Subterranean Cities: The World beneath Paris and London, 1800–1945 9781501729485

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Subterranean Cities

II

SUBTERRANEAN CITIES

The World beneath Paris and London, 1800-1945

DAVID L. PIKE

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

ITHACA

&

c

LONDON

PRESS

II

Copyright © 2005 by Cornell University

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from rhe publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York I4850. First published 2005 by Cornell University Press First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2005 Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pike, David L. (David Lawrence), 1963Subterranean cities : the world beneath Paris and London, I8oo-I945 I David L. Pike. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-I3: 978-o-8014-4277-3 (doth: alk. paper) ISBN-IO: o-8014-4277-x (doth: alk. paper) ISBN-I3: 978-o-8014-7256-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-IO: 0-8014-7256-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Underground areas-England-London-History. 2. Underground areas-France-Paris-History. 3· Underground areas in literature. 4· City and town life-England-London-History. 5· City and town lifeFrance-Paris-History. I. Title. DA689.U5P54 2005 942.I'00944-dc22 2005012280 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cloth printing ro 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I Paperback printing IO 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

Che non e impresa da pigliare a gabbo discriver fondo a tutto l'universo (For it is not an enterprise to take in jest, to describe the bottom of all the universe) DANTE ALIGHIERI,

Inferno 32.7-8

I

Contents

List ofIllustrations Preface and Acknowledgments

lX XV

INTRODUCTION 1 . THE NEW LIFE UNDERGROUND

Beck's Map and Guimard's Thresholds Talk of the Tube The Plebeian Metro Guides to the Underworld Underground Speculation Subterranean Order 2. THE MODERN NECROPOLIS

3·

4·

20

21 33 47 68 75 89 101

Revolution Underground T he Catacombs of London Coal City The Subterranean Pastoral How the Dead Live Today

107 130 144 r66 173

CHARON'S BARK

190

Underworld Journeys Public Utilities in London Public Filth in Paris The Seminal Drain

193 214 229 252

URBAN APOCALYPSE

270

The City in Ruins Apocalypse between the Wars Modes of Hell in Postwar Europe The Mole People and Global Space

Notes Index

273 278 287 300 313 343

I

Illustrations

Int. 1 Celebrating heroic engineering: the opening procession through the Thames Tunnel in 1843, with arches separating the two passages I 2 Int. 2 Underground spectacle: visitors at the World Exhibition in Paris, 1867 I 3 Int. 3 The Last Judgment I 6 Int. 4 The misery of Paris under siege in 1871 is emblematized by the forced habitation of underground space I 7 Int. 5 The world is described in terms of its underground phenomena on the spine of T homas Wallace Knox's thousand-page compendium, Underground; or, Life below the Surface (1873) I 9 Int. 6 "How It Happened That a Devil Came to Paris," the prologue toLe Diable a Paris (1844) I IO Int. 7 The utopian promise of the 1930s underground: from the subway to the dream palace underworld I 17 1.1 Modernist space: Beck's schematic map of the London Underground I 22 1.2 Beck's legacy: the representation of Underground London circa 2003 I 24 1.3 Transport representation before Beck: surface and underground, urban, suburban and long distance superimposed on a standard map of the city I 25 1.4 Le style metro: one of Hector Guimard's celebrated edicules I 26 1.5 Building the soon-to-be iconographic metro aerien on the "North Circular," now line no. 2, near La Chapelle station I 27 1.6 T he Paris Metro as mapped in 1928, with some of the outer segments still to be constructed I 28 1.7 The Paris Metro as depicted today I 29 1.8 The outward-radiating fortifications of Paris from the Middle Ages through the nineteenth century I 29 1.9 The inner curve of the petite ceinture as it enters the Belleville tunnel under the Buttes-Chaumont I 31 1.10 Romance, Paris style: Pepe dreams of the Metro, Gaby smells of it- and their hearts meet under Place Blanche I 32 1.11 An elevated competitor to Pearson's Underground proposal: a pneumatic railway all too cozily passing by curtained apartment windows, creating a sheltered arcade beneath for strolling I 34 1.12 The negative class and gender associations of the Underground in Victorian London, as satirized in Punch I 35

X

1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38

•

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Domesticating subterranean space: the pioneering iconography of Thames Tunnel publicity I 37 Packaging the new Metropolitan: the Baker Street railway station as underground drawing room I 37 The late-century Metropolitan Railway: accepted and controlled, noisy and dirty I 38 A Central & South London Railway "padded cell": nothing to watch but your fellow passengers (unless you are a child with a vivid imagination) I 42 The Workmen's Train: Don~'s vision of subterranean drudgery I 43 Subway construction at Union Square and Fourth Avenue in 1912 I 48 Paul Haag's proposal for an elevated Metropolitain cut through the Right Bank of Paris I 50 The heart of the city opened up: work on line no. 1 of the Metro, ChampsElysees station I 52 The Metropolitain Catastrophe, August 10. Finding the bodies at 'Couronnes' station I 53 Necropolitain: the edicule identifies the otherworld as necropolis I 54 Le Metro-Necro: Death as a ticket agent I 54 "The Employee-Darn, I've lost the key for opening the tin" I 55 In After an Accident, the firemen comment that the passengers were "cooked in their own juice ... and braised." I 56 The Parisian Woman and the Metropolitain I 58 The Parisian Woman in an Electric Automobile I 59 Melodrama in the Waterloo tube station, Underground (1928) I 62 Jack Pennington Qack Hulbert) and Algy Longworth (Claude Hulbert) in "Bloomsbury station," Bulldog jack (1935) I 63 Pierre (Albert Prejean) is enmeshed in the steel web of the metro aerien at Pasteur station, Metropolitain (1938) I 63 The doomed lovers Diego (Yves Montand) and Malou (Nathalie Nattier) meet at night beneath the metro aerien, Les Portes de fa nuit (1946) I 65 Jef Costello (Alain Delon) eludes the police in the Place des Fetes station, Le Samourai" (1967) I 67 Fred (Christopher Lambert) discovers the Force in the utility tunnels deep beneath the Chatelet-Les Hailes complex, Subway (1984) I 69 The turn-of-the-century London Underground: a suitable place for women and policemen I 73 The Thames Tunnel and its trademark receding gas corridor-tunnel I 77 Subterranean urbanism in Victorian London: William Mosely's Crystal Way I 92 Le Corbusier's Voisin Plan: a modernist solution to a nineteenth-century problem I 93 A bird's-eye-view of Paris in 1925: Le Corbusier's "seventh circle of Hell." I 95

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

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XI

1.39 1.40

Horizontal urbanism: the Garden City movement in England I 97 The Ruislip Manor Estate (development began in 1912) is shown within the larger region encompassed by the Ruislip-Norwood Town Planning Scheme

2.1 2.2

October 1866: last entry of the year to the Paris Catacombes I 102 Subterranean comfort: Mole and Rat relaxing in Badger's drawing room beneath the Wild Wood I 105 Le Charnier des Innocents, 1588: a long tradition of the dead crowded in with the living I 108 The photographer Felix Nadar restages the transport of bones from the Catacombes I 109 The underground metonymy made real: Versaillais forces hunting communards in the Catacombes in June 1871 I n2 The pursuit of insurgents into the carrieres of Montmartre, June 1848 I II3 Nineteenth-century vanitas: one of the five rooms in the crypt of the Capuchin convent of Santa Maria della Concezione I n5 Inscription of Pope Damasus in the papal vault, catacomb of St. Callixtus

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23

I 97

I II5

Hericart de Thury's monumental threshold entrance to the Catacombes in the Fosse-aux-Lions I 125 Symbolic topography: Atget's photograph of the Mur des Federes, at the "working-class" east end ofPere-Lachaise I 127 De Fourcy's proposal for new catacombs under the Cemetery of the East (Pere-Lachaise) I 129 The catacombs at the City of London Cemetery, opened in 1856 I 131 The commercialization of antiquity: Pugin's satirical rendering of Highgate Cemetery I 136 A typical family loculus in the West Norwood Cemetery catacombs I 137 West Norwood Cemetery: the business-like entrance to a London catacomb

I 139

The view from above into the catacombs of the Lebanon Circle at the center of Highgate Cemetery I 140 "Geometrical map of a coal mine in the district ofNewcastle" I 146 Coal-Town Streets: a simplified version of the urban metonymy as befits a simpler representation of the space of the mine I 147 Verticalized space: the argument for social hierarchy graphically rendered

I 149

Technological utopia, Paris style: Coal Town rivals the Scottish capital as first city, with better weather, electric lights, and dancing to boot I 158 A generic mystery: What lies within? I 160 The emblems of mining: mineshaft, owl, pick-axes, Davy lamp I 161 The threat of urban apocalypse: reckoning with the dark forces of the underground I 162

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2.24

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

2.25 2.26 2.27

Notre Dame de dessous la terre: the climax of the historical romance, Les Fees noires I q6 Tube shelter: the natural and the technological undergrounds overlap I 177 Henry Moore: the artist as commuter I q8 The familiar nineteenth-century underground vista of a receding tunnel

2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33

Tube shelterers as the Victorian poor I 181 The iconography of passive acceptance I 181 The Yorkshire miner as an alien species in an alien environment I 182 Underground space: a study in contained energy I 183 Bag End, Underhill· the English country cottage par excellence I 184 Marketing Victorian subterranea: "The Catacombs" at Camden Market

