Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools 1462551068, 9781462551064

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SUPPORTING ADOLESCENTS WITH AUTISM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Also from Samuel L. Odom Handbook of Developmental Disabilities Edited by Samuel L. Odom, Robert H. Horner, Martha E. Snell, and Jan B. Blacher

Infants, Toddlers, and Families in Poverty: Research Implications for Early Child Care Edited by Samuel L. Odom, Elizabeth P. Pungello, and Nicole Gardner-Neblett

SUPPORTING ADOLESCENTS WITH  AUTISM IN  SECONDARY SCHOOLS

edited by

SAMUEL L. ODOM

THE GUILFORD PRESS New York  London

Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001 www.guilford.com All rights reserved Except as noted, no part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 LIMITED DUPLICATION LICENSE These materials are intended for use only by qualified professionals. The publisher grants to individual purchasers of this book nonassignable permission to reproduce all materials for which photocopying permission is specifically granted in a footnote. This license is limited to you, the individual purchaser, for personal use or use with students. This license does not grant the right to reproduce these materials for resale, redistribution, electronic display, or any other purposes (including but not limited to books, pamphlets, articles, video or audio recordings, blogs, file-sharing sites, Internet or intranet sites, and handouts or slides for lectures, workshops, or webinars, whether or not a fee is charged). Permission to reproduce these materials for these and any other purposes must be obtained in writing from the Permissions Department of Guilford Publications. The authors have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards of practice that are accepted at the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in behavioral, mental health, or medical sciences, neither the authors, nor the editors and publisher, nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they are not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such information. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained in this book with other sources. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Odom, Samuel L., editor. Title: Supporting adolescents with autism in secondary schools /   edited by Samuel L. Odom. Description: New York : The Guilford Press, 2023. | Includes   bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2022028602 | ISBN 9781462551057 (paperback) |   ISBN 9781462551064 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Autistic youth—Education (Secondary)—United States. |   Youth with autism spectrum disorders—Education (Secondary)—United   States. | Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism   Spectrum Disorder. Classification: LCC LC4718 .S85 2023 | DDC 371.94—dc23/eng/20220722 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022028602

About the Editor

Samuel L. Odom, PhD, is Senior Research Scientist at the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute (FPG) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Adjunct Professor of Special Education at San Diego State University. Dr. Odom was Principal Investigator of the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. At FPG, he codirects the National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice. Dr. Odom is the author or coauthor of over 200 journal articles and book chapters and has edited 10 books on early childhood intervention and developmental disabilities. His current research addresses treatment efficacy for children and youth with autism, identification of evidence-based practices, and implementation science.

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Contributors

Brian A. Boyd, PhD, School of Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Christopher Brum, PhD, Department of Special Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, California Erik W. Carter, PhD, Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee Leann Smith DaWalt, PhD, University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Catherine H. Fowler, PhD, Cato College of Education, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina Laura J. Hall, PhD, Department of Special Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, California Kara A. Hume, PhD, School of Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Bonnie R. Kraemer, PhD, Department of Special Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, California Suzanne Kucharczyk, EdD, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas Sara L. McDaniel, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, California State University, East Bay, Hayward, California

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Contributors

Samuel L. Odom, PhD, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Special Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, California Yolanda Perkins, MEd, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Tara Regan, PhD, Autism Grown Up Resource Center, Charlotte, North Carolina Lindsay F. Rentschler, MA, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Colleen K. Reutebuch, PhD, Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas Jessica R. Steinbrenner, PhD, Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Janine Stichter, PhD, Department of Special Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri Kate Szidon, MS, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin

Preface and Acknowledgments

The rationale for this book arose from a need. The number of students with autism in all public schools had been rising over the last two decades. Previous research and practices had focused primarily on children with autism enrolled in preschool and elementary schools. As a result, there had been little systematic research on or program development for students with autism in high schools. There was a need for practical, research-based information on interventions and instruction for adolescents with autism that could be used in secondary education programs. To meet this need, the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) put out a request for applications (RFA) for a research and development center focusing on secondary education for students with autism. This book is a product of the R&D center that was eventually funded, the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). From the outset, it seemed an impossible task. Responding to the RFA meant creating a program that would build on the strengths of adolescents with autism with a wide range of abilities, train and coach teachers to implement the program features in the complex organizational contexts that occur in high schools, recruit high schools located in different parts of the country, ensure a diverse participant group, and evaluate the efficacy of the program with a cluster randomized trial. When talking with a colleague about the task, she said, “Yes, that will happen when pigs fly.” So, Penelope the flying pig became a symbol of our task. With a lot of hard work and collaboration, we indeed did fly in high schools around North Carolina, Wisconsin, and Southern California. The

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Preface and Acknowledgments

momentum continues through the pages of this book and, we hope, into high school programs in the future. CSESA was funded by the IES in 2012. For this particular 5-year R&D center, IES tasked the research group (us) with both designing an effective program model, usually the work of IES Development Projects that are funded for 3 years, and conducting an efficacy trial of the model, which was similar to an IES Efficacy Project usually funded for 4 years. In addition, a required mission of the center, which we embraced, was to provide leadership for the field through dissemination and training. From the outset, we were operating at an accelerated and even exhausting pace, but it was also much-needed work, and IES generously provided the necessary resources. The authors of the chapters in this book describe the strategies, procedures, and methods we designed for practitioners to use in programs for adolescents with autism in high schools. In most chapters, readers will find practical information about instruction and intervention, tools that they may be able to use in their schools and classrooms, and advice about using these practices in 30 community-­ based high school programs. In the first chapter, we describe in more detail the program development process and the research that examined the effects of CSESA. The CSESA program was based on a foundation of program quality and evidence-based practices, which are described in Chapter 2. Because transitions to community, work, and postsecondary education constitute such important outcomes for young adults with autism, we placed the chapter on transition (Chapter 3) early in the book. The authors of this chapter share information about selfdirected, individualized education plans, mapping resources in the school and community, and work-based learning. Literacy skills are important for all students with autism, and in Chapter 4, the authors provide details about programs focusing on comprehension, designed not only for students who have some reading skills and are enrolled in the general curriculum but also for students who are just acquiring literacy skills and need an alternative route for instruction. Challenges with social communication are a defining feature of autism, and the authors of Chapter 5 describe two programs to address social learning: a group-based social skills training program for students with some verbal communication skills and a peer-mediated approach that focuses on both building social networks and developing more individualized skills. The ability to engage in school and life activities independently is a key to success in high school and later in life. In Chapter 6, the authors describe a process for involving service providers, family members, and students in selecting evidence-based practices that address students’ high-priority learning goals. The transition to post-high school affects not only students with autism, but also their family members, who become the primary means of support after high school. In Chapter 7, the authors describe a program designed to support family members



Preface and Acknowledgments xi

as they plan for the postschool transition process. The CSESA model was a multicomponent, complex program model. To introduce and support its adoption in the schools required careful attention to implementation. Chapter 8 describes the implementation process, drawing from the lessons we learned in our 2-year collaboration with individual schools, with these lessons providing valuable information for practitioners who might wish to use the CSESA model or elements of the model in the future. Last, in Chapter 9, the authors report the research upon which the CSESA model was based, as well as the efficacy study that documented outcomes that could be expected from using the model. The CSESA R&D work that underlies all the chapter content in this book was guided by at least three fundamental values: scientific rigor, collaboration among colleagues, and voices of individuals with autism, their parents, and their service providers (e.g., teachers, related service providers, administrators). The research literature suggested that adolescents with autism would benefit from support in at least four areas—social competence, academics, independence, and transition to community—which are represented in the chapters previously described. At the time, there were no scientifically validated programs that addressed each of these areas for adolescents with autism. There had been, however, investigators at a number of universities who had designed curricula and interventions for high school students with other learning needs, and we were lucky that they were willing to collaborate with us in adapting the procedures for adolescents with autism. Namely, Sharon Vaughn and Colleen K. Reutebuch from the University of Texas at Austin and Diane M. Browder from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte contributed their expertise in adapting their literacy curriculum work. For the social competence area, Erik W. Carter and colleagues from Vanderbilt University adapted their peer-mediated intervention work for adolescents with autism, and Janine Stichter from University of Missouri expanded her Social Competence Intervention to the adolescent range. The intervention work in the independence area was conducted at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, with Kara A. Hume, Brian A. Boyd, and Suzanne Kucharczyk taking the lead and involving multiple doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows. David Test and Catherine H. Fowler from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte developed the transition-­related procedures from the work they had done with the National Technical Assistance Center on Transition. Leann Smith DaWalt and Kate Szidon from the University of Wisconsin–Madison developed further the family support Transitioning Together program. For the first 2 years of the project, we were very fortunate to have these excellent collaborators shape or reshape the intervention/ curriculum content; share it with focus groups of teachers, adolescents with autism, school administrators, and family members for feedback and revision; and then pilot test the components in high schools in their areas. During that time Sally J. Rogers and colleagues from the MIND Institute at the University of California at

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Preface and Acknowledgments

Davis Medical Center also contributed their constructive expertise and assisted in the pilot testing. Last, the foundation of the CSESA model was based on the work of the National Professional Development Center on Autism, with Ann Cox supporting the development of those foundational practices for the high school context. The initial development efforts led to the CSESA program that was ready to implement and evaluate in a cluster randomized trial. Our core collaborative teams were at three nationally distributed cites. At the North Carolina site, ­Samuel L. Odom, Kara A. Hume, and Jessica R. Steinbrenner led our research collaborators and staff, which included Suzanne Kucharczyk, Ann Cox, Kathy F ­ allin, Yolanda Perkins, Susan Hedges, Tara Regan, and numerous doctoral students and staff members. At the Wisconsin site, Leann Smith DaWalt led the research team, which included Kate Szidon and their team of coaches, staff, and students. At the Southern California site, Laura Hall and Bonnie Kraemer led the research team, which included Chris Brum, Shayla Green, Ana Duenas, and a host of doctoral students and staff members. Victoria Waters, Carolyn Veseliny, and Gwen Van Arch provided great organizational support across sites for project management, data management, and leadership materials development. Throughout the project, we tried to ensure that the voices of individuals with autism, their family members, and their service providers were incorporated into the materials we developed and the research we conducted. This began with our focus groups described earlier and then our initial advisory board meeting in which John Elder Robison, a national autism advocate and leader, provided valuable guidance in the program that was beginning to take shape. During the development years of the project, we held a summit with individuals with autism, family members, and service providers attending the national Autism Society of America meeting, and received great advice about their experiences in high school and the features of a high school program that would be important to include. We would like to acknowledge the IES for the generous support of the CSESA project (R324C120006) and the opportunity to work with staff in more than 60 schools across the country. We learned much about the challenges of conducting a randomized controlled trial of a schoolwide program in secondary school settings. David Berliner, a noted educational researcher, once commented that education science is the hardest-to-do of all the sciences, and our experience very much confirms his proposition. We want to thank the staff and leadership of those schools, the students, and the family members for working with us during the 2-year implementation period. Not a single school left the study, and for that we are grateful. In conclusion, members of our research group will agree that any future projects in which we participate will pale in comparison with the coordination,



Preface and Acknowledgments xiii

organization, and effort CSESA required. At the same time, we feel this was a major achievement and contribution to the field. First, the CSESA model had a significant impact on the quality of school programs for students with autism. Second, students with autism who engaged with the CSESA interventions made significant progress on their individual educational goals across their years of participation. Third, staff members rated the CSESA model favorably and indicated they would be likely to continue using specific practices in their high schools. Last, we disseminated our work broadly in a variety of ways to share what we were learning from students, staff, families, and the research. Our broad team published 40 articles in both research and practitioner journals; delivered more than 150 presentations at national, state, and local conferences; developed dozens of Autism at a Glance resources about autism-relevant topics that are written in a family- and service-provider-friendly manner, and generated a series of Peer to Peer resources with topics of interest for young adults with autism and informed by and/or designed with young adults with autism. The team worked to ensure that the CSESA curriculum materials, project-made assessments, large-scale schoolwide trainings about autism, and all related resources would be available on the CSESA website (https://csesa.fpg.unc.edu) for broad usage. This book is the culmination of our CSESA efforts. Our intent is to share information about the CSESA practices, resources available, and lessons learned from the adolescents with autism involved in CSESA, their teachers and service providers, and their families.

Contents

1. Somewhere to Go, Something to Do, Someone to Love:

Adolescents in High School and the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Comprehensive Program

1

Samuel L. Odom and Kara A. Hume

2. Foundations of the Center on Secondary Education for Students

with Autism Spectrum Disorder Program

17

Samuel L. Odom

3. Transition

31

Bonnie R. Kraemer, Sara L. McDaniel, Catherine H. Fowler, and Tara Regan

4. Academics/Literacy

76

Christopher Brum, Laura J. Hall, and Colleen K. Reutebuch

5. Peer and Social Domain Jessica R. Steinbrenner, Laura J. Hall, Erik W. Carter, and Janine Stichter

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Contents

xvi

6. Independence and Behavior: PRomoting Independence

and Self‑Management

133

Kara A. Hume, Suzanne Kucharczyk, Lindsay F. Rentschler, and Brian A. Boyd

7. Families

150

Leann Smith DaWalt and Kate Szidon

8. Implementation Process

167

Laura J. Hall, Jessica R. Steinbrenner, Suzanne Kucharczyk, and Yolanda Perkins

9. Research and Evaluation

195

Kara A. Hume and Samuel L. Odom



Index

Purchasers of this book can download and print copies of the reproducible figures and appendices at www.guilford.com/odom3-materials for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details).

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CHAPTER 1

Somewhere to Go, Something to Do, Someone to Love Adolescents in High School and the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Comprehensive Program Samuel L. Odom Kara A. Hume

By the end of the first decade of 2000, adolescents with autism were enrolling in high school programs at an unprecedented rate; there was not clear guidance for how to set up a comprehensive program for those adolescents, and the young adult outcomes for these students after high school were among the poorest of any disability group. The U.S. Department of Education established the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) to design and evaluate a comprehensive, school-­based program. The Center began with a meeting of an advisory board of national leaders, autisic self-­advocates, and families of adolescents with autism. At the end of the meeting, board members anonymously wrote on a Post-it Note their hopes for the research that CSESA would conduct. One board member wrote:

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Occupational engagement (something to do), successful situating in context (somewhere to be), and close personal relationships (someone to love) are goals for all adolescents during the high school years and when they leave high school to enter the adult world. Although adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) will bring their unique strengths to school and postschool settings, they face challenges in meeting these stated goals. Through federal law and societal intent, public schools are charged with supporting students with autism in achieving individualized learning goals, successful participation, and transition to the adult world. The program developers designed the CSESA models to assist public school personnel in providing the necessary learning and social experiences for their students with autism to meet the young adult outcomes just noted. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe a broader context that has served as the basis for the development of the CSESA model.

AUTISM IN HIGH SCHOOLS A noted psychologist stated that adolescence is a period of human development beginning in biology and ending in society (Petersen, 1988). Puberty brings changes in body form and chemistry, and cognitive abilities continue to advance toward adult functioning levels (Lerner, 1998). Interests in independence and self-­ direction, sexuality, and moral values become major themes of life, as do concerns about future and life transitions (e.g., attending college, getting a job) (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2010). Family relations shift as the adolescent strives for increased autonomy and parents adjust to inevitable changes in the parent–­adolescent relationship (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Peer relationships predominate (Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojsalawowicz, & Buskirk, 2006) during this period. A comprehensive program for high school student with ASD has to be conceptually situated within typical adolescent development. Despite great heterogeneity in development, patterns in the profiles of adolescents with ASD have emerged from several longitudinal studies (Sanford et al., 2011; Seltzer, Shattuck, Abbeduto, & Greenberg, 2004; Taylor & Seltzer, 2010). Although parents report modest improvements in autism symptoms during adolescence (Taylor & Seltzer, 2010), difficulty with social competence and formation of social relationships continues as a limitation and challenge for the majority of adolescents with ASD (Ormand, Krauss, & Seltzer, 2004). Restricted and repetitive behaviors that emerge in early childhood often continue into adolescence (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). For some adolescents, externalized maladaptive behavior may become less severe (Shattuck et al., 2007), although parents still described it as a significant problem (Fong, Wilgosh, & Sobsey, 1993). Mental health conditions increase during adolescence, with depression (Ghaziuddin, Ghaziuddin, & Greden, 2002) and social anxiety (Bellini, 2006) being among the most common.



Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 3

Adolescence is also a period of particularly high stress for families of individuals with ASD, as the normative challenges associated with the transition to adulthood are compounded with multiple difficulties unique to the disorder (Seltzer et al., 2010). Not surprisingly, anxiety is high for mothers of children with ASD during the adolescent period as they anticipate their child’s transition from the school system and worry about the future (Lounds, Seltzer, Greenberg, & Shattuck, 2007). Beyond worries about transition, many parents of older individuals with ASD experience “burnout” from the caregiving burden (Seltzer, Floyd, Song, Greenberg, & Hong, 2011). By most accounts, public education has not been successful in meeting the needs of adolescents and young adults with ASD. From the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012, Lipscomb and colleagues (2017) found that, relative to other students with individualized education plans (IEPs), students with ASD had significantly more trouble completing activities of daily living, had a lower sense of self-­direction, had fewer planned activities and social engagement with friends, and were less likely to have had paid employment outside of school. These findings may well translate into poor outcomes in early adulthood. In their analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2), the predecessor to the previously cited study, Roux, Shattuck Rast, Rava, and Anderson (2015) reported that outcomes for young adults with ASD and their families are among the worst of any disability group. Other longitudinal studies have documented that about one-third of young adults with ASD are unemployed, and those who are employed often fail to maintain employment or struggle with employment over time (Taylor, Henninger, & Mailick, 2015). Young adults with ASD are more likely to live at home after high school and less likely to live independently, in comparison to individuals from other disability groups (Anderson, Shattuck, Cooper, Roux, & Wagner, 2014). In her review of outcome studies for adults with ASD, Howlin (2014) reported that, on average, 48% of participants had poor to very poor outcomes. This body of research suggests a strong need for comprehensive programming at the secondary level that addresses the critical and diverse needs of autistic adolescents. This need is magnified by the estimate that in 2019 there were nearly 283,000 adolescents with autism in U.S. high schools who will be transitioning into the community in the near future (i.e., 15.3 million adolescents enrolled in public high schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020) × prevalence rate of 1 in 54 (Maenner, Shaw, & Baio, 2020).

IMPORTANT PROGRAM FOCI FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS WITH AUTISM The specific learning goals of adolescents with autism are unique and, by law and best educational practice, should be individualized. However, as a group, general areas of focus for students with autism and their high school program can be discerned.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

These areas include transition, as supported by school and family, academics as accessed through reading comprehension, social competence, and independence.

Transition and Families As noted, analyses of the transition of students with ASD into work or education/ training have yielded bleak results (Anderson et al., 2014; Roux, Shattuck, Rast, & Anderson, 2017). Transition opportunities are often limited by the absence of preparation for the student, difficulty adapting to new environments, and minimal supports (Roux et al., 2015). Given the characteristics associated with most youth with ASD, an effective school program must bridge learning from the school classroom into employment settings and/or postsecondary education (Roux, Rast, Garfield, Anderson, & Shattuck, 2020). Adolescence is also a time of notably high stress for families of children with ASD; this stress, in turn, has been associated with compromised health and wellbeing in parents who continue to be the primary caregivers for their children well into adulthood (Seltzer et al., 2010). As autistic students leave high school, parents often assume the role of primary advocates for their adolescent children, often adding to an already stressful period. It is a role for which many parents feel unprepared. Despite this high level of stress and caregiver burden, very few services are currently offered to help these families cope with the many challenges they face or to actively support their involvement in planning for the transition out of high school. Understanding and preparing for the primary advocate role should be an important dimension of school-­based programs for adolescents with autism.

Academics and Literacy By the time students reach high school, academic content is accessed through reading and other forms of literacy. For high school students with autism, research tells us (1) the rate of reading improvement is significantly slower than that of students with other disabilities, (2) literacy comprehension that may allow access to content in other academic classes is challenging, and (3) literacy is also a functional skill for those students who have vocational outcomes (Fleury et al., 2014). Equipping adolescents with autism for the literacy-­r ich world that exists after high school should be a primary initiative for any comprehensive school program.

Social Competence and Peer Relationships Peer relationships play an instrumental role in the lives of youth—not only because of the enjoyment they can bring, but also because of the important contributions they make to adolescent development, well-being, and successful transitions (Moses & Villodas, 2017). The interactions students have with one another—­and



Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 5

with school staff and other community members—­can contribute to their social and emotional development, promote positive adjustment, and impact their engagement and involvement in school (Wentzel, 2017). Numerous descriptive and longitudinal studies indicate that social interactions and peer relationships remain especially limited for high school students with ASD (Carter, Sisco, Chung, & Stanton-­Chapman, 2010). Left unaddressed, such limitations extend beyond the high school years, as evidenced by findings that the social contacts and relationships outside of the home are also quite limited for young adults who have left school (Carter et al., 2014).

Independence For many high school students, independent performance is an essential skill for successful participation in the range of high school, vocational, and community environments (Hume, Boyd, Hamm, & Kucharczyk, 2014). A primary difficulty experienced by individuals with ASD, however, has been to participate independently and appropriately in the range of environments in their lives (Hume, Loftin, & Lantz, 2009). Without continued adult prompts, individuals with ASD may not display target skills and spontaneous responses may not generalize or continue over time (MacDuff et al., 2001). Individuals with ASD may continue to rely on the presence of an adult or treatment contingency to remain engaged or to complete activities (Lang, Tostanoski, Travers, & Todd, 2014). The removal of close supervision, adult prompting, or contingencies may lead to backsliding, such as reoccurrence of off-task behaviors or a decline in engagement and productivity across settings (Webster, 2021). Strategies for preventing or reducing the reliance on prompting from adults and increasing independence need to be high priorities for many students with autism.

DESIGNING A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM For children and youth with autism, there has been a history of developing comprehensive programs to address their multidimensional learning needs (Odom, Boyd, Hall, & Hume, 2014). To date, however, such models of treatment have not been developed specifically for adolescents with ASD in public high school programs. Responding to this need, the CSESA drew from the empirical intervention work conducted with adolescents having other types of disabilities, the design-­ based instructional development process applied in other areas of education (Cobb, Confrey, diSessa, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003), and the application of implementation science (Aarons, Hurlburt, & Horwitz, 2010; Albers, Mildon, Lyons, & Shlonshy, 2017; Fixsen, Blase, Metz, & Van Dyke, 2013) to support the uptake and utilization of evidence-­based practice embedded within the model.

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

6

Model Development Process The CSESA model was developed over a two-year period using elements of a design-­based research approach (Fishman, Penuel, Allen, Cheng, & Sabelli, 2013). Introduced to the field of education by Ann Brown (1990) in the early 1990s, design-­based research (also called “design experiments”) has its origins in the field of engineering, in which researchers conduct experiments involving small features of a structure or process, altering features to determine whether such changes improve the overall structure/process under development. Design-­based research, as it is applied in education, is formative in nature; that is, researchers use information about practices and students’ responses to adapt, modify, or adjust instructional procedures in ways that improve feasibility, acceptability, and potentially effects on student learning (Gravemeijer & Cobb, 2013). The design research process allows flexibility in procedures and utilizes a constant feedback loop of information and data that informs the design of instructional/intervention programs (Fishman et al., 2013). In this process, we began with researcher work groups, brought in stakeholders at several points to provide feedback, conducted pilot studies of individual program components, then completed a pilot study of combinations of components (see Figure 1.1).

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Development and piloting of individual model components (6 sites)

Piloting of several components in combination (6 sites)

Randomized controlled trial (RCT) of full model at 30 sites across the country (Cohort 1)

Year 4

Year 5

Continue implementation at 30 Cohort 1 sites; enroll 30 more sites (Cohort 2)

Continue implementation at 30 Cohort 2 sites, follow-up data at Cohort 1 sites

FIGURE 1.1.  Timeline for CSESA activities.



Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 7

Work Groups Drawing from the broad intervention research literature, the CSESA researchers elaborated on a school-­based program model originally developed by the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder (NPDC). To adapt the NPDC model specifically for high school students with autism, they identified four primary areas of learning needs for most students: academics, social competence, independence and behavior, and transition and families. The first step, then, was to convene the research staff and experts who had led intervention work in each of those four areas. In most cases, previous interventions with evidence of efficacy had been developed for student having other types of disabilities but not autism (e.g., intellectual disability, learning disabilities). The initial charge to these work groups was to adapt currently efficacious intervention approaches for adolescents with disabilities. Researchers and program staff from six university sites, as well as consultants, parents, and school staff members, formed work groups related to each proposed component area. Each work group was chaired by national leaders in intervention development in their areas: Diane Browder, Sharon Vaughn, and Colleen Reutebuch led academics; Eric Carter and Janine Stichter led social competence; Brian Boyd and Kara Hume, with consultation from Rob Horner, led independence and behavior; and David Test and Leann Smith led transition and families. The work groups completed initial adapted drafts of intervention procedures, procedural manuals, and other supporting documentation.

Focus Groups To obtain feedback from potential stakeholders, the CSESA staff members conducted 28 focus groups located in four states (California, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Wisconsin) and involving 152 participants. Participants in focus groups were special education teachers, general education teachers, administrators, parents, and individuals with ASD. In addition, two national focus groups involving autistic individuals were held at annual meetings of the Autism Society of America. A full description of the focus group protocol, research questions, findings, and specific changes made to interventions has been reported in Hedges and colleagues (2014) and Kucharczyk and colleagues (2015). The findings resulted in numerous changes to the intervention materials (e.g., adding technology to assist staff in tracking student adaptive behavior skills, aligning lesson plan formats in the academic interventions, changing peer network orientation procedures, adjusting text sizes of literacy materials). This information was incorporated into revised component feature procedural manuals and material that CSESA researchers used in the next development phase.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Initial Pilot Studies The interventions related to each component were revised and reoperationalized before starting the pilot studies. In these pilot studies, CSESA research staff and collaborating school personnel implemented and examined the impact of each CSESA component. The studies occurred at nine high schools located in four states. Thirty-­three adolescents with ASD, 33 staff members, 28 families, and 32 peers participated in these studies. Each pilot study included multiple opportunities for data collection, weekly meetings with the implementation team to review process and outcomes, and collection and review of fidelity and/or social validity data. In most settings, a research staff member served as the primary implementer, with school staff serving in a support role. Data from these pilot studies provided additional guidance on needed revisions for each intervention. Examples of such revisions included (1) adjusting the five unit topics in the social skills curriculum to allow for application of more complex skills, (2) developing visual supports to outline the steps of the literacy intervention, (3) reducing the meeting time necessary for the independence and behavior component, and (4) providing model lessons for work-based learning.

Contrasting Features Design Pilot Study The initial pilot studies focused on the single individual components delivered mainly by research staff. The purpose of the next phase of the development process was to examine how well the individual components worked when they were delivered (1) in combination with one other component and (2) by school staff members, with CSESA research staff providing training and coaching. Building on the logic of the Campbell and Fiske (1959) multimethod, multitrait matrix, a school team would implement two components (i.e., over a 1-school-­year time period) and would alternatively serve as the control for the other components not implemented in their school but implemented in other schools. The study took place over a 1-year time period. For example, the Tennessee school would implement the social and transition components and serve as control (i.e., continue practices as usual) for the academic and independence components. All combinations of component pairs were examined. Frequent meetings involving the research and school teams and employing the framework established in previous pilot studies were key features of the design experimentation framework. The findings were that school staff members generally implemented the targeted interventions for their specific school with fidelity, with some variation across schools, and did not implement interventions that were not targeted for the schools. This information was incorporated into the final development of the CSESA model. A more detailed study description is provided by Hume and Odom (Chapter 9, this volume).



Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 9

Assembling the Final CSESA Model The culminating activities of this model development process were to complete the final revisions of each component feature, prepare a training process and materials, and establish a coaching model that would support the implementation of CSESA model in high schools. Because of the complexity of the model, the fact that it is a whole-school intervention to be implemented with the range of students on the spectrum in inclusive and noninclusive settings, the implementation of the full CSESA model was planned to occur over two school years.

Testing Implementation and Efficacy To examine the use and effects of the CSESA program, CSESA investigators conducted a cluster randomized trial. Sixty high schools were randomly assigned to a condition in which they received training, materials, and implementation support for using the CSESA program, or a condition in which they generally provided services as usual. Outcomes for schools, in terms of program quality, and students (i.e., for goal attainment and standardized measures) were collected at the beginning and end of the study. In addition, implementation measures were collected in both CSESA and service-­a s-usual (SAU) schools. The findings from these studies are reported by Hume and Odom (Chapter 9, this volume).

THE CSESA MODEL The CSESA investigators made several assumptions early in the development process. First, because high school students with ASD have a wide range of abilities, CSESA investigators made the decision to establish a model that would be appropriate for students with higher and lower support needs (e.g., students with intellectual disability participating in special education classes for most of their day to students enrolled in general education classes and likely to receive a regular diploma). Second, from the literature, the CSESA investigators identified the high-need areas for high school students with autism as academics (Fleury et al., 2014), social competence (Carter et al., 2014), independence and behaviors that limited independence (Hume et al., 2014), and transition/families (Test, Smith, & Carter, 2014).

The CSESA Process The process that the CSESA model followed appears in Figure 1.2 and detailed information about the process and broader implementation factors appears in Hall, Steinbrenner, Kucharczyk, and Perkins (Chapter 8, this volume). Once the

10

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Training and Coaching ASSESSMENT School and Student PLANNING Building a Team and Selecting Goals/Interventions

IMPLEMENTATION CSESA Interventions OUTCOMES Improved School and Student Outcomes

FIGURE 1.2.  CSESA process. school system (broader organizational context) makes the decision to adopt the CSESA model, the initial step in this adoption is professional development, which begins with the school’s district or school staff, sometimes called coaches, who will be supporting the model implementation. When trained, the coaches provide orientation, training, and ongoing coaching support for school personnel. In this initial period, the school forms a collaborative team, which we called the A(Autism)-Team (discussed more in Odom, Chapter 2, and Hall et al., Chapter 8, this volume). The second part of the CSESA model is assessment of the school program environment, using the Autism Program Environment Rating Scale—­ Middle/High School (APERS-MH), and assessment of individual students using the Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC; Hume et al., 2018). The assessment provide information necessary for planning, improving program quality, and designing measurable and observable student goals. The student goals inform the decision about the interventions in which individual students will participate and implementation (again, described more fully in Hall et al., Chapter 8, this volume). Last, outcomes for individuals on their goal attainment and on the school’s program development conclude the process.

Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 11



CSESA Foundation, Domains, and Components CSESA is designed to support all the students with autism in a high school, and the breadth of the learning needs for those autistic students is broad. So, by necessity, the CSESA program is broad with a lot of “moving parts” (Figure 1.3). The foundation of the program is a set of practices, described by Odom (Chapter 2, this volume) that serve as base context necessary for the CSESA program to operate. We have organized the contents of the CSESA program in multiple domains, noted earlier, which the research, school personnel, families, and students have told us are important. The domains are the conceptual groupings of intervention and practices that make up the CSESA program. The domains are Transition and Family, Academics, Social, and Independence. For the Transition and Family domain, there are four in-­school/community interventions and one family intervention program. The in-­school/community interventions are community and school resource mapping, transition planning, student involvement in IEP and individualized transition plan (ITP) processes, and work-based learning (described in detail in Kraemer, McDaniel, Fowler, & Regan, Chapter 3, this volume). The intervention program that focused specifically on families was Transitioning Together, which prepared families for their child’s transition out of school

AAL

CSR

Academic

Peer Mediated

PRISM

Independence and Behavior

SCI-H

Social

Transitioning Together

IEP, WBLE, etc.

Transition and Families

CSESA Foundations Online Course

APERS

GAS

Training

Coaching

FIGURE 1.3.  CSESA foundation, domains, interventions, and practices.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

and into the world of work and community is described in DaWalt & Szidon, Chapter 7, this volume). For the Academic Domain (Brum, Hall, & Stichter, Chapter 4, this volume), a literacy intervention that focuses on comprehension, Collaborative Strategic Reading—­High School (CSR) was adapted for autistic adolescents who had some initial reading skills (i.e., at the second-­g rade level) but were challenged to understand the content typically delivered in high schools. For students with autism who lacked any reading skills, the Alternative Achievement Literacy was adapted. The Social Domain included three interventions (Steinbrenner, Hall, Carter, & Stichter, Chapter 5, this volume). For students with ASD who had fluent communication skills and could benefit from a group-based approach, the Social Competence Intervention (SCI) addressed goals of emotional literacy, problem solving, and behavioral regulation. For all students, a second set of interventions/ practices was peer-based. The peer-­mediated interventions comprised formation of peer-­social network groups that enhanced social engagement and peer-­support practices in which peers facilitated more specific learning objectives of individual students with autism. The fourth domain focused on independence and behavior. In the Independence and Behavior domain (see Hume, Kucharczyk, Retschler, & Boyd, Chapter 6, this volume), the assessment information from the SSSC and subsequent goal developed for individual students was used to link the goals to a set of evidence-­based practices identified as most relevant for students in high schools and to foster their use for teachers. An emphasis on self-­management practices for students with autism was also a focus in this domain.

SUMMARY In this chapter, we have provided an overview of the CSESA comprehensive program for student with autism in high schools. We have highlighted the convergence of factors related to autism, adolescence, and the high school environment as a perfect storm of complexity that affects overall program quality and the quality of the individual program that students with autism receive. For many of these students, we propose that four domains of emphasis are important: Transition and Families, Academics, Peer and Social Competence, and Personal Independence and Behavior. The CSESA program contains specific component interventions and practices that address each of these domains. Authors in the subsequent chapters of this volume address the foundational component practices necessary in a CSESA high school, component interventions and practices for each domain, and procedures for implementing the CSESA programs (Hall et al., Chapter 8). In the concluding chapter, Hume and Odom (Chapter 9) review the research conducted with the CSESA model, as well as resources generated by CSESA that are available in Appendix 9.1 or on the CSESA website (https://csesa.fpg.unc.edu).



Adolescents in High School and the CSESA Comprehensive Program 13

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“Falling through the cracks”: Challenges for high school students with autism spectrum disorder. High School Journal, 98(1), 64–82. Howlin, P. (2014). Outcomes in adults with autism spectrum disorders. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, S. J. Rogers, & K. A. Pelphrey (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (4th ed., pp. 97–116). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 212–229. Hume, K., Boyd, B. A., Hamm, J. V., & Kucharczyk, S. (2014). Supporting independence in adolescents on the autism spectrum. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 102–113. Hume, K., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J., Sideris, J., Smith, L., Kucharczyk, S., & Szidon, K. (2018). Multi-­informant assessment of transition-­related skills and skill importance in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 22(1), 40–50. Hume, K., Loftin, R., & Lantz, J. (2009). Increasing independence in autism spectrum disorders: A review of three focused interventions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1329–1338. Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., El Zein, F., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high school interventions. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 329–349. Lang, R., Tostanoski, A. H., Travers, J., & Todd, J. (2014). The only study investigating the rapid prompting method has serious methodological flaws but data suggest the most likely outcome is prompt dependency. Evidence-­Based Communication Assessment and Intervention, 8(1), 40–48. Lerner, R. M. (1998). Theories of human development: Contemporary perspectives. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 1–24). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lipscomb, S., Haimson, J., Liu, A. Y., Burghardt, J., Johnson, D. R., & Thurlow, M. L. (2017). Preparing for life after high school: The characteristics and experiences of youth in special education. Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012. Vol. 1: Comparisons with other youth: Executive summary (NCEE 2017–4017). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/projects/evaluation/disabilities_nlts2012.asp. Lounds, J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., & Shattuck, P. (2007). Transition and change in adolescents and young adults with autism: Longitudinal effects on maternal wellbeing. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(6), 401–417. MacDuff, G., Krantz, P., & McClannahan, L. (2001). Prompts and prompt-­fading strategies for people with autism. In C. Maurice, G. Green, & R. Foxx (Eds.), Making a difference: Behavioral intervention for autism (pp. 37–50). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Maenner, M. J., Shaw, K. A., & Baio, J. (2020). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—­autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Surveillance Summaries, 69(4), 1–12. Moses, J. O., & Villodas, M. T. (2017). The potential protective role of peer relationships on school engagement in at-risk adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(11), 2255–2272. National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). The Condition of Education 2019 (NCES 2019-144). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.



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Odom, S. L., Boyd, B., Hall, L., & Hume, K. (2014). Comprehensive treatment models for children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. In F. Volkmar, S. Rogers, K. Pelphrey, & R. Paul (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (Vol. 2, pp. 770–778). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Ormand, G. I., Krauss, M. W., & Seltzer, M. M. (2004). Peer relationship and social and recreational activities among adolescents and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(3), 245–256. Parker, J. G., Rubin, K. H., Erath, S. A., Wojsalawowicz, J. C., & Buskirk, A. A. (2006). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 419–493). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Petersen, A. C. (1988). Adolescent development. In M. R. Rosenweig & L. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 39., No. 1, pp.  583–607). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Roux, A. M., Rast, J. E., Garfield, T., Anderson, K. A., & Shattuck, P. T. (2020). Prevalence and correlates of work experiences among high school students on the autism spectrum. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 58(4), 273–287. Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Rast, J. E., & Anderson, K. A. (2017). National Autism Indicators Report: Developmental disability services and outcomes in adulthood. Philadelphia: Life Course Outcomes Research Program, A. J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University. Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Rast, J. E., Rava, J. A., & Anderson, K. A. (2015) National Autism Indicators Report: Transition into young adulthood. Philadelphia: Life Course Outcomes Research Program, A. J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University. Sanford, C., Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Knokey, A.-M., & Shaver, D. (2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 6 years after high school: Key findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011–3004). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Song, J., Greenberg, J., & Hong, J. (2011). Midlife and aging parents of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Impacts of lifelong parenting. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 116(6), 479–499. Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Hong, J., Smith, L. E., Almeida, D. M., Coe, C., & Stawski, R. S. (2010). Maternal cortisol levels and behavior problems in adolescents and adults with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(4), 457–469. Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Abbeduto, L., & Greenberg, J. S. (2004). Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10(4), 234–247. Shattuck, P., Seltzer, M. M., Greeberg, J. S., Orsmond, G. I., Bolt, D., Kring, S., . . . Lord, C. (2007). Changes in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescents and adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1735–1747. Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 83–110. Taylor, J. L., Henninger, N. A., & Mailick, M. R. (2015). Longitudinal patterns of employment and postsecondary education for adults with autism and average-­range IQ. Autism, 19(7), 785–793. Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2010). Changes in the autism behavioral phenotype during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(12), 1431–1446.

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Test, D., Smith, L., & Carter, E. (2014). Equipping youth with autism spectrum disorders for adulthood: Promoting rigor, relevance, and relationships. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 80–90. Webster, J. (2021, February 16). The dangers of prompt dependence. www.thoughtco.com/ prompt- ­dependence- ­definition-3110846. Wentzel, K. R. (2017). Peer relationships, motivation, and academic performance at school. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (pp. 586–603). New York: Guilford Press.

CHAPTER 2

Foundations of the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Program Samuel L. Odom

The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) program, like many comprehensive educational and behavior programs for individuals with autism, is built on the clear conceptual foundation noted in the previous chapter. It differs, however, from most previous comprehensive programs in that it is designed to be implemented in public high schools, which themselves differ greatly. The operating assumption is that certain foundational practices need to be in place before the interventions and practices of the four CSESA domains can be implemented. These foundational features and practices are (1) establishing an Autism Team (A-Team), (2) assessing program quality, (3) assessing student needs, (4) developing and assessing attainment of student goals, (5) linking goals to evidence-­based interventions, and (6) supporting the school personnel’s delivery of the interventions to meet those goals.

EVOLUTION OF THE FOUNDATION FEATURES: NATIONAL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CENTER ON AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER As noted previously, the CSESA program is built on the foundational program begun by the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder (NPDC) in 2007. The NPDC was funded by the U.S. Office of Special Education Programs, with the mission to design a professional development program that state agencies could employ with teachers to enhance their use of evidence-­based

17

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

practices (EBPs). The NPDC conceptual model (Odom, Cox, & Brock, 2013) stipulated that teachers’ effective use of EBPs requires an existing level of program quality, an assessment of students’ learning needs, a translation of the student assessment information into measurable goals, and linkage of goals to established EBPs. These key foundational features set the stage for school staff members’ adoption and implementation of the CSESA program. As noted by Odom and Hume in Chapter 1 and reflected in each feature of the CSESA foundation, the NPDC practices were adapted and refined specifically for use in high schools.

CSESA FOUNDATIONS CSESA Foundations comprise five practices (see Figure 1.1): formation of an A-Team; assessment of the quality of the program environment and associated work plan to improve quality; assessment of individual students’ strengths, needs, and priorities; development of measurable goals using the Goal Attainment Scale; and identification of EBPs or specific interventions/practices in the CSESA domains that address such learning goals.

Establishing an A‑Team in the School Because CSESA is a comprehensive program with a number of moving parts, the adoption and implementation of the program requires a team effort. The initial steps in establishing an A-Team in a school begin with the leadership in the school and the school district. Principals and/or autism program supervisors from the school districts can identify “local leaders” in schools who might participate on the team. In our work in high schools, the A-Teams have often comprised special education teachers, general education teachers, related service providers, such as a speech pathologist or school psychologist, and the principal or assistant principal (i.e., someone from the local school administration). From this group, an A-Team leader is selected and takes responsibility for organizing the team efforts. The frequency of team meetings varies based on the school schedules and the phase of the CSESA program (e.g., start-up, initiating a specific feature of the program like Transition), but usually happen no less than once a month. Hall, Steinbrenner, Kucharczyk, and Perkins (Chapter 8, this volume) provide more information about the A-Team and its role in implementation.

Assessment of Program Quality in High Schools: The Autism Program Environment Rating Scale for Middle School/High School The Autism Program Environment Rating Scale (APERS) was originally developed by a group of NPDC researchers and staff members, graduate students,

Foundations of the CSESA Program 19



practitioners, and other stakeholders to assess the quality of school-­based programs for student with autism. Figure 2.1 displays this conceptual framework for high schools. At the time, then 2007–2008, there was not a psychometrically validated instrument available for assessing program quality. Through the NPDC work and subsequent projects, the original APERS went through several revisions, with an adaptation of the APERS for middle school/high school (APERS-MH) occurring specifically for the CSESA project. The report by Odom and colleagues (2018) documented the reliability and validity of the APERS-MH, and a final version has become commercially available (Odom, Sam, & Cox, 2023). For the conceptual framework of program quality, we propose that a program ecology within a school consists of a well-­planned and structured learning environment (e.g., clear schedules and assignments) and a positive social climate (e.g., positive rapport of students and teachers, absence of punitive interactions). School staff members collect appropriate assessment information that is used to develop individualized education plans (IEPs). In general, appropriate curricula

Interdisciplinary Teaming

Program Ecology Learning Environments Positive Learning Climate

Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs)

Assessment and IEP Development Curriculum and Instruction Communication

Program Quality

Learner Outcomes

Social Competence Personal Independence and Competence Transition Planning Behavior (Interfering)

Family Involvement

FIGURE 2.1.  Conceptual framework for APERS-MH. From Odom et al. (2018). Reprinted with permission.

20

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

are selected to deliver appropriate instructional content effectively. In addition, school staff members plan and implement instruction and specialized intervention practices that address learning needs that occur most often for students with autism, such as communication, social skills, independence, interfering behavior, and, for high school students, transition. High-­quality programs are also characterized by teaming and family participation. Program quality then sets the foundation for implementation of EBPs and the CSESA practices described in the subsequent chapters. Figure 2.1 depicts the conceptual framework for autism program quality.

APERS Format The current APERS-MH comprises 68 items organized into 11 domains that reflect the dimensions of the program quality conceptual framework and are identified in Figure 2.1. Each domain includes items formatted on a 5-point, Likert-­type rating scale, with 1 indicating poor quality, 3 indicating acceptable quality, and 5 representing high quality. For these three ratings values, indices (i.e., anchors) describe practices that constitute that item. For example, an item from the Social Competence domain appears in Figure 2.2. A rater identifies the indices that

† No materials or activities that † At least two types of † Four or more materials and materials or activities that encourage communication activities that encourage encourage communication and social interaction are communication and social and social interaction are implemented as part of interaction are implemented implemented as part of the curriculum (e.g., group as part of the curriculum the curriculum (e.g., group experiments/projects, (e.g., group experiments/ experiments/projects, group inquiry and problemprojects, group inquiry and group inquiry and problemsolving, vocational tasks that problem-solving, vocational solving, vocational tasks that require two or more people tasks that require two or require two or more people to cooperate and work more people to cooperate to cooperate and work together). and work together). together). (If one activity † Opportunities are provided seen, manual override score for students with ASD to of 2.) participate in extracurricular † Materials and activities that activities with support (e.g., support social interaction are as needed from peers, school appropriate for individual staff, etc.). students’ developmental levels and are used throughout the day.

FIGURE 2.2.  Example item from the APERS-MH. Reprinted with permission from Brookes

Publishing. From Odom et al. (2022). Copyright © 2022 by The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Reprinted with Permission of Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., available at www.brookespublishing.com.



Foundations of the CSESA Program 21

describe the specific part of the program and uses this information to generate an item rating value. Specific information about item scoring may be found in the published version of the APERS-MH (Odom et al., 2023).

