Studies in Text and Discourse [1 ed.] 9781527512313, 9781527504059

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Studies in Text and Discourse

Studies in Text and Discourse By

Azad Mammadov

Studies in Text and Discourse By Azad Mammadov This book first published 2018 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2018 by Azad Mammadov All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-0405-0 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0405-9

To my beloved parents Yahya Mammadov and Julyetta Mammadova

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................ ix Unit I............................................................................................................ 1 Text and Discourse in the Context of Linguistic Studies Learning Goals and Outcome ................................................................ 1 Content and Themes .............................................................................. 1 1.1. History ....................................................................................... 1 1.2. From sentence grammar to text grammar ................................. 6 1.3. Text and its definitions (structural and communicative) ......... 11 Image and Text Materials .................................................................... 21 Summary .............................................................................................. 27 Study Progress Questions .................................................................... 28 Unit II ........................................................................................................ 31 From Text Linguistics to Discourse Analysis Learning Goals and Outcome .............................................................. 31 Content and Themes ............................................................................ 31 2.1. Text pragmatics ....................................................................... 31 2.2. Discourse and its structures .................................................... 38 Image and Text Materials .................................................................... 46 Summary .............................................................................................. 55 Study Progress Questions .................................................................... 56 Unit III ....................................................................................................... 57 Discourse and Society Learning Goals and Outcome .............................................................. 57 Content and Themes ............................................................................ 57 3.1. Types and genres of discourse................................................. 57 3.2. Sociocognitive approach ......................................................... 64 Image and Text Materials .................................................................... 68 Summary .............................................................................................. 77 Study Progress Questions .................................................................... 78

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Unit IV ....................................................................................................... 79 Discourse and Representations Learning Goals and Outcome .............................................................. 79 Content and Themes ............................................................................ 80 4.1. Linguistic representations of concepts .................................... 80 4.2. Metaphoric representations of concepts.................................. 87 Image and Text Materials .................................................................... 91 Summary .............................................................................................. 97 Study Progress Questions .................................................................... 98 References ............................................................................................... 107 Appendix (Tests) ..................................................................................... 115 Author Index............................................................................................ 131 Subject Index ........................................................................................... 133

PREFACE

The main goal of this textbook is to introduce to MA students of linguistics and English language teacher education programmes the foundations and advanced topics in the studies of text and discourse and shed light on their role in verbal communication. Such a general issue in text and discourse studies as the approach to this unique social interaction from the perspectives of pragmatics and cognition is also in focus, as the textbook plans to provide knowledge about contemporary text and discourse theories. Despite the numerous textbooks in this field, I have decided to revisit this topic due to the recent researches in discourse that have reshaped our understanding of its role not only in linguistics but also in humanities and social sciences. There is a general consensus that the study of text and discourse at universities (graduate programmes) is a matter of necessity rather than prestige in most countries of the world due to the growing demand in the studies of verbal communication in general. This is why it is very hard to identify any specific university, country, or region that this textbook will most appeal to. There are some popular textbooks (Brown and Yule 1998; Johnstone 2007; Coulthard 2007; Widdowson 2007) that cover a broad range of issues in the studies of text and discourse. The difference with my textbook is that it provides a more introductory tool by offering a theoretical framework and hands-on practical experience. The demand for this has come mainly from those for whom a conscious awareness of language is an integral part of being university students, lecturers, and researchers, upon whom the influence of the studies of text and discourse has also been making itself increasingly felt in linguistics in recent years.

