow progress. Uptake in the construction industry has been particularly slow. Only a few product areas such as paints, varnishes and hard floor coverings have gained voluntary EU Eco-label status. More well-established national standards, such as the German (circa 1979) and Nordic (circa 1989) eco-labels, cover a greater range of products.

Build elements: labels and certificates The Green Guide to Housing Specification examines construction elements – windows, doors and walls – against selected criteria. It uses simple A, B or C ratings established by consensus.

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The Green Building Store Specialises in benign products. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 4.4

Product label: Nordic Swan, Denmark The Nordic Swan Ecolabel is a voluntary ecolabelling scheme that evaluates a product’s impact on the environment throughout the whole life cycle. It was established in 1989 by the Nordic Council of Ministers with the purpose of providing a labelling scheme that would contribute to sustainable consumption and help consumers to choose environmentally sound products. Products carrying the Nordic Swan Ecolabel meet extremely high environmental requirements. A life-cycle perspective is analysed, i.e. the product’s impact on the environment from raw material/source to waste. Criteria are also set with regard to quality, health aspects and performance/functionality. It is continuously updated to ensure that it remains relevant and contemporary. There are 63 product groups, many of which are relevant to building industry specifiers, and each has overriding general criteria requirements as well as product-specific requirements. These criteria may be found on the website. A Danish conference venue has been awarded the Ecolabel – considered by many to embody the world’s strictest environmental requirements. Vilvorde Conference Centre, north of Copenhagen, meets the strict requirements for reducing the volume of waste and lowering the consumption of energy, chemicals and water. The Centre has been through an extensive certification process to ensure that it meets the strict requirements of the Ecolabel to minimise the adverse environmental impact – among other things by:

• Offering a selection of organic foods and drinks as well as a vegetarian main course every day. • Separating waste at source so that as much as possible may be reused and recycled. • Training of personnel, so that everyone is committed to work with and for the environment. While many hotels have quite recently adopted some practices of encouraging reduction in laundry and perhaps reducing plastics, the Vilvorde has focused on sustainability and minimising its environmental footprint for more than 30 years. They: • Never use pesticides in the gardens. • Cleaning agents have never contained perfume. There has always been a focus on waste separation. Food produce is carefully selected with a sharp focus on the organic aspect, animal welfare and Fairtrade. • Do not print marketing material and instead use USB sticks for all exhibitions and workshops. • Work with UN SDG and the municipality to create work opportunities for refugees to assist them to socialise and to learn Danish, and strengthen their ability to get work. • Train young adults with autism to prepare for work.

• Limiting energy consumption, and production of CO2. • Minimising consumption of water. • Utilising eco-labelled dishwashing, laundry and general cleaning products. • Making use of eco-labelled paper in the photocopier, in bathrooms and in the kitchen. Credit: Vilvorde

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Buildings: labels and certificates As with all environmental/sustainability labelling schemes, those for buildings are in a phase of rapid expansion with a number of research organisations attempting to develop overarching schemes and many countries developing their own national and locally relevant schemes. Building labels are a mechanism for encouraging design teams, particularly those unfamiliar with the issues of sustainable design, to focus on a client aspiration. The Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) developed in the UK, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) in the USA and the National Australian Building Environmental Rating Scheme (NABERS) have successfully raised standards, and have been increasingly integrated into client and government procurement strategies. However, as they tend to reward the measurable and are not sensitive to context, they will not always be universally appropriate. Concerns have also been raised about the extent to which they constrain best practice and incur significant cost without adding value. Because labels also take considerable time to develop and update they are never completely up to date with best practice.

Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Anapolis, Maryland, USA The first building to receive the US Green Building Council’s Platinum rating for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Photo: Bruce Haglund

‘Three Star’ LEED In China

LEED was developed by the US Green Building Council in 2000. Buildings are evaluated in respect of energy, water resource efficiency, materials, site selection, indoor environmental quality and design innovation but not all of these aspects are required to be addressed. A minimum number of points needs to be achieved. New and existing buildings and neighbourhood schemes are eligible. Certifications and third-party reviews are undertaken by the Green Building Certification Institute. In 2005 the Agenda 21 office building in Beijing was the first building in China to receive a gold LEED rating. In 2006 China launched its own Green Building Label, the ‘Three Star’. LEED and Three Star share common elements and a common goal – to reduce a building’s adverse environmental impact – but the systems diverge in their ratings and review processes.

Untreated solid timber roof, Glencoe A benign solution – an untreated solid timber – designed to ultimately return to nature without polluting the sensitive local environment is not considered by rating schemes. It does not comply with the sponsored criteria. Architects: Gaia Architects; photo: Michael Wolchover

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The ‘Three Star’ accreditation recognises residential and commercial buildings with a rating of three stars – the highest level. Points are awarded for water and energy efficiency, materials, indoor environment, operation and maintenance, and land use and landscaping. Unlike LEED, every category must be addressed to qualify for a star rating. Buildings are assessed by a local, provincial or national committee, depending on the location of the building and the level of ambition.

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Case Study 4.5

Building label: The Living Building Challenge – The Bullitt Center, USA/Global The Living Building Challenge (LBC) is developed and managed by the International Living Future Institute. It envisions the built environment functioning as a petalled flower – as part of the wider environment.

Certification requires meeting criteria in seven areas or ‘petals’ – water, energy, health + happiness, site, materials, equity and beauty. Each petal is subdivided. It is currently the most challenging certification to get, because of the breadth of topics and the thresholds that projects need to achieve. Many projects go only for certain petal certifications, not comprehensive certification. It stands out from the many schemes keen to minimise impact, by promoting those buildings that create a positive impact on human and natural systems. Certified buildings are acknowledged as giving more than they take, creating a positive impact. Reminiscent of Paulo Soleri, instead of being ‘less bad’, the Living building seeks to change the notion of what a building can do. They should also be resilient, and sources of inspiration from which people can learn. The LBC rewards ­buildings that are: • Regenerative spaces – connecting occupants to light, air, food, nature and community. • Self-sufficient – remaining within the resource limits of their site and producing more energy than they use and collect, and treating all water on site. • Healthy and beautiful. There are two core rules. There is no checklist. A building must comply with all the requirements of its type and have a third-party audit

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of actual performance over 12 consecutive months. Creative solutions are encouraged. The LBC acknowledges that many of the best solutions may be community based and allows cooperation between neighbours, rather than always within a single property boundary. Hundreds of domestic, educational and commercial projects are ­registered. The Bullitt Foundation has an important role in protecting the natural environment in the Pacific Northwest of America. They targeted the Living Building Challenge Standard for their new HQ – a six-storey office building in Central Seattle – using standard market rates for the design and construction. A wide variety of performance-based attributes are shared with the public through a tour programme, an exhibition space and research projects. It is a heavy timber structure using FSC certified glulam beams. Energy supply comprises a 244kW rooftop PV array and a ground-source heat exchanger. Energy and water conservation strategies were supported by grants in lieu of tax. The building produces more energy than it uses. Over a sample year it produced a surplus of 90,793kWh of electricity. Rainwater is collected in the basement, treated to potable drinking standards, and supplies all water needs of the building. The first time this was allowed in an urban setting. A six-storey composting toilet system creates a leachate that is transported to a site where it is filtered using natural processes and used to restore a native wetland. Usable fertiliser has to be treated at a secondary facility. Greywater supplies a wetland on the second floor. To achieve the LBC Award all materials must be non-toxic and low impact. The materials were screened for compliance with the Materials Red List and several ­products substituted.

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Case Study 4.5 (Continued)

Building label: The Living Building Challenge – The Bullitt Center, USA/Global Attention was paid to occupant health and ‘irresistible’ stairs with exceptional views encourage their use rather than the lift. All workstations are naturally daylit and have views. Exemptions from normal codes in relation to floor-to-floor heights increase interior daylighting and reduce dependence on electric lighting. The lessons learnt will assist in the development of new guidelines. An ‘As Built’ product list is produced to assist in future materials sourcing. Performance goals for a living building include net positive energy and water and zero waste. Projects must integrate local culture, biophilic elements and beauty to foster community and natural connections.

Biophilic Design: the practice of connecting people and nature within our built environment and communities The International Living Future Institute brought together an advisory group to achieve the goal of the broad adoption of Biophilic Design among the design community, building owners and cities. The initiative currently comprises a resource centre for information and resources, including a databank of case studies that have implemented Biophilic Design at the core of their design process to facilitate connections and education that will build capacity and advance Biophilic Design.

The ‘irresistible’ stair. Photo Credit: Bruce Haglund

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Projects: labels and certificates There are currently two notable certification schemes used to manage the sustainability aspects of the construction process: Considerate Constructors’ scheme and CEEQUAL.

Considerate Constructors’ scheme Considerate Constructors is a voluntary code of practice open to all construction companies; it seeks to: • minimise the disturbance or negative impact (noise, dirt and inconvenience) sometimes caused by construction sites to the immediate neighbourhood; • eradicate offensive behaviour and language from construction sites; • recognise and reward a contractor’s commitment to raise standards of site management, safety and environmental awareness beyond statutory duties.

strategy and performance against a range of best practice sustainability measures. It has grown in popularity because of: • Reputation-building and good PR – including delivery of the participants’ environmental, sustainability and/or corporate social responsibility policies. • Improvements to projects and maintenance work, and implementation of best practice – ranging from whole-life costing, waste minimisation, resource efficiency (materials, water, energy), to reducing complaints and environmental incidents. • Demonstrating commitment to the sustainability agenda: – to clients, the team and organisations involved – to the industry as a whole. • Enhanced team spirit – developing a positive ‘we must score well here’ attitude and rewarding project or contract teams that have ‘gone the extra mile’. • Cost savings – projects have reported cost savings through the use of the CEEQUAL scheme.

The Code commits contractors to be good neighbours, clean, respectful, safe, environmentally conscious, responsible and accountable. The aim is to encourage a positive image for the construction industry through competent management, efficiency, awareness of local environmental issues and neighbourliness. The success of Considerate Constructors has led a number of larger contracting companies to introducing guidance and training and also to develop their own schemes. Caution is required with respect to appraising outcomes.

The Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment Scheme (CEEQUAL) CEEQUAL aims to encourage the attainment of environmental excellence in civil engineering projects. It has specifically sought to overcome some of the weaknesses of schemes such as BREEAM by evolving a system that was respectful of context. CEEQUAL focuses on the processes that enable delivery of best practice and is robust enough to deal with large-scale, longtimescale, new and regeneration projects. CEEQUAL is an evidence-based sustainability assessment, rating and awards scheme for civil engineering. It rates a project’s

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Construction site Site activity is increasingly subject to voluntary and mandatory controls such as CEEQUAL and Considerate Constructors. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 4.6

Project label: CEEQUAL Grey to Green, England Client: Sheffield City Council. Contractor: North Midland Construction Grey to Green is transforming 1.2km of redundant road surface in Sheffield’s City Centre Riverside Business District into an attractive new public space that includes meadows, an extensive Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SuDS), rain gardens, public art that explores local history, and high-quality paved footways and street furniture. The 0.5km Phase 1 received the CEEQUAL Outstanding Achievement Awards for Landscape and for Water Environment and The Eric Hughes Award 2016 for Outstanding Contribution. The awards reflect the judges’

admiration of an intervention that can ­simultaneously: • enhance the experience of people using a busy city centre, • reduce flood risk, • improve water management, • provide habitats for nature, • boost the area’s economy. The scheme has raised national and local interest, with feedback being very positive – particularly as the planting continues to mature – from businesses and residents in the area and increasing number of visitors.

Photo: The Author

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Case Study 4.7

Benchmark: DQI, Welsh Assembly, Wales In 1999 the Construction Industry Council initiated work to improve the design quality of UK buildings. One of the outcomes was DQI (Design Quality Indicator), based on a variation of the Vitruvian principles: Functionality (Utilitas), Build Quality (Firmitas) and Impact (Venustas). Ambitions are set at the outset by the team and at stages throughout a project life cycle. Debate around these key principles is encouraged and overseen by an independent facilitator. A report is provided at each stage. The perceived benefits are: 1. Affordable critical analysis with a proven track record. 2.  Buy-in from stakeholders. 3.  Quantifies user priorities. 4.  Measures progress against benchmarks. 5.  Measures effectiveness. DQI has been used on over 1,400 projects worldwide of varying size, at different stages and following different procurement routes. No two projects are the same, and each is subject to unique constraints. It has been acknowledged as useful in: • evaluating and improving design, • increasing the value of current or future assets, • highlighting where capital spend could be best placed, • highlighting operational issues at design and in use, • increasing staff productivity, • enhancing the quality of space, • writing or clarifying project briefs, • setting aspirations for projects and teams • reducing whole-life costs, user complaints and energy consumption,

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• interrogating project designs, • engaging stakeholders during planning, design, construction, • gathering post-occupancy feedback and incorporating this into future schemes, • contributing to a BREEAM rating of ‘Excellent’.

“The DQI assessment at the in-use stage has established the ‘ground truth’ as seen from the diverse perspectives of the various participants. […] On this occasion, the Welsh Assembly are able to justly claim that the building has achieved what it set out to do.” The building is at the heart of the flagship regeneration zone in Cardiff Bay. The NAW was to become a symbol for Wales throughout the world and a prestigious landmark. It was both the client’s and architect’s aspiration to create a design sensitive to the surrounding development. The building exemplifies high environmental standards and has been awarded a BREEAM rating of ‘Excellent’. The architectural concept was one of placing the electorate above the elected while offering maximum transparency and openness, symbolic of democracy. It uses traditional local materials – slate and oak. The briefing assessment was useful in directing design development: in capturing the successes and failures for guiding future projects and for the ongoing management of the ­building.

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Photo credit: Copyright © Redshift Photography 2006

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Middle-order: benchmarking tools

each year based on performance data collected from across the sector allowing companies to track their projects against the performance of the rest of the construction industry.

(enable comparison)

The information was in the public domain and so the relative performance of companies and sectors could be compared. It was a factor in raising overall performance over time as no one wanted to be at the lower end of the scale.

Establishing and measuring performance in relation to agreed indicators allows projects, products and processes to be compared. A benchmark is ‘the best in class’ performance achieved in practice for a specific process or activity. It is a reference point to objectively appraise relative achievement and is more indicative of performance than a simple score. Since it is a performance that has been achieved, it may be used to improve performance in a systematic way by measuring and comparing performance against others, and then using lessons learnt from the best to set improvement goals. Note: the term ‘benchmark’ is sometimes used incorrectly to refer to average performance or even to refer to a minimum acceptable standard. Benchmarking was used as a core strategy in a UK campaign in the late 1990s to improve the performance of the construction sector in traditional aspects of business performance, such as cost, time, safety and profitability, and then latterly in respect of energy and water resources, embodied energy, transport, construction waste and impact on biodiversity. They introduced a wide range of Key Performance Indicators (KPls)

Client satisfaction If a client rated their overall satisfaction with a building project at 6 out of 10, those involved might be reasonably content; unless information gathered from the industry indicated that over 85% of projects provided greater client satisfaction.

The key benefits of benchmarking to organisations are: • Focuses improvement efforts on issues critical to success. • Ensures that improvement targets are based on what has been achieved in practice, which removes the temptation to say ‘it can’t be done’. • Provides confidence that performance compares favourably with best practice. • Provides assurance that ‘best value’ is being achieved. Benchmarking makes no attempt to establish absolute targets. It cannot be relied upon to promote the necessary or even best possible improvements. Benchmarking tool

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ambitious Factor 4 (Von Weizsacker et al. 1998), demonstrating many examples of using technology to double output using half the resource inputs – a 75% reduction in adverse environmental impacts. The Factor 10 Institute then raised the bar with proposals to reduce resource turnover by 90% on a global scale by 2020–2040. Practical experience suggests that gains from measures, such as environmentally friendly materials and renewable energy, may not bring such significant gains without additional costs. To achieve higher efficiencies the scope must extend beyond design to concept design; for example, reducing the need for new buildings, using existing buildings more intensively – longer opening hours, hot desking and multifunctional use.

The Vales Surgery Rated very highly by the PROBE Study and influential initiative that used a range of relevant benchmarked performance data to assess building performance in use.

Higher order: targeting tools (use absolute standards) These tools use standards based on the best available science at any time, and evolve as knowledge improves. Their value is that they set quantifiable standards based on a known measure, which may be an order of magnitude improvement on existing resource consumption, a percentage improvement on regulations or an ecological footprint. They include life-cycle analysis (LCA) tools such as ENVEST 2 and LISA (LCA in Sustainable Architecture), NABERS, ecological footprinting and pollution targets. The criteria are generally ambitious and have been used as the basis on which flagship project guidelines are set.

Factor X ‘Factor X’ describes how efficiently we use resources. In 1990 Barry Commoner, an American ecologist, proposed that to maintain adequate resource supplies in the long term we needed to increase effectiveness of resource use by 20 times by 2040. That is Factor 20. The concept was popularised as a less

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The United Nations Environment Programme calls for a longterm tenfold reduction in resource use in industrialised countries to meet the needs of developing countries. With a predicted rise in population and economic growth to maintain the level of pollution we have today, we need to be able to produce the same output for 10% of the impact.

Ecological footprints The precondition for sustainability is to live within the capacity of our planet. Our activities use resources and produce waste. As populations grow and global consumption increases, it is essential that we measure nature’s capacity to meet these demands. The concept of ecological space developed in 1992. It evolved by 1994 to form the basis of ecological footprinting – a measure of the supply of and demand on nature. An ecological footprint is the area of productive land needed to meet the consumption of a single person and to absorb the waste produced. The ecological footprint of a population, economy, individual building or person can be estimated. Limits to per capita resource can then be developed based on equitable distribution of global resources between countries. National Footprint Accounts calculated as National Production + Imports Exports provide the core data for all ecological footprinting worldwide (over 200 countries, territories and regions) based on about 15,000 data points per country per year. A country has an ecological reserve – ecological credit – if its footprint is smaller than its bio-capacity. Otherwise it is in ecological deficit (ecological debtors). Today, most countries, and the world as a whole, are running ecological deficits. The world’s ecological deficit is referred to as global ecological overshoot.

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Case Study 4.8

Targeting: PIMWAG, Helsinki, Finland Since 1931 there has been a small teaching and research facility at Viikki, 8km from Helsinki. In the late 1990s, a decision was made to construct a new city district in the area in such a way as to retain the existing rural landscape and with environmental responsibility at the core. The aim was that the area should develop a population of 18,000 by 2025, with an additional 6.000 employees at the science park and a similar number of students. Minimum performance standards were set that improved significantly on the standard defined by a conventional apartment in Helsinki. These were appended to the contracts such that all designs met the minimum requirements. The criteria covered pollution, natural resources, health, diversity and food production. • Pollution – building less, more efficiently (energy use and traffic), durable and recyclable structures. • Natural resources – better or less building, renewable resources and recyclable materials.

• Health – favourable microclimate and healthy conditions inside, local control, banning materials known or thought to be toxic, external comfort, healthy and comfortable internal space. • Natural diversity – leave as large a part as possible unbuilt, high-density, access for animals, diverse planting. • Food production – resident allotments and use of topsoil. Additional points accumulated for improvement on the base level, 10 points considered excellent, 20 points requiring significant innovation and a maximum of 30 points ­available. The system (PIMWAG – an acronym of the authors’ names) also set capital cost implications at 5%, not intended to be onerous. The intention was that the investment should save on running costs over the project’s life. The requirements were intended to serve as a guide for design and implementation, and to be appended to building regulations on all city-owned sites such that all designs meet the minimum requirements.

100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

CO2

Water consumption

Conventional building

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Construction waste

Domestic waste

eco-criteria minimum

Energy for heating

Electrical energy

Viikki-highest value

Primary energy Viikki-lowest value

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Case Study 4.8 (Continued)

Targeting: PIMWAG, Helsinki, Finland Keltavuokko Two blocks of five-/six-storey buildings are part of the district solar heating project, including solar water heating and balcony zones on the south side. The layout is zoned such that transient and sleeping areas are to the north. Flexibility was a significant objective

and there is provision for ­homeworking. There are individual saunas plus a communal sauna and social room. The materials selection was intended to promote indoor health. Sheltered gardens contain ­allotments for planting, and the majority of the trees and bushes are edible plants. Rainwater and run-off is collected and channelled to a wetland pool.