Collecting the Information to Determine the Rating The APERS-MH ratings are based on observations, interviews, and written documents (e.g., IEPs, transition plans). The observations occur in a representative set of classes and other school contexts in which students with autism participate. Interviews designed to obtain information about a school’s settings that cannot be observed (e.g., IEP meetings, school–­family communication) involved special education and general education teachers, at least one school administrator, related service providers (e.g., speech pathologist), and family members. Document analyses included reviews of IEPs, transition plans, and any other relevant document (e.g., a published description of the “Best Buddies” program happening at the school). From this set of information, the rater completes the APERS-MH ratings, and a computer program analyzes the data. Most high schools have both inclusive and self-­contained special education programs. Raters complete separate APERSMH assessments for both types of settings.

Information Generated from the APERS‑MH The APERS-MH generates a graphic profile of the relative quality of schools. An example of the profile appears in Figure 2.3. The vertical line at the left indicates a 1 rating, the vertical line in the middle indicates a 3 rating, and the vertical line to the right indicates a 5 rating. The horizontal bars indicate the rating for each domain. A rating less than 3 indicates school quality below acceptable. For example, the school depicted in Figure 2.3 had high or acceptable quality in the eight domains and relatively poor quality (i.e., which we call “areas of growth”) in two domains (Social Competence and Functional Behavior). Using this scoring profile, the rater would write a report to the school that describes the relative strengths and challenges as well as provide recommendations for addressing the quality challenges.

How the Schools Used This Information The members of the A-Team in CSESA schools used the information from the report to develop an action plan for improving the specific domains of program quality that fell below the acceptable rating. In some cases, this might have required specific classroom modifications or changes in staff behavior if, for example, the rating for the Learning Environment or Positive Social Climate domains were

22

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools APERS Profile by Domain Learning Environment Positive Learning Climate Assessment and IEP Dev. Curriculum and Instruction Communication Social Competence Personal Ind./Competence Functional Behavior Family Involvement Teaming Overal I Score

FIGURE 2.3.  Graph of APERS ratings for single school. From Odom et al. (2023). Copyright © 2022 by The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Reprinted with Permission of Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., available at www.brookespublishing.com. below the 3 rating. In the preceding example, the intervention or instructional approaches that addressed Social Competence and Functional Behavior were below the 3 rating. The Social Competence and Independence features of the CSESA program could address, respectively, the elements of program quality in those domains.

Assessing Student Learning Needs One source of information for developing learning goals for students is through assessment of students’ current skills and interests (i.e., strengths) and needs. A number of criterion-­referenced assessments have been designed for that general purpose. For example, the Autism Screening Instrument for Educational Planning (Krug, Arick, & Almond, 1993), the Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communications Handicapped Children (TEACCH) Transition Assessment Profile (Mesibov, Thomas, Chapman, & Schopler, 2007), the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills—­Revised (ABLLS-R; Partington, 2006), and Community-­Based Functional Skills Assessment for Transition-­A ge Youth (Schall et al., 2014) are assessments that school personnel use to generate information that informs goal selection and programming. School staff members, with whom



Foundations of the CSESA Program 23

CSESA staff worked, selected the assessment tools for their specific programs, and there was the assumption that some form of assessment of student strengths and needs occurred.

Secondary School Success Checklist To supplement the assessment information routinely collected by school staff, CSESA staff designed the Secondary School Survival Checklist (SSSC; Hume et al., 2018). The SSSC assesses strengths, skills needs, and prioritization for instruction from student, parent, and teacher perspectives. The SSSC consists of four domains: Independence, Transition, Social, and Academic, with each domain having a range of individual items. For each item, the informant (i.e., student, teacher, parent) provides a rating about the student’s skills on a 3-point scale (0 = Not like student, 2 = Much like student) and also rates the priority of the item (0 = Not a concern, 2 = A major concern). Having all three perspectives provides a complementary and mutual basis for identifying the specific skills for which learning goals could be established. As an example, the initial instructional page and first rating page of the SSSC appears in Figure 2.4. All versions of the SSSC may be obtained at the CSESA website.

Goal Attainment Scale The Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) is a method for assessing individuals’ progress on accomplishing goals, and for CSESA this means the learning goals of students. Originally established by Kirusek and Sherman (1968) for assessing outcomes in mental health settings, professionals in a variety of disciplines such as gerontology, nursing, and education have used the GAS to measure individuals progress. To employ the GAS, the user has to define a goal in a observable and measurable form, determine current performance relative to the goal, establish benchmarks for progress toward the goal, collect student performance data to document a rating to be given, and assign a rating.

Developing the Students’ Goals Students’ learning goals are usually developed during the IEP process. Formation of student goals may be informed by several sources of information. Assessment information described earlier may provide norm-based or criterion-­referenced information about students’ relative strengths and weakness, and the SSSC supplements this information. Again, the value of the SSSC is that it directly involves students in identifying their own strengths and needs, as well as the priority of those needs. In addition, it provides a medium through which parents and teachers may

24 0 = Not a concern • Though the skill is not demonstrated consistently and or independently, it is not a concern or priority 1 = Minor concern • Demonstrating this skill consistently and/or independently would be helpful 2 = Major concern • Demonstrating this skill consistently and/or more independently is a requirement

Key for Step 2: Priority Ranking (middle column)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

FIGURE 2.4.  Example of Secondary Student Survival Checklist face page and items.

2 = This is very much like my son/daughter. • My son/daughter is able to demonstrate this skill regularly with the supports provided to students in his/her classes N/O = I have not observed this skill area for my son/daughter N/A = This skill area is not applicable to my son/daughter

1 = This is sort of like my son/daughter. • My son/daughter is able to demonstrate this skill regularly with additional supports (e.g. individual attention, visual information, additional reminders, adjusted assignment) AND/OR • My son/daughter is able to demonstrate this skill sporadically with the supports provided to students in his/her classes.

0 = This is not like my son/daughter. • My son/daughter is not/rarely able to demonstrate this skill with the supports provided to the group

Key for Step 1: Skill Assessment (left column)

The Secondary School Success Checklist includes 4 domains, 13 subdomains, and many specific behaviors that are proven to contribute to successful experiences during high school as well as to optimize outcomes after high school . Instructions 1. Complete as much of the Skill Assessment as possible. 2. Complete the Priority Rankings for non-mastered skills (i.e., scores of 0 or 1 in skill assessment).

1. Skill Evaluation: You will rate the level of support needed and demonstration of skills across 4 domains: Independence and Behavior, Transition, Social, and Academic 2. Priority Ranking: You will rank the importance of each skill which will help identify priority goals

. The SSSC has two steps that will help teams to choose priority goals:

The Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) is a tool that can be used by students, parents and families, and school staff to help identify priority goals for your son/daughter that will support a positive high school experience, and help in planning ahead for life after high school.

Secondary School Success Checklist—Parent Version June 2014

Student Name: _____________________________ Your Name:_____________________ Location(s) of Observation:______________________________________________________ Date(s) of Completion of Form: ________________ Team Members Contributing to Completion of Checklist: Team Member Compiling Checklist Data:

Foundations of the CSESA Program

25

voice their perspectives about students’ goals. Additional information that may contribute to development of students’ goals is the requirements of the current educational and/or community contexts (e.g., turning in class assignments), and anticipated needs for transitioning to life after high school (e.g., independently using public transportation). Final identification of goals should involve input from all these sources, although the teacher is responsible for incorporating the final decisions about goals into an observable and measurable form.

Observable and Measurable Goals Observable and measurable goals have three elements: antecedent, behavior, and criteria. It is probably best to begin first with the behavior itself, which has to be stated clearly enough to be counted or rated by an assessor (usually the teacher) based on observations. Second, the goal needs to specify the context in which the behavior will be used (i.e., the antecedent). Third, a criterion needs to be established that indicates the performance necessary for indicating that goal has been attained. An example of a measurable goal appears in Figure 2.5.

Establishing Benchmarks The key and unique feature of GAS is creation of benchmarks that indicate progress toward attaining a goal. In their original GAS format, Kirusek and Sherman (1968) used a 5-point rating format that ranged from –2 to +2, with –2 indicating regression, 0 indicating current performance, +1 indicating attaining goal, and +2 indicating exceeds goal. CSESA staff adapted that format so that it might be more understandable for parents and teachers. Still using the 5-point scale, the CSESA Goal: When the teacher asks a question during lecturebased instruction, Joseph will raise his hand and wait to be called upon, without speaking out, 2 times per 30 minutes of instruction across 2 different teachers. Antecedent

Behavior

•when the teacher asks a question •lecturebased instruction

•raise his hand and wait to be called upon • without speaking out

Criteria •2 times per 30 minutes of instruction •across 2 different teachers

FIGURE 2.5. Elements of observable and measurable goals. From The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted by permission.

26

SupportinG ADoLeScentS with AutiSm in SeconDAry SchooLS

GAS ranges from 0 (current performance) to 4 (exceeds performance goal), and with a 3 rating indicating achievement of a goal. For each of these steps, a clearly articulated benchmark needs to be established. It is important that the student performance “distance” between each rating be comparable (e.g., that amount of progress from a 1 to a 2 rating is the same as that between a 2 to 3 rating). Ruble, McGrew, and Toland (2012) have developed a valuable system called psychometrically equivalent tested goal attainment scaling that can assist the GAS developer in ensuring such equal distance on rating items. Figure 2.6 contains an example of a GAS drawn from a case study on the CSESA website. Levi, a high school student with autism, has a goal to ask for help when needed. His current performance is defined at the 0 level and the specific goal is at the 3 rating. The 1 and 2 ratings are benchmarks of progress toward attaining the goal. Also, the 4 rating indicates Levi’s progress that exceeds the goal. The example in Figure 2.6 gives very precise definitions for each rating step; however, school personnel do not have to write lengthy goal

FIGURE 2.6. Examples of Goal Attainment Scale with rating benchmarks. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission.

Foundations of the CSESA Program 27



statements for each of these steps. For ease of use, they may just abbreviate the benchmark requirements, although the fully stated step is necessary for current performance and the goal itself (3 rating). It is necessary for the teacher or other school personnel to use a data collection system that systematically documents students’ performance. This system is tied to a visual support intervention that was designed for Levi and documents the “asks for help” and levels of support. Figure 2.7 contains an example of a data collection form designed for Levi. It documents the number of times Levi asked for help independently, with a gestural prompt, or with a verbal prompt, and with location. The CSESA website has multiple example of data collection forms that may be used to assess performance related to GAS goals and benchmarks. Data Sheet Example EBP Case Study: Visual Supports ASKING FOR HELP–CLEANING LIBRARY SHELVES Date

Give the card Move to Take “I need help communication and/or say “I need help” partner card”

Notes Wait for response before moving away

3/15 PP VP 3/15 PP 3/15 PP

PP PP 0

I PP

I I

3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16

PP PP PP PP

I I I I

I I I I

I I I I

3/17

PP

I

I

I

3/17 3/17 3/18 3/18 3/18 3/19

PP PP PP I I I

I I I I I I

I I I I I I

I I I I I I

L found wipes/need to hide better 

Move visual closer? Make more clear? Prompt not working? Implemented Time Delay / changed visual

HOORAY! 

I – independent PP – physical prompt VP – verbal prompt 0 – error/issue

FIGURE 2.7.  Examples of data collection form that informs GAS ratings. From The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA), 2014. Adapted by permission.

28

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Completing the GAS Rating The GAS raters (e.g., special education teachers) should base their ratings on data collected about the student’s performance. Once a goal has been established and an instructional procedure has been identified, school personnel should collect data frequently enough to inform the intervention procedures (e.g., altering the procedures or selecting a different EBP if progress is not seen). To complete the GAS rating, school personnel review the student’s performance and select the benchmark rating that most closely describes the performance data. In most cases, the GAS will be completed on a less frequent basis than instructional data collection because its purpose is to summarize students’ progress toward a goal in a global manner (i.e., with a rating score) rather than the more specific manner that occurs during or after instructional/learning opportunities. For CSESA purposes, the GAS ratings can be used to communicate student progress with other staff, family members, and even students, as appropriate. In addition, if members of the school leadership wish to evaluate the impact of the program on autistic students’ acquisition of learning goals, the GAS provides a more understandable and easily communicated measure of progress than changes on distantly associated, norm-­referenced measures.

Linking Goals to CSESA Domains, Components, and EBPs IEP and student learning goals should drive the programs developed for students in schools. As noted, we anticipate that many student goals will fall within CSESA domains mentioned in Chapter 1 and described in detail in the subsequent chapters. The rationale for creating different components within several domains was that the diversity of student needs may require different types of curricula or programs. For example, in the Academic domain, some students have a level of reading skills that allows them to access the text in literacy-­r ich classes but may have needs related to comprehension. For those students, the Collaborative Strategic Reading component would be most appropriate. Other students may be at the initial acquisition level of literacy, so the Alternate Achievement Literacy may be more appropriate. For some students, learning goals might fall outside the specific domains and components identified in CSESA. In those situations, teachers are encouraged to identify the EBPs that may be most appropriate for addressing those goals. The process begins with selecting a set of practices that have sufficient evidence of efficacy to be verified as evidence-­based. Several of the authors have been involved in the systematic review conducted by the National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice (NCAEP), which recently published a report (Steinbrenner et al., 2020) and journal article (Hume et al., 2021) describing those practices. The



Foundations of the CSESA Program 29

Autism-­Focused Intervention Resources and Modules (AFIRM) website, which is a part of NCAEP, contains information about how to select EBPs that match goal outcomes. This is also the basic process followed in the CSESA Independence domain, which is described by Hume, Kucharczyk, Rentschler, and Boyd (Chapter 6, this volume).

CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have described CSESA foundations, the basis on which the CSESA program may be implemented. This “sets the stage” for school personnel to move forward in embedding CSESA components in their school’s curricula. In the next four chapters, authors describe each of the domains and their specific components.

REFERENCES Hume, K., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J., Sideris, J., Smith, L., Kucharczyk, S., & Szidon, K. (2018). Multi-­informant assessment of transition-­related skills and skill importance in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 22(1), 40–50. Hume, K., Steinbrenner, J. R., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., .  .  . Savage, M. N. (2021). Evidence-­based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism: Third generation review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 4013–4032. Kirusek, T. J., & Sherman, R. E. (1968). Goal attainment scaling: A general method for evaluating comprehensive mental health programs. Community Mental Health Journal, 4(6), 443–453. Krug, D. A., Arick, J., & Almond, P. J. (2008). Autism screening inventory for education planning (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED Mesibov, G., Thomas, J. B., Chapman, S. M., & Schopler, E. (2007). TEACCH Transition Assessment Profile (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Odom, S. L., Cox, A., & Brock, M. (2013). Implementation science, professional development, and Autism Spectrum Disorders: National Professional Development Center on ASD. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 233–251. Odom, S. L., Cox, A., Sideris, J., Hume, K. A., Hedges, S., Kucharczyk, S., .  .  . Neitzel, J. (2018). Assessing quality of program environments for children and youth with autism: Autism Program Environment Rating Scale. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48, 913–924. Odom, S. L., Sam, A. W., & Cox, A. (2023). Autism Program Environment Rating Scale (APERS). Baltimore: Brookes. Partington, J. W. (2006). Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills—­Revised (ABLLSR). Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services. Ruble, L., McGrew, J. H., & Toland, M. D. (2012). Goal attainment scaling as an outcome

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

measure in randomized controlled trials of psychosocial interventions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 974–983. Schall, C., Brooke, V., Wehman, P., Palko, S., Brooke, A., Ham, W., . . . Tate, H. (2014). Community-­based functional skills assessment for transition-­aged youth with autism spectrum disorder. VCU Rehabilitation Research Training Center. www.vcuautismcenter.org/ documents/finalcommunityassessment711141.pdf. Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., . . . Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-­based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism. National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://ncaep.fpg.unc.edu/sites/ncaep.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/documents/EBP%20 Report%202020.pdf.

CHAPTER 3

Transition Bonnie R. Kraemer Sara L. McDaniel Catherine H. Fowler Tara Regan

Rafael’s Story (Part 1 of 3): “Rafael started with the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) interventions as a high school student, and then enrolled in my transition program (ages 18–22). All in all, he was exposed to various components of the CSESA domains for 6 years. When he moved to my classroom, he had experience with collaborative strategic reading (CSR), and we were able to apply that same strategy to help him develop transition skills using informational texts related to finding and applying for jobs. The CSESA interventions also helped me learn how to support Rafael in communicating more clearly and managing his anxieties. This gave him an even better chance to be successful in his transition to adulthood.” —From an interview with an A-Team leader at a high school in Southern California Planning for the transition from high school to adult life for students with autism is critical for success in adulthood. Postschool outcomes for adults with autism continue to lag behind those of adults with other disabilities (Taylor & Seltzer, 2011) and adults without disabilities (National Longitudinal Transition Study [NLTS], 2012). Furthermore, the National Autism Indicators report (Roux, ­Shattuck, Rast, Rava, & Anderson, 2015) revealed that 37% of young adults with autism in their early 20s were neither working nor going to school. Young adults with autism also earn less money, work fewer hours, and are less likely to live independently and engage in their community compared to same-age peers or

31

32

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

peers with disabilities (Lipscomb et al., 2017; NLTS, 2012). These findings support the need to improve both in-­school and postschool outcomes for youth with autism. One essential requirement to achieving positive adult outcomes is to provide quality and systematic transition programming during high school (Wehman et al., 2014). Coordinated programming should reflect additional components of factors associated with postschool success for students with autism: work experiences, self-­determination skills development, social skills development, inclusive opportunities, and parent expectations for success during high school are critical to achieve postschool success (National Technical Assistance Center on Transition [NTACT], 2018). Transition planning for students with disabilities ages 16 and above has been mandated since the 1990 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), with modifications of requirements occurring in 1997 and 2004. Some states require transition planning as early as age 14. IDEA 2004 transition requirements include postschool goals in the areas of education/training, employment and independent living (if appropriate), age-­appropriate assessments, transition services, course of study, and annual individualized education program (IEP) goals related to the student’s transition service needs (IDEIA, 2004). Since the initial transition service mandate in 1990, school districts and local education agencies (LEAs) are required to report the extent to which they are complying with the transition service mandate to their state education agency for the state’s annual report to the Office of Special Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Education (2020). The IDEA mandate combined with research regarding effective practices for students with autism require the field to engage in coordinated planning. Such planning needs to start early (i.e., even before high school) and must focus on a variety of topics such as postsecondary education, employment, and community living. Services and instruction must also attend to the development of self-­ determination and social skills across domains.

OVERVIEW OF INTERVENTIONS/PRACTICES AND STEPS FOR IMPLEMENTATION The Transition domain is a critical part of the CSESA model. It focuses specifically on preparation for life after high school. Interventions/practices in this domain include (1) Transition Planning, (2) Community and School Mapping, (3) Student Involvement in the IEP, and (4) Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE). The content reflects the earlier rationale from evidence- and research-­based practices and predictors of success for students with autism. Detailed instructions and support materials to the components discussed below can be found on the CSESA

Transition

33

website under the Transition and Families domain (CSESA: Transition and Families).

Transition Planning Transition planning is a process that should be student- centered and used to ensure that postsecondary goals, supports, and instruction in the student’s IEP are meaningful for students and their families. To do this, information needs to be collected to answer a series of questions about goals after high school, transition services, courses of study, annual instructional goals, and outside agency involvement. Some students and families require more support in this process than others, but each student’s individual strengths, needs, interests, and hopes should be incorporated into the process.

Implementation Steps for Transition Planning The Transition Services Flowchart is a useful tool for the transition planning process. As indicated in Figure 3.1, the first step is to conduct transition assessments to develop postschool goals. Transition assessment data may come from published or teacher-made sources and provide information regarding the student’s (1) academic, (2) career, (3) self- determination, and (4) independent living skills to inform a conversation regarding desired post-high school goals. The information should be gathered from multiple perspectives, including student and family

FIGURE 3.1. Transition services flowchart. This is a visual representation of the compo-

nents of Indicator 13 and a way to think of the flow of the process for a student’s IEP. The student’s postsecondary goals are identified before other parts of the IEP and drive things such as transition services, course enrollment, and annual goals. From Seattle University Center for Change in Transition Services. CC BY 4.0.

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

34

input. It is important that assessment information include the student’s strengths and needs, as well as preferences and interests. Implementing transition assessment is often an area in which teachers struggle, as they are not aware of resources or tools to utilize. One helpful resource can be found on the Transition Coalition website (www.transitioncoalition.org). This site contains reviews of a variety of transition assessments across domain areas. It also includes links to the assessments and cost. Other useful resources, including a transition assessment toolkit, can be found on the National Technical Assistance Center on Transition: The Collaborative (NTACT:C) website (https://transitionta.org). All of the assessment information should be summarized and shared with the IEP team to help identify a student’s postsecondary goals and the current services and instruction needed to support goal attainment. Schools and districts may already have an existing structure for summarizing transition assessment data on a separate form or within a student’s IEP. After the initial transition assessment is completed, the next step is to write postschool goals based on the assessment data compiled. IDEA 2004 requires postschool goals in the areas of (1) Education/Training, (2) Employment, and (3) Independent Living (if appropriate). However, best practice is to always include postschool goals in all three areas, regardless of disability or level of involvement. The goals should be stated as measurable outcome statements that will occur after a student leaves high school. The postsecondary goals then drive the rest of the IEPs development. Figure 3.2 provides a suggested format for writing postschool goals. Transition services could include the following: (1) specialized instruction

Formula for writing a postsecondary goal: , will (After High School) (Student) (behavior) where and how (After graduation) (Upon completion of high school) Formula for writing an annual goal that supports the postsecondary goal: Given

, will condition (student) (criteria ) (time frame) (behavior) (teaching strategies) e.g., 3 out 4 times (by June 20__) 80% e.g., direct instruction modeling peer tutoring

FIGURE 3.2.  Formulas for writing postsecondary goals and annual goals. Both should be written in a way that is observable and measurable. Annual goals must also contain the conditions around the behavior, as well as degree of mastery and evaluation criteria.



Transition 35

(e.g., self-­advocacy skills instruction); (2) related services (e.g., counseling services, occupational therapy); (3) community experiences (e.g., campus tours, informational interviews with employers, job shadowing); (4) activities to develop postsecondary goals (e.g., unpaid campus work experiences, SAT preparation class); (5) instruction or acquisition of daily living skills (e.g., hygiene or financial literacy instruction); or (6) provision of a functional vocational evaluation (e.g., completing a specific skills inventory). Many IEP teams are restricted by school district or state requirements for graduation. If the standard courses required for a diploma will not prepare a student for his or her postsecondary goals, the IEP team should consider and identify elective courses or courses provided through a community college or technical school as needed. An IEP team may identify specific instructions or experiences that can be addressed as transition services in lieu of coursework for some students. Additionally, the course of study on the IEP should be a multiyear course of study, expanding the entirety of the student’s high school and transition program. The course of study should include not only the courses needed to graduate (for diploma-­bound students with autism) but also electives or courses to be taken off the school campus (e.g., on a community college campus). For non-­diploma-­ bound students with autism, the course of study should include specific content classes that the student needs to meet postschool goals. This can include functional academic courses, vocational classes, and social skills classes. These should all be well articulated in the course of study section of the IEP. Annual IEP goals should focus on a student’s acquisition of skills during the current school year that support completing the identified transition service activities and align with his or her postsecondary goals. It is important that annual IEP goals be specific to the student, as well as observable and measurable. They should be directly linked to one or more postschool goals and should not be generic (i.e., could be applied to any student). They should also relate to the student’s transition assessment data. Figure 3.2 includes a formula for writing annual goals to help ensure that they are observable and measureable. A critical step in the transition planning process requires engaging others in the transition planning process. (This is discussed in more detail in the “Community and School Resource Mapping” section.) In addition to ensuring that families are actively involved in transition planning, it is critical to involve outside agencies that may assist in providing transition services in adulthood. This can include vocational rehabilitation or local or state disability or mental health services, or postsecondary education institutions. These key stakeholders and community partners should be invited to the transition meeting (after gaining parent consent and student assent). Research has shown that one of the greatest barriers to successful transitions from high school is the lack of service coordination between school-­age and adult services, as well as families’ lack of knowledge of services and

36

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

opportunities beyond high school (Lipscomb et al., 2017). See Table 3.1 for tips and some examples of how these strategies were put into practice as part of CSESA.

Confirming That IEPs Meet Federal Mandates (IDEA and Indicator 13) Federal reporting requirements for IEPs for transition-­ age students mandate states to measure: “Percent of youth with IEPs aged 16 and above with an IEP that includes appropriate measurable postsecondary goals that are annually updated and based upon an age-­appropriate transition assessment, transition services, including courses of study, that will reasonably enable the student to meet those postsecondary goals, and annual IEP goals related to the student’s transition service needs. There also must be evidence that the student was invited to the IEP Team meeting where transition services are to be discussed and evidence that, if appropriate, a representative of any participating agency was invited to the IEP Team meeting with the prior consent of the parent or student who has reached the age of majority” (20 U.S.C. 1416(a)(3)(B)). As a compliance indicator, it is expected that 100% of all IEPs will meet the requirements of Indicator 13 (I-13). However, the most recent report to the Office of Special Education Programs (U.S. Department of Education, 2020) indicates that the mean compliance rate across states is 89%, with a range of 17 to 100%. Appendices 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 include a transition assessment summary sheet, a checklist to ensure that transition plans are meeting I-13 requirements, and a transition planning rubric developed by the state of Rhode Island to help educators determine the quality of the plan (Rhode Island Department of Education Indicator 13 Scoring Rubric, 2013). Federally funded technical assistance centers such as National Technical Assistance Center on Transition: The Collaborative (NTACT:C; see https://transitionta.org) have many transition planning resources to help schools and districts with writing compliant and high-­quality transition plans.

Community and School Resource Mapping Resource mapping is not a new concept, but it is a powerful one. Despite the many resources and supports available to students with autism and their families across the country, it can be challenging for families to identify and navigate these organizations independently. Resource mapping is a collaborative process that identifies organizations, supports, and opportunities available in a particular region or network, and consolidates the information in a document or portal that can be distributed to members of the region or network. The process can serve as a tangible action to promote interagency collaboration. As part of the CSESA project, two types of resource mapping were utilized with school partners: (1) Community Resource Mapping and (2) School Resource Mapping.



Transition 37

TABLE 3.1.  Tips and Putting It into Practice: Writing Quality Transition Plans Tips

Putting it into practice

Hold a training to get everyone on the same page.

When planning for transition and writing transition plans, school sites utilized the rubrics (included in Appendices 3.2 and 3.3) to support the writing of the document. This helped to ensure quality components were implemented in student transition plans.

Special education teams balance many responsibilities and sometimes transition planning is not made a priority. Training staff on the requirements of Indicator 13 was an important first step in working toward writing quality transition plans for CSESA students. Once a student is of transition planning age (ages 14–16 years), his or her IEP team should be prioritizing the transition plan and using it to guide the development and implementation of the full IEP. This is a shift in mind-set for some staff members, and a training on this topic can help get them aligned.

Assessments matter! Find transition assessments that give students new ideas rather than just asking them to report on what they know—this is limiting.

Utilize a student portfolio. A student portfolio can be used to document a student’s progress in meeting their transition activities and goals.

Take advantage of free transition resources. The National Technical Assistance Center on Transition (NTACT; https://transitionta.org) offers an abundance of materials and resources to help plan for transition. There are several that are specific to students with ASD.

In North Carolina, some CSESA schools were given additional support for their administration, special education department head, and other staff members who most frequently attend IEP and transition planning meetings. One particular high school had an IEP Compliance Administrator, so the CSESA team spent additional time with the administrator to streamline Indicator 13 requirements and additional information needed for the transition planning process. It is key to work top-tobottom to ensure that these expectations are set and followed for all students. Schools often utilized the second edition of the Transition Planning Inventory. School teams found the Assessment Reviews on the Transition Coalition website very helpful. https:// transitioncoalition.org/tc-assessmentreviews/?cat_id=48 There are a variety of methods for assembling and keeping the Student Transition Portfolio. This can include storing it on a school- or districtbased shared drive, or using an online portfolio system (including a Google Drive), a USB drive, or a paper-based system in a three-ring binder. Examples of postsecondary goals, transition services, annual goals, and possible outside agencies are available at https://transitionta.org/transitionplanning. Click on the document “Quality Transition Planning Is a Process” to access various case study examples. (continued)

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

TABLE 3.1.  (continued) Tips

Putting it into practice

Engage key stakeholders.

Many of the high schools participating in the CSESA project chose to involve adult providers in the Transitioning Together sessions (see DaWalt & Szidon, Chapter 7, this volume). This included speakers from the local Department of Rehabilitation to discuss employment and enrollment in the system; speakers from the local Regional Center; law and advocacy groups; and someone who discussed how to access local mental health services in adulthood. Several of the CSESA schools/districts held job fairs and adult provider fairs so families could learn about the different resources that support individuals with ASD in adulthood.

If outside agency personnel cannot attend individual IEP meetings, consider ways (with appropriate consents) to engage them in planning. Some possibilities could be: • sharing transition assessment results for their input prior to the meeting through a phone call • obtaining copies of assessments conducted by an outside agency to use as part of the transition assessment information shared with the IEP team • hosting agency fairs where employers, agencies, and postsecondary education programs (disability services, financial services) can share resources and information with multiple families at one time

Community Resource Mapping Overall, community resource mapping supports student transition planning and workbased learning experiences by locating nearby supports, agencies, and services that provide employment, education, and independence-­building opportunities. Different leaders in the school and/or on the A-team (e.g., school- or district-­level administrators, special education teachers, students). This collaborative process should also involve community members and organizations in the community, such as advocacy groups (e.g., The Arc, local autism society), programs that provide support to adults with developmental disabilities (e.g., Regional Centers or staff members from the Department of Developmental Disabilities), and vocational rehab personnel. The community resource mapping process can be viewed in stages: Premapping, Mapping, and Postmapping. A major component of the process is to collect and consolidate information about the resources that are available in the community. The CSESA Community Resource Mapping Template, contained in the Community and School Resource Mapping Manual is a great starting point for school teams (see Appendix 3.4). Teams should review the CSESA Community Resource Mapping Template carefully to ensure that any unique community-­ specific resources are identified and included in the map. Although it may be tempting to view community resource mapping as a process for your team to “finish,” it should really be viewed as an ongoing process. Once completed, the community resource map should be revisited annually in order to ensure that those utilizing the tool are kept up-to-date with the latest resources available to them.

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School Resource Mapping School resource mapping is an application of resource mapping that can identify resources that exist on students’ school campuses. Due to the complexity of life on a comprehensive high school campus and disconnects that can occur between special education departments and the rest of the school, it is easy to miss out on the plethora of opportunities that exist for students with autism within the walls of high schools. Ideally, school resource mapping should be used to organize information into one easy-to-find place that can help students and families answer questions about, and utilize resources within, their specific school. School resource mapping is typically a visual tool that can benefit any student within a high school—­not just those students with autism. In order to ensure that the school resource map is as comprehensive as possible, a team that includes A-Team members and other important informants should be assembled. Participants could be teachers, school administrators, school department chairs if they exist, related services providers, transition coordinators, and students themselves. Once a mapping team is assembled (i.e., this may include more than members of the A-Team), the school resource mapping process can begin. It follows the same three stages as the community mapping process: Premapping, Mapping, and Postmapping. Again, a vitally important step of the process is to ensure that the school resource mapping team gathers as much information as possible related to the resources and opportunities that are available through the school site. Utilizing the CSESA School Resource Mapping Template (see Appendix 3.5) is a great starting point, as it guides inquiry into the school resource mapping areas highlighted in Figure 3.3. Like community resource mapping, school resource mapping should be viewed as an ongoing process, especially given the dynamic and ever-­evolving nature of comprehensive high school campuses. Once completed, the school resource map should be revisited annually to ensure that school families are kept up-to-date with the latest resources available at their school site. In addition, it is important to note that, like the community resource map, the school resource map can be a valuable resource for students having other disabilities. See Table 3.2 for tips and examples of putting school and community resource mapping into practice as part of the CSESA project.

Student Involvement in the IEP Rafael’s Story (Part 2 of 3): “There were a lot of different curricula provided by CSESA, including the ‘Whose Future Is It Anyway?’ curriculum, which helps students get involved in setting their own goals for the future. We were also able to use new, more intuitive transition assessments that really helped

Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

40

Case Manager Guidance Counselor Hallways Hall monitor info

Supplemental aids and supports

Helpful info about school or class

Assistive Technology

Honor Societies Social Events Dances Class Trips

Technology Technology aide info

Extracurricular Clubs and Sports

Class Activities School Mapping

Class advisor info Graduation Class Trips

Access to internet /computer

Community Service

Health School nurse info Alcohol and drug prevention services Others

Clothing drive Postschool

Food drive

Diploma options at school

Community service projects

College fair info

FIGURE 3.3.  School resource mapping should include information on school resources in one document. A school resource map can be especially helpful in large schools, where locating information or even the correct person to ask can be difficult and time consuming. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission.



Transition 41

TABLE 3.2.  Tips and Putting It into Practice: Community and School Mapping Tips

Putting it into practice

Work with what you’ve got!

One CSESA high school team members created what they referred to as “evergreen” School Resource Maps that they mailed home to all families, along with their special education progress reports. These included Case Manager assignments (by alphabet) and contact information, a list of all related service providers on campus, a list of school sports and clubs (with information on how to join), and more!

Some schools may already have some resources consolidated into various documents (i.e., school calendar, list of clubs), but not compiled into one shareable document. Partnering with the school librarian, secretaries, PTA, student leadership groups, or other groups that are the keepers of these existing resources can help crowdsource the completion of the school resource map and help your team avoid starting from scratch. Partner with a local community organization—and even other nearby schools! Depending on where you live, there may be local organizations that support members of the community with disabilities. These groups already have a comprehensive understanding of community partners and resources that can support transition-age young adults, and they may be interested in partnering to create a community resource map for your school’s families. Additionally, if there are other high schools in the area that might benefit from the creation of such a resource, partnering with these other sites might allow you to share the workload and amplify the impact! Design matters! Once all of the information is gathered for the Community and School Resource Maps, that information must be translated into documents that are clearly organized and not overwhelming for families. This can require skills beyond basic word processing, so having team members who are familiar with graphic design, and so forth, will be helpful in the later stages of the process.

CSESA schools in one region worked together and collaborated with a local family services organization to create region-specific community maps for schools to provide families. The map was made available to school sites as both a hard copy and a digital PDF with live links to community resources embedded. The document was also translated into Spanish to accommodate Spanish-speaking families. In another region, a state autism organization was a go-to resource for all of the CSESA schools. They had chapters for families living all over the state and created local and regionspecific community directories for families they serve. By partnering with this organization, teams were able to provide comprehensive community resource maps for schools across the state. Consolidating all of the information gathered by the Community and School Resource Mapping teams into a visually appealing and easy to navigate document would be a good job for members of the school community. From students enrolled in yearbook, journalism, or digital arts courses to parents who may be able to offer expertise, there are likely people in the community who would be thrilled to help. Another option is to request funds from your school or district to hire a graphic designer for the job. The easier the final product is to navigate, the more it will help the families who use it!

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools Rafael, as well as all of the students, better articulate their goals. These assessments were more student-­friendly and helped me help him communicate his wants, needs, and goals effectively.”

It is critical that students with autism are active members of their IEP teams and are aware of their strengths and needs. Self-­advocacy is a critical skill that youth with autism need to achieve positive postschool outcomes. Self-­advocacy planning needs to start early and should be an integral part of transition programming during high school. This component within the Transition domain includes an overview of three different evidence-­based curricula a teacher may select from to increase students’ engagement in their educational program planning, preparation, and meeting (see Table 3.3). Detailed checklists and lesson plans, as well as suggested modifications for each of the curricula discussed below, can be found on the CSESA website (CSESA: Student Involvement in IEP Lessons). It is important for practitioners and family members to develop the expectation that all students can contribute to the development of their IEPs. These contributions will vary based on individual student strengths. Some students may need limited information about the meeting and its structure to confidently contribute meaningful information to the team about their goals, their current performance, academic goals they feel should be included, and accommodations that they need to be successful. Other students may require more guidance regarding what information they can and should share in a meeting. Still other students may contribute information through augmentative communication devices or other assistive technology and may contribute information regarding their dreams or strengths but not participate in more detailed discussions of how the IEP team plans to get them ready to reach their goals.

Three Self‑Advocacy Curricula The self-­advocacy strategy (SAS; Van Reusen, Bos, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1994) is a motivation and self-­determination strategy designed to prepare students to participate in education or transition planning conferences. The strategy comprises five steps, which are taught over a series of seven acquisition and generalization stages. The five steps are presented using the mnemonic “I PLAN” to help cue students to remember the steps for the strategy. I PLAN represents I—­Inventory (i.e., completed by students, listing their strengths, weaknesses, learning needs, goals, and choices to prepare them for their upcoming IEP conference), P—­Provide Your Inventory (i.e., identifying an appropriate time for an individual to share information during the conference, speaking clearly and completely, and referring to the inventory as needed), L—­Listen and Respond (i.e., being an active listener and responding to statements made

Transition 43



TABLE 3.3.  Curricula to Support Student Involvement in the IEP Process Curriculum

Components/topics

Process for implementation

Self-Advocacy Strategy (SAS; Van Reusen et al., 1994)

Step 1: Inventory Gives students an opportunity to determine and list their perceived education or transition strengths, areas to improve or learn, education and transition goals, and required accommodations. Students also determine and list their choices for learning, and, for older students, their goals associated with their age-of-majority rights. Students enter this information on sheets that are called the Education Inventory and the Transition Inventory, which they take to their individual conferences or meetings. Students use the remaining steps of the strategy (Steps 2–5) for participating and communicating during a conference or meeting.

The steps of SAS involve conferences, which can be formal or informal meetings with students, as a strategy for getting organized before an IEP meeting. In these conferences, students learn and practice techniques that they can use to effectively communicate during IEP meetings. There are five steps involved in using this strategy. The acronym “I PLAN” is used to help the students remember the five steps of the strategy.

Step 2: Provide Your Inventory Information Prompts students to provide input, using their inventory sheets as a reference, during the conference or meeting. Step 3: Listen and Respond Reminds students to effectively listen to others’ statements or questions and respond to them. Step 4: Ask Questions Students are encouraged to ask appropriate questions to gather needed information. Step 5: Name Your Goals Involves students communicating their personal goals and ideas on actions to be taken. The Self-Directed IEP (SD IEP; Martin et al., 1996)

Lesson 1: Begin Meeting by Stating Purpose Lesson 2: Introduce Everyone Lesson 3: Review Past Goals and Performance Lesson 4: Ask for Others’ Feedback Lesson 5: State Your School and Transition Goals Lesson 6: Ask Questions Lesson 7: Deal with Differences of Opinion Lesson 8: State the Support You’ll Need Lesson 9: Summarize Your Goals Lesson 10: Close Meeting Lesson 11: Work on IEP Goals All Year

The SD IEP lesson package is divided into four instructional units, including students leading meeting, reporting interests, reporting skills, and reporting options. It is a multimedia package designed to teach students the skills needed to manage their own IEP meetings. It includes a teacher manual, a student workbook, and two videos that present 11 steps necessary for students to lead their own IEP meetings. Instruction follows a model–lead–test format. (continued)

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

TABLE 3.3.  (continued) Curriculum

Components/topics

Process for implementation

Whose Future Is It Anyway? (WFA; Wehmeyer et al., 2004)

Section 1: Getting to Know You Session 1: The Planning Meeting Session 2: Choosing People to Attend Session 3: Your Preferences and Interests Session 4: Disabilities Session 5: Your Unique Learning Needs Session 6: Supports

WFA is intended to be used with students either independently or in groups/ full class instruction. The materials are designed for students to read and complete independently. The teacher’s role is to assist and facilitate completing the readings and activities. The WFA curriculum contains six sections with 36 individual lesson sessions.

Section 2: Making Decisions Session 7: Introduction to DO IT! Session 8: Steps 1 and 2 of DO IT! Session 9: Steps 3 and 4 of DO IT! Session 10: Using DO IT! Session 11: Real Life Stories to Use DO IT! Session 12: Giving Informed Consent Section 3: How to Get What You Need Session 13: Community Resources in Your Plan Session 14: Community Resources for Work Session 15: Community Resources for More School Session 16: Community Resources for Living Session 17: Community Resources for Fun Session 18: Community Resources You Want Section 4: Goals, Objectives, and the Future Session 19: Identifying Goals in Your Plan Session 20: Identifying Goals for Work Session 21: Identifying Goals for More School Session 22: Identifying Goals for Living Session 23: Identifying Goals for Fun Session 24: Keeping Track of Your Goals Section 5: Communicating Session 25: Communicating in Small Groups Session 26: Body Language and Assertiveness Session 27: Advocating and Appealing Session 28: Timing and Persuasion Session 29: Keeping Your Ideas Out There Session 30: Listening and the Team Section 6: Thank You, Honorable Chairperson Session 31: Different Kinds of Meetings Session 32: Steps to Planning a Meeting Session 33: Being a Good Team Member Session 34: Managing the Meeting Session 35: Session 1–18 Review Session 36: Sessions 19–34 Review



Transition 45

by others in a positive manner), A—Ask Questions (i.e., asking appropriate questions to gather needed information), and N—Name Your Goals (i.e., communicate goals and ideas). A sample lesson plan that supports the strategy is included in Appendix 3.6. Additional lessons that support this strategy can be found in the Student Involvement in the IEP manual on the CSESA website. The self-­ directed individual education plan (SD IEP; Martin, Marshall, Maxson, & Jerman, 1996) contains 11 sequential lessons that typically take six to ten 45-minute sessions to teach. The SD IEP lesson package is divided into four instructional units, including students leading meetings, reporting interests, reporting skills, and reporting options. It is a multimedia package designed to teach students the skills needed to manage their own IEP meetings. It includes a teacher manual, a student workbook, and two videos that present 11 steps necessary for students to lead their own IEP meetings. A sample lesson plan for this curriculum is included in Appendix 3.7. Additional detailed lessons for each of the 11 steps of the program, are in the Student Involvement in the IEP manual on the CSESA website. Whose Future Is It Anyway? (WFA; Wehmeyer et al., 2004) is a student-­ directed, transition planning curriculum designed to help students learn to be more involved in the IEP process. The curriculum comprises six sections and 36 sessions. The sections cover the following topics: self-­awareness and disability awareness, decision making about transition-­related outcomes, identifying and securing community resources to support transition services, writing and evaluating goals and objectives, communicating effectively in small groups, and developing skills to become an effective team member, leader, and self-­advocate. WFA is a free resource available from the Zarrow Center (Zarrow Center: Whose Future Is It Anyway?) and should be implemented according to instructions in the curriculum. Adaptations for this curriculum, for use as needed, are suggested in the CSESA SD IEP manual. A sample lesson to be used when teaching students how to identify their preferences and interests is included in Appendix 3.8. In addition to the three evidenced self-­advocacy curricula discussed earlier, many of the schools participating in the CSESA project elected to utilize person-­ centered planning strategies to support students’ involvement in their education and transition plans. Person-­centered planning is a transition planning intervention that comprises (1) group training sessions for families in the transition process, (2) person-­centered planning meetings facilitated by educational teams, and (3) follow-­up assistance with plan implementation (Hagner, Kurtz, & Cloutier, 2014). There are many modifications that can be implemented with the person-­ centered planning process, with the ultimate goal resulting in a document or tool that guides student programs and helps them to identify and achieve postschool goals. Table 3.4 includes some of the modifications made to the person-­centered planning process utilized in the CSESA project.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

TABLE 3.4.  Tips and Putting It into Practice: Student Involvement in IEP Tips

Putting it into practice

Embed curriculum into course content or case manager check-in meetings.

Case managers at CSESA schools became very creative in embedding the student involvement in the IEP curriculum when they had time with students. For example, at the start of study hall sessions, Mrs. G would spend 10–15 minutes to focus on the next chunk of the selfadvocacy curriculum. Toward the end of the second semester, her student Ryan attended and participated in his exit IEP meeting. He created a list of postsecondary goals and shared them at his meeting. Afterward, Ryan said he was met with applause and felt so supported by his parents, teachers, and the rest of his IEP team. Also, self-contained special educators adapted curriculum into their lessons. In particular, Ms. W integrated her academic English Language Arts lessons with learning about disability awareness and self-advocacy, pulling from the WFA curriculum.

Challenge students to take the lead on one section of IEP.

When presented with the idea of participating and leading a section of their IEP meeting, students understandably have differing comfort levels. Some may need additional support and structure to present. With CSESA, we focused on a student-centered presentation, where they share their interests, strengths/challenges, goals after high school, and goals while in high school. For a student like Fabian, who really enjoyed being able to share more about himself and his interests with his teachers, he later shared that he was excited to make his parents feel proud that he is thinking about life after high school. With his teacher Ms. R, he created a PowerPoint template outlining each of the sections listed earlier for him to fill in, added pictures and graphics, and made his own. Students were very interested in being creative with their plans to lead and present at their IEP meetings. One student, Azalea, created her own Animoto, which is an animated version of herself in which she can record her own voice or use their computer-generated voice, to present. The Animoto app also has expanded to include video presentations for students to share.

Free WFA curriculum is available through the Zarrow Center website at www. ou.edu/education/centers-andpartnerships/zarrow

All lesson plans are freely downloadable. For CSESA, some sites downloaded all the lesson plans, printed and sequenced them, and had them bound into books for teachers at their school sites to reference/use with students.

Many CSESA schools utilized person-centered planning to support student involvement in the IEP.