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Since linguistics treats language as a social and psychological phenomenon, and, in general terms, not merely as a means of communication but also as a symbol of cultural identity, the theoretical and practical aspects of the study of language gain momentum. It’s clear that one can’t be a specialist or have language proficiency and a competence to teach modern language without in-depth linguistic knowledge. So, in order to educate future linguists in general and teachers of TEFL in particular, a comprehensive teaching of different branches of linguistics, including text and discourse studies, becomes a serious challenge. It should be taken into consideration that linguistics has a long and contradictory tradition in the interpretation of text and discourse. For a certain period of time, the term “discourse” was used in English-speaking linguistics (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Warner 1980), whereas “text” was preferred in the German-speaking and other continental linguistic traditions (Dressler 1970; Galperin 1981). This period was characterized by the intense use of both terms in order to identify the unit of grammar beyond sentence. The provisions of its identification as discourse and text were also given in the relevant researches, among which one is the most important: text or discourse should be a formally and semantically connected whole. The semantic connectedness is necessary for the use of text in the process of human interaction, i.e. to realize certain pragmatic intentions in the text. On the other hand, text can exist in isolation from the outside world, and ancient written monuments are good examples of that. But, of course, this is a rare case. Text should contain a pragmatic effect and be socially motivated. Such an approach has been the leading one since the 1980s, and introduced a new stage in the relationship between text and discourse. In this regard, we are interested in the linguistic (De Beaugrande and Dressler 1980), sociolinguistic (Fairclough 1995), and sociocognitive (van Dijk 2008) approaches to text and discourse studies. These issues have been extensively under focus for the last three decades.

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The structure of this book is therefore designed to meet this challenge. It is divided into four units. The first unit offers basic knowledge about the key theoretical issues and concepts in the studies of text and discourse. It covers the history of the topic and major approaches to text as a linguistic phenomenon. The second concentrates on the transition process from text linguistics to discourse analysis, highlighting the issues related to the pragmatics of text and discourse. The third outlines the main concepts in the study of discourse from the perspectives of its role in society, focusing attention on the sociolinguistic (including the issue of type and genre classification) and sociocognitive approaches to discourse studies. Finally, the fourth unit discusses the ways that discourse helps to reveal various linguistic and metaphoric representations across languages and genres. Each unit also contains sections that include learning goals and expectations, visual aid and data for analysis, and some questions for further study. The list of references, the author and subject indices, and multiple choice tests are at the end of the textbook. In preparing the book, I have tried to present a brief survey of most of these issues and problems in a reader-friendly manner. It is therefore designed as a kind of reference work for those students and researchers who are interested in this topic. The demand has come mainly from those for whom a conscious awareness of language is an integral part of the exercise of the profession, and upon whom the influence of the studies of text and discourse has been making itself increasingly felt in recent years. This characterization includes two main groups: the range of linguistics and the range of teaching of English as a foreign language (TEFL). This textbook underlines the significance and application of the study of text and discourse with a view to shaping student’s perceptions and understanding of the sociological, political, economic, and cultural contexts during verbal communication. Thus, it will enable students to understand better the nature of verbal communication and how text and discourse studies can help learners to become effective communicators through understanding their role in social life.

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This textbook is expected to help students to develop their skills in using theoretical literature to analyse and comment on linguistic theories and hypotheses, to apply theoretical knowledge to practical activities, to analyse empirical material using appropriate linguistic methods, as well as to promote their creative and critical thinking. I hope to expand it for a second edition, and I would welcome suggestions, recommendations, and critical comments and views on its improvement. Azad Mammadov Azerbaijan University of Languages, Baku August 2017

UNIT I TEXT AND DISCOURSE IN THE CONTEXT OF LINGUISTIC STUDIES

Learning Goals and Outcome This unit aims to introduce to students the foundations and advanced topics in the history of text and discourse studies, which have come to play an important role in linguistics, partly because they represent intrinsic subject matter and partly because they are a response to the limitations and over-idealizations dominating other linguistic theories. The unit will enable students to demonstrate knowledge in the scientific developments of text and discourse studies and contemporary text grammar theories and their links to other fields in text linguistics, and to critically interpret the text under analysis in terms of functional style, lexical and grammatical peculiarities, and sentence structures using subject-related concepts.