Photo: The Author

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Higher order: critical path tools Promote awareness of the process These tools offer clients, designers and specifiers a way to control outcomes by highlighting positive environmental, social and economic opportunities throughout the process. Little attention is normally given to problems associated with the design, construction and handover process. Yet from scheme design onward sustainability objectives are particularly vulnerable. A tendency to give awards at the design stage is unhelpful. It is important that design aspirations are validated on completion. There is growing recognition of the need for process tools to support management of the design and construction process and to reliably take aspirations through to successful delivery and beyond into genuine long-term sustainability. Tender strategies, cost-cutting and management and operation have the potential to undermine a project’s aspirations. It is vital that sustainability is maintained high on the agenda as a project progresses and an increasing number of documents provide realtime guidance. The requirements are wide-ranging, but among the tasks are:

The Sustainability Guide to the Plan of Work, The Green Guide to the Architects Job Book and the Code of Practice for Buildings and their Services all outline critical steps required to ensure that the process of sustainable design is correctly followed through by all involved. The former is from the perspective of the lead consultant, and the latter is aimed equally at architects and engineers. They provide a ‘route’ rather than ‘rules’. Building log-books are also critical path guidance. These are intended to bring together the design and facilities management communities to set down in simple terms how a building is meant to work, and to provide somewhere to log performance and maintenance. They are seen as an essential tool to promote more energy-efficient operation through improved understanding, management and operation, resulting in more sustainable buildings with lower running costs. Building occupants also stand to benefit, as the provision of information will contribute to enhanced occupant comfort, satisfaction and productivity. The log-book should be an easily accessible focal point of current information for all those working in the building.

• briefing to address resource effectiveness and compare new build, multifunction and reuse options; • preparation of firm tender requirements that respect sustainability objectives; • establishing controls within the site; • maintaining records of sustainability objectives; • training in sustainability and unusual elements of design; • assessing changes to minimise adverse impacts; • ensuring that records are kept to assist at handover; • training and involvement of users and operation/ maintenance staff. Outcomes include improved control, minimisation of adverse environmental impacts and avoidance of decision paralysis. Examples include the Environmental Code of Practice for Buildings and Their Services (1994), the CIBSE log-book, the Sustainable Neighbourhood Audit Technique, the Sustainability Guide to the RIBA Plan of Work 2013 and the ISO 14000 Environmental Management Series. They may integrate many of the other techniques and indicate when to use them.

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Queen Margaret University Campus in East Lothian The Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book was used to guide the development of a new campus. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 4.9

Critical path: regeneration through SNAP Paisley, Scotland In the course of moving community architectural projects in peripheral housing estates towards the aims and objectives of Agenda 21 – both before and since its formal adoption in 1992 – the Gaia Group developed methodologies to support their work. One empirical technique, devised during the Paisley regeneration and subsequently developed in other projects, may have a significant role to play in the construction of sustainable communities. Sustainable construction is taken to include social and economic criteria alongside physical interventions. The sustainable neighbourhood audit process (SNAP) aims to assist communities to participate in sustainable community development and to enable designers and other professionals to develop a holistic approach to the development of sustainable communities.

• Place (environmental) issues: Global pollution, local pollution, biodiversity, ecology and resources. Local issues are identified through community workshops, and placed on the matrix under the Work, Folk and Place headings. Proposals for action, the means to resolve global and community requirements, are placed centremost. These constitute the interventions that would be a step towards sustainable community development. The framework provides a mechanism for then identifying appropriate resources and, importantly, for monitoring improvement. Top down Economy

Summary of the sustainable community development model

Environment

Agencies in Agenda 21 categories

Relevant issues originate from both the global context (top down) and the local situation (bottom up). Global issues are defined under three key headings: Work (economy), Folk (community) and Place (environment), each subdivided into general headings.

Community

Relevant selected agencies

Other ideas

Audit

Finance and resources Project delivery

• Folk (community) issues: Social equity, amenity, health and safety, and nutrition and fitness. • Work (economic) issues: Employment, local economy, affordability, and waste and recycling.

Champions and ownership

Local community priorities

Local community brainstorm Work

Folk

Place

Bottom up Credit: Gaia Group

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Case Study 4.10

Critical Path: Sustainability Guide to the Plan of Work 2013 – UK This Sustainability Guide is part of a series providing practical guidance to running efficient and successful projects using the new RIBA Plan of Work 2013. Each guide takes a core project task – in this case achieving sustainable design and construction – and explains the essential activities required at each stage. It expands on the existing Sustainability Checkpoints to both explain the importance of, and provide practical guidance on, defining and delivering a sustainable project. The guides are designed for use on projects across all types of procurement, It is principally written from the perspective of the lead designer but recognises that a variety of people may take on these responsibilities. It provides insight for anyone unfamiliar with recent sustainability guidance and a route map to delivering a sustainable project, guidance on the issues and a structure within which to identify when these issues need to be addressed for: • all members of the project team, including clients and prospective clients; • students of architecture and other design and construction professions; • other built environment professionals. It highlights the benefits of sustainability thinking at each stage and provides a communication framework – taken from the Green Guide to the Architects’ Job Book (Halliday 2007) – by way of six strategic sustainability considerations that buildings and the built environment will increasingly be required to satisfy: • Use resources effectively; • Minimise pollution; • Create healthy environments; • Support communities; • Enhance biodiversity; • Manage the process. It provides a framework for sustainability goals to be set, managed and evidenced through to project delivery and in use.

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It provides confidence that the project team understands, and can establish the sustainability goals, and subsequently the Sustainability Strategy and Sustainability Aspirations, and a programme for delivery. It will identify: • how to demonstrate that Sustainability Aspirations have been achieved; • how a completed project can be further ­optimised; • how lessons learnt can be made available for future projects; • identify where decisions are required to be made and signed off, and information exchanged. THE MINIMAL DESIGN TEAM:

SOCIAL & BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES

ECOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY

DESIGNER PSYCHOLOGY

A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE REAL “CLIENT” GROUP

ARCHITECT

ENGINEER

STRUCTURAL

BIOLOGY, MATHS,

MEDIA

+ MAYBE: THE PEOPLE FOR WHOM THE DESIGN TEAM WORKS MUST BE PART OF THE DESIGN TEAM: “IF YOU‛RE NOT PART OF THE ANSWER YOU‛RE PART OF THE PROBLEM” ELDRIDGE CLEAVER

THEORY OF GAMES DEMOGRAPHY STATISTICS FILM-MAKING ETHOLOGY ECONOMICS LAW EARTH SCIENCES COMPUTER SCIENCE ERGONOMICS CLIMATOLOGY MEDICINE

The Minimal Design Team Credit: After Papanek

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Conclusion In order to evaluate the degree to which sustainability objectives are being met, it is necessary to find agreement on the issues and the severity of the problems. Many countries have set sustainability indicators that act as a guide to the direction of future government policy and there is growing consensus on the issues – but little agreement on priorities and targets. Where there is a low-level regulatory benchmark, and slow improvement, it is an aggravation to those at the forefront of design practices who both know how much more is achievable but also have to compete with the non-optimised and poorquality norm.

direct building design to conform to real limitations on resources and impact, to checklists that do little more than encourage issues to be considered. Numerous award schemes are used to reward best practice, often in a non-systematic way, while labelling and certification demands a degree of traceability, and is less fickle. There can be disagreement where a methodology disaggregates factors and then uses weightings that may seem arbitrary. However, professional judgement also has value. Importantly, there is increasing recognition of the need for critical path/process tools to support specialist management of the design and construction process in order to reliably take aspirations through to successful delivery and beyond into genuine long-term sustainability.

The techniques vary, from those that seek to establish sustainable construction as a process, targeting tools that aim to

Top 10 countries with the biggest ecological footprint per person

11.68

Qatar

9.72

Kuwait

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8.44

UAE*

8.25

Denmark

7.19

USA

7.11

6.63

6.43

Belgium

Australia

Canada

6.34

Netherlands

6.22

Ireland

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Bibliography Von Weizsacker, E., Lovins, A.B. and Lovins, L.H. (1998) Factor 4 – Doubling wealth and halving resource use. Earthscan.

RIAS Sustainable Design Accreditation Scheme. www.rias.org.uk.

Morse, S. (2004) Indices and Indicators in Development – An unhealthy obsession with numbers. Earthscan.

Checklists

Klinckenberg, F. & Sunikka, M. (2006) Better Buildings through Energy Efficiency – A road map for Europe.

Melbourne. www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/building-anddevelopment/sustainable-building/Pages/sustainability-checklistfact-sheets.aspx.

www.eurima.org/uploads/EU_Roadmap_building_ report_020307.pdf.

Labels and certification

Clements-Croome, D.J. (2006) Creating the Productive Workplace, 2nd edn. Routledge.

BREEAM: www.bre.co.uk.

BRE (2008) The Green Guide to Housing Specification. BRE. Berge, B., (2009) The Ecology of Building Materials, 2nd edn. Routledge. The Ecological Footprint Standards (2009) are the current operational standards (2016) used to ensure consistency in national footprint accounts. www.footprintnetwork.org/content/images/uploads/Ecological_ Footprint_Standards_2009.pdf.

CEEQUAL: www.ceequal.co.uk. Considerate Constructors’ scheme: www.ciboard.org.uk. FSC: www.fsc.org. GreenPro: www.newbuilder.co.uk. International Living Future Institute: www.living-future.org/lbc. LEED: www.usgbc.org/LEED. LISA: www.lisa.au.com.

Calculation Methodology for the National Footprint Accounts 2011 Edition. Ecological Indicators Journal, vol. 24, 518–533.

NABERS: www.nabers.com.au.

SEDA (2017) 100 Sustainable Scottish Buildings. Bain & Bain.

Natureplus: www.natureplus.org/en/products/.

CABE (n.d.) The Value of Good Design – How buildings & spaces create economic and social value. CABE.

Green Seal: www.greenseal.org.

UKWAS: www.ukwas.org.uk.

Benchmarks

Policy The Welsh Government (2012) One Planet Development Practice Guide. The Welsh Government. www.cymru.gov.uk.

Design Quality Indicators: www.DQl.org.uk. KPIs: www.kpizone.com.

Awards

Targeting tools

BSHF. www.world-habitat.org.

Global Footprint Network: www.footprintnetwork.org. Ecological footprints: www.myfootprint.org. LICENSED ECO-LABELS

A number of eco-labels conform to ISO 14024, are voluntary and based on the environmental impact of a product or material throughout its life cycle. A licensee authorises the use of environmental labels on products indicating overall preference of a product within a particular product category based on life-cycle considerations.

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• The European eco-label: ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/ • The Nordic Swan, Scandinavia: www.svanen.se/en/ • The Blue Angel (Blauer Engel), Germany: www.blauerengel.de/en/our-label-environment • Umweltzeichen, Austria: www.umweltzeichen.at • Ecomark, Japan: www.ecomark.jp/english/ • EcoLogo, Canada: http://bit.ly/1gDbu4p

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Factor 4: www.wuperinst.org/factor4. Factor 10: www.factor10-institute.org.

Gaia Architects (2002) Sustainable Neighbourhood Audit Process. www.gaiagroup.org.

NIBE: www.nibe.nl.

Halliday, S.P. (2007) The Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book, 2nd edn. RIBA Publications.

Critical path tools

Halliday, S.P. & Atkins, R. (2016) Sustainability Guide to the Plan of Work 2013. RIAS Publications.

Halliday, S.P. (1994) Environmental Code of Practice for Buildings and their Services. BSRIA.

Flourish Model, Clements-Croome, 2006 Most appraisal tools deal only with measurable effects. Flourish seeks to encourage stimulating, creative and productive workplaces. A three-layered model includes a Sparkle layer of non-quantifiable aspects – views on nature, daylight, colour, décor, layout, aesthetics and green space.

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Chapter 5 Materials selection In which we seek to give the reader a sound and broad grasp of the issues and priorities affecting materials selection in the design of sustainable places, buildings, services and objects and a realistic perspective on the range of issues which will affect decision-making.

Rise and Win Brewery and Shop Credit: Koji Fujii/Nacasa & Partners Inc.

“Everything must go somewhere.” Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle (1971)

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Andersen House The moisture from the building is vented behind this sacrificial timber Iayer. Architects: Dag Roalkvam and Rolf Jacobsen; Photo: Dag Roalkvam

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Materials selection Contents Introduction�����������������������������������������������148 An approach, not a formula�����������������������149 What is the resource base?������������������������154 What is embodied?������������������������������������156 Extraction���������������������������������������������������� 156

Moisture transfusive construction������������165 What is the final destination?��������������������167 Durability���������������������������������������������������� 167 Maintenance������������������������������������������������ 167 Choices: the five Rs�����������������������������������172

Local issues���������������������������������������������� 156 Embodied pollution���������������������������������� 156 Processing and production��������������������������� 157 Waste����������������������������������������������������������� 157 Distribution������������������������������������������������� 157 What is the impact in use?�������������������������162 Toxicity������������������������������������������������������� 162 Detailing������������������������������������������������������ 163 Passive environmental control��������������������� 164 Thermal mass������������������������������������������� 164 Moisture mass������������������������������������������ 164

Materials: handy hints and tips�����������������177 Process�������������������������������������������������������� 177 Local economics������������������������������������������ 177 Management������������������������������������������������ 177 Affordability������������������������������������������������ 177 Building services������������������������������������������ 177 Health���������������������������������������������������������� 177 Safety���������������������������������������������������������� 177 Bibliography����������������������������������������������178

Case studies   5.1   5.2   5.3   5.4   5.5   5.6   5.7   5.8   5.9 5.10

Typical feedback on a housing specification�������������������������������������������������������������������150 Expressing the ethos: Timber College, Switzerland��������������������������������������������������������152 Ecological urban: Nuremburg, Germany��������������������������������������������������������������������������153 Eco-minimalist school: Acharacle, Scotland���������������������������������������������������������������������158 Lightest footprint: Argyll, Scotland���������������������������������������������������������������������������������160 Tenement refurbishment: Edinburgh,Scotland����������������������������������������������������������������166 Waste reduction and planned downsizing: Millennium Park, London ����������������������������168 Repurposed: Kamikatz Public House, Japan��������������������������������������������������������������������170 Upcycling: Villa Welpeloo, The Netherlands��������������������������������������������������������������������171 Material passports: Liander, The Netherlands�����������������������������������������������������������������174

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148 Sustainable Construction

Introduction

which crucially depends on the care that goes into detailing and maintenance.

Ecological building design is characterised by prioritising materials that are fit for purpose and have minimum transportation and chemical or mechanical transformation, hence low embodied pollution. They should be derived so as not to exploit human populations or undermine natural habitats that could adversely affect biodiversity. Awareness of toxicity is vital, as materials should not be a risk to human health or harmful to other species at any stage of their life cycle.

For many designers and specifiers material selection is all part of a balanced judgement extending to and sometimes beyond distance travelled, manufacture, human rights, biodiversity and pollution. Importantly this should not be restrictive on design if thought about intelligently, but should open up new creative opportunities. Thinking about the future of a material is as important as looking at its past.

Many attempts have been made to create a coordinated and comprehensive analysis tool for materials in the construction industry that can enable specifiers, who are minded to do so, to make objective decisions about material selection. Each has unique selection criteria and some of these are extensive and detailed. Some take a life-cycle approach. A number of the techniques are helpful, but addressing all the issues is an enormous undertaking. None are definitive, nor are they ever likely to be, since the issues are complex and interwoven, and because of relative priorities. Sustainable design requires us to use only those materials that can return to the natural environment and biodegrade safely at the end of a useful life which may have numerous stages. Appropriate material specification can also add value by contributing to passive environmental control such as thermal or hygroscopic mass. However, the ‘sustainability’ of a material owes much to the way it is used. Apart from dedicated specialists and craftspeople, there is widespread inexperience about how to use materials sustainably and this affects the performance in use,

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The Tailored Textile House The façade is made of cheap cowshed textile available in a range of colours from which black was chosen. Photo: The Author

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Materials selection 149

An approach, not a formula A life-cycle approach using four principal questions will highlight crucial issues and provide sufficient information to allow for sensible choices. Each question raises issues for a specifier. They are expanded upon later in this chapter.

compromise and judgement, a realm familiar to designers. It is important to have a genuine commitment to achieving the best result. Conversely, a basic disregard for good sense, pollution and human rights undermines the serious advances that are possible.

1 What is the resource base? Where is it from and how much is left? 2 What is embodied? What has been done to it and by whom? There are resources, pollution and ethical aspects. 3 What is its impact in use? What effects does it have on people and the wider environment? 4 What is its final destination? What will happen to it at the end of its life? It may not be practical or possible to arrive at definitive answers to all of these considerations. Nor is it feasible for designers to repeatedly assess every component against every consideration, but there is guidance, and many designers and practices build up a palette of acceptable materials over time. Some specifiers may prioritise for an overriding aspect such as ethical consumption, or avoidance of toxins in the indoor environment or a requirement to be biodegradable without causing pollution. These issues therefore remain within the realm of

Traditional timber fascia detail, nineteenth-century railway station In excellent condition having been well selected, well designed to shed water and well maintained. Photo: The Author

Living Building Challenge – Red List The Red List contains the worst in class materials prevalent in the building industry. The chemicals on the Red List are:

Housing development, Kamen, Germany Part of Emscher Park regeneration designed using 100% ecolabelled materials. Architect: Joachim Eble; Photo: Howard Liddell

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• polluting the environment; • bio-accumulating in food chains in toxic concentrations; • harming construction and factory workers. For each material identified, connections are provided to sources of further documented information on known harms.

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Case Study 5.1

Typical feedback on a housing specification The sustainability policy of a housing association requires it to move towards affordable housing that: •  Uses resources effectively. •  Minimises pollution; •  Creates healthy environments. •  Enhances biodiversity. On receipt of the specification for a housing sch­eme, the sustainability adviser suggested substitutions for materials in conflict with the policy. •  UPVC > Metal/High-density Polyethylene • Fibre cement wood effect weatherboarding > Timber • Glass wool insulation (superglassbatts) > Earthwool • Mineral wool insulation > Paper or earthwool • Expanded polystyrene insulation > Woodfibre • Formica laminate cubicles > Timber • CCA timber > Untreated timber • Silicone render > Lime render • Vinyl safety flooring > Rubber safety ­flooring •  Low-VOC or low-odour paints > Water-based paints The architect proposed retaining the fibre cement wood effect weatherboarding. The following appraisal was undertaken to inform the client of the implications.

MANUFACTURE Fibre cement is processed cement and ‘natural and synthetic’ fibres. Cement production is a major polluter of air, water and land. Manu­ facture exposes workers to crystalline silica, which can cause silicosis and lung cancer. Timber is cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose converted through photosynthesis. Manufacture exposes workers to sawdust that does not affect human physiology

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TRANSPORT Fibre cement is imported from Belgium / Germany. Timber can be homegrown.

CONSTRUCTION Pre-cutting fibre cement in factory conditions to minimise exposure to dust is recommended. This rarely happens. Timber dust can pose a health issue for finely grained/intricately shaped pieces, but not from cutting on site.

MAINTENANCE Fibre cement cannot be maintained. If damaged it must be replaced. Timber can be maintained; appropriate detailing, selection and fixing of cladding all contribute to maximising lifespan.

DISPOSAL Fibre cement: There is no recycling or reprocessing facility in the UK. It must be landfilled and will not degrade. Timber can be re-machined for reuse; reclaimed for energy or composted (as long as it is untreated and uncoated). Embodied energy (refer Hammond/Jones paper): Fibre cement 10.9MJ/kg = 157MJ/m2 of façade. Timber (softwood) 7.4MJ/kg = 65MJ/m2 of façade. Embodied carbon (refer Hammond/Jones paper): Fibre cement 0.575kgC/kg or 8.3kgC/m2 of façade.

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Case Study 5.1 (Continued)

Typical feedback on a housing specification Timber (softwood) 0.123kgC/kg or 1.1kgC/m2 of façade. Note: Fibre 12mm thick and 1,300kg/m3 density; Timber 22mm thick and 400kg/m3 density. Embodied water: Fibre cement uses significant quantities for processing and processing timber uses virtually none. Aesthetic: Carefully detailed timber cladding is a well-respected aesthetic, enhanced further

by carefully applied colour or weathering. Fibre cement does not significantly change with age, and has no discernible ­‘character’. It can be coated to encourage growth of lichens and mosses. Sadly the developers are only prepared to use Siberian Larch, which is also unsustainable at current rates of regeneration and planting. Thermal timber treatments like the PLATO process need wider publicity. With thanks to Sam Foster.

Plato treated timber at Villa Welpeloo Architects: Superuse Studio; Photo: Allard van der Hoek

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Case Study 5.2

Expressing the ethos: Timber College, Switzerland, 1998 Architects: Itten and Brechbuhl This forest training centre in Lyss is owned by a foundation from 11 cantons. It was originally intended to be a concrete construction but, with the timber industry in decline, the director insisted on timber in keeping with the ethos. The design goals were to achieve a noluxury, reasonably priced and low maintenance building using sustainable materials. The primary construction comprises 300 silver fir columns with steel consoles. The floor construction comprises suspended MDF acoustic ceilings below rough pine roundpole and tiles

made of recycled materials. All the furniture is red heartwood beech. In total, about 2000m3 of timber was used, equivalent to 1.7 hours of Swiss forest growth. Also in keeping with the spirit, it is heated from a wet wood biomass boiler of about 320kW using in total 650m3/ annum. Numerous escape routes and compartments, concrete crosswalls, sprinklers, escapeways and ladders were required to allow wood stairs to be used in student apartments.