Person-centered planning can be utilized across school settings and disciplines by all practitioners supporting transition-age students. CSESA coaches worked with A-team members to identify opportunities to promote person-centered planning supports across settings. For example, one participating CSESA special educator, Mr. F, worked with his colleagues to embed person-centered planning into a project that their lunchtime friendship club was working on during club meetings. This created an opportunity for Brian, a CSESA student whom Mr. F was supporting, to consider and share his goals for the future in a way that was unique and meaningful to him.

Transition 47



Work‑Based Learning Experiences Rafael’s Story (Part 3 of 3): “Initially, Rafael was hooked on watching YouTube videos, but I wasn’t sure how to translate that into career opportunities. He said he wanted to ‘be a YouTuber,’ but he didn’t seem to know what type of videos he wanted to produce, or why. First, we practiced navigating YouTube independently, and after he was able to articulate the types of videos he liked most, we used that interest area to start learning how to make our own videos. We got in touch with a sports photographer at a local university who worked with youth with disabilities on photography and videography skills. He served as a mentor, and Rafael was able to begin learning more about the field than he’d be able to do in a traditional classroom. He eventually decided that he’d like to participate in a filmography program for students with disabilities, such as those at Inclusion Films, Inc., or the L.A. Film School. He’s on the waiting list now, but he’s still working with his mentor to build his skills set while he waits for a spot to open up in his preferred postsecondary program.” Postschool outcomes are the most important aspect of successful transitioning from high school to college and career fields, but what students spend their time on at school can feel disconnected from their goals for their adult lives. Because of particularly poor postschool outcomes for students with autism, there is a necessary requirement to engage these students in activities that will expose them to college and career awareness, occupational courses, paid work experiences, community experiences, and other WBLEs. All are among the evidence-­based predictors of postschool success (Mazzotti et al., 2021; Rowe et al., 2015). The conceptual organization of the eight WBLEs that were used in the CSESA program, and described in Table 3.5, were based on Luecking (2009).

Implementation Steps for WBLEs The selection of WBLE interventions and practices is based on students’ individual goals for the future. Some students may participate in experiences that focus more on employment or careers, while others may participate in experiences directly related to college preparation. In the CSESA program, special education teachers select WBLE activities throughout a school year. A variety of lesson plans associated with each of the eight types of WBLE previously identified, targeting both college and career-­focused students, were provided to CSESA schools for their use throughout the project. These resources are now publicly available for download and use via the CSESA website. Appendix 3.9 provides an example of two lesson plans under the WBLE category of Work Sampling, one in career readiness (career assessment), and the other in college readiness (reviewing a course syllabus).

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

TABLE 3.5.  Work-Based Learning Experiences Career exploration

“Career exploration involves visits by youth to workplaces to learn about jobs and the skills required performing them. Visits and meetings with employers and people in identified occupations outside of the workplace are also types of career exploration activities from which youth can learn about jobs and careers” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Job shadowing

“Job-Shadowing is extended time, often a full workday or several workdays, spent by a youth in a workplace accompanying an employee in the performance of his or her daily duties” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Work sampling

“Work sampling is work by a youth that does not materially benefit the employer but allows the youth to spend meaningful time in a work environment to learn aspects of potential job tasks and ‘soft skills’ required in the workplace” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Service learning

“Service learning is a hands-on volunteer service to the community that integrates with course objectives. It is a structured process that provides time for reflection on the service experience and demonstration of the skills and knowledge required” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Internship

“Internships are formal agreements whereby a youth is assigned specific tasks in a workplace over a predetermined period of time. Internships may be paid or unpaid, depending on the nature of the agreement with the company and the nature of the task” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Paid employment

“Paid employment may include existing standard jobs in a company or customized work assignments that are negotiated with an employer, but these jobs always feature a wage paid directly to the youth. Such work may be scheduled during or after the school days. It may be integral to a course of study or simply a separate adjunctive experience” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Apprenticeship

“Formal, sanctioned work experiences of extended duration in which an apprentice learns specific occupational skills related to a standardized trade, such as carpentry, plumbing, or drafting. Many apprenticeships also include paid work components” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Mentoring

“A mentor is a person who through support, friendship, reinforcement, and constructive example helps another person, usually a young person, to reach his or her work and life goals. Mentoring relationships provide valuable support to young people, especially those with disabilities, by offering not only academic and career guidance, but also effective role models for leadership, interpersonal, and problem-solving skills” (Luecking, 2009, p. 13).

Transition 49



When selecting and planning WBLEs, it can be helpful to consider the age of the student, along with his or her goals and objectives related to the transition to adult life. Younger students are likely to require more exploration of postsecondary education and career options, along with opportunities to try new things and gauge their own preferences. As students get older (and closer to graduating from or exiting high school), they may be ready for more hands-on experiences and responsibility. Having students participate in a wide variety of the categories of WBLE by the time they transition will help to ensure that they have a breadth of experience that will allow them to make confident, well-­educated choices about their lives after high school. A general timeline of the types of WBLE that are appropriate for students to participate in throughout their time in high school is included in Figure 3.4. The teacher, student, family, and IEP team may determine that a student will participate in multiple types of WBLE included under either the “college” and/or “career” categories. Regardless of a students’ postsecondary goals, participating in both types of WBLE is encouraged. The categories are provided to help manage and organize the multiple types of career development activities in which students may participate during high school. This is often a formal focus of the coursework for students with autism who spend the majority of their school day in specialized settings. These students may have special education teachers working with them throughout their school day specifically on functional, life, or work-­related skills, and these are often settings that can accommodate WBLE in their focus. However, it is important to give these students a variety of college- and career-­related Suggested Timeline across High School 9th Grade Career Exploration Job Shadowing Work Sampling Mentoring

10th Grade

11th Grade

Career Exploration Service Learning Job Shadowing Internship Work Sampling Paid Employment Mentoring Apprenticeship Mentoring

12th Grade and Beyond Service Learning Internship Paid Employment Apprenticeship Mentoring

FIGURE 3.4.  A way to think about a continuum of experiences across the 4 years, or more, of high school. Experiences such as paid work and internships are more likely to develop later in a student’s school years and be informed by the exploration, sampling, and shadowing experiences of early high school. From The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted by permission.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

experiences, as appropriate. This requires teachers and school-­based administrators to be creative and strategic when organizing opportunities for WBLEs. Working as a part of the school recycling crew, for example, is a great opportunity for work sampling, but not all students are attracted to this type of job. Even students who enjoy the physical task of recycling can, and should, be given the opportunity to practice different skills and work with mentors in different fields. For students with autism who have a postsecondary goal of attending a 2- or 4-year college, identifying time during their school day for WBLEs can be challenging. These students often spend all, or a majority, of their days in rigorous general education coursework. For these students, however, research indicates that having WBLEs in high school may lead to greater success in postsecondary education (Mazzotti et al., 2021). Members of the IEP teams supporting these students, including family members, school counselors, career technical educators, general educators, special educators, and, of course, the student, may need to creatively identify opportunity areas to practice and develop these important skills. Some high schools utilize “advisory” time or homeroom periods for all students to engage in WBLEs. Participating in extracurricular school clubs, establishing relationships with community mentors in the school, and helping families complete certain activities with their child outside of school hours are other methods of ensuring that students have access to WBLEs despite their busy school schedules. For example, activities in the “Career Exploration” category of WBLEs can easily be embedded with writing, research, and presentation skills focused on within English Language Arts standards. Additionally, exploring careers associated with significant events in history (e.g., inventors, doctors, religious leaders, politicians, teachers) or in science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics (STEAM) fields might align with project-­based learning in Social Studies, Science, or Mathematics courses. See Table 3.6 for tips and examples of putting these strategies into practice.

CONCLUSION The poor postschool outcomes for students with autism are evidence that high schools can, and should, make changes to directly address the needs of these students related to their postsecondary lives. As you can see, the Transition domain of CSESA offers a robust array of components, each of which is embedded with evidence-­based strategies, resources, and curricula designed to enhance the postsecondary planning and preparedness of this group of adolescents. For many practitioners, when it comes to reimagining their transition-­related offerings, figuring out where to start may be the biggest hurdle. During the CSESA project, each participating school implemented the Transition domain over the course of 2 years.



Transition 51

TABLE 3.6.  Tips and Putting It into Practice: Work-Based Learning Experiences Tips

Putting it into practice

How to fit WBLE into a student’s school schedule?

At a CSESA high school, Ms. O, a teacher who worked with students with mild/ moderate support needs, had several students who spent 100% of their school day in general education. Because of this, she was having a hard time accessing her students to work on WBLE. Rather than give up, Ms. O collaborated with her general education colleagues and, together, they designed and implemented a career exploration-related activity as part of her students’ ninth-grade history class. This solution benefited not only her students with ASD in the course, but also all of the ninthgrade students at the school.

Designing a Course of Study that could include college and career fairs, field trips, school sports teams and clubs, lunch groups, meetings with advocate teachers, and servicelearning opportunities through school or community groups.

Students have unrealistic postsecondary goals. Sometimes, students express future goals that may not be obtainable in their current form (e.g., becoming an Olympic swimmer [despite not knowing how to swim] and video game designers [despite struggling with basic word processing lessons]). This is relatively common, and practitioners can guide students toward postsecondary goals that are better suited for their skills. WBLEs are excellent tools for this, as they allow students to explore various postsecondary educational and career opportunities that are related to their interests, try out different jobs and skills to see what they like and what their strengths are, and discuss their goals with mentors who can help them along the way. Use what your school already has. What job shadowing and work sampling opportunities already exist at your school site? Are students able to serve as teaching assistants, or work in the library, main office, or media centers? Capitalizing on servicelearning opportunities organized by student leadership groups or clubs like the Key Club or Best Buddies can be a great way to get your students involved in WBLEs that aren’t feasible for you to organize yourself.

Two teachers at another CSESA school worked with students with substantial support needs. As part of the CSESA project, Mrs. L and Mr. K sought to expand the number of WBLEs, particularly the career exploration and work sampling opportunities, to which students in their program had access. In addition to implementing a new video-based career interest inventory, they also brainstormed the types of work sampling that could take place on campus. In the end, they started an in-classroom coffee delivery business for teachers at the school, launched a school garden (based initially on one student’s interest in farming), and even arranged for one of their students, whose goal was to work as a teacher, to serve as a peer support for another student in an inclusionary setting. CSESA students have gotten a lot of value out of participating in extracurricular clubs at their school. One student, a member of their school’s Cyber Security Club, was able to translate his “for fun” participation in the club into a job opportunity with the U.S. Navy. Another student, a member of the Stage Crew at his school, hoped to translate that experience into a position traveling as a crew member with a touring band. For students with ASD, finding ways to help them translate their specific interests into potential career opportunities is a huge win. (continued)

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

TABLE 3.6.  (continued) Tips

Putting it into practice

What about my students with substantial support needs?

Mrs. K set up work task boxes in her classroom for students with substantial support needs and used evidence-based practices such as prompting, modeling, and visual supports to teach the use of task boxes and related job skills. Ms. W, in a self-contained, separate setting, developed relationships with community sites that have a greater understanding and support for her students with very substantial support needs. Her students visit the hospital and work in the cafeteria once each week. Her class is made up of older students who, at this point, have spent many years developing vocational skills in this setting and have indicated a continued interest from informal transition inventories. She began teaching these skills in smaller steps with a task analysis (e.g., how to clean the table; how to stock the soda bottles vs. cans).

Students with substantial support needs deserve the opportunity to experience a wide variety of WBLEs and for their preferences to be taken into account. Teachers have reported that implementing task rotation and using evidence-based practices (e.g., task analysis and prompt fading) to teach more complex tasks has opened the doors for their students to practice an increased variety of job-related skills.

Schools selected two of the four domains to focus on each year of the project. It is recommended that teachers, special education departments, or school sites select one transition-­related component at a time to incorporate as a routine practice in their program, with the intention of incorporating all the intervention/practice areas. By working as a school team to improve the transition services being offered to students with autism on campus, both immediate and future-­forward student needs can be addressed.

REFERENCES Hagner, D., Kurtz, A., May, J., & Cloutier, H. (2014). Person-­ centered planning for transition-­aged youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Rehabilitation, 80(1), 4–10. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004). https://sites.ed.gov/idea/statute- ­chapter-33/subchapter-­i/1400. Lipscomb, S., Haimson, J., Liu, A. Y., Burghardt, J., Johnson, D. R., & Thurlow, M. L. (2017). Preparing for life after high school: The characteristics and experiences of youth in special education. Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012. Volume 2: Comparisons across disability groups: Full report (NCEE 2017-4018). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Luecking, R. G. (2009). The way to work: How to facilitate work experiences for youth in transition. Baltimore: Brookes.



Transition 53

Martin, J. E., Marshall, L. H., Maxson, L., & Jerman, P. (1996). Self- ­directed IEP (2nd ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Mazzotti, V. L., Rowe, D., Kwiatek, S., Voggt, A., Chang, W., Fowler, C. H., .  .  . Test, D. W. (2021). Secondary transition predictors of post-­school success: An update for the field. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 44(1), 47–64. National Technical Assistance Center on Transition. (2018). Secondary practices for students with autism spectrum disorder annotated bibliography. Washington, DC: Dana Rusher and ASD Technical Work Group. Rhode Island Department of Education Indicator 13 Scoring Rubric. (2013). www.ct.gov/connect-­ ability/lib/connect-­ability/iep_scoring_rubric.pdf. Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Rast, J. E., Rava, J. A., & Anderson, K, A. (2015). National Autism Indicators Report: Transition into young adulthood. Philadelphia: Life Course Outcomes Research Program, A. J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University. Rowe, D. A., Alverson, C. Y., Unruh, D. K., Fowler, C. H., Kellems, R., & Test, D. W. (2015). A Delphi study to operationalize evidence-­based predictors in secondary transition. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 38(2), 113–126. Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-­secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(5), 566–574. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs. (2020). 2020 Part B FFY 2018 SPP/APR indicator analysis booklet. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/files/partb-­indicatoranalysis-­f fy2018.pdf. Van Reusen, A. K., Bos, C. S., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1994). The self-­advocacy strategy. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises. Wehman, P., Schall, C., Carr, S., Targett, P., West, M., & Cifu, G. (2014). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with autism spectrum disorder: What we know and what we need to know. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 25(1), 30–40. Wehmeyer, M. L., Lawrence, M., Kelchner, K., Palmer, S. B., Garner, N. W., & Soukup, J. (2004). Whose future is it anyway?: A student-­directed transition planning process. Lawrence, KS: Beach Center on Disabilities.

APPENDIX 3.1. Transition Assessment Consolidation Template

Transition Assessment Summary Sheet

Grade

Assessment Title or type

Area Assessed Academic, SelfDetermination, Career, Date Independent Living Administered

Brief Summary of Results

Results Discussed with Student? Y/N

From Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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APPENDIX 3.2. Indicator 13 Expanded Checklist Percent of youth with IEPs ages 16 and above with an IEP that includes appropriate measurable postsecondary goals that are annually updated and based upon an age appropriate transition assessment, transition services, including courses of study, that will reasonably enable the student to meet those postsecondary goals, and annual IEP goals related to the student’s transition service needs. There also must be evidence that the student was invited to the IEP Team meeting where transition services are to be discussed and evidence that, if appropriate, a representative of any participating agency was invited to the IEP Team meeting with the prior consent of the parent or student who has reached the age of majority. (20 U.S.C. 1416(a)(3)(B)) Questions

Training

Postsecondary Goals Education Employment

Independent Living skills

1. Is there an appropriate measurable postsecondary goal or goals in this Y N Y N Y N Y N NA area? Can the goal(s) be counted? Will the goal(s) occur after the student graduates from school? Based on the information available about this student, does (do) the postsecondary goal(s) seem appropriate for this student? • If yes to all three guiding questions above, then circle Y OR if a postsecondary goal(s) is (are) not stated, circle N 2. Is (are) the postsecondary goal(s) updated annually? Y N Y N Y N Y N NA Was (were) the postsecondary goal(s) addressed/updated in conjunction with the development of the current IEP? • If yes, then circle Y OR If the postsecondary goal(s) was (were) not updated with the current IEP, circle N 3. Is there evidence that the measurable postsecondary goal(s) were based Y N Y N Y N Y N on age appropriate transition assessment? Is the use of transition assessment(s) for the postsecondary goal(s) mentioned in the IEP or evident in the student’s file? • If yes, then circle Y OR if no, then circle N 4. Are there transition services in the IEP that will reasonably enable the Y N Y N Y N student to meet his or her postsecondary goal(s)?

Y

N

Is a type of instruction, related service, community experience, or development of employment and other postschool adult living objectives, and if appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills, and provision of a functional vocational evaluation listed in association with meeting the post secondary goal(s)? • If yes, then circle Y OR if no, then circle N 5. Do the transition services include courses of study that will reasonably Y N Y N Y N Y N enable the student to meet his or her postsecondary goal(s)? Do the transition services include courses of study that align with the student’s postsecondary goal(s)? • If yes, then circle Y OR if no, then circle N 6. Is (are) there annual IEP goal(s) related to the student’s transition Y N Y N Y service needs?

N

Y

N

Is (are) an annual goal(s) included in the IEP that is/are related to the student’s transition service needs? • If yes, then circle Y OR if no, then circle N 7. Is there evidence that the student was invited to the IEP Team meeting Y N Y N Y N where transition services were discussed?

Y

N

For the current year, is there documented evidence in the IEP or cumulative folder that the student was invited to attend the IEP Team meeting? • If yes, then circle Y OR if no, then circle N 8. If appropriate, is there evidence that a representative of any participating agency was invited to the IEP Team meeting with the prior consent of Y N NA Y N NA Y N NA Y N NA the parent or student who has reached the age of majority? For the current year, is there evidence in the IEP that representatives of any of the following agencies/services were invited to participate in the IEP development including but not limited to: postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living or community participation for this postsecondary goal? Was consent obtained from the parent (or student, for a student the age of majority)? • If yes to both, then circle Y • If no invitation is evident and a participating agency is likely to be responsible for providing or paying for transition services and there was consent to invite them to the IEP meeting, then circle N • If it is too early to determine if the student will need outside agency involvement, or no agency is likely to provide or pay for transition services, circle NA • If parent or individual student consent (when appropriate) was not provided, circle NA Does the IEP meet the requirements of Indicator 13? (Circle one) Yes (all Ys or NAs for each item [1-8] on the checklist included in the IEP are circled) or No (one or more Ns circled)

From National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center (2009) Indicator 13 Training Materials, Charlotte, NC, NSTTAC. Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

55

56

Features for a Rating of 3

Features for a Rating of 1

(continued)

Features for a Rating of 0 Score/Notes

• One or more • The IEP includes a • IEP includes a meapostsecondary postsecondary goal sureable postsecondgoal areas are not for employment, ary goal for employincluded postsecondary educament tion /training and • IEP includes a meaindependent living, if sureable postsecondapplicable, but is not ary goal for education worded in terms that and/or training are measurable as an • If necessary, the IEP outcome includes a measureor able postsecondary goal for independent • It appears that similar postsecondary goals living are written for each • Relationship of student of the same postsecondary goals case manager to assessment data is or unclear because data • It appears that the are not available or student’s postsecondreported ary goals have not changed over multiple IEP cycles, if multiple years available for review

Features for a Rating of 2

Copyright © 2013 Rhode Island Department of Education. Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

Measureable • IEP includes a measurepostsecondary goals able postsecondary goal for employment • IEP includes a measureable postsecondary goal for education and/or training • If necessary, the IEP includes a measureable postsecondary goal for independent living • The Present Level of Performance or other assessment data reported in the IEP, or available to the reviewer provides a basis for the postsecondary goals

Domain

APPENDIX 3.3. Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality

57

Features for a Rating of 3

Features for a Rating of 2

Features for a Rating of 1

(h) Grades/ progress most recent grading period

Transition assessment

(continued)

Features for a Rating of 0 Score/Notes

• There is an indication • No reference to • Data were collected from • Data were collected transition assessin the IEP that one from at least 1 source at least 2 sources ments being transition assessment • Results are provided • Results are provided (in completed and the was conducted; how(in the IEP or through the IEP or through availPossible sources case manager is ever timeframe and able documentation) that available documentainclude: (a) Published not familiar with source of information tion) that indicate indicate that assessment assessment of data for transition is not documented that assessment data data have been gathered career interests planning being or have been gathered regarding (a) academic, (b) Published gathered • The assessment on at least 2 of the (b) career/ vocational, assessment of independent living/ following skill areas (a) conducted does not (c) independent living, daily living skills appear to be appropriacademic, (b) career/ and self-determination (c) Published ate for the age of the vocational, (c) indeskills in relation to postassessment of selfstudent pendent living, and school environments. It is determination skills (d) Published self-determination preferable if the results assessment of skills in relation to are available within the academic skills postschool environIEP (e.g., present level (e) Informal interview ments. of performance, vision or questionnaire (student, family, • Data demonstrate a statement, assessment others) connection to postsecsection) (f) Checklist ondary goals • Data demonstrate a clear completed by connection to (a) postsecemployer, job coach, or other ondary goals (b) present regarding job level of performance, skills (specific or (c) transition services, softskills) (d) course of study, (e) (g) Anecdotal notes annual goals, and (f) from teacher, therapist, job agencies invited to the coach, other meeting

Domain

Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality  (page 2 of 4)

58

Features for a Rating of 3

Features for a Rating of 2

Features for a Rating of 1

Annual Goals

Courses of Study

• All annual goals are supported by assessment information and are related to the student’s postschool goals.

• At least one annual goal supports and relates to the student’s postschool goals.

• There is at least one annual goal but does not relate to the student’s postschool goals.

• A Program of Study • There is a course or pro- • There is a course or is included in the IEP, program of study indigram of study indicated but is not expected to cated in the IEP that is in the IEP that is clearly prepare the student expected to prepare aligned with the stufor their identified the student for their dent’s postschool goals, postsecondary goals. identified postsecondincluding elective courses ary goals. that relate to the student’s employment and education postsecondary goals.

• There are no annual goals in the IEP.

• The IEP has no course of study listed.

(continued)

Features for a Rating of 0 Score/Notes

• The transition services • There is one transition • IEP has no transi• The transition services service listed but is not tion services listed described in the IEP described in the IEP Possible services appropriate or related appear to be a coordiappear to be a coordimay include: to assisting the stunated set of activities nated set of activities referrals to outside dent in reaching their that reasonably assist that reasonably assist the agencies for postschool goals. the student in reachstudent in reaching their evaluation, short term ing their postschool postschool goals. career exploration goals. and activities, short term self-advocacy or and • There are more than one self-management statements of transition • There is at least one instruction, service included in the IEP statement of transiparticipating in events tion service included for each postschool goal. for information in the IEP for each gathering, interviews, applications postschool goal.

Transition Services

Domain

Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality  (page 3 of 4)

59

Summative Notes:

• No evidence of a written invitation or • No documentation of preferences and interests

0 (Not Observed): Domain and its features were not observed

1 (Low): Most features were either not implemented OR method was highly inconsistent

2 (Mid): Features for a rating of 2 implemented with fidelity

3 (High): All features for a rating of 3 implemented with fidelity

Scoring Key: Quality for Transition Planning Process

• Evidence of Student • Evidence of Student writ- • Evidence of Student invitation provided written invitation ten invitation orally immediately and and • Student did not partic- prior to the IEP meet• Student participated in ing or only evidenced ipate in the IEP meetthe IEP meeting in student signaing but documented and ture on the IEP (not student preferences, • Student preferences and advance notice) and interests were interests are evident in obtained IEP

Total Score:          

Student Invitation

vocational rehabilitation, adult/ youth mental health or developmental disability service providers, disability service office representatives from postsecondary education

Possible agencies include:

• A representative • A representative of a • A request was not • A representative of a of a participating made to the student/ participating agency participating agency was agency was invited family to invite a was invited to the IEP invited to the IEP with to the IEP without representative of a with the parent or the parent or student’s parent or student’s participating agency, student’s consent as consent as evidenced by consent as eviyet parent concern, evidenced by meeting meeting notice (or similar denced by meeting notice (or similar docu- postsecondary goals document) notice (or similar listed, or transition ment) and document) assessment data indior • Evidence of their role or cated a likely need for services appeared in the • A representative of an including a represenappropriate agency IEP tative of an outside was not required, or or agency parent/student did • A representative of an not give requested appropriate agency was consent to invite not required

Features for a Rating of 0 Score/Notes

Outside Agencies

Features for a Rating of 1

Features for a Rating of 3

Domain

Features for a Rating of 2

Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality  (page 4 of 4)

APPENDIX 3.4. Community Resource Mapping

CSESA Community Resource Mapping Form Dates of Assessment                Compiled by  City/County/Community  The headings in Community Assessment are aligned with postsecondary outcomes specified in the definition of transition services from IDEA 2004. In addition, transportation is included to encourage optimal independence for students with disabilities. School Identification Information: School Name:  School Telephone(s):                School E-mail:  School Address:  1.  Community Resources (List organizations, services/activities, website/telephone) 1A. Recreational Resources Parks and Recreation Services: YMCA, Gym Facilities: Community Theaters/Arts and Library Facilities: Museums, Local Attractions: Movie Theaters: Other:

1B. Religious Resources (List organizations and services and website or telephone):

(continued)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

60

CSESA Community Resource Mapping Form  (page 2 of 4) 1C. Consumer Resources (List organizations/businesses and services and website or telephone): Medical Services: Health Services: Social Services: Grocery Stores, Banks: Other:

2.  Services for Individuals with Disabilities (List state and/or local name, services, website/telephone, address) 2A. Vocational Rehabilitation 2B. Developmental Disabilities Resources 2C. Mental Health Services 2D. Social Security Benefits Office 2E. Local Adult Service Providers (Not-for-Profit Agencies) 2F. Legal Services 2G. Other

3.  Employment Resources (List organization/business, type of services, contact information, website/telephone) 3A. Sources for Job Openings One-Stop Career Center: Local Newspapers:

(continued)

61

CSESA Community Resource Mapping Form  (page 3 of 4) Websites for Community or State Listings: Employment offices: Vocational Rehabilitation: Secondary Work–Study Teachers:

3B. Examples of Businesses within a 5-mile radius of the school 3C. Community Adult Service Providers Which of the adult service providers fund individual job coaching? Which of the adult service providers fund supported employment? Which of the adult service providers fund day habilitation programs?

4.  Postsecondary Education, Vocational Education, Adult and Continuing Education Type

Programs/Activities

Website or Telephone

4a. Programs or Services for Students Ages 18–21 Funded by Local School Systems 4b. Community College 4c. Colleges or Universities 4d. Continuing Education (Local School System) 4e. Continuing Education (Community College) 4f. Public Career–Technical Schools 4g. Private Career–Technical Schools 4h. Apprenticeship Programs (continued)

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CSESA Community Resource Mapping Form  (page 4 of 4) 5.  Independent Living (List name or organization that provides residential services and website/telephone) 5A. Agencies Social Services: Department of Housing: Developmental Disabilities: State Medicaid Waivers:

5B. Which of the adult service providers (identified in 2E) provide residential options or services to support individuals with disabilities to live independently?

6.  Transportation Information What type of transportation is available to employment and community resources? Start your search on the Internet. Using Google, type city, county, or state and special transportation (also try paratransit or specialized transportation for people with disabilities). Useful Websites: 6A. Public Transportation (attach appropriate information) (If public transportation is available, please attach appropriate schedule) Bus

Website or Telephone Number

Subway Light Rail Special Public Bus Special Public Van Paratransit Options (State/county government) How does the student access special services and/or fares? 6B.  Other Transportation Services (e.g., Carpools, Uber, Lyft)

63

Special Fare? Vouchers?

APPENDIX 3.5. School resource mapping

School Resource Mapping Form Directions: In and around each hexagon, write the corresponding information to help your school community identify important information about each topic. These forms should provide additional information to identify resources to be used to assist in the transition planning process. School's mission, vision, goal:

School's telephone number:

School secretary's name:

School's name and address:

Main Office

School's website:

Principal's name:

Ask an administrator, teacher, or student volunteer to write any additional information necessary to know about the school’s main office (e.g., school hours, fax number, uniform policy procedures, teacher mailbox location), in order to understand more about specific school regulations and policies. (continued)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

64

School Resource Mapping Form  (page 2 of 3) What supplemental aids are provided?

What are supplemental services?

Case Manager

What are supplemental supports?

Counselor Name/Room #:

What clubs are available to join?

What sports are available to join?

Extracurricular

What other honor societies are offered?

What other extracurriculars are available? (continued)

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School Resource Mapping Form  (page 3 of 3) Class Activities

Class advisors’ names:

• The dates of senior prom, junior prom, and so forth, are: • Homecoming will be during this week: • The date of graduation is: • Information about class trips: Community Service • School’s next clothing drive is going to be on: • School’s next food drive is going to be on: • Additional community service projects:  Postschool • What are options for diplomas offered at school?

• Date/time of college fairs:

Health Suite

School Nurse’s Name and Phone Number:

• Where are the school’s alcohol and drug prevention services?

• What are the other health services offered in school?

Technology

What is the name of the school’s technology aide?

• Where do I go for assistive technology?

• Where do I go to for access to the Internet or computers to type my work?

Hallways

What is the name of the school’s hall monitor?

• Where is the most helpful information about the school/class?

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APPENDIX 3.6.  Sample Self-Advocacy Strategy Lesson Lesson: Self-Advocacy Strategy—Stage 3B: Model and Prepare for Transition Planning Conferences (Lesson 1) Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • Give an Advance Organizer • Review previous lesson: | “Last time we met, we discussed the ‘I PLAN’ Steps and the ‘SHARE’ Behaviors.” • State the purpose of the lesson: | “Today we’re going to get ready to take part in a conference by using the first step of the Self-Advocacy Strategy.” • Review the definition of “inventory”: | “Do you remember what ‘make an inventory’ means?” | “To make an inventory of yourself, you make a list of the skills you have and the skills you want to learn. What should we inventory when we are preparing for a Transition Planning Conference?” „ Possible answers: strengths, goals, and areas to improve or learn | “We inventory strengths, goals, and areas to improve or learn. In addition, we inventory special accommodations and resources that can help us.” • Review the purpose of the Transition Planning Conference

Vocabulary: • Age of Majority • Age of Majority Responsibilities • Legal Emancipation

Differentiation: Vocabulary written on board, write definition Lesson: • Introduce the Inventory | Distribute a copy of the Inventory to each student | Describe the five areas of the Inventory „ “The Inventory is planned around five areas: strengths, goals, further education or training, accommodations, and potential resources. When you have filled in your information in these areas, you will have a game plan for you conference.” Differentiation: Sections of the Inventory bolded and underlined Guided Practice: • Introduce the Strengths Section • Direct completion of the Strengths Section • Model identifying and listing independent living skills strengths | “Let’s work on filling out the first section of the Inventory related to independent living. To help us do this, let’s look at the Independent Living Skills List.” | Have the student list his or her independent living skills (continued)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission.

67

Sample Self-Advocacy Strategy Lesson  (page 2 of 2) • Model identifying and listing career and employment skills strengths | Have student identify his or her career and employment skills strengths • Introduce the Goals Section | Model completing the Goals Column; have student complete the Goals column on his or her Inventory | Model completing the Skills Needed for Success column; have student complete the Skills Needed for Success column | Model completing the Skills to Improve or Learn column | Direct completion of the Further Education or Training section | Direct completion of the Accommodations section | Direct completion of the Potential Resources section | Direct completion of the Age-of-Majority Rights section „ Define “age of majority” „ Define and list age-of-majority rights „ Define and list “age-of-majority responsibilities” „ Define “legal emancipation” Differentiation: Check list of sections to complete; underline and define key words Independent Practice: • Review the mnemonic device Differentiation: Student writes down mnemonic device in notebook, foldable, or note cards Assessment: • “At what age do you attain your age-of-majority rights in our state? What are some examples of age-of-majority rights? What are some examples of age-of-majority responsibilities? What is meant by legal emancipation? What are the differences in the age-of-majority rights between a person who is 18 years old and someone who is 21?” Differentiation: Definition; graphics Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: • Prompt student to set goals related to age-of-majority rights and responsibilities • Give the postorganizer *Transition Inventory can be placed into student’s portfolio (online and/or print) Differentiation: Checklist Homework:

Self-Evaluation

68

Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/Whiteboard • Desktop/Laptop Computer • Cue Card #15, 16, 17 (pp. 149–151) • Transition Inventory (pp. 170–173) • Transition Skills Lists (pp. 174–181) • Leisure and Recreation Activities List (p. 182) • Accommodations List (p. 183) • Potential Resources List (p. 184) • Transition Conference Model Cards (pp. 185–186) • Completed Transition Inventory • Management Chart

APPENDIX 3.7.  Sample Self-Directed IEP Lesson Lesson: Self-Directed IEP—Step 5: State Your School and Transition Goals Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • Review these vocabulary definitions: | Feedback: information you receive about your actions | Standard: how good your actions need to be to meet your goal • Ask student to demonstrate beginning the meeting by stating the purpose • Answer: review goals, state progress toward goals, set new goals • Ask student to demonstrate introducing the people he or she may invite to his or her staffing • Ask student to state current goals, the actions he or she takes toward goals, and how to receive feedback

Vocabulary: • Interests • Skills • Limits

Differentiation: Provide a choice list Lesson: • Write Step 5: State your school and transition goals • Present the following: | At the end of the lesson, you will be able to give examples of activities in different transition areas for which you will have goals | You will be able to identify the information you will need to write goals | We will begin to think about your new goals today, but you may need more information about yourself and the community to be able to write appropriate goals for yourself | The people at the staffing may need to help write some of the goals Differentiation: Graphic visual Guided Practice: • Write words and definitions | Ask students to write the definitions in their Workbooks on the “Vocabulary” page „ Interests: what you like „ Skills: what you can do „ Limits: what you have trouble doing • Discuss transition areas • Explain that in this part of the staffing, a student’s new goals for next year will be discussed • Explain that when thinking about school and transition goals, there are four transition areas you need to consider. These areas represent important parts of your life

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Sample Self-Directed IEP Lesson  (page 2 of 3) • Ask student to read each of the areas on the “Step 5” page in the workbook | Education: high school classes, sports, clubs, universities, trade schools, and community colleges | Employment: jobs and careers | Personal: hobbies, talents, recreation, relationships, and health and wellness | Housing, daily living, and community participation: home setting, daily living skills, transportation, and adult service organizations • Ask students to look at Zeke’s goals on the “Step 3” page of the Workbook | What transition area is the first goal about? „ Education | What transition area is the second goal about? „ Employment | What transition area is the third goal about? „ Personal • Explain that to choose appropriate goals for yourself you need to consider your interests, skills, and limits in each transition area • Explain to students that their interests, skills, and limits will be discussed at their IEP staffings | If you don’t know your interests, skills, and limits your goal may be to find out what they are | You will probably do this in class through community experiences • Review the definition of “interests” • Read and discuss Zeke’s employment interests | Hospital work • Review the definitions of “skills” and “limits” • Discuss how Zeke doesn’t know his employment skills and limits | That’s why one of his new goals is to do job shadowing and job try-outs at the hospital • Read and discuss Zeke’s education interests | Raise grades in all classes to a B • Discuss Zeke’s school skills and limits | Skills: good singer, earning better grades in most classes • Limits: not turning in assignments on time; that’s why one of his new goals is to improve grades by getting his assignments in on time • Stress that Zeke may not know what his interests, skills, and limits are in a particular transition area • Stress also that he learned his interests, skills, and limits through school and community experience Differentiation: Student writes down vocabulary in notebook or on note cards; read aloud with student

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Sample Self-Directed IEP Lesson  (page 3 of 3) Independent Practice: • Ask student to write their interests in their Workbooks on the “Step 5 continued” page: | Think about your education interests | What would you like to do that has to do with education? • Ask students to write their skills on the same page: | Think about your education skills | What do you do well at school? • Ask students to write their limits on the same page: | Think about your education limits | What do you have trouble with at school? Differentiation: Choice list Assessment: • The student role-plays introducing the people he or she decided to invite to his or her staffing Differentiation: Model an invitation with the student; follow and break down script in Workbook Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: • Review the importance of asking questions • Ask the student to describe other situations in which he or she might use this strategy (i.e., in class, with their parents) Differentiation: Homework:

Self-Evaluation:

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Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/ Whiteboard • Desktop/laptop computer • Student Workbook • Self-Directed IEP video

APPENDIX 3.8.  Sample “Whose Future?” (WF) Lesson Plan Lesson: Whose Future?—Chapter 3: Preferences and Interests Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • Read Chapter 3 Introduction (Student Reader: p. 19)

Vocabulary: • Preferences • Interests Differentiation: Underline key vocabulary and related words; break up paragraphs and • Apartment sentences into turns • Abilities Lesson: • Read Chapter 3 with student (Student Reader: pp. 19–29) Differentiation: Reading aloud software from WF materials Guided Practice: • Review Chapter 3 Vocabulary (Workbook: p. 20) • Answer Multiple-Choice Questions on Vocabulary (Workbook: p. 21) Differentiation: Underline; student writes down vocabulary in notebook and note cards Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/ Whiteboard • Desktop/laptop computer

Independent Practice: • Activity 5: All About You! (Workbook: p. 22) • Activity 6: After You Graduate (Workbook: p. 23) Differentiation: Choice list Assessment: • Activity 7: Abilities and Interests (Workbook: p. 24) Differentiation: Choice list; underline and define key words • Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: • Read Chapter 3 Review with student (Workbook: pp. 25–26) * Student can file Activity 6 and Activity 7 in his or her portfolio (online or print) Differentiation: Underline and break down key words Homework:

Self-Evaluation

(continued)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission.

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Sample “Whose Future?” (WF) Lesson Plan  (page 2 of 2) Lesson: Whose Future?—Chapter 4: Getting to Know You Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • Read Chapter 4 Introduction (Student Reader: p. 31)

Vocabulary: • Unique • Disability Differentiation: Underline key vocabulary and related words, break up paragraphs and • Future sentences into turns • Services Lesson: • Read Chapter 4 with student (Student Reader: pp. 31–45) Differentiation: Reading aloud software from WF materials Guided Practice: • Review Chapter 4 Vocabulary (Workbook: p. 28) • Answer Multiple-Choice Questions on Vocabulary (Workbook: p. 29) Differentiation: Underline; student writes down vocabulary in notebook and note cards Independent Practice: • Activity 8: Stereotypes (Workbook: p. 30) Differentiation: Choice list; graphics of example stereotypes Assessment: • Activity 9: Disability and What It Means to You (Workbook: p. 31) Differentiation: Use paragraphs from the reading to supplement Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: • Read Chapter 4 Review with student (Workbook: pp. 33–34) Differentiation: Underline and break down key words Homework:

Self-Evaluation:

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Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/ Whiteboard • Desktop/laptop computer

APPENDIX 3.9.  Sample Lesson Plans for Work Sampling Lesson: Work Sampling—Career Readiness: Career Assessment Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • Student will learn about the resources a potential career has through the use of a career assessment Differentiation:

Vocabulary: • Human Resources • Services • Assessment

Lesson: • Student will complete a career assessment and examine his or her results to begin to understand some of the roles and responsibilities on the job Differentiation: Student writes down definition in notebook or on notecards; underline Guided Practice: • Read directions with student • Model answering the first question with the student Differentiation: Student writes in notebook or on notecards; Mnemonic device Independent Practice: • Student completes the career assessment Differentiation: Assessment: • Student examines his or her results of the career assessment Differentiation: Provide multiple-choice answers Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: *Student can place into his or her portfolio (online or print) Differentiation: Checklist Homework:

Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/ Whiteboard • Desktop/laptop computer • Resource: http:// mappingyour future.org/plan yourcareer/ careership

Self-Evaluation

Lesson: Work Sampling—College Readiness: Review a Course Syllabus Common Core Standards: Warm-Up: • To learn about what college coursework may look like, we are going to review a college class syllabus. The syllabus will have a lot of information about deadlines and what the class will go over.

Vocabulary:

Differentiation: Vocabulary written on board, write definition (continued)

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Sample Lesson Plans for Work Sampling  (page 2 of 2) Differentiation: Vocabulary written on board, write definition Lesson: • Student will read and analyze a college course syllabus Differentiation: Student can use the sample syllabus provided or one from a college and major of his or her interest Guided Practice: • Read syllabus with student Differentiation: Check list of sections to complete; underline and define key words Independent Practice: • Student will read the deadlines and assignment dates Differentiation: Assessment: • Student will answer questions on a worksheet about the syllabus

Teacher Materials/ Technology: • Smart board/ Whiteboard • Desktop/laptop computer

Differentiation: Definition; graphics Summary/Closure/Ticket Out the Door: *Student can place into his or her portfolio (online or print) Differentiation: Checklist Homework:

Self-Evaluation

Review a College Course Syllabus Template 1.  List the assignments and deadlines of this course. 2.  Write one of the assignments you are most interested in. 3.  If you were a student in this class, what are some steps you would do to complete this assignment?

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CHAPTER 4

Academics/Literacy Christopher Brum Laura J. Hall Colleen K. Reutebuch

Shiloh is a high school special education teacher working with students with extensive support needs. She continues to struggle with accurately measuring her students’ reading comprehension abilities as they often lose attention and interest in reading. Her students are still working to decode text. Zach is a sophomore diagnosed with autism. He mainly avoids social interaction with his teachers and peers, aside from sporadic single-­word responses only provided to highly familiar individuals. Aside from limited communication interactions with Angela, the speech–­language pathologist, he mostly responds to others’ questions with brief yes–no responses. Zach often spends time near his classmate Paul, who also has autism. Paul is able to decode text but struggles with comprehension, especially when asked “wh-?” questions about what he just read. Reading comprehension is an essential skill for all individuals. It is important for academic success and can significantly improve one’s quality of life (Browder et al., 2009). However, students with autism may struggle to comprehend text, regardless of whether they have, or do not have, the skills to decode and/or read text (Williamson, Carnahan, & Jacobs, 2012). Limitations in comprehension can affect content-­area instruction that is text-based, a common modality in high school. The heterogeneous nature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the range of academic abilities individuals present make it difficult to find one reading comprehension intervention that can support such a broad range of learners (Fleury et al., 2014). The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) project addressed this challenge through the development of

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two academic interventions focused on improving reading comprehension. For students still learning to read, Diane Browder and colleagues expanded their literacy-­focused work to the high school level with the Alternate Achievement Literacy (AAL) intervention/practices created to provide access and comprehension support to a variety of age-­appropriate reading material (Browder, Thompson, & Fallin, 2013). Alternatively for students who were reading to learn, Collaborative Strategic Reading—­High School (CSR-HS) was developed by Sharon Vaughn and colleagues (2011) to support students’ comprehension throughout the reading process. Both AAL and CSR-HS were implemented in many CSESA schools to support improvement in reading comprehension for many students with ASD. Throughout the CSESA project, many discoveries were made about the nature of reading instruction at the secondary level. The first, and possibly the most significant, was the lack of reading instruction and support taking place in high schools. There was little to no direct instruction on strategies intended to support comprehension. This was most challenging, as many students in special education may be accessing text far below grade level. Second, it was noticed that the students who typically struggled most with reading comprehension also struggled with peer socialization, which is not uncommon for individuals with ASD. However, due to the social nature of reading and its carryover to all content areas, this further limited their opportunities for engagement and even at times limited inclusion. In some circumstances, student engagement was even further limited by lack of interest in the commonly used reading material. In the CSESA program, teachers decide which students would be best suited for the respective reading comprehension interventions. Teachers base their decisions on whether students are still learning to read or at the level of decoding text for learning, the students’ social skills, and the students’ English class placement (e.g., included in a general education English classroom, received instruction in a special education or resource setting, or received supplemental instruction with a teacher or peer). When first adopting the CSESA program, teachers met with a CSESA coach for in-depth training on the reading comprehension intervention they would be using with their students. The coaches and teachers worked together to customize the intervention to meet their students’ needs, to align with the content they were teaching, and to fit into their class format. This chapter provides an overview of both the AAL and CSR-HS interventions, and also practical information learned from implementation of both interventions as part of CSESA.

ALTERNATE ACHIEVEMENT LITERACY Teachers supported CSESA participants who were continuing to build their literacy competence at the time of the study by implementing AAL, a curriculum for

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students still learning to read. Similar curriculum materials with an accompanying Teacher’s Guide that describes the strategies used to foster increased literacy comprehension are now available as Early Literacy Skill Builder (ELSB) for Older Students through the Attainment Company (Browder, Gibbs, Alhgrim-­ Delzell, Courtade, & Lee, 2017). This multicomponent approach to literacy targets building foundational skills of conventions of print, vocabulary, phonological awareness, letter–­sound correspondence, and listening comprehension through interaction with books and text. There are two components of the curriculum: Building with Sounds and Symbols and Building with Read-­A louds (Browder et al., 2017). Browder and colleagues (2009) describe a framework for literacy instruction that incorporates a task analysis for teaching students the necessary skills to engage with a book. They identify the proposed outcomes of this literacy instruction as (1) enhanced quality of life though shared literature and (2) increased independence as a reader. Students also answer comprehension questions about the story (Browder et al., 2009). The use of this multicomponent literacy approach has resulted in increased literacy scores compared to a sight word condition when used with elementary students with severe developmental disabilities (Browder, Ahlgrim-­Delzell, Flowers, & Baker, 2012), increased listening comprehension and other early literacy skills for middle school students with significant disabilities including autism (Browder, Trela, & Jimenez, 2007), and has led to generalized engagement for children with autism when implemented first by researchers and then parents in the home setting (Golloher, 2018). The strategies used in this approach to literacy instruction are based on behavior analysis. Spooner and Browder (2015) identify the application of the principles of operant behavior in the form of systematic instruction as one of the most significant instructional advances for the education of students with severe disabilities. Educators use a task analysis or teaching script to engage students in adapted shared reading using grade-­appropriate literature that includes a blend of direct instruction strategies, system of least prompts, constant time delay, error correction, and reinforcement (Browder et al., 2012). Task analysis, direct instruction, prompting, time delay, and reinforcement have each been identified as evidence-­based practices for individuals with autism in an extensive review of the literature (see Table 4.1). When CSESA coaches introduced AAL to school implementers, they asked about their familiarity, use, and confidence with each of these evidence-­based strategies and, if needed, provided targeted professional development on select evidence-­based practices, including prompting, reinforcement, and time delay.