Content and Themes 1.1. History In the late twentieth century, numerous studies were conducted by Michel Foucault, Michael Halliday, Teun A. van Dijk, Robert de Beaugrande, Ernesto Laclau, Chantal Mouffe, Wallace Chafe, Norman Fairclough, and other researchers on text and discourse, their nature and relations to the individual, knowledge, and society, and their social, semiotic, pragmatic, and cognitive aspects. In fact, by considering discourse as an object of

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study, those philosophers, semioticians, linguists, and sociologists fulfilled a very important mission: they managed to secure the future development of certain crucial aspects of each of these disciplines, sometimes even leading to their survival, and ultimately laying out the foundation of two new disciplines (discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis or critical discourse studies). It should be noted that there is a terminological difference between critical discourse analysis and critical discourse studies, as is highlighted by van Dijk (2016, 63): This chapter introduces the sociocognitive approach in Critical Discourse Studies (CDS) more traditionally called critical discourse analysis (CDA). I avoid the term CDA because it suggests that it is a method of discourse analysis, and not a critical perspective or attitude in the field of discourse studies (DS) using many different methods of humanities and social sciences.

We can divide the history of the views and studies on text and discourse into two formal periods: the first period starts with the introduction of the langue vs. parole dichotomy by De Saussure (2000, 141) and ends with the views of Foucault on the relationship between knowledge and discourse (Foucault, 1972); the second period, starting with Foucault, is still underway. The first period is characterized by researches of the French-speaking followers of De Saussure, as well as works in the English-speaking linguistic tradition (Harris 1952). In general, “discourse” and “parole” were used in the French-speaking structuralist tradition (Benveniste 1954, Barthes 1970, etc.) to identify speech. Meanwhile, the approach to discourse in the English-speaking tradition was quite different, as “discourse” was mostly used along with “text” to identify a stretch of language larger than a sentence (Harris 1952). This trend in the English-speaking linguistic tradition lasted until the late 1980s and early 1990s.

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Despite the differences in views regarding the role and importance of text in discourse studies, not only linguists but also some philosophers and psychologists consider text (from semiotic perspectives) as an important element of discourse. (Barthes 1970). In text linguistics, a certain element of confusion was clarified by Enkvist (1989, 372): “discourse means text + context, where context contains a situational component.” Thus, we can come to such simplistic conclusion that there is no discourse without text and context. Despite the obvious difficulties in identifying a clear difference between text and discourse (it sometimes causes the synthesis of text linguistics and the grammar of text with discourse analysis), the abovementioned definition helps to understand the difference. Text is a final product or final result, whereas discourse is a process of text construction. As we can see, text can be studied as the real product of certain activity, while discourse is more complex. If we want to study it we have to reveal the idea and intention of the sender, that is to say it is necessary to define presuppositions hidden behind the explicit linguistic form. This trend of the treatment of text and discourse as two different phenomena has thus gained momentum in text linguistics and discourse studies. Any discourse implies the existence of text (linguistic or belonging to different semiotic systems), whereas not all texts (for example, ancient texts) can be treated as discourse. The abovementioned issue of the terminological differences between text and discourse caused the emergence of another serious problem that requires an explicit answer to the following question: what is the difference between text linguistics and discourse analysis? Even within the brief history of text linguistics we can be wary of simplistic definitions of successful textual functions or textual wellformedness. Where some early studies in text linguistics (Dressler 1970) set up discrete binary distinctions between well-formed and ill-formed texts taking over one of the most crucial issues in generative linguistics (Chomsky 1957), which was the dominating school of linguistics in this