Photo: The Author

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Case Study 5.3

Ecological urban design: Nuremburg, Germany, 1997 Architects: Joachim Eble Prisma is probably the first urban truly mixeduse development complex that can be defined as an ecological design project. It is significantly bigger than the Okohaus, Frankfurt which preceded it by five years and has housing as well as offices, commerce and a kindergarten. Despite being in the centre of a German city and having to comply with stringent building control and fire regulations, the nine-storey building manages to achieve a very high standard of specification in terms of environmentally sound materials.

atrium spaces. The water strategy is based on catching, conserving and recycling on site. All the commercial properties get their preconditioned ventilation from the large solar atrium. The scheme sought to use materials sparingly, including rainwater half-pipes and as many recycled or reclaimed materials as possible, sourced within budget and time constraints. The aluminium roof has the potential to be reused as a high-value material in perpetuity but there may be energy penalties.

The ground floor is a shopping precinct, the next three floors are offices and the top floors are residential. An inner courtyard offers a secure environment for the kindergarten, which serves the on-site housing. Concrete is used only where absolutely necessary. Many of the floors are of mass timber, forming an equivalent to concrete beam and block flooring, a technique still considered innovative 20 years later. Timber finishes are used throughout, and the paint and other sur­ face treatments are all low or zero emission. Passive solar and natural ventilation strategies utilise water flows and planting in the

Photo: The Author

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What is the resource base? Certain resources – such as some forest habitats – support vulnerable species and their use should not be considered. Also some resources are becoming extremely rare and the use of remaining stocks should be treated cautiously, especially if they support vital industries, or where there are known to be uses that should take precedence. All materials should be used as efficiently as possible and allow for reuse and eventual recovery.

What takes precedence?

• Materials that do not threaten human or species health and well-being in manufacture, use or disposal. • Reused or recycled materials or components over ‘virgin’ elements. • Materials that can safely return to earth at the end of their useful life. • Materials from areas that are robust in respect of their aesthetic, community or ecology.

There are huge known reserves of iron and aluminium, but – as predicted by the Club of Rome in 1967 – some metals such as Indium and selenium (essential for manufacturing electronics and solar cells) are increasingly hard to source and are being extracted and processed at lower and lower concentrations, increasing their environmental footprint and cost. There can be a geopolitical aspect to the resources issue where metals are highly concentrated in only a few countries. The law of supply and demand tends to impact on price and scarcity is likely to increase the cost of rare materials and encourage substitution, reuse and recycling, which will become more normal. Many materials currently used in construction can readily be substituted by others that are less harmful and less rare.

Plastics

Plastics are particularly problematic but there is increasing attention to specifying alternatives and to design for reuse and recycling. Traditionally, plastics are derived from the world’s oil reserves and are chemically transformed. Many will not biodegrade within our lifetime. Where they do degrade it is through a process of off-gassing or transferring chemical toxins into the natural environment. There are huge concerns about whether this breaking down is in itself harmful. Where they break down into small components they are a threat to wildlife. If they are burnt this creates combustion by-products with unknown impacts on the environment, humans and other species. Questions remain over biodegradable plastics, which are engineered to break down more quickly. In many cases it remains unclear what they break down into. There are now many products made from recycled plastic materials rather than raw petrochemicals. While they clearly serve a purpose, their marketing as ecological cannot be justified. We need to move rapidly to a situation where all existing and future plastics can be safely disposed of so that they no longer present a risk to health or to the environment. There is also a new generation of bioplastics made from natural materials such as cornstarch and lignin, and from processes involving waste water and methane that may be expected to increasingly replace fossil fuel-based plastic.

Waste products as a resource

The use of waste products as a resource is advantageous and increasingly common practice. Further chemical and mechanical transformation should be avoided as it adds embodied energy and pollution. This can make recycled materials more expensive than ‘virgin’ equivalents. Meeting appropriate building standards may require specific tolerances, and this should be allowed for when contemplating using waste as a resource.

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Bamboo Agriculture provides a valuable source of sustainable materials such as this bamboo skirting which is finding a place as fit for purpose, decorative and harmless at the end of its useful life. Photo: The Author

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Simple Minds Studio designed to be recycled Photo: Gaia Architects

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156 Sustainable Construction

What is embodied? Huge damage is done to the local and global environment and to the health of workers and others through extraction, production and distribution for the construction supply chain. Increasing cost of fossil fuel is leading specifiers to seek cheaper lower energy products but the implications of embodied toxicity are of increasing concern. All materials contain embodied energy. That proportion derived from fossil fuels is embodied carbon dioxide (CO2), but many materials rely on processes that generate other GHGs and have a higher embodied CO2 equivalent (CO2e). Some materials – concrete, PVC, MDF and most glues, paints and finishes – also contain additional chemicals. The impact of these may be unknown and the combined ‘cocktail’ effect is a concern. The part thought to be toxic to humans or wildlife is referred to as embodied toxicity. It may impact throughout a product’s life, during a manufacturing process, on building occupants through off-gassing in use, or when recycled, remanufactured or eventually disposed of.

• A desire to enhance ‘sense of place’ and local distinctiveness. • The need for a building to sit well with its neighbours. Certain regions maintain particular skills or crafts that are part of their heritage and culture, often intimately connected with a local material. A desire to support local skills can assist in determining the choice of materials.

Embodied pollution Simple tiles and building blocks can be made by combining a suitable clay with agricultural waste fibre and forming by compression or vibration. There is little associated waste. However, real or perceived longevity may be used as a justification for using high-energy processing and chemical transformation to make a different product. This introduces energy, chemical pollution and cost. Ecological design and the Circular Economy specifically tries to eliminate those processes and compounds that result in elements that cannot return to earth. They favour a product that can return safely to earth at the end of a shorter but harmless life. Manufacturers may be reluctant to provide information, preferring to avoid scrutiny. but all should be able to provide a material data sheet (MDS).

Extraction Some extraction processes are inherently clean and efficient. Others are inefficient, use abundant chemicals and create significant waste. This contributes to the overall embodied pollution. Extraction, including mining and harvesting, will affect the immediate habitat. Flora, fauna, landscape and cultural character may be changed, ground and surface water may be polluted and the water table or traditional watercourses may change. Site workings may have adverse impacts on the health and well-being of workers if regulation and enforcement are weak. There may also be implications for a local neighbourhood in terms of noise, dust, transport disruption, or nuisance generally. Attention to waste generation during extraction has led to new manufacturing opportunities. Improvements in stonecutting technology, for example, have made it less polluting and more efficient.

Local issues Choice of building materials can be affected by: • Vernacular traditions of an area that are acceptable to local planning authorities.

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Earth tiles Hand-making clay tiles in Tanzania using soil and agricultural fibre. Photo: Mike Gower

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Highly energy-intensive aluminium production is generally located to exploit hydro power and several British brick manufacturers use a high proportion of biogas. However, energy used in manufacture can make some materials undesirable or unacceptable to certain specifiers, although derived from low carbon sources. The argument is that even though the energy may be low carbon or carbon neutral it could be used for other demands.

operations are favourable. Proposals in some countries to shift the burden of taxation onto resource consumption, and away from taxing people, make environmental sense, and are to be welcomed, but for the foreseeable future it is likely that market forces will simply respond to scarcity in setting the price of commodities and to utilising the cheapest labour. Processed tiles Photography was not allowed of the numerous blue containers inside the ‘long-lasting’ tile-processing plant that was pungent with chemical additives. Photo: The Author

Processing and production Pollution also results from the process or processes of manufacturing a material or product. Pollution may be airborne via chimneys, or waterborne due to seepage from surface or buried waste. It can adversely affect the immediate environment and population or travel considerable distances. A precautionary approach favours forms of production that are inherently least hazardous. Highly processed products are to be avoided where a lesser processed product can fulfil the same function. Ethical considerations may be a contributory reason for avoiding some materials from industries that offer poor health protection and safety to workers. While many of the worst practices have been outlawed in developed countries, this is not the case where labour costs are cheap and where the most disadvantaged are often also the most at risk. Local manufacture has visible economic benefits and more transparency in terms of adverse impacts. But trade is also good and should enable global sharing of benefits. The issues are rarely straightforward and all situations should be considered on their merits! There is an argument that labour-intensive

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There have also been significant improvements in technology to explore the scope for designing out waste through off-site construction, computer-generated design and re-engineering.

Waste Some manufacturing processes, such as paint production, are hugely inefficient in resource use and create considerable waste. Where the by-products are non-toxic such as in the case of 100% ecological paints, they may be used as input to other processes and reduce the overall waste associated with a process.

Distribution It is necessary to consider the transport implications and consequent embodied energy and pollution between the site or sites of materials extraction and processing/production. Transportation of products from processing plant to further processing plants, in the case of composite elements, to holding yards, to wholesalers or regional distribution centres, to builders’ merchants and finally to site accumulates ‘transport miles’ and can comprise a significant percentage of the overall embodied energy of a product. Smaller, regionally based plant and distribution, and more local sourcing, will generally improve the overall environmental burden of a material. An ecological approach encourages sourcing of local materials while recognising limits to scope, availability and the constraints upon creativity and expression. It does not encourage pastiche!

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Case Study 5.4

Eco-minimalist school: Acharacle, Scotland, 2009 Gaia Architects Acharacle Primary School resulted from a 20-year campaign by the local community and 5 years’ work by a client and design team committed to delivering the UK’s greenest primary school. Following a tour of Norwegian schools in 2003, Gaia were asked to write a brief for an exemplar sustainable school for Highland Council. They went on to secure the architectural appointment. The school was constructed within the playground of the original school to be a model of ‘Eco-minimalism’ – a design philosophy based on intrinsically good design and fabric. It provides a healthy, state-of-the-art, low tech and low carbon environment for pupils, staff and the community based on a 100-year design life.

Workshops held with the children, staff and community resulted in a simple, two-winged layout with a central, communal entrance. The ‘classroom wing’ is oriented east–west, and the ‘community wing’ is aligned close to a north– south axis. It is the first ‘Brettstapel’ construction in the UK serving as a demonstration of this popular European building technique. It was manufactured in Austria to achieve a ‘Passivhaus’ standard building envelope. All other timber – decking, battens, bridge glulams and beads – were Scottish. Air permeability of 0.27m3/hr/m2@ 50Pa (40 times better than that required by Building

Photo: Chris Humphreys Photography.

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Case Study 5.4 (Continued)

Eco-minimalist school: Acharacle, Scotland, 2009 Gaia Architects Regulations) was achieved on the first test, and fabric U-values between 0.098W/m2K and 0.128W/m2K. Under regular occupancy, little or no heating is required; the heat from the occupants and small loads being sufficient to maintain a comfortable indoor temperature. The hot water for the school is supplied from highly insulated hot water cylinders heated by electric immersion elements powered by a 6kW wind turbine sited on a hill immediately behind the school. Internal air quality is maintained by natural ventilation and the use of hygroscopic ­materials. Loose school furniture was procured to minimise off-gassing of harmful VOCs. Daylight levels have been optimised at an average daylight factor of 4.5%. Externally, the building offers sheltered areas for children to use and maintain, and a consultant provided a vibrant and stimulating colour scheme to enhance the experience of those using the school. In the end the outside was left to silver down. Monitoring displays help to keep the schoolchildren aware of energy consumption, water consumption, temperature, humidity and CO2 levels in the school. To ensure the smooth handover and optimised performance – and to record successes and failures – Gaia and the M+E consultants were appointed for a post-occupancy period as part of the contract and as recommended by the original brief.

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Off-site construction Brettstapel Factory, Austria. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 5.5

Lightest footprint: Argyll, Scotland, 2001 Gaia Architects Glencoe Visitor Management Facility is designed to fulfil the National Trust for Scotland’s claim to be Scotland’s principal conservation organisation. They required a building that would have the lowest footprint it was possible to have in Glencoe. This involved numerous innovative approaches to design and procurement, using benign materials in innovative ways and challenging traditional procurement methods by detailed attention to sourcing. The building is primarily timber procured to a strict set of principles to ensure that its use represented genuine ecological best practice. The timber was: • Sourced from Scotland only, with the relatively small embodied energy this would entail, and the associated economic benefits to both the timber industry and woodland viability. • Completely untreated. This meant that durability was achieved by the careful choice of species and careful detailing based partly on Scandinavian best practice.

Design for deconstruction nail-free oak floor. Photo: Michael Wolchover

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Pad foundations The building was placed on pad foundations rather than on a massive concrete slab. Photo: Gaia Architects

• Sourced from certifiably well-managed forests. • Designed to be easily maintained, repaired and ultimately replaced and/or reused at the end of a useful life. This involved the development of careful layering detailing and a ‘nail-free’ construction system. • With no chemical treatment of the timber or synthetic coatings, It could also be safely composted or burned at the end of Its intended life. • Designed to be as simple and user-friendly as possible. The buildings are part of the interpretation strategy for the project and its environment. The style of a clachan of low-lying bothies and the slate and lime render finish that predominates on the entrance side of the building transforms into timber walls and roofs on the inner courtyard. • It is super-insulated and cellulose insulation is used with sheep’s wool for detailing around windows where movement could occur.

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Photo: Michael Wolchover

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What is the impact in use?

80 000 70 000

Toxicity

60 000

A wide range of commonly used products contain substances that adversely affect the health of building occupants and may also have harmful effects on the wider environment. It is often the case that the extent and severity of the risks are contested and the precautionary principle insufficiently invoked. Work undertaken by Fanger brought about a major change in the way that we look at the indoor environment. The biggest single source of pollutants was shown to be ventilation systems. At the time smoking was common indoors and was also responsible for significant pollution; however, the next biggest source was from materials used in the indoor environment. Scented candles and home deodorisers are significant causes of indoor pollution and dangerous, as they are often used to cover up other smells such as damp and mould, which are in themselves harmful. A concern often voiced is that product information relating to health hazards is usually derived from tests conducted on otherwise healthy people under laboratory conditions using only one substance. The effects on those potentially most vulnerable to such toxins – the elderly, children and the unborn – are rarely considered. Also, much of the risk to health comes from the unknown ‘cocktail effect’ of the many chemicals present Average floor area: 230m2

Building materials

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Toxic building materials

10 000 1000 1900

1950

2000

Increase in toxic products over time (1950–2000) Source: Howard Liddell, Gaia Architects

in buildings and so information on health risks associated with isolated substances is insufficient. When no reuse or recycling is envisaged for a component, it is better to opt for biodegradable materials so that these may be reabsorbed into the earth by the natural cycle of decay at the end of their useful life. It is important to note that many coatings and preservatives transform otherwise ‘natural’ materials into toxic waste (e.g. most conventional preservative-treated timber) that is no longer harmlessly biodegradable and must be disposed of by regulated means. Building products that are considered harmful include:

58olf 17 occupants smoking materials in space ventilation system total 17olf

17olf 35olf 28olf 58olf 138olf

28olf

35olf

Average pollution sources in 15 offices in Copenhagen. An average of 17 occupants worked in each office.

Indoor pollution With smoking now excluded from the internal environment, materials make up over 25% of indoor pollution (Fanger)

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• many forms of paint and varnish; • formaldehyde in resin-bonded boards, like plywood, chipboard and some foam products; • isocyanates that give off toxins during fire; • vinyl products such as flooring tiles; • most timber treatments. Substances known to be harmful are policed by health and safety initiatives such as the COSHH regulations. However, there are also a number of material labelling schemes that offer guidance. The olf is a measure of the strength of a pollution source. One olf is the pollution strength of an average sedentary adult in thermal comfort having 0.7 baths per day.

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Detailing A building can be made from any material provided that it is properly detailed. The use of materials such as straw, timber and hemp, which are biodegradable and susceptible to moisture and pests, makes this detailing particularly crucial.

Timber detailing Much of the justification for the widespread use of chemicals for timber treatment is based on a history of poor detailing. The unsightly peeling of paint from timber hoardings so familiar to 1970s buildings gave timber a bad reputation that should have been borne by the paint. The natural movement of wood (expansion and contraction) in response to climate makes it unsuited to weatherproofing materials such as inflexible paints made from petrochemicals. Underkastelsen (Submission) a film by Stefan Jarl

Since 1945 global chemical manufacture has increased from 1 million to 500 million tonnes/yr. Chemicals are in a vast number of everyday products. They have infiltrated our air, water, soil – even our blood. This disquieting film exposes the ‘ticking time bomb’ of the chemical industry, interviewing experts and exposing the truth behind increased cancer rates, hormone disrupters and the chemical cocktail effect. Unlike other documentaries that focus on chemicals in our food, Underkastelsen investigates the problems caused by chemicals such as softeners (phthalates), flame retardants (PBDE) and surfactants (PFOS, PFOA), and the effect these chemicals have on us, the world surrounding us and the health consequences for us and our unborn children. A must-see film for anybody interested to know what chemicals are around us, particularly in our homes and workplaces.

With proper detailing timber will cope with a wide range of climatic conditions and this obviates the need for treatment. Timber is robust when submerged completely under water and cannot get dry but also weather resistant as long as moisture content does not fluctuate, as this gives rise to mould and rot. More recently, the use of well-detailed timber either untreated or finished with water-based/ breathable paints has become an established vernacular and avoidance of ground contact is the norm.

Timber detail, Mont Cenis Akademie, Herne, Emscher Park Architects: Jourda Architects, Paris & HHS Planer + Architekten BDA, Kassel, Germany Photo: The Author

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Passive environmental control As well as eliminating harmful effects of materials on occupants and the environment through avoiding toxins, it is desirable for the indoor climate to actively benefit the health of occupants. Selection of materials can contribute significantly through thermal and moisture management. An important aspect of achieving comfort in buildings is attention to thermal and moisture mass.

Thermal mass Sustainable design places an emphasis on maximising comfort and energy efficiency simultaneously and, in combination with appropriate ventilation requirements, preventing those conditions that are associated with ill-health. This can be aided by the appropriate use of thermal mass in a particular climate.

Hybrid structures exist where thermal mass is incorporated into an otherwise lightweight structure, such as a solid ground floor or central core. These buildings, if correctly designed, can possess the best characteristics of lightweight and heavyweight construction. Humans sense temperature as a combination of air temperature, modified by the air velocity, and radiation exchange with surrounding surfaces. Creating warm surface temperatures allows for lower air temperatures, creating fresher environments and reduced ventilation heat loss. Avoiding cold surfaces, especially vertical surfaces, also prevents draughts. Warm surfaces reduce the risk of surface condensation and mould.

Moisture mass Moisture mass is the ability to buffer indoor humidity. It relies on hygroscopicity – the capacity of materials to absorb and

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Temperature (Degrees CF.)

The thermal storage capacity of materials and the concept of thermal mass are widely understood. Heavyweight materials may be used in a building (earth is ideal) to regulate and balance the thermal fluctuations and to avoid rapid swings in temperature. Heavyweight buildings take time to heat up and cool down, but this ‘thermal lag’ can be designed to complement the occupancy patterns and can be usefully combined with passive solar design. In general, heavy thermal mass is most appropriate for buildings that are occupied for long periods, and in particular where overheating is a problem. Lightweight constructions heat up and cool down quickly, and are therefore ideal for quick response situations where heating is not needed all the time but can lead to overheating.

High thermal mass Photo: Howard Liddell

140

140

120 105

100 85

80 75

60 6 A.M.

65

Noon

6 P.M.

Midnight

6 A.M.

Roof surface Inside temperature Outside temperature Temperature response of a heavyweight earth building Oscillation in external temperature is buffered by the thermal mass to provide a comfortable internal temperature.

re-emit ambient moisture vapour. Hygroscopic materials regulate relative humidity in the indoor climate by absorbing moisture when the humidity rises and emitting it when the air becomes dry, smoothing out peaks and troughs, in much the same way as thermal mass regulates temperature. Moisture regulation reduces the potentially harmful developments of organisms and atmospheric conditions, which occur at the extremes of relative humidity. Materials such as timber, plaster, earth and textiles have hygroscopic properties,

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but it is important that these are not impaired by inappropriate, impervious coatings such as conventional varnishes, paints, stabilisers and others. Constructions such as Brettstapel using open-ended wood in the indoor environment offer a huge surface area for moisture management.

Bacteria Optimum zone for humans

Virus Mould/Fungi Mites Allergy/asthma Tracheal infection Chemical reaction Ozone production % RH

0

20

40

60

80

100

Diagram of health-related moisture issues As extremes of relative humidity are linked to a number of health problems, moisture mass performs a valuable function in health terms.

Moisture transfusive construction Another strategy for maintaining a balanced relative humidity, in addition to well-designed ventilation, is the use of moisture transfusive, often mistakenly called ‘breathing’ external fabrics. They are more accurately ‘sweating constructions’ and the concept is most simply understood by comparison with the human body. Without porous skins we would die. We are most comfortable in clothing that allows moisture to pass through it, and the sportswear industry has developed fabrics to deal with this. Similarly, from an ecological perspective, when properly designed, these natural forces allow moisture to naturally and passively diffuse from the inside to the outside of a building in response to a vapour pressure gradient. This relies on the surfaces being left uncoated, or coated in vapour-permeable finishes. It can offset the need for mechanical systems.