Preparation for Literacy Instruction Obtaining information about the student is key for determining the selection of materials and arranging for any adaptations to books or text. The adapted shared

Academics/Literacy 79



TABLE 4.1.  EBPs for Literacy Instruction (Steinbrenner et al., 2020) EBP

Description

Example

Task analysis

Dividing a behavior or skill into smaller, more manageable steps to assess and teach the skill

Breaking down the steps involved in writing a paragraph

Direct instruction

Systematic teaching that includes a predetermined structure, scripted lessons, and explicit error correction to support skills acquisition and generalization

Using a highly-structured teaching activity with a script and prompt hierarchy to teach a set of target skills

Prompting

Assistance provided to the learner (verbal, gestural, or physical) to support skills acquisition

Cueing a student by pointing to the correct answer

Time delay

Providing a brief, predetermined delay between instruction and the delivery of a prompt that is systematically faded over time

After asking a comprehension question, pausing for 5 seconds before providing a prompt

Antecedent-based interventions

Increasing the likelihood of an increase or decrease in a behavior/ reaction through careful arrangement of circumstances before a lesson

Selecting and preteaching vocabulary used in a reading passage before the student begins reading

Self-monitoring

Supporting learners to identify and monitor their own appropriate and inappropriate behaviors

Providing students with a checklist of tasks that must be completed for a particular activity

Visual supports

Visual demonstration of information and/or supports to engage a learner in a desired behavior or skill

Using a graphic organizer to help identify important information from a text

reading approach used in AAL is interactive and requires a student response to the educator’s questions. These responses can be nonverbal and can involve the use of an AAC device or pointing to a response from an array of choices. Visual symbols, pictures, or photographs can be used. It would be important to determine the size of the array of choices that can be used for the student in order to successfully select a response. It is also important to determine the level of abstraction that can be used for the literacy activities and to use the most abstract type as possible. For example, if the student can read a page of text when the number or length of the sentences is reduced and some of the more complex vocabulary is removed, then this is the most appropriate adaptation. If students can choose responses from an array of text, then text should be used rather than drawings, symbols, or photos. When

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adapting texts or books, the same approach of using the most abstract representation as possible is also recommended. If symbols are needed to replace some text, then this should be used as sparingly as possible. It is a good idea to determine the type of symbol that is most appropriate by using an assessment such as the one developed by Beukelman and Mirenda (2013). Selecting symbols that the student understands supports opportunities for responding to comprehension questions independently. Many of the students for whom AAL is appropriate could benefit from some preteaching about wh-­questions (Brum, Hall, Reutebuch, & Perkins, 2019). The curriculum materials used for AAL include the use of response boards that contain an array of choices (e.g., characters, events, locations, statements) that participants select to respond to the educator’s questions, and that provide evidence of comprehension. Confirming that participants have an understanding of wh- ­questions prior to starting AAL means that these concepts do not have to be taught during each lesson (see Table 4.2).

Selecting Text and Identifying Key Vocabulary Browder and colleagues (2009) recommend that the selection of literature for older students, whenever possible, should be taken from the reading list for the student’s assigned grade. Teaching from the same materials used by others in the high school ensures that the content is age and grade appropriate, and has the added benefit of providing a common context for peer interaction. Once selected, then the appropriate adaptations can be made. Students can read from shortened

TABLE 4.2.  “Wh-” Questions for Measuring Comprehension Question

Answer indication

Example question

Example answer

Who?

Person or animal

Who went to the store?

Ana went to the store.

What?

Thing

What is in your pail?

I have shells inside my pail.

Where?

Place

Where are we going?

We are going to the beach to watch the sunset.

When?

Time

When does William leave?

He leaves at 10:30 a.m.

Why?

Reason

Why are you sneezing?

Because I have a cold.

How?

Process

How do I make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich?

First, you get two slices of bread. Next, you spread peanut butter on one slice. Then, you spread jelly on the second slice. Finally, you put the slices together.

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text, read text with inserted symbols or pictures to replace new vocabulary words, or listen to the text being read by the educator or author. An example of an adapted text used by instructors is found in Figure 4.1. Sample adapted stories are included as part of the ELSB curriculum focused on the main character, a girl named Sam (Browder et al., 2017). For CSESA, adapted versions for the book SLAM! (Myers, 1996) were provided to educators using AAL. Identifying and preteaching key vocabulary is another aspect of the AAL approach. The vocabulary selected can be individualized for the students. Selected vocabulary for students with autism may include pronouns, expression of emotions, or idioms, as well as key content of the story (Brum et al., 2019). Identifying and selecting key vocabulary words as part of a sentence is taught with the use of prompting with time delay (see Table 4.1). For example, if one of the words selected is basketball, the teacher would provide the prompt, “Point to basketball”

FIGURE 4.1. Example of the adapted Slam! (Myers, 1996) text that included pictures above

the pronouns and symbols above key words to support student understanding. PCS and Boardmaker are trademarks of Tobii Dynavox LLC. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

and immediately point to the correct word, or use zero-­second time delay. Following the next opportunity to point to basketball, the teacher would use a consistent delay, or 4 or 5 seconds before pointing to the correct response to give the student the time to respond correctly, and the time is gradually increased until the student is consistently selecting the correct word independently. If successful, positive feedback is provided: “Yes, that is basketball!” If no response occurs or an error is made, then the teacher returns to the previous level of time delay and provides the prompt. New words are introduced for the story and are maintained for one to two successive lessons and then dropped for a few lessons; then some are added back for at least one additional lesson to support maintenance (Browder et al., 2017).

Comprehension Questions While the text is read, comprehension questions are integrated throughout. Figure 4.1 illustrates how comprehension questions can be seamlessly integrated into an adapted text. Least-to-most prompting is used to support passage comprehension, as it helps students to locate the correct answer within the text (Browder, Thompson, & Fallin, 2013). The instructor moves through the prompt levels if the student continues to struggle with identifying the correct response. Once the student answers correctly, the instructor continues reading the text. After the first comprehension question is answered incorrectly, the instructor implements the prompt hierarchy. For the first prompt, the instructor rereads a small segment of text (one to two lines) using left-to-right and top-to-­bottom movement. The student is then asked to respond to the comprehension question again by providing information (fill in a missing word, or answer a question about the text) from the sentences just read. Students may have a choice of options placed on a response board, such as the correct answer, with one or two distractors using picture cues (see Figure 4.2 for a sample response board). At the second prompt, the instructor rereads the sentence of the text with the correct answer and asks the comprehension question again. With another incorrect response, the instructor would then provide a third prompt and read a small phrase containing the answer and ask the question again. If the student still answers incorrectly, the final prompt is pointing to the correct word in the text. The student would then be expected to either say the word (verbally or using an AAC device) or point to it in the text or on a response board. This process teaches students that the answers to the questions are found by reading the text in the book and how to look for the answer by rereading content.

Alternate Means for Reading and Responding Providing access to the text moves beyond it being read aloud by the instructor or by the student. Technology can be used to prerecord the text, present the text to

Academics/Literacy

83

FIGURE 4.2. Example of a nine-cell response board that is aligned with the text and orga-

nized to provide responses for questions asking “where?” in Chapters 5–8. PCS and Boardmaker are trademarks of Tobii Dynavox LLC. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

students via a narrated slide deck, or as a means for the student to access a digital text. Importantly, supplemental access to the content can be provided by showing students video clips from a movie or by having students act out scenes from the book. Whichever way students access the content, it is important to ensure that the information is meaningful and engaging to them. Students can also use a variety of means to respond to the comprehension questions asked during AAL. The instructor is encouraged to implement and use any existing augmentative alternative communication (AAC) system the student is currently using. In addition to their own AAC systems, students participating in the AAL intervention as a part of CSESA are taught to use picture response

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

boards to answer in-text comprehension questions. Customization of these boards is based on the individual student by overall size, number of cells, and communication form (pictures, line drawings, text). Students are able to point to items on a board or hand a card to the teacher to indicate a response.

Implementing AAL in CSESA Schools Teachers choose to embed AAL in the student’s schedules in a variety of ways. In our CSESA work, adapted text has been used for students participating in an English class with peers. Others students who have participated in literacy centers as part of their daily routine were exposed to AAL in those centers, and some teachers adapted text for each student for a whole-class activity in which some students used response boards and others did not, some adapted text incorporating pictures or symbols, others read text alone, and still others used earpieces or headphones to listen to the text being read. In one school that had MacBeth as the required reading for the grade, the teacher adapted scripts from the play for the students to act out in class. Incorporating drama activities in the class was highly engaging for the students, and they were able to respond to comprehension questions about sophisticated concepts addressed in the play (e.g., acting out key events from a text). A special educator in one school found the AAL approach so valuable that she took the time over the summer to adapt two books for her students—­one book about a young adult with autism, and the other a classic text. Although this was a time-­consuming task, her efforts resulted in the development of literacy-­focused curriculum materials that she could use for many years in the future.

AAL VIGNETTE Shiloh decides to include the AAL intervention as an activity in her daily literacy rotation. Each week, her group will focus on one chapter from the book SLAM! She is seated across from her three students and relies on two paraprofessionals to support the students with organizing their materials, responding to questions, and staying on task. Each student has a copy of the abridged text in front of them with line drawings to support key concepts. Each student has a different means of responding to her questions: Eric uses his voice, Adam points to an item on his response board, and Justin uses his tablet as a voice output device. The lesson begins by reviewing the key vocabulary. Utilizing time delay and errorless learning, Shiloh presents Eric with three flash cards and states, “Sports.” She will wait up to 5 seconds before providing him with the correct answer. He immediately points to the correct card. She then moves to Adam



Academics/Literacy 85 and asks him to identify “basketball.” After a 2-second pause he points to an incorrect cell on his response board. Shiloh immediately decreases the time delay back to a 0-second delay, repeats “basketball” and points to the item on Adam’s response board. Shiloh then turns to Justin and shows him a picture card of a school; he immediately uses his tablet to say “School.” Shiloh collects data on each student’s understanding of the key vocabulary. Once all the key vocabulary has been reviewed, they move on to reading the text. Shiloh has learned that her students can become overwhelmed and unable to find answers to comprehension questions when they are all grouped at the end of the activity. As she reads the text, she integrates the comprehension questions throughout. Still using errorless learning, she also follows a prompting hierarchy to support her students in being as independent as possible in answering the questions correctly. The hierarchy decreases the additional information surrounding the correct response to help the student locate the correct answer within the text. As Shiloh reads, she pauses to ask Adam a comprehension question: “Where did Mr. Tate meet with Moms?” Adam uses his device to respond with “park.” Shiloh then rereads three sentences, one that contains the correct answer, and then asks the question again. Because Adam does not provide the correct answer, she now rereads the sentence containing the answer, then asks the question again. Adam now responds with “office,” the correct answer, and they continue reading.

COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIC READING—HIGH SCHOOL CSR-HS combines components of strategy instruction with cooperative learning to improve reading comprehension throughout the reading process for individuals with ASD (Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk [MCPER], 2013). This intervention was adapted from traditional CSR (Klingner & Vaughn, 1996) and selected for inclusion in a part of the CSESA program because of its demonstrated success with youth and potential to positively impact academic outcomes. CSR-HS is appropriate for students with ASD who (1) read and write below grade level, (2) lack experience in working successfully in peers in classwide situations, (3) lack social and communication skills, and (4) become distractible or anxious in classwide settings. More than 30 years of research has yielded positive results across comprehension, content learning, and vocabulary acquisition. For example, a randomized controlled trial with 61 middle school classrooms found significant comprehension gains for intervention students with learning disabilities and reading difficulties (Vaughn et al., 2011). CSR is recognized as an evidence-­based practice (EBP) by the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Several components of CSR have proven effective with students with ASD (e.g., cooperative

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

learning: Dugan et al., 1995; reciprocal questioning: Whalon & Hanline, 2008; strategy instruction: Delano, 2007). CSR-HS is appropriate for use with students who have foundational reading skills in place and can read but struggle with reading to understand or reading to learn. It retains CSR’s package of components to help students become more strategic when engaging with text. However, for its use in CSESA, CSR strategies are more explicit and streamlined to better complement instructional activities already in place. In the CSESA program, EBPs specific to ASD (e.g., priming or antecedent-­based interventions, prompting, self-­monitoring, visual supports) were added along with additional supports (see Table 4.1). These supports included preteaching related to the topic, concept, and vocabulary; specific monitoring and question prompts; and a graphic organizer to aid in summary development. As an added benefit for students with ASD who often have limited and awkward interactions with others, CSR–HS builds-­in opportunities for social interaction with peers and adults. The CSR-HS intervention is meant to improve reading comprehension throughout the reading process (i.e., before, during, and after reading). Facilitated by a guide (i.e., knowledgeable teacher or interventionist), students with ASD work with an assigned peer tutor during 30-minute sessions scheduled at least three times per week. Partners work through a preselected reading passage at the targeted student’s instructional reading level to learn and practice strategies and peer supports to improve comprehension. Developers recommend implementing CSR–HS for a minimum of 16 lessons. Brum and colleagues (2019) suggest that sessions that allow students to learn and practice the CSR–HS strategies might be incorporated into intervention, tutoring, or study skills periods and are intended to supplement classroom reading comprehension instruction. Because the goal is for students to generalize the strategies to all reading, after students are comfortable and proficient with the strategies, facilitators may eventually fade the use of partners and materials such as a learning log. The CSR-HS strategies are available in the Implementation Manual found on the CSESA website under Supporting Literacy and are described in the subsequent section.

CSR‑HS Intervention Description A facilitator is designated to lead each CSR-HS session. He or she may be the classroom teacher, a special education teacher, or other service provider. The facilitator begins every session by stating the topic of the daily lesson (“Today’s passage is on . . . ”), ensuring that partners are ready to work together using CSR-HS strategies and have (1) a preselected reading passage, (2) a learning log (see Figure 4.3) that includes a graphic organizer meant to help record key ideas and develop a summary, and (3) question stem prompts (e.g., “What are . . . ?”, “How did . . . ?”, “Why is . . . ?”).

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Learning Log

Date:

____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

Copyright © 2014 The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

FIGURE 4.3.  CSR-HS Learning Log used to support students before, during, and after reading.

Now I get it!

q Video clips

q Pictures

This does not make sense to me.

Fix Up Meanings

During Reading

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

I have visualized the: q Pictures q Demonstrations

__________________________

q Key words

I have looked at the: q Title

The key words are:

Before Reading

Title of Text: __________________________________________________________________________________________

Name:

88 ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

Response ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

Response ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

“How” Question

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

“What,” “Where,” or “Who” Question

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

FIGURE 4.3.  (continued)

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Response

T / F

T / F

T / F

Answer If false, rewrite to make the statement true.

“Why” Question

Generate Questions

After Reading

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Write the statement.

True or False?

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2

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

FIGURE 4.3. (continued)

Use the graphic organizer to construct a summary about the reading topic.

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

Summary

1

What are the three most important things about the who or what?

Who or what is the story mainly about?

Graphic Organizer

3

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Before Reading Prior to asking peers to begin, the facilitator (1) provides a brief statement about the purpose of the day’s reading and the tasks to be completed by the students; (2) prompts students to preview the text by scanning the title, headings, pictures, and charts or tables in the text; (3) introduces two to three key vocabulary terms with high utility that are neither too familiar nor too novel (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002) and provides information on the definition and meaning of the words prior to introducing reading materials; and (4) activates or builds background knowledge using a picture, demonstration, or short video clip on the reading topic.

During Reading Once students begin to read the assigned text, they are encouraged to engage with the text and each other. Instead of quickly reading a passage, students are urged to stop and discuss words and phrases that do not make sense and discuss how to “fix” meaning. While reading the text, partners might offer the following supports. • Clarify any misunderstood information. The partner with ASD might indicate on his or her learning log that the sentence, “John Muir was a famous naturalist,” doesn’t make sense. The peer partner upon review might say, “Well, this section tells about Muir studying plants and exploring the wilderness. Look at the last sentence is paragraph four. It states, ‘Muir vowed to do what he loved—being in nature.’ That tells me a naturalist is someone who studies and enjoys nature.” • Emphasize key words introduced at the start of the lesson. Peer partners can help each other by indicating when key words appear in text being read and can help remind each other of the meaning of the words. One partner could direct the other to pay attention to a key word in print. For instance, “Look at the word revolt in italics. Mr. Solis gave us the definition. I think that revolt means a protest against something or disobeying authority. Do you agree? Let’s each use revolt in a sentence about the American Revolution.” • Ask each other for definitions of words encountered, and use selected vocabulary words in a sentence. For example, with the word hardship (a condition of suffering or difficulty), students could be asked to discuss: “What hardships are people encountering because of the pandemic?” • True–false question probes for comprehension. At facilitator-­determined points in the text, the students are directed to stop, and partners prepare a true–false question to test one another on the content. This type of comprehension monitoring

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allows students to check for their understanding of the text they just read. The students are encouraged to identify key facts from the text to use for their questions. In a biography about Sandra Cisneros, a student might create a question about what Cisneros is best known for [e.g., Cisneros is best known as an English teacher (False: She is best known as an author who has published poems, short stories, and novels in Spanish and English)]. True–false statements can be created and posted on the board or added to the learning log. If the statement is false, students discuss why and correct it to make it a true statement.

After Reading Once partners have read through the text, students review important ideas using two strategies: first, generating questions and discussing them with a partner, and second, summarizing what they read using the graphic organizer section of the learning log. Readers use prompts, if needed, to check their own understanding, as well as that of their partner with who, what, where, when, and how questions specific to the assigned text. Each student directs a question to his or her partner, and the latter provides an answer after looking back in the text. Next, using the graphic organizer, the students identify the main idea of the text by responding to the question, “Who or what is the story about?” This is followed up with identification of three key facts from the text by answering a second question, “What are the three most important things about the who or what?” Both partners record the information and use it to generate a summary. The visual support provides a way to help the students organize information and also serves as an artifact representing students’ understanding (Reutebuch, El Zein, Kim, Weinberg, & Vaughn, 2015). After the summary is completed, the facilitator leads a wrap-up. This stresses what was accomplished during the session and aids students in making connections across the current and previous text selections, and the real world. During the wrap-up, the facilitator (1) restates the purpose of the day’s reading, (2)  reminds students what they accomplished, and (3) provides brief feedback about student performance and behavior (for an example of a completed Learning Log, see Figure 4.4).

CSR‑HS VIGNETTE Angela has decided both Zach and Paul could benefit from the reading comprehension focus and the social aspect of CSR-HS. She decides to have them work through the intervention with Rebecca, a general education peer tutor. During the initial sessions Angela is very involved guiding the students through the text and supporting them in completing the Learning Log. However, after

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venting Educational Risk. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 4.4.  Student example of pages 2 and 3 of a completed Learning Log used in CSR-HS. Copyright © 2014 The Meadows Center for Pre-

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FIGURE 4.4.  (continued)

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools a couple of weeks, the students start to gain more independence with the CSRHS intervention, and from afar Angela simply provides them with the materials and monitors as they move through a different text each session. When the sessions first started, it was mainly Rebecca and Paul talking about the text. Zach would participate by writing information in the Learning Log and would only respond to direct questions with his typical yes–no responses. However, slowly, and with the security of the familiar structure and routine sequence of accessing the text, Zach began to engage more and more with his peers. Zach began to ask questions such as “What about X?” or make statements such as “I like that part” and “Let’s read more.” Both Zach and Paul were also increasing their reading comprehension skills and accessing more advanced text than they did when the group started working together. In addition, Angela was in disbelief with Zach’s increase in expressive language. When asked, she attributed Zach’s improvements to the consistency of the intervention and the familiarity of the two peers.

TIPS AND CREATIVE ADAPTATIONS FROM CSESA The AAL and CSR-HS reading interventions were implemented in many schools as a part of the CSESA project. Within each classroom the interventions were implemented with fidelity according to their design and intent, but adaptations were made according to the needs and what worked for the individual teachers and students. This customization was felt to be essential for sustainability. Below are some implementation questions a teacher or service provider might ask themselves before introducing a reading comprehension intervention and also some “lessons learned” from the implementation of the academic domain of CSESA.

What Should Be Assessed Beforehand? When considering use of a reading comprehension intervention, the first intervention area to consider is whether the student is “learning to read” (i.e. working on decoding and other strategies to interpret text) or “reading to learn” (i.e., have the ability to decode text at a level of gaining meaning and understanding from the material). This will help to make the decision of whether AAL or CSR-HS is a better intervention for the individual. Additionally, we discovered that it is important to determine the individual’s understanding of wh- questions and true–false statements. Understanding what type of response is indicated by a particular question is a skill that strong readers use when answering questions. For example, we found that, in some cases, students had not received direct instruction on whquestions and therefore did not know that a “who” question indicated a response that was a person, or a “where” question indicated a place. Since both of the



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approaches selected to address reading comprehension relied on an understanding of wh- questions, it is important to preassess for understanding of this content.

How Will the Students Be Grouped and Supported Throughout the Lesson? As mentioned earlier, service providers in CSESA schools made adaptations to the interventions to better fit their context. This included how students were grouped for the interventions. The AAL intervention was implemented differently across schools: one-on-one with a student and teacher, as a center in a literacy rotation, and as a whole class with 1:1 paraprofessional support. Additionally, the CSR-HS intervention was implemented to the whole class by the teacher, with students with ASD all paired with general education peers, in a medium-­size transition class group of students with ASD with various levels of reading proficiency, and in a small group, with one peer tutor supporting two students with ASD. For both AAL and CSR-HS, support was provided by the special education teacher, general education teacher, paraprofessional, general education peer, or peer with ASD, all depending on the school context.

What Materials Will Be Used? AAL and CSR-HS are not material-­specific, which means any text can be used with these reading comprehension interventions. This allowed for the use of high-­interest materials that added further motivation for the student to engage with the materials. For example, one classroom implementing AAL utilized an abridged version of Marcello in the Real World (Stork, 2011), while another utilized the intervention with Achieve 3000. A transition class implementing CSR-HR used the California Driver Handbook (California Department of Motor Vehicles, 2020) to prepare for the driving license exam, while another class had students each select an article from the Smithsonian’s Tween Tribune (www.tweentribune.com) for content with easily adjustable Lexile levels to support students’ different decoding abilities. From CSESA implementation, we found that simultaneously using text that was being read by general education peers had many advantages. These included opportunities for students with ASD to engage in class discussions, make better connections to general education content, and have more opportunities for inclusion.

How Will the Student Access the Text? Utilizing a variety of materials from different sources allows students to access the information in different ways. For example, when students access their reading

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materials electronically, teachers can make adaptations and accommodations to support access to the material. This includes making changes to the print size, limiting unnecessary details, highlighting key words, and incorporating photos and videos to support comprehension. CliffsNotes (www.cliffsnotes.com) are a great resource for adapting or shortening longer texts. Additionally, for the novel Holes (Sacher, 1998), one CSESA teacher would show a movie clip after each chapter of the book was read as a way to reinforce the major events. The students were very engaged in the reading and with the supplemental video clips.

How Will the Student Respond? One teacher implementing CSR-HS found that students’ struggles with completing the Learning Log were impacting their engagement in the lesson. She decided that instead of handwriting, she would reduce the cognitive demand on the students by converting the Learning Log into a Google form. This not only allowed presentation of less information at once, but it also let students type in their responses instead of writing. Students could also easily share their work with the class by project responses onto the smartboard for all to see. Another teacher decided to engage students in the text through drama. After reading the text, students would act out scenes from the story. This allowed the students to actively engage in the reading and retelling of the text, while also providing opportunities for peer engagement.

Other Applications? Both AAL and CSR-HS can be used in content areas outside of language arts. One teacher used CSR-HS in a science classroom for all students, with and without ASD. The teacher felt the partnered approach would help the students to support one another as they moved through the textbook chapters and also help them to organize the information they would later apply in the lab setting. Additionally, the teacher retrieved the student-­developed “wh” questions from the completed Learning Logs and used them as items on the chapter quizzes.

CONCLUSION Reading comprehension is a critical, lifelong skill for all students. Before implementing any reading intervention, it is important to determine how the students are accessing the text and whether they are learning to read (decode text) or reading to learn. Instructors must use their knowledge of the students to identify a proper reading comprehension intervention that can best support their students



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and also easily fit into their existing schedules and instructional practices. It is important that instructors implement either intervention with not only fidelity but also the flexibility to meet student needs. Having students actively participate in the process as much as possible can be one way to increase meaningful participation and engagement. This includes bringing students into the selection of the text being read and at times identifying alternative means for students to interact with the material. Successful interventions also include ways to effectively measure student progress and celebrate their accomplishments. AAL and CSR-HS were critical components of CSESA and helped many students with ASD to increase their engagement and comprehension of text.

REFERENCES Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press Beukelman, D. R., & Mirenda, P. (2013). Augmentative and alternative communication: Supporting children and adults with complex communication needs (4th ed.). Baltimore: Brookes. Browder, D., Ahlgrim-­Delzell, L., Flowers, C., & Baker, J. (2012). An evaluation of a multicomponent early literacy program for students with severe developmental disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33(4), 237–246. Browder, D., Gibbs, S., Alhgrim-­Delzell, L., Courtade, G., & Lee, A. (2017). Early literacy skills builder for older students. Verona, WI: Attainment. Browder, D., Gibbs, S., Alhgrim-­Delzell, L., Courtade, G., Mraz, M., & Flowers, C. (2009). Literacy for students with severe developmental disabilities: What should we teach and what should we hope to achieve? Remedial and Special Education, 30, 269–282. Browder, D., Thompson, J. L., & Fallin, K. (2013). Alternate Achievement Literacy Manual. Unpublished document, Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism, Chapel Hill, NC. Browder, D. M., Trela, K., & Jimenez, B. (2007). Training teachers to follow a task analysis to engage middle school students with moderate and severe developmental disabilities in grade-­appropriate literature. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22, 206–219. Brum, C., Hall, L. J., Reutebuch, C. K., & Perkins, Y. (2019). Reading comprehension for high school students with autism spectrum disorder. Teaching Exceptional Children, 25(2), 88–97. California Department of Motor Vehicles. (2020). California driver handbook. Retrieved from www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/uploads/2020/06/dl600.pdf. Delano, M. E. (2007). Improving written language performance adolescents with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 345–351. Dugan, E., Kamps, D., Leonard, B., Watkins, N., Rheinberger, A., & Stackhaus, J. (1995). Effects of cooperative learning groups during social studies for students with autism and fourth-­g rade peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 175–188. Fleury, V. P., Hedges, S., Hume, K., Browder, D. M., Thompson, J. L., Fallin, K., . . . Vaughn, S. (2014). Addressing the academic needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in secondary education. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 68–79.

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Golloher, A. N. (2018). Adapted shared storybook reading: A study of its application for children with autism spectrum disorders in home settings. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 33, 35–46. Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities. Elementary School Journal, 96, 275–293. Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. (2013). Collaborative strategic reading—­ high school: Implementation manual. Austin, TX: Author. Myers, W. D. (1996). SLAM! New York: Scholastic Press. Reutebuch, C. K., El Zein, F., Kim, M. K., Weinberg, A. N., & Vaughn, S. (2015). Investigating a reading comprehension intervention for high school students with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 9, 96–111. Sacher, L. (1998). Holes. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Spooner, F., & Browder, D. M. (2015). Raising the bar: Significant advances and future needs for promoting learning for students with severe disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 36, 287–232. Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., . . . Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-­based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. Stork, F. X. (2011). Marcello in the real world. New York: Scholastic. Whalon, K., & Hanline, M. F. (2008). Effects of a reciprocal questioning intervention on the question generation and responding of children with autism spectrum disorder. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 367–387. Williamson, P., Carnahan, C. R., & Jacobs, J. A. (2012). Reading comprehension profiles of high-­f unctioning students on the autism spectrum: A grounded theory. Exceptional Children, 78, 449–469. Vaughn, S., Klingner, J. K., Swanson, E. A., Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Mohammed, S. S., & Stillman-­Spisak, S. J. (2011). Efficacy of collaborative strategic reading with middle school students. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 938–964.

CHAPTER 5

Peer and Social Domain Jessica R. Steinbrenner Laura J. Hall Erik W. Carter Janine Stichter

“The student with autism had previously been bullied and was sitting only with his sister during lunch. Now that she has graduated, he has a network to rally around him.” —Special education teacher talking about peer networks In high school, social interactions and peer relationships are multifaceted and complex, occurring within a changing and nuanced social environment, and with multiple and varied social partners. Socially navigating high school is difficult for all youth but it can be even more challenging for autistic youth, since social differences are one of the defining features of autism. It is important to point out that there is a growing neurodiversity movement with an increased emphasis on strengths-­based approaches and environmental adaptations (e.g., Baron-Cohen, 2017; Kapp, Gillespie-­Lynch, Sherman, & Hutman, 2013; see Preface of this volume for further discussion). In other words, attention should also be focused on changing the context (e.g., altering structure of activities) and preparing interaction partners such as peers (e.g., teaching strategies to enhance interactions). Knowing the strengths, acknowledging the desires and preferences of youth with autism, and recognizing how the context may be changed are critical, as teams set social goals and select practices that may best support the student in reaching those goals. The challenge related to social communication is one of the defining characteristics of individuals with autism, and as such, is a central focus of many interventions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). To this end, research has highlighted the importance of a comprehensive approach focused around

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the development of social competence. Specifically, “social competence” has been defined as the use of socials skills and resources to meet one’s social goals (Waters & Sroufe, 1983). For example, an individual may ask a question to get help and also recognize that a variety of resources could be used to accomplish the goal (e-­mailing a teacher, asking a parent, texting a friend). However, the social communicative profiles of autistic youth, as well as their own social goals and desires, vary greatly. Social competence can be further complicated by the range of expressive communication abilities, with some individuals remaining nonverbal or minimally verbal into adolescence and at times using alternative modes of communication, while others have verbal skills on par or even advanced compared to same-age peers. Regardless of expressive communication abilities and modalities, all individuals with autism have at least some struggles related to social competence and peer relationships. Despite these challenges, there is a decrease in services that specifically support these social needs as students with autism move into later grades (Dallman, Artis, Watson, & Wright, 2021), and there may be differences in who is responsible for addressing these critical skills (e.g., special educators, speech–­language pathologists, psychologists). In high school, there is often a focus on graduation and coursework, sometimes at the cost of other important skills such as social competence. Social competence and peer relationships are critical well beyond high school, supporting success in community engagement and employment, and impacting quality of life and mental health (Kirby, Baranek, & Fox, 2016; McVey et al., 2016). Autistic youth often struggle with the give-and-take in social interactions (e.g., social reciprocity), nonverbal communication (e.g., facial expressions, body language), and understanding and using social conventions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Maye, Kiss, & Carter, 2017). Some adolescents with autism may have knowledge of many of the social skills and rules but have difficulty applying or using that knowledge in social situations that are often complex and nuanced. Moreover, there may be other language or communication challenges that are layered with social competence, such as challenges with language comprehension and auditory processing or limited verbal abilities. Depression and anxiety are more prevalent among individuals with autism, which can also impact social engagement, social interactions, and peer relationships (Kirsch et al., 2020; Pezzimenti, Han, Vasa, & Gotham, 2019). In addition, it is important to consider neurodiversity as it relates specifically to social competence. For example, autistic self-­ advocates have noted that making eye contact negatively impacts their ability to attend to and understand a conversation and can even be physically painful (e.g., Endow, 2013; Robeson, 2007). For some students with autism, it may be necessary to consider alternative goals, for example, looking in the direction of, but not at, a conversation partner or developing self-­advocacy skills to be able to share about their social preferences and needs (e.g., sharing with a communication partner that they often look down during conversations to support their capacity to focus).



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One of the parents of the children studied by Leo Kanner, the person who established autism as a diagnostic category, wrote that his son was “happiest when alone” (Fischbach, 2007), and this stereotype about autism remains today even though individuals with autism frequently report a strong desire for friendships and other relationships (Hancock, Stokes, & Mesibov, 2020). Despite this desire for relationships, autistic youth struggle with forming friendships and report feelings of loneliness related to the quantity and quality of friendships (Mazurek, 2014). Skills such as reciprocity, interpreting nonverbal forms of communication, and understanding others’ perspectives are not only critical in forming and maintaining relationships but also are areas in which many high school students with autism may struggle. High school students may be unfamiliar with the unique profiles of peers with autism, which can further impact peer relationships. The peers may respond negatively to the well-­meaning behaviors of students with autism, such as regularly switching topics to a focused interest. Also, peers may not realize that fewer social initiations do not equate to disinterest in being a part of social interactions. Therefore, it is important not only to consider addressing the social skills of students with autism but also looking at modifications in the school environments and supports for social partners. Considering the challenges faced by autistic youth in navigating the complex high school environment related to social competence and peer relationships, the social domain of the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) model includes three interventions/practices that focus on peer relationships and/or social skills: Social Competence Intervention—­ High School (SCI-H), peer networks, and peer support arrangements. Importantly, each component can address a wide variety of social goals, so that interventions are individually tailored based on student needs. All three components aim to build on the strengths of students with autism, and several of the components also address the social environment of the high school. Each intervention is described in detail in the subsequent sections. Importantly, SCI-H is a previously published curriculum, so the materials must be purchased separately (detailed below). For peer networks and peer support arrangements, there are many freely available materials. Some of these materials have been included in the book, but additional materials are available on the CSESA website https://csesa.fpg.unc.edu/ materials/csesa-peer-and-­social- ­competence.

SOCIAL COMPETENCE INTERVENTION—HIGH SCHOOL SCI-H (Stichter, Benigno, Kerpash, Nietzel, & Herzog, 2014) is a group-based social skills intervention program designed specifically for students with needs related to social skills and average or above-­average intellectual abilities. It was adapted by Janine Stitcher and colleagues from a middle school version of the same name

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(SCI—­Adolescents), which has been rigorously developed and evaluated in several studies in clinics and schools (Stichter, Herzog, Owens, & Malugen, 2016; Stichter et al., 2010). SCI-H supports students in understanding social conventions and learning and using core social skills that will ultimately lead to social competence in everyday environments. The SCI-H training defines “social competence” as a person’s ability to “use appropriate skills to the situation, adhere to social norms and conventions, engage in reciprocal interactions with a variety of people, and respond to the emotions or thoughts of others” (Stichter et al., 2014, p. 2). Developing social competence supports students in establishing and maintaining positive relationships (e.g., friendships, coworkers) and social problem solving (e.g., planning as a team), and may have an added impact on areas such as academic success, adaptability, and self-­confidence (e.g., Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pastorelli, Bandura, & Zimbardo, 2000; Elias & Haynes, 2008). The SCI-H materials, to be described, are available for purchase through the Stichter lab at the University of Missouri, which includes a 6-hour training with technical assistance for learning how to implement the SCI curriculum (https://education.missouri.edu/sci). Additionally, SCI has been adapted into a fully online curriculum called iSocial. It uses video conferencing tools and a virtual environment, and is available for purchase at www.isocl.net.

Structure SCI-H consists of thirty-­t wo, 45-minute scripted lessons that occur either two or three times per week in small group settings (six to eight students). Typically, a special educator or related service provider (e.g., speech–­language pathologist, psychologist) delivers SCI-H. There is an orientation day to introduce students to the curriculum, behavior expectations (e.g., following rules), and foundational social practices (e.g., waiting while others speak, responding to others). SCI-H is organized into five units containing six or seven lessons. The lessons follow a routine, which consists of introduction, modeling, structure practice (with two to three students), naturalistic practice (full group), and review. In addition, there are homework assignments to support generalization of skills. Descriptions and examples of each activity type are provided in Table 5.1. The lessons have a predictable structure, beginning with greetings and reviews of goals, previous lessons, and homework, then moving into the instructor-­led and/or instructor-­supported activities, and ending with a lesson review and time for students to reflect on their goals. The SCI curriculum package contains most needed materials for each lesson (i.e., instructor script, PowerPoint presentations to use for each lesson, and reproducible forms for the homework and activities). There are also core materials that support the SCI curriculum broadly, such as unit posters, materials to implement the behavior management system, and materials that support activities (e.g., timers, game pieces).

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TABLE 5.1.  Types of Activities Used for Scaffolding Skills Development in SCI-H Activity type

Description

Example

Introduction

Scripted, didactic instruction at the beginning of each unit that introduces terminology and the unit framework, often a visual support or graphical depiction of core skills for the unit

Instructor provides rationale, definitions, and descriptions of the problem-solving tree (Unit 4)

Modeling

A combination of process (live) modeling to demonstrate use of the framework for the unit and video modeling during which students complete ratings of core behaviors of the target skills

Students watch videos of conversations in popular TV shows to rate individual conversational skills (Unit 2)

Structured practice

Students work in dyads or triads to complete a guided activity to practice a target skill, with feedback from the instructor to support success

Students work in pairs and match levels of feelings to personal situations for a given emotion (Unit 3)

Naturalistic practice

Students work as a full group (6–8 students) to complete a complex, goaloriented task; students take on specific roles (e.g., timekeeper, recorder); instructors not only provide reminders and feedback but also create space for more independence

Students work as a team to solve complex problems that they may face as teens in a quiz game (Unit 5)

Conclusion

Review of the unit, and provision of reward activity if earned (curriculumrelated game) or an additional activity

Students play a game in which they act as salespeople and earn money for selling their ideas (Unit 1)

Daily homework

Students are given two to four questions that require action and reflection related to the targeted skills; homework is reviewed at the beginning of each lesson

Observe a conversation. What conversation skills did you see used well? What conversation skills were not used well? (Unit 2)

Content The curriculum includes five units explicitly designed to build on knowledge and skills learned and practiced in previous units. Unit 1, Communicating Ideas, focuses on and addresses topics related to speaker and listener roles and reading and showing facial expressions. Unit 2 is called Conversation and Collaboration, and teaches specific conversational skills (e.g., joining a conversation, reciprocity). Unit 3 is about Perspective Taking and focuses on understanding emotions of oneself and others and using emotion regulation and self-­control strategies. Unit 4 is called Problem Solving and teaches about different types and levels of problems, and introduces strategies for solving problems. Finally, Unit 5 focuses

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on Interactions and Applications, applies the full range of skills used in the first four units, and extends use of those skills to more complex problems (e.g., dealing with differences between parent rules and peer expectations, negotiating work on group projects). Across the units, SCI-H introduces and uses specific terminology (e.g., joiners when referring to how to join a conversation) aligned with the unit frameworks (e.g., visual depiction of a problem-­solving tree) for social skills.

Strategies The strategies embedded in SCI-H are based on three foundational approaches that practitioners commonly use in interventions for autistic individuals: applied behavior analysis (ABA), cognitive-­behavioral interventions, and scaffolded instruction. Related to ABA, the SCI-H curriculum is highly structured and relies on repetition, with multiple opportunities to practice social skills that build throughout the curriculum. SCI-H uses live and video modeling to demonstrate the appropriate use of target skills and prompting to support students as they develop skills. There is a big emphasis on specific verbal feedback that uses SCI-H terminology to instruct students on the successes and areas for improvement related to their use of social skills. Finally, SCI-H uses a group-based token reinforcement system to encourage participation and use of targeted social skills, and individual behavior management systems if behaviors occur that are disruptive to the group. The cognitive-­behavioral features of SCI-H focus on altering students’ perceptions and interpretations of the social world in order to ultimately change their thought patterns about everyday social encounters. The unit frameworks, which always include a visual diagram to support instruction and learning, and consistent terminology for targeted social skills, are key in these efforts (see Figure 5.1 for example). The scripted lessons support the introduction and ongoing use of the frameworks and SCI terminology. Finally, the scaffolded instruction is embedded through individual lessons, units, and the whole curriculum. It progressively builds skills by (1) moving from direct instruction to supported and eventually independent application of those skills and (2) targeting skills in a hierarchy that builds on previously learned skills. Both the structure and content are carefully designed to support this progression.

Summary Students with autism who have cognitive abilities similar to their neurotypical peers often struggle with social skills that are important for successfully engaging in the complex social, academic, and vocational environments that are part of the daily lives of youth and young adults. SCI-H uses proven behavioral strategies and a carefully constructed curriculum to support students in learning, use, and

Peers and Social Domain

Transition (out of conversation)

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Initiation

Continuation

Response Topic

Transition (between topics)

Continuation Joiner

FIGURE 5.1. SCI-H Turn Taking in Conversation Diagram. From Stichter et al. (2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors. generalization of these skills, with the goals of increasing social competence and, ultimately, success in their current and future environments.

PEER NETWORKS Opportunities for students with and without autism to spend time together with the purpose of fostering social connections and friendships in and out of school contexts can be mutually beneficial (Travers & Carter, 2022). Peers of autistic students in high school can model the social norms and conventions that foster companionship and lead to new friendships. For high school peers, getting to know someone with autism who has unique strengths and challenges fosters understanding of the lived experiences of autistic individuals. This may help peers be future advocates, employers, teachers, coworkers, neighbors, and friends in a neurodiverse community. Peer networks are purposely arranged groups of peers with and without disabilities that meet outside of class time with a focus on a shared activity (Carter et al., 2013). Dr. Erik Carter and colleagues worked with the CSESA team to adapt

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peer networks for high school students across the autism spectrum. The group is supported by a facilitator who provides guidance and aids in social interaction as needed. Peer networks involving peers with and without disabilities have been successful in increasing social interactions and new friendships for high school students with severe disabilities (Asmus et al., 2017), with communication needs who use AAC devices (Herbert, Brock, Barczak, & Anderson, 2020), and for students on the autism spectrum (Hochman, Carter, Bottema-­Beutel, Harvey, & Gustafson, 2015; Sreckovic, Hume, & Able, 2017). School staff members who facilitate peer networks consider them easy to implement, as well as appropriate and beneficial for students with autism (Carter, Dykstra Steinbrenner, & Hall, 2019).

Structure A typical peer network comprises three to five peers, one student with autism (also called the “focal student”), and a facilitator. They meet weekly for at least 8 weeks, although a longer duration can help forge social connections that often take time to develop. Peer networks can occur during any nonclass time and can meet separately in small groups or together in larger spaces, with each network meeting separately (e.g., in the media center with each peer network at its own table). They are often scheduled during the lunch period and can also occur before or after school, or be embedded within an extracurricular club. One potential structure for weekly meetings is for members to spend the first few minutes greeting each other and checking in about any social interactions among group members since the last meeting, followed by an activity that incorporates mutual interests (e.g., conversation, game, joint project, listening to music), and end with planning the following meeting and identifying opportunities to connect socially between meetings. Fostering social connections outside of the group is one of the big emphases. It is therefore important to build in time to plan for and check on how the student participants are connecting outside of the weekly meetings.

Procedures Peer networks include several key steps for implementation: selecting the facilitator, getting to know the focal student, recruiting and equipping peers, running an orientation meeting, and maintaining the network. Each of these steps is described the subsequent sections.

Selecting the Facilitators Each peer network has a facilitator who organizes the initial orientation meeting with the peers, attends network meetings to ensure that everyone is included and



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participating in the activity or conversation, and encourages members to interact with each other outside of the weekly meetings. Facilitators may also oversee the recruitment of peers, but sometimes this is handled at the school level, if there is a person in charge of coordinating all the networks. Good candidates for effective facilitators are school personnel who have taken an interest in students with autism and have time the time available to meet with the networks at lunch or during an identified period of the day, or before or after school. The facilitator may be someone who is familiar with supporting social goals for students with disabilities such as a speech–­language pathologist or special educator, but facilitators can also be school personnel involved with the broader student body, such as a general educator, coach, club leader, or a librarian.

Getting to Know the Focal Student Prior to starting the peer network, it is important for the facilitator to know about the social goals of the focal student and have a general understanding of their interests. Some students may have formal IEP goals in the social domain; others may be able to discuss their social goals with peers. Another key aspect of peer networks is attempting to match peers and the focal student based on shared interests, experiences, or backgrounds. For example, a student who loves baseball statistics may fit well in a peer group with members of the baseball team.

Recruiting and Orienting Peers Peers can be recruited using a variety of strategies, ranging from schoolwide announcements to personal invitations. A recruitment brochure that can be handed or sent to peers is found on the CSESA website and includes the content in Table 5.2. Talking with students from established clubs or high school organizations has been successful. Once peers are recruited, the peer networks coordinators and/or facilitators can host a short orientation meeting that includes a description of the roles of peers and the rationale for peer networks, simple strategies for supporting inclusion, and opportunities to reflect and ask questions about peer networks (see CSESA website for example presentation and handout). In one school, an English teacher volunteered her classroom of students and held an orientation during a class period to introduce the students to the peer networks. She reviewed strategies that can enhance social interaction and told the students about the importance of learning about and accepting others, emphasizing the importance of such high school experiences that develop the citizenship that is sought by college admissions committees. Students interested in participating after hearing about the program were handed an index card and asked to identify their interests in activities outside of school, favorite movies, sports teams,

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TABLE 5.2.  Recruitment Pamphlet Content Topic

Content

What is a peer network?