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period, many linguists later tried to discuss text in a more pluralistic frame. First of all, linguists have made attempts to define the place of text in the syntactic system. Sentence was considered as the basic element of text within functional sentence perspective studies (Halliday 1967). Meanwhile, it also deals with text strategies in terms of the distribution of information and the role of each text component being evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole text. The notion of “communicative dynamism” has been introduced as an attempt to classify the different levels of contribution within a text, particularly with reference to theme and rheme. Halliday’s main principle includes the full supremacy of text over sentence during the analysis of the properties of language as well as its use. He even distinguishes the textual function of language among its metafunctions, which implies the sender’s (speaker or writer) ability to construct a text. In fact, when we use language to link other stretches of language or help our ideas “come together,” we perform the textual function. Halliday emphasizes that the “functional sentence perspective” plays a major role in the actualization of the textual functions of language and is key in the construction of a sentence as an instrument to convey information. The dominance of the sender’s role in the functional sentence perspective conditions its definition as the linguistic device for the organization of a text (Halliday 1971). Enkvist suggests making a terminological distinction between text linguistics and inter-phrasal linguistics (although he admits some coincidence in this regard) (Enkvist 1973, 111). He characterizes the first one as the field of study dealing with texts and the second as the field of study dealing with those properties of a sentence requiring a reference beyond the sentence. Such an approach to the grammar of the supra-phrase units has brought about a common understanding that traditional grammar should go beyond sentence and cover the issues related to the connecting or linking sentences within text. As the categories of text cover the issues beyond clause and sentence, the structure of text, text connexity, the functional perspective of text, the distribution of information in text, and the pragmatics of text emerged as

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the most important issues for exploration in the 1970s and 1980s. In this period, the researchers focused mainly on the approach that considered text as the product of speech. Under this approach, the term “text” was used in two ways: (1) to identify a stretch of language consisting of one or more sentences reflecting the sender’s intention; (2) to identify a story, a novel, an article, or a similar product of speech. But the common view was that text is a specific structure of connected meaningful and internally organized units. There are linguistic and logical factors ensuring the internal and external wholeness of text. Lexical repetitions, formal grammatical elements (conjunctions, particles, articles, pronouns, etc.), and the development of ideas (theme, rheme) are among the most important linguistic factors. Traditionally, text is considered in two ways: propositionally and communicatively. The first approach is based on the view that any (written) text minimally consists of two sentences, linked through different explicit devices. It implies the application of those features that have already been defined for sentence analysis (the name of the approach originating from that) to the study of text. Of course, such an exploration might have positive results. In order to ensure the solid linguistic status of text, as well as focus on the linguistic nature of many textual issues, text requires a sentence-based approach. The second approach is functional, which implies the study of a text as well as the distinction of its immanent features without using the homogenous syntactic structures. Such an approach conditions strict differentiation of the specific features of text as a whole. According to the second approach, a sender constitutes a communicative unit of some specific and definable type in the process of communication. These two research aspects might be considered as two approaches that complement each other. They are included in the research of the invariant text type or textema in terms of finding out the common rules of text organization, as well as of the “actualization” of textema, that is to say the focus of the studies was on the identification of a stretch of speech as text

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of different types: literary, media, or scientific. Concurrently, there were discussions about the principles and criteria used to define text and the possibilities to distinguish models and types of text. When we consider the linguistic units from the communicative angle, the pragmatic and cognitive factors dominate other factors. It is due to the simple fact that language as a whole and all its elements fulfil an important social task to ensure communication among the members of social groups by the exchange of information through the conventional signs. In modern functionalism, it has come to be applied to the study of language from the point of view of the participants of the communication process, especially in the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction, and the mutual effects the participants have during communication. The field focuses on an area between pragmatics, semantics, sociolinguistics, and extra-linguistic context, including the aspects of text linguistics and discourse analysis. All these issues have been under focus for the last two decades within discourse analysis (Coulthard 2007; Widdowson 2007), critical discourse analysis (Fairclough 1995; Teubert 2010), and the sociocognitive approach to discourse (van Dijk 2008; 2009; 2014). Hence, discourse as an object of intertextual study represents a special interest to linguists, philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and other researchers in humanities and the social sciences.