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Hygroscopic mass The effect of hygroscopicity was well demonstrated by the clay finish in this Swedish bathroom, which passively prevented the steaming up of the bathroom mirror. The same effect was achieved in a Japanese bathroom through the resource-intensive use of embedded electrical heaters. Clay finishes in bathrooms is an effective detail. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 5.6

Tenement refurbishment: Edinburgh, Scotland, 2005 Architects: Gaia Architects Refurbishment is rarely undertaken in a manner that seeks to improve on the ecological impact of the original. This project places an emphasis on the creation of a healthy indoor climate. Only benign materials were used. All toxic materials and potential asthma and allergy triggers were removed and replaced with natural materials. Gaia first carried out a feasibility study for Edinvar Housing Association looking into the possibility of achieving a ‘state-of-the-art’ lowallergy, affordable tenement refurbishment. The aim was to explore the twin areas of refurbishment and ecological design, In particular with regard to listed buildings where planning constraints are onerous.

The refurbishment considers community aspects, with a communal sitting area and clothes-washing facilities, amenity (particularly relevant for a building that provides no access to external space), energy conservation, water conservation. a healthy indoor climate, healthy materials and approach to the construction process that is compatible with the logistics of building sustainably on a tight site. Materials with hygroscopic properties and breathing walls were specified In order to aid moisture management and combat mould mites. Specifications and details were then refined following research into low-allergen/ trigger environments at Fairfield’s Toll House Gardens.

Building materials Air Conventional construction

–ve

+ve Moisture

Breathing wall

Air –ve

+ve Moisture

Outside

Inside

Different construction types. Conventional wall compared to a moisture transfusive wall Photo: Gaia Architects

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What is the final destination? The construction industry is the second-largest consumer of raw materials, after the food industry. There is a considerable amount that could be done to reduce the consumption rate. In addition, the majority of materials are highly processed with additives that are unstable and may present problems at the end of their useful life.

Stuff Space plan Services

Durability It is important to look at the inherent durability, and the quality of a material, and to detail it so as to enhance the durability as far as possible. Materials and components have to be worth reusing, and this places an emphasis on the specification of good quality materials in the first instance. Some designers have returned to designing with timber, basing their detailing on traditional techniques from countries where timber use is the norm, such as Norway. Sadly, timber itself has now become design rhetoric for those wanting to be seen to be delivering sustainable buildings and most of this is being undertaken without adequate selection, detailing and treatment experience. This is increasingly resulting in a return to the poor appearance and high maintenance that we have seen before and is highly likely to feed another inappropriate over-reaction against it.

Skin Structure Site SHEARING LAYERS OF CHANGE. Because layers ofcomponents, change of the different Shearing rates of change of its buildingmay is always tearing as itself apart. of layers with different A abuilding be viewed a series lifespans. The overall structure may be expected to last 100 years or more, the external skin 50 years, internal partitions 20 years, and elements of the services 10 years. Fit-out, decoration and equipment cycles are often less than 5 years. Credit: After Stuart Brand

Maintenance ‘Maintenance-free’ buildings are increasingly sought by clients anxious to minimise the running costs associated with built developments. This is not surprising given the backlog of poorly detailed buildings that resulted in a legacy of high maintenance and lack of maintenance that leads to failure.

RUCID Agricultural College Made of earth and eucalyptus, the building is designed to return to earth harmlessly at the end of its useful long life. Architects: Felix Holland; Photo: Will Boase

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Planned maintenance is an essential prerequisite of sustainability. ‘Maintenance-free’ often describes components that are ‘non-maintainable’ and must be disposed of if one part fails. Common examples of this are uPVC joinery and cladding panels, as opposed to timber joinery elements and cladding boards. It is infinitely preferable to use the appropriate materials, components and treatments in such a way that they are easily maintained and which, with a little attention, will tend to be much more durable (and cost-effective) than their maintenancefree counterparts. Because of the different rates of change of its components, a building has to be designed to deal with the different rates of change of its component parts.

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Case Study 5.7

Waste reduction and planned downsizing: Millennium Park, London The complex for the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games was designed to create a venue and a new city quarter. The waste target for contractors was 95% (achieved 98%) diversion of non-hazardous waste direct to landfill with an additional target of 50% materials reuse. Numerous innovations were made at the outset to design out waste, including off-site manufacture, shallow raft foundations, careful storage and use of BIM modelling to coordinate services and reduce on-site waste. Coordination with suppliers led to take-back of pallets and packaging waste, and using surplus material on site reduced the need for virgin materials. The Olympic Stadium was designed to be light, and to be partially deconstructed and reduced in size after use. The London Legacy Development Corporation (LLDC) inherited responsibility for the area after the Games and are responsible for the ongoing regeneration of the Park and surrounding area. During the build, achieving high material reuse targets proved challenging. LLDC then established an Asset Disposal Contract as an overarching project available to be used by all projects to incentivise reuse through a profit share arrangement. It also allowed LLDC to more easily gift assets without liability. Over 40 community organisations were gifted assets, including the Aquatics Centre’s temporary seating, a ­telephone box and timber.

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EXAMPLES OF ASSET REUSE 1 Hub67 is a community centre located in Hackney Wick created from nine modular cabins that during the Games formed a temporary high street. The Hub also made use of cladding material, fencing and timber. It won the Blueprint Award for Best Sustainable Project or Product in 2015. 2 Warm-up running track. No tarmac was used in the laying of the track, allowing it to be lifted with minimal damage and reused by British Athletics for temporary and permanent athletics tracks as needed. 3 FO6 bridge. The bridge needed to be reduced in size. This required the removal of 39 tonnes of rubber matting. The colourful confetti patterned flooring was re-laid in a primary school in Northern Ireland. In addition: • Timber decking and scaffolding was reused on other projects off the Park. • Lamp columns were donated to a local skate park. • A large number of trees are planted in wooden planters created from timber removed from the temporary elements of the bridges. • Cross-laminated timber offcuts were donated to Art in the Park. Bollards, service pods, a boot wash and chemical testing kit were all sold as part of the asset management.

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Photo: The Author

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Case Study 5.8

Repurposed: Kamikatz Public House, Japan Kamikatsu, Japan. Hiroshi Nakamura & NAP In 2003, Kamikatsu, a village with a population of around 2,000 people in the mountains of Shikoku Island in south-west Japan, decided to stop the practice of burning all their rubbish on an open fire because they were concerned about the damage to people and to the wider environment. They decided to become Japan’s first ‘Zero Waste’ community by 2020.

architects to embrace the move to a circular economy and demonstrate how it was possible to repurpose materials in a creative and inspirational way. The Kamikatz Public House embraces zero waste inside and out. It has one wall made from reclaimed windows from nearby abandoned houses. These provide natural ventilation in the summer.

The village has no rubbish collection and local people sort their waste into 34 different types. Reusable items are taken to kuru-kuru (circular) shops where residents can help themselves, or they are recycled to the many thriving local businesses making new bags, clothing, toys and accessories.

The exterior is clad in reclaimed cedar boards painted with a naturally derived persimmon tannin. Internally, reclaimed tiles make up the flooring and light fittings are disused bottles. The wallpaper is old newspapers. The project was recognised by the WAN Sustainable Buildings Awards in 2016 for the manner in which it integrated energy, materials and environmental considerations.

By 2017 the village was recycling 80% of its rubbish. It was a natural next step for

Koji Fujii/Nacasa & Partners Inc.

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Case Study 5.9

Upcycling: Villa Welpeloo, 2005 Superuse Studios, The Netherlands Villa Welpeloo is a house and art studio for storing and exhibiting paintings and graphical work of young contemporary artists, constructed from 60% salvaged material from the local area. The aim was to use largely reclaimed materials. The design progressed in parallel with obtaining good-quality resources locally and getting the highest use possible out of them. Superuse Studios used Google Earth to find waste stock in industrial zones. The load-bearing construction is made from steel beams from a paternoster previously used in textile production, a once prominent industry in the region. The wooden façade was from 200 damaged cable reels that would traditionally be turned into particleboard or incinerated – extending the life of the material. There was no chemical treatment. The wood was treated using the PLATO process that ­combines successive heating and curing processes to create a chemical transformation of the wood. This used waste heat from a local power plant. The elevator used during the construction of the steel frame was kept. It is incorporated into the studio for the transport

of goods but hidden from sight. Armatures made from broken umbrellas light the artworks. The materials recovery method has also been scaled up. Harvestmap.org is an open platform created by Superuse Studios as a ‘marketplace for professional upcyclers’. Any person or manufacturer can supply information and materials via the site. Visitors to the site can identify pools of plastics, textiles, wood, metal, chemicals and a range of other resources available to collect nearby. It also showcases publicly submitted projects that incorporate materials reuse. The approach has also been duplicated on a regional scale by other companies mapping professional dealers of reused materials. The building highlights the potential of unused or ‘misplaced’ resources. Improvements in communication can enable convenient disposal for one company, and valuable materials supply for another. Superuse Studio clearly believes in upcycling and is developing the strategy and tools to put it into practice.

Photo: Allard van der Hoek

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Choices: the five Rs There is significant potential to reduce the overall impact of materials through a systematic approach to specification and design. The order of preference is: innovate, reduce, repair, reuse, recycle and, lastly, energy recovery.

The five Rs: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Repair

• innovation of new or traditional materials that are nonpolluting at the end of their useful life; • improved detailing such that materials do not require to be treated and therefore be problematic at the end of their useful life; • increasing the inherent durability of buildings and components; • reducing waste through improved design and construction processes; • extending the useful life of materials by the reuse and recycling of materials and components.

Refuse. This represents the ultimate sanction, setting guidelines on what is and is not acceptable based on the best possible information. It may involve declining unethical work, materials or products from unreliable sources. This is sometimes embodied in client or company policy such as specific exclusions in the Tübingen Policy (Chapter 2, this volume).

What to build?

It is worthwhile establishing the true nature of the requirement before embarking on a building-related solution. Architects, engineers and others in the construction industry will tend to consider solutions to problems in construction-related terms, but a building is not always the best or most cost-effective solution to a perceived need. Alternatives may include moving premises, reorganising internal arrangements, reorganising the client (be it a company or a family), or readdressing priorities. Something as mundane as a thorough tidy-up may well be the lowest impact of aII. If building work is required, the lowest impact may be refurbishment (see reuse below, although this is not necessarily the cheapest or least disruptive option).

Reuse. Change, adaptation and reuse are very common in older buildings. It is significantly easier to repurpose a building when attention has been given to flexibility at the outset to ensure that there are opportunities for future extension (or reduction) and awareness of the different layers of a building and how they wear. Recycle. Anything can be recycled, but the ease, value and toxicity issues are important.

Refuse: a note for specifiers

Some manufacturers have explicit and forward-thinking policies on environmental and social issues, and may be willing to provide good information on their impacts and mitigation strategies. Others are blatantly involved in ethically questionable practices. Specifiers and designers must determine the relevance and their priorities. Purchaser power is increasingly responsible for companies developing guidelines to address their responsibilities.

Reduce. Another aspect to bear in mind is to build as small as is practicable to minimise adverse impact. The amount of any resource – materials, space or elements – need not detract from a good design solution and careful thought can reduce material use such as the spot foundations at Glencoe. Reducing the amount of mechanical services is increasingly a design aspiration.

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Much of the whole coastline in Goa is rebuilt annually into villas, shops and cafés for the tourist season and then dismantled prior to the monsoon. Photo: The Author

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Potential for recycling is significantly reduced if components are inappropriately coated, or laminated or connected in some way that makes cost-effective acquisition of any one material difficult. A ubiquitous example is the sandwich panel: enamel or powder coated on both sides, with resin bonding of the metal sheeting to the insulation. This renders it practically impossible to recover those parts that could be recycled. Design for recycling involves consideration of the material and jointing technique so as to enable the reuse and replacement of components, either in part or in whole. Components have to be worth reusing to enable a market for reused goods to develop, and easy enough to reuse to make it profitable to do so. These considerations tend to favour modular construction. A good example is the use of lime mortar which enables bricks to be reused, whereas cement mortar makes reuse extremely difficult and not cost-effective. Where the reuse of a component is not possible, it may be possible to recycle it in whole or in parts. Glass, copper and zinc are partly recycled, and paper is increasingly used as an insulation material, but there is scope to increase this. Removal of toxins from manufacturing processes is vital to creating a healthy circular economy.

Care for valuable resources is ecological

“The arch of this bridge and the walls of the water course which it spans were brought from the Calton Jail Edinburgh upon its demolition in 1930–31” to form part of the reservoir. Photo: The Author

Repair. We have grown used to a culture in which we expect minimum maintenance of our habitat – buildings and gardens. In truth this is unrealistic and not just in the field of ecological design. However, a consequence of our expectation is reduced life of many components – which is wasteful – and the substitution of polluting materials such as PVC and timber treatments and coatings in place of regular care.

Earth Ship The design relies on recycled tyres and cans, which are widely available everywhere, but there are serious questions to be asked about whether the construction industry should be prepared to take waste from other sectors – in particular polluting waste – and allow the waste streams to continue unabated. Also many of these materials have unknown effects on occupant health. Photo: The Author

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Ideally, a building could be conceived of and detailed in a series of technically discrete ‘layers’ to reflect these lifespans. This would optimise the potential for maintainability and reuse, and avoid the risk of elements of the building being removed prematurely. The elements with shortest lifespan could be adjusted or replaced without unduly affecting more durable layers. This principle may also be usefully applied to areas of a building – internal or external – that suffer differential levels of wear and tear such that they can be maintained or replaced independently.

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Case Study 5.10

Material passports: Liander, The Netherlands Thomas Rau, CEO Turntoo and RAU The ReSOLVE framework, developed by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, identifies six ways that governments and organisations can move towards a Circular Economy: Regenerate, Share, Optimise, Loop, Virtualise, and Exchange. The Foundation collaborates to develop circular business initiatives and build capacity to accelerate the transition to a circular economy. Since 2010, the Foundation has worked within many sectors – food, clothing and the built environment – to apply and disseminate ReSOLVE based initiatives. A Circular Economy relies on three principles: 1 Preserve and enhance natural capital by controlling finite stocks and balancing renewable resource flows. 2 Optimise resource yields by circulating products, components and materials in use at the highest utility at all times in both technical and biological cycles. 3 Foster system effectiveness by revealing and designing out negative externalities. It is applicable to products, buildings, neigh­bourhoods, cities and regions. www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/. When Liander began redeveloping their head office they took the opportunity to work with ReSOLVE, and it has become the first circular building in The Netherlands and the first to create an energy surplus. Three principles were established as design ­strategies: • conservation and reuse of existing ­materials; •  minimisation of material use; • to use materials that can later continue their life cycle. The aspects of the framework most strongly addressed were Loop, Regenerate and Exchange.

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Loop Locally found waste wood old cable coils and utility poles were upgraded to cover 50% of the total façade reducing the use of new ­materials, associated transport and manufacturing energy and waste. A roller-coaster company assisted in the design of a roof that would avoid the unnecessary use of raw materials and allow disassembly for later reuse. This saved 30% of steel in comparison to a traditional construction.

Regenerate Energy is supplied from ground source heat and solar panels, covering the parking spaces, delivering 1.5 million kWh/yr, in total more energy than it required to operate the building. Excess energy is exported to the grid.

Exchange It received the first ‘material passport’. This specifies the details of all materials present in the building – pre-existing and new – the type of material quantity and quality. Who has handled the materials, where it has been stored, maintenance and repair requirements, and ways in which they can be reused or recycled in future. The aim is to make the building a future resource or a ‘raw materials depot’ for future builders to facilitate reuse and prevent waste.

A circular building is a temporary aggregation of components, elements, and materials with a documented identity, recording their origin and possible future repurposing, assembled in a certain form, which accommodates a function for an established period of time. (Circularity in the Built Environment: A Compi­lation of Case Studies from the CE100 2016)

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Photographer: Horizon Photoworks and Fokkema & Partners Architecten

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Embodied Energy Study: Acharacle School Transport-generated CO2 versus sequestered CO2 An embodied energy calculation assessed the impact of transporting the timber and concluded that it sequestered around 20 times more CO2 than was emitted during the transportation of the elements from Austria.

Volume of timber from Austria to Acharacle Density of timber Number of lorry loads of timber

1,103m3 500kg/m3 16

TOTAL CO2 emitted = 50,591kg C02

So truck weight = 1,103m3 x 500kg/m3 = 551,500kg = 34,469kg/load

Emissions/energy use by different modes of transport

Assume overall weight of 40t/trip includes truck and trailer Distance from manufacture to site Urban driving Highway driving Highway driving Urban driving Ferry TOTAL SHIPPING DISTANCE TOTAL URBAN DISTANCE TOTAL HIGHWAY DISTANCE

URBAN 73g/tkm × 40t × 217km × 16 trips = 10,138kg C02 FERRY 33g/tkm × 40t × 340km × 16 trips = 7,181kg C02

= = = =

= 14km 783km 426km 203km 340km

= 340km = 217km = 1209km

2001 average C02 output by articulated lorries HIGHWAY 43g/tkm (100% loaded) URBAN 73g/tkm (100% loaded) FERRY    33g/tkm (http://lipasto.vtt.fi/yksikkopaastot/indexe.htm) C02 emitted by transport of timber to site HIGHWAY 43g/tkm × 40t × 1209km × 16 trips = 33,272kg C02

Emissions g/tkm

Water

Rail

Road

Air

CO2 CO VOCs NOX Energy kJ/tkm

30 0.12 0.1 0.4 423

41 0.05 0.08 0.2 677

207 2.4 1.1 3.6 2,890

1,206 1.4 3.0 5.5 15,839

Source: Whitelegg (1993).

Sequestered CO2 1m3 of timber (500kg) sequesters 930kg of CO2 Total CO2 sequestered 1,103 × 930 = 1,025,790kg CO2 Net CO2 sequestered 1,025,790kg C02 stored – 50,591kg CO2 emitted from transport of timber = 975,199kg/C02 Electrical energy estimate = 7,000kWh/yr Grid electricity 1kWh = 0.537 kg C02 7,000kWh/yr × 0.537kg C02/kWh = 3,759kg C02/yr Number of years for building to emit stored C02 = 975,199/3,759 = 259yrs

Note: This calculation only describes C02 associated with the transport of solid timber for the superstructure. It does not take into account emissions from construction processes such as on-site work associated with these. It assumes return journeys loaded with alternative freight (data source: www.carbontrust.co.uk/resource/conversion_factors/ default.htm).

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Materials: handy hints and tips Process • Materials selection should be approached in an interdisciplinary manner, to integrate the design of structure, services and landscape. • Planning permission sometimes requires an early decision on materials selection. • The form of a building may predetermine the materials choice. • Use of recycled materials should not encourage the built environment to be a depository for unsustainable practice by other industries and be undertaken with consideration of adverse health implications. • Design for flexibility, repair and deconstruction. It will need forward planning. • Watch the leaders.

Local economics • Use of local materials (timber, bricks, recycled materials) contributes to reduced embodied energy but will also benefit the local economy. • Prior to starting design, consider what materials are locally available, including recycled materials. • Explore the benefits of utilising locally available skills/trades and/or materials.

Building services • Appropriate choice of (e.g. low emission) materials can buffer temperature and relative humidity, and reduce the requirement for mechanical controls.

Health • Look at what it says on the tin. • Avoid materials that give off fumes. An increase in materials with toxic emissions – many of them above the levels recommended by the World Health Organization – has followed the increase in man-made materials. • The ability of materials to deal with indoor moisture is important – especially in the airtight constructions necessary to meet energy targets. • Beware of advertising. Many manufacturers have sought to ‘re-market’ unsound products rather than change them or mitigate negative properties. Seek third-party approvals claims for a product’s suitability. • Watch the documentary Underkastelsen.

Safety • Can the installation be installed, cleaned and maintained easily and safely? • Have materials harmful to users and the environment been minimised?

Management • Maintenance free often means unmaintainable. • Respect the need for ongoing maintenance. • Match material choices with user and management needs and requirements. • The handover plan should include adequate training.

Affordability • ‘Green’ materials need not cost more but specification inevitably requires more professional time to deal with innovative aspects, climb the learning curve and keep abreast of new information. • Materials choice should minimise excessive financial liabilities through long life and low maintenance.

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Unhealthy high-embodied energy materials that are difficult to dispose of are ubiquitous in the construction industry. Photo: Howard Liddell

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Bibliography Commoner, B. (1970) The Closing Circle. Knopf. Fanger, P.O. (1990) A simple method to determine the olf load in a building. Indoor Air ‘90, vol. 1, pp. 537–542.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016) Circular Economy in India – Rethinking growth for long term prosperity. Ellen MacArthur Foundation.

Whitelegg, J. (1993) Transport for a Sustainable Future – The case for Europe. Bellhaven Press.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016) Circularity in the Built Environment – A compilation of case studies from the CE100. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation.

Liddell, H.L. (1994) The Sustainability of Traditional Materials. Historic Scotland Building Materials Conference.

Baker-Brown, D. (2017) The Re-use Atlas. RIBA Publishing.