3.1

The endurance of sewer mythology: to suggest there is no vermin left in the Paris system, the Musee des Egouts puts a pair of pet rats on display at the entrance to its exhibition I 191 Emblems of the urban poor: the Mud-lark I 192 The Haymarket-London: the equivocal image of the prostitute in one of the most notorious stretches ofWest End night life I 193 Dusty Bobs: "There are none, we think, so essentially, so peculiarly, so irretrievably Londonish, as our "London Dustmen" I 204 The long history of London filth: George Cruikshank's 1832 satire, Salus Populi Suprema Lex I 206 The iconography ofThames filth modernized for the late twentieth century

I 180

1 187

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14

I 207

A conventional visual representation of the sensational underworld illustrates a less conventional text I 209 The nadir of underground labour: the sewer-hunter I 210 The Entrance to "Hell':· The underworld as nightlife entertainment I 2n The Phantom's realm mapped for sensation seekers in rationalistic postwar America I 213 The Fleet Ditch diving competition I 215 Opening a Sewer by Night: a hint of enchantment in the portrayal of nocturnal technology I 217 Fleet Ditch, I84r.-Back ofField Lane: the stretch of the sewer richest in subterranean London lore I 217 ''A Smithfieldite Excursion": A modern sequel to Jonson's "Famous Voyage" 1 218

3.15 3.16 3.17

Cholera mortality mapped onto the Broad Street area of Soho by Dr. John Snow I 219 A modern, industrial-style Moloch I 222 Moloch in Metropolis: an image sublime enough to fit the inflated rhetoric 1 223

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

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XIII

Human moles: Sewermen going below I 226 The underground economy of Paris: a ragpickers' warehouse I 230 An example of George Jennings's pioneering "underground public conveniences" I 233 "A practical means of informing the ladies" I 235 The infamous gibbet atop Montfaucon: beginning of the site's enduring legacy of crime, death, and decay I 237 The carrieres d'Amerique before their transformation into the pare aux Buttes-Chaumont I 238 Policing the underground: Juve and Pandor square off with Fan to mas at a Seine sewer outlet I 240 The carrieres d'Amerique after their transformation: the pare aux ButtesChaumont grotto I 242 A sewer tour in early 1870 I 243 Paris Zone, ca. 1912: an Atget photograph of a ragpicker's premises off the boulevard Massena at the edge of the 13th arrondissement I 250 The petroleuse: emblem of the feminine underworld in all of its most powerful-and, for the Versaillais, negative-associations I 255 Soldiers keeping watch at a collector sewer opening during the Siege of Paris in 1870 I 257 "The Boulevard Haussmann after the Bursting of a Sewer" I 258 Images of a flooded Paris reach London: "Water, Water Everywhere: Flood water flowing out of underground drains" I 259 The Subterranean World in ruins: remains of the Chinese pagoda beneath the Trocadero gardens I 271 The ruins of empire I 276 The uncontrollable forces of the underground bursting out of their oppression to destroy the city of Metropolis, Metropolis (1926) I 282 A 1930s dream palace presides over the destruction of Everytown in an aerial bombardment, Things to Come (1936) I 284 The Corbusian Radiant City realized in the rebuilt future of Everytown, Things to Come (1936) I 284 The clean, curved contours of the New York entrance to the Transatlantic Tunnel, with a modernist office block in the background I 285 Action scene from Le Tunnel (1935), one of the two Continental adaptations of Bernhard Kellermann's novel I 286 Harry Lime (Orson Welles) finally about to get his shoes dirty in the climactic chase through the Vienna sewers, The Third Man (1949) I 289 Daisy (Teresa Izewska) and Jacek (Tadeusz Janczar) trapped in the infernal sewers beneath occupied Warsaw, Kanal (1956) I 292 The Nazi version of Victorian dust-piles, all roo recognizable for what they really are, Nuit et brouillard (1955) I 295

XIV

4.11

4.12 4.13

4.14

•

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Barefoot Gen: using the comic book format and the child's perspective to render the immediacy of an intolerable experience I 296 The sewers of history breed monsters I 301 Monstrous ants born of Cold War obsessions leave their irradiated nests in the Nevada desert for the inhospitable but well-provisioned storm drains of Los Angeles, Them (1954) I 302 "Enter at Your Peril": the visible face of the Victorian revival under the viaduct just south of London Bridge station in Southwark I 307

II

Preface and Acknowledgments

The official title of this book is Subterranean Cities, but in the real world it has always gone by the name of A Tale of Two Cities. It became a routine: each time I was newly arrived on a research visit, the taxi driver, baffled by the weight of the books in my bags, would ask me what I was doing there. Upon hearing that I was writing a book about London and Paris, the invariable response would be, "Oh, yes, A Tale ofTwo Cities," the title in English no matter what country I was in. Such is the power of a received idea, a vaguely recalled reading from high school, a title floating up from the vestiges of an old movie seen on Tv. My hope is that the space of this book manages to bridge the images of its real and its shadow title, addressing at once the cold and abstract yet rigorous ideal and the familiar and evocative yet reductive commonplace. Although the finished book is dedicated to the lcitsch-like identification that allowed the project currency in the everyday life of the great cities as well as in the corridors of academe, it is equally dedicated to another threshold between them, one of the many spaces I did not have an opportunity to address in the main text: the unique space of the grand research library, and to its shared population of underground men and women-persons who look as if they could not possibly exist beyond the peculiar air of these reading rooms, corridors, bathrooms, cloakrooms, and cafeterias. But each library also possesses a distinct subterranean identity, although an identity that has been complicated by the existence, in London and in Paris, of a vanished, nostalgically remembered institution alongside the brand-new, high-tech, and high-risk creation haunted by it, a real space and its shadow. The old Bibliotheque nationale was always metaphorically subterranean, epitomized by its enfer of restricted books, reserved for the initiated; by its forbidding guardians; and by its location among the central passages (covered arcades) of the Right Bank. In the old Library of the British Museum, it was the demons who delivered the books and who possessed a thousand ways to inflict punishment on the sorry scholar who asked the wrong question, looked the wrong look, or was simply in the wrong place at the wrong time. Both of these old spaces were redolent with the shades of their past researchers and adepts, Karl Marx and Virginia Woolf, Walter Benjamin and Georges Bataille, among many others. The new national libraries, by contrast, are literally utopian undergrounds, bright and open, rational and regulated. Nevertheless, they can still remind us of the continuity of their identity with centuries past. In Paris the

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long, slowly descending moving walkways into the lower level of the Grande bibliotheque are reserved once again only for initiates, and the space is ruled by a computer system that no one, least of all the hapless librarians, has yet been able to master, a system whose automated gates, once crossed, will hold you in the depths at their pleasure. The faulty ventilation of the otherwise idyllic new British Library-reminding me of those past summer days in what felt like the seventh circle of hell in the sweltering reading room of the old British Museum Library-belied the open-air feel, and soon drove the permanent inhabitants to the extreme of a strike. And, finally, I must not neglect the American cousins. The New York Public Library's uniquely open-armed admissions policy attracts an extraordinary cross-section of the city's population, so mixed as to constitute perhaps the premier threshold space of Manhattan. The Library of Congress, with its marvelous, air-conditioned labyrinth of underground passageways, is the only one of these libraries that has truly inspired me with the fear that I might never again emerge, joining the ranks of underground scholars, workers, and congressional clerks, forever wandering the tunnels beneath Capitol Hill under the deluded impression that this, too, is research for my book. I would be remiss if, intent on the grand design, I were to neglect to express my gratitude to the smaller, less mythic spaces that contributed equally to my research; to the many individuals whose suggestions, ideas, and criticisms helped me along the way; and to those who provided the financial support I have received over the years of researching and writing. Published and unpublished texts and images were made readily available to me in New York by the Billy Rose Theater Collection. In Paris they were made available by the Bibliotheque du film, the Bibliotheque historique de la ville de Paris, the Bibliotheque de !'Arsenal, the Bibliotheque nationale de France, the Inspection generale des carrieres, and the Phototheque des musees de la ville de Paris. In London they were provided by the Bancroft Library, the Bermondsey Local Studies Library, BFI Films' Stills, Pictures and Designs Library, the Guildhall Library, the Imperial War Museum, the Institute for Historical Research, London's Transport Museum, the Mander and Mitchenson Theatre Collection, the Minet Library, the Museum of London, the Theatre Museum Picture Library, and the Westminster Archives Centre; and elsewhere in England by the Henry Moore Foundation, the Lee Miller Archive, and the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. Whenever able, the Interlibrary Loan Office at American University's Bender Library made readily available to me a wealth of essential materials. And, finally, let me acknowledge the gloriously musty and (hopefully still) neglected stacks at Columbia University's Butler Library, within the depths of which this book had its origins. While it was from time to time annoying that everyone I met knew more about the underground than I did, I nevertheless managed, when I got over my annoyance, to stumble in this way upon all manner of invaluable sources. Although I cannot hope to name all of those who assisted me with their passing