1.2. From sentence grammar to text grammar Structural analysis, as one type of the descriptive approach, has traditionally been used to study the linguistic units in a hierarchy (Harris 1951). This analysis has made a great contribution at all levels, including that of syntax. According to Enkvist, “Syntax is by nature hierarchic. In sentence we cannot say or write two things at the same time. The sentences have to be presented one after the other, in linear order. Therefore the problem is how to signal hierarchies through linear presentation” (Enkvist 1989, 370). One such attempt was made by the

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representatives of the Prague School of Linguistics (Vachek 1970, Firbas 1972). The Praguean influence has been widespread and long-lasting. Its main emphasis lay on the analysis of language as a system of functionally related units. The notion “unit” recalls in some way the Saussurean influence (De Saussure 2000). In particular, it led to the distinction between the phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds, the analysis of the phoneme as having distinctive features, and the theme-rheme or communicative structure of the sentence. There has been much work on the theme-rheme or communicative structure of the sentence. Here one major point is that this phenomenon directly indicates that languages are designed not just as abstract systems, but as tools for human communication, a point of view underlined in the functional approaches to language structure. This notion has led to a new stage in the Prague School studies with reference to the stylistics, semantics, and pragmatics of the English and Slavic languages. The most important issue here is the formulation of a theory of the functional sentence perspective, which considers sentence analysis as a complex of functionally contrastive constituents. It also deals with text strategies in terms of the distribution of information in it and of the role of each text component being evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole text. The notion of “communicative dynamism” was introduced as an attempt to classify the different levels of contribution within a text, particularly with reference to theme and rheme. The functional sentence perspective examines the arrangement of the elements of a sentence in the light of its linguistic and extra-linguistic (situational, social, and cultural) contexts. What is known, or may be inferred, or is the starting point of a communication (the communicative basis), is to be regarded as the theme of a clause. The theme is used in linguistics as part of an analysis of the communicative structure of a sentence. It refers, not to the subject matter of a sentence, but to the way the sender identifies the relative importance of their subject matter, and is defined as the first major constituent of a clause. The elements that convey

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the new or important piece of information (the communicative nucleus) constitute the rheme. In the Prague School approach to linguistics, the rheme is distinguished from the theme. The rheme is defined as the part of a sentence that adds most to the advancing process of communication (it has the highest degree of communicative dynamism). It expresses the largest amount of extra meaning in addition to what has already been communicated. But the theme carries the lowest degree of communicative dynamism. As we can see, the theme is opposed to the rheme. The elements that belong to neither theme nor rheme in a clause are transitional. In general, the thematic elements are communicatively less dynamic, and therefore carry a smaller amount of communicative dynamism than the rhematic elements. As alternative terms, new and old or given information, topic and comments, focus and presupposition, as well as background and foreground are also used (Givon 1990; Tomlin 1995). Prague School linguists identify sentences as being ordered on the basis of theme and rheme, but do not distinguish theme from given (old) or new information. The further analysis of the communicative structure is complex and controversial: a common next step is to distinguish between old (given) and new information. Researchers who use this approach usually distinguish between information structure and grammatical structure (Halliday 1967; Chafe 1971). Of course, this varies from language to language. For example, in the English sentence one normally proceeds from the known to the unknown: one begins with the rheme and therefore the new elements with the highest degree of communicative dynamism come last in a sentence. Chafe wrote about this phenomenon, emphasizing the communicative role of the predicate in sentences like “Box is empty.” Here, “box” is regarded as the theme and “empty” is the rheme (Chafe 1971, 275). This was developed with a new approach in systemic functional linguistics (SFG) through the contrast of new and old or given, and theme

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and rheme. Bloor and Bloor suggest that there are in fact two structures that operate at the level of the clause that should be clearly differentiated (Bloor and Bloor 2004, 65): In SFG, we recognize two parallel and interrelated systems of analysis that concern the structure of the clause with regard to organizing the message. The first of these is called information structure and involves constituents that are labeled Given and New. The second is called thematic structure and involves constituents that are labeled Theme and Rheme.