A peer network is created when four to six students are partnered together and they socialize.

What does a peer network look like?

• Hanging out together before or after school and having conversations just like you would with any other friend. • Eating lunch together, talking about your day, talking about what you are going to do over the weekend, and so forth.

Why create peer networks?

• Have fun! • Make other peer feel comfortable and included. • Meet new people.

How can you help other people feel included?

• Say “hi” to your network members in between classes. • Walk with students in your network to their classes. • Hang out with students in your network before or after school or during lunch. • Other suggestions?

What is your role as a peer partner?

• Be kind! • Make other people feel comfortable and included. • Help students learn the “rules of the road.”

Questions for the experts (you)!

• What are the social customs at your high school? • How can we help other students learn those social customs? • What should you do if you see someone in your network getting bullied? • What if someone asks you a question about a member in your peer network?

Benefits of being in a peer network

• Meet new people. • Talk with people who have similar interests as you. • Help make school more welcoming for everyone.

if any, and preferred music genres. The facilitator then took these cards and, with the same information obtained from the students with autism, created the peer networks based on common interests.

Initial Meeting The purpose of the initial peer network meeting is to introduce network members, help them learn more about each other, and organize future meetings. It is also an opportunity for students to ask any questions about the purpose and process of the networks. Suggestions for introductory activities include (1) sharing two truths and a lie about yourself, and having others guess the lie; (2) using the index cards with each person’s interests written on the card, then walking around the room to



Peers and Social Domain 109

find others with matching interests; and (3) pinning the name of a famous person on everyone’s back and having each person ask peers questions to try to guess the identity of this person (see Peer Networks Manual on the CSESA website for more details). It is important to describe and emphasize confidentiality and respectful language, as the peer network is to be a place where peers can share personal information and experiences. With the growing emphasis on neurodiversity, the facilitator should be aware of preferences of the members of the autistic community and those of individual focal students (e.g., person-­first vs. identity-­first language). The facilitator can use the Orientation Checklist items described in Figure 5.2 and included as a separate item on the CSESA website to ensure that the key points of the meeting are addressed. Facilitators may also send a short letter to parents, sharing the basic information about what a peer network is, when their child’s peer network will meet, and some example activities that may occur during the peer network meeting (sample letter available on the CSESA website).

Running and Maintaining Peer Networks It is important that peer network meetings are structured and regularly scheduled (ideally weekly) so that all participants know what to expect. Having a predictable structure allows facilitators to gradually hand over responsibility for organizing the meetings to the participating students. During the initial meetings, the facilitator provides suggestions, encouragement, modeling, and praise as students interact with each other. But this active facilitation is faded over time as peers get to know each other and the peers take more ownership of the network meetings. Some schools identified peer leaders who worked with the facilitator to organize activities for upcoming meetings. If students identified games or activities they enjoyed, those games were purchased for use during the network times only.

Cautions and Problem Solving Some students with autism who attended general education classes full-time were not comfortable attending a session that appeared to be focused on students with more significant disabilities, especially if multiple peer networks occurred in a similar location. Schools have used several different solutions to address this issue. Some students met in smaller network groups and not in the same place as the rest of the networks. Other schools asked students with autism to take a leadership role for the peer network, and at times included another focal student with greater support needs. This addressed students’ concerns about being viewed by peers as the focus of an intervention, while providing an opportunity to develop relevant social interaction and leadership skills. Another common issue was that peers in a network involving students with an intellectual disability sometimes selected activities

Peer Network Orientation Meeting Checklist (to be completed by the facilitator after the orientation meeting) Student:   Facilitator:  Date:    Total number of students at meeting:  Circle Y (yes) or N (no) based on whether the following occurred:  1. Y N Was the student present?  2. Y N Were all of the network members in attendance? List names of partners who were present.

 3. Y N Did the partners and student introduce themselves and participate in introductory activities appropriately (if student is mostly nonverbal, did I introduce him or her to the group and give nonconfidential background information?)?  4. Y N Did students talk about areas of shared interests? If so, what?

 5. Y N Did the group discuss the goals for the group? List any goals suggested by group members.

 6. Y N Did the group discuss ways to work toward the goals of the peer network?  7. Y N Did I discuss the importance of confidentiality and respectful language?  8. Y N Did the group talk about when social interactions can occur?  9. Y N Did I offer specific suggestions on ways to interact socially? 10. Y N Did the group schedule regular meetings or discuss the date of the next meeting? Comments: 

FIGURE 5.2.  Orientation Checklist. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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Peers and Social Domain 111

that were not age-­appropriate. For example, prior to facilitator feedback, peers in one school who were identified as the peer network organization leaders selected arts and crafts activities similar to those found in preschool or kindergarten classrooms. The facilitator and peer leaders brainstormed how the group could use the same art materials to instead create signs and banners for an upcoming pep rally.

Summary Peer networks offer a practical approach for creating a supportive context for students with and without disabilities to form new friendships and addressing the social goals of students with autism. The intervention can be implemented by school staff members without specific autism expertise, which opens the door for broader staff participation. Since peer networks occur outside of class time, there are opportunities to be creative in setting up networks as part of lunch, clubs, or other school activities and initiatives.

PEER SUPPORT ARRANGEMENTS Peer support arrangements involve small groupings of peers who provide academic and social support to a student with autism within the context of a specific general education class (Carter at al., 2015). Notably, peer support arrangements are constructed and conducted with the knowledge, agreement, and (ideally) input of the focal student. An educator develops a Peer Support Plan (PSP), with input from students and peers as appropriate. This written document outlines the roles of the facilitator, peers, and focal student during different instructional activities in class. Peer support arrangements are flexible and can be used for the full breadth of high school courses. They have been successfully used in high schools to support students with autism (Carter et al., 2017) as well as students with significant cognitive impairments (Carter et al., 2016). Peer support arrangements also benefit participating peers by providing opportunities to interact with a more neurodiverse group of students and promoting social, academic, and personal benefits (Travers & Carter, 2022). Subsequent sections provide details about the structure, procedures, and strategies that are part of peer support arrangements, resources for implementation, and potential adaptations for various settings and situations (additional details available in the Peer Supports Manual on the CSESA website).

Structure Peer support arrangements are ideally implemented daily within the classroom but at a minimum should be used two to three times per week. They have been

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used in both core academic courses and electives such as career and technical education courses, music and arts courses, and physical education courses. As noted earlier, peer support arrangements require a facilitator, a focal student, and two or three peers. The facilitator is an adult who is regularly present in the class in which the peer supports take place (e.g., teacher, teaching assistant). The focal student can be any student with autism who would benefit from either academic or social supports in the context of class. We recommend that two or three peers be involved in the intervention. First, this limits the impact of student absences or other situations when participating peers are away from the classroom. Second, peers bring different strengths and experiences to this role; having more than one peer enriches the experience. Third, when there are more than three peers, the group becomes too large, and peers may become disengaged from their peer support arrangement roles. Importantly, peer support arrangements may be helpful to a wide range of students, for example, students with disabilities other than autism or students who may be learning English or adjusting to the culture (e.g., students who are refugees).

Procedures Peer support arrangements can be implemented throughout the entire semester but should last at least 8 weeks. Several factors are important in choosing the classes in which to implement these interventions (see Table 5.3). Once the class is selected, the implementation of peer support arrangements has four primary

TABLE 5.3.  Considerations for Choosing Classes for Peer Supports Areas

Considerations

Focal student strengths and needs

• Is there a class that is particularly challenging either socially or academically in which the student could benefit from extra support? • Is there a class in which the student excels academically that could be harnessed to support social engagement? • Is there a class that is particularly motivating or enjoyable to the student that may facilitate social interaction?

Class instructor or other adults in the classroom

• Is there a teacher who is already doing something similar with setting up peer buddies? • Is there a teacher who has taken an interest in a focal student? • Is there a teacher whom the focal student particularly enjoys or respects?

Peers

• Are there peers who are naturally supporting the focal student? • Are there several strong peer models in the class?



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steps: identify and invite peers, create a PSP, hold an initial meeting, and implement peer support arrangements.

Identify and Invite Peers The facilitator works with the classroom teacher, the focal student, and/or other school staff to identify potential peers from within the same general education class. The first step is to talk to the focal student and gather suggestions through open discussions or with structured supports (e.g., pictures of potential peers). Consider peers the student would like to get to know, who have shown interest in getting to know the focal student, who are positive peer models, and are likely to stay involved and engaged throughout the semester. This can be done through observation or conversations with other staff members. With this list of potential peers, invite their involvement before or after class. The previously noted Peer Supports Mannual on the CSESA website has additional suggestions and strategies for identifying and inviting peers.

Create a PSP The PSP (see Figure 5.3) is a written document that identifies or suggests potential actions or strategies to use during specified instructional activities (e.g., lecture, independent work, small-group work) for each peer support arrangement participant (i.e., facilitator, peers, focal student). A list of potential strategy ideas for facilitators and peers in included in Table 5.4. The PSP is specific to the class and to the focal student. There are several options for drafting the PSP: (1) The facilitator can create it independently or with help from another staff member (e.g., special educator); (2) the facilitator can create it with input from the peers; or (3) the facilitator, peers, and focal student can all share ideas for what is included in the PSP. Several sample PSPs can be found in Appendices 5.1–5.3, and other sample plans are available on the CSESA website.

Hold an Initial Orientation Meeting The initial orientation meeting can be held outside of class, either during lunch or before or after school. If the PSP was drafted only by the facilitator, the meeting is typically 45–60 minutes in length. If the peers and focal student have been involved in creating the PSP, the meeting may be shorter. The initial meeting is led by the facilitator and ideally includes the peers and the focal student, although there is flexibility depending on the focal student’s comfort with and interest in participating. The meeting starts with introductions, if needed. During this

Peer Support Plan

At the beginning of class . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

When there are lectures or whole group instruction . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

When there are small group or lab activities . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

(continued)

FIGURE 5.3.  Blank Peer Support Plan. Adapted from Carter and Asmus (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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When there is independent seatwork . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

At the end of class . . . The student could . . .

Big Ideas for Peers • Get to know your partner; ask lots of questions and find out what he or she enjoys. • Involve your partner in conversations with other classmates; interacting with others is an important goal. • Look for opportunities to involve your partner in class activities, even in small ways. • Make sure you complete your own work; learning the class material is still your priority. Specific Ways to Offer Support

FIGURE 5.3.  (continued) 115

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TABLE 5.4.  Examples of Strategies for Facilitator and Peers Strategies Facilitator

• Model ways students can interact with one another • Highlight similarities among students • Identify varied strengths and differences • Teach interaction skills to students • Interpret behavior • Redirect interactions to student • Redirect interactions to peers without disabilities • Ask peers to help the student with specific tasks • Have students sit next to each other • Provide positive feedback to group members for working together • Make sure a student’s AAC device has comments, vocabulary, and/or questions about topic

Peers

General Classroom Engagement • Sit next to the student during class • Pass out papers with the student • Walk with the student to the next class • Help organize assignments and class materials • Remind the student of how to follow classroom routines • Help the student self-manage his or her learning • Motivate and encourage the student during difficult assignments • Redirect the student when off-task • Share class materials Communication/Social • Talk to the student • Ask the student a question (e.g., “What number are we on?”) • Tell jokes with the student • Encourage interactions with other classmates • Reinforce communication attempts • Help the student understand classroom and social norms • Remind the student to use his or her communication book or device (if appropriate) Task-Related • Share notes with the student; highlight important information provided in class for student • Brainstorm answers to questions together • Invite the student to join a group during group work activities; make sure the student receives a role • Ask the student how he or she is doing with an assignment • Help check the accuracy of assignments and class notes • Review course concepts with student; paraphrase or offer additional examples of concepts • Demonstrate how to complete a problem • Highlight important information on a worksheet • Read aloud a section of an assignment or text • Share advice or explain how to do certain aspects of an assignment



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meeting, the facilitator shares the overarching goals for the peer support arrangement (e.g., increasing social and/or academic participation) and describes basic expectations (e.g., sitting near each other, talking with facilitator if challenges arise). Then, the group reviews the PSP, and the facilitator highlights key strategies such as modeling of skills and encouragement. The peers and focal student may also add other actions or strategies. Additional topics for orientation include providing background information about the focal student (e.g., interests, information about unique communication needs, if appropriate and with permission) and a discussion about confidentiality (see Figure 5.4 for Orientation Meeting Checklist).

Implement Peer Support Arrangements After reviewing the PSP (and revising it, if needed), the group implements the intervention regularly in the classroom. It is important that the peers and focal student sit near one another, which may require changes in seating arrangements or reminding students to remain near one another in classes such as physical education. The facilitator uses the facilitation strategies described on the PSP. It is also important to monitor the peers and focal student during class and check in regularly (ideally once per week) with the focal student and the peers to see how things are going. Although the facilitator may need to offer more frequent support or modeling at first (e.g., suggesting topics, reminding peers or students to follow the PSP), ideally that support is faded over the course of the semester. The facilitator can occasionally use the checklist in Figure 5.5 to more formally monitor implementation.

Strategies Several strategies are important for the success of these interventions. First, proximity of the peers and focal student within the classroom is critical. Students cannot support one another if they are not close by. Second, identifying similarities, shared interests, and strengths among all students is important. Facilitators should look for ways to highlight these commonalities. For example, if a peer is struggling with a part of their physics problem, the facilitator may say, “Brian [focal student] is really good at math facts—you should check in with him about that.” Or, if the peer support arrangement occurs in art class, the facilitator may say, “Chandra [peer], I noticed you are painting a lion. Did you know that Jaylen knows a lot about animals?” Third, strategies for supporting and encouraging the social interactions and academic engagement of students are essential. The facilitator may model and praise strategies listed for peers or the focal student on the

Peer Support Orientation Meeting Checklist Student:   School:  Facilitator:   Coach:   Date:  Peer Supports Present:  Topics covered: † Rationale for peer supports strategies † Background about focus student † General goals † Confidentiality and respectful language † Expectations specific to the classroom (drawing from Peer Support Plan) † Peer support strategies relevant to the student, including communication system (if applicable), promoting class participation, promoting interactions with classmates, and student motivation and feedback † Guidance on when to seek assistance from educators or paraprofessionals † Additional roles and responsibilities for peer support:

† Questions or concerns raised by peer supports:

FIGURE 5.4.  Peer Support Orientation Meeting Checklist. Adapted from Carter and Asmus (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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Peer Support Weekly Meeting Checklist Facilitator:   Student:   Date:  Peer Supports Present:  Circle Y (yes) or N (no) based on whether these behaviors occurred during the observation. Complete one time per week and provide to your intervention coach. 1.

Y N Are peer supports in close proximity to the student during class?



Y  N Do the students sit next to each other?

  N/A Y  N Do the students remain in close proximity during out-of-seat class activities?   N/A Y  N During group activities, do the students join the same group? Other notes about proximity? When does proximity occur during class (circle all that apply):   Beginning   Middle   End 2.

Y N Are peer supports interacting with the student in class?



Y  N Do they greet the student (e.g. “Hi” or “See you later”)?



Y  N Do students engage in conversation?



Y  N Do peer supports include the focal student in interactions with other peers?

Other notes about interactions? When do interactions occur during class (circle all that apply):   Beginning   Middle   End 3.

Y N Are peer supports assisting the focus student academically?



Y  N Do the peer supports help the student participate in class activities?



Y  N Do peer supports repeat or rephrase instructions for the student?



Y  N Are peer supports appropriately prompting the focus student?



Y  N Do peer supports provide appropriate feedback to the focus student?



Y  N Do students work together on classroom activities?



Y  N Do students share work materials?

Other notes about academic assistance? When do support behaviors occur during class (circle all that apply):   Beginning   Middle   End 4.

Y N Are you (facilitator) supporting peer supports and the target student?



Y  N Do you facilitate interactions during class when appropriate?



Y  N Do you provide reminders/feedback to peer supports before/during/after class?



Y  N Do you provide praise and feedback to students during or outside of class?

Other notes about supporting students? Examples of feedback to give peer supports: • “Matt really appreciates it when you ask him about his weekend.” • “Lily might not always respond to your questions, but she loves connecting with you and other students in the class. If you give her a bit of time to answer and she still doesn’t, you can ask her the question again.” • “You do a great job always sharing your notes with Kelsey.” Feedback you gave, or will give, to peer support: 

FIGURE 5.5.  Implementer Checklist for Weekly Meetings. Adapted from Carter and Asmus (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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PSP. Teaching is also important, whether it involves teaching the peers or the student to use specific strategies or coaching the group members to teach each other. For example, the facilitator could encourage a peer to support the focal student in understanding how to start a conversation. Another important core strategy for the facilitator is redirecting communication, so that the peers and focal student are talking to each other rather than using the facilitator or another adult as a mediator. These strategies may be especially important when the intervention is new, but they can be faded over time.

Potential Adaptations At times, a focal student may resist participating in a peer support arrangement because they do not want to be singled out. One possible adaptation is to institute classroomwide peer supports in which all students are part of a small group that assists their classmates. For example, groups of three or four students could co-­construct or individually construct PSPs that describe their own actions, the actions needed from their peers, and the actions needed from their teachers. Or teachers could create a general PSP for the classroom, with room to individualize for each student and group. This was used successfully in several different classrooms as part of the CSESA study. Another possibility is to design peer support arrangements that more specifically target academic needs of the peers. For example, a student with autism who excels in a particular class may be strategically partnered with at least one peer who needs the academic support. Although all peer support arrangements are designed to be mutually beneficial, this adaptation more explicitly targets the needs of a peer and may be more comfortable to focal students who are resistant to being singled out.

Summary Peer support arrangements are some of the more flexible and practical components of the CSESA model. They can be used in almost any classroom setting, with almost any students. They are also a relatively low-level burden for teachers, and for that reason, can be a great starting point for instituting peer and social interventions.

TIPS FOR IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL DOMAIN INTERVENTIONS/PRACTICES Through extended experiences in a variety of schools during the CSESA project, and number of lesson learned have generated useful tips for implementation.



Peers and Social Domain 121

Use a Whole‑School Approach A facilitating feature has been schoolwide initiatives that create a culture of inclusion, diversity, and equity, in which peers learn the benefits of embracing diversity and supporting each other. Creating such a positive school climate is compatible with anti-­bullying campaigns and consistent with an emphasis on respecting and valuing each and every student regardless of race, ethnicity, ability, and gender identification. Also, administrators responsible for scheduling can arrange for a class period, or ensure sufficient time during lunch, for groups of students with and without autism to have time for social interaction through peer networks, or the use of developed curriculum such as SCI-H.

Start with School Strengths It is hugely beneficial to incorporate or layer the peer-­mediated interventions/ practices in already occurring peer-to-peer activities such as the Best Buddies® program, social time after lunch, or during extracurricular club meetings. Key leaders of the social domain interventions/practices facilitate implementation by seeking out school personnel and students with a demonstrated interest in inclusion, developing community, and supporting equity as champions of the interventions. School staff members from disciplines with expertise or experience in social communication among peers, such as speech–­language pathologists, school counselors, and coaches, may become valuable members of the team implementing the social interventions/practices.

Look for Opportunities to Embed Peer‑to‑Peer Social Interaction and Support The peer support and peer network interventions/practices may be embedded in other CSESA domain interventions. For example, Collaborative Strategic Reading (in Brum, Hall, & Reutebuch, Chapter 4, this volume) requires peers to discuss text together, so that may be an ideal setting for incorporating peer support arrangements. Another idea is creating a Peer Network as part of an internship within the work-based learning activities (Kraemer, McDaniel, Fowler, & Regan, Chapter 3, this volume). In the CSESA PRISM domain (Hume, Kucharczyk, Rentschler, & Boyd, Chapter 6, this volume), school personnel use the Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) to identify prioritities that students have for goals, which can be used to design peer support arrangement activities addressing goals that have high interest and motivation for students with autism. Teachers can also emphasize the social competence required of leaders and encourage students with and without autism to take leadership roles in present

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or future school organizations and programs. They may encourage students with and without disabilities to create clubs and activities with peer-to-peer interaction that have student interests at the core, or encourage students with autism to serve as tutors for content in which they excel. School staff members may in turn highlight and recognize leaders and participants of the peer-to-peer social activities by establishment as an official club, interviews and selection for leaders and members, participant selection of supplies and materials, or provision of certificates for participation. One group of students from a high school peer network requested that all members wear sashes at graduation in order to recognize all program participants.

EXAMPLE: NEPTUNE HIGH SCHOOL Neptune High School is a ninth- through 12th-grade school with about 2,000 enrolled students located in a suburban area. The personnel chose to implement the peer-­mediated components (Peer Networks and Peer Support Arrangements) in their first semester of implementation. For peer networks, the Exceptional Children (EC) department chair not only took the lead in coordinating the networks and recruiting teachers but also partnered with one of the school counselors who was well connected with students. The EC chair and the counselor sent an e-flyer to all teachers in the school sharing about peer networks, asking teachers to nominate potential peers, and asking for volunteers to facilitate the groups during lunch hours. Once peers were nominated, the counselor sent a letter to potential peers expressing that they were nominated to be a part of a new initiative. Interested peers were oriented to their roles during lunch, and interested staff members were trained as facilitators at an afterschool meeting. The EC chair and the counselor worked together to form groups, matching facilitators, focal students, and peers by lunch schedules, and paying attention to existing social connections and common interests as feasible. The facilitators could choose to have groups meet in their classroom or in the library. The EC chair maintained a bookshelf of activities and games in the EC suite that could be used by peer networks, and facilitators supported their networks in choosing activities. Although games and conversation were common, groups also engaged in activities related to ongoing school initiatives, such as creating posters for Anti-­Bullying Month. Across semesters, some networks were maintained; others had to be reorganized either because of scheduling issues or a need for change in dynamics. The peers fostered a culture of inclusion around the school based on peer networks, and it was increasingly common for students from the self-­contained classroom to be invited to schoolwide events such as athletics and dances.



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For peer support arrangements, the autism team (A-Team) first capitalized on teachers who were already arranging less formalized peer-­mediated supports. This included two PE teachers, one who paired students with autism with another student in freshman PE, and another who was regularly inviting the separate-­ setting classrooms into his Life Fitness course, and a music teacher who had a subset of students from the separate-­setting classrooms come into her chorus class each week. Two A-Team members volunteered to try peer support arrangements in their classrooms: the career and technical education teacher, who regularly had students who were receiving a modified diploma in her “Foods” class (a nutrition and food preparation course), and a science teacher who had three of the autistic students enrolled in a chemistry class. The teachers participated in the training led by the CSESA coach during an early release day and extended the training as a workshop to draft the PSPs and identify a potential list of peers to recruit. One of the EC teaching assistants was also included in the training, as she was supporting the students in the science class and would serve as a facilitator. The first semester of implementation went smoothly in many of the classes, but there were also some struggles. Several of the classes had naturally built-in groupings (e.g., chemistry lab groups, food prep groups, fitness class), which seemed to make it easier for facilitators to brainstorm PSP ideas for focal students and peers. In the Foods class, the teacher used peer support arrangements with the full class as a way of encouraging engagement broadly. The freshman PE teacher ended up recruiting many peers in her class because of the number of focal students, but peers seemed to be less motivated over the course of the semester. Notably, the ninth-grade PE class made proximity more difficult because of the range of activities and the reliance on peers to maintain proximity on their own (not natural groupings, as in some of the other classes). In subsequent semesters, the goal was to have at least one peer support arrangement for each autistic student per year, thus reducing the burden within a single class or for a single facilitator. In general, the peer support arrangements were successful, often resulting in increased engagement of the focal student and in some cases the peers as well. Some teachers anecdotally reported an increase in collaboration and comradery in their classes. SCI-H implementation began in spring of the first year of CSESA rollout. Two of the EC teachers with large caseloads of students who were accessing the general education curriculum were trained by the CSESA coach in SCI-H, assuming that each may run SCI-H during their curriculum assistance (CA) classes. The autism-­ specific CA classes were often about the correct size for SCI-H, although some had nine or 10 students. The teachers each used the SCI-H curriculum on Tuesdays and Thursdays, and each prepped the materials for all classes on alternating days. SCI-H took about half the block period, which still allowed time for other support and instruction provided in CA class (e.g., homework check-ins, instruction on

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strategies). It was challenging for the teachers the first semester as they learned the curriculum and got the hang of having the materials ready for each class. After seeing the value of the program, the A-Team identified several of the students with autism who would benefit from SCI but were not part of ongoing curriculum assistance classes. The assistant principal (A-Team member) agreed to initiate the process to add a new course to the curriculum. Since the SCI-H curriculum would not take up a complete course, they combined it with other, often lacking activities that were also related to academic and vocational skills that required communication (e.g., applying and interviewing for jobs, identifying strengths and interests, class presentations). Because SCI was designed for students with challenges around social competence more broadly, this also allowed the class to be opened more broadly to students with similar social challenges. The school ended up offering the class led by an EC teacher once a year and encouraging freshmen and sophomores to take the course as an elective. As we write this in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, peer networks continue to thrive in this school even during virtual instruction, marking 7 years of implementation. The peer networks have been expanded well beyond students with autism to include other students with disabilities and students who have struggled with social relationships or connecting in the school. Peers have a key role in leading peer networks, including recruiting and training their peers in collaboration with the EC chair and counselor. Peer support arrangements are also ongoing but vary from year to year. They have been more challenging to sustain than other domain interventions, as they rely on individual classroom teachers having focal students enrolled in given classes. SCI-H was used for several years, but the trained teachers moved to different schools, so the intervention is no longer offered at the school. However, the school maintained the added course offering focused on communication skills even without the SCI curriculum.

CONCLUSION Social competence is important to address for all students in high school and beyond. The interventions/practices that are part of the peer and social domain address core areas of need for students with autism and were successfully incorporated for students with varying social characteristics and goals. Together, they provide standardized curriculum (i.e., SCI-H), as well as opportunities for peer engagement that can be incorporated in the classroom (i.e., peer support arrangements) and extracurricular activities (i.e., peer networks). The interventions/practices were adapted with the complex nature of high schools in mind, which means that they can be flexibly used to support autistic students across a variety of high school settings and service delivery models.



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REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author. Asmus, J. M., Carter, E. W., Moss, C. K., Biggs, E. E., Bolt, D. M., Born, T. L., . . . Weir, K. (2017). Efficacy and social validity of peer network interventions for high school students with severe disabilities. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 122(2), 118–137. Baron-Cohen, S. (2017). Editorial Perspective: Neurodiversity—­a revolutionary concept for autism and psychiatry. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(6), 744–747. Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Bandura, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2000). Prosocial foundations of children’s academic achievement. Psychological Science, 11(4), 302–306. Carter, E. W., & Asmus, J. (2010–2014). Peer support and peer network interventions to improve peer relationships and school engagement. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University. Carter, E. W., Asmus, J., Moss, C. K., Biggs, E. E., Bolt, D. M., Born, T. L., . . . Weir, K. (2016). Randomized evaluation of peer support arrangements to support the inclusion of high school students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 82(2), 209– 233. Carter, E. W., Asmus, J., Moss, C. K., Cooney, M., Weir, K., Vincent, L., . . . Fesperman, E. (2013). Peer network strategies to foster social connections among adolescents with and without severe disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(2), 51–59. Carter, E. W., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J. R., & Hall, L. J. (2019). Exploring feasibility and fit: Peer-­mediated interventions for high school students with autism spectrum disorders. School Psychology Review, 48(2), 157–169. Carter, E. W., Gustafson, J. R., Sreckovic, M. A., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J. R., Pierce, N. P., Bord, A., . . . Mullins, T. (2017). Efficacy of peer support interventions in general education classrooms for high school students with autism spectrum disorder. Remedial and Special Education, 38(4), 207–221. Carter, E. W., Moss, C. K., Asmus, J., Fesperman, E., Cooney, M., Brock, M. E., . . . Vincent, L. B. (2015). Promoting inclusion, social connections, and learning through peer support arrangements. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48(1), 9–18. Dallman, A. R., Artis, J., Watson, L., & Wright, S. (2021). Systematic review of disparities and differences in the access and use of allied health services amongst children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 1316– 1330. Elias, M. J., & Haynes, N. M. (2008). Social competence, social support, and academic achievement in minority, low-­income, urban elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(4), 474–495. Endow, J. (2013). Painted words: Aspects of autism translated. Cambridge, WI: Cambridge Book Review Press. Fischbach, G. D. (2007, December). Viewpoint: Leo Kanner’s 1943 paper on autism. Spectrum News. https://www.spectrumnews.org/opinion/viewpoint/leo-­k anners-1943paper-on-­autism/ Hancock, G., Stokes, M. A., & Mesibov, G. (2020). Differences in romantic relationship experiences for individuals with an autism spectrum disorder. Sexuality and Disability, 38, 231–245. Herbert, M. E., Brock, M. E., Barczak, M. A., & Anderson, E. J. (2020). Efficacy of peer

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network interventions for high school students with severe disabilities and complex communication needs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 45(2), 98–114. Hochman, J. M., Carter, E. W., Bottema-­Beutel, K., Harvey, M. N., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Efficacy of peer networks to increase social connections among high school students with and without autism spectrum disorder. Exceptional Children, 82(1), 96–116. Kapp, S. K., Gillespie-­Lynch, K., Sherman, L. E., & Hutman, T. (2013). Deficit, difference, or both?: Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 59–71. Kirby, A. V., Baranek, G. T., & Fox, L. (2016). Longitudinal predictors of outcomes for adults with autism spectrum disorder: Systematic review. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 36(2), 55–64. Kirsch, A. C., Huebner, A. R., Mehta, S. Q., Howie, F. R., Weaver, A. L., Myers, S. M., . . . Katusic, S. K. (2020). Association of comorbid mood and anxiety disorders with autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(1), 63–70. Maye, M. P., Kiss, I., & Carter, A. S. (2017). Definitions and classification of autism spectrum disorders. In D. Zager, D. F. Cihak, & A. Stone-­Macdonald (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders: Identification, education, and treatment (pp. 1–23). London: Routledge. Mazurek, M. O. (2014). Loneliness, friendship, and well-being in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(3), 223–232. McVey, A. J., Dolan, B. K., Willar, K. S., Pleiss, S., Karst, J. S., Casnar, C. L., . . . Van Hecke, A. V. (2016). A replication and extension of the PEERS® for young adults social skills intervention: Examining effects on social skills and social anxiety in young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(12), 3739–3754. Pezzimenti, F., Han, G. T., Vasa, R. A., & Gotham, K. (2019). Depression in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 28(3), 397–409. Robeson, J. E. (2007). Look me in the eye: My life with Asperger’s. New York: Random House. Sreckovic, M. A., Hume, K., & Able, H. (2017). Examining the efficacy of peer network interventions on the social interactions of high school students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 2556–2574. Stichter, J. P., Benigno, J., Kerpash, J., Nietzel, K., & Herzog, M. (2014). Social competence intervention—­High school curriculum. Columbia: University of Missouri. Stichter, J. P., Herzog, M. J., Owens, S. A., & Malugen, E. (2016). Manualization, feasibility, and effectiveness of the school-­based Social Competence Intervention for Adolescents (SCI-A). Psychology in the Schools, 53(6), 583–600. Stichter, J. P., Herzog, M. J., Visovsky, K., Schmidt, C., Randolph, J., Schultz, T., & Gage, N. (2010). Social competence intervention for youth with Asperger syndrome and high functioning autism: An initial investigation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1067–1079. Travers, H. E., & Carter, E. W. (2022). A systematic review of how peer-­mediated interventions impact students without disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 43, 40–57. Waters, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Social competence as a developmental construct. Developmental Review, 3(1), 79–97.

APPENDIX 5.1.  Sample PSP

for a Student with High Support Needs Peer Support Plan—PE Class A challenge for students in PE is locker room time. It can be loud, chaotic, and crowded, both before and after class. Other challenges include finding groups and partners for exercises and activities and following multistep instructions that are sometimes given by a teacher from a distance. Having peer supports can be very helpful in facing these challenges. Enjoy getting some very important movement and exercise! At the beginning of class . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

• Model greetings like “Hi, Ethan, • Greet classmates using their how are you?” names, and ask, “How are you?” • Wait outside locker room with • Wait outside locker room with classmate until it’s less crowded. classmate until it’s less crowded. • Model by getting changed • Get changed quickly in the quickly in the locker room. locker room. • Stay near the student. • Model appropriate behavior for the student and other peers.

The facilitator could . . . • Allow the student and classmates to wait until locker room partially quiets and empties before they enter. • Give student and classmates a written agenda of class activities to review and keep. • Provide visual instructions for exercises or activities.

When there are whole-group instructions, exercises, or stretching routines . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Watch and listen to the teacher. • Watch classmates to see what students should be doing. • Don’t worry if instructions seem too fast; watch your peers and do your best. • Use visual supports, if available. • Try everything, even if it’s hard.

• Stay near/partner with the student. • Show student step by step how to complete movements. • Model appropriate behavior and good effort on exercises for student and other peers. • Give specific, positive encouragement.

• Establish and follow regular routines. • Break down tasks into steps. • Provide a written or visual set of instructions. • Provide visual demonstrations. • Give specific, positive encouragement and feedback.

(continued)

Adapted from Carter and Asmus (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press.

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Peer Support Plan—PE Class  (page 2 of 2) When there are small-group activities or games . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Move to join group and face group members. • Tell group which role or task is preferred, if appropriate. • Ask for help or explanation from group members and teacher if needed. • Stay active and engaged. • Make positive comments about team members’ work.

• Create group or team that includes student. • Make student feel welcome. • Encourage student to choose a preferred role or position. • Ask student for input/ideas. • Encourage student to stay involved and active. • Model supportive and inclusive work for all team members.

• Break down tasks or games into clear steps. • Clearly demonstrate and model movements or instructions. • Provide steps or overviews of games in visual form if possible. • Help students decide appropriate roles and tasks within group or team.

The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Ask teacher or classmates any questions you may have from class. • Get changed quickly. • Tell classmates and teacher, “Thanks. See you tomorrow.” Use their names. • Mention one thing classmates did well that day in class.

• Accompany student for early changing, if allowed. • In the locker room, model by getting changed quickly. • Stay near student in the locker room. • Model appropriate behavior for student and other peers. • Walk with student part way to next class. • Mention one thing the student did well that day in class; ask if he or she has questions.

• Allow student and classmates to enter locker room 5 minutes early. • Ask individually if unanswered questions from class remain. • Give specific, positive feedback on work or effort.

At the end of class . . .

Big Ideas for Peers • Get to know your partner; ask lots of questions and find out what he or she enjoys. • Involve your partner in conversations with other classmates; interacting with others is an important goal. • Look for opportunities to involve your partner in class activities, even in small ways. • Make sure you complete your own work; learning the class material is still your priority.

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APPENDIX 5.2.  Sample PSP for a Student with Low Support

Needs Using Classwide Peer Support Arrangements Peer Support Plan—Earth Science

Overall goal: Support each other in participating in class and engaging with other students in the class. Individual goals for students in group: Student 1: Ask questions when needed; Student 2: Participate more in class (raising hand, engaging in small-group activities, etc.); Student 3: Get to know more people, be more attentive; Student 4: Participates more in class (raising hand, talking to classmates, etc.) Below are some ways that you can help to support each other in achieving the goals. During downtime . . . I could . . .

Peers could . . .

Facilitator could . . .

• Talk quietly to peers, if appropriate. • Make peers feel welcome. • Help peers be engaged. • Remind peers to get ready. • Make sure I am ready.

• Encourage short conversations, if • Talk quietly with me, if appropriate. appropriate. • Remind peers to talk quietly to • Start conversations with me. each other, if appropriate. • Be responsive to me. • Check in to make sure I am ready for class.

During whole-group instruction . . . I could . . .

Peers could . . .

• Remind me to stay on-task. • Stay engaged and listen. • Remind me to participate or ask • Participate by paying attention questions. and answering questions. • Remind others to participate and • Check in to see if I am following along with the worksheet. stay on-task.

Facilitator could . . . • Let students know when they are doing a good job. • Remind students to be engaged and on-task. • Remind students to ask questions.

During small-group activities . . . I could . . .

Peers could . . .

Facilitator could . . .

• Ask for help or ask peers questions. • Offer help to peers. • Help decide on roles in group. • Take an active role in group. • Be ready to lead or follow. • Remind peers to stay focused and stay on track.

• Let students know when they • Help me to stay on task. are doing a good job. • Help decide on roles in the • Remind students to help keep group. each other on track. • Let me know how I am doing. • Check in with me to see if I need • Have different roles for smallgroup activities. help.

(continued)

Adapted from Carter, E. W., & Asmus, J. (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press.

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Peer Support Plan—Earth Science  (page 2 of 2) During independent seatwork . . . I could . . .

Peers could . . .

• Ask for help. • Offer help to peers. • Stay focused on my work. • Remind others to stay focused on work.

• Make sure I am staying engaged. • Let students know when they are doing a good job. • Check in to see if I need help. • Remind students to help keep • Model working quietly. each other on track. • Remind students to ask for help if they need it.

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Facilitator could . . .

APPENDIX 5.3.  Sample PSP

for a Student with Moderate Support Needs Peer Support Plan—CTE Computer Skills Class In CTE classes, students are often given demonstrations of skills, notes, and information to learn, and then asked to complete projects during class time. Sometimes these projects are to be completed independently or in small groups. A challenge for students in these electives is to stay focused and manage time to complete activities and assignments. A challenge for teachers is to get around and help all the students who may need it. Having peer supports is a great way to help with these challenges. Overall goals: • Support each other in learning information and skills needed to complete activities and assignments. • Stay on task to complete projects on time. • Learn to engage with other students when appropriate.

• Manage frustration if mistakes are made. • Learn to care responsibly for the class equipment. • Enjoy learning to use technology!

At the beginning of class . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Turn in any completed homework. • Check planner or with teacher for needed materials. • If appropriate, get out materials and start working. • Ask classmate quietly about current project: “How is it going so far?”

• Review agenda posted visually so • Model greetings like “Hi, Ethan, students can prepare for class. how are you?” • Provide rubric for assignments/ • Remind student to turn in any projects with clear criteria for homework. completion. • Model getting out materials. • Tell students time when they • Help student get out necessary need to start putting away materials. materials at the end of class. • Ask student quietly about current project.

When there is independent seatwork . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Ask for help if needed. • Watch classmate for appropriate action. • If appropriate, ask classmate for help. • Stay focused on-task. • Stay patient if you have to wait for teacher help. • Give specific, positive comments about other students’ work: “I like the template you used for that PowerPoint!”

• If appropriate, allow student • Model by staying focused and to take classwork or projects to on-task. finish at home if more time is • Check to see if student is on-task. needed. • Let students know when they are • Allow student to receive doing a good job. quiet help from classmate, if • Model by asking questions if appropriate. needed. • Model patience and staying on task if teacher is busy. • Give student support and praise on projects.

(continued)

Adapted from Carter and Asmus (2010–2014). Reprinted with permission of the authors in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom. Copyright © 2023 The Guilford Press.

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Peer Support Plan—CTE Computer Skills Class  (page 2 of 2) When there are small-group activities . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Move to join group and face group members. • Tell group which role or task is preferred, if appropriate. • Ask for help or explanation from group members and teacher if needed. • Stay on task. • Make positive comments about group members’ work.

• Make student feel welcome and included. • Encourage student to choose a job or task he or she would prefer. • Ask student for input/ideas. • Encourage student to stay on task. • Model supportive and inclusive work for all group members.

• Consider tasks that would allow all students to make successful contributions to group work. • Break down group tasks into clear steps. Provide steps in written form as needed, preferably in checklist form. • Help create structured roles for group members. • Help students decide appropriate roles and tasks within group.

When there is whole-group instruction . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Stay engaged and listen to the teacher. • Take notes. • Participate by paying attention and answering questions.

• Model staying focused and asking • Remind student to ask questions. • Break down tasks into steps. questions. • Provide a written set of notes or • Take clear notes to share if instructions for review. needed. • When appropriate, provide visual demonstrations.

At the end of class . . . The student could . . .

Classmates could . . .

The facilitator could . . .

• Listen for teacher reminders about upcoming due dates. • Update planner. • Ask teacher to check planner. • Tell classmates and teacher, “Thanks. See you tomorrow.”

• Model by writing down teacher reminders in planner. • Walk with student part way to next class. • Mention one thing the student did well that day in class; ask if he or she has questions.

• Give students a 5-minute warning before end of class. • Review upcoming activities, requirements, and due dates. • Offer to check student planners. • Ask students individually if unanswered questions from class remain. • Give positive feedback on work completed.

Big Ideas for Peers • Get to know your partner; ask lots of questions and find out what he or she enjoys. • Involve your partner in conversations with other classmates; interacting with others is an important goal. • Look for opportunities to involve your partner in class activities, even in small ways. • Make sure you complete your own work; learning the class material is still your priority.

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CHAPTER 6

Independence and Behavior PRomoting Independence and Self‑Management Kara A. Hume Suzanne Kucharczyk Lindsay F. Rentschler Brian A. Boyd

“Using the visual supports kept students accountable for assignments and missing work. It gave the students a feeling of independence and pride, and it gave me peace of mind and less frustration.” —Special education teacher talking about a PRISM intervention Adolescence is a period of identity exploration and beginning assertions of independence. In accordance with this, high schools increase expectations for students’ autonomy. The large high school campus places new or greater demands on students in terms of managing time, navigating the space, and regulating the senses in loud, chaotic halls. Teachers and staff members offer adolescent students more opportunities to take the initiative and make their own decisions, while simultaneously removing many of the organizational supports built into earlier grade levels. Students encounter varying expectations, classroom rules, and socially acceptable behaviors as they move in and out of classes across the day. Some of the changing norms are explicit, but many are unwritten and implied. Students must detect and understand these hidden rules or else face the social or disciplinary consequences. The complexities of high school are ubiquitous, and these new challenges disproportionally impact autistic teenagers. In addition to the structural challenges of high school, autistic teens often experience a plateau or decline in adaptive behavior skills such as executive function, daily living skills, and social communication (Meyer, Powell, Butera, Klinger,

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& Klinger, 2018). Executive function difficulties, including working memory, task flexibility, planning, emotion regulation, perspective taking, and impulse control, may restrict independence (Pugliese et al., 2015). Interfering behaviors, including self-­injurious behaviors, aggression, or some repetitious behaviors, may limit access to on-­campus general education classrooms, clubs, and extracurriculars for students on the autism spectrum. Furthermore, the social intricacies and vagaries of teen relationships can confuse and frustrate teens with autism with social communication needs (Cresswell, Hinch, & Cage, 2019). The combination of challenges related to adaptive behavior skills and executive functioning, along with the rising demands of the high school setting, contribute to the exclusion of autistic students in their high school communities and beyond. These students report feelings of loneliness, experience depression, are bullied, and attempt suicide at rates higher than their neurotypical peers (Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotherham-­Fuller, 2007; Hannon & Taylor, 2013; Sterzing, Shattuck, Narendorf, Wagner, & Cooper, 2012). Autistic teens report being socially excluded in and out of school throughout their adolescence (Shattuck, Orsmond, Wagner, & Cooper, 2011) and, unfortunately, this disconnection expands in young adulthood as people in their 20s with autism are often socially excluded, unemployed, and do not participate in higher education (Roux, Shattuck, Rast, Rava, & Anderson, 2015). While contributing to increased challenges for youth with autism, high school also holds great promise as a time of transition to adulthood. While all youth engage in future planning for work and the possibility of postsecondary education, those with disabilities begin a specific process of transition outlined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). During transition planning with their individualized education plan (IEP) team as described by Kraemer, McDaniel, Fowler, and Regan (Chapter 3, this volume), autistic youth should begin to engage more in the process than they do in the early grades (Cavendish, Connor, & Rediker, 2017). This active youth engagement, which will influence planning and goal development aligned with hopes for the future, requires skills development in self-­awareness, self-­management, and self-­determination (Martin & Williams-­Diehm, 2013). High schoolers with autism who have these “self-­skills” will be more likely not only to focus their learning on outcome-­based goals but also carry these important skills into their futures. To support high school students with autism in dealing with the many complexities of the high school environment and adolesence, and to enhance adaptive skills while reducing interfering behaviors, one of the four Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism (CSESA) domains focuses on building independence and enhancing self-­management skills. The Independence and Behavior domain has been termed PRISM, or PRomoting Independence and Self-­ Management. PRISM is a process to support high school staff members, students,



Independence and Behavior 135

and families in identifying priority goals related to independence and behavior, and to assist in the selection and implementation of evidence-­based practices (EBPs) that target the priority goals. While independence-­related instruction is not a typical area of emphasis in the high school setting, where much of the focus is on receiving academic credits and moving toward graduation, CSESA suggests that independence is a key curricular area for all students with autism in secondary settings. Indeed, many skills related to independence are highlighted in Common Core, Extended Common Core, and 21st Century Skills, each calling for students who are able to work without prompts in a more self-­directed manner (National Research Council, 2012). In addition to developing new skills to enhance independence, PRISM may also support the reduction and redirection of behavior that students identify as interfering with their ability to participate fully in activities as they would like. PRISM teaches independence and self-­management skills for the increasing complexities and demands of high school and the transition to adulthood.

PRISM PROCESS PRISM is a four-step process for teams of school personnel, including general and special educators, families, and students. This process mirrors the ideal IEP transition process, as well as the process many teachers use before starting to teach a new unit or curriculum: Assess, Plan, Teach, and Monitor.