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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XVII

comments and hints, I do want especially to thank the following people whose help went much further, with the inevitable apology for whatever I may have done to distort their suggestions and advice: Michelle Allen, Antoinette Burton, William Cohen, Antoine Compagnon, David Damrosch, Rachel Falconer, Pamela Gilbert, Christina Glengary, David Green, Heidi Holder, Andreas Huyssen, Derek Keene, Michael Levenson, Jonathan Loesberg, Steven Marcus, Joseph McLaughlin, Angda Mitral, Carol Jones Neuman, Karen Newman, Deborah Nord, Stephanie O'Hara, Nicole Pohl, Fred Radford, Michael Riffaterre, Vanessa Schwartz, Myra Sklarew, Scott Manning Stevens, Michael Taussig, David Trotter, Graham Willcox. My students at Columbia and at American University contributed much to the planning and writing of this book, and I am grateful to them. For the space of a year, Mark Stein seemed as much a collaborator on chapter 3 as a research assistant. I want to thank Bernhard Kendler at Cornell University Press for his generous support of my work, manuscript editor Karen M. Laun and copyeditor John Raymond for their efficient and incisive editing, production designer Lou Robinson for untangling and illuminating the book's illustrations, the manuscript's anonymous reader, and everyone else at Cornell Press who helped along the way. Mary Allen de Acosta supported the writing of the book in many ways; I am especially grateful for her generosity in providing me with an ideal place for research in London, and another for writing in Suba. The book is dedicated to Ana, who inspired it and saw it through from start to finish, and to Philip, who came in at the end. Many of my textual debts should be apparent in the notes, and I have tried to be as clear about theoretical influences as possible; however, due to my combination of broad scope and idiosyncratic focus, I have tended to pillage historical sources, phrases, and images from wherever I could find them. I have in general documented such pillaging; however, especially with older sources, I have notalways done so if the reference or quote had nothing whatsoever to do with the source's argument or general subject. I do want to single out my particular debt to Rosalind Williams's extraordinary book, Notes on the Underground, which (as will be evident to anyone who has had the pleasure of reading it) I have argued with, rifled through, and revisited time and again since the earliest stages of the project. I was able to begin the book thanks to a Mellon postdoctoral fellowship at the Society of Fellows in the Humanities at Columbia University. The shape of the work gained enormously from my participation in Michael Levenson's National Endowment for the Humanities Seminar in London, 1995; my thanks to all involved, especially Michael. Further research was made possible by generous grants from American University, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the Folger Library. A Mellon Foundation Grant from the College of Arts and Sciences of American University helped defray the cost of illustrations. I have benefited from the presentation of

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work in progress at American University, Columbia University, the British Comparative Literature Association (1995), the American Comparative Literature Association (1997), the Mid-Atlantic British Studies Association (1998), the Modern Language Association (1996, 1999, 2002), the New Modernisms Conference at Pennsylvania State University (1999), the Centre for Metropolitan Studies at the University of London (2000), the Society for Utopian Studies (2001), the Folger Seminar on Early Modern Paris (2002), and the annual Monuments and Dust Conference. Portions of chapter r have been adapted from "Modernist Space and the Transformation of Underground London," in Londons Imagined, ed. Pamela Gilbert (State University of New York Press, 2002), of chapter 3 from "Sewage Treatments: Vertical Space and the Discourse of Waste in 19th-Century Paris and London," in Filth, ed. William Cohen and Ryan Thompson (University of Minnesota Press, 2004), and of chapter 4 from "Urban Nightmares and Future Visions," Wide Angle 20, no. 4 (October 1998). Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own, rendered as literally as possible within the bounds of English. All emphases are the original author's unless otherwise noted.

Subterranean Cities

II

INTRODUCTION

Contemporary Western culture seems obsessed by all things underground. The sewers and catacombs are among the most visited attractions in Paris. London's biggest draw is the disused railway arches that house the shopping arcades of the counterculture-themed Camden Town; close behind on the list are the Tower and the London Dungeon. Even at Disney World, hardcore fans consider a tour of the "Utilidors," the underground utility network serving the immense holiday complex above, to be the ne plus ultra of the Orlando experience. No action movie is complete without a sensational climax in a metropolitan subway, utility tunnel, or sewer, or a showdown in the arch-villain's subterranean stronghold. The image of the late twentieth and early twenty-first-century city is dominated by underworld beings: prostitutes and pimps, dealers and addicts, sexual deviants, mafiosos, terrorists, illegal aliens, slum dwellers. Homeless children live in sewers, men sleep in stacks of rented cages, wild animals roam the streets. Meanwhile, just around the corner, another underground locks its doors to these fears, creating sealed-off, climate-controlled downtown cities beneath the open streets. Other fortresses rule the suburbs: vast windowless malls inaccessible to public transport and carefully policed by private security teams! The countryside is seamed with hidden missile depots, buried toxic waste dumps, secret command centers, and state-of-the-art fallout shelters for the powers-that-be when the surface becomes too dangerous. Desperate to escape from poverty and oppression, refugees attempt to ride a new underground railway of cargo containers, tanker holds, and drainage pipes into the promised land of the West. How did so many disparate phenomena and diverse experiences become so closely identified with the same space? It all began with the nineteenth century. True enough, man-made spaces such as tunnels, sewers, catacombs, and mines were being excavated beneath the earth by convicts or slaves as far back as the twenty-sixth century B.C.E. 2 The Western city has long been associated with the underworld in moral terms as the center of iniquity and dissolution.3 But it was only with the development of the nineteenth-century city, with its complex drainage systems, underground railways, utility tunnels, and storage vaults, that the urban landscape superseded the countryside of caverns and mines as the primary location of actual subterranean spaces. This convergence gave rise to a new way of experiencing and conceptualizing the city as a vertical space that is still with us today. The technologies of con-

2

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SUBTERRANEAN CITIES

struction and heavy industry were at the center of urban life, as were the new experiences, fashions, and types of behavior that emerged from them. Bridges and tunnels were visited as tourist attractions and eulogized as heroic enterprises; millions flocked to world exhibitions and the new subways to admire the wondrous inventions of industrial technology, in much the same way that they are currently enthralled by the computer-generated wonders of visual technology (figures 1 and 2). The nineteenth-century capitals of technological novelty were London and Paris. As powerhouse of the industrial revolution and the most populous city in the West, London provided images of modernity as a literally subterranean phenomenon. Paris, by contrast, provided images of a more fantastic and ambivalent modernity: on the one hand, an otherworldly cornucopia of commodities; on the other, an infernal stronghold of revolution, the desire to appropriate that technology in unforeseen ways. Although usually presented in opposition to one another, these two images in fact constituted complementary expressions of a single, highly contradictory attitude toward the experience of the modern city. The shift from Victorian industrialization to the full-fledged modernity of the twentieth century placed enormous pressure on traditional individual and social attitudes toward everyday life. While the nineteenth century was dominated by the representation of aboveground space as if it were subterranean, and the increasingly predominant experience of underground space in the everyday life of the lower classes, the twentieth century was characterized by the representation of subterranean space as aboveground, and the increasing predominance of underground space in the everyday life of the middle classes. The technological boom of the nineteenth century introduced a novel category of space that has continued to expand in scope while its challenge to the traditionally vertical con-

lntro 1. Celebrating heroic engineering: the opening procession through the Thames Tunnel in 1843, with arches separating the two passages. Illustration from "Thames Tunnel, opened 25 March 1843," Illustrated London News (25 March 1843): 227.

INTRODUCTION

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3

Intro 2. Underground spectacle: visitors view the aquarium on the Trocadero at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, 1867. Illustration from "The Paris Exhibition," The Graphic (June I, 1878): 549·

ception has remained unremarked. The new underground is covered, windowless, or otherwise able to give the impression of being subterranean no matter where it may actually be located: the iron-and-glass arcade, the mausoleum, the factory, the prison cell, the interrogation room, the bunker, and the artificial environment of the office block, shopping mall, or climate-controlled apartment. Subterranean Cities documents the emergence of this new space out of the underground obsessions of the nineteenth-century metropolis. At the same time, it details the consequences of the continued recourse to those past obsessions to make sense of a contemporary experience of urban space that, in fact, has little in common with the cities in which they first appeared. The first three chapters trace the effects on urban experience of the development of three rypes of subterranean space during the nineteenth century: the underground railway, the modern catacomb and necropolis, and the sewer. Each space attracted a specific form of underground reverie and fear. Chapter I, "The New Life Underground," analyzes the emergence of a wholly modern conception of subterranean space: an underground that would be bright, clean, and dry, the polar opposite of traditional images of the world below. It begins with divergent responses to the first of such spaces, the underground railway in London and Paris, from early plans in the 1840s to the completion of both networks in the first decades of the twentieth century. It develops the key components of this inorganic underground as it appeared in various guides to subterranean Paris and London in the early twentieth century and documents a similar conception of