Bloor and Bloor also differentiated between spoken and written language (2004, 79–80): In spoken English, we can use special emphasis and intonation to indicate that we are presenting New information in the Theme position instead of the more normal Rheme position. We can make a contrast, for example, between The kettle’s boiling, which has New at the end, and The kettle’s boiling (not the milk) which has New in the initial position. In written English prose, however, it is more difficult to vary the relationship of Theme and Rheme to Given and New respectively.

Every language has not only various phonetic (prosodic), but also grammatical, lexical, stylistic, and punctuation (italics or inverted commas) devices for highlighting new and important information. The structure we impose during the process of communication is something that is built into the grammar of the language and happens at the level of the clause and the sentence. All clauses and sentences have structures, and we make use of these in spoken as well as written language. The rheme in English is often signalled by the indefinite article, particles, time adverbs, determiners, and words like “one” or “some.” The theme is signalled by the definite article, personal and demonstrative pronouns, and a determiner. Another important signal of the rheme in English is word order. As word order is relatively fixed, for example, in English it can stylistically distinguish rheme, thus imposing pragmatic

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communicative dynamism. In fact, every language has various grammatical devices for certain communicative strategies. Thus, the theme and the rheme can be marked in a sentence by particles, definite and indefinite articles, personal and demonstrative pronouns, time adverbs, and word order. The use of all these grammatical elements and phenomena is motivated by the pragmatic intentions of a sender. Various particles can indicate the importance of any part of a sentence, thus imposing communicative dynamism (Konig 1991). The rheme is mentioned by only and also stressing additional communicative value in these sentences (see examples 1 and 2). When the sender forms a sentence, they think about what kind of information to supply first and how to do it. Chafe (1971) suggests that for a normal English sentence theme comes first, but if new or important information should be focused on then the abovementioned rheme signals are commonly used. The indefinite article helps to identify an object or an event as a new one with a high degree of functional contribution (see example 3). The same role is played by the indefinite determiner some (see example 4). The element one has a similar function (see example 5). Some linguists (Quirk et al. 1985) believe that time adverbs like now also deliver new information in a sentence (see example 6), which is shown more clearly in advertisements (see example 7). As we csn see, the time adverb now helps the receiver to focus attention on the fact of introducing a new stage in the flow of thought. Another important linguistic device to mark something new or important is the word order in a sentence. Traditionally, it is believed that every language has its own mental and unmarked word order, and many linguists have written about specific word order for every language (Greenberg 1963; Mithun 1992). It is a well-known fact that the subjectverb-complement order in an English sentence is relatively fixed or strict. However, the Prague School tradition insists on the pragmatic motivation of word order, which can easily be changed in Slavic languages like Russian by the sender’s intention. In other words, the normal theme-rheme

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or subject-verb-complement structure is only a basis for possible communicative changes. It is also the case for the English sentence, where the last word of the sentence is the rheme’s natural position and therefore the communicative dynamism lies on it (see example 8). Any unusual change in word order has a pragmatic effect and signals that emphasis has been switched to another part of the sentence. In the normal theme-rheme or subject-verb-complement sentence, the communicative dynamism will be on the complement or the last word (see example 9). If, however, any component of a sentence is “abnormally” put at the head of a sentence, that component will carry a heavy communicative dynamism as part of the rheme, engulfing the theme (see examples 10 and 11). The way in which elements within a sentence are ordered can give weighting to one or more aspects and reduce, or remove, others (e.g. “for the past fifty years” and “came the boldest move”). It should be stressed that particles, articles, adverbs, inversions, and other abovementioned grammatical elements and phenomena not only mark something important or may even be considered as deviations, but also fulfil the task of the text connexity markers (Weinrich 1971; Klammer, Schulz, and Volpe 2007). The aspects of syntax that were discussed in some detail here related to relationships that exist between elements in a clause. The relationship between elements has a fundamental role in a sentence and, in fact, creates communicative dynamism. The communicative dynamism indicates the importance of correctly preserving emphasis in a sentence. There is always at least an argument for retaining a theme-rheme or rheme-theme order through sacrificing syntax and even lexis. In general terms, syntax is an important factor in the way text creates meaning.