Assess The idea of teaching independence and self-­management skills to adolescents with autism may be overwhelming for practitioners, who may have little training, time, or resources to support these efforts. Questions may exist about the independence skills students have in their repetiores, which skills to teach, and the importance of those specific skills. Completing an informal assessment of skills related to independence can assist in answering these questions and guide programming in this area. CSESA developed an informal assessment of independence and self-­ management skills called the Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC; Hume et al., 2018). The full SSSC is available on the CSESA website. Team members, including caregivers, practitioners, and students, complete the measure describing students’ strengths, needs, and priorities in several subdomains related to independence (e.g., organization, problem solving, cooperation, self-­regulation, flexibility). Examples from the teacher and student sections of the SSSC appear in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. To obtain information about current and desired skills, it is important to gather perspectives from multiple sources, such as the teacher

136

2

N/O N/A

2

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2

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2

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2

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2

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st

 0  0

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Notes/Examples:

Notes: Content for the Secondary School Success Checklist aligns with the 21 Century Student Outcomes (www.p21.org/storage/documents/P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf). Skills reflected in this document are noted with an *. Content also aligns with the Common Core & Extended Common Core State Standards. Skills reflected in this document are noted with a  .

2

O7. Requests/Initiates meetings with work groups, staff, as appropriate O8. Other:

 1

0=no concern 2=major concern

 0

Priority Ranking

Success Monitoring & Notes (e.g., setting, with whom, examples)

FIGURE 6.1.  An excerpt from the teacher version of the SSSC. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted with permission.

0 1

   

0 1

   

0 1

   

0 1

   

0 1

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0 1

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   

N/O N/A 0=not like student 2=much like student

2

   

0 1

O1. Accesses and follows daily schedule Note: Format and length may vary based on student needs (e.g. written, objects, pictures, iPad); student refers to it throughout day O2. Uses tools to keep track of assignments/work tasks and/or scheduling Note: Format may vary (e.g., planner, calendar, technology, putting information in backpack) O3. Brings appropriate materials to assigned location Note: Includes bringing home and turning in homework, bringing supplies to school or community setting O4. Materials/work space are organized Note: Includes neat paperwork, tidy work space in school/community setting, returns materials to correct location O5. Identifies steps required to complete assigned activities*; completes assigned activities* Note: Includes breaking down larger projects into smaller steps, sequencing steps, listing steps in organizational systems, beginning, and completing assignments O6. Moves to and arrives at assigned location or activity on time Note: May include within classroom or across school/community

Subdomain: Organization

Skill Evaluation

Domain: Independence and Behavior

137

This is sort of like me.

This is NOT like me.

This is very much like me.



This is very much like me.

I have not had a chance to try this.



I have not had a chance to try this.

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2. Choose only one answer in the grey boxes that best describes you today.

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This is sort of like me.

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This is NOT like me.

I would sort of like to learn this.

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I would sort of like to learn this.

I already know how to do this.

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I already know how to do this.

I really want to learn this.

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I really want to learn this.

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3. Then choose one answer in the white boxes that best describes how much you want to learn the skill.

I would NOT like to learn this.

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I would NOT like to learn this.

FIGURE 6.2. An excerpt from the student version of the SSSC. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted with permission.

1. I keep track of my homework and turn it in on time. 2. I bring everything I need to my classes. 3. I ask teachers for help if I need it during class. 4. When I have a problem in class I can figure out a solution. 5. I look clean when I go to school. 6. I talk with other students about things they like.

1. Read each skill:

Skill

I play many different video games.

Skill

Example—this one is already filled out. One grey box is checked and one white box is checked.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism at Secondary Schools

responsible for the students program, family member(s), and the student him- or herself. A report identifying the highest priority skills related to independence and self-­management can pull together the information and serve as the basis for developing goals to target priority independence skills. Previous research on the SSSC with several hundred teachers, parents, and young adults indicates that there is more likely to be overlap in the identified priorities between teachers and parents (60% of priorities were similar), than between young adults and teachers (4% of priorities were similar), and young adults and parents (20% of priorities were similar) (Hume et al., 2018). Similarly, there were differences in how each team member rated performance across the many skills, with young adults rating their skills higher than did teachers and parents, and teachers rating skills higher than parents. Therefore, the team members will have to work together to ensure that the varied perspectives are represented in the selected goals, paying particular attention to the voices of young adults.

Plan After the team identifies priority goals related to independence and scales those goals using the goal attainment scaling described by Odom (Chapter 2, this volume), it is time to begin planning how to address these goals across the school day, and how to teach the necessary skills to reach these goals. This planning can occur during an IEP meeting, transition planning meeting, or a meeting specifically related to supporting student independence. There are several planning documents to help guide the team. First, the team should work through the EBP selection flowchart (Figure 6.3). This can help to determine whether the team should complete a functional behavior assessment (FBA) as part of the assessment and planning process. If the prioritized behavior interferes with the safety of the student or others (e.g., self-­injurious behavior), an FBA should be conducted and the findings should contribute to the EBP selection process. If the priority goal(s) are not focused on an interfering behavior, then the next step in the planning process is to select an EBP that may best target the selected skill. There are several considerations in this stage of the planning process. First, it is helpful to determine what EBPs have proven effective in targeting various goals. The CSESA team developed a guide that links the goals from the SSSC to EBPs used to target similar goals, which can be a helpful place to start. For example, if team members have identified “organizing work space/materials” as an independence priority goal for a student, they may select prompting, reinforcement, or self-­management as one of the EBPs to use when teaching organizational skills. Note that this guide is based on the Wong and colleagues (2014) report of EBPs and does not yet include the new EBPs identified in the Steinbrenner and colleagues (2020) report.

139 If an FBA has not been conducted or a new one is needed, review FBA module and select FBA as intervention.

No

• •

Develop intervention plan Choose which resources are relevant to selected EBPs

Choose appropriate EBPs

Document any information about student and previous interventions (see back)

Review “Linking Selected Goals to EBPs”

FIGURE 6.3.  EBP selection flowchart. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted with permission.

If an FBA has been conducted, review the findings and select intervention accordingly.

Yes

Is the goal related to an interfering behavior?

GOAL

Decide on the most appropriate intervention or strategy to address the selected goal using the following flowchart.

Independence and Behavior EBP Selection Flow Chart

Student ID#: ______________________ Teacher/Case Manager#: ________________

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism at Secondary Schools

There are a number of considerations the team members may want to make as they narrow their selection of an EBP (or several) to target the prioritized skill. Examples of considerations include student preferences and skills (e.g., How does the student currently communicate? What is reinforcing for the student?), and interventions used previously to address similar goals (e.g., What has worked in the past? What hasn’t worked?). A planning form to assist in selecting EBPs appears in Figure 6.4. Student ID#: ______________________ Teacher/Case Manager#: ________________

Optional Considerations to Assist in EBP Selection Prior to intervention selection, it is important to consider how the student’s strengths, preferences and characteristics should influence intervention selection and implementation. Note: If not sure or need additional information, check with the student, if applicable. Communication Skills: How does this student routinely communicate with others?

Preferences: What are the student’s likes and dislikes? Who does the student enjoy interacting with (e.g., peers, staff, other)?

Other Personality Traits or Characteristics: What other things are important to note? What does the student do well?

Program Strengths/Supports Already in Place: What resources/expertise does the program and/or staff have? What supports can be accessed?

Consider interventions or strategies that have been tried in the past to address the selected goal: What was the intervention? What worked? What didn’t work?

FIGURE 6.4.  A planning form to assist in selecting EBPs. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted with permission.



Independence and Behavior 141

Once the team determines how the priority skill will be taught, the next step in the planning process is to determine when the skill will be taught and who will be responsible for teaching it. It is also helpful to identify what resources may be needed (e.g., technology, visual support). It may be difficult to find time in the busy school day to address these skills; however, with a flexible and creative team, it is possible to address these priorities. CSESA recommends that teams spend 30 minutes per week explicitly teaching the skill and providing generalization opportunities to practice the skill. Teams find that working on these skills within a study hall or academic strategy course is beneficial, as well as using an advisory period or collaborating with a content/special area teacher who recognizes the importance of these skills and is willing to support them in his or her classroom. Teams can use the student planning menu described previously to map out details related to instruction.

Teach Once the team has developed a plan with selected EBPs and opportunities for instruction and practice, it is time to teach the skills. When preparing to begin teaching, the team members should consider their level of expertise related to the EBP they choose to use. They should ask themselves (1) what they know about this EBP, (2) what else they need to know about this EBP, and (3) how they can learn to use the practice most effectively. The AFIRM modules (https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-­modules) and CSESA website offer resources to help school teams answer this last question by providing the professional development materials necessary for school staff to learn about the identified EBPs. School teams use resources such as EBP fact sheets, implementation steps, and implementation checklists to learn to use EBPs and to monitor how well they are using EBPs. For novice professionals, these resources provide invaluable support and help them communicate with others, such as general educators, about how best to teach students using chosen EBPs. Experienced professionals use the EBP resources to check their use of EBPs and identify when their teaching has drifted away from effective implementation. They also use the resources to communicate with others and have opportunities to coach colleagues on their use of EBPs. As team members identify gaps in their knowledge of EBPs and fill these gaps with resources and coaching from peers and mentors, they begin the process of teaching. Instruction can take place in any setting, such as general education classrooms, special education settings, one-on-one meetings with case managers, job settings, club meetings, or lunch spaces. Instruction can be conducted by various professionals supporting students in those settings. Several examples of priority skills, selected EBPs, and teaching plans are highlighted in Table 6.1.

142

Priority goal

Identifies steps required to complete assignments

Demonstrates appropriate frequency for classroom participation

Demonstrates grooming of hair, teeth, nails, and skin

SSSC domain

Organization

Self-Regulation

Personal Presentation

Teaching plan 1. Use promotion and reinforcement to teach student how to complete a task analysis for different assignments. Teach student how to type out task analysis on iPhone using Reminders. 2. Prompts student to complete task analysis during class using iPhone. 1. Create a visual with the maximum number of offtask and minimum number of on-task questions the student should ask during a class period. 2. Use prompting and reinforcement to teach student how to manage his or her behavior by checking off when he or she is asked on/off topic questions. 1. Create video model with each step identified of student brushing teeth on iPad. 2. Play video for student daily before teeth brushing.

Who/where to implement • Resource teacher/ academic strategies class • General education teacher/literature class

• Case manager/advisory period • General education teacher/chemistry

• Special education teacher/after lunch • Paraprofessional/after lunch

Evidence-based practice • Prompting • Reinforcement • Task analysis • Visual supports

• Self-management • Visual supports

• Antecedent-based intervention • Task analysis • Technology assisted • Video modeling

TABLE 6.1.  Example PRISM Process

Independence and Behavior 143



Monitor As with any taught skill, it is critical for school staff members to recognize when the student is and is not learning, in order to adjust the plan as needed to optimize progress. The challenge is that data collection often feels cumbersome and time-­ consuming and can therefore be overlooked. School staff members who learn to use data collection that works for them are far more likely to witness their students’ progress because they are better able to recognize opportunities to shape their teaching to meet students’ needs. Also, they are better able to advocate for the use of specific EBPs by others, such as general education teachers and parents, to help students generalize skills across settings. In their implementation of PRISM, teachers created usable data collection systems. Embedded in these systems are a number of guiding strategies: 1. Letting go of one-size-fits-all approaches to data collection if these are not working. 2. Finding opportunities for students to assist in collecting data, especially when the EBP self-­management is used. 3. Finding opportunities to use simple technology to collect data (e.g., using an iPhone to take photos of permanent products or simple tallies). 4. Prioritizing when and how often the skill must be assessed to determine progress. As an example, for the skill of bringing homework to class, do data need to be collected during every period or can data be collected by different teachers during different weeks to lower the burden? Regardless of method, PRISM teams use data collection to inform their use of EBPs and student progress on use of the skill being taught. Figure 6.5 provides an example data collection form. It is also important to monitor the implementation of the EBP to ensure that it is being used with fidelity. This can help the team members better understand what is happening if the priority skill is not changing—­does the team need to select another EBP or does it need additional support in implementing the EBP correctly? Implementation checklists that provide a step-by-step guide for each EBP are available on the AFIRM website.

TIPS FOR IMPLEMENTING PRISM In working with high school staff members, CSESA team members learned many lessons about implementing the PRISM program. The subsequent sections contains tips for implementation.

SupportinG ADoLeScentS with AutiSm At SeconDAry SchooLS

144

Weekly Observation—PRISM

Date:_____________

Conducted during:  Teaching session  Generalization Location: ____________________________________ Observation of PRISM goals Goal 1: Add Goal here Was the goal targeted?

Yes

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Was the skill demonstrated by the student? If so…

Yes

No

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Student ID:

Time: ___:____ Length: ______ min.

No

# of occurrences

Frequency? Time in seconds / minutes

Latency? Metric: ______________

Other? Level of support Notes/Anecdotal

Ind.

Low

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Overall impression 75% or more of the observation

50–74% of the observation

25–49% of the observation

Less than 25% of the observation

The student responded well to the intervention strategies. The intervention strategies promoted independence. The student was academically engaged during the observation period.

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Other:

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

FIGURE 6.5. Example data collection form. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary

Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Adapted with permission.



Independence and Behavior 145

Generating Student Enthusiasm Targeting a skill that the student has identified as priority is a key in generating buyin for the PRISM process with young adults. Linking the priority skills to long-term goals such as plans for employment, hobbies, or community college can increase motivation and engagement during the PRISM process. Historically, young adults with autism have been underinvolved in the transition planning process, and research indicates that their insight and awareness should be carefully considered and incorporated. Ensuring that young adults deem the targeted skill and the selected intervention as important will likely increase their willingness to participate. Research on the SSSC also indicated that young adults did not choose their lowest ranked skills as their highest priorities to learn. In fact, several of their lowest ranked skills were also their lowest ranked priorities (e.g., responding appropriately to change, identifying emotions). This suggests that selecting the most obvious deficits as intervention targets may not be the most compelling or effective launching points for intervention.

Supporting Implementation It is often helpful to explicitly teach the skill in a smaller setting first, then work to generalize the intervention and skill to larger settings. For example, one student who was working on identifying steps for assignment completion in his Language Arts class was learning how to create a task analysis to break larger assignments into smaller steps. His special education teacher worked with him individually during brief meetings to teach him the concept of a task analysis—­he practiced breaking down larger skills (e.g., making a phone call, making a sandwich) into smaller steps. Then, when he mastered the concept, he worked with the general education teacher to transfer that process in his Language Arts classroom. The use of technology can be instrumental to the PRISM process, as there are many great tools and apps that are free and accessible on a variety of devices. Using basic reminders and alarms on personal devices can support self-­management, video and photo prompts can increase independence, and digital sticky notes and lists can improve organization. Building supports into personal devices (iPhones, iTouch) allows for portability across classrooms/settings, decreases stigma, and increases the likelihood that the support will generalize.

Managing Data Collection Tracking progress on the scaled priority goal/skill is key to ensuring that students are increasing their independence and self-­management skills. It can be difficult to track progress across a variety of settings and implementers, so consider using

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a Google form or other shared document that various staff members can easily access. A single staff member (e.g., case manager) can send a weekly prompt and link to the team, including the young adult, to weigh-in on performance. These data can be compared across locations and respondents, and used to inform the planning and teaching process. Depending on the selected skills, students may make quick progress once they are explicitly taught and monitored. The team can use the SSSC to select the next priority skill/goal as progress is made and/or select multiple priority skills at once to target for implementation.

CASE EXAMPLE: LIAM Liam, a minimally verbal high school junior, was served primarily in special education settings. His homeroom teacher and case manager, Ms. Andrews, was eager to find job experiences for Liam first on campus, then in the broader community. As part of his transition planning process and in an effort to find the right job and supports, Liam and his team completed the SSSC to help to identify his areas of strength and needs (Assess phase of PRISM). Everyone identified organizational and literacy skills as strengths, and Liam and Ms. Andrews identified problem-­ solving skills, especially asking for assistance when feeling “stuck,” as a priority skill to target. Liam most often communicated through the use of visuals or his iPad; thus, he sometimes had difficulty initiating communication with new people and in new settings when the proper supports were not in place or a communication routine had not yet been established. Ms. Andrews knew that Liam needed to be equipped with both supports and skills to ensure that he felt successful at a new job site, and she set out to make a plan for Liam (Plan phase of PRISM). She first planned where Liam could begin his work experiences on campus. Using his assessment information (strengths in organization and literacy) and her knowledge of his interests (specifically anime books), she approached the school media center director, Ms. Ainsley, and asked about possible job opportunities. She was happy to offer the center as a job site, and noted that reshelving was always needed, and there were always tasks related to cleaning and organizing. Ms. Andrews knew she would need not only to explicitly teach Liam the required job skills but also teach him what to do if he had questions or wasn’t sure what to do next at the job site. She then used the PRISM linking document to determine what EBPs had proven successful to support the targeted priority problem-­solving skill. She noted that prompting, reinforcement, visual supports, and augmentative and alternative communication, specifically the Picture Exchange Communication System, had proven successful in supporting individuals to ask for assistance. She considered what had worked for Liam in the past and in other settings, as well as what



Independence and Behavior 147

EBPs would be easy to implement in the media center, and determined that using prompting and reinforcement to teach Liam how to pass a visual cue stating “I need help” to a media center staff member would be a good place to start in teaching Liam this priority skill. Ms. Andrews and Ms. Ainsley worked together to begin to teach Liam both the skills required for the job (e.g., alphabetical and numerical systems to reshelve books, how to reach the top of the stacks to dust) and what to do if he got stuck (Teach phase of PRISM). The team members decided that 10 minutes per day for this explicit instruction during his advisory period, which aligned with the preparation period for both staff members, would allow Liam to be successful in his job placement to begin at the start of the second quarter. The team first modified the work environment slightly to ensure there were opportunities to ask for assistance, including the use of books whose author names/index numbers were not readable or when a critical tool (e.g., cleaning supplies) was missing from the area. Using prompting and reinforcement, they taught Liam to use the nearby visual and present it to various staff members in requesting help to complete a specific task. They ensured there were many opportunities for Liam to be both successful at completing the tasks independently and to ask for assistance if required. After several weeks of the brief period of instruction, Liam learned the basic skills of the job. Ms. Andrews and Ms. Ainsley noticed, however, that Liam often waited for their prompts to pick up the visual cue when he was unsure of what to do. They gathered data on what strategies he used when he was stuck on a task (Monitor phase of PRISM), and he most frequently stood still and looked at the visual cue rather than picking it up and bringing it to a staff member. They wondered if they were contributing to this somehow, so they decided to review their use of the EBPs, specifically, prompting and visual supports. They looked at the fidelity form for prompting from the AFIRM module and realized they had not systematically faded their prompts, which may have contributed to Liam’s waiting for them to provide cues before picking up the visual. They also determined, when reviewing the AFIRM module related to visual supports, that adding small photos of the media center staff members from whom Liam could ask for support could be a helpful cue to remind Liam to whom to direct the communication. These modifications allowed Liam to become independent in the use of the visual cue, thus supporting his problem-­solving skills in his job setting—­a priority goal that Liam and his team established.

CONCLUSION PRISM provides educational teams with a step-by-step process for focusing skills development on the independence and self-­ management skills supportive of

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in-­school and future outcomes. PRISM implementers assess skills and identify behaviors that may be interfering with the youth’s learning and necessitate deeper investigation. In addition to addressing interfering behavior, PRISM implementers build and strengthen adaptive skills for generalized use across various settings and with different people. Importantly, assessment and prioritization of skills includes students’ perspectives on their own skills, as well as their preferences for which skills they wish to develop. Educators and other relevant professionals select appropriate EBPs for the teaching of independence and self-­management skills outlined in the skills development plan. Teaching of these EBPs is monitored, as is the student’s progress, in order to support further decision making about the effectiveness of the implementation. These Assess, Plan, Teach, and Monitor phases of PRISM support teams in systematically and effectively supporting students in their development of skills critical to their current and future educational, work, and community living experiences.

REFERENCES Cavendish, W., Connor, D. J., & Rediker, E. (2017). Engaging students and parents in transition-­ focused individualized education programs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 52(4), 228–235. Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C., & Rotherham-­Fuller, E. (2007). Involvement or isolation?: The social networks of children with autism in regular classrooms. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 230–242. Cresswell, L., Hinch, R., & Cage, E. (2019). The experiences of peer relationships amongst autistic adolescents: A systematic review of the qualitative evidence. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 61, 45–60. Hannon, G., & Taylor, E. P. (2013). Suicidal behaviour in adolescents and young adults with ASD: Findings from a systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1197– 1204. Hume, K., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J., Sideris, J., Smith, L., Kucharczyk, S., & Szidon, K. (2018). Multi-­informant assessment of transition-­related skills and skill importance in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 22(1), 40–50. Martin, J. E., & Williams-­Diehm, K. (2013). Student engagement and leadership of the transition planning process. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 36(1), 43–50. Meyer, A. T., Powell, P. S., Butera, N., Klinger, M. R., & Klinger, L. G. (2018). Brief report: Developmental trajectories of adaptive behavior in children and adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(8), 2870–2878. National Research Council. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Pugliese, C. E., Anthony, L., Strang, J. F., Dudley, K., Wallace, G. L., & Kenworthy, L. (2015). Increasing adaptive behavior skill deficits from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorder: Role of executive function. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(6), 1579–1587.



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Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Rast, J. E., Rava, J. A., & Anderson, K. A. (2015). National autism indicators report: Transition into young adulthood. Philadelphia: Life Course Outcomes Research Program, A. J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University. Shattuck, P. T., Orsmond, G. I., Wagner, M., & Cooper, B. P. (2011). Participation in social activities among adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. PLoS ONE, 6(11), Article e27176. Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., . . . Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-­based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. Sterzing, P. R., Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Wagner, M., & Cooper, B. P. (2012). Bullying involvement and autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence and correlates of bullying involvement among adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 166(11), 1058–1064. Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., . . . Schultz, T. K. (2014). Evidence-­based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://autism.unt.edu/sites/ default/files/2014-EBP-­Report%20%28NPDC%29.pdf.

CHAPTER 7

Families Leann Smith DaWalt Kate Szidon

“We will be doing things differently based on our experience in the group, especially working on the self-help skills we never really gave him the opportunity to develop.” —Parent “I enjoyed problem solving. Sometimes it’s easy to forget the obvious solutions.” —Parent “Our attitude changed. We didn’t think our son could do a job and go to school—­and he can do both.” —Parent “Many of the topics encouraged conversation among the students as well as honest feelings. I think they are more aware of their IEP [individual education plan] and how important self-­advocacy is for their future. I really enjoyed the honest conversations and watching the students become more aware of their own power in the IEP process.” —Teacher

BACKGROUND ON FAMILIES AND TRANSITION The family represents an essential system of support for adolescent learning and development (Henderson & Mapp, 2002), and experiences in the home and at school provide a foundation for growth. For students with disabilities, the family system has consistently been related to outcomes during the transition to adulthood (Foley, Dyke, Girdler, Bourke, & Leonard, 2012; Kolher & Field, 2003). For 150



Families 151

example, longitudinal studies of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) suggest that family systems marked by warmth, positive relationships, and adaptability are related to improvements in behavioral profiles for individuals with ASD over time (e.g., Baker, Seltzer, & Greenberg, 2011; Woodman, Smith, Greenberg, & Mailick, 2015, 2016). Relatedly, utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2), researchers have found that high parental expectations during high school are associated with greater participation in postsecondary education after high school (Chiang, Cheung, Hickson, Xiang, & Tsai, 2012) and better employment outcomes for adults with autism (Kirby, 2016). These findings highlight the importance of parents and other family members in supporting transition success for youth with ASD. For schools to partner effectively with families of youth with ASD, it is important to understand the unique needs of families during the transition period. Parents of adolescents and adults with autism report higher levels of stress compared to parents of similar-­age children without disabilities, as well as parents of children with other types of disabilities (Barker, Mailick, & Smith, 2014). This stress, in turn, has been associated with compromised physical health for parents (Johnson, Frenn, Feetham, & Simpson, 2011). In a study of daily health symptoms, mothers of adolescents and adults with autism had higher levels of fatigue, gastrointestinal (GI) problems, and headaches compared with mothers of similar-­ age children without disabilities (Smith, Greenberg, & Seltzer, 2012). Mothers of adolescents and adults with autism also have been found to have dysregulated patterns of cortisol, a stress hormone, compared with mothers of children without disabilities; these atypical patterns are associated with their children’s behavior problems (Seltzer et al., 2010). Importantly, the psychological and physiological consequences of chronic parenting stress can limit the ability of parents to effectively carry out their critical role as advocate and organizer of their children’s services and activities during the transition to adulthood. As such, interventions that reduce family stress and support familywide positivity have the potential to promote well-being for not only parents but also transition-­age youth with ASD. Although the transition from high school to adult life is a time when families need supports, many families find interacting with school professionals to be stressful (Bezdek, Summers, & Turnbull, 2010; Fish, 2006), are anxious about changes in services that may be associated with transition (Lawrence, Alleckson, & Bjorklund, 2010; Lounds, Seltzer, Greenberg, & Shattuck, 2007; Whitney-­ Thomas & Hanley-­Maxwell, 1996), and would like to be more engaged in the planning process (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Javitz, & Shattuck, 2012). According to the report by the National Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families and Schools (Moorman et al., 2012), which examined family involvement and family–­school partnership intervention research, very few educational intervention research studies (fewer than 15%) target or assess family outcomes. Of those that do address family outcomes, only 11% sought to improve family relationships.

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Even fewer studies have examined the specific ways that schools can support and involve families with ASD in the transition process (Smith & Anderson, 2014). The Transitioning Together program for high school students and their families, one research-­based approach for engaging and supporting families during the transition, is the focus of this chapter.

TRANSITIONING TOGETHER: PROCEDURES AND MATERIALS Transitioning Together is an 8-week, multifamily group psychoeducation intervention designed to provide information and support to families of transition-­age youth with ASD (Smith, Greenberg, & Mailick, 2012, 2014). The program involves education for parents on a variety of topics relevant to transition planning, as well as guided practice in helping families to problem-­solve around current difficulties and stress. The program also involves a social group for adolescents and offers families opportunities for social connections to, and support from, others who have similar experiences. Participation in Transitioning Together has been associated with improvements in social interactions for youth with ASD, as well as improvements in problem-­solving skills and depressive symptoms for parents (DaWalt, Greenberg, & Mailick, 2018). For the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism (CSESA) project, the intervention was modified from its original design, which was for implementation in clinical settings, in order for it to be implemented by educators working with transition-­age youth on the autism spectrum in high school settings. During the pilot phase of CSESA, the research team developed the modified version of Transitioning Together, drawing on the existing literature and research team members’ experience implementing interventions in school settings. Feedback was solicited from critical stakeholders on the acceptability, feasibility, design, and anticipated impact of the intervention (Kucharczyk et al., 2015). Notable differences from the original, clinical version included more flexibility in the joining sessions to reduce burden on school staff and families, additional student activities to support the development of self-­determination and executive functioning skills for students, a decision tree to help identify potential group facilitators in the school setting (see Figure 7.1), and a menu of suggestions to improve family attendance, including alternative schedules, meals, and high school credit options. In this chapter we begin by describing the process for creating an implementation team. Next we describe the three key components of the resulting Transitioning Together program designed specifically for implementation in school settings: Joining Sessions, Parent Group Sessions, and Social Group for Teens. Finally, we close with case studies of schools that have implemented Transitioning Together and tips for educators who seek to engage in education and support groups with families of youth with ASD.



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FIGURE 7.1.  Decision tree for choosing a Transitioning Together facilitator. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted with permission.

Developing an Intervention Team One or two group facilitators can run the Transitioning Together program. These facilitators should have expertise in working with families, as well as some knowledge of community resources for transition-­age youth and adults on the autism spectrum. In the development and piloting of the Transitioning Together school-­ based intervention for CSESA, the research team learned that schools may have

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

challenges identifying and recruiting facilitators with skills and knowledge for family groups. Because family interventions are not often offered in a school setting, schools do not always have a staff person designated as a family interventionist. The decision tree in Figure 7.1 was created to help school teams think about providers within the district or in the larger community that might serve as family facilitators for the intervention.

Joining Sessions Prior to attending the eight group sessions, the intervention facilitator(s) invite the entire family to “Joining Sessions.” There are two joining sessions, 1 hour each in length, although if necessary for the family’s schedule or logistics, they can be accomplished in one longer, 2-hour session. Joining sessions allow the program team and family to develop rapport and set goals prior to the intervention. For Joining Session 1, families discuss their history and express their hopes and concerns for their child with ASD. This session allows facilitators the opportunity to hear family members’ stories and better understand their positive and negative experiences in schools and in the community. In Joining Session 2, parents complete an Ecomap of their family, friend, and community connections (Kuhn, Ehlers, & DaWalt, 2018; see Figure 7.2) and list the goals they have for the Transitioning Together program. These activities give the facilitators a better understanding of what supports the family already has in place, and what family members hope to gain from the intervention. School teams may conduct sessions in person, by telephone, or through video conference based on family preference and staff availability.

Parent Sessions The parent group meets for eight weekly sessions. Each session involves education on a topic relevant to ASD and the transition to adulthood, as well as guided practice with problem solving for individual family challenges. Parent group sessions last approximately 90 minutes (2 hours if a meal is provided). Sessions begin with 15 minutes of socializing that includes a check-in activity and icebreakers to allow facilitators to gauge how things are going each week for individual families, as well as to foster connections between group members. Check-in activities should be monitored for emerging family challenges that may be problem-­solving topics. Common problem-­solving topics voiced by parents appear in Table 7.1. The check-in activities are followed by 30 minutes of education and 45 minutes of discussion and problem solving. Education sessions include facilitator presentations on topics that affect families raising teens on the autism spectrum. These topics appear in Table 7.2. Some topics can be addressed by a guest speaker from the community who can share local resources on topics such as employment,

Ecomap Name ______________________ Date ________ Facilitator ___________________

Pediatrician

Adolescent with ASD Friends Immediate Family

Health Clinic

Respite

Relatives

Name of Parent Community Center

Social Service Agency

Religion or Spirituality Parent’s Health Insurance

Work

Children’s Health Insurance

School Child Attends

FIGURE 7.2.  Ecomap tool developed for use during parent Joining Sessions. From DaWalt, L. S. (n.d.). Transitioning Together: Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and their parents—­Parent Facilitator Guide. Madison: Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–­M adison. Reprinted with permission from The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (CSESA) in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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156

TABLE 7.1.  Common Problem-Solving Topics • Perseveration • Coping with stress • Independent living skills • Filling unstructured time • Following through on tasks • Homework

• Lying • Social isolation • Getting stuck on media • Motivation • Hygiene • Sibling concerns

postsecondary education, and legal issues. Prior to running the eight sessions, facilitators plan for each presentation based on their local community resources and their own knowledge and expertise with each topic. Teaching and practicing positivity and problem solving are key ingredients in the Transitioning Together intervention. Facilitators model positivity and problem solving throughout the 8-week intervention. They formally introduce the problem-­ solving process early on (in Session 3) to families and provide guided practice on TABLE 7.2.  Topics and Goals for Parent Sessions Session

Goals

Session 1: Autism in Adulthood

• Meet other families • Learn about the developmental course of ASD

Session 2: Employment Planning

• Learn about employment services and strategies

Session 3: College Planning and Problem Solving

• Learn about postsecondary services and planning strategies • Practice problem-solving method

Session 4: Family Topics

• Learn about impact of autism on family and the environment on individuals with ASD

Session 5: Risks to Adult Independence

• Learn strategies for behavior management during late adolescence and early adulthood • Discuss advocacy strategies when behaviors are misunderstood by community

Session 6: Community Involvement

• Finding community activities and social opportunities • Discuss safety concerns for adults with ASD

Session 7: Legal Issues

• Receive information on long-term planning (guardianship, wills, trusts, etc.)

Session 8: Risks to Health and Well-Being

• Learn about risks to parental health and wellbeing



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how to solve problems as a group. For each subsequent session, time should be set aside to practice group problem solving for at least one identified problem per session. For each problem-­solving activity, the group chooses one problem a family is facing. The group members work together to select strategies that the family can implement to address that problem. Families are invited to share updates on strategy implementation with the group during subsequent sessions. This process provides an opportunity to gain from the vast experiences of the multiple families present and to focus on addressing problems in a constructive, noncritical way. Teaching positivity and the problem-­solving process is designed to help family members see themselves as having expertise that can be shared with others in the group, as well as agency in addressing difficult situations as they arise. At the close of each session, parents complete a brief survey assessing their satisfaction with the session and their learning. Facilitators also rate the engagement of participants. These data are reviewed weekly as part of progress monitoring and to improve implementation each week.

Teen Sessions The social group for teens with ASD is also eight sessions across 8 weeks (see Table 7.3). These sessions happen at the same time as the parent sessions but in a separate location in the same building. Teen sessions are staffed to address the unique needs of student participants. Through Joining Sessions, facilitators should gather enough information about the teens’ interests, past experience in groups, attitudes, and skills to make an informed determination of the necessary staffing ratio for successful implementation. Social groups are tailored to the specific needs of the teens in the group and are designed to provide an enjoyable experience with exposure to learning activities. The primary goal of the teen sessions is to encourage teen participants to attend the group and experience positive interactions with other students and staff. Some teens may initially have concerns about engaging in social groups, so it is a primary goal of teen facilitation to work toward increasing enjoyment and engagement in the teen group sessions. Session topics address goal setting, social planning, problem solving, and fostering independent living and self-­management skills. A strong emphasis is placed on self-­determination. For example, the Student Snapshot Questionnaire supports an activity wherein youth can explore and practice sharing their interests, strengths, and concerns (see Figure 7.3). At the close of each session, teens complete a brief survey assessing their satisfaction with the session and their learning. Facilitators also rate the engagement of youth. As happens with the parent group, these data are reviewed weekly as part of progress monitoring and to improve implementation each week. Notably, for each session, there are a range of accommodations and modifications to the curriculum in order to support teens across the autism spectrum.

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TABLE 7.3.  Topics and Goals for Teen Sessions Session

Goals

Session 1: Introductions

• Introduce teens and facilitators and establish a safe environment for peer interaction • Have teens complete the first part of the Student Snapshot Questionnaire

Session 2: Goal Setting

• Learn a structure for goal setting

Session 3: School Culture Discussion

• Students will think about their experiences in high school and what they wish they had known before starting school • Completion of the student interview portion of the school culture project

Session 4: School Culture Project

• Students will practice in sharing wisdom to others via a project (e.g., videotape, poster, handout)

Session 5: Identifying Strengths and Areas for Growth

• Assist teens in identifying personal strengths and areas for improvement • Discuss strengths and difficulties in the context of the school setting • Have teens complete the second part of the Student Snapshot Questionnaire

Session 6: Student Snapshot

• Teens will complete their Student Snapshot project using the two Student Snapshot Questionnaires (see Figure 7.3) and information from the 5 weeks

Session 7: Party Planning

• Plan a party for the group while learning to budget for expenses

Session 8: Party and Graduation

• Celebrate personal and group achievements and continue to establish peer relationships

Case Study of Successful Implementation by a School Team Highland High School is one of three medium-­size high schools in an affluent suburban school district outside a large city. The high school is distinguished by high student scores on both the ACT and Advanced Placement (AP) exams. Highland High School offers an extensive curriculum, including classes in the arts, business, world languages, and engineering. The families in the district expect their schools to encourage college and career readiness for all students. Highland’s special education department works closely with many families that are very involved in their teens’ school program. These parents are strong advocates and meet with the high school staff frequently to ensure that their teens are making progress in their high school classes and receiving all the appropriate accommodations for success. Many Highland parents of students with autism have expressed concern about the high school programming and have a lot of

Student Snapshot Interview Questions 1 Directions: • Take turns asking your partner a question from the sheet • Write the answer to your partner’s question down on the sheet • If time allows, share your partner’s response with the larger group

1. What is your name?

2. What are your interests or hobbies?

3. What are you good at? What are your talents?

(continued)

FIGURE 7.3.  Student Snapshot Interview used during Teen Group sessions to foster self-­determination. From DaWalt, L. S. (n.d.). Transitioning Together: Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and their parents—­Parent Facilitator Guide. Madison: Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin–­M adison. Reprinted with permission from The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (CSESA) in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

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Student Snapshot Interview Questions 1 4. What are the things you like to do in school?

5. What are you most looking forward to this year in high school?

6. What are you most concerned about this year in high school?

FINISHED? Hand the completed sheet to a facilitator.

FIGURE 7.3.  (continued)

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Families 161

questions and concerns about their children’s transition to adulthood. Highland staff members decided that CSESA’s information and support group, Transitioning Together, would be a perfect intervention to help these families understand transition services and help prepare their youth for life after high school. Highland staff includes a Transition Specialist, Marcy, who helps high school teams address questions about adult services and transition issues. Marcy is a special educator who attends meetings, consults with individualized education plan (IEP) teams, and connects them with appropriate adult service agencies. Her role connects local postsecondary educators and adult service agencies with the high school students and staff. She is the perfect staff member to coordinate and help run the Transitioning Together group. In the spring, Marcy was trained by CSESA staff to deliver the Transitioning Together curriculum. She plans to offer the group the following spring to give herself ample time to assemble her intervention team and recruit the help of community experts to present some of the weekly topics. She enlists the services of a local family support group leader to help facilitate the parent group and works with a local university to have a group of preservice teachers run the curriculum of the teen group. Marcy petitioned the school board to allow each of the teens in Transitioning Together to get high school course credit for attending the eight sessions. She also requested funding to provide dinners for all participating families, so they can offer the Transitioning Together group in the evening. Marcy’s flexible schedule as a support specialist made it easier for her to fit the Transitioning Together group into her schedule instead of an already busy day of classroom teaching. Her job enabled her to have flexible hours to offer the parent group at an evening time, so that the group would be convenient for families with busy work schedules. As a known and trusted expert, she can plan out how best to organize the families into groups with similar interests and support needs, which then helps families as they problem-­solve the challenges they may experience with their teens. Marcy’s Transitioning Together team members offer their first group the following spring. For the district’s first family group, the special education department wants to prioritize college bound youth who spend most of their week in general education settings. Six families attend the group on Monday evenings. The families are all supporting high school juniors and seniors who are planning to attend 4-year universities when they graduate high school. Linda, Marcy’s co-­ facilitator, has known many of the families for several years as they attended her community support group. Linda is able to provide valuable information about the community supports that families find challenging to understand and access. The teens meet at the same time as the parents, each in different community rooms at the public library. Teens work together, with support from the college facilitators, on the curriculum activities. They engage in problem solving on

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topics such as how to better organize themselves to get homework done and ways to join more social activities at school. Leisure time, at the end of the group session, is clearly a favorite. The group members are delighted to find out they all collect Pokémon cards and spend the free time discussing their shared interests. The parents are happy to meet other families who have youth with similar challenges in the same school district. Families learn from each other and are encouraged by success stories. One family even decided to let their teen start studying for the driver’s test after learning that another teen in the group had successfully completed driver’s education classes. One parent said, “Connecting with other parents who were in the same situation was priceless.” At the end of their first Transitioning Together group, the special education department reviews the data collected on participant satisfaction and engagement. Families are very pleased with the experience and attend all the groups. The department found that Transitioning Together strengthened the schools’ relationship with families and improved the understanding of adult services and supports. Highland School District staff members collaborated over the summer to write a grant, so that they could offer the evening family group two times per year, one group in the fall and another in the spring. The district personnel are looking at all their transition-­age students to determine how to best group families with similar interests and support needs. Next fall, they plan to offer Transitioning Together for families of teens with autism and intellectual disabilities who use augmentative and alternative communication strategies. They have hired a speech–­ language pathologist to co-­facilitate the teen group and help adapt the activities.

CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS RELATED TO IMPLEMENTATION For the CSESA study, all intervention schools had the opportunity to receive training and coaching in the Transitioning Together program. Out of the 30 schools that were given the opportunity to provide the Transitioning Together program in their communities, 17 CSESA intervention schools implemented the program (57% of schools). Over half of the groups included students from both standard and modified diplomas. A high level of treatment fidelity was observed on average (91%). Aspects of the program that were implemented well by school teams, included the dosage offered (frequency, length of sessions, joining sessions), preparation before group (inviting speakers, organized materials), facilitator strategies (modeling positivity, problem-­solving focus), and sharing relevant content with families during sessions. Aspects of the program that were somewhat more challenging for teams to implement included the group session process (problem solving, dialogue among families), lesson structure (check-in with families, introduce topic, follow up on concerns), and evaluation/progress monitoring (engagement ratings, surveys; Kuhn et al., 2022).



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Notably, 13 of the 30 intervention schools in the CSESA study were unable to get a Transitioning Together program running during the 2-year partnership with the research staff. Unsuccessful schools encountered many challenges. Barriers included difficulty finding staff to facilitate the Transitioning Together program due to staff turnover or shortages, lack of interest by school administration in providing a family support program at their school, and unavailable funding/ mechanisms for school staff to provide sessions outside of the contract day. Also, in some schools, staff members were willing and able to provide the intervention, but families were not interested in attending sessions or were unable to participate due to other barriers (e.g., work schedules, transportation). As such, it is important for schools/districts to consider context when determining if, when, and how to implement Transitioning Together with their community. For example, schools with limited financial resources, high rates of staff turnover, and/or other reasons to be concerned about availability of school staff members to serve as facilitators may need to consider partnerships with other organizations and entities in their community, such as local autism societies or support organizations, to be able to enlist group facilitators. The subsequent case study provides an example of challenges that individual schools face in providing Transitioning Together, despite creative planning by school and local community staff.

Case Study of Barrier to Transitioning Together Implementation Park High School is a small rural school in a farming community. The high school is a hub for many community activities. The district built several unique programs and services for their students with disabilities over time, reflecting a long-term commitment to supporting students and families. For many years, the transition program at Park High School has partnered with a local community provider that offers specialized work experiences including janitorial jobs around the school district, gardening activities, and office work preparing mailings and shredding documents. The special education teachers at the high school appreciate the opportunities the community has built for the students in the special education program, but they also realize that these opportunities do not fit the needs and interests of all their students. The staff members believe that many of the parents of students with autism would benefit from attending the Transitioning Together program to better inform parents of the range of programs and opportunities available to their transition-­age youth. The district met with a local community college whose staff also had an interest in providing community information and support. Both teams crafted a plan for a pilot Transitioning Together group that would meet weekly on the college campus. They discussed ways to include college students interested in education degrees, as well as high school counseling staff, to facilitate the curriculum for the teen and parent groups. Although the high school and college staff members were enthusiastic about the feasibility of their

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

plan, when it was brought to the school board to approve the necessary funding, the board felt that the school district was already providing adequate programming for their transition-­age youth. Without the approved funding, the school team was unable to facilitate the parent group. The team agreed to search for other funding and planned to meet again the following school year.

Strategies for Supporting Successful Implementation During the CSESA study, several activities of school teams were observed to support successful implementation of Transitioning Together. These strategies are outlined in Table 7.4 and divided into (1) strategies to use during the planning phase before offering the program and (2) strategies to use during the implementation phase while running groups.

CONCLUSION Involving families of students with ASD in the transition process is a key best practice in transition-­focused education, with educators looking to parents as partners and allies. This starts with understanding the unique circumstances, strengths, and challenges faced by youth with ASD and their families during the transition TABLE 7.4.  Strategies for Supporting Successful Implementation Strategies for the planning phase

Strategies for the implementation phase

• Complete school and community mapping process (see Chapter 3) to compile key school and local community resources (e.g., Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, attorneys, adult service providers) • Combine resources and recruitment efforts from multiple schools to have the right number and composition of families for groups • Engage with outside partners to find co-facilitators | Autism societies or other family advocacy organizations | Graduate programs in disciplines such as marriage and family therapy or social work who have students needing practicum hours • Provide course credit for students who attend the sessions • Conduct joining sessions at school or by phone/ teleconference • Have the school district or local nonprofit provide meals for families

• Collect satisfaction surveys and complete engagement ratings for parents and teens each week • Debrief each week with facilitators and coaches about fidelity and problem solving • Have students share snapshots, videos, and so forth, with both parents and school team members • Capitalize on teen interests during sessions to engage youth and keep conversations going



Families 165

years. Schools can also help by having a thorough understanding of the community resources and referrals that are important to share with transition-­age families. Implementing a family group such as Transitioning Together can strengthen the services schools offer to families by helping both educators and families better understand these complex transition services, build a strengths-­based perspective through active problem solving, and practice positive reframing of challenges. Transitioning Together groups also give youth with ASD additional opportunities to engage with peers and school staff, build transition-­related skills, and practice self-­determination. With the right team and systems in place, as described earlier, offering Transitioning Together to families of youth with ASD is one way that schools can support families, increase youth self-­determination and transition readiness, and improve the transition process.