4 •

SUBTERRANEAN CITIES

the underground at work in a series of subterranean utopias written in the latter half of the nineteenth and the early twentieth century, from Edward Bulwer-Lytton and Gabriel Tarde to H. G. Wells and E. M. Forster, and in the architectural modernism of Le Corbusier and others, which imagined a city completely rationalized from top to bottom. Chapter 2, "The Modern Necropolis," describes the flip-side of the rationalized underground through an examination of the nineteenth and early twentieth-century fascination with cities of the dead: the revived interest in the buried past through the invention of archaeology and paleontology, the incorporation of the design of the Roman catacombs and ancient Egyptian iconography into cemetery and urban design in Paris and London. The modernizing impulse to sanitize the ancient burial grounds of Paris and London went hand in hand with an archaizing fascination with the mythic resonances of subterranean space. Two key representations of the city are analyzed in terms of the necropolis: the coal mine (neotroglodytes in an underground cave city) and the subterranean pastoral (the simple life underground as escape from the modern city). "The Modern Necropolis" concludes with a look at instances of the positive fascination with an inhabited underground during the twentieth century, from Tolkien's hobbitholes to London Tube shelters to Parisian cataphiles, contemporary explorers of the city's underground quarries. Chapter 3, "Charon's Bark," examines the consequences of another sanitizing impulse: the construction and renovation of the sewage systems of Paris and London in response to the urban pathologies both physiological and psychological that haunted the modern city. Urban sanitation became the privileged discourse with which to address the perceived blights of deviance and perversion, bur it did so by recourse to the most atavistic space of the modern city, home to its most extravagant legends and mythical beasts. Alien urban categories, such as prostitution, homosexuality, and crime, were likewise metaphorically assimilated to the space of the sewers, with a combination of fascination and repulsion that was mirrored by the growing popularity of the sewer tour and of the sewer tunnel as a setting in popular literature and theater. Descents to this alien underworld took both positive and negative forms, just as rationalizing narratives of sewer construction and touring were manifested differently in London and in Paris. The discourses of prostitution in London and in Paris were likewise complementary but superficially opposed, and they reworked old underworld tropes of fear and desire to polarize the city in terms of gendered spaces. The conclusion of the book, "Urban Apocalypse," recounts the persistence of visions (some of them realized) of the destruction of London and Paris from the nineteenth century through the end ofWorld War II. It relates this phenomenon to the overturning of the vertical imagination of the city. It then evaluates the applicability of this model for understanding a similar flurry of visions at the end of the twentieth century in some of the cities that took over from London and Paris

INTRODUCTION

•

5

as centers for the production of underground space after 1945, in particular New York, Tokyo, and Los Angeles. The dominant reactions toward urban decay and poverty continue to invoke the underground imagery of nineteenth-century Paris and London. The raw facts of exploitation may not have changed since then, but they are occurring under the radically different spatial conditions of the globalized urban experience of the contemporary world at large. I conclude with the paradox of the underground at the turn of the twenty-first century: a set of images that has lost none of its power to dominate the imagination of an urban landscape in which those same images have lost any relation to everyday life. Before turning to this material, I want to introduce several basic concepts that I rely on to decipher the complex simplicity of the underground.

The Vertical City The underground is a slippery term. On the one hand, it is as straightforward as can be: the opposite of whatever the viewer from the world above considers as belonging to his or her own space. On the other hand, it is rife with the contradictions that emerge from that gesture at definition. We can begin with anthropologist Mary Douglas's formulation in terms of cultural taboos, "Uncleanness or dirt is that which must not be included if a pattern is to be maintained."4 In practice, this has made the underground the physical and conceptual trash heap of the modern world above, the place to which everyone and everything posing a problem or no longer useful to it is relegated. It is coherent in that whatever is in it at some point must have posed a threat to social order, but incoherent insomuch as this definition at some time or other has included pretty much everything under the sun-and while garbage may decompose, we are acutely aware these days that it never actually disappears. For example, a primary set of associations persists from the medieval and early modern imagination of the underground in terms of the vertical cosmos of Christianity. Many conflicting images made their way into hell, but there is no doubt that the relationship was rigidly fixed and predominately metaphysical: good was above, evil below, and the earthly city existed in between, with a strongly downward inclination (figure 3). Infernal imagery was easily adaptable to an industrial revolution that saw wage laborers at work in mines and tunnels, or in factories that were underground in all but name: no light, no air-just dirt, grime, and the constant risk of injury or death. Such associations were far less welcomed by those promoting the new feats of engineering aimed at the middle- and upperclass citizens needed to fill the trains, shop in the exhibitions, arcades, and department stores, and blithely ignore the conditions that had produced the goods they were consuming. Moreover, somewhere between the nightmare visions of hell and the antiseptic promises of a perfectly controlled new underground was a third set of ancient

6 •

SUBTERRANEAN CITIES

lntco 3. The medieval legacy to the modern urban underground is the vertical cosmos. In this vision of the Last Judgment the blessed souls march to the heavenly city, and the damned are dragged down into Hell. Drawing by Michael Wolgemut, Ultima etas mundi, in Hartmann Schedel, Liber Chronicarum, 1493.

associations related to fundamental notions of peace and security. After all, the earliest use of underground space was as shelter from inclement weather, the dark night, and the threat of wild beasts and hostile outsiders. The underground has continued to function as a repository for these and other simple, but nevertheless utopian, desires not met by the strictly regulated society above it. As most of these desires run contrary to the self-denying and materialistic ideology of mod-

INTRODUCTION

•

7

ern capitalism, they can take concrete form in the world above only as romantic cliches, dangerous urges, or daydreams so anodyne as barely to satisfY for an instant before leaving behind a thirst for more. There are many different forms taken by the vertical segmentation of society; what concerns me at this point is the framework itself and its function. The world above-the world of law, order, economy, conformity-is given structure and order by what it excludes beneath it as unfit. Needless to say, this is a symbolic gesture, reinforced by myriad linguistic pairings and tropes: high and low, up and down, upper and lower, light and dark, north and south. Most importantly, it was reinforced during the nineteenth century by a realization that the city itself was beginning to reflect the timeworn metaphysics: the poor lived in dark, airless, and disease-ridden tenements and rookeries; the homeless slept rough under bridges, arches, and tunnels; desperate men (and a few women) scavenged the sewers for dropped coins and lost valuables. A whole system of representation emerged that fixed these images as the single unchanging face of the newly dubbed "lower" classes (figure 4). Very gradually, throughout the nineteenth century, the great cities were in fact becoming more and more segregated by class; however, according to images of those cities, that segregation was hard and fast from the beginning. This was the vertical city: a messy blend of halftruths and bygone myths that took over the representation of urban life.

lntro 4. The misery of Paris under siege in 1871 is emblematized by the forced habitation of underground space. The depiction draws on stock iconography of urban poverty. Engraving by E. B., A Colony in a Cellar, in "Paris under Bombardment," The Graphic (25 February r87r): r85.

8 •

SUBTERRANEAN CITIES

For nineteenth-century writers of various political and class outlooks, the underground seemed to hold the key to unlocking the secrets of the modern world (figure 5). Imagery of the underground and its relation to the world above tended to fall into two distinct categories: that of segregation and elimination, and that of incorporation and recycling. The first was conventionally identified with London, the second with Paris. There are certain historical and material reasons for this-the more centralized political structure of Paris; the tidal nature of the Thames and the London port facilities; the earlier industrialization and greater population of London; the greater population density of Paris. Such identifications tended to polarize these qualities, finding in one city whatever was wanting in the other. As we follow these two discourses, it will become evident that neither can fully account for the space of either city, nor can the two models be fully understood separately from one another.5 Unlike representations of the city in terms of the world above, those of the world below never appeared without manifestly displaying at least some of the underlying contradictions of modern society. No matter how clear-cut the divisions are made in theory, in the actual city the supposedly above and supposedly below are in constant contact. Although there were limit-cases-the mansions and clubs of the rich were more inaccessible than the cribs and hovels of the poor-both extremes were well-represented in fantasy. The promiscuous mixing attributed to Paris infected London, and the spatial segregation attributed to London infected Paris. In both cities, the poor crowded into railway stations, demonstrated in public places, and fomented revolution; in both, prostitutes plied the streets, walking alongside proper ladies. The View from Above and the View from Below In a city divided between aboveground and underground, there were two customary vantage points from which to describe its spaces. One could take a bird'seye view-favored sites were the dome of St. Paul's in London and the towers of Notre-Dame de Paris-that encompassed the entire cityscape at the expense of individual detail. 6 The view from above was epitomized by the ''Asmodeus flight," derived from an eighteenth-century Spanish novel where the titular devil on crutches flies above Madrid, unroofing the houses below. This mildly satirical conceit was enormously popular, imitated and adapted to cities everywhere; by the first decades of the nineteenth century, the ''Asmodeus flight" had become a commonplace of urban literature in general (figure 6).7 The view from above figures the modern city in the most general and abstract sense as hell, and in its various versions it runs the gamut from metaphysical speculation to biting moral satire to humorous verbal anecdote and visual tableaux. Rather than the metonymic abstraction of the city as a whole through its rooftops characteristic of the view from above, the view from below was emblematized by the literal descent into the bas-fonds, the lower depths of the city. As a

INTRODUCTION

•

9

lntro 5. The world is described in terms of its underground phenomena on the spine of this thousand-page compendium on life underground. From Thomas Wallace Knox, Underground; or, Life below the Surface (London: Sampson, Low & Co., 1873) .

bona fide underworld journey, the v1ew from below promises a face-to-face meeting with Satan himself, not just the unimposing Asmodeus leaning on his crutches. Like the moral overview, the material descent has premodern antecedents. The underground lore of Paris, for example, contains the story of a "charlatan," known only as Cesar, said to have been strangled by the devil on the eleventh of March, 1615, in a cell in the Bastille, where he had been incarcerated

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d 244-45> 337 lll95 Disneyfication, 94, 99, 306 Disney World, Walt, r District line, London, 22, 23, 24, 46, 85 Dore, Gustave, 42-43, 179, 275 Dorgeles, Roland: Retour des morts, Le, 280