1.3. Text and its definitions (structural and communicative) A number of linguists have attempted to define the place of text in the syntactic system. Danes (1966) distinguished the level of text as being

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separate within syntax (alongside phrases and sentences). Halliday’s main principle includes the full supremacy of text over sentence during the analysis of the properties of language as well as its use. He even distinguishes the textual function of language among its metafunctions, which implies the speaker’s or writer’s ability to organize a text. In fact, when we use language to link other stretches of language or help our ideas “come together,” we perform the textual function. Halliday emphasized that the “functional sentence perspective” plays a major role in the actualization of the textual functions of language and is key in the construction of the sentence as an instrument to convey information. The dominance of the sender’s role in the functional sentence perspective conditions its definition as the linguistic device for text construction (Halliday 1971). Enkvist (1973, 111) suggested making a terminological distinction between text linguistics and inter-phrasal linguistics (although he admits some coincidence in this regard). He characterized the first as the science dealing with texts and the second as the science dealing with those properties of the sentence requiring a reference beyond the sentence. Such an approach to the grammar of the supra-phrase units has made it apparent that the traditional grammar should go beyond the sentence and cover the issues related to the linking sentences within text. However, as texts consist of sentences, their units and structures can be used to construct texts. For example, Enkvist writes that “the information structure (theme-rheme or topic-comment structure) of the clause and sentence are exponents of text strategies governing text connexity” (1989, 379). In sentence grammar, the structure of the sentence is demonstrated in analysing the parts of a so-called declarative sentence. Grammarians traditionally analyse it in this way because this type of sentence is employed for making statements in discourse and it exceeds the other types (interrogative, exclamatory, imperative) in frequency of use. In the event of our recognition of the declarative sentence as a normal and typical sentence, or, in other words, as an invariant or neutral type, then we may assume that an invariant or neutral type of text can also be

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found in the area of statements. And if we accept that frequency as a criterion, we can find typical texts in media, fiction, everyday conversations, etc. Moreover, there is another issue regarding the difference between planned vs. unplanned texts that correlates with the difference between written and spoken texts. Therefore, another important issue that has traditionally caused discussions was whether text can be written or spoken, given the fact that the prosodic elements are usually considered as the integral parts of text. From this perspective, the definition of text given by Halliday and Hasan is quite interesting (1976, 56): “The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.” Rudolph has a similar approach (1989, 53): a written or spoken utterance or a sequence of utterances for which the following formal characteristics can be formulated. In written language, a text is constituted as a whole by optical means such as a heading, a new page or free space separating it from other texts. In spoken language a text is to be found between pauses or between utterances performed by other persons.

It is clear that if we approach a literary work or newspaper as a text or its fragment then the prosodic elements can’t function as the integral parts of text structure. The consideration of the issues related to prosody focuses attention on the manifestation of a code and the organization of text. Under such view, spoken or written texts become the variants of that manifestation and text is considered as the fragment of speech activity. We also have to note that the study of the prosodic factors in text linguistics as the distinctive elements of text can be explained by the attempts to apply structural-semantic analysis to the study of syntactic relations. This is very obvious in the studies of the theme-rheme structure of text. Both sentence and text can vary depending on intonation. The theme-rheme alternation of accents changes not only the proportion between the integral parts of the semantics of text but also the integral