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Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., el Zein, F., Fan, H., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high school interventions. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 329–349. Kuhn, J., Ehlers, K., & DaWalt, L. S. (2018). Brief report: Mapping systems of support and psychological well-being of mothers of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48, 940–946. Kuhn, J., Szidon, K., Kraemer, B., Steinbrenner, J. D., Tomaszewski, B., Hume, K., & DaWalt, L. (2022). Implementation of a multi-­family autism transition program in the high school setting. Autism, 26(3), 615–627. Lawrence, D. H., Alleckson, D. A., & Bjorklund, P. (2010). Beyond the roadblocks: Transitioning to adulthood with Asperger’s disorder. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24, 227–238. Lounds, J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., & Shattuck, P. T. (2007). Transition and change in adolescents and young adults with autism: Longitudinal effects on maternal wellbeing. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(6), 401–417. Moorman, K. E., Coutts, M. J., Holmes, S. R., Sheridan, S. M., Ransom, K. A., Sjuts, T. M., & Rispoli, K. M. (2012). Parent involvement and family–school partnerships: Examining the content, processes, and outcomes of structural versus relationship-­based approaches (CYFS Working Paper No. 2012–6). https://cyfs.unl.edu/resources/downloads/working-­ papers/CYFS_Working_Paper_2012_6.pdf Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Hong, J., Smith, L. E., Almeida, D. M., . . . Stawski, R. S. (2010). Maternal cortisol levels and behavior problems in adolescents and adults with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(4), 457–469. Smith, L. E., & Anderson, K. A. (2014). The roles and needs of families of adolescents with ASD. Remedial and Special Education, 35, 114–122. Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2012). Adults with autism: Outcomes, family effects, and the multi-­family group psychoeducation model. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14, 732–738. Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2014). The family context of autism spectrum disorders: Influence on the behavioral phenotype and quality of life. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 145–155. Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Social support and well-being at mid-life among mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1818–1826. Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Javitz, H., & Valdes, K. (2012). A national picture of parent and youth participation in IEP and transition planning meetings. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23(3), 140–155. Whitney-­T homas, J., & Hanley-­Maxwell, C. (1996). Packing the parachute: Parents’ experiences as their children prepare to leave high school. Exceptional Children, 63, 75–87. Woodman, A. C., Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2015). Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescence and adulthood: The role of positive family processes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 111–126. Woodman, A. C., Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2016). Contextual factors predict patterns of change in functioning over 10 years among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 176–189.

CHAPTER 8

Implementation Process Laura J. Hall Jessica R. Steinbrenner Suzanne Kucharczyk Yolanda Perkins

Even if effective intervention strategies like those described in previous chapters are clearly articulated in well-­designed manuals, they do not benefit students with autism unless they are used by school personnel or implemented as part of the school curriculum. Manuals sitting on the shelf, or the strategies and content of the manuals described in workshops alone, do not result in effective practice (Odom, Hall, & Steinbrenner, 2020). Implementation strategies that go beyond workshops are essential to support practitioners’ use of the effective educational practices (Durlak & DuPre, 2008). In other words, effective innovations × effective implementation × enabling contexts = socially significant outcomes (National Implementation Research Network, 2016). The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) was guided by an implementation science framework (Steinbrenner, Odom, Hall, & Hume, 2020) that clearly incorporated key factors of implementation such as fostering teamwork and collaboration, data-based decision making, training, and coaching (Williams & Beidas, 2019). As noted by Odom and Hume (Chapter 1, this volume), high schools are particularly complex settings (Hall & Odom, 2019; Kucharczyk et al., 2015), with educational activities implemented by multiple educators in schedules that may differ for each day of the week, change to accommodate special events, and differ for individual students. The implementation of comprehensive programs such as CSESA involve participation by educators from both general and special education systems that are more or less intertwined depending on the district or school.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Specialists such as speech–­language pathologists, school psychologists, literacy coaches, autism specialists, and content-­area specialists (reading, math, physical education) may also be responsible for the implementation of goals identified in the individualized education plan (IEP) of a student with autism.

SETTING UP FOR SUCCESS: KEY FEATURES OF IMPLEMENTATION FOR CSESA Implementation of a complex, multifaceted program such as CSESA necessitates a multifaceted implementation process. This chapter focuses on how to initiate, execute, and sustain the CSESA model within a school. This section focuses on the steps at the beginning of that process: (1) building awareness and getting buy-in, (2) establishing the core implementation team (A-Team) and engaging other staff members, (3) assessment and planning, and (4) component professional development (PD) or trainings. In addition, we provide an overview and lessons learned from our engagement with over 70 high schools in our 5-year project.

Awareness and Buy‑In If a districtwide approach to adoption is the goal, the first step is meeting with potential key leaders at the district (e.g., supertintendent responsible for special education and autism programs) and school (e.g., principal, special education teacher) level to introduce CSESA, then supporting those personnel as they share information about CSESA more broadly to the school faculty. In crafting the message, it is important to connect the focus of the CSESA domains and components to the goals and needs of the district (e.g., district strategic plan goals), the school (e.g., goals of individual school improvement plans if they exist), as well as the faculty and the students at the school. Additionally, an effective approach may include a process for capacity building within the district, perhaps starting with two or three schools that are ready and motivated to try CSESA and gradual implementation in additional schools in subsequent years. When we introduce the CSESA model, we highlight the broad needs of high school students with autism, sharing statistics about postschool outcomes and providing quotes from professionals, families, and students. We then provide basic information about the CSESA model—the general process and the CSESA domains—­and share examples of outcomes from our previous CSESA work. Finally, we ask school staff members to reflect on what they are already doing, and how and where CSESA may fit in the structure of their existing programming. This provides a time for teams to reflect on strengths and areas for growth specifically related to serving students with autism and offers a preview of CSESA planning that will happen later in the



Implementation Process 169

implementation process. When a decision had been made to adopt the CSESA model by school leadership and staff, CSESA coaches were assigned to the school to provide training and support implementation. LESSONS LEARNED

First, the buy-in at the early meetings proved key in recruiting additional school staff members to the broader implementation team of school personnel. Thus, it is critical that the small core of the team that engages in the earliest stages of implementation (e.g., exploration) either be motivated or become so during the process. Second, it is important to share the message broadly in the school. At times, school personnel focused their awareness efforts on special education staff and potentially a small number of teachers who had more regular contact with participating students with autism. The schools in which information about CSESA was shared more broadly often ended up having more success in building school-­level capacity for implementation. Although initial buy-in is critical, it is important to recognize the value of maintaining a focus on awareness and buy-in. The natural ebb and flow of a school year impacts staff motivation, so we used strategies such as e-mails, with copies to supervisors praising staff for their achievements, school team celebrations of big and small accomplishments, and reflections on student growth to promote ongoing interest and buy-in.

Establishing a Team As noted by Odom (Chapter 2, this volume), establishing a core team, which we call the A-Team, is essential for the successful implementation of the CSESA model. Although there is typically an A-Team leader, the team structure also creates opportunities for distributed leadership, with team members taking the lead on individual components and/or logistical tasks. The team often includes people with different roles and expertise, as well as people who may have different spheres of influence among staff and students. Additionally, a team-led initiative is less susceptible to losing expertise or momentum should turnover occur, which is not uncommon among high school staff members. Our A-Teams included school staff members across different disciplines, often with not only a heavy presence of special educators, but also related service providers (e.g., speech–­language pathologists, counselors, psychologists), a relevant administrator (e.g, assistant principal supporting special education, local education administrator), and general educators from core academic departments (e.g., English, Social Studies, Science, Math), as well as other departments (e.g., Physical Education, Career and Technical Education, Music and Arts).

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LESSONS LEARNED

We required that at least one administrator (principal or assistant principal) be included as part of the A-Team. Having a more active and engaged administrator as part of the team often facilitated the implementation, particularly when there were big changes that needed to be made (e.g., starting a new course, encouraging inclusion of students from separate settings in classes). It was also valuable to have A-Team members who had social capital with school staff members and students at the school. For example, one school had a physical education teacher who was heavily involved in athletics and encouraged many of the student athletes to be part of the peer-­mediated interventions. At another school, the special education facilitator was well connected across the school, and always seemed to motivate school staff members to be a part of various CSESA components. Finally, we also learned that it is best not to coerce someone into being part of the A-Team, even if it may make sense based on their role. An unmotivated or uncommitted A-Team member can have a negative influence on the whole team.

Assessment and Planning Both school and student assessment and planning are key parts of implementation, and it is important to have both the big picture view and the ability to focus on individual students. As noted by Odom (Chapter 2, this volume), the Autism Program Environment Rating Scale—­Middle/High School (APERS-MH) provides a profile of program quality strengths and areas for growth for an autism program within the school. For students, the Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) identifies skills needs and priorities for individual students, with teacher, parent, and student input (see Odom, Chapter 2, this volume, for additional information about the SSSC). After obtaining the APERS results, we worked with the A-Team to establish a work plan for improving program quality and to plan the order of rollout of CSESA components. We used a visual chart with a timeline and explored potential roll-outs with the A-team. This allowed time for A-Team members to reflect and discuss how components may fit with the natural ebbs and flows of the school year and consider priority needs of students who are part of CSESA. Once the school plan was complete, the coach and a student case manager moved into planning for individual students. A Student Planning Menu was used to facilitate this process. This form includes a place to describe the who, when, and how of preparing, implementing, and monitoring the planned interventions and to select evidence-­ based practices (see Figure 8.1). The form requires more detail than many special educators are accustomed to recording, so the coach typically worked with the coordinator to brainstorm ideas collectively and empower the coordinator to make decisions and take the next steps for putting these planned practices into place.

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Student Planning Menu

† Peer Networks † Peer Supports † Social Competence Intervention—High School † Antecedent-based intervention † Modeling † Peer mediated instruction & intervention † Prompting † Reinforcement † Scripting † Social Narratives † Social skills training † Task analysis † Technology-aided instruction & intervention † Time delay † Video modeling † Visual supports † Other EBPs:          

† Alternate Achievement Literacy † Collaborative Strategic Reading—High School

† Antecedent-based intervention † Peer mediated instruction & intervention † Prompting † Reinforcement † Technology-aided instruction & intervention † Time delay † Other EBPs:                  

† Antecedent-based intervention † Cognitive behavioral intervention † Differential reinforcement † Extinction † Functional behavior assessment † Functional communication training † Modeling † Prompting † Reinforcement † Self-management † Social narratives † Video modeling † Visual supports † Other EBPs:          

Independence & Behavior

† Antecedent-based intervention † Cognitive behavioral intervention † Differential reinforcement † Extinction † Functional behavior assessment † Functional communication training † Modeling † Prompting † Reinforcement † Self-management † Social narratives † Video modeling † Visual Supports † Other EBPs:          

† Self-directed IEPs † Work-based learning experiences † Transitioning Together (families)

Transition & Families

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

FIGURE 8.1.  Student Planning Menu.

(continued)

Note: Prior to implementation staff will have received training on CSESA, ASD, GAS, and transition plan (possibly), and teams will complete the Secondary School Success Checklist, then scale priority goals.

Peer & Social

Academics

After identifying the priority goals for your individual students (from SSSC and GAS goals), the A-Team will select the core CSESA components and evidence-based practices to best meet identified needs.

CSESA Core Components

Evidence-Based Practices Identified for Adolescents with ASD (can also choose from full list of 27, see linking document)

172

D.

C.

B.

A.

Professional Development Needed

D.

C.

B.

FIGURE 8.1.  (continued)

What form (coaching, training, modules, etc.)?

For Whom?

† Fidelity † Student Progress

D.

A.

† Fidelity † Student Progress

C.

Resources Needed (technology, visuals, etc.)

† Fidelity † Student Progress

B.

Data gathering (Who, How?) † Fidelity † Student Progress

Implementation (Who, When, Where, How?)

A.

Interventions

Other



Implementation Process 173

LESSONS LEARNED

The CSESA school and student written plans were valuable for tracking decisions and plans across the CSESA rollout. It was particularly helpful when A-Teams treated these as living documents, returning to planning documents to review and make changes periodically during the year. Another key lesson was that early success and “easy wins” support buy-in, so targeting components that build on strengths and/or align with other ongoing initiatives is critical. For example, several schools were already engaging in less structured versions of peer-­mediated interventions (e.g., Best Buddies), so we often encouraged school personnel to start with Peer Supports Arrangements and Peer Networks to build on that existing strength. At another school, enhancing the academics for students receiving modified diplomas was a priority, so starting with Alternate Achievement Literacy (AAL) was a natural fit. For the student planning, it is helpful to support the coordinator in thinking about how the execution of individual student plans can be dispersed rather than relying exclusively on the coordinator or other special educators to be assessing, implementing, and monitoring. For example, a Career and Technical Education teacher might take on a peer-­mediated intervention, or a general education teacher (with support) might put into practice an evidence-­ based program (EBP) that addresses an independence and behavior goal in an academic class where the student is struggling.

Initial Component Workshops and Training The use of a school planning document can help to identify which school staff members need training on various components of the CSESA model. Some interventions will likely require more staff members (e.g., Peer Supports Arrangements, PRomoting Independence and Self-Management [PRISM]), whereas other components are more focused and likely will have fewer trained staff (e.g., AAL). It is helpful to think of creative ways to schedule and conduct any workshops or trainings. At times, we held professional development (PD) workshops on inservice days when staff had choices to attend content-­focused opportunities. Other professional development was conducted during every period during a single school day, and teachers rotated through the trainings during their planning period. Some professional development was conducted as part of departmental meetings, for example, Transition Planning during the Exceptional Children departmental meeting, or during the meeting times scheduled for professional learning communities (PLCs) if part of the school schedule. LESSONS LEARNED

Given that school staff members are required to take part in professional development in some of the participating districts, we provided certificates that indicated

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the hours and content of professional development that were received through CSESA each school year. This was motivating for some staff members and helped us to be diligent with tracking participation. Another important aspect of arranging professional development is to recruit higher numbers of school personnel than initially needed for a specific component. For example, special educators and a speech pathologist might be recruited to deliver the Social Competence Intervention—­High School (SCI-H) program, which requires only one practitioner to implement. These individuals might share the responsibility of leading lessons or activities and provide some flexibility in scheduling and backup in case there is staff turnover. Also, for components with more flexibility in how they are implemented (e.g., Collaborative Strategic Reading [CSR] can be used in any course with informational texts), we were able to train full departments (e.g., Social Studies, Science) at some schools, so that we did not have to rely on students being assigned to a specific teacher’s class.

Providing Support: Coaching as a Key Implementation Driver Coaching is an essential feature of implementation models (Odom, Hall, & Suhrheinrich, 2019) and coaching drove the implementation of the various components of the CSESA model. As noted, CSESA coaches were assigned to specific schools at the beginning of the year. The coaching process was developed to ensure that (1) school teams and individual professionals understand the essential aspects of each component of the model, (2) steps for implementation are understood and modeled, (3) supports are available for implementation as they are needed, (4) adaptations are made to fit the context, and importantly, (5) key features of the components are implemented with fidelity. The CSESA coaching process incorporates and expands on the National Professional Development Center on ASD’s coaching manual (Kucharczyk et al., 2012) that includes guidance for organizing coaching meetings and recommendations for effective communication practices.

How to Select, Prepare, and Support Coaches Coaches need specific expertise and competencies in order to be effective. Competencies and areas of expertise should be considered when selecting personnel for this role and further developed through professional development opportunities and other support. Effective instructional coaching requires competencies in the content area of focus and competencies in use of effective coaching strategies that results in a collaborative working relationship with the implementers (Knight, 2007). Thus, school leaders should be prepared to be intentional in the selection, preparation, and continuous support of coaches.



Implementation Process 175

Selection of Coaches Ideally, coaches should be selected because they have experience in the context of the implementation (e.g., high schools, student support roles) and experience working with youth with disabilities and autism specifically, and have shown interest and the interpersonal skills in helping others to develop their own competency. While it is not necessary for new coaches to have expertise in the content of each component, it is important that coaches are motivated to learn new curriculum content and its implementation with fidelity. In addition, the value that professionals in the field of education should be lifelong learners may be an important quality for a prospective coach. Coaches may be external to the high school or district, as was the case in the CSESA intervention, or they may be district-­level interventionists. Preparing district and school personnel as coaches increases the competence for implementation of components and facilitates the possibility of sustaining the use of components. Effective coaching requires the development and maintenance of trust and mutual respect, which is established over time. It is based on effective communication and receptiveness to the other person’s communication—­verbal and nonverbal. Potential coaches should exhibit effective listening skills, demonstrate interest in the experiences of other professionals, evidence effective collaboration with partners from across disciplines and roles, and be respected by colleagues. In addition to these social and communication competencies, coaches should be prepared and willing to be advocates for other professionals, students, and the implementation process. LESSONS LEARNED

While professionals (e.g., master teacher, district specialist) considered as a coach may be well acquainted with transition processes, family support programs, reading comprehension models, positive behavior support strategies, and/or social competency curricula, it is also important that they have the social competencies necessary to develop strong collaborative relationships with colleagues to support their learning. Coaching requires the balance of maintaining a positive and respectful interpersonal relationship with data-based decision making, giving and receiving feedback, modeling, opportunity for reflection, and recalibration on the delivery of the content with fidelity (Kucharczyk, Szidon, & Hall, 2022). It is helpful if school administrators and the coach recognize the value of spending time developing a trusting partnership as the foundation for effective coaching. Yet, as implementers are coached in the various practices, it also is important to keep an eye on the individualized goal for each student. Too much focus on the emotional connection and collegial relationship may mean less targeted instruction toward

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specific outcomes, while too little focus on the coaching relationship may result in weak attempts to implement strategies and address targeted goals.

Preparation of Coaches Again, while there are competencies that are important to consider when selecting a coach, a coach does not need to come ready to implement each component with fidelity. Coaches should be ready to learn the components with which they are tasked in supporting others in implemention. Schools and districts should provide professional development, so that coaches are prepared to support implementation of components to fidelity. Preparation includes providing the necessary materials and resources, including the developed manuals described in previous chapters. Also included should be time and access to mentors who have expertise in an aspect of or whole component and/or are considered exceptional in coaching of educational professionals. Districts and school leaders should take note of the support resources mentioned in the chapter on each intervention to ensure these are available for coaches.

Support for Coaches Unexpected challenges and complications that emerge during coaching cannot always be foreseen and coaches may need support. During the implementation of CSESA, a consultation process was used to support implementation and attend to emerging challenges (Kucharczyk et al., 2022). During this consultation process, coaches have access to at least two other professionals who are not receiving direct support from the coach. Table 8.1, Consultation Support for Coaches, describes the sequential process by which coaches share their concerns, listen for feedback, and make a plan. It is developed to provide consultants with as much context as possible, to minimize the natural desire a coach may have to interrupt suggestions, and to give the coach an opportunity simply to listen, without having to weigh each option individually. Coaches should consider challenges related to relationship building (e.g., difficulty establishing trust), working within school systems (e.g., scheduling challenges, need for administrative support), implementation of the model (e.g., confusion about aspects of a component), advocacy (e.g., reprioritization of the sequence of implementation due to a new school initiative), data collection (e.g., struggle with understanding implications of data), and so on. LESSONS LEARNED

While the selection of coaches may be based on evidence of effectiveness in the use of a component and effective partnership building skills, most coaches need

Implementation Process 177



TABLE 8.1.  Consultation Support for Coaches Steps

Role of coach

Role of consultants

Describe the Challenge

Describe the challenge. Why is it important? What is the sequence of events? Who are the players? What have you done so far? How did it go? What have you considered and why have you considered this? What is the best outcome?

Listen. Take notes. Do not interrupt. Allow for silence to ensure coach is done reflecting and describing the challenge.

Check for Understanding

Listen. Clarify any misunderstood information. Answer questions.

Consultants talk to each other and briefly restate the challenge as they understand it. After describing the challenge, consultants ask if they misunderstood anything. They end with any remaining clarifying questions of the coach.

Explore Options for Problem Solving

Listen.

Consultants consider options the coach might take. This is a conversation between consultants only, exploring various opportunities. Consultants should remain focused on the coach’s challenge and context, and refrain from using the time to describe a similar situation they experienced. Consultants may find it helpful to list the various options at the end of the discussion.

Choose Options

Talk through options the coach believes will most likely address their challenge and describe to consultants explicitly the steps they intend to take.

Report Back

Identify an opportunity to share with consultants an update on the challenge, any options that were utilized, the current status, and any additional support needed.

Take note of challenge, options taken, and result. Consider this information important data about implementation challenges and successful and ineffective strategies for the particular context and coach.

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

ongoing support. It is helpful to ensure that coaches have consultants to turn to and professional development to build their skills in CSESA components and the coaching process. Such supports may be particularly important if coaches are internal to the school system in which they provide coaching. Such relationships can be complicated if there is any suggestion that the coach is in the role of evalulator. Administrators should make clear that the role of a coach is as a content and process expert providing support for implementation rather than an evaluator.

How to Move Through the Coaching Process Ideally, the CSESA coaching process moves cyclically through three phases: Preobservation, Observation/Action, and Postobservation. These three phases ensure that significant time and effort are given to determining what should be the focus of coaching, to gathering data on the focus of the coaching opportunity, and to analyzing data and coaching experiences to determine next steps. Cycling across these phases happens as many times as needed and possible to support the implementers with reaching and maintaining high fidelity for a CSESA component. Each phase includes the focus and tasks outlined in Table 8.2. LESSONS LEARNED

Coaching is a cyclical process. Ensure that attention is paid to each phase, so that coaches and A-Team members stay focused on targeted outcomes, related interventions, and the relationship building and maintenance needed to support learning. To maintain momentum and provide sufficient opportunities to receive important feedback and modeling, each of these phases should be scheduled and conducted consistently. Furthermore, given the time restraints of educators and related service providers, it is important to use time efficiently, with clear expectations for all involved.

How to Adapt to Your School Context While many commonalities exist across U.S. high schools, each school, A-Team member, and groups of students inform each context in ways that may have implications for implementation of a component. A-Team members may wish to adapt the model to their context, needs, or preferences. For example, a school with a strong peer program may wish to tackle the Peer Networks and Supports interventions first and embed component activities in several places in the school schedule. Another school whose transition specialist recently left may wish to focus on the transition process interventions first to shore up aspects of the process that were previously maintained by the specialist. Adapting to school, classroom, student,

Implementation Process 179



TABLE 8.2.  Phases of the Coaching Process Used in CSESA Phase

Coach’s focus

Coach’s tasks

Preobservation

• Opportunity to build trust and relationship • Understand A-Team member’s challenges and successes • Maintain implementation momentum • Identify needed resources (e.g., time, materials, administrative support)

• Check in on A-Team members’ experiences with implementation since last postobservation • Make decision about next steps for implementation (e.g., next step in component, aspect of component that is complex, student specific challenge, classroom challenge) • Make plan for observation and action • Make plan for collection of necessary data on student progress, implementation fidelity, and so forth

Observation and action

• Ensure agreed upon preobservation plan is followed to maintain trust • Provide in the moment support as agreed to by A-Team member or invited in the moment • Scan environment and make note of any factors that may be impacting implementation that may not be noticed by A-Team member

• Provide support through observation, feedback, and modeling • Provide modeling of parts of component or embedded EBP: (1) Coach determines the targeted part of implementation; (2) coach shows implementation of target while A-Team member observes; (3) coach observes A-Team member implement same target; (4) coach provides feedback and solicits reflection from A-Team member on what was observed and attempted • Take data on aspects of implementation or student skill/behavior related to component as planned

Postobservation

• Check on need to clarify any aspect of observation and action • Ensure A-Team member commitment to continue implementation • Ensure A-Team member’s needs and concerns are directly addressed • Ensure mutual agreement on continued coaching support

• Debrief previous phase • Show, discuss, and reflect on data collected • Adjust plan for implementation as necessary • Make expectations clear for next step • Make plan for next preobservation

Check-in

• Check-ins are short bursts of contact (e.g., 20-minute phone/ Zoom call or series of e-mails or texts every week or so) that ensure ongoing communication between the coach and the broader school implementation of CSESA • Maintain a big picture of implementation

• Identify phases and timeline of implementation across components, A-Team member implementors • Identify additional supports (e.g., time, specific professional development, materials, administrative support, schedule change) needed • Attend to challenges and successes in implementation across components and A-Team members

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and A-Team member factors may strengthen implementation. However, other desires to adapt implementation may disrupt the component to the extent that it is no longer likely to be as effective in addressing student outcomes. The decision tree illustrated in Figure 8.2 describes a process that can be used by coaches to help determine the appropriateness of an adaptation to the model. LESSONS LEARNED

Adaptations are inevitable and necessary to ensure that implementation is adjusted with consideration of contextual factors. Implementers should refrain as much as possible from changing the features of a component, and to aim for fidelity of implementation, so as not to minimize effectiveness. When adaptation is necessary, then collecting data on the process of making that change and on the outcome will help the A-Team and coach address similar contextual factors in the future.

Is It Working?: Monitoring of Implementation Monitoring the quality of implementation and using the information to make adjustments is a key feature of the implementation process. With complex interventions, measurement of implementation can be quite challenging, and this was certainly the case for CSESA. It is important to monitor multiple levels of implementation, which includes the provision and reception of CSESA professional development (preparation and coaching) and the provision and reception of the CSESA components, as well as multiple metrics of implementation that focus primarily on quality and dosage (period of time that the component was delivered) for CSESA. Below is a brief overview of how schools can monitor the success of ongoing implementation, but you can also find a more detailed description of the CSESA implementation index in Steinbrenner and colleagues (2020). The CSESA researchers measured professional development activities through training logs, coaching logs, and coaching fidelity measures. The CSESA team used coaching logs to document the date and length of coaching meetings, the meeting participants (e.g., roles of school staff members), the content of the coaching (e.g., CSESA components addressed), and the modality of coaching (e.g., observation, discussion, modeling). Documentation of the coaching activities could be helpful in determining the factors that support sufficient coaching and implementation and potential barriers (e.g., canceled meeting from implementers, complex schedules). The CSESA Coaching Fidelity Checklist was used to measure the quality of coaching by documenting the use of key coaching steps (i.e., preobservation, observation, postobservation), coaching tools (e.g., modeling, planning documents), and key communication strategies (open-ended questions, nonverbal communication) (see Figure 8.3). This fidelity checklist can be completed by a content

181

Convene your ATeam and coaches for problem solving process.

Yes.

Consider changes to context, increased support, before changing essential aspect.

No.

Make adaptation and document positive or negative results for future decision making.

Document positive or negative results for future decision making.

Be aware that changes to essential aspects of components may change the effectiveness of the component. Document positive or negative results for future decision making.

No.

Plan, carry out, and evaluate effectiveness of changes.

FIGURE 8.2.  Adaptation Decision-­Making Tree.

Clearly describe the issue and its implication on change to component.

Do you have time to consider ways to not change the essential aspect?

Yes, an essential aspect of a component.

Will the adaptation change a core or essential aspect of a component?

There is an issue. An adaptation is needed to the implementation of the model.

182

4

Key: 3 (High): All features were observed 2 (Mid): Half or more features were observed 1 (Low): Less than half but at least 1 feature was observed 0 (Not Observed): No features were observed

3: ~ > 60% of questions are open ended 2: ~ 31–59% of questions are open ended 1: < 30% of questions are open ended 0: 0 questions are open ended If not observed, ask: Tell me about a time you disagreed with a school implementer? How did you handle the conflict? What did you say? Was there a resolution? If yes, how did you come to the resolution?

FIGURE 8.3.  CSESA Coaching Fidelity Checklist.

When school implementer disagrees or conflict arises, coach employs leveling statement Leveling statement includes: acknowledgment of claim as valid, assumption of partner’s competence, and desire to compromise or negotiate Resolution to conflict is made prior to end of coaching contact

observation) asks open-ended questions

How do you complete the coaching cycle with the school implementer(s)? What is discussed?

0

(continued)

Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted by permission in Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools edited by Samuel L. Odom (The Guilford Press, 2023). Permission to photocopy this material is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use or use with students (see copyright page for details). Purchasers can download and print this material (see the box at the end of the table of contents).

= Ask coach

Leveling Statements (if applicable)

Communication Strategies Select those domains most relevant to the coaching session you are assessing. Mark NA for domains not assessed. Key: During discussion (preobservation or postOpen-Ended Questions

5

Postobservation

How do you plan on observations? What does an observation typically look like? What do you do after the observation?

3

implementer prior to observation/action/modeling Preobservations include when and where it will be worked on Preobservations include negotiation of what will be worked on and how it will be worked on and what resources/actions are needed Focus of observations predetermined with school implementer and coach Coach facilitates reflection on observation that provides school implementer information about their fidelity of implementation, strengths observed, and plan for addressing problematic implementation Postobservations conducted with school implementer after action/observation/modeling Postobservations include reflection on coaching contact Postobservations include an action plan for next coaching contact

Observation

school implementer? What do you discuss?

Observer Ini�als: __ __ __ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

2

Coaching

Time: ___:___ - ___:___ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

1

Features

Date: __ __ / __ __ / __ __ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

Notes 3 2 1 Process Select those domains most relevant to the coaching session you are assessing. Mark NA for domains not assessed. How do you prepare for coaching with the Preobservations conducted with school Preobservation

Domain

CSESA Fidelity Coach: ______________________ Loca�on: ____________________

183

= Ask coach

FIGURE 8.3.  (continued)

log Gathers data during observation/action Uses data to provide feedback and facilitate reflection

1

Key: 3 (High): All features were observed 2 (Mid): Half or more features were observed 1 (Low): Less than half but at least one feature was observed 0 (Not Observed): No features were observed

Tell me about an example of data you have collected during observation/action? How do you use the data?

8

2

Evaluation and Progress Monitoring Select those domains most relevant to the coaching session you are assessing. Mark NA for domains not assessed. If not observed, ask: Tracks coaching contacts for week on coaching Documenting Coaching

3

Social Conventions

Notes

Observer Ini�als: __ __ __ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

7

Focuses attention on speaker Uses nonverbal cues to show active listening (nodding, smiling, facial expressions) Focuses on content and returns to content if school implementer moves away from content Appropriately responds to school implementer’s expression of feelings (as shown in tone, facial expression, posture) Takes turns speaking Provides school implementer body space as evidenced by school implementer’s body language (e.g., leaning in because coach is too far or distant, leaning away because coach is too close) Uses nonverbal encouragers (e.g., writing notes, touch, eye contact) to indicate that content of speaker’s message is important Uses verbal encouragers (e.g., yeah, go on, really, I see, uh huh) to indicate that speaker’s message is important

Time: ___:___ - ___:___ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

Nonverbal Skills

Features

Date: __ __ / __ __ / __ __ Staff ID: _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _

6

Domain

CSESA Fidelity Coach: ______________________ Loca�on: ____________________ 0

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specialist or administrator with each coach for feedback during live or recorded coaching sessions. CSESA coaches used the fidelity checklists as a guide for supporting implementation by school personnel or to document the degree to which an individual component was being implemented as designed.

KEEPING IT GOING: FACTORS THAT SUPPORT SUSTAINING CSESA PRACTICES The CSESA researchers worked with the school personnel for a 2-year period. Almost all schools experienced some staff turnover, with administrators and teachers switching schools, changing positions, or leaving the district. For some schools, there was such a high percentage of change or turnover that no one who was originally involved with the CSESA component implementation remained after the 2-year project period. It is important to consider that there will be changes to school personnel when planning to implement new curriculum and strategies. As noted previously, providing professional development and coaching for teams of personnel, rather than a single individual in a school, is an important strategy for promoting maintenance of CSESA components. Multiple coaches employed by the same district also would support program maintenance.

Evidence of Sustainability from the CSESA Study We learned about some of the potential factors that support the sustained use of the components by collecting information from the 15 intervention schools that completed the 2-year professional development and coaching period. One year after the CSESA support ended, team leaders from the first cohort of 15 schools were interviewed to determine which of the components had maintained for students with autism (both CSESA participants and additional students). All schools reported that they continued to use EBPs to support the independence and behavior of their students with autism. PRISM was the only component that was reported to maintain for all 15 schools. Work-based learning (12 schools), Peer Supports Arrangements (12 schools) and Peer Networks (11 schools) also were reported to sustain in approximately three-­fourths of the schools. None of the schools reported that they continued to offer Transitioning Together for parents (Pavez et al., 2018). LESSONS LEARNED

Several factors were identified that supported sustained practices. Components were more likely to sustain if they were embedded in the school and individual

Implementation Process 185



schedules. For example, Transitioning Together required personnel to arrange afterschool or evening meeting times and conduct sessions with families, which was not part of any school schedules. Similarly, if a social skills group or a reading activity with peers was not part of the school schedule, then they were less likely to sustain. On the other hand, creating an official club, scheduling time for social skills or work-based learning activities in the school schedule supported sustainment. In addition, if the school personnel who implement the components find that they are beneficial for all students (e.g., classwide use of CSR) and implementation can be done without singling out one student or a small group of students, then the activity may more easily fit into established classes. Importantly, peers themselves may advocate for continued use of strategies they find meaningful and helpful.

IMPLEMENTATION AT FORTUNA HIGH: AN EXAMPLE OF IMPLEMENTATION Fortuna High School (pseudonym) was part of a district with multiple high schools interested in participating during the same year. The school is located in a suburban community and comprises grades 9 through 12. Its student body includes 41% racially/ethnically diverse adolesents. The autistic students were enrolled in both inclusive and primarily self-­contained special education programs. Fortuna High School received a high score on the CSESA Implementation Index (Steinbrenner et al., 2020) compared with other schools in our CSESA project. A high implementation rating means that the school personnel implemented most of the 11 CSESA components with fidelity for the majority of participating students with autism. We elected to discuss Fortuna High as a positive example of what changes can be made by school personnel to support the implementation of the CSESA components. This provides an example of what is possible.

Building Awareness and Buy‑In Once Fortuna High School was selected for adoption, the A-Team arranged for a parent information session to begin recruiting and obtain buy-in from stakeholders. The core implementation team leader organized the recruitment meeting in the late afternoon. The school’s core team leader had established very good relationships with families and was successful in getting the word out about the information session. It is notable that in addition to parents and guardians, some high school students attended the meeting to learn about the component activities because they had an interest in their peers with autism. These same students volunteered to organize the Peer Networks program at this school.

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Assessment and Planning The core implementation team for Fortuna High included the special education teacher of students with autism who served as the team leader, the school psychologist who was a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA), the speech–­language pathologist (SLP), a science teacher, and a special education teacher who worked with students with autism and extensive support needs. In an initial meeting, the preintervention results from the APERS-MH assessment that were reviewed included the identification of strengths and targeted program quality goals to address during the project. In addition, each of the components was briefly reviewed and the team selected to start with the Social and Academic domains.

Preparation, Intervention Implementation, and Coaching Professional development in each of the components was held with each of the A-Team implementers after students left for the day but within the school hours at the school site.

Social Domain The social domain was selected because the school already had a Best Buddies program that could be amended for the Peer Supports component, and the A-Team leader was the Best Buddies facilitator. When the coach initially observed a Best Buddies program during an scheduled softball game as part of gym class, typical peers were observed supporting their peers in following the rules of the game; however, they did not know how to foster conversation or provide feedback on skills that were a part of individualized goals. The SLP was responsible for addressing the IEP goals related to social or communication skills and was eager to learn more about the Social Competence Intervention (SCI). When the content and procedures of SCI were reviewed by the team, there were some initial concerns addressed about implementing both the didactic content and the behavior management and reward system consisting of individualized points and warnings. The SLP and the School Psychologist agreed to implement SCI together whenever possible. They identified a period of time in the schedule when a small group of students with speech goals on their IEPs could meet together two to three times a week, and the SCI group was placed in the students’ schedules. The coach attended the initial sessions of the components (e.g., SCI-H) to provide feedback, modeling, and problem solving. As the competence and confidence of the implementers increased, the content and type of coaching feedback changed to focus on fidelity and adjustments to maximize the benefits for participants.



Implementation Process 187

The SLP also volunteered to organize the Peer Networks. Students with autism and their peers met at lunchtime and after eating, they organized activities and games for participation by all. Several popular games identified by the peers (Hedbanz, Connect 4, UNO, Apples to Apples) were purchased for use during the lunchtime Peer Networks meetings. The peer relationships grew, and the student leaders became more confident in their abilities to organize the meetings. Before the end of the first semester, the social activities expanded to out-of-­school events such as fishing trips, school dances, and attending sports games. The students found Peer Networks so valuable that they took the steps to establish it as an official club at Fortuna High. The amendments to the Best Buddies program to include the processes of Peer Supports arrangements was equally successful. As a result of the structured Peer Supports arrangements intervention, students were more aware of the strengths of their peers with autism and of strategies they could use to foster social communication. After the first year, peers decided to require an interview in order to be selected to participate in this, now more selective, service-­learning activity.

Academic (Literacy) Domain The special educators on the A-Team became the interventionists for academic interventions, with one special educator implementing CSR and another implementing AAL. The CSESA coach provided the professional development for both components to the special educators. Since peers were already scheduled to come to the classroom as part of a service-­learning program at the high school, they were easily incorporated into the CSR program and were paired with students with autism during the English period. In the initial sessions of CSR, the coach noticed that the special educator was not always prepared with the needed materials such as worksheets and reading logs. As result, the coach provided a stack of blank copies of these materials and gave them to the teacher for use in the sessions. During one of the meetings with the coach, the special educators shared that they had found some materials they thought were relevant to the project. They brought out a box of curriculum items they had in the classroom from the Attainment Corporation with Diane Browder as an author. They then shared that the materials reviewed during the AAL (PD) seemed familiar to them because they had been using similar materials already! They could then adjust their teaching procedures (least-to-most prompting, time delay) to follow those in the manual from CSESA as they used the texts and materials with which they were already familiar. There were several staff and A-Team changes after the first year. There was a change in principal and a change in one of the special educators who worked

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with the students with more extensive support needs. The new special education teacher learned to implement AAL and continued to use the processes and materials. During Year 2, the A-Team focused on the Transition domain, which included embedding work-based learning activities and supporting all participating candidates with independence and any behavioral challenges.

Transition Since a large number of schools were implementing the Transition component in Year 2 of the study, PD focused on Transition assessment and writing effective transition plans was held in one location on a university campus, and the school personnel from Fortuna High attended this session. When the details of the Transition domain components were described to the A-Team, members responded by identifying a lack of sufficient opportunities for students to obtain work-based learning experiences in the high school. As a result, a CSESA coach used a process of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider, Whitney, & Staros, 2003) to meet with A-Team members to determine the direction of the work-based learning activities. One of the special education teachers decided it would benefit many students, as well as the school community, to have a coffee business on campus. She began the process for district approval of a campus coffee business run by the students. It was approved, and supplies were purchased, including aprons with the coffee-­business logo, and student participants were trained for the various positions. The establishment of the coffee business was a big success and increased the competence and confidence of the participating autistic students, as well as the peers who worked alongside them. In addition, the social interaction between teachers and students increased as more students with autism independently learned vocationally related skills that would support postsecondary outcomes. In addition, parents were invited to attend a Transitioning Together group organized for several schools within the district, and parents of students from Fortuna participated.

Independence and Behavior Domain Goals to increase the independence or address challenging behavior for each of the participating students were created and were addressed whenever possible in conjunction with other CSESA components. For example, the coffee business incorporated a blend of the CSESA component activities. Some of the students used self-­management strategies such as activity checklists, so they could complete their assigned tasks in the preparation or delivery of the coffee more independently. One student watched a video prior to starting work that was part of a video modeling program to address challenging behavior. Other students were supported by peers without autism, who also participated in the coffee shop. Several



Implementation Process 189

other students were supported by IEPs that supported increased engagement in classes with typical peers or in independent transitions between classes.

Sustaining CSESA Interventions A year after the CSESA coaching ended, nine out of the 11 components implemented during the study were still being used. There were, however, no Transitioning Together groups that maintained for this district. Changes to participants’ schedules to allow for SCI had not maintained. Each year, the district organizes a professional development day for all teaching staff prior to the start of the school year. The CSESA staff members were invited to organize a presentation for a breakout session, so that other educators could learn about the effective strategies and where to obtain the resources from the project. The factors that contributed to the successful implementation of the interventions at Fortuna High are clear. The identified A-Team leader had well-­established positive relationships with families, was a leader among colleagues, and had respect for the coaches. The CSESA coaches were highly competent with regard to both content knowledge of the domain and interpersonal skills. The A-Team comprised interdisciplinary professionals, and members were active participants as component leaders. The school personnel were already skilled in the use of EBPs embedded in the CSESA components, and if they were not, they were provided with targeted PD for relevant practices. The component strategies were valued by school personnel, and perhaps as important, by the students. School personnel made the extra effort to establish and maintain the coffee business. Students made the extra effort to establish the Peer Networks Club and arrange for interviews to participate as a support to peers with IEPs. The activities were valued by the district leaders who were aware of the activities in this and other schools due to the communication efforts maintained by CSESA staff. An example of the continued support of the project is that the Director of Special Education arranged for the PD of school personnel from Service as Usual schools in a daylong event to be held in the district administration building, and she arranged to include CSESA researchers as part of a districtwide day devoted to PD.

TIPS FOR IMPLEMENTATION There were many lessons learned throughout the CSESA implementation process. A summary of these lessons is found in Table 8.3, which describes tips to be used by school personnel working at district and school levels. Our hope is that our shared lessons learned will result in greater implementation success for future use by many school personnel with positive outcomes for all students.

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TABLE 8.3.  Summary of Implementation Tips Get buy-in To get buy-in, it is important to provide educators with the opportunity to give input on the process. Look for ways for educators to get a sense of ownership with the interventions. School level District level • Let educators know about CSESA and how it relates • Offer guidance to administrators on methods of getting educator input to the school’s goals; this could be done at a staff • Provide schools with information about how meeting and/or in e-mail communications CSESA interventions have improved students’ • Provide time for educators to ask question about academic and social skills at other schools the why and how of the process • Provide schools with information about how • Keep a student focus; explain how the CSESA interventions have improved teachers’ work interventions will help students improve their in the classrooms academic and social skills • Ask educators for their input on how the interventions can be integrated into their classrooms • Discuss how the interventions will also help teachers face some of the challenges in their classrooms Share the message Let all school staff members know about CSESA. School level • Discuss CSESA’s focus/mission and how it relates to the school’s goals • Use school data to explain the need for the use of CSESA interventions • Share CSESA data on how it can help the school in these areas

District level • Share information about CSESA with schools in your district via the district website, e-mail communications, and meetings with school-based personnel • Acknowledge schools implementing CSESA interventions in district-level communications • Offer guidance on how to build capacity with CSESA interventions within the district and the school building

Establish a strong A-Team A dedicated team is essential for the successful implementation of the CSESA model. School level District level • Provide administrators with ideas on how to select • Include educators with different roles and possible A-Team members expertise on the team • Support administrators with scheduling times for • Have at least one administrator on the team A-Team members to meet • Choose team members that want to help foster • Provide methods for administrators of schools change/improvement preparing to implement CSESA interventions to • Do not force or require educators to be part of the collaborate on the planning process team (continued)



Implementation Process 191

TABLE 8.3.  (continued) Collaboration is key When working with A-Team members and other educators, set the tone for collaboration. School level District level • Provide schools with information on online • Explain how everyone’s input is needed communication tools that can be used within or • Ask team members to help develop meeting norms between schools that will foster communication • Share outcomes with administrators • Set the tone of judgment-free communication; • Model the use of meeting protocols/norms that emphasize the need to be able to exchange ideas can help teams share ideas in an organized manner and suggestions for improvement • Offer guidance in how to conduct effective, • Provide online opportunities to facilitate ongoing collaborative meetings communication Start with strengths As a team, determine your classroom, department, or school’s strengths and needs; use the strengths to determine which components to roll out first. School level District level • Use information from program quality assessments • Support schools with accessing, learning, and interpreting assessments that can be used to (e.g., APERS) to determine your school’s strengths determine program quality and areas of improvement; use this information to • Offer schools assistance with determining what develop a school plan data should be used to make decisions about • Use student, classroom, and schoolwide data to intervention implementation determine where to target interventions • As a team, determine how the school strengths can be used to integrate CSESA interventions Be SMART about goals Create school and student plans that have Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results focused, and Timely goals (SMART; Hedin & DeSpain, 2018). School level District level • Incorporate implementation goals into the school’s • Provide schools with information about how to write goals for the student, classroom, and school improvement plan so that intervention integration • Model the use of measurable, observable goals in is a priority district-level strategic planning • Create student written plans with achievable goals based on current student data • Remember the ultimate goal of the implementation is not just to use a new intervention, but student success Get early wins Think about making relatively small change(s) that will get a positive outcome quickly. This helps to build a successful outlook. School level District level • Support schools with aligning CSESA interventions • Look at practices that are already being used and with current school practices build off those • Choose goals that you can control the process and impact the outcome. (continued)

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TABLE 8.3.  (continued) Learn together Provide educators with professional development (PD) about each of the components based on educator’s needs; educators will have different experience levels, knowledge, and competencies about the use of strategies and interventions. School level District level • Offer PD to schools with an emphasis on how to • Get educators’ input on the type of PD they feel is implement CSESA interventions needed to support implementation; remember that • Support schools by providing PD for specific each educator has different experience levels and interventions for staff from multiple schools competencies, and PD should be adjusted to fit the • Arrange for continuous, ongoing PD for specific needs of the audience interventions with the factors supporting • Offer PD for specific CSESA interventions to implementation (coach, time for team planning) departments/teams • Provide continuing education credits to educators • Provide continuing education credits to educators that attend school- or district- level CSESA attending CSESA PD session trainings • Look for ways to make PD continuous to support learning and collaboration throughout the implementation process • Offer schoolwide PD for general learning such as the purpose of using CSESA interventions and basic information about supporting students with autism (possibly during staff meetings, workdays, or shared planning times) Make coaching a priority Explain how coaching will be beneficial to the educators and students. School level District level • Support schools with developing the coaching skills • Choose coaches who have experience working with of school-based staff students with autism and the interpersonal skills to • Supply administrators with information on how support other educators with implementation to support coaching at the school level (e.g., how • Provide coaches with materials and PD on the to schedule planning/release time, methods of CSESA components synchronous/asynchronous coaching, integrating • During coaching sessions, give educators the coaching into school culture) opportunity to review data and reflect on their • Provide PD and support to school-based coaches practice and a time for coaches from various schools to • Use the CSESA coaching fidelity form to provide collaborate feedback and support to the coaches • Offer to administer coaching fidelity observations • Administrators can: (1) arrange joint planning or released time, as needed (2) provide recognition of coaches in building meetings (3) respect confidentiality maintained by the educator and coach around the coaching process and targets (continued)



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TABLE 8.3.  (continued) Monitor your implementation Remember to gather implementation data on a regular basis and use it in your continued decision making. School level District level • Support schools with methods to gather • Use implementation data (i.e., CSESA fidelity implementation data measures, student data) to determine what • Provide examples of how to use the data to make adjustments need to be made decisions about implementation (e.g., how to • Give implementers and coaches constructive improve fidelity, ways to increase generalization of feedback based on the implementation data intervention, ways to adapt intervention to increase • Ask for feedback from implementers to determine student outcome) where support is needed Keep it going As progress is being made with the interventions, find ways to continue the success by sustaining and expanding implementation. School level District level • Share positive, successful outcomes from similar • Ask teachers who have positive, successful schools or districts outcomes with changes to share their experiences • If possible, provide opportunities for schools • Continue to work as a team to improve implementing CSESA interventions to get together implementation in areas that have not gone as and share ideas in a face-to-face or virtual format expected (e.g., additional PD needed, change • Support schools with developing master and coaching strategy, adjust times of implementation) department schedules that include CSESA • Embed CSESA interventions into school, interventions classroom, and individual schedules

REFERENCES Cooperrider, D. L., Whitney, D. K., & Stavros, J. M. (2003). Appreciative inquiry handbook. Bedford Heights, OH: Lakeshore Communications. Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. Hall, L. J., & Odom, S. L. (May, 2019). Deepening supports for teens with autism. Educational Leadership, 76(8). Hedin, L., & DeSpain, S. (2018). Writing specific, measurable IEP goals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 51(2), 100–110. Knight, J. (2007). Instructional coaching: A partnership approach to improving instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., el Zein, F., Fan, H., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high school interventions. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 329–349. Kucharczyk, S., Shaw, E., Smith Myles, B., Sullivan, L., Szidon, K., & Tuchman-­Ginsberg, L. (2012). Guidance and coaching on evidence-­based practices for learners with autism spectrum disorders. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders.