Douglas, Mary, 5, 194, 328 n7

Drame des carrieres d'Amerique, Le (r868), 239 Dr. Strangelove (r964), 294 Du Camp, Maxime, 241, 247-49, 251, 259 Dumas, Alexandre (pere): Mohicans de Paris, Les, n8, 120, 121-23, 323 n47 dust, 203-5, 221-22, 244-45, 294-95. See also sewage; waste Dust destructor, 221-22 dustmen, 203-4, 221, 231. See also sewers: workers in Duvivier, Julien. See Pipe le Moko (1936) East end, London, 79, 85, 134, r86. See also en-

tries for individual places edicule, 25-26, 27, 52, 54 Edison, Thomas Alva, 86 Egan, Pierce: Life in London, rq, 249 egourier. See sewers: workers in Egypt, ancient, 4, r26, 130, 138-42, 157, 71 electricity, 57, 76-78, 84, 86, 91, 124, 157 Elephant and Castle station, London, 175 Eliot, T. S.: Waste Land, The, r66, 281 Ellison, Ralph: Invisible Man, The, 302 Embankment, Thames, 42, 219, 330 n4r empty city, 40, 41, 132-33 enceintes, Paris, 28. See also Zone Engels, Friedrich, 267 Etchells, Frederick, 71-72 Etruscans, 77, 170-72 everyday life. See lived space excrement. See dust; waste exhibitions: Great Exhibition, London (r85r), 89, 232; Exposition Universelle, Paris (r867), 3; Exposition Universelle, Paris (1900), 52, 27o--71, 290, 308 explosions, subterranean: in mines, 152-55, 159, r63, 326 nn5; in quarries, no, nr, n3, r2o-22, r88, 256; in tunnels, 326 nn6; in underground railways, 36, 52, 6r, 173, 316 n2o expressionism, 222, 294

Fabuleux destin d'Amelie Poulain, Le (20or), 318-19 n88 Falconer, Rachel, 314 n9, 339 n33 fallen woman trope. See prostitute Fantomas, 51, 6o, 66, 240, 318 n75 Farleigh, John, 179

Father Thames and the Builders' Strike, 205

INDEX

fauna, subterranean: alligators, 191, 302; badger, 104; bats, 171; blackbeetle, 164-65; horse, 145-46, 150, 153-54; Inklings, 296-97; mice, 169, 294; mole, 72, 104-6, n9, 144, 169; Morlocks, 79, 144; mutations, 30o-301; owl, 16o-63; pigs, 191; rats, I9I; 199, 208, 216, 224,229,236, 243,25~ 277,294·304, 332 n83. See also cannibalism favela. See slums feminine underground, 68-69, 76-77, 86, 17172, 260-61, 319 n91. See also inorganic underground: and the organic underground Ferat, Jules-Descartes, I02, I58, I6o-62 Ferguson, Priscilla Parkhurst, 313-14n5, 314n6 Feuillade, Louis, 40, 6o Feval, Paul: Mysteres de Londres, Les, 133 Fiaux, Louis, 261 film nair, 66 filth. See waste flaneur, 265-66 Flaubert, Gustave: I 'Education sentimentale, III, II3 Fleet ditch, 51, 190, 209, 214-16, 224, 261, 264-65 Florelle, 64 flooding, 51, 154, 159, 256, 278, 280, 282 Folie de Chaillot, La. See Giraudoux, Jean Forbes, J. S., 24 Ford, Ford Madox: Soul ofLondon, The, 23, 3o-31, 46, 277-78 Forde, Walter. See Bulldog jack (1935) foreignness, 195, 196 Forster, E. M.: "The Machine Stops," 75, 84-85, 275, 277; Passage to India, A, 172 Fosse-aux-Lions, Ia, 124, 230 Foucauldian readings of the city, 198, 269 Fourier, Charles, 89, 90, 163 Fournier, Marc. See Nuits de fa Seine, Les (1852) Fragonard, Jean-Honore, n6, 322n27 France, Anatole: Penguin Island, 326 nn6 Freud, Sigmund, 12, 15, 196, 198-99, 200, 329lll8 Fuchs, Eduard, 329 m8 Furniss, Harry, 36 Fussell, Paul, 278-79 futurism, 64, 91, 98, 167, 318 n84 Gabin, Jean, 31-32, 286, 315m3 Galanis, Dimitrios, 53

•

347

Gallagher, Catherine, 335lll4I, 337 lll95 Gallop, Jane, 253, 254 Galsworthy, John: The Man of Quality, 38, 39, 40, 43· 46 Gance, Abel:]accuse (1918-!9), 28o;jaccuse (1937), 280 Garden City movement, 89, 96 Garnier, Jules, 49 Garnier, Tony, 96 Garraway's Coffee House, 133-34 Gaspards, Les (1973), 106, 187-88 Geary, Stephen, 141 Geddes, Patrick, 313 n3 gender. See space, gendered experience of genocide, 76, 298-99 Gerards, Emile: Paris souterrain, 52, 72, 74, 108, III, 271 Germinal. See Zola, Emile ghetto, Jewish, II4, n6-17 Giedion, Siegfried, 14, 98, 99-100 Giraudoux, Jean: Folle de Chaillot, La, 289-90 Girouard, Mark, 313-14n5 Gisquet, Henri Joseph, 333-34 mn Gissing, George: The Nether World, 152 global space: 5, 91, 272-73, 298, 305-12 "Gloomy Ramble, A," 225 Godzilla (1956), 300 Grahame, Kenneth: The Wind in the Willows, 104-5,166,183,184,275 Grand Central Station, New York, 303, 340 n41 Grandjouan, Jules, 55-57 Greater London Council, 23 Great Stink, 205, 219, 232, 249 Great Victorian Way, 89-90 "Green in France," II7 Greene, Graham, 287 Greve, place de, no, 120 Gropius, Walter, 100. See also Bauhaus, the Guerrand, Roger-Henri, 234 Guimard, Hector, 25-26, 27, 52. See also edicule Guyot, Yves, 268-69 Haag, Paul, 49

Half Hours Underground, 146-48 Hall, Peter, 89, 281 Hailes, les, 67, 99, 108, 128, 187-88, 234 Halls ted-Baumert, Sheila, 317 n65 Hamlin, Christopher, 203

INDEX

Handy, Ellen, 334 n141, 337 n195 Harbison, Robert, 141-42

Harlequin Father Thames and the River Queen (1858), 205, 260, 261 Harsin, Jill, 269 Harvey, David, 340n49 Haussmann, Georges-Eugene: annexation of banlieues, 129; and the Buttes-Chaumont, 123, 239, 241; and Haussmannization, 28, 148, 251, 254, 274-75; works in aboveground Paris, 121, 145-46; works in underground Paris, 123, 127, 248-49, 256 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 316 n26 Hay, William Delisle: Three Hundred Years Hence, 75, 76 Haywood, Ian, 214 hell: coal mine as, 151, 164; concentration camp as, 291-93; existential, 293; and the industrial sublime, 74-75, 82-83; trench warfare as, 280; underground railway as, 33, 53; in the vertical cosmos, 5, 171, 256; in the view from above, 8, 94- See also Dante Alighieri; underworld Hell. See Chapman, Jake and Dinos Hemyng, Bracebridge, 264 Henard, Eugene, 91 Hericault de Thury, L., u7-r8, 124 Heston, Charlton, 34In53 Heuze, Louis, 47-48, 49, 53 Higgs, Mary: Glimpses into the Abyss, 228 Hillman, Ellis, 174 Himmelfarb, Gertrude, 329 mo Hiroshima, 272, 294-95 Hitchcock, Alfred. See Blackmail (1929) Hobsbawm, Eric, 21-22 Holborn station, London, 175 Hollingshead, John, 220, 244, 331 n62 Holmes, Basil, Mrs., 135 Holocaust, representation of, 291-92, 293-94, 298-99 homelessness, r, 179, 238-39, 301-4, 327 nr3o, 340n41 Hong Kong, 304, 310 Hood, Robin, 197 Horkheimer, Max Hotel du Nord (1938), 64-65 Howard, Ebenezer, 89, 97 Hugo, Victor, 107, 249, 275, 279; Miserables, Les, 190, 193, 198-99, 200-202, 205, 210,

245, 247-48, 274; Notre-Dame de Paris, 120, 238, 283, 333 nro8, 334nu6 Hots insalubres, 248, 249, 251, 256, 275 images d'Epinal, 280-81 impressionism, 249, 251 lndes noires, Les. See Verne, Jules industrial sublime, 70, 74, 77-78, 164, 220, 221 inorganic underground, 2-4; appropriation of, 303-7; concentration camp as, 291; and the modern city, 103, 247, 268, 308; and rhe organic underground, r6, r8, 69, 88, 272, 277-78, 282-83, 310; and utopia, 75, 87, 283-85, 294 Internet. See space, and the Internet

]'accuse (1918-19). See Gance, Abel ]'accuse (1937). See Gance, Abel Jacob, Max, 64 Jacob's Island, London, 224 James, Henry: A London Life, 45-46, 142-44, 172; Princess Cassamassima, The, 153, 326 nu5 jane Rutherford, 149-51 Japan, post-war, 294-97 Jefferies, Richard, After London, 277, 283 Jennings, George, 232-34 Jennings, Humphrey, 98, 287 Jerrold, William Blanchard, 43 ]etie, La (1962), 290-91 Jeunet, Jean-Pierre. See Fabuleux destin d'Amelie Poulain, Le (20or) Joanne, Adolphe, 157, 234 Jonson, Ben: "On rhe Famous Voyage," 190, 191, 214, 2!6, 261 Jukes, Peter, 99