Brand, S. (1994) How Buildings Learn. Viking. Anink, D., Boonstra, C. & Morris, A. (1996) Handbook of Sustainable Building: An environmental preference method for selection of materials for use in construction and refurbishment. James & James. Maxwell, I. and Ross, N. (1997) Traditional Building Materials. Historic Scotland. Berge, B. (1999) Ecology of Building Materials, 2nd edn. Architectural Press. Simonson, C.J., Salonvaara, M. & Ojanen, T. (2001) Improving Indoor Climate and Comfort with Wooden Structures. VTT Building Technology. Gaia Group (2005) Design & Construction of Sustainable Schools, vols 1 and 2. Scottish Executive. www.gaiagroup.org. Danmarks Technical University (2005) Moisture Buffering of Building Materials. BYG-DTU R126 2005. Hammond, G.P. & Jones, C.I. (2008) Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Energy, vol. 161, no. 2. McDonagh, W. & Braungart, M. (2008) Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the way we make things. Vintage Books. Bolchover, J. (2012) Vitamin Green. Phaidon.

PVC-free Future – A review of restrictions and PVC-free policies worldwide. Specific actions taken by national and local governments and others to restrict chlorine and PVC. a_guide_ to_alternatives_to_upvc.pdf.

Organisations ASBP: Alliance for Sustainable Building Products. BASTA: www.bastaonline.se/?lang=en. Chemical Maze: http://chemicalmaze.com/. Covers effects of food additives and cosmetics – expanded to cover building materials. COSHH: www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/industry.htm. Global Footprint: www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/ GFN/page/methodology/. GreenPro, the directory of which products and services are available: www.newbuilder.co.uk. GreenSpec: www.greenspec.co.uk. Living Building Challenge: Red List http://living-future.org/ redlist. NaturePlus: http://natureplus.org/index.php?id=57. PVC-free solutions: www.greenpeace.org/international/en/ campaigns/detox/polyvinyl-chloride/pvc-free-solutions/.

Roalkvam, D. & Berge, B. (2014) Absolute Passive Energy Design. Heede, R. (2014) Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers, 1854–2010. Journal of Climatic Change, vol. 122, pp. 229–241. Open access http://carbonmajors.org/download-the-study/.

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Detail – Brockholes Visitor Centre. Architect: Adam Khan Architects; Photo: The Author

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Chapter 6 Low-impact construction In which we look at evolving approaches to ecological design based on natural and benign materials – new and traditional – and the construction techniques that follow from them that have the potential to transform construction activity towards a truly circular economy.

Cob Tun House, Worcester Photo: Bill Bordass

“What will eat your building?” Paul Hawken

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Glentress Peel Visitor Centre Photo: Michael Wolchover

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Low-impact construction Contents Introduction�����������������������������������������������184 Context������������������������������������������������������185 General issues on materials����������������������188 Sourcing������������������������������������������������������ 188 Labour, skills and community���������������������� 188

Thermodified timber������������������������������������ 199 Segal technique������������������������������������������� 199 Timber detailing������������������������������������������ 199 ‘Green’ timber���������������������������������������������� 201 Round pole�������������������������������������������������� 201

Performance������������������������������������������������ 189 Maintenance������������������������������������������������ 190 Earth construction techniques�������������������191 Light earth construction����������������������������194 Straw bale construction�����������������������������197 Hemp construction������������������������������������197 Hemp/lime construction����������������������������198 Timber techniques�������������������������������������199 Acetylation�������������������������������������������������� 199

Cross-laminated timber (CLT)����������������������� 202 Brettstapel��������������������������������������������������� 202 Reused, recycled and waste materials�������204 Recycling����������������������������������������������������� 204 Packaging���������������������������������������������������� 205 Cardboard��������������������������������������������������� 205 Insulation materials����������������������������������206 Planning and low-impact development������211 Bibliography����������������������������������������������212

Case studies   6.1:   6.2:   6.3:   6.4:   6.5:   6.6:   6.7:   6.8:   6.9: 6.10:

Reed, Naturrummet, Glänås, Sweden������������������������������������������������������������������������������186 Multiple chemical sensitivity: Zurich, Switzerland���������������������������������������������������������187 Locally sourced: RUCID, Mityana, Uganda����������������������������������������������������������������������192 PVC- and concrete-free: AEITEC, Machynlleth, Wales������������������������������������������������������193 Light earth bricks: Atelier Darmstadt, Germany������������������������������������������������������������195 Earth bricks: The House at Dalquise, Scotland���������������������������������������������������������������196 Brettstapel: Pfennigäcker School, Tübingen, Germany���������������������������������������������������203 Aerogel insulation: The Engine Shed, Stirling, Scotland�������������������������������������������������207 The Mushroom Tower: Hy-Fi, New York, USA������������������������������������������������������������������208 Animal architecture��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������210

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184 Sustainable Construction

Introduction Mainstream construction practice is putting in place policies and process management techniques to enable it to improve its sustainability performance. The previous chapter drew attention to how industry is increasingly aware of adverse environmental issues with conventional materials, many of which are mechanically and chemically manipulated. This is resulting in incremental improvements of the industry. The use of natural construction materials is evolving. They have low embodied energy and can break down and return to the natural environment without causing waste, pollution or harm. They have the potential to be compatible with a true circular economy. It is a marginal area in practice, but many of the techniques are both rooted in tradition and at the forefront of research interest. For many, low-impact construction is part of an approach that demands deeprooted change.

Straw Bale House at Findhorn Photo: The Author

Until recently, most examples of low-impact construction were old, small-scale, rural and self-built. They were largely dismissed as irrelevant to modernity, large projects and urban design. However, historically many low-impact materials were used on a larger scale. Until the industrial revolution there was only a limited pallette of materials available and these were all of natural origin. If the materials are used, and buildings maintained appropriately, then this ensures both long life and eventual safe disposal or recycling. Technical advances and improved information should mean that we are better positioned to use them than before, but, with fossil fuel cheap and plentiful, research emphasis has been on new manufactured materials rather than on better use of existing ones. With rising concerns about human and environmental health there is enhanced interest in what low-impact materials can deliver. Much ‘low-impact construction’ was associated with a style. Rarely was work with straw bales, thatch, cedar shingles, earth, hemp or round pole timber considered to have architectural merit and the association of these materials with poor design encouraged distancing from conventional practice. This is changing as the use of the materials evolves, as the architectural opportunities are better exploited and respected. They are taken increasingly seriously by conventional practice – and they win awards.

Traditional building, Stratford Photo: The Author

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Context Most current best practice in sustainable construction tends to rate improvement by small percentage improvements, an incremental reduction of environmental damage and small improvement in human aspects of design. An argument in favour of low-impact construction is that it has the potential to deliver a step change with widespread improvements in numerous areas – health, skills development, carbon and cost reduction, toxicity elimination, waste management – and efficiencies measured in orders of magnitude. Because of their intrinsic ecological properties, and the opportunities for local skill development and sourcing, they are directly applicable to the notion of a circular economy and offer a direct route to realise significant economic, social and ecological benefits. Set against this potential, simply meeting or exceeding building control or other standards by a few percentage points appears a meagre aspiration. The bigger agenda is concerned with the right to live with the environment and raises important questions about landownership and equity.

RIBA Award for Cob Ton House Photo: Bill Bordass

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The first plastic – a semi-synthetic polymer – was used to make combs, chess pieces and dentures. In 2016 global production of plastics reached 335 million metric tons. Photo: The Author

Materials used in low-impact construction, such as organic paints, earth and clay, are widely and readily available; others, including many crops, could be grown ecologically on a large scale to produce the bulk materials used in building construction. Importantly they sequester carbon and provide a direct contrast to energy-intensive conventional materials. Other largely natural materials – stone, slate, baked clay, bricks and tiles – also play an important role, and these materials are well understood and well documented. As environmental limits exert an increasing influence over design and construction, approaches that once appeared radical are permeating mainstream practice.

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Case Study 6.1

Reed, Naturrummet, Glänås, Sweden, 2008 Wingårdhs: Arkitektkontor Naturummet is a visitor centre near Lake Tåkern in southern Sweden entirely built of wood and reed harvested from the bird lake in front of the building. It sits between the forest and the reeds very low down on piles, providing views across the water where shovelers, gadwalls, teals, pintails and an old white-tailed eagle have all been observed. The thatch cladding provides camouflage like a birdwatcher’s hide – the golden reed roof has already faded to grey – and a nesting space for small birds. The centre houses a large exhibition, which includes an aquarium that links to a pond, a film room, laboratory and conference rooms, and is formed around a central courtyard that

provides natural shelter from the climate with openings to connect the building with its surroundings. Sharp asymmetrical lines create steep roofs that assist in water run-off and enhance longevity. The use of traditional materials can be problematic but a glazed skylight at the ridge provides an innovating and elegant solution at a vulnerable place for a thatched roof. The visitor centre is one of a number of interventions that allow access to Lake Tåkern, including a bird-watching tower and a number of exhibits. Boardwalks that make the terrain accessible for all connect the areas.

Photo credit: Bruno Erat

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Case Study 6.2

Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Zurich, Switzerland, 2013 Architects: Zimmerman The apartment block in Zurich is specifically designed for people with multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). The GesundesWohnen MCS (Healthy Housing) co-operative, the city of Zurich and the housing co-operatives of Zurich were clients for this project of 15 units. The residents were involved in the project design from the outset and those apartments rented as subsidised living space had to be affordable to those who were financially challenged. Precision-engineered structural clay blocks filled with perlite granules were used in a monolithic massive construction for the outer walls. They were chosen because they contain no harmful additives and they have been certified by Natureplus to meet demanding embodied energy and indoor air quality standards. They also provide excellent acoustic protection and shielding from electromagnetic waves. It is a quick, precise and virtually dry construction building system combining high strength and thermal efficiency.

Allergy UK describes chemical sensitivity as: Not a mere dislike of a smell or a chemical in the air, it is the fact that a person feels unwell or ill, suffers with sudden debilitating weakness, lethargy, nasal congestion, headache, muscle aching, confusion, brain-fog, nausea, perspiration, acute anxiety, panic attacks or acute depression and sometimes collapse. In MCS the physical suffering is sometimes interwoven with a strong psychological component: in an attempt to minimise contact with other people’s perfumes and environmental pollutants some patients are forced to live in a reclusive environment and socialising becomes problematic. From a psychiatric angle these syndromes are akin to some psychiatric diagnoses such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, acute anxiety states or phobias and even schizophrenia.

Credit: Architect Zimmermann Sutter Architekten AG and Wienerberger

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General issues on materials Sourcing Sourcing of materials may not always be straightforward. Specifiers choose conventional materials from brochures produced by manufacturers and their agents, which provide performance criteria, best practice details, guarantees and so on. They then appoint builders with the required trade skills. Contractors source materials from known, nationwide networks. Many low-impact materials cannot be sourced in this way. To achieve low-impact construction it can make sense to undertake an audit of locally available materials, and available skills. The most appropriate local source of a material may be the site itself (earth or thatch), a nearby farmer (straw or hemp), forestry operator, estate manager or sawmill. Some materials, particularly those related to agriculture, may only be available, at a reasonable price, at certain times of the year, and it may be necessary to arrange appropriate storage until the right time in the construction programme. There may be no obvious price strategy for some material that may otherwise be waste. Notably, straw bale building originated from the use of waste straw as a temporary construction element with surprisingly long life. It may be to the benefit of a supplier to give materials away to avoid waste charges. Sourcing timber locally reduces pollution associated with its transportation. Attention should be given to finding the most

Locally sourced whiskey barrel houses, Findhorn Photo: The Author

locally available source of appropriate timber. It may be useful, and can have cost advantages, to assess the characteristics of local timber supply prior to starting a design, as with other aspects of materials. If it is difficult to source long lengths of timber, designs based around the use of short lengths make it easier to achieve at a reasonable cost. A number of systems enable specifiers to be confident of their timber source. The FSC is one such scheme.

Labour, skills and community An important aspect of much low-impact construction is the significantly different cost ratio between materials and labour, compared to conventional modern construction. The low cost of materials such as clay and straw bales explains their popularity with self-builders prepared to make a time commitment. By applying an element of self-build – sweat capital – it is possible to deliver buildings at a fraction of the cost of conventional building. This corresponds with advanced thinking in sustainable economics, which aims to shift the emphasis of taxation from people to resources and, among other benefits, would create a more level playing field for this benign approach to building.

Glentress locally sourced timber Photo: Michael Wolchover

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Not all low-impact construction is necessarily more labour intensive, but it is worth bearing this in mind when planning a building to assess the appropriate design and programme response. The recognition of human factors in sustainable design means that the self-building and the skills development aspects of much low-impact design is gaining a resonance.

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Performance Low-impact materials are rarely standardised by an industrial process. It is therefore important to identify performance characteristics at the outset that may have implications for the design, contract cost, planning, building control approvals and so on. Whoever supplies the material may not be in a position to certify or guarantee its performance, or even size, in the way that might be expected of a conventional manufacturer or supplier. This puts the onus on the buyer to ascertain the nature of the material, and on the designer to allow for possible weaknesses or problems so that they can be readily remedied if necessary. Codes and standards Adnams Distribution Centre The decision to use hemp lime block construction allowed the work to be undertaken by local builders. Photo: Adnams/Sarah Groves

Any building is subjected to the building control process and in conventional construction there are formal and informal systems of checks, which are designed to identify potential problems and prevent building failure. Knowledge to support low-impact construction is increasing but there is still little information and experience. Few constructors are familiar with the techniques. Designers will be required to fill the knowledge gap for others involved through research and/or demonstration of experience.

Self-build Youth Centre at Stammheim, Germany Designed and built by local youth with Hubner Architects. Photo: Howard Liddell

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its avoidance. If conscientiously undertaken it will prolong the life of most components indefinitely at minimum environmental or financial cost. It is important to make regular checks for moisture, cracks, erosion or failures which might betray a more serious durability threat. Simple visual checking is often all that is required, but it should be thorough and regular. Plants or detritus should be kept clear of wall surfaces to avoid build-up of material that could prevent adequate ventilation. Surfaces, such as window sills, should be kept clean to avoid mould build-up, and gutters cleared of leaves, eaves and verges checked for insects, etc. In this way almost all serious problems can be spotted early and dealt with cheaply and simply. Every five years or so, repainting of external surfaces may be necessary and, occasionally, repair of components and replacement of elements are also needed.

School of Natural Building There may be, for example, workshop groups offering site-based training for certain work stages. Photo: The Author

Maintenance Very few materials are naturally exempt from the ravages of weather and time but, for many, maintenance is seen as something to reduce to a minimum or remove. In attempting to escape the natural order of decay and weathering, invasive chemical treatments are often introduced. These cause environmental damage in numerous ways – through manufacture, through leaching in use, and when ultimately returned to the ground. It is better to accept that maintenance is necessary on a regular basis and to design to facilitate ease of maintenance rather than

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Powerhouse Kjørbo, Oslo If materials are well chosen and treated ecologically then maintenance can be planned for. Architects: Snohetta; Photo: Ketil Jacobsen

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Earth construction techniques More than one-third of the world’s population live in unfired earth homes. Relatively little energy is used to acquire the raw material and there is rarely any pollution associated with its extraction, manufacture or disposal. It also has considerable potential for the passive environmental control of buildings. Some common techniques are described here. Adobe is hand-made sun-baked or dried bricks containing a relatively thick, dry and malleable mud mix to which straw is often added. These bricks are stacked to form load-bearing external and internal walls or ceiling vaults, They are usually finished with an earth- or lime-based plaster or render on both sides. Where mechanical compression is used, this drives out more moisture than sun baking and enables the blocks to take on greater compressive loads. It is associated with Central America, Africa and Asia, but is applicable anywhere. Wattle and daub (or stake and rice) is a fairly wet mix applied as infill to a (usually) principal timber frame. A smaller scale lattice secures the earth mix. Straw or other fillers or reinforcements are needed to control shrinkage. This was traditionally used where timber was abundant, unlike other earth methods developed in regions without significant timber resources. Rammed earth requires a strong formwork and tamping down of a fairly dry earth-and-sand mix to form heavyweight monolithic load-bearing walls. The tamping may be by hand,

Tamping rammed earth wall at Gaia Lista’s Office, 1991 Photo: Gaia Lista

but techniques have been developed, and it is often carried out in a mechanical process by specialist companies. Cob (or mudwall) is essentially stacked earth. It uses fairly wet mixes (compared with rammed earth), usually with straw for reinforcement, placed or stacked on a wall and trampled or hand tamped into a monolithic wall construction. It can take considerable loads in compression, but not to the same extent as the more mechanised procedures.

The original design for Drumchapel Leisure Centre, Glasgow, 1994 Based on the principles of earth, air, fire and water it was to be modern earth construction. Architects: Gaia Architects; Image: Gaia Architects

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Case Study 6.3

Locally sourced: RUCID, Mityana, Uganda, 2017 Light Earth Designs and Studio FH RUCID (Rural Community in Development) is an ultra-low impact construction made from compressed earth blocks and eucalyptus. The privately run college for organic agriculture is funded by The Tudor Trust based in the UK. The project required refurbishment of the existing teaching and accommodation buildings (840m2) and the creation of new dormitory space, additional classrooms and kitchens (1,270m2) for 72 students. The school management had a very keen interest in ecological solutions and wanted to use the most local of construction technology.

The manually compressed stabilised soil blocks are largely made from earth sourced on site. The roofs and shading screens are made from eucalyptus wood found in nearby ­plantations. All the buildings have a decentralised ­rainwater harvesting system and kitchens with fitted fuel-efficient wood stoves. The project was built by local teams contracted on a labour basis and overseen by an in-house construction manager.

Photos: Will Boase

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Case Study 6.4

PVC- and concrete-free: AEITEC, Machynlleth, Wales, 2001 Architect: Pat Borer The AEITEC (Autonomous Environmental Information Centre) building formed the major part of new development at the Centre for Alternative Technology at the Millennium and embodied a desire to use contemporary ecological design. It provides an information centre and shop along with associated staff accommodation and new toilet facilities. The building was designed following a ‘Planning for Real’ exercise to arrive at a consensus view. The materials were all carefully selected for local availability, sustainability, and health and environmental impact. The external walls are highly insulated timber frame with woodwool boards as partial bracing with a lime render finish. Rammed earth is used internally to act as thermal capacity. The earth for the rammed earth columns came from a local quarry and was screened down to 6mm for the project, making a usefully homoge­ neous material; 8% powdered clay was added to bring the clay content to 15%. Lime was added in the top few inches and the bottom few inches to stabilise and strengthen the mix.

sewage treatment and rainwater recycling – as no on-site waste water treatment was available; • the use of sheep’s wool insulation within the 325mm-thick timber-framed external walls; • the complete exclusion of cement from the entire development (largely substituted with lime which contains approximately half to two-thirds of the embodied energy); • a 120m2 array of solar water panels, linked to a heat main which is also supplied by a biomass fuelled boiler. Architect, Pat Borer, then developed these techniques in the design of the Welsh Institute for Sustainable Education (WISE) building completed in 2010, which includes a180-seat theatre, seminar rooms, workshops, 24 en suite twin bedrooms, a research laboratory, restaurant, bar and reception area.

Self-coloured clay plasters are used internally over reinforced plasterboard in preference to gypsum. The roofing and other panels are from local and sustainable timber sources (larch and oak). All finishes are low emission and natural materials. The building features other innovations such as: • the use of unstabilised, non-reinforced, rammed earth elements as load-bearing supports internally (as well as thermal mass); • the on-site manufacture of 1,700 compressed earth blocks for use in the toilet block, which features low-flush WCs, a composting toilet, waterless urinals and an Aquatron waste separator for on-site Photo: Howard Liddell

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Light earth construction Light earth is the generic name given to a method of construction where straw, wood-chip, hemp or another suitable ‘fill’ material is coated with clay slip and set within a structural frame to which shuttering, services, joinery, etc. are fixed. Light earth is never used in a load-bearing capacity. It is usually made in situ, but can equally be constructed from blocks/infill panels. The surfaces are normally rendered on both sides with limebased or earth renders. Light earth construction as practised today was only recognised in the middle of the twentieth century as a discrete technique and was first documented in Germany in 1936.The technique did not develop widely until the 1980s, when it was promoted and developed by enthusiasts, particularly in Germany, but later across the world. Research by Gaia Architects produced the first major work on the subject in English. The thermal properties of light earth are intimately linked to its density – the lighter the mix, the greater is its insulation capacity, while a higher clay content improves its ability to store heat (thermal capacity). Lighter mixes may be used in the UK for external walls. Light earth construction operates as a moisture transfusive construction as long as the finishes used are vapour permeable, and so it is inherently protected against the risk of interstitial

The Cabin Melrose, 2003 This small building using straw clay and wood-chip clay was the first light earth building in the UK to meet regulatory approval. Architects: Gaia Architects; Photo: Chris Morgan

condensation due to the vapour permeability and hygroscopicity of the materials used. In addition, the ability to absorb moisture allows light earth walls to moderate internal humidity levels. This has considerable indoor environmental benefits. Light earth is difficult to ignite, but is officially combustible, where the fill material is combustible. Even without plaster coatings, its resistance to fire is good, but the presence of plaster coatings allows it to be used for all situations under the Building Regulations, except those requiring non-combustible materials only.