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Kucharczyk, S., Szidon, K., & Hall, L. J. (2022). Coaching in complexity: Lessons learned investigating implementation of interventions in high schools. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 45, 99–113. National Implementation Research Network. (2016, October). Active implementation practice and science (Implementation Brief). Chapel Hill, NC: Author. Odom, S. L., Hall, L. J., & Steinbrenner, J. (2020). Implementation science research and special education [Special Section]. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 117–119. Odom, S. L., Hall, L. J., & Suhrheinrich, J. (2019). Implementation science, behavior analysis and supporting evidence-­based practices for individuals with autism. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 21(1), 55–73. Pavez, B., Hall, L. J., Kraemer, B., Brum, C., Hume, K., & Odom, S. L. (2018, February). Sustainability of EBPs by high school personnel instructing students with ASD. Poster presented at the annual convention of the Council for Exceptional Children, Tampa, FL. Steinbrenner, J., Odom, S. L., Hall, L. J., & Hume, K. (2020). Moving beyond fidelity: Assessing implementation of a comprehensive treatment model for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder [Special Section]. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 137–154. Williams, N. J., & Beidas, R. (2019). The state of implementation science in child psychology and psychiatry: A review and suggestions to advance the field. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(4), 430–450.

CHAPTER 9

Research and Evaluation Kara A. Hume Samuel L. Odom

The Center for Secondary Education for Students with Autism (CSESA) is a Research and Development Center established by the Institute of Education Sciences. The mission of these Research and Development Centers was to contribute to the production and dissemination of rigorous evidence and products that provide practical solutions to important education problems. Thus, the mission of CSESA was to develop, test, and disseminate new approaches to improve education outcomes for autistic high school students. CSESA was a 5-year project, with the first 2 years of the project identified as development years (Years 1 and 2) and the final 3 years allocated for a large-scale efficacy study (Years 3–5, see Figure 9.1). The CSESA team conducted numerous studies across various methodologies during its development and efficacy phases (e.g., qualitative, single-­case design, design experimentation, cluster randomized controlled trial [RCT]) and these findings can be found in 30+ peer-­reviewed publications, 100+ conference presentations, and numerous practitioner, family, and student-­friendly resources and curriculum materials based on the research (see the CSESA website for related resources). The findings move well beyond the efficacy trial results and provide an in-depth look at the characteristics of current high school settings and high school students with autism (e.g., Kraemer et al., 2020), the experiences of staff, families, and students (Kucharczyk et al., 2015), practical implications for intervention (e.g., Hume, Regan, Megronigle, & Rhinehalt, 2016), as well as nuanced explorations of key issues impacting this population (e.g., technology use in high schools; Hedges, Odom, Hume, & Sam, 2018). We describe in this chapter the research activities of CSESA—the studies conducted during the development phase and their relevant findings, as well as the large-scale efficacy trial examining the impact of

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The Big Picture

2014–2015 Year 3

2015–2016

Year 1

2013–2014 Year 2

Year 4

2016–2017 Year 5

Development and piloting of individual model components (6 sites)

Piloting of several components in combination (6 sites)

Randomized control trial (RCT) of full model at 30 sites across the country (Cohort 1)

Continue implementation at 30 Cohort 1 sites; enroll 30 more sites (Cohort 2)

Continue implementation at 30 Cohort 2 sites, follow-up data at Cohort 1 sites

2012–2013

FIGURE 9.1.  The CSESA timeline. the CSESA model as described in previous chapters on various student and family outcomes.

DEVELOPMENT PHASE: PROJECT YEARS 1 AND 2 Several key research activities occurred during the development years, including a large-scale focus group study and interviews with adolescents and young adults with autism, pilot studies of single-­intervention components, and a pilot study of various combinations of intervention components that allowed for comparisons across sites.

Focus Groups and Interviews A series of 28 focus groups were completed at five university sites during the fall of Year 1, with 141 participants across six stakeholder groups participating (administrators, community members, educators, parents, service providers, and youth with autism). The purposes of the focus groups were to assess acceptability, feasibility,



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design, and anticipated impact of the proposed intervention components, as well as to better understand the needs of these various groups. Interviews were also conducted with 33 adolescents and young adults with autism. The findings informed every aspect of the project—­from intervention modifications to school engagement strategies, to measurement design, to resource development. There was strong consensus that the CSESA model must be individualized to meet the varied needs of a heterogenous group of students, that feasibility of implementation was paramount for potential success, and that professional development must be comprehensive, ongoing, and inclusive of general education team members. The interviews also provided critical perspectives from autistic youth and shaped the design and implementation of several components, with an emphasis on peer and social interventions. The findings are published in several articles (Bottema-­Beutel, Mullins, Harvey, Gustafson, & Carter, 2016; Hedges et al., 2014; Kucharczyk et al., 2015) and have been extended into several user-­friendly resources, including curriculum materials, our Autism-­at-a-­Glance series and the Peer-to-Peer series.

Pilot Studies A series of pilot studies examined intervention feasibility and promise. In the spring of Year 1 each university site conducted a pilot test of single intervention components. The design of these studies varied, with several sites conducting and publishing single case design studies (e.g., Hochman, Carter, Bottema-­Beutel, Harvey & Gustafson, 2015; Reutebuch, El Zein, Kim, Weinberg, & Vaughn, 2015), and other sites focusing on feasibility and social validity in their implementation. These pilot studies and the frequent cross-site communication and collaboration allowed an additional opportunity for intervention modifications, measurement development, and material refinement. During this early phase of the development years, the pilot studies focused single interventions within components. For example, in the social component, the peer-­mediated interventions and the social competence intervention were piloted. During second development phase, pilot studies were designed to allow for cross-site comparisons and contrasts. Six high schools, with 58 staff members and 43 students with autism and their families participated. All high schools implemented the Foundations part of CSESA. Individual schools were randomly assigned two interventions to implement in the 1-year time period, with each school having a unique combination of interventions. For example, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, implemented PRISM and Social, while Charlotte, North Carolina, implemented Academics and Transition. These combinations are outlined in Table 9.1. The outcome of interest was the fidelity with which the intervention was implemented. The study, which we called the Contrasting Features study, found

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TABLE 9.1.  Assignment of Components to Site Schools Site/school

CSESA foundations

Chapel Hill, North Carolina

X

Charlotte, North Carolina

X

Tennessee

X

Texas

X

Wisconsin

X

California

X

a Assigned

Reading

PRISM

Social competence

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

Xa

Transition

X X

but implementation not completed.

that schools implementing a specific component had a high level of fidelity on their assigned component. Also those schools had low fidelity on components they had not been assigned to implement (i.e., the “nonassigned” interventions were not already occurring routinely in the schools). The Year 2 pilot study used a design experimentation framework that allowed for systematic adjustments to an intervention to ensure its feasibility in a classroom setting. The CSESA team worked collaboratively with school partners to identify the positive aspects of intervention components, as well as challenges and barriers to implementation in the classroom/school setting (e.g., see an example of a design experimentation log completed weekly by the CSESA team in Appendix 9.1). These conversations across researchers and practitioners led to planned adjustments to the intervention throughout the pilot studies and ensured that the iteratively developed intervention components would be feasible for school teams to implement in the larger scale efficacy study.

Measurement Development The CSESA team developed two key project measures during the pilot studies and completed additional research on their use and utility. The Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) was developed in response to focus group participants who indicated a desire for increased student involvement in the transition planning process, and as a tool to help identify independence- and transition-­related goals. The SSSC was iteratively designed across the pilot studies and through feedback gathered at each stage was finalized for use as part of the CSESA model (described



Research and Evaluation 199

in more detail in previous chapters; Hume et al., 2018). Next, the CSESA team created a very thorough Implementation Index to measure the use of CSESA components at both intervention and control sites. The index tracks implementation at the school, staff, and student levels, includes various data sources (e.g., coaching and training logs, planning documents, and fidelity forms), and produces a scaled score of 0 (limited to no implementation) to 3 (full implementation) for each school. In the Year 2 pilot, the index was able to differentiate between schools that implemented intervention components and those that did not, indicating its potential utility in capturing implementation of the full CSESA model in the subsequent efficacy study. The measure is described in detail in Steinbrenner, Odom, Hall, and Hume (2020).

EFFICACY STUDY In the final 3 years, the efficacy of the fully combined CSESA comprehensive program intervention was tested through a cluster RCT trial involving 60 high schools in three states (California, North Carolina, Wisconsin), with implementation occurring over a 2-year period. Thirty high schools were randomly assigned to receive the full CSESA model as described throughout this book, and 30 were assigned to the control condition, termed “services as usual” (SAU). The SAU sites received a schoolwide workshop on autism (Understanding Autism, available on the CSESA website), training on goal writing, and were provided resources related to the use of evidence-­based practices (EBPs; e.g., websites, informational handouts). School staff members were informed that they would receive CSESA materials at the end of the 2-year study and training on any of the interventions that they requested. A total of 547 students with autism were enrolled in the study. As occurs for this population, the participants were primarily male (86%). The mean age when they began the study was 16.2 years. The sample was quite diverse in that 46% had race/ethnicities other than White, non-­Hispanic. The distribution of autism severity, as indicated by the teacher version of the Social Responsiveness Scale–2 (SRS2; Constantino & Gruber, 2012) collected at pretest, was primarily in the severe to moderate range, with smaller percentages designated as mild or not autism. The sample had a wide range of intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior skills as measured at pretest. There were no statistically significant differences between groups on any demographic characteristic. Additional detail about the participants, procedures, analysis, and findings can be found in the manuscript published in Exceptional Children (Hume et al., 2022). The specific research questions addressed were as follows:

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1. Is the CSESA model implemented as planned? 2. Does the CSESA model affect the program quality in high schools relative to high schools in the SAU condition? 3. Does the CSESA model produce positive changes in students’ acquisition of their individualized educational goals relative to SAU? 4. Does the CSESA model produce positive outcomes on standardized measures of student performance and family outcomes relative to SAU? 5. What is the social validity of the CSESA model?

Was the CSESA Model Implemented as Planned? To capture the breadth of implementation of this comprehensive program, CSESA investigators developed an implementation index approach, which was described previously. The index incorporated data from research staff records (e.g., training and coaching logs), observations (i.e., teaming from Autism Program Environment Rating Scale—­Middle/High School [APERS-MH]), fidelity ratings of intervention components, and document reviews (e.g., CSESA planning form, student intervention matrix). A 0- to 3-point scaling rubric with performance anchors was used to document from these data the degree to which features of CSESA were implemented for the following CSESA model features: training, coaching, school planning, intervention quality, teaming, student planning, and student dosage. A mean rating across features and schools yielded a scale score of 2.07 (SD = 0.38) out of 3.00, or 69%. The mean SAU rating was 0.47 (SD = 0.17). This indicates that CSESA schools were able to effectively implement ~70% of the CSESA model and that this rate of implementation was significantly different than what was in place in the SAU sites.

Does the CSESA Model Affect the Quality of the Program Environment in High Schools? The APERS-MH, described in previous chapters, was used to measure program quality in each of the 60 schools at the beginning and end of the 2-year period. After the 2-year implementation, quality ratings were significantly higher for CSESA schools relative to the SAU schools. Importantly, the mean ratings across all APERS domains were above the 3.0 score (i.e., APERS rating level indicating adequate quality) for the CSESA schools, while mean ratings were below the 3.0 level for SAU schools for three of four APERS domains most closely tied to the CSESA program (communication, social, independence, behavior), as well as for the Transition composite. There were also significant differences, favoring the CSESA group, in adjusted postintervention means in the following domains: Assessment, Communication, Functional Behavior, Instruction, Social, and Teaming.



Research and Evaluation 201

Does the CSESA Model Produce Changes in Students’ Acquisition of Their Individualized Educational Goals? A significant difference favoring the CSESA group was found for total Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) scores, with a Cohen’s d effect size of 1.14. For the individual domains, the largest significant effect, favoring the CSESA program, was for Social goals (effect size = 1.52), and there was also a statistically significant effect of large magnitude for Academic and Independence/behavior goals. The only outcome that failed to achieve significance was for Transition, although the estimated CSESA effect was also positive (effect size = 0.56).

Does the CSESA Model Produce Positive Effects on Standardized Measures of Student Performance and Family Outcomes? To assess student outcomes related to CSESA domains, the following standardized measures were collected at pretest and posttest: Social Responsiveness Scale—­ Second Edition (SRS-2; Constantino & Gruber, 2012), the Woodcock–­Johnson Test of Achievement III—­ Passage Comprehension and Academic Knowledge subtests (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001), the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale–2 (VABS; Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla, 2006), the Support Intensity Scale—­ Children’s Short Form (Thompson et al., 2004), and the American Institute of Research Self-­Determination Scale (Wolman, Campeau, Dubois, Mithaug, & Stolarksi, 1994). In addition, family members completed the Family Empowerment Scale (Koren, DeChillo, & Friesen, 1992) and the Zarit Burden Interview (Zarit, Orr, & Zarit, 1985) to assess effects of the CSESA model on families. Overall, the results indicated that there were no significant differences in the mean residualized change scores for CSESA compared to SAU schools for the standardized measures. Results showed no significant differences between CSESA and SAU schools on the two family measures. Other school-­based intervention programs have yielded nonsignificant effects on standardized measures (Mandell et al., 2013), but significant effects of measures more directly related to the intervention, such as the APERS or GAS (e.g., Boyd et al., 2018; Dryden-­Palmer, Parshuram, & Berta, 2020). Teachers’ instruction is usually directed to individualized student goals rather than items on standardized measures, so one could expect that a GAS measure would map more closely onto the content taught than would standardized measures and be more sensitive to intervention effects.

What Is the Social Validity of the CSESA Model? At the end of the 2 years of implementing the CSESA model, A-Team members were asked to evaluate the social validity of the program using the adapted Usage

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Supporting Adolescents with Autism in Secondary Schools

Rating Profile (URP; Chafouleas, Briesch, Riley-­Tillman, & McCoach, 2009). The overall mean rating, from 107 A-Team members across 20 CSESA schools, was 5.29 (SD = 0.64) out of 6.0. For individual features of the CSESA model, mean ratings were 5.37 (SD = 0.62) for training and coaching, 5.25 (SD = 0.89) for communication with CSESA staff members, 4.61 (SD = 0.77) for participation in the CSESA project, and 5.25 (SD = 0.77) for usefulness and effectiveness of the CSESA model. The efficacy study of the CSESA model is the largest study to date of a comprehensive school-­based program for adolescents with autism. It resulted in positive changes in the quality of the school and produced significantly more positive attainment of students’ learning goals, relative to standard practice, and was well received by program staff members. Although labor intensive and requiring a multiyear commitment, it was well received by the school autism teams. The next step will be to examine the young adult outcomes of study participants as they and their families make their transitions out of school and into the community, a study that is currently underway.

OTHER CSESA FINDINGS A number of studies have been published by the CSESA team in an effort to better understand the high school experience for this population. For example, Kraemer and colleagues (2020) provide a rich look at the program quality of all 60 high schools at the pretest data collection. Findings indicated that the total quality rating across schools was slightly above the adequate criterion. Higher quality ratings occurred for program environment, learning climate, family participation, and teaming domains. However, quality ratings for intervention domains related to the characteristics of autism (e.g., communication, social, independence, functional behavior, and transition) were below the adequate quality rating level. Also, quality ratings for transition were significantly higher for modified (primarily self-­contained) programs than for standard diploma (primarily served in general education) programs. School urbanicity was a significant predictor of program quality, with suburban schools having higher quality ratings than urban or rural schools, controlling for race, school enrollment size, and Title I eligibility status. Implications for working with teachers and school teams that support high school students with autism should include a targeted focus on transition programming that includes a breadth of work-based learning experiences and activities that support social–­communication domains. Other studies describe the characteristics and/or priorities of the sample of autistic participants and their families. Hume and colleagues (2018) described the SSSC results from the full sample, and findings indicate discrepancies between adolescent, teacher, and parent ratings of skills, highlighting the importance of



Research and Evaluation 203

the inclusion of multiple perspectives in transition planning. Although ratings varied, agreement between adolescents with autism, parents, and teachers across the highest and lowest rated skills suggests the need to broaden the focus on critical transition skills to include problem solving, planning for life after high school, and self-­advocacy. These data were translated into a family- and practitioner-­friendly resource that can be found on the CSESA website and highlighted in Figure 9.2. Another study (Hedges et al., 2018) examined how autistic high school students used technology in an effort to better understand the perceived benefits and barriers to its use in school settings. A survey of 472 students with autism involved in the CSESA project reported on the types of technology they most often used, the purpose for their use, how the technology both supported and interfered with their learning, and how technology use was facilitated or inhibited in their high school settings. Almost 100% of the students (98%) reported using technology at school, with laptops, desktops, smartphones, tablets, and interactive smart boards used most frequently. Technology was used most often to complete assignments, including presentations and to look up information, for social communication, including texting, e-mailing, and messaging, and to reduce anxiety and stress, by listening to music and playing games. Technology was used less frequently for purposes of organization. The students noted that technology made learning easier and fun, though a little more than half indicated that technology use was distracting at school. Finally, a number of CSESA publications provide practical tips to support practitioners and families supporting this population. For example, Brum, Hall, Reutebuch, and Perkins (2019) offered strategies to implement the two literacy interventions used in the CSESA model, Hall and Odom (2019) lent support to school administrators interested in better supporting their autistic students in high school settings, while Hume and colleagues (2016) provided tips for assisting students with autism working through grief and loss, written after a school staff member who was part of the CSESA team died during our collaboration. Because these articles were not always accessible to school staff members and families, practical implications of the articles are incorporated in the curriculum materials freely available on the CSESA website. These are posted alongside resources on topics that were relevant to our many stakeholders but were not part of CSESA model (e.g., supporting mental health, dating, safety, driving).

CONCLUSION CSESA research has several practical implications. In most high schools, the learning needs of students with autism vary greatly, and for school personnel to meet those needs required a coordinated and comprehensive response. The

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FIGURE 9.2.  User-­friendly resource with SSSC results across informant group. This information is from the beginning of the project, before the CSESA staff worked with students and teachers at many of the schools. Copyright © 2014 The Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA). Reprinted with permission.



Research and Evaluation 205

key elements of such a response were (1) formation of team in the school with support from school leadership, (2) identification and adoption of practices that focus on such learning needs (e.g., social competence, behavior, academics, transition), (3) professional development and (4) coaching support, at least during the early phases of implementation. Notably, the program is “modular” (Kasari & Smith, 2013) in that school leaders could decide to adopt component features of the CSESA program (e.g., peer networks to promote social engagement; family support and education in preparation for transition; implementation of specific evidence-­based practices to increase independence). The CSESA model provides practical guidance for a school-­based response to student learning needs.

REFERENCES Bottema-­Beutel, K., Mullins, T. S., Harvey, M. N., Gustafson, J. R., & Carter, E. W. (2016). Avoiding the “brick wall of awkward”: Perspectives of youth with autism spectrum disorder on social-­focused intervention practices. Autism, 20(2), 196–206. Boyd, B. A., Watson, L. R., Reszka, S. S., Sideris, J., Alessandri, M., Baranek, G. T., .  .  . Belardi, K. (2018). Efficacy of the ASAP intervention for preschoolers with ASD: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(9), 3144–3162. Brum, C., Hall, L. J., Reutebuch, C. K., & Perkins, Y. (2019). Strategies for improving reading comprehension for high school students with autism spectrum disorder. Teaching Exceptional Children, 52, 88–97. Chafouleas, S. M., Briesch, A. M., Riley-­Tillman, T. C., & McCoach, D. B. (2009). Moving beyond assessment of treatment acceptability: An examination of the factor structure of the Usage Rating Profile—­Intervention (URP-I). School Psychology Quarterly, 24(1), 36–47. Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2012). Social Responsiveness Scale: SRS-2. Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services. Dryden-­Palmer, K. D., Parshuram, C. S., & Berta, W. B. (2020). Context, complexity and process in the implementation of evidence-­based innovation: A realist informed review. BMC Health Services Research, 20(1), 1–15. Hall, L. J., & Odom, S. L. (2019). Deepening supports for teens with autism. Educational Leadership, 76. Hedges, S. H., Kirby, A. V., Sreckovic, M. A., Kucharczyk, S., Hume, K., & Pace, S. (2014). “Falling through the cracks”: Challenges for high school students with autism spectrum disorder. High School Journal, 98, 64–82. Hedges, S. H., Odom, S., Hume, K., & Sam, A. (2018). Technology use as a support tool by secondary students with autism. Autism: International Journal of Research and Practice, 22, 70–79. Hochman, J. M., Carter, E. W., Bottema-­Beutel, K., Harvey, M. N., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Efficacy of peer networks to increase social connections among high school students with and without autism spectrum disorder. Exceptional Children, 82(1), 96–116. Hume, K., Dykstra Steinbrenner, J., Smith, L., Sideris, J., Kuckarczyk, S., & Szidon, K. (2018). Multi-­informant assessment of transition-­related skills and skill importance

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in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism: International Journal of Research and Practice, 20, 40–50. Hume, K., Odom, S., Steinbrenner, J., DaWalt, L., Hall, L., Kraemer, B., . . . Bolt, D. (2022). Efficacy of a school-­based comprehensive intervention program for adolescents with autism. Exceptional Children, 88, 223–240. Hume, K., Regan, T., Megronigle, L., & Rhinehalt, C. (2016). Supporting students with autism spectrum disorder through grief and loss. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48, 128–136. Kasari, C., & Smith, T. (2013). Interventions in schools for children with autism spectrum disorder: Methods and recommendations. Autism, 17(3), 254–267. Koren, P. E., DeChillo, N., & Friesen, B. J. (1992). Measuring empowerment in families whose children have emotional disabilities: A brief questionnaire. Rehabilitation Psychology, 37, 305–321. Kraemer, B., Odom, S., Hall, L., Tomaszewski, B., Hume, K., DeWalt, L., & Steinbrenner, J. (2020). Quality of secondary school programs for students with autism spectrum disorder in the United States. Autism: International Journal of Research and Practice, 24, 707–717. Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., El Zein, F., Fan, H., & Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high school interventions. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 329–349. Mandell, D. S., Stahmer, A. C., Shin, S., Xie, M., Reisinger, E., & Marcus, S. C. (2013). The role of treatment fidelity on outcomes during a randomized field trial of an autism intervention. Autism, 17(3), 281–295. Reutebuch, C., El Zein, F., Kim, M. K., Weinberg, A. N., & Vaughn, S. (2015). Investigating a comprehension intervention for high school students with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 9, 96–111. Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2006). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Teacher rating form manual. Minneapolis, MN: Pearson. Steinbrenner, J. D., Odom, S. L., Hall, L. J., & Hume, K. A. (2020). Moving beyond fidelity: Assessing implementation of a comprehensive treatment program for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 137–145. Thompson, J. R., Bryant, B., Campbell, E. M., Craig, E. M., Hughes, C., Rotholtz, D. A., . . . Wehmeyer, M. (2004). Supports Intensity Scale user’s manual. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Wolman, J., Campeau, P., Dubois, P., Mithaug, D., & Stolarski, V. (1994). AIR Self-­ Determination Scale and user guide. Palo Alto, CA: American Institute for Research. Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock–­Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside. Zarit, S., Orr, N. K., & Zarit, J. M. (1985). The hidden victims of Alzheimer’s disease: Families under stress. New York: New York University Press.

PASC

PRISM

207 • Recruiting peers for lunch meetings has been more difficult

• Peers picking up on modeling very quickly

Strategies

Components

• SSSC has helped to identify some goals for other components

Implementation • NA

• EBPs going well with A-Team

• NA

• Difficulty finding time to directly instruct on PRISM goals for general education students

• Difficult to get follow-through in classes with non-A-Team staff

(continued)

• Expand SSSC to include more skills—cover all components more thoroughly

• Determine potential times for instruction at school level—ideas: advisory, schedule 10 minutes into block classes

• Consider mini-trainings for EBPs that are more frequently used with students in general education classes

• Consider developing captivating materials that schools can share with job sites regarding PRISM

• NA

• Embedding PRISM at volunteer and job sites is going well—special education staff worked with people at job sites

Structure

Strategies

• NA

• NA

• Good reception of SSSC overall

• Consider developing quick summary • Difficulty keeping caregivers in the forms for peer groups—could peers loop for Peer and Social Component help to fill out (PASC)

Content

Implementation • NA

• Determine process for starting clubs at schools during recruitment

• Some clubs are not a good fit for recruited students

• Peer networks going well in lunch and clubs

Structure • NA

• Make sure to send Unit review sheets to all A-Team members—potentially other classroom teachers

Actions/Adaptations

• NA • Social Competence Intervention— High School (SCI-H) content has been well-received by A-Team members who have seen the intervention

Challenges

Content

Positives

APPENDIX 9.1. Example Year 2 Design Experimentation Log

CSESA Foundations

Participants

Data & Logistics

208

• Consider ways to introduce EBP resources to entire school —will try training co-led by CSESA and general education A-Team member • Find ways to get buy-in or “hook” students—what is motivating them

• Going very well for students in Transition • Who is taking data for students in program general education program?

• EBP briefs are great for A-Team members • EBP briefs not being used by other school staff

• Waning interest in participating in PASC interventions across year for students in general education • NA

• Initial APERS goals went well

• NA

• More general education teachers are becoming interested in CSESA over course of year

GAS

APERS

EBPs

Student/Family Factors

• SCR data collection is not going as well with students • Difficult to recruit “filler” students for SCI-H • NA

• SCR data collection is going well with caregivers and staff • Peer recruitment has gone smoothly

• NA

Study Procedures

Other

• NA

Data/Measures

School/Context • NA Factors

School Staff Factors

• Consider prioritizing more goals at beginning of year (3 or 4) to have clear path for next steps if initial goals are achieved

• PRISM coaching seems to be happening primarily at student level—how to make it more general for Years 3–5?

• Going well for PASC

Coaching

• Difficulty moving on to other APERS goals

• Consider ways to structure data collection for students in general education classes

• Finding time for midyear trainings

• NA

Training

• NA

• Consider starting recruitment earlier for subsequent years

• CSESA staff will help students to access next round

• NA

• Could we have a midyear recruitment for other A-Team members? Or perhaps summer between years for the RCT?

• Try to conduct PRISM coaching meetings with larger team next month

• Try to schedule earlier in school year— with professional development days

• Consider developing autism augmentative and alternative communication about benefits/uses of technology for students with ASD

• Some teachers are resistant to use of iPad in classroom

• NA

Technology

Actions/Adaptations

Challenges

Positives

Example Year 2 Design Experimentation Log  (page 2 of 2)

Index

Note. Page numbers in italic indicate a figure or a table. AAL. See Alternate Achievement Literacy Academics/literacy Alternate Achievement Literacy alternate means for reading and responding, 82–84 comprehension questions, 82 implementing in CSESA schools, 84 overview, 77–78, 79 preparation for literacy instruction, 78–80 selecting text and identifying key vocabulary, 80–82 vignette, 84–85 as an important program focus, 4 Collaborative Strategic Reading—High School intervention description, 86–91, 92–93 overview, 85–86 vignette, 91, 94 overview and conclusion, 12, 76–77, 96–97 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 187–188 tips and creative adaptations from CSESA, 94–96 Adaptations academics/literacy and, 94–96 of CSESA implementation to school contexts, 178, 180, 181 peer support arrangements and, 120 Adolescence, 2

Adolescents with autism high schools and, 2–3 important program foci for, 3–5 independence and behavior challenges, 133–135 social competence challenges, 99–101 technology use and, 203 transition and postschool outcomes, 3, 31–32 Transitioning Together teen sessions, 157, 158, 159–160 See also Students Adult prompting, 5 AFIRM modules, 141 After reading strategies, 88–89, 91, 92–93 Alternate Achievement Literacy (AAL) alternate means for reading and responding, 82–84 comprehension questions, 82 implementing in CSESA schools, 84 overview, 12, 77–78, 79 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 187–188 preparation for literacy instruction, 78–80 selecting text and identifying key vocabulary, 80–82 tips and creative adaptations from CSESA, 94–96 vignette, 84–85

209

210

Index

American Institute of Research SelfDetermination Scale, 201 Annual goals, 34, 35 Antecedent-based interventions, 79 APERS. See Autism Program Environment Rating Scale Applied behavior analysis, 104 Apprenticeships, 48 Assessment for choosing reading comprehension interventions, 94–95 as part of CSESA implementation, 170– 173, 186 of program quality, 18–22 as a step in PRISM process, 135–138 of student learning needs, 22–23, 24 Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills—Revised, 22 A-Teams, 18, 169–170, 190 Autism adolescents and. See Adolescents with autism high schools and, 2–3 Autism-Focused Intervention Resources and Modules, 29 Autism Program Environment Rating Scale—Middle/High School (APERS-MH) collecting information to determine rating, 21 CSESA efficacy as measured by, 200 development and framework, 18–20 format, 20–21 how schools used information from, 21–22 information generated from, 21, 22 as part of CSESA model, 10 used in CSESA implementation, 170 Autism Screening Instrument for Educational Planning, 22 Before reading strategies, 87, 90 Benchmarks, GAS goals and, 25–27 Best Buddies program, 186 Career exploration, 48 Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (CSESA) autism in high schools, 2–3 background and summary, 1–2, 12

CSESA model, 9–12. See also CSESA model designing a comprehensive program, 5–9 foundations assessing program quality, 18–22 assessing student learning needs, 22–23, 24 establishing A-Teams in schools, 18 evolution of foundation features, 17–18 Goal Attainment Scale, 23, 25–28 linking goals to CSESA domains, components, and EBPs, 28–29 overview and conclusion, 17, 29 implementation process. See CSESA implementation important program foci, 3–5 research and evaluation. See CSESA research and evaluation CliffsNotes, 96 Coaching CSESA implementation example and, 186–189 CSESA implementation tips for, 192 how to move through process of, 178, 179 how to select, prepare, and support coaches, 174–178 as a key CSESA implementation driver, 174 monitoring of, 180, 182–183, 184 Coaching Fidelity Checklist, 180, 182–183, 184 Coaching logs, 180 Cognitive-behavioral interventions, 104 Collaboration, CSESA implementation tips for, 191 Collaborative Strategic Reading—High School (CSR-HS) intervention description, 86–91, 92–93 overview, 12, 85–86 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 187 tips and creative adaptations from CSESA, 94–96 vignette, 91, 94 Community-Based Functional Skills Assessment for Transition-Age Youth, 22 Community resource mapping, 36, 38, 41 Community Resource Mapping Form, 38, 60–63 Comprehension questions, 82 Conclusion activities, 103



Index 211

Consultation support, for coaches, 176–178 Contrasting Features study, 8, 197–198 CSESA. See Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder CSESA components background and overview, 11–12 linking goals to, 28–29 CSESA domains background and overview, 3–5, 11–12 embedding social competence interventions in, 121–122 linking goals to, 28–29 See also Academics/literacy; Families; Independence and behavior; Peer relationships/social competence; Transition CSESA implementation efficacy study, 9, 199–202. See also CSESA research and evaluation example of process assessment and planning, 186 building awareness and buy-in, 185 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching, 186–189 sustaining interventions, 189 factors that support sustainability, 184–185 key features assessment and planning, 170–173 awareness and buy-in, 168–169 coaching as a key implementation driver, 174 establishing A-Teams, 169–170 how to adapt to school contexts, 178, 180, 181 how to move through coaching process, 178, 179 how to select, prepare, and support coaches, 174–178 initial component workshops and training, 173–174 monitoring, 180, 182–183, 184 overview, 167–168 tips for, 189, 190–193 CSESA model CSESA process, 9–10 designing a comprehensive program assembling the final model, 9 model development process, 6–8

overview, 5 testing implementation and efficacy, 9 implementation process. See CSESA implementation overview of foundation, domains, and components, 11–12 research and evaluation. See CSESA research and evaluation See also Academics/literacy; Families; Independence and behavior; Peer relationships/social competence; Transition CSESA research and evaluation challenges and solutions related to Transitioning Together implementation, 162–163 development phase focus groups and interviews, 196–197 pilot studies, 197–199 efficacy study high school program environment, 200 implementation, 200 individualized educational goal acquisition, 201 overview, 199–200 social validity, 201–202 student performance and family outcomes, 201 evidence of sustainability from, 184–185 other findings, 202–203, 204 overview and conclusion, 195–196, 203, 205 Year 2 Design Experimentation Log, 207–208 CSR. See Collaborative Strategic Reading Daily homework, 103 Data collection forms, 27, 144 for independence and behavior, 143, 144, 145–146 Design-based research, 6 Direct instruction, 79 During reading strategies, 87–88, 90–91 Early Literacy Skill Builder for Older Students, 78 EBPs. See Evidence-based practices Ecomaps, 154, 155

212

Index

Evidence-based practices (EBPs) linking goals to, 28–29 for literacy instruction, 78, 79 monitoring, 143, 144 preparing to teach using, 141, 142 selecting, 138–141 Facilitators peer support strategies for, 116 selecting for peer networks, 106–107 selecting for Transitioning Together, 153–154 Families as an important program focus, 4 background on transition and, 11–12, 150–152, 164–165 CSESA efficacy outcomes and, 201 Transitioning Together implementation challenges and solutions case study of barrier to implementation, 163–164 overview, 162–163 strategies for supporting successful implementation, 164 Transitioning Together procedures and materials case study of successful implementation, 158, 161–162 developing intervention teams, 153–154 joining sessions, 154, 155 overview, 152 parent sessions, 154–157 teen sessions, 157, 158, 159–160 See also Transition Family Empowerment Scale, 201 Focus groups, CSESA model development and, 7, 196–197 Functional behavior assessments, 138 GAS. See Goal Attainment Scale Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) completing the rating, 28 CSESA efficacy outcomes, 201 developing students’ goals, 23, 25 establishing benchmarks, 25–27 observable and measurable goals, 25 Google forms, 96 Grouping students, 95

High schools adapting CSESA implementation to school contexts, 178, 180, 181 A-Teams and, 18, 169–170, 190 autism in, 2–3 Autism Program Environment Rating Scale for, 18–22 case study of successful Transitioning Together implementation, 158, 161–162 CSESA implementation example, 185–189 important program foci for, 3–5 peer relationships/social competence intervention example, 122–124 PRISM case example, 146–147 resource mapping, 36, 39, 40, 41 as settings for independence and behavior challenges, 133–135 as settings for social competence challenges, 99–101 technology use by adolescents with autism, 203 timeline for work-based learning experiences, 49 Transitioning Together implementation challenges and solutions, 162–164 Homework, 103 IDEA. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act IEPs. See Individualized Education Programs Implementation Index, 199, 200 Independence and behavior as an important program focus, 5 challenges, 133–135 overview of domain, 12 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 188–189 See also Promoting Independence and SelfManagement Indicator 13, 36 Indicator 13 Expanded Checklist, 55 Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) meeting federal transition mandates, 36 student involvement in, 39, 42–45, 46 transition planning and, 33–36, 37–38

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 32, 36 Internships, 48 Introduction activities, 103 iSocial curriculum, 102 Job shadowing, 48 Learning goals GAS and, 23, 25–28 linking to CSESA domains, components, and EBPs, 28–29 Secondary School Success Checklist and, 23, 24, 25 Learning logs converting into Google forms, 96 used for Collaborative Strategic Reading, 86, 87–89, 92–93 Least-to-most prompting, 82 Literacy. See Academics/literacy Measurable goals, 25 Mentoring, 48 Modeling activities, 103 Monitoring of CSESA implementation, 180, 182–183, 184 CSESA implementation tips for, 193 as a step in PRISM process, 143, 144 Mothers, 3, 151. See also Families Movie clips, 96 National Clearinghouse for Research and Practice, 28–29 National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012, 3 National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder (NPDC), 7, 17–18 National Technical Assistance Center on Transition: The Collaborative, 34, 36 Naturalistic practice, 103 Neurodiversity, 99, 100 NPDC. See National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder Observable goals, 25 Organization domain, 142

Index 213 Paid employment, 48 Parents stress and, 3, 151 top priorities from SSSC, 204 Transitioning Together parent sessions, 154–157 See also Families Peer Network Orientation Meeting Checklist, 110 Peer networks implementation example, 122, 124 overview and summary, 105–106, 111 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 187 procedures cautions and problem solving, 109, 111 getting to know students with autism, 107 initial meetings, 108–109, 110 recruiting and orienting peers, 107–108 running and maintaining, 109 selecting the facilitators, 106–107 structure, 106 Peer relationships/social competence as an important program focus, 4–5 intervention implementation example, 122–124 overview and conclusion, 12, 99–101, 124 peer networks. See also Peer networks overview and summary, 105–106, 111 procedures, 106–111 structure, 106 peer support arrangements. See also Peer support arrangements overview and summary, 111, 120 procedures, 112–120 structure, 111–112 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 186–187 Social Competence Intervention—High School content, 103–104 overview, 101–102 strategies, 104, 105 structure, 102, 103 summary, 104–105 tips for implementing interventions, 120–122

214

Index

Peer support arrangements implementation example, 123, 124 overview and summary, 111, 120 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 187 procedures choosing classes, 112–113 creating PSPs, 113, 114–115, 116 holding initial orientation meetings, 113, 117, 118 identifying and inviting peers, 113 implementing, 117, 119 potential adaptations, 120 strategies, 117, 120 structure, 111–112 Peer Support Orientation Meeting Checklist, 118 Peer Support Plan—CTE Computer Skills Class, 131–132 Peer Support Plan—Earth Science, 129–130 Peer Support Plan—PE Class, 127–128 Peer Support Plans (PSPs) creating, 113 defined, 111 examples of strategies for facilitators and peers, 116 template, 114–115 Peer Support Weekly Meeting Checklist, 119 Personal presentation domain, 142 Person-centered planning, 45, 46 Picture response boards, 82, 83–84 Pilot studies, CSESA model development and, 8, 197–199 Planning CSESA implementation and, 170–173, 186 as a step in PRISM process, 138–141 Postschool goals, 34 PRISM. See Promoting Independence and Self-Management Problem solving peer networks and, 109, 111 teaching in Transitioning Together, 156–157 Professional development CSESA implementation tips for, 192 as integral to CSESA implementation, 173–174, 186–189

Promoting Independence and SelfManagement (PRISM) case example, 146–147 four-part process assessment, 135–138 monitoring, 143, 144 planning, 138–141 teaching, 141, 142 overview and conclusion, 133–135, 147–148 tips for implementing, 143, 145–146 See also Independence and behavior Prompting least-to-most, 82 for literacy instruction, 79 vocabulary selection/identification using, 81–82 PSPs. See Peer Support Plans Psychometrically equivalent tested goal attainment scaling, 26 Reading comprehension, 76–77. See also Academics/literacy; Collaborative Strategic Reading Recruitment pamphlets, for peer networks, 108 Resource mapping, 36, 38–39, 40, 41 Response boards, 82, 83–84 Scaffolded instruction, 104 School resource mapping, 36, 39, 40, 41 School Resource Mapping Form, 39, 64–66 SCI. See Social Competence Intervention Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) CSESA research results and, 202–203, 204 development of, 198–199 as part of the CSESA model, 10 PRISM process and, 135, 138 student version, 137 to supplement students’ learning goals, 23, 25 teacher version, 136 used in assessing program quality in high schools, 23, 24 used in CSESA implementation, 170 Self-advocacy, 42 Self-advocacy curricula, 42–45, 46 Self-Advocacy Strategy, 42, 43, 45



Index 215

Self-Advocacy Strategy Lesson, 67–68 Self-Directed IEP, 43, 45 Self-Directed IEP Lesson, 69–71 Self-management. See Promoting Independence and Self-Management Self-monitoring, for literacy instruction, 79 Self-regulation domain, 142 Service learning, 48 SLAM! (Meyers) as example of adapted text, 81 vignette involving use of, 84–85 SMART goals, CSESA implementation tips for, 191 Social competence defined, 100, 102 example item from the Autism Program Environment Rating Scale, 20 See also Peer relationships/social competence Social Competence Intervention—High School (SCI-H) content, 103–104 implementation example, 123–124 overview, 12, 101–102 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 186 strategies, 104, 105 structure, 102, 103 summary, 104–105 Social Responsiveness Scale—Second Edition, 201 Social validity, 201–202 SSSC. See Secondary School Success Checklist Stress, 3, 151 Structured practice, 103 Student Planning Menus, 170, 171–172 Students CSESA efficacy outcomes and, 201 generating enthusiasm for independence/ self-management interventions, 145 involvement in IEPs, 39, 42–45, 46 top priorities from SSSC, 204 version of the SSSC for, 137 See also Adolescents with autism Student Snapshot Questionnaire, 157, 159–160 Support Intensity Scale—Children’s Short Form, 201

Task analysis, for literacy instruction, 78, 79 Teachers PRISM case example highlighting, 146– 147 top priorities from SSSC, 204 version of the SSSC for, 136 Teaching, as a step in PRISM process, 141, 142 Technology adolescents with autism and use of, 203 PRISM process and, 145 Texts selection of, 80–82, 95 student access methods, 95–96 Time delay, for literacy instruction, 79, 81–82 Transition as an important program focus, 4 background on families and, 11–12, 150–152, 164–165 Community Resource Mapping Form, 38, 60–63 Indicator 13 Expanded Checklist, 55 interventions/practices and steps for implementation community and school resource mapping, 36, 38–39, 40, 41 overview, 32–33 student involvement in IEPs, 39, 42–45, 46 transition planning, 33–36, 37–38 work-based learning experiences, 47–50, 51–52 needs and priorities from SSSC results, 203, 204 outcome studies for adolescents with autism, 3 overview and conclusion, 31–32, 50, 52 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 188 School Resource Mapping Form, 39, 64–66 Self-Advocacy Strategy Lesson, 67–68 Self-Directed IEP Lesson, 69–71 Transition Assessment Consolidation Template, 54 Transitioning Together. See Transitioning Together Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality, 56–59

216

Index

Transition (cont.) “Whose Future?” Lesson Plan, 72–73 Work Sampling Lesson Plan, 74–75 See also Families Transition Assessment Consolidation Template, 54 Transition Coalition, 34 Transitioning Together background on families and transition, 150–152, 164–165 implementation challenges and solutions case study of barrier to implementation, 163–164 overview, 162–163 strategies for supporting successful implementation, 164 overview, 11–12 preparation, intervention implementation, and coaching for, 188 procedures and materials case study of successful implementation, 158, 161–162 developing intervention teams, 153–154 joining sessions, 154, 155 overview, 152 parent sessions, 154–157 teen sessions, 157, 158, 159–160 Transition planning confirming that IEPs meet federal mandates, 36 implementation steps, 33–36, 37–38 needs and priorities from SSSC results, 203, 204

Transition Planning Rubric to Determine Quality, 56–59 Transition plans, writing of, 37–38 Transition services, 34–35 Transition Services Flowchart, 33–34 Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communications Handicapped Children Transition Assessment Profile, 22 True–false statements, 90–91 Turn taking in conversations, 105 Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale–2, 201 Visual supports, for literacy instruction, 79 Vocabulary identification, 80–82 WBLEs. See Work-based learning experiences Whole-school approaches, 121 Whose Future Is It Anyway? (curricula), 44, 45 “Whose Future?” Lesson Plan, 72–73 Wh- questions, 80, 94–95 Woodcock–Johnson Test of Achievement III, 201 Work-based learning experiences (WBLEs), 47–50, 51–52 Work sampling, 48 Work Sampling Lesson Plan, 74–75 Year 2 Design Experimentation Log, 207– 208 Zarit Burden Interview, 201