Kana! (1956), 190, 288, 292-93 katabasis. See descent into the underworld Kellermann, Bernhard, 285 Kingsley, Charles: Yeast: A Problem, 203 Klein, Naomi, 312 Knox, Thomas Wallace, 9, u8, 144, 262-63 Korda, Vincent, 339 n27 Kracauer, Siegfried, 98 Kubrick, Stanley. See Dr. Strangelove (1964) Kusturica, Emir. See Underground (1995) labor: represented as subterranean, 5, 42-43, 122, 197-98, 227, 303; subterranean, 72, 79, 8r, 144-55, 163-65, 227, 298; women's, 195,

INDEX

252, 266. See also mines: coal; sewers: workers m Lacan, Jacques, 191 Laclos, Choderlos de: Liaisons dangereux, Les, 246 Lacroix, Paul: Les Catacombes de Rome, II4, II6-I7, I67, 322n29 Ladies National Association, 266-67 Lamarque, Nestor de, I25 Lang, Fritz: Man Hunt (1941), 6r; Metropolis (1926), 222, 282-83, 295, 22], 282 Laporte, Dominique, 328 n7 La Reynie, Nicolas de, 247 L'Assiette au beurre, 53-57, 235 Launay, Vicomte de. See Delphine de Girardin Lauriot, Norbert, JI7 n52 Lawrence, D. H., 85; Etruscan Places, I69-72; Sons and Lovers, r69 Le Corbusier, 49, 71-72, 91, 94-96, roo, 281, 283, 321 nr6o, 339 n27 Lecour, C.]., 254-55, 262, 263 Leech, John, 148-49 Lees, Andrew, 3I3-I4n5 Lefebvre, Henri, I4-I6, 69, 83, 9I, 98, 99, roo, JII-12 l'Enfer, cabaret de, 2II Le Poittevin: Diableries erotiques, 199, 329 nr8 Leroux, Gaston: Fantome de !'Opera, Le, 193, 2II, 246; Vie double de Theophraste Longuet, La, 66, ro4-6, 2II, 323 n35 Levi, Primo, 293 Lewis, Wyndham, 281 Lichtenberg, Georg, 264, 337 mn Lifo in London. See Egan, Pierce Line I, Paris Metro, 27I Line 4, Paris Metro, 51, 317 n65 Lime, Emile, 268 lived space, I5; and the historical novel, I23; and memory, 31, 84; and the mine, 146, 151-53; in modernism, 272; today, 304-5, JII-12; and urban experience, 125, 133-34, 173-74> 178-79, 25I, 287 living underground: 75-88, 2II, 3or-4, 340 n41, 340 n44, 340 n46; see also children underground: living; homelessness; railway, underground: as shelter

Livre des cent-et-un, Le. See Paris, ou le livre des cent-et-un London: during the Blitz, I73-75, I77-82, 287;

349 eighteenth-century, 214, 26o-6r, 264; future, 78-86, 204-5, 275, 277-78, 283; present-day, 22, 24, 33, 99, r86-87, 305-6; Regency, II7; swinging, r86. See also entries for

individual places and topics London, Jack: People of the Abyss, The, 225-26, 227-29, 332 n83 London, Tower of, r London Bridge, 166 London Bridge station, 307 "London Burials," 131-32 London Dungeon, I, 306 London Labour and the London Poor. See Mayhew, Henry Los Angeles, 305, 308 Louis XIV, 247 Louis XVI, III, II3 Louis XVIII, II3 Macaulay, Rose: Told by an Idiot, 44-45, 47 Macchia, Giovanni, 274, 279 Madeleine, place de Ia, II4, 234 Madwoman ofChaillot, The. See Giraudoux, Jean

Maiden Tribute ofModern Babylon, The. See Stead, William malls, shopping, r, 3, 21, 67-68, 99, 187-88, 305 Mammoth Cave. See caves Maner, Edouard, 245, 249 Manhattan: as cinematic subject, 302-3, 306; "mole people" in, 3or-4; verticalized cityscape of, 282, 286, 295. See also New York; railway, underground: New York; tunnel(s); entries for individual places Man Hunt (1941). See Lang, Fritz Mann, Thomas: Magic Mountain, The, 281 "Man Who Lived Underground, The." See Wright, Richard maps: of catacombs, n7; of cholera, 218; of coal mines, 145-47; of Paris fortifications, 29; of Paris Opera; of quality of Paris excrement, 231; of quarries, I2I, 326nr3r; sewer, 216-I7; underground railway, 21-25, 27-30, 33 Marais, le, 224 Marat, Jean-Paul, III, rr3 Marcus, Sharon, 313-14n5, 314n7 Marker, Chris. See jetee, La (r962) Martin, John, 77-78 Marx, Karl, xv, 13, 14, 15, r63, r65, 267, 268

350

•

masculine underground. See inorganic underground Masterman, C. F. G., 83, 320nr25 Matrix, The (1999), 309-ro, 3II Matrix Reloaded, The (2003), 3ro, 341 n53 Matrix Revolutions (2003), 341 n53 Maxwell, Richard, 313-14n5, 329 n2o, 333 nro8, 334nii6 Mayhew, Henry, on the Metropolitan railway, 33, 35, 40; and nostalgia, 99, 200, 204, 226, 329 n20; on popular culture, 245, 264-65; on prostitution, I95, 269 (see also Hemyng, Bracebridge); and underground London, I92, 198, 199-200, 202, 2IO, 223, 231, 249; and urban surveys, 74 Mazet, Edouard, 49 Mearns, Andrew: Bitter Cry of Outcast London, The, 224 melodrama, 192 Melville, Herman, 316 n26 Melville, Jean-Pierre. See Samourai; Le (1967) Mephistopheles. See devil Mercier, Louis-Sebastien, no, 232 Metro. See railway, underground: Paris Metro aerien, le, 6r, 64-66, 3I8-I9 n88 Metro-land, 96 Metropolis. See Lang, Fritz Metropolitain (1938), 6r Metropolitan Board ofWorks, 205, 218 metropolitan improvements: in London, 38, 41-42, 216, 264; in London vs. in Paris, 245; in modernism, 91, 94-95, 251; in Paris, 24849, 251; present-day, 305-6. See also Disneyfication; Haussman, Georges-Eugene: Haussmanization Metropolitan railway: development of, 22-24, 26, 35-36, 37, 51-52; reception of, 39-40, 41-42, 46-47, 49, 79· See also Metro-land Meynell, Alice: "The London Sunday," 134-35; "The Trees," 39 Milland, Evelyn. See Underground (1943) Miller, Lee, 175 mines: coal, 4, 5, 43, 78, ro7, 122, 144-65, r69, 171, 227, 270, 280, 338 nr; gold, 27o-71 modernism, architectural, 76, 83, 91, 94-96, 98-roo modernist space, r6, 91, 93-100, 169, 249, 251, 272, 285-87 Moers, Walter: Adolf, 300

INDEX

Mohicans de Paris, Les. See Dumas, Alexandre (pere) Montand, Yves, 6r Montfaucon, 123, 224, 229, 235-39, 241, 333ni08 Montmartre, 6o, 6r, 64-66, 2n, 256, 318n83, 318-19 n88; see also quarries, subterranean, Paris: Montmartre Montparnasse, 64, 318n83 Monument, the, 147, 148 Moore, Henry, 46, 175, 178-82, r86, 327nr36 Morain, Alfred, 334nr22 Morgue, Paris, !02, n9, 120, 128, 323 n38, 324n63 Morris, William, 96; News from Nowhere, 8586,87,88,203-5,275 Mosely, William, 89, 90 Mouffetard, quarrier, 230 mudlark, 192, 199-200, 205, 208-ro, 236 Mumford, Lewis, 30, 98, 144, 165, 185, 281, 313 n3, 325 n97 Munby, Arthur Joseph, 329 n26 Murakanri Haruki, 295-97 Muray, Philippe, 107 Museum of Natural History, Paris, 74, 290, 291 Mysteres de Londres, Les. See Feval, Paul Mysteres de Paris, Les. See Sue, Eugene Mysteres du nouveau Paris, Les. See Boisgobey, Fortune de Mysteries ofLondon, The. See Reynolds, G.WM. Mysteries ofOld Father Thames, The, 208-ro mysteries, urban, 40-41, 42, 6r, 71, 12o-2r, 148, 151, 155, 163, 266, 305; see also Reynolds, G. W M.; Sue, Eugene Nadar, Felix, ro8, 243, ro2 Nagasaki, 272, 295 Nakazawa Keiji: Barefoot Gen, 294-95 Napoleon III, 28, n3-14, 247, 254 Nash, John, 216 Nead, Lynda, 195, 244, 313-14n5, 328 nro, 338 nn necropolis. See cemetery Newark, New Jersey, 308 News from Nowhere. See Morris, William new underground. See inorganic underground New York, 283, 305, 308. See also Manhattan; railway, underground: New York