Private house in Darmstadt Manually applied light earth and stacked earth walls. Photo: Franz Volhard

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Stacked light earth brick wall Photo: Franz Volhard

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Case Study 6.5

Light earth bricks: Atelier Darmstadt, Germany, 1996 Architects: Schauer + Volhard This sculptor’s studio comprises a workspace, kitchen, bathroom and living space. It has floor slab, walls and roof timber panel construction with plywood sheathing. Cellulose insulation was blown into the roof and floor cavities. The

walls are lined with light earth bricks stacked into the frame. Additional external insulation is reed mat boards and lime render.

Photo: Franz Volhard

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Case Study 6.6

Earth bricks: The House at Dalguise, Scotland, 2003 ARC Architects A new house built in Perthshire in 2003 aimed to use earth bricks and clay plasters to improve indoor air quality, reduce construction waste and carbon emissions, and achieve a good-quality building at an affordable cost. A monitoring programme showed that: • The earth materials passively controlled moisture in the building, generally to below levels known to be a major cause of asthma and mould-related disease. • The thermal mass of the earth brick walls contributed significantly to the thermal comfort of the house by storing passive solar gains and moderating peak temperatures within a slow response heating system. Ventilation patterns adopted by the residents had a major effect on the amount of energy used to heat the house. • The earth bricks were locally sourced and easy to use, though they suffered minor shrinkage cracking, probably caused by moisture absorbed in transport. • The clay plasters achieved an attractive finish, but minor defects demonstrated that their different working qualities require specialist training to achieve a good finish. • Very little waste was produced by the earth materials, both in manufacture and on site, where the small amount of waste produced biodegraded into the site soil. • The earth materials had very low embodied energy and carbon, approximately 14% that of ordinary brickwork. • The earth materials controlled the risk of condensation in the building without the need for membranes. No condensation occurred within the fabric. Their ability to absorb excess air moisture made the bathroom extract fan effectively redundant. • The owner/occupiers were very happy with the house and content with the limitations on decoration of the walls necessary to maintain vapour porosity.

• The earth masonry worked well in combination with the structural timber frame. Good detailing and quality control are important at junctions with other materials. • Earth masonry has the potential to improve building quality, reduce the environmental impact of construction and create healthier homes within current affordable housing market conditions. While these materials are relatively easy to use by non-specialists, the market is not well developed. Technical research, product development and contractor skills are areas that require further investment.

Photo: ARC Architects

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Straw bale construction Straw bale construction is a quick and simple method ideally suited to self-build. Bale costs are low compared to other wall materials and bring direct income to farmers. Straw is often a waste product, it is entirely renewable, non-polluting, biodegradable eventually, and very well insulating. It is important to keep bales dry at all times, and to use breathable or moisture transfusive coatings. Clay and lime are preferred. Wide overhangs are advisable, along with protection from rising damp. Straw bale walls may be infill, with a structural frame of any suitable type, or load-bearing. The historical US bale buildings are load-bearing and this is preferred by many, since it dispenses with a framework. However, it is more complex to construct and less flexible should problems arise. The walls are laid in a staggered manner like conventional masonry, but without mortar. The bales need to be bound to each other and to adjacent frames and joinery such as windows and doors. It is useful to plan the building around bale-size modules to minimise the need to break up bales or create special sizes. But be warned: bales are not standardised – they come in different sizes! Bales can be used on edge but are usually (and for load-bearing walls, preferably) laid flat. At approximately 450mm wide, plus

Honesty window It is a long-standing tradition to expose part of the structure in straw construction – known as an honesty window. Photo: The Author

plaster depths, they take up a lot of space on plan, but provide pleasantly deep reveals akin to many older vernacular buildings, and excellent insulation.

Hemp construction

Straw bale office, Dunning, Perthshire A local materials audit resulted in a timber roof and round pole structure, with recycled windows and doors. Architects: Gaia Architects, 2000; Photo: Gaia Architects

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Hemp has a reputed 25,000 uses, including foodstuffs, fuel, biodegradable plastics, textiles, cosmetics and building materials. Like bamboo, described below, it has an enormous potential to contribute to the construction industry. It is as yet almost wholly unused. Possible hemp composites include insulation, screed levellers and underlays. As a crop, hemp is extremely hardy, productive and easy to grow in a range of climates, and resistant to disease and pests. There is no requirement for fertilisers. In addition, it tends to inhibit weed growth. The tap roots aerate the soil and the leaves produce a rich mulch, such that it is a good rotational crop, benefiting subsequent crop yields. Therefore, its ecological benefits mean that hemp represents a good low-impact building material.

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Hemp/lime construction The use of hemp fibres with lime is an established form of construction, particularly in France. Hemp fibres are also used on the Continent as insulation, though they require fire-retardant treatment. Hemp/lime construction is very much like light earth construction in practice, though the use of lime rather than clay reduces the hygroscopicity of the mix. It is generally denser than a light earth mix. Some research has indicated that the compressive strength of certain mixes may be enough to dispense with, or at least reduce, the timber framing required. In general it is used as infill only. The treatments and importation of hemp increase the embodied energy, but the potential to develop UK-based options exists. Prototype houses have been built in Suffolk. The relatively unimpressive ‘U’ values do not reflect the actual thermal performance of the buildings. As well as bioplastics, there is significant research into the potential for bio-organisms. Fired bricks can take several days

Pre-fabricated, Affordable, Modular housing at LILAC, Leeds Architects: White Design; Photo: The Author

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to bake and contribute an estimated 800 million tons of carbon pollution annually. Alternative binding materials – biological cements – based on microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation are in production, as are bricks made of a bacteria and sand combination that have a shorter manufacturing time than fired bricks and sequester CO2. There is also research into the creation of mycelium-based building blocks.

Bioplastics In 2007 worldwide the petro-HDPE market reached a volume of more than 30 million tonnes. Developing an alternative bioplastics market would both sequester and avoid production of CO2. It has been estimated that using sugar cane-based ethanol to produce one metric tonne of bio-HDPE would sequester 2.5 tonnes and avoid emission of 3.5 tonnes of C02 created by 1 tonne of petrochemical HDPE.

Mango Materials: bioplastic yarn Photo credit: Mango Materials

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Timber techniques

Acetylation

Recognition of timber as a viable, beautiful and functional lowimpact construction material is at the forefront of this change in attitudes towards ecological construction.

Timber acetylation is a non-toxic process by reacting the wood with acetic anhydride that changes the free hydroxyls within wood into acetyl groups and, by reducing its ability to absorb water, increases the durability.

Setting the record straight

For many, simply using timber now automatically transfers a sense of environmental credibility. Unfortunately this is not the case, and, depending on the circumstances, some timber specification can be worse than almost any other material. Consider, for example, hardwood, culled from old growth forest where logging companies displace local, perhaps indigenous, people and where the forest is either not replanted or is replanted with a single age monoculture. This timber is then shipped across the world, where it is heavily machined, treated with toxic chemicals to increase its durability and then used in a building with poor detailing which, despite its preservative treatment and inherent durability, leads to early decay. After perhaps ten years, it is discovered to have ‘failed’ and is disposed of, either legally as toxic waste or illegally, where it pollutes the soil and groundwater.

For timber to form part of a sustainable approach to specification and design of building, sustainable management of the forest resource is vital. Importantly: • The timber should not be old growth – there is too little left. • The forest structure should be of mixed age. • A largely native and sound ecological replanting system should be in place. • Some cultural or social recognition of the local landscape should be evident. • There should be policies to protect and enhance existing wildlife in the area. Ideally, the timber should be sourced locally, untreated to allow for eventual safe disposal, used efficiently, and detailed well to achieve durability and to be easily repaired.

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Thermodified timber A careful combination of heat and vapour is used to modify the chemical structure and results in timber with great stability and durability for projects above ground, including cladding and decking projects. It is a chemical-free process that may be applied to ash, spruce and pine, and avoid the need for impregnation. Oak is not usually thermo treated as it is already naturally durable, although the process can darken it for architectural purposes.

Segal technique The most popular technique for co-self-builders developed by Walter Segal originated, like straw bale construction, from a long-standing temporary shelter. It is simple, logical and resource efficient but is only truly low impact if all the materials are appropriately sourced and treated, and attention is given to the health aspects of the design.

Timber detailing Much UK experience with timber has involved plastic paints. The timber naturally expands and contracts, responding to changes in its environment, leading to paint flaking off. This looks untidy and the maintenance involves intensive work to remove and then reapply additional finishes. In Norway, where use of timber is widespread, the tendency is to either leave it unfinished or to paint it for decorative purposes in easy-to-apply, water-based paint – repeated on a reasonably regular basis. Hence, while in the UK the use of timber boarding is still rare, it is a common sight on the rain-pounded Norwegian west coast at Stavanger and Bergen.

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Well detailed timber cladding at Fairfield, Perth Photo: The Author

Timber has many uses throughout it’s life. Fence at Prinzessengarten, Berlin Photo: The Author

Wooden houses are common in coastal regions in Norway Timber is selected, detailed and maintained properly. Photo: Cat Button

Bamboo scaffolding Close-up of bamboo joint. Photo: The Author

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‘Green’ timber ‘Green’ timber involves building with recently felled timber that seasons ‘in situ’, cutting out the need for kiln drying. It invariably moves, which must be planned for, and is likely to result in ‘organic’ shapes. Bamboo grows extremely quickly in many environments. In places where timber is scarce, it is a strong, lightweight option that avoids the deforestation associated with logging in marginal areas. Like round pole, the difficulties in using bamboo are to do with connections between circular section poles. There are many new buildings demonstrating the technique, including the ZERI pavilion at the Hanover exposition.

Straw bale Office A local materials audit also resulted in a timber roof,  roundpole structure and recycled windows and doors. Architects: Gaia Architects

Round pole Timber used in the round is strong. As the fibres are uncut, the round sections are as strong as rectangular ‘beam’-shaped section timbers cut from much larger logs with discontinuous fibres. In theory, round pole requires no machining and so it is suitable for low tech and self-build construction, with no need to purchase machinery or to transport it to central treatment areas. Much of the early work on round pole construction was undertaken by BuraHappold at Hooke Park. The achievements in manipulation and the resulting forms were truly stunning, but some fundamental problems of ecology were not resolved, namely in the glues, fixings and roof membranes.

David Lea’s Studio Cottage Local, small-diameter saplings lashed into a grid shell, rendered and thatched form a simple, stable building created from its surroundings. Photo: Peter Blundell Jones; Photo permission: Christine Poulson

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A project undertaken in partnership between Scotland, Norway and Finland investigated opportunities to add value to logged timber in the northern periphery while maintaining an ecological silviculture. For instance, the use of young trees for structural timber liberates valuable timber at an earlier stage and theoretically increases the value of forestry. The biggest problems are in making connections between non-planed surfaces, and this often involves some machining to create a strong joint. The alternative is to use glues, which in general are less benign the stronger the connection. A number of examples resulted from the research and development of this technique at Hooke Park in Dorset.

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Cross-laminated timber (CLT)

Brettstapel

CLT is an engineered timber product that can be used to form structural floor and wall elements of a building. Internally it forms finished high-quality surfaces without the need for nonstructural infill panels. It has none of the embodied energy, waiting time and dust associated with a concrete slab. It is suited to off-site manufacture and delivery for dry, fast, on-site assembly. On larger schemes, the speed of construction can make it cost competitive.

Brettstapel is the commercial version of a concept developed by Natterer in Germany, involving the use of planks, or thicker sections of wood, laid on edge and connected together into wide panels of solid timber.

It is formed like glue-laminated timber (‘glulam’) beams but into panels using small sections of timber bonded together with permanent adhesives. Typically three to seven layers are bonded perpendicularly to one another to give structural strength in two dimensions and dimensional stability. Knots or other imperfections can be removed in the factory to enhance structural performance. The timber, often softwood spruce, is kiln dried to preclude pest or fungal attack. Factory-manufactured panels can be formed in almost any size, although for practical reasons tend to limits of about 3m × 13.5m. The completed panel is vapour permeable and so may be used as part of a moisture transfusive construction. The external finish is robust and suited to rainscreen claddings and renders but will generally require additional insulation. Good tolerances make it readily suited to achieving effective airtightness.

It is resource hungry and best suited to adding value to lowvalue timber, which would otherwise be used only for paper, matches, pallets, etc. Use of some timber threatens biodiversity and human habitats, while resources, such as Sitka spruce, that could supply a Brettstapel industry, are undervalued and underused.The resultant panels can span 12m at little more than 150mm deep. It is now in widespread use in Germany, and factories have developed in a number of Scandinavian countries. Factory construction is of solid timber panel, 8–30cm thick, up to 16m long and 620cm wide. Glueless bonding uses dowels rammed under pressure into holes drilled orthogonally in two directions to resist movement. Wall elements have one side of finished quality, making a high-quality ecologically sound and healthy building material.

CLT was largely manufactured in Austria, Switzerland and Germany but factories and trials are developing in Northern Europe and Spain using local wood. For purists the acceptable option to CLT is Brettstapel, which uses no glues and is instead bonded using hardwood dowels.

Brettstapel construction Office of Pirmin Jung Engineers, specialists in Brettstapel construction, including the design of their own office in Rain, Switzerland. Photo: The Author

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Case Study 6.7

Brettstapel: Pfennigäcker School, Tübingen, Germany, 1998 Architects: Joachim Eble The building is organised around several separate two-storey ‘houses’, which act as homes for classes of children throughout their time in the nursery school. The structurally separate buildings are joined by a central area, which acts as the ‘public space’ for joint activities, such as lunchtimes and recreation. Each building is completely constructed from ‘Brettstapel’ panels of dowelled timber planks on edge, forming large, solid timber elements. These are used for floors, walls and roof elements, covered externally with insulation and cladding as necessary, and exposed internally. When it was originally conceived, ‘Brettstapel’ was very much seen as an innovative ‘low-impact’ material. It has since become a commonplace ecological approach to building throughout Europe, except the UK.

The solid wood, with a density of around 750kg/m3, is both thermally massive and reasonably insulative, though additional insulation is placed externally. In this way the internal surfaces are relatively warm, thereby reducing the radiative heat loss from occupants and allowing for lower air temperatures, reducing stuffiness. Natural pigmented plant-based paints and stains are used internally, which enable the panels to absorb and desorb moisture from the internal climate, regulating the indoor relative humidity and creating a healthy, balanced climate for children and staff.

The timber is relatively poor-quality softwood, but used in this way it is structurally very strong (floor spans of 12m are possible) and self-bracing. Gaining value from low-quality timber helps the economic case for wellmanaged forestry.

Photo: The Author

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Reused, recycled and waste materials Waste is a major global issue. Construction waste is a significant proportion of that generated but is being dramatically reduced by the imposition of landfill taxes and by improvements in manufacturing and reuse. The creative reuse of materials as a resource is developing and importantly this is clarifying the need to remove toxins so that safe handling and disposal is assured throughout the product life. This means that on the one hand construction materials are being reused and recycled but also increasingly materials from other sectors are being made into construction products. Some reused products, such as doors and fire surrounds, are often of high value; and it is worth reusing them, although labour costs may also be high. Less valuable items may be harder to find secondary uses for but there are many innovations in this area and some designers use waste as an integral part of a lowimpact strategy.

Recycled plastic Increasingly recycled for a limited number of uses, but it should still be low energy and non-toxic. Photo: The Author

Products are available that have been recycled into similar materials (metals, glass cullet, etc.) or something quite distinct (certain plastics can be converted into building boards) or as additives to materials. It is important that the use, and potential for reuse, of benign materials is built into everyday specification so that today’s building materials do not become tomorrow’s waste. Lowest impact options are non-polluting materials that can be simply reused. Recycling and reuse of polluting materials that would be destined for landfill is creditable, but ultimately the final destination must be a consideration and hence the manufacturing processes which create polluting materials must be challenged.

Recycling Opportunities for specifying recycled products have increased. Production processes increasingly incorporate recyclate or waste from other processes. It is important that reprocessing does lead to an overall reduction in resource use. Reconstituted slate and fibreboards are examples of new products from waste that do not necessarily have lower embodied pollution than virgin or recycled products.

Anns Grove School, Sheffield Insulated by jeans collected by the schoolchildren. Architects: White Design; Photo: The Author

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Packaging A considerable amount of material is used in the distribution of building materials. The current popular packaging is polystyrene, a plastics-based material that takes thousands of years to decompose in landfills and is often very difficult to recycle. While some materials need to be carefully protected in transit and others may be moisture sensitive, there is significant over-specification and waste. Attention has been focused on reduction and recycling since the introduction of landfill taxation. It is worthwhile requesting information from suppliers on packaging materials and overall environmental policies.

Cardboard

Mycelium If the mycelium fungus is allowed to grow around natural waste like corn husks it dries to form a solid shape once it finishes growing.It is increasingly appealing as a non-fossil fuel alternative to conventional packaging materials; neither does it compete with land as may some bioplastics. It is naturally fire resistant and it can be easily moulded to any shape. With a curing time of only five days, the mushroom manufacturing process is proving to be cost-competitive. It doesn’t decompose without being exposed to living organisms. Just as an unfinished piece of wood won’t ruin indoors, neither will the mushroom packaging. It will compost in soil. It is already used to package some large computer servers.

Cardboard is made almost entirely from recycled material and so represents a benign material that is essentially non-polluting and biodegradable. A recent school extension was built using mostly cardboard, by volume, with recycled plastic film for water protection and some non-toxic (and recoverable) additives for protection. The panels and tubes used provide structure and protection from the elements.

Mycelium blocks Photo: David Benjamin

Cardboard School Westborough Primary School, Westcliffe-on-Sea, Essex. Architects: Cottrell and Vermeulen Architecture, 2001; Photo: Bill Bordass, William Bordass Associates

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Insulation materials Organic insulation materials are derived from cotton fibre, wood fibre, cellulose, wool, hemp, cotton and flax. They are sometimes a low-value or waste product of a process such as joinery or linen production. They have huge advantages over mineral- and petrochemical-based thermal and acoustic insulation, as they generally have low or negative embodied energy and a high specific heat-storage capacity and high density. These latter qualities can contribute to reducing overheating in lightweight construction. All data sheets should be examined prior to use but, unlike oil- and glass-based insulation, natural fibres are non-toxic. In general there is no requirement for physical protection during installation. They are also hygroscopic and so will assist in managing moisture in a building or as part of designed moisture transfusive construction and are resilient to mould. They have a role to play in the structure of timber frame and timber roofs because they resist moisture decay. All plant-based building materials store carbon as they grow and until the end of life when it is released along with nutrients if it decomposes or as heat if burned. Any waste arising can be composted or bio-digested, as there are no toxins to move through the waste stream. They may be available in a range of forms and densities to suit different applications. Sodium borax or ammonia salts are normally required for fire retardants. Advantages: • High acoustic performance. • Low to zero toxins, easy to reuse/dispose of, significant health benefits throughout the life cycle. • Offers some thermal mass. • Protective clothing and masks not needed, comfortable for installers and others coming into contact with it. • Renewable materials store carbon throughout usable lifespan. • Robust in handling, transportation and on-site construction. • Vapour permeable, works well with other low-impact materials. Limitations: • • • •

Most products manufactured overseas and imported. Requires thicker walls than some chemical composites. Suitability of rendered external finishes limits application. Use limited to above damp-proof course or equivalent level.

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Paper-based acoustic insulation at UEA Photo: The Author

Aerogel

Aerogel or silicic acid is a jelly-like substance formed by adding hydrochloric acid to liquid potassium silicate. It has a very low thermal conductivity, is vapour-open and does not promote the growth of mould and mildew and so provides high thermal performance and moisture management.. Its transparency to light and solar radiation and resistance to convection and long-wave radiation popularise it as a transparent insulation material but it has proved to be fragile and vulnerable to water degradation. However, it has re-emerged as a constituent of a number of building materials. It can be added to insulation boards, blankets, plasters, coatings and composites to enhance thermal performance. It has been used in demonstration projects to super-insulate hard-to-treat 1960s uninsulated solid-walled single-glazed housing, many of which suffer from moisturerelated problems – condensation, rising damp and mould growth – made worse by insufficient heating and high rates of fuel poverty. It is particularly useful for renovating with limited space and where it is impractical to use anything thicker, such as around window reveals. It gives off a an extremely fine, sticky dust and so is likely to require proper gloves, dust mask and goggles when handling and, since its effects are largely unknown, some may prefer HEPA extraction and filtering and full dust/facial protection – similar to handling asbestos if cut on site,

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Case Study 6.8

Aerogel insulation: The Engine Shed, Stirling, Scotland Historic Environment Scotland (HES) The Engine Shed, a former munitions depot built at the turn of the nineteenth/twentieth century, has been restored to become Scotland’s first dedicated centre of expertise for preserving and restoring historical buildings and ancient monuments. It also offers interactive exhibits to the public. The restoration demonstrates the use of traditional materials and upgrading while disturbing as little as possible of the original fabric and character. The original shed has sandstone walls and a slate roof supported by steel roof trusses. A glazed clerestory window runs the full length of the single-storey single-span building. A new clear span pitched roof shed has been added on either side of the original structure, each separated by a glazed link. This reflects a traditional approach to railway architecture, repeating until there was enough accommodation. The new gables are set back from the line of the original building’s gable walls. The floor has been taken down to the original level and the rails and platforms removed.