INDEX

New Zealander in London, 275, 338 m1

Night and Fog. See Nuit et brouillard (1955) nighrwalking, 123 Noll, Marcel, 241 Nord, Deborah, 228 Nord-Sud line, Paris, 64, 318 n83, 318 n84 Notre-Dame de Paris, 8, 283, 313-14n5 Notre-Dame de Paris. See Hugo, Victor Notre-Dame de Paris (1925), 2II, 283 novel, graphic. See comics Nuit et brouillard (1955), 293-94 Nuits de fa Seine, Les (1852), 256 Oldenburg, Claes, 205 Olsen, Donald]., 329 m7 Opera, Paris, 51, 6o, 193, 2II organic underground. See feminine underground Orly airport, 290, 291 Orpheus and Eurydice (1891), 39 Orton, Joe, 332 moo Orwell, George: Down and Out in Paris and London, 226-27, 228-29, 231-32; Road to Wigan Pier, The, 164-65, 169, 226, 266, 278 Ossuaire municipal. See catacombs, Paris Palais-Royal, le, 94, 128 Parent-Duchatelet, Alexandre-Jean-Baptiste, 223, 236, 261, 262, 265, 269 Paris: in the 196os, 175, 187-88; future, 87-88, 91, 94, 123-24, 274, 279-80, 290-91; of Louis Philippe, 256: occupied, 174-75, 287, 288-91, 327 m31, 339 n31, 339-40 n32; pre-Revolutionary, no, 120-21; present-day, 30, 67-68, 99IOO, r86; Second Empire, 91, III, n4, 121, 146, 259-60; siege of, 7: Third Republic, 255: during World War I: 60-61, 279-81. See also en-

tries for individual places and topics Paris, ou le livre des cent-et-un, 24 5 Paris au XXe siecle. See Verne, Jules parking, subterranean, r88 Parliament, houses of, 85-86, 204-5, 219 passages. See arcades Passingham, W J., 41, 71 Pasteur, Louis, 232 pastoral, subterranean, 4; in the future, 86-88, 275, 277: in the past, 166-68, 169-72; rural, 104, 169, 183-84, r86-87, 275, 277, 283, 306; urban,I04-6,I74,290,303

35 1 Pater, Walter: Marius the Epicurean, 167-68, 170, 171 Paxton, Joseph, 35, 36, 89-90 Pearson, Charles, 33 pegre, Ia. See underworld, criminal Peguy, Charles, 274 Pennell, Elizabeth Robins, 39, 45 Pepe le Moko (1936), 31-32, 61 petroleuse, Ia, 254-55 Picasso, Pablo, 251 Piccadilly Circus station, London, 71-72 Piccadilly line, London, 173, 319 n9o Pick, Frank, 23, 315 n5 Pigalle. See Montmartre Pike, Burton, 313m Pike, David L., 315 m4, 328 n3, 339n26, 339n28, 340n42 pissoirs. See toilets, public Place Blanche. See Montmartre plague pits, 102-3, n4, n9, 236 Platt, J. C., 216 Pompeii, 6o, 279 Pope, Alexander: Dunciad, The, 214 popular culture: Paris sourerrain and, 61, 6465, 175, r88, 334n126; and representation, 13, 18, 272, 294-97, 300, 302-3; and spectacle, 306, 309-10, 312, 328-29 m4; see also cinema; comics; mysteries, urban pornography. See underworld: sexual Porter, Roy, 327m30 Portes de fa nuit, Les (1946). See Carne, Marcel Posilippo, grotto of, w6, 321 n 5 poverty: "culture of," 13, 164, 224; present-day, 298, 303-5: and urban space, 41-42, 224; as subterranean, 78, 106, 148-49, 227-28; see also homelessness; mines: coal; sewers: workers m Prendergast, Christopher, 279 Prevert, Jacques: Crime de Monsieur Lange, Le (1936), 64; Hotel du Nord (1938), 64-65; Portes de fa nuit, Les (1946), 65; Visiteurs du soir, Les, 339n31 Prince of Wales, Albert, 219 prostitute: 4, 8, 68-69, 192, 193, 197, 229, 230, 266, 268-69, 328 mo; and critical theory, 252-54: as devil, 254: difficulty in identifying, 262-63; and disease, 256, 259-60, 261; fallen woman as metaphor of, 244, 266, 267; in London, 135, 244-45, 260-61, 263-67;

35 2 prostitute (continued) and the Paris Commune, 254-55, 260; in Paris, 64-65, 234, 245, 254-55, 26r-65, 269; Paris as, 256, 258-60; and revolution, 254; and sewage, 244-46, 252, 26o-6r, 335 nr37; streetwalking, 262-63, 265-66 Proust, Marcel: Temps retrouvt!, Le, 6o-6r, 279-80, 281 psychological underground, 294 Pugin, Augustus Welby Norrhmore, 135, 138, 324-25n82 Punch, 33, 36, 47, 148-49, rso, r65 Pynchon, Thomas: V, 302 quarries, subterranean, London: Blackhearh, ro2; Chislehurst caves, !02, 174, 287 quarries, subterranean, Paris, 246, 256, 274, 282; carrieres d'Amerique, les, III, 123, 23839, 256; cave-ins, sr, no, 154, 274; Cesar's tours of, 9> II, 74: Left Bank, II, sr, 6r, 74> !04, IIO, II9-24, 133, 175, I76, !88, 238, 256, 279; Montmartre, 6o, rn, 154; Trocadero, 270-71, 290, 291, 339-40 n32. See also Catacombes (Ossuaire Municipale) Quarrier Larin, 263. See also quarries, subterranean, Paris: Left Bank Queneau, Raymond: Zazie dans le metro, 66 race and the underground, 134-35, 151-52, 259, 302-3, 308, 309 Radford, Fred, 201-2, 243-44 Ragon, Michel, 75, 89, 91, 96, 125, n6 ragpickers, 122, 124, 229-30, 231, 245-46, 250, 289 railway, underground: accidents, sr, 52-57, 85, 296; Bucharest, 340 n46; as cinematic subjeer, 31-32, 6r, 64-65, 66-68, 3ro; early, 47; of the future, 3ro; London, r6, I7, 21-27, 31-47, 49, 71-72, 142-44, r65, 175, 283 (see

also entries for individual lines and stations); New York, 47, 300-30!; Paris, r6, 25-32, 47-68, ro6, 129, 234, 241, 271, 279 (see also entries for individual lines and stations); in Scorland, 157; as shelrer, 6o-6r, 107, 173-75, 177-82, 279,287,30I-4;Tokyo,296-97 Rat Man, r98, 200 Raw Meat (1973), 319 n90 Reclaim the Streets, r87, 327 nr38 Reclus, Elisee, 141

INDEX

Reed, Carol, 287 Regent street, 2r 6 Reid, Donald, 223, 289, 333 nro8 Renoir, Jean. See Crime de Monsieur Lange, Le (!936) representational space. See lived space Reseau Express Regional (RER), 29, 30, 67 Resnais, Alain. See Nuit et brouillard (1955) Reverdy, Pierre, 64 revolution: of 1789, ro6, ro7-8, no-n, II3-I4, n8, 120, 123, 125, 155, 246, 254, 274; of r830, IIO, II9, !22, 190, 20!, 274; of 1848, III, 254, 256; of 1871, III, II2, !26-27, 248, 254; fantasies of, 153-55> 326 mrs; in the future, 82, 87, 309-IO Reynolds, G. W M.: Mysteries ofLondon, The, rsr-52, 245, 265, 304, 326 nno Richelot, Gustave, 263, 264 Riverside Park, New York, 303 Robert, Hubert, n6-r7, 32rn5, 322n27, 322n29 Robinson Crusoe, 157 Romains, Jules: Les Hommes de bonnes volontt!, 5I Romance, scientific, rs6, r6o, I63, 220 Roman ruins in London and Paris, 120, 130 Rome, II4-17. See also catacombs, Rome; sewers: of Rome rookeries, rsr ruins, subterranean, r69-72, 271-72, 277. See also city in ruins Rushdie, Salman, n-n Russell Square station, London, 319 n90 Ryan, Michael, 264 Ryan, P. F. William: "London's Toilet," 221-22 Sacre-Coeur basilica, r 53-54 Sade, Marquis de, 252, 299 Saint-Germain, faubourg, 263 Saint-Marceau, faubourg, 236 Saint-Marcel, quarrier, 224 Saint-Martin, canal, 318-19 n88 Saint-Michel, boulevard, 51 Salaire de fa peur, Le (1958), 6r Samourai; Le (r967), 66 "Sanitary Science," 220, 331 n62 Santa Maria della concezione, Rome, IIS, II9 Sant'Elia, Antonio, 98 Satan. See devil Saunders,]., 2r6

INDEX

Scarfe, Lawrence, I79 Scherer, Rene, 87 Schlor, Joachim, 239, 3I3-I4n5 Schwartz, Vanessa, 323 n38, 324n63 Scott, Walrer, I56, I59 Seine, river, ro2, I66, 240, 247, 25I, 256, 288 Seroux d'Agincourt, Jean-Baptiste, n4 Seurat, Georges, 24I, 25I Severini, Gino, 64, 3I8 n84 sewage: as metonymy for the developing world, 306; as metonymy for the poor, 20I-4, 22428, 236-37; recycling of, 20I-5, 23I, 236 sewers, 4; of Bogota, 304; of Europe, 297; global, 309; of London, 7o-7I, I75, 203-ro, 2I6-2o, 277-78; of Los Angeles, 300; as otherworld, 2n, 290; of Paris, I, 6o, I23, 175, 2or-3, 2n, 245-49, 25I, 289-90; of Rome, u6, I90-9I, 248, 3I3 n3; ruined city as, I 54; ofVienna, 288; ofWarsaw, 190, 292-93; workers in, 192, I99-200, 208-ro, 2I4, 220, 222-23, 227, 229-3I, 236, 289. See also children underground: living; mudlark; prostitute: and sewers; tours, underground: sewers shantytown. See slums Shaw, George Bernard, 46 Simmel, Georg, 4I Simon, John, 2I8 Simonin, Louis: La Vie souterraine, I45-46, I48, I53> I54 Sims, George R., 43, 3I6 n33; Mysteries ofModern London, The, 40-4I, 42, 44, ?I situationism, I75, 187, 274, 3n slums, 303-4. See also entries for individual

places and topics Smithfield market, 216 Smith, Thomas Southwood, 2I6 Soane's Museum, I41-44, I72 Sodom,273, 274,279-80 Soho, London, 333 nro7 Soja, Edward, I4 Soul ofLondon, The. See Ford, Ford Madox Soupaulr, Philippe, 64 Souvestre, Pierre. See Fantomas Soylent Green (I973), 34I n53 space: contemporary theories of, I5-I6; gendered experience of, 45-46, 228, 243-44, 265-66; and the Internet, 273, 300, 306-12; visual representations of, I7, 208. See also abstract space; global space; Lefebvre, Henri;