Window repairs relied on recycled wrought iron, the closest match to the original mild steel used. Red lead putty used to seal around the frames was replaced. A simple cord-andpulley hopper system in the clerestory window was retained to control natural ventilation. Inside the building a lecture theatre has been installed as a pod – similar to the way in which large railway stations house shops and cafés. Pre-patinated grey zinc covers the new sheds to blend in with the neighbouring slate roofs. The interiors have an industrial aesthetic. Self-finished and minimal applied finishes have been used and exposed, along with surfacemounted conduit and fittings. The Engine Shed roof was re-slated. In a heritage setting such as this, a very thin layer of insulation was required. The slates were fixed directly to the original sarking boards with 40mm nails over a vapour-permeable membrane laid onto an Aerogel insulation blanket. This is intended to improve the U value from 1.94 to 0.85W/m2K.

Stone was salvaged from a dismantled bridge next to the site, having been identified as a close match for the local stone used to construct the original Engine Shed. Analysis of the original mortar showed it had weathered well with no detrimental effect. It was matched as closely as possible for all repointing work.

Photo: The Author

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Case Study 6.9

The Mushroom Tower: Hy-Fi, New York, USA, 2014 Museum of Modern Art, New York City Hy-Fi is a 13-metre-tall tower commissioned as a temporary, environmentally friendly project. The bio-architecture building, made entirely from 10,000 mushroom bricks, hosted public events for three months, before being disassembled, composted and returned to the soil in community gardens. The visible portion of a mushroom is a fraction of the overall organism. Beneath the surface, they have roots called mycelium. To make the bricks, researchers filled moulds with corn stalks – an agricultural waste – hemp and mycelium. In five days the mixture transforms into a water-resistant, lightweight brick with no added energy. The durability, structure and thermal performance for a temporary building were all examined. The bricks went through an accelerated ageing process over a three-week period to simulate three years of weathering (wind, rain and humidity). The outcome: a low-value, low-energy mat­erial that can safely return to the earth and an alternative to a wasteful linear economy. The bricks have only a tiny fraction of the ­compressive

strength of concrete but also only a fraction of the weight. Their low density has application as an insulator and where compressive strength is not a requirement. Local artists, trade school interns, graduate students, construction and engineering professionals, and non-profit organisations were all engaged in the project and fairly paid. The project also engaged a diverse public through its high-profile installation. The technique is in its infancy but there is potential to develop a variety of properties of the bricks – strength and lifespan – by chan­ ging variables like the ratio of ingredients and the growing time. Others are experimenting with mycelium to create furniture and to combine it to grow on a range of frameworks or substrates. The future of the circular construction industry will require design exploration of the boundaries of natural sciences, agriculture and bio-engineering if Factor 10 or 20 changes are to be met.

Photo credit: David Benjamin

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Hi-Fy Mycelium Building Photo Permission: David Benjamin

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Case Study 6.10

Animal architecture An area of particular interest is to explore new ideas and research needs within the context of sustainability and to address biodiversity, environmental pollution and protection, which are key aspects of Sustainable Construction objectives.

It is argued that the use of these resources has been a principal element in our species’ success, but how optimised is our performance? And how significant and predictable are the problems which we are introducing for future generations?

Elements of animal architecture have been used to develop concept designs for a range of building types. The project aimed to bring animal building to the attention of the construction industry in order to encourage innovation.

These issues were explored by Gaia Research in a project to design a building based on animal architecture principles (Halliday 2000).

Animals are responsible for some impressive, experienced and environmentally sensitive architecture. Like humans, they construct in order to transform their environment, improve their quality of life, and provide safety and security for their young. Their achievements in structural form and strength, microclimate creation, material exploitation, membrane design, ventilation and pest management are immense. However, we still know very little about these achievements, the underlying physical principles and how we might apply them. In contrast to animal builders, humankind uses significant mechanical and chemical resources to create and transform habitat.

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Planning and low-impact development In considering low-impact buildings, it is useful to understand the context within which these buildings may be conceived of and developed. Fairlie’s book Low Impact Development (1997) looks at the planning process with a view to promoting the development of low-impact structures and ways of life. This Land is Ours have developed 15 criteria which form a basis for understanding the conceptual and practical context for low-impact buildings. Fairlie notes that few buildings will conform to all criteria, but that significantly low-impact buildings are likely to conform to many. The criteria act as a useful checklist for assessing the impact of any proposal. The project:  1. Has a management plan which demonstrates: • how the site will contribute significantly towards the occupiers’ livelihoods; • how the objectives cited in items 2 to 14 below will be achieved and maintained.  2. Provides affordable access to land and/or housing to people in need.  3. Provides public access to the countryside, including temporary access such as open days and educational visits.  4. Can demonstrate how it will be integrated into the local economy and community.  5. Can demonstrate that no activities pursued on the site will cause undue nuisance to neighbours or the public.  6. Has prepared a strategy for the minimisation of motor vehicle use.  7. Any buildings associated with it are appropriately sited in relation to local landscape, natural resources and settlement patterns.  8. Is not visually intrusive nor of a scale disproportionate to the site and the scale of the operation, and is constructed from materials with low embodied energy and environmental impact, and preferably from locally sourced materials, unless environmental considerations or the use of reclaimed materials determine otherwise. Reuse and conversion of existing buildings on the site is carried out as far as practicable in conformity with these criteria.  9. Is reversible, insofar as new buildings can be easily dismantled and the land easily restored to its former condition. 10. Plans to minimise the creation of waste and to reuse and recycle as much as possible on site.

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11. Has a strategy for energy conservation and the reduction, over time, of dependence on non-renewable energy sources to a practical minimum. 12. Aims over time for the autonomous provision of water, energy and sewage disposal, and where it is not already connected to the utilities will make no demands upon the existing infrastructure. 13. Enables agricultural, forestry and similar land-based activities to be carried out according to sustainable principles. Preference will be given to projects that conform to registered organic standards, sustainable forestry standards or recognised permaculture principles. 14. Has strategies and programmes for the ecological man­ agement of the site, including: • sustainable management and improvement of soil structure; • conservation and, where appropriate, the enhancement of semi-natural habitat, taking into account biodiversity, indigenous species and wildlife corridors; • efficient use and reuse of water, as well as increasing the water-holding capacity of the site; • planting of trees and hedges, particularly in areas where the tree coverage is less than 20%. 15. Can show that affordability and sustainability are secured – for example, by the involvement of a housing association, co-operative, trust or other social body whose continuing interest in the property will ensure control over subsequent changes of ownership and occupation.

Roundpole frame The criteria bear a strong resemblance to the Welsh One Planet Living Policy: Image www.SimonDale.net

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Bibliography von Frisch, K. (1975) Animal Architecture. Hutchinson & Co.

Halliday, S.P. (2000) Anarchi – Animal architecture. Gaia Research.

Guidoni, E. (1975) Primitive Architecture. Electra Editrice.

Elizabeth, L. & Adams, C. (2000) Alternative Construction, Contemporary Natural Building Methods. John Wiley.

Bramwell, M. (1976) The International Book of Wood. Mitchell Beazley. Stulz, R. (1983) Appropriate Building Materials – A catalogue of potential solutions. SKAT Swiss Centre for Appropriate Technology and Intermediate Technology Publications, St Gallen, Switzerland. Shoard, M. (1987) This Land is Our Land. Paladin. Mollison, B. (1990) Permaculture: A practical guide for sustainable living. Island Press. Broome, J. & Richardson, B. (1991) The Self-build Book. Green Books. Laporte, R. (1993) Mooseprints: A holistic home building guide. Robert Laporte. Houben, H. & Guillaud, H. (1994) Earth Construction: A comprehensive guide. Intermediate Technology Publications. Steen, A. & Steen, B. (1994) The Straw Bale House. Chelsea Green.

Little, R. & Morton, T. (2001) Building with Earth in Scotland: Innovative design and sustainability. Scottish Executive Central Research. Gaia Architects (2003) Light Earth Construction. Gaia Research. May, N. (2005) Breathability: The key to building performance. Oakley, Natural Building Technologies. Minke, G. (2006) Building with Earth: Design and technology of a sustainable architecture. Birkhäuser. Weismann, A. & Bryce, K. (2006) Building with Cob: A step-bystep guide. Green Books. Weismann, A. & Bryce, K. (2008) Using Natural Finishes: Lime and clay based plasters, renders and paints. Green Books. Forestry Commission Scotland (2010) Materials Considerations – A natural factory case study 04 Acharacle School. Sust. Prasad, S. (2014) Retrofit for Purpose. RIBA Publishing.

Rudafsky, B. (1995) Architecture Without Architects. The Museum of Modern Art.

Volhard, F. (2016) Light Earth Building – A handbook for building with wood & earth. Birkhauser.

Westermarck, M. (1996) The Manufacture & Use of Nature-Based Building Materials as a Secondary Livelihood for Farmers,1st English Resume. The Unit for Nature-Based Construction.

Sources of information

Fairlie, S. (1997) Low Impact Development: Planning and people in a sustainable countryside. Jon Carpenter Publishing. Maxwell, I. & Ross, N. (1997) Traditional Building Materials Conference. Historic Scotland. Mitchell, M. (1998) The Lemonade Stand – Exploring the unfamiliar by building large-scale models. The Centre for Alternative Technology Publications, Stungo, N. (1998) The New Wood Architecture. Laurence King. Gaia Research (1999) Roundpole. www.gaiagroup.org/ roundpole.html. DachverbandLehm (1999) LehmbauRegeln (Earth Building Rules). Vieweg & Sohn. Hansel, L.M. (1999) The Animal Construction Company. The Hunterian Museum and Gallery.

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ASBP produce excellent information on the benefits and limitations of a range of low-impact building materials: natural fibre insulation, hemp lime, straw bale, unfired clay masonry and cross-laminated timber. Friends of the Earth/National Recycling Forum: www.nrf.org. uk!buy-recycled. Salvo News and Salvo Guide: www.salvo.org.uk. SEGAL Self Build: www.segalselfbuild.co.uk. UK trust helping people to build their own homes using the Segal method, with an emphasis on low-impact healthy materials. Centres of excellence on lime, running hands-on courses: www.thelimecentre.co.uk. www.strawhomes.com – USA. www.thelaststraw.org – USA.

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WISE Building – Centre for Alternative Technology. Architect Pat Borer; Photo: Tim Soare

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Chapter 7 Environmental design Heating, cooling and ventilation In which we look at heating, ventilation and cooling strategies using mechanical systems as supports for natural systems rather than replacements for them, recognising that material selection, airtightness, and thermal and moisture management are fundamental aspects in creating excellent indoor air quality.

Natural ventilation, Coventry University Library Architects: Alan Short Architects; Photo: The Author

“Good indoor air quality is a human right.” Dagfinn Jorgensen, engineer, Norway

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Background ventilation Biel – Bienne College, Switzerland. Architects: Meili and Peter; Photo: The Author

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Environmental design Contents Introduction�����������������������������������������������218 Minimising demand�����������������������������������219 Changing consumption������������������������������219 Building physics����������������������������������������222 Form and fabric������������������������������������������� 222 Windows and glazing����������������������������������� 222 Zoning��������������������������������������������������������� 223 Thermal comfort������������������������������������������ 223 Passive Standard������������������������������������������ 226 The indoor environment����������������������������230 Building-related ill-health (BRI) �����������������234 Moisture management�������������������������������234 Hygroscopic materials versus mechanical ventilation������������������������������������������������ 235 Methods of heating������������������������������������238 Condensing boilers�������������������������������������� 238 Ground heat������������������������������������������������ 238 Heat pumps������������������������������������������������� 238 Context: how a site can be exploited���������239 Infrastructure����������������������������������������������� 239 Site selection����������������������������������������������� 239 Local weather and microclimate������������������� 239 Massing and energy efficiency��������������������� 239 Building orientation������������������������������������� 240 Passive solar heating����������������������������������� 240

Controls������������������������������������������������������ 241 Methods of cooling������������������������������������244 Mechanical cooling strategies���������������������� 244 Ventilation�������������������������������������������������246 Why do we ventilate?����������������������������������� 246 ‘Build tight – ventilate right’������������������������� 246 How much ventilation is needed?����������������� 247 Methods of ventilation������������������������������250 Natural ventilation��������������������������������������� 250 Natural ventilation strategies����������������������� 250 Opening windows������������������������������������� 251 Atria��������������������������������������������������������� 251 Passive stack�������������������������������������������� 251 Mechanical ventilation��������������������������������� 254 Fan power������������������������������������������������ 254 Ventilation effectiveness��������������������������� 254 Management tools�������������������������������������256 Modelling and simulation��������������������������256 Rules of thumb������������������������������������������258 Heating�������������������������������������������������������� 258 Natural ventilation��������������������������������������� 258 Mechanical ventilation��������������������������������� 259 Cooling�������������������������������������������������������� 259 Bibliography����������������������������������������������260

Case studies   7.1   7.2   7.3   7.4   7.5   7.6   7.7   7.8   7.9 7.10

Building physics, 22–26: Lustenau, Austria��������������������������������������������������������������������220 Innovative windows: Glasslåven, Hadeland, Norway������������������������������������������������������224 Functionality: Rocky Mountain Institute Innovation Center, Basalt, USA������������������������227 Passive Standard Archive, Hereford, England�����������������������������������������������������������������228 Refurbishment and phase change materials: Scotstoun House, Scotland�����������������������236 Net positive refurbishment: Powerhouse Kjørbo, Oslo, Norway�������������������������������������242 Evaporative cooling: Osaki, Japan�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������245 Activ Hus: Hurdal, Norway����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������249 An alternative business premises: Okohaus, Frankfurt��������������������������������������������������252 Dynamic insulation: Callander, Scotland�������������������������������������������������������������������������255

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Introduction All designers should attain a basic knowledge of the principles of thermal comfort, heat transfer and energy. However, this is still rarely translated into design strategies. As a consequence, buildings use far more energy for heating, cooling and ventilation than is necessary and are less comfortable and less healthy than they might be. Concerns about energy security and the potentially devastating impacts of climate change have been acknowledged and there is consensus that buildings matter. Clients and legislators have begun to make the conservation of fuel and power in buildings a priority. Improved energy performance can be achieved first and foremost by attention to the building envelope, with the added benefits of enhanced durability and comfort. Thinking about how a building will be used is critical to delivering thermal comfort and making the best use of resources. It requires that controls take account of human factors. Once a design is optimised, attention is required as to the best options in fuel sourcing and system selection that will be manageable and maintainable.

Temperatures after sunset

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Urban heat island profile 23ºC 22ºC 21ºC 20ºC

Rural

Commercial

Suburban residential

Urban Suburban residential residential Central business Park Rural district farmland

Global heat islands High retaining surfaces, traffic and outputs from buildings increase temperatures in urban areas.

proportion of CO2 emissions. For the construction industry to be part of the solution it is vital that there is improvement in the fundamental design of buildings, the efficiency with which energy is used in them and a shift to cleaner fuel sources. Space heating, ventilation and cooling are primary targets for improved efficiency but other contributory aspects such as the relationship to transport and amenity are also crucial and are dealt with under urban ecology. To make the most of the opportunities it is vital that issues are thought out at the earliest stages of design development by professionals willing to work together across traditional boundaries. Tackling existing buildings is a crucial part of the overall solution if we are to limit energy consumption to sustainable levels. There is emerging good-quality guidance. Sadly, many documented projects do not stand up to scrutiny. There remains a need to bring the most contemporary information about heating, cooling and ventilation in the design of buildings to wider attention. There is great variety and few absolutes. The case studies in this chapter highlight innovative approaches and best practice.

Predictions for global warming made in the early 1970s are not dissimilar to figures now accepted and used as the basis of policy setting. While there is, in principal, international cooperation to tackle climate change, there is no reason for optimism. There is general agreement that buildings account for almost onethird of final energy consumption globally and an equivalent

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Minimising demand A major contribution to reducing the adverse environmental impact of buildings is to be attentive to energy efficiency at the outset. Passive systems should always be considered prior to active systems. The tendency remains to seek answers in addons, with questionable payback and potential high maintenance. Instead, attention is required as to physics, form and fabric, orientation, physical planning, massing, microclimate use/ creation and to the possibilities for mixed use, which allow for overall better utilisation of space and energy. Major areas all need to be considered in an integrated manner.

• Internal and solar heat gains have increased in many buildings and a trend towards lightweight construction makes them less able to store/lose heat. • The climate is getting warmer. • More people are living in cities, where it is warmer still. It is predicted that Europe will have a fourfold increase in cooling demand by 2020 (from 1990), well exceeded by growth in developing nations. Much of the increase could be avoided by simple measures to reduce/eliminate the need.

• Form and fabric – How can the building envelope minimise heating requirements? • Context – How can infrastructure, orientation, layout and microclimate best be exploited? • Fuel – What is the least polluting source of affordable energy? • System design – What equipment offers the best opportunity for efficiency and good control? • Controls – How can controls minimise heat requirements while maintaining comfort? • Management in use – What tools are available to improve building management?

Changing consumption A change in global consumption patterns is a cause for concern with increasing expectation that thermal comfort can be provided by fossil fuel-based mechanical systems even in extreme climates. For many years design and regulatory effort to make buildings more energy efficient focused on improving heating. However, ventilation and cooling have increasingly been recognised as fundamental issues to resolve through design for a number of reasons: • Air-conditioning is one of the fastest growing areas with an associated illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances (ODS). • Health in buildings is often related to air quality. • The proportion of heat loss through air movement has increased as insulation standards have improved. • Uncontrolled air infiltration adversely affects comfort and energy efficiency in hot and cold climates.

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The Weetabix School – Acharacle Primary With sufficient insulation and airtightness the building occupants can be the main heat source. Photo: Gaia Architects

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Case Study 7.1

Building Physics, 22–26: Lustenau, Austria, 2013 Architects: be baumschlager eberle Fossil fuel energy consumption can be reduced in buildings but often with added capital cost implications of alternatives, and additional maintenance and servicing of technology. The environmental design of this six-storey, 13,000m2 office block in Austria is, in part, a reaction to the escalating capital and maintenance costs of mechanical services systems. It has no mechanical ventilation, heating or cooling system. It is a stone building with a cavity wall structure consisting of 36-centimetre aerated clay bricks. The inner layer provides high compressive strength and the outer layer provides efficient insulation. This structure provides thermal and hygroscopic mass to resist rapid changes in temperature and regulate internal humidity. Excessive solar gain is restricted by deep window reveals In winter the internal heat gains from occupants, lights and small power contribute about 40–50W/m2 – adequate to maintain an indoor temperature within the comfortable range of 22 to 26oC throughout the year. Very highceilinged rooms maintain comfortable ambient temperature assisted by natural ventilation. Internal vents are controlled by sensors that open in response to high CO2 levels. In summer the building uses night cooling through high-level vents.

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22–26 Lustenau Photo: Arne Førland-Larsen

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Building physics The transition of design thinking away from reliance on mechanically engineered and artificial indoor environments of the latter half of the twentieth century is now well under way. In its place has come fabric first – insulation and airtightness, better understanding of context and natural processes, and awareness of human factors. A significant recent transition has been the move away from an assumption of significant energy input for heating, cooling and ventilation. In moderate climates regulations are moving towards passive design and net energypositive buildings.

• Design excellent windows for optimum daylight and solar penetration and simple operation. • Minimise infiltration to prevent unnecessary heating or cooling. • Use and enhance air movement to support natural ventilation strategies. • Consider zoning in combination with good control.

Form and fabric Good fabric design minimises the need for services, and reduces running costs and adverse environmental impact. There is a need to consider thermal insulation, thermal mass, choice and location of openings, and quality of construction details. Good-quality guidance is emerging, and designers, clients and builders are increasingly conscious of the need for contractual agreements and post-construction tests to tie down aspirations, because design and construction claims do not always stand up to scrutiny. Thermal insulation is often the most cost-effective means of improving performance in cold climates. The location of insulation affects thermal response:

Moisture transfusive construction Fabric is important. In wasps’ nests heat and moisture must be allowed to escape. Photo: The Author

It is now largely, although not universally, recognised that environmental building design should, in the first instance, make the most of building physics. It should: • Start with the most appropriate location and orientation (and landscape) to both exploit and protect from the local climate. • Optimise insulation and thermal mass to address occupancy patterns and to mitigate the effects of diurnal rhythms, store heat or prevent overheating.

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• Internal – Cold structure risks of interstitial condensation or frost damage. This can be avoided with extra ventilation and/or heating to raise surface temperatures, but with an energy cost. • Interstitial – Risk of condensation or excess heat loss at thermal bridges, openings or junctions with internal walls and floors. • Composite structure – Fixing is critical to avoid thermal bridging, particularly where masonry penetrates insulated components. • External – Structure remains warm, with low risk of surface condensation. The full benefit of the thermal capacity is obtained. Thermal mass will smooth out temperature variations. High thermal mass is especially valuable to minimise heat gains and avoid or minimise the use of air-conditioning. If a building were only intermittently used then low thermal mass would mean shorter pre-heat periods and less energy use, provided any tendency to overheat is mitigated.

Windows and glazing Windows are required to serve numerous functions – to provide daylight, ventilation, some insulation, and to optimise solar

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energy through the seasons. Building regulations determine the minimum amount of air required for health and well-being, and this must also take into account the need for energy efficiency and comfort. If air is introduced at too warm or too cold a temperature then it may either cause discomfort due to draught or contribute to overheating. Either will affect well-being and productivity. The amount and type of glazing, and the shape, location and control of windows, is key to the effective control of heat losses and gains.

Thermal comfort For nearly 50 years design approaches were based on a criterion of comfort founded on laboratory experiments and thermal models. This resulted in very narrow comfort bands. Initially intended as guidance, they were increasingly used as rigid design standards. Even in mild climates it was difficult to meet the conditions except by using mechanical systems. Some blamed a conspiracy of manufacturers, researchers and regulators.

Passive housing in Scotland with a well-functioning handover strategy Photo credit: MEARU

A school window in Germany Windows are required to serve multiple functions: connection to outside, views, solar gain, daylight and ventilation. Here the functions are elegantly separated with an independent opening to provide ventilation. Photo: The Author

Zoning Good zoning will make the task of ventilation easier. Zones should be hierarchically arranged with the highest temperatures, odour, moisture and pollution levels (kitchen and bathrooms) closest to the outflow zone. Good organisation can be crucial for the effective use of natural and low-pressure systems. Proper layout means that heat is conserved, the need for ducting is reduced and there is more flexibility for indoor planning. Zoning of noise generation is also important, particularly if large openings are disruptive to the environment, such as other classrooms, meeting places or where there is noise outdoors.

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It was argued for a good proportion of this time that narrow definitions of comfort exaggerated the need for air-conditioning. For instance, it was known that: • Human response to thermal comfort differs in naturally ventilated and mechanically conditioned buildings. • People tolerate higher temperatures as long as they have some control over their environment. Research in offices, schools and factories reinforced the inadequacy of narrow standards throughout the 1980s and 1990s, and only relatively recently has sufficient evidence been obtained to allow good sense to prevail. A more sensitive and flexible approach is increasingly evident, with benefits in occupant satisfaction, comfort and productivity. Draughts are a problem because at low temperatures air movement has a greater cooling effect. Better insulation and tighter construction in cold climates has helped create higher and more constant surface temperatures, and reduced the uncontrolled air circulation that creates draughts.

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Case Study 7.2

Innovative windows: Glasslåven (Glass Barn), Hadeland, Norway, 2016 Gaia Oslo as A window system has been developed that combines a fresh air ventilation system with passive heat recovery. The reclaimed heat, which would normally be lost through conduction, can, in the right conditions, be supplemented by solar gains. It requires no ducts or fans. Pre-warmed air is brought in directly from outside without the frost protection required by mechanical heat recovery ventilation. The Glass Barn is a refurbishment project and one of the first buildings to use the windows in Norway. The window has two integrated frames of glass, an electronically regulated valve, room and zone sensors, optional integrated blinds and an inbuilt photovoltaic power system. Fresh air is taken into the bottom of the outer frame, rises in the cavity between the exterior glass and internal units, and enters the room through a gap at the top of the inner section. The air is pre-heated by conduction heat loss and depending on the orientation can also deliver pre-heated air from solar radiation. It relies on a constant, steady airflow to provide a Building Regulations-mandated level of fresh air, and to pre-heat the air (the slower, the more heat recovery). The airflow is modulated in response to room and outside conditions detected by wireless sensors on the window and ceiling and reacting to pre-set and user-specific programmes. If there is a risk of overheating the air can be taken directly through a valve in the upper frame without going through the glass layer.

Openable window for cleaning of inner space Photo: The Author

The manufacturers also claim a filtration effect as dust settles in the intermediate layer. The window may be opened from the inside to deal with cleaning and maintenance.

an optional cleanable air filter, completes the system for cool and temperate climates.

A reverse flow barrier that prevents condensation and a bypass that allows air in directly from outside during hot months, as well as

Many buildings already have a constant lowlevel extraction system removing air from wet rooms and this can be enough to draw the

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Case Study : 7.2 (Continued)

Innovative windows: Glasslåven (Glass Barn), Hadeland, Norway, 2016 Gaia Oslo as air in. On buildings that do not have active ventilation of kitchen and bathrooms, a simple off-the-shelf passive stack vent extraction system could be fitted. The number of windows required to provide ventilation depends on local building regulations, use of the rooms, width and height of the windows and, to some extent, wind patterns and

The Glass Barn will be evaluated in order to gain experience of how the windows are working in practice.

Both climates

Warmer climates

OUTSIDE

INSIDE

Cooler/temperate climates

airtightness. A bespoke modelling tool is used to estimate the number of windows needed and to predict the energy benefits. A reduction in heat requirement of about 15% and a reduced cooling demand of 35% are claimed.

HEATING MODE

BYPASS MODE

SELF COOLING MODE

Comfortable indoor climate with pre-warmed fresh air

Fresh air brought in directly from outside

Window cools itself while allowing daylight in (without solar gain)

Natural heat recovery

Direct/Purge ventilation

Light without heat

Operating modes depending on climate condition

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Passive standard Regulatory frameworks in many countries are increasingly adopting the Passive House Standard and beyond to Zero Energy and Energy Plus. Buildings will be expected to generate more energy than they need and preferably enough to offset transport-related energy consumption. Achieving passive standard accreditation requires targets to eliminate thermal bridging and infiltration. They include: • • • •

Use of super-insulation. Airtight construction with adequately controlled ventilation. Passive solar design and perhaps stack ventilation. Consideration of internal heat generation.

It is supported by an energy assessment programme, the planning package (PHPP), based on rigorous building physics. This allows designers in different climatic regions to calculate heating and cooling loads, monthly energy demand and frequency of overheating. The ability to use real data, change elements and get immediate feedback gives it international credence as a reliable tool for assessing the performance of new or refurbished buildings more accurately than any other calculation methods. The Passive House Standard introduces a requirement for mechanical ventilation and heat recovery (MVHR), if certification is required, but there are many arguments against the use of MVHR. • The cost and space requirements. • The energy and maintenance costs – specifically the requirements for frost protection and the need for filters. • Ventilation systems have long been seen as part of the indoor air quality problem. Fanger found them to be the biggest contribution to poor indoor air quality, and concerns about ill-health through badly maintained systems endure with new research findings. • And, importantly, a risk of return to standardisation that constrains innovation, especially where passive design is of little commercial interest compared to sales of mechanical cooling equipment and their constant requirement for repair, renewal and refurbishment. The challenge is to achieve passive standard or better and to deliver healthy indoor air quality. It requires improved knowledge of building physics and, importantly, consideration of materials and products that should be vetted for their toxicity. The material properties relating to humidity control are of significance.

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Thermal photography Highlights where heat can escape through poor insulation or thermal bridging. Image: www.irtsurveys.co.uk

Evidence from Northern Europe indicates that design targets for comfort are not always achieved and may lead to higher rather than lower energy consumption.

A note on zero energy buildings and beyond

No-heating solutions have been achieved in a significant number of commercial buildings. These need to be appraised on their real merits, as many rely on high levels of internal heat gains, including lighting. However, there is ample documentation of zero energy buildings genuinely being achieved in practice. Problems have been encountered where occupants’ lifestyles are other than predicted or buildings simply don’t perform as intended. Overheating is a significant problem. While laudable, zero energy is still outwith the experience and abilities of many involved in the construction chain, caution is required to ensure that mistakes are not made which could lead to increased building-related ill-health or an overreliance on energy-intensive materials. It is also apparent that a two-pronged approach is needed that also involves attention to cost-effective regeneration of existing buildings. Many of them will have a design life of many hundreds of years at current rates of renewal.

Anecdotally, a Swedish friend claims that his zero-heated house was quite cold until he had a housewarming party!

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Case Study 7.3

Functionality: Rocky Mountain Institute Innovation Center, Basalt, USA, 2016 Architects: ZGF Architects The Innovation Center is a 1,500ft2 office building and conference centre. A similar size to 90% of US commercial offices. It is built to a design life of 100 years to demonstrate the business case for net-zero carbon buildings to other owner-occupiers. The materials are a simple palette of stone, wood and zinc. A realistic start point for any project is to ensure functionality, which embraces the optimum comfort and productivity of the occupants. This is achieved by an integrated design team with the same approach and passive design principles that were incorporated in Amory Lovins’ home in 1984 with the addition of some twenty-first-century high-­ performance products and techniques. High insulation, thermal mass and good airtightness are basic, as is passive solar energy from excellent quality and appropriately orientated windows. Good daylighting with light shelves distributes the natural light internally supplemented by high-efficiency LED and desktop task lighting. The ventilation strategy combines MVHR with personal control over windows and activated openings if tempera-

tures justify it. External blinds prevent excess heat gains in summer. A wall and floor-based radiant heating system targets work zones and avoids the need to condition all of the volume. Each workspace allows for local control of air movement with chairs that can provide fan cooling or heating to meet local preferences. An 83kW roof-mounted solar PV system generates more energy than the building is designed to use. On completion it was the highest performing building in the coldest climate zone in the USA, producing more clean energy than it uses on an annual basis plus enough to power six electric vehicles. It is one of only 200 netzero commercial buildings in the USA as of 2016, and provides a leading example of buildings that can solve the climate crisis. Water use is monitored in the anticipation of using less water than falls on the site. Plumbing options were provided to allow use of greywater in due course. There is a live data feed on building performance.

Photo permission: Rocky Mountain Institute www.rmi.org

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Case Study 7.4

Passive Standard Archive, Hereford, England, 2015 Architects: Architype Herefordshire Council were seeking a new archive with better energy performance and return on their capital investment than the existing facility. The response, Herefordshire Archive and Record Centre (HARC), is the first UK Passivhaus archive building. A collaborative design team rejected the conventional approach to storing archive materials that relies on capital, space and running cost-intensive building services, and often results in poor internal quality. Instead they proposed an innovative low-tech approach, achieved with two key strategies. First, thermal separation of general access areas and storage spaces necessitated vertical stacking to provide separation of the two spaces on plan. As a result, the building is two distinct masses: a monolithic concrete repository, and a public-facing three-storey timber frame structure for offices, education suites, restoration labs and research rooms. The parts are connected via a triple-height entrance foyer and reception, which acts as a buffer zone and provides views up through the building. The second strategy was to apply the Passivhaus standard and allow the majority of the internal environmental control to be undertaken by the building form and fabric. The building provides high levels of comfort to all building users. The occupied accommodation is well daylit with secure overnight ventilation during warm periods. The guidance on the storage and exhibition of archival materials: PD5454 allows for temperatures in the range of 13 to 20 C and relative humidity in the range of 35 to 60% with absolute values being less important than stability of conditions. (NB: PD5454: 2012 is now superseded by BS 4971:2017. Conservation and care of archive and library collections.)

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0.4ACH @ 50Pa combined with an absence of thermal bridges ensures that surface temperatures are even and there is no risk of internal condensation. It therefore provides extremely stable conditions with practically no internal conditioning, artificial heating or air-­conditioning. There is mechanical supply air, at an air change rate 5% of a normal Passivhaus, to match the low occupancy levels. The air supply pressurises the building so that the impact of uncontrolled infiltration is negligible. The incoming air is dehumidified in summer to avoid adding unwanted moisture. There are no piped services within the repository strong rooms themselves, though the access zones include air handing units able to circulate warm air. Fans and low temperature hot water circulation in the repository would only operate if strong room temperatures dropped below 14 C. The ‘default to power off’ approach to all building services ensures that the strong rooms stay below 20 C throughout the year without artificial cooling. This guarantees that energy consumption is very low. The design includes scope to retrofit cooling and dehumidification for robustness in the face of future climate change.

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This approach gave a 4.5% capital cost saving compared to the original brief and ongoing operational savings of around 75% (around £50,000 p.a.) compared to similar facilities built to UK Building Regulations. The construction cost of £1,900/m² compared well to figures proposed in the region of £3,600/m². The solution is more resilient than a hi-tech response which, in the event of mechanical failures, may result in large fluctuations in the internal environment that are damaging to the stored documents and artefacts: a risk that in turn may lead to a requirement for back-up infrastructure adding to costs.

The windowless repository eliminates solar penetration, and an airtightness of

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Architects: Architype Photo Credit: ©Dennis Gilbert/VIEW.

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The indoor environment Creating good indoor environmental quality is vital to health and well-being. Elimination of pollution at source and good ventilation is fundamental to maintaining quality of life for everyone. This is particularly true for the most vulnerable who spend more time indoors and also may have less ability to manage their environment or to communicate discomfort. In older people, the elastic recoil of the lungs reduces, as does chest wall compliance, and the muscles of respiration (including the diaphragm) become weaker. Reduced elastic recoil leads to an increase in the volume of air left in the lungs at the end of expiration and a reduction in the volume of fresh air that moves through the lungs. The situation is exacerbated as the materials used in building are a potential source of pollutants and they have undergone perhaps greater changes than any other aspect of construction. At the beginning of the twentieth century, about 50 materials were used in buildings. Now, more than 70,000 are available and most are man-made. There has also been a dramatic upsurge in the occurrence of synthetic chemicals indoors due to off-gassing from structural components, fixtures, finishes and furnishings, heating equipment and cleaning materials. Scented candles and air fresheners are also sources of toxins. Internal environments are known to have higher concentrations of pollutants than external environments. Many people remain unaware of the potential impact. Emissions from building products

Concentrations of more than 35 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including vinyl chloride, benzene, formaldehyde and toluene, are typically ten times higher indoors than outdoors. Many of these VOCs have been identified as emanating from building products and are associated with a wide range of detrimental health effects in humans and animals (including cancers, tumours, irritation and immune suppression). The higher the temperature, the more VOCs appear in the gaseous phase. It has also been shown that gaseous concentrations of many VOCs are indirectly proportional to air humidity (though this is not the case for formaldehyde). Information is available on sources of VOCs, the extent of emissions, and assessing emission rates and indoor air quality, although avoidance is the best strategy.

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Plants

In recent years there has been significant discussion about the role of plants in microclimate creation, VOC management and acoustic control of the indoor environment but evidence is weak. Among a number of considerations are: • The comparison of temperatures on man-made and vegetative roofs and wall finishes. • The effect of different lighting on the ability of plants to photosynthesise, raise humidity and reduce discomfort. • The ability of some plants to remove n-hexane and benzene from the indoor air. Humidification by transpiration of evergreen plants could be useful in winter when relative humidity (RH) can be low, and potentially replace expensive and energy-intensive mechanical processes. Higher temperatures enhance photosynthesis and rooftop gardens have been used to condition incoming air with reported good results but little data. Models to quantify the cooling and humidification attributes of plants are available. On the downside, plants internally and externally can add management complications as they harbour pests. Care is required that they do not provide an import route for pollutants such as insecticides and fertilisers.

Living Building Challenge – Air Quality Testing MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS 1. Formaldehyde: 50ppb (parts/billion) 2. PM 2.5: 12μg/m3 (microgram/metre cubed) 3. PM 10: 150μg/m3 4. Total Volatile Organic Compounds: 500μg/m3 5. 4-Phenylcyclohexane: 3μg/m3 6. Carbon Monoxide: 9ppm (parts/million) 7. Ozone: 51ppb 8. CO2: 750ppm 9. NO2: 0.053ppm over a 24-hour period

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The use of plants A mixed-use building of housing and offices in Nicosia, Cyprus. Photo: The Author

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Sun space Passive solar atria and sun spaces can contribute to thermal efficiency if appropriately designed, orientated and then managed. If not, they can overheat or lose more energy than they gain. Photo credit: The Author

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Solar shading Solar orientation optimised at design, RUCID College. Architects: Felix Holland Architects; Photo: Will Boase

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234 Sustainable Construction

Building-related ill-health (BRI) Building-related ill-health describes a collective adverse reaction to an indoor environment. Once dismissed as psychosomatic, it was identified as a genuine, serious issue in the 1980s associated largely, but not wholly, with tightly controlled and mechanically ventilated (MV) buildings. Symptoms included congested nasal passages, inflamed eyes, palate and pharynx, dry skin, headache, fatigue and attention deficit. Despite research and correlation with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and high temperatures, it proved difficult to identify a specific cause or to predict affliction rates. However, the association with VOCs, tight control and MV stuck. Many designers sought solutions in natural ventilation (NV), which also proved difficult. If poorly designed it can introduce external pollution, waste heat and create unacceptable variability in indoor temperature, air movement and humidity. Studies by Bordass & Leaman compared air-conditioned, assisted NV, mixed-mode and NV buildings, and identified that occupant satisfaction was largely independent of the ventilation strategy. It transpired that spaces needed to be better designed with more attention to detail, and simple solutions that are easily understood and controlled by occupants and managers are preferred. In recent years hybrid/mixed-mode strategies have become established to combine approaches. They encourage ventilation to be designed on a room-by-room basis to meet the requirements of different users at different times and places within a building. The ventilation strategy should be thought through from project inception and consider location, occupancy patterns, how spaces will be used, manageability, repair, cleaning, fit-out and control. It influences all aspects of the design. It is important to eliminate avoidable heat gains and pollutants. Windows are crucial, whatever the strategy, because they have to meet a large number of requirements. The value of investing in a better quality indoor climate is undisputed – an increase in productivity or reduction in absenteeism by 0.6% is sufficient to justify a 60% increase in expenditure on indoor air quality.

Moisture management Moisture levels can also affect indoor air quality. Common health complaints, such as asthma, are exacerbated by high and low

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Moisture-permeable skin, clothing and housing all improve our comfort and sense of well-being

humidity. Building methods in the last 100 years have sought to address problems of rising damp and moisture ingress. However, a change in materials specification has also had an impact on the heat- and damp-retaining capacities of buildings. Modern materials, for instance, plastic-based paints and finishes, tend to be less hygroscopic and offer less buffering of moisture. As understanding of how our skins deal with moisture has increased, design of clothing has tended to move, allowing moisture to escape, and buildings too are being designed to be moisture transfusive. Thermal mass also has an impact on moisture management. In lightweight buildings, without consideration of moisture management, rapid cooling gives rise to a rapid increase in RH that is detrimental to both building and occupants.

Hygroscopicity describes the ability of some materials to absorb moisture when humidity rises and emit it when the air becomes dry.

Depending on factors such as insulation, materials, ‘cold bridges’ and air leakages, a building can cope with more or less moisture in the air. Hygroscopic materials stabilise the relative humidity (RH) and help prevent damp-related damage. Some porous materials can hold quite large quantities of moisture without any

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special risks of biological activity or degradation. Materials such as timber, plaster, earth and textiles have hygroscopic properties, so long as they are not given impervious coatings. Fluctuating conditions lead to the worst effects of microbial activity. Spaces exposed to sudden changes in moisture loads, including wet rooms and schools, may have problems coping with temporary increases in moisture loads. Films of moisture form on non-hygroscopic surfaces and, as nutrients dissolve in the moisture, micro-organisms proliferate. As the films dry, they produce spores and release toxins. Some materials can sustain very large populations of micro-organisms; for example, plastic membranes and glass fibre can have colonies of fungi and bacteria that are 1,000 to 50,000 times greater than natural materials. Thus, if an indoor environment is likely to be subjected to sudden moisture loads, the damp-buffering capacity of materials becomes particularly important for maintaining a healthy relative humidity. Dust mite Photo: The Author

g/m2 250

Hygroscopic materials versus mechanical ventilation

3

200

A valid solution to problems of build-up of moisture in the air is to increase ventilation rates, and increasingly the response has been to mechanically ventilate. However, Finnish research has shown that hygroscopic materials can be more than nine times more effective than mechanical ventilation at dealing with indoor humidity.

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100 5 4

50 6

0

0 2 4 6

1

7

2

12

24

36

h 48

Materials 15mm thick 20°C RF 30%–70% 1 planed pine 2 planed limba (tropical wood) 3 clay

4 clay render 5 clay render with cocoa fibre 6 lime cement render 7 plaster

Materials that have damp-buffering properties (1) planed pine; (2) planed limba (tropical wood); (3) clay; (4) clay render; (5) clay render + cocoa fibre; (6) lime cement render; (7) plaster. (Graph from Roalkvam 1997)

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Two people occupying a standard (15m2) bedroom overnight in autumn, in which the materials are not hygroscopic, require 0.9ACH to keep the moisture