•

353

lived space; modernist space; spatial triad; vertical space spatial triad, I4-I6, 312; threshold and the, I6, 265 spectacle: cemetery as, I35, I38; cinematic, 20, 66, I98, 306, 309; city as, 25I, 305, 308, 3n-12, 323 n38, 324n63; material underground as, I87-89, 220, 243, 270-7I, 338 nr; metaphorical underground as, 228, 239, 298-299 Spengler, Oswald, 3I3 n3 Spiegelman, Art: Maus: A Survivor's Tale, 294 Stalinist purges, 298 Stallybrass, Peter, I96, I98, I99, 200 Stead, William: Maiden Tribute ofModern Babylon, The, 232, 266, 269 Stein, Gertrude, 25I Steiner, George, 29I-92 Steinlen, Theodore, 53 Sternberger, Dolf, 98 Stevens, F. L.: Under London, 72 St. Giles's, 2I4, 33I n54 St. Olave church, London, I32-33, 324 n73, 324n?4 St. Paul's cathedral, London, 8, 8I, 83, I43, I47, I48, 278, 3I3-I4n5 Styx, river, I66, I9I, 288 subway. See railway, underground Subway (I984}, 67-68, I87-88 Sue, Eugene: Mysteres de Paris, Les, 239, 246, 267 surrealism, 6o, 6I, 64, 66, 98, I67, I72, 24I, 253, 318 n?5 Sutcliffe, Anthony, 3I3-I4n5 Swift, Jonathan, 2I4, 26o-6I tafouilleurs. See sewers: workers in Tarde, Gabriel: Fragment d'histoire foture, 75, 86-88 Tati, Jacques, 94-95 Taussig, Michael, I94, 328 n7 Tellier, Charles, 49 Temple, faubourg du, 236 Thames river, 8, 23, 86, 216, 246, 264, 275, 278; development on banks of, 99; as metonymy of filrh, 244-45, 262; water of, 70, 203, 205, 206, 2I8-I9, 256 Thames Tunnel, 2, 33, 35, 36, 37, 42-43, 46, 72, 77, 3I9-20nn4

354 Them! (1954), 300 Things to Come (1936), 283 Third Man, The (1949), 287-88, 297 Time Machine, The. See Wells, H. G. Times Square, 305 toilets, public, 305; in London, 232-34, 306, 333 mo7; in Paris, 234 Tokyo, 295-97 Tolkien, J. R. R., 182-86, 327m37 Tono-Bungay. See Wells, H. G. toshers. See sewers: workers in Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 245 tourism: modern, 94, I88; nocturnal, 123; subterranean, 45, I42, I57, I68, 170-72, I75, 306 tours of: Catacombes, ro7, II7-I8, I75, 270; criminal underworld, 228, 229, 239, 264, 3n, 334m22; disused Tube stations, 33, I75: Mammoth cave, 326 nno; Opera, 2n; sewer, I75, I90, 2I4, 2I6, 220, 228, 24I, 243-44, 270, 272; slums, 228-29; subterranean quarries, 9, n, 74; Thames Tunnel, 35 tout-a-J' egout, 23I, 232, 249, 333 ni08 Transatlantic Tunnel (I935), 283, 285 Transvaal, 270, 27I Trauner, Alexander, 65, 67 Trench, Richard, I7 4 trench warfare, 96, 98, I5I, I73, I85, 272, 278-SI, 287, 299, 327 m37; the city and, 279-81, 287; and modernism, 279-81 Tristan, Flora, 267 Trollope, Anthony, 45, 46 Trollope, Fanny, 2I4 Trotter, David, 335 m4I Tube. See railway, underground: London Tube shelters. See railway, underground: as shelter tunnel(s), 313n2; under the Bank of England, I33: Channel, 23; under Manhattan, 301-4, 340 n4I, 340 n44; railway, 303, 340 n44; as resistance, 186; transatlantic, 159, 283, 285; under the U.S.-Mexico border, 340n46; Utilidors, I; waste, 239 Tunnel Der (I933), 285 Tunnel, Le (I933), 285, 4.6 Tzara, Tristan, 64 underground: late twentieth and early twentieth-first century: I, 4-5, 99-roo, 175, I8688, 295-3I2; medieval, 5, I86 (see also Dante

INDEX

Alighieri); modernist representations of, 85, I66-67, 172, I79-82, 268; modernist theories of, I2, 98; positive associations with, 6, 75, 90, I83-84, 197, 206-n, 287, 304. See

also entries for individual places and topics Underground (1928), 6I Underground (1943), I73 Underground (1995), 297 underground railway. See railway, underground underworld: ancient and classical, 27, 170-71, 2I4, 216; medieval, 5, 6, 22I-22. See also en-

tries for individual topics underworld, criminal, 65, 7I, I95, 247· See also underground, tours of underworld, sexual, 6o-6I, 234, 252, 279-80, 305, 3ro. See also prostitute uneven development, 99, I98, 3n Urania Cottage, 245 urbanism, 89-roo, 234, 281, 289 urbanization in Paris, 9I, 93-95; see also Hausmann, Georges-Eugene urinoirs. See toilets, public utopia: past, 5-6, I92, 238, 254, 274, 288; present, q, 44-45, 89-100, !04-6, I55-64, 175, 188, 208, 214, 294, 308; future, 2I, 75-88, 204-5, 282-85

V. See Pynchon, Thomas Vergara, Camilo Jose, 308, 313m Verne, Jules: Indes noires, Les, ro7, I 52, I55-64, 167; Paris au XXe siecle, 123-24, 126, 323 n48 vertical space: and the city, I, 69, I93, 196; and history, 291, 294, 297; and the Internet, 307; and modernism, 28I; as representation, n, IS, 198, 208, 267-69, 299; and social hierarchy, 7-8, So, 90-91, 148, 302; and the threshold, I6, 264-65; and the vertical cosmos, 5, 6, I71-72. See also view from above and view from below vespasiennes. See toilets, public Vesuvienne, Ia, 254 Veuillot, Louis, 24I, 243 Viaduc des Arts, le, 186 Vie double de Theophraste Longuet, La. SeeLeroux, Gaston Vienna, 198, 199, 287-88 Vietnam war, 299 view from above and view from below, 81, 94; and aerial bombing, 294-95; coal mines

INDEX

and, 148-55; and the devil, 8-n; in modernism, r66-67, 28r, 285-86; Paris cemeteries and, 127; and popular culture, 13, r8, 209; postwar, 291; present-day, 302-3, 306; ruins and, 273-75; and the Underground railway, 39-40. See also vertical space Villiers de !'Isle-Adam, Auguste: L'Eve foture, 75, 86 Vincendeau, Ginette, 315m3 Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel, II4 Virgil: Aeneid, The, 214, 216 Volney, Constantin Franc;:ois, 274 Voltaire, 193 vorticism, 167, 281 Wachowski, Andy and Larry. See Matrix, The Wajda, Andrzej. See Kanal (1956) Walford, Edward, 220-21 Walker, G. A., 222 Walkowitz, Judith, 265-66, 267 Walz, Eugene, 318 n75, 334 nn6 waste: disposal of, 78, 86, 87, 89, 190-91, 193-94, 196, 231-32, 235-37; as metaphor, 201-2, 254· 259-61, 267, 274-75· 289-90, 304-5; as theoretical category, 5, 191-94, 241, 253, 269, 304-5. See also dust; sewage; sewers; toilets, public Waterloo bridge, 205 Watkin, Edward, 23 Welles, Orson, 288 Wells, H. G., 85, 275, 282; screenplay of Things to Come, 283; The Time Machine, 20, 75, 7883, 144; Tono-Bungay, 46; When the Sleeper ~kes, 20-21, 75, 80-83

•

355

West end, London, 134. See also entries for indi-

vidual places Westminster, borough of, London, 23, 81, 333 ni07 When the Sleeper ~kes. See Wells, H. G. White, Allon, 196, 198, 199, 200 Wild Boys ofLondon, The, 193, 206-10, m, 238, 252, 304 Wild Boys ofParis, The, 208, 246 Williams, Alan, 315m3 Williams, Raymond, 78 Williams, Rosalind, 70, 74-75, 76, 82, 86-87 Williams-Ellis, Clough, 281 Wilson, Elizabeth, 319 n91 Wind in the Willows, The. See Grahame, Kenneth Winter, Jay, 280 Woolf, Virginia, xv, 85; Mrs. Dalloway, 166, 281 World War I. See trench warfare World War II, 272, 287, 298, 300 Wright, Richard: "The Man Who Lived Underground," 302 Yerkes, Charles Tyson, 71 Y2K bug, 310-u Yuen Woo-Ping, 310 Yugoslavia, 297 Zola, Emile: Germinal, 107, 152-55; Nana, 245, 259-60; Paris, 153-54 Zone, Paris, 74, 249