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parts themselves. It is clear that this important factor can be actualized only in spoken text. As a device of text construction, prosody became important when the communicative perspectives gained momentum in the studies of text. Thus, a growing number of linguists have started to consider text boundaries as being quite variable, extending from one utterance up to works of several volumes. The analysis of the investigations in this aspect suggests that the approaches to the nature of the structural criterion of text are quite disputable. On the other hand, text is regarded as the unit beyond or above sentence and rather different in its features, while on the other hand the structure of text is defined as a whole of the connected sentences. If text is considered as a unit with a specific structure, then, first of all, its nature and difference from the structure of sentence should be distinguished. Otherwise, we will have not a real text but a flow of connected speech through various formal linguistic devices. It is obvious that each linguistic category has its own sphere of use. The definition of the units of the linguistic categories belonging to the “lower level” of the hierarchy is rather simpler than the definition of the “upper level” units of the hierarchy. But what is the structural criterion for defining text? Some researchers indicate the linear nature of a text, defining it as a linear sequence of linked sentences via various connectors in line with certain rules (Weinrich 1971; Halliday and Hasan 1976). Cohesion, which is regarded as a formal means of unity of text, is manifested thanks to a number of factors. In fact, each level of the structure of language makes a contribution to the cohesion in text. From this perspective, the definition of text given by Weinrich is quite interesting (1971, 225): “Text as the ordered succession of minimum two and maximum infinite morphemes is the constant alternation of lexical and functional morphemes.” It is necessary to identify two common sets of connections: one is the connection of a linear sequence between the components of text, and the second is the connection of multiple references between the components of text, i.e. the existence of explicit or implicit repetitions within the structure

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of text. Other linguists stress that text seems to be a linear sequence only covertly, but is actually a multidimensional phenomenon (Enkvist 1989). They believed that the definition of text as a sequence of linked sentences is not sufficient. Despite mentioning all relevant features of the text structure during the description of the various links between the fragments of text, some necessary prerequisites for defining a string of sentences as a meaningful sequence or text are not clear. Such a demand for a comprehensive study neglects views about the linear nature of text and concludes that a text is a very complex multidimensional whole composed of mutually connected factors and elements. The studies show that text includes some fragments with a range of structural features. In fact, the study of the sentence based on its parts can be formally applied to text analysis as well. However, we can’t define the functional-stylistic and compositional features of text or its stylistic and pragmatic settings by analysing a single sentence because its structure and its features do not reveal the specifics of a text in various functional styles as well as the strategies of the uses of various linguistic devices within a text. Despite these difficulties with defining text (such as one word, one sentence, two sentences, or a big novel), there is a general understanding that the most important issue is whether it communicates or not regardless of its size. The basic structure of an invariant text is simple. It is composed of three sections: beginning or introduction, main part, and the end. This is similar to school or university devices for essay writing or other academic writing. These three parts in written texts are normally planned and elaborated in detail, while they are also typical for unplanned spontaneous texts. The following scheme of the structure of text is widely accepted: (1) Theme (2) Main part (3) Conclusion

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The theme is usually given in the first sentence of the text, if it is not mentioned in a headline. It may be followed by some arguments or descriptions varying it or showing the general context. The main part is the elaboration of the theme and this can have a number of subdivisions. The only factor that ensures their coexistence is the theme. The conclusion does not necessarily offer results but merely has to make clear that the end is near. The following article from The Guardian clearly illustrates this classic structure (see example 12). The author constructed this newspaper text based on the abovementioned structure. The headline “Why vaping is a disaster for smokers?” ideally reflects the theme vaping and e-cigarettes, which is introduced in the first sentence and then developed in the main body of the text. The concluding remarks do not include the result but rather raise new questions about the future of electronic or otherwise “traditional” smoking. In addition, various lexical (zone-zone, e-cigarettee-cigarette, etc.) and grammatical (the zone, but, and, etc.) cohesive devices were also used by the author to construct this text. Texts form cohesive and coherent units of language that are constructed to operate in units larger than the single sentence or clause. To speak about cohesion and coherence, we should know where the border between micro-units and macro-units of texts runs. There is a case for arguing that every device signalling the cohesion and coherence of text defines its own text unit and paragraph. Enkvist (1989, 380) suggests that “a paragraph might consist of a topic sentence, a support sentence supporting the topic sentence, a support sentence supporting the first support sentence, and so forth. As long as such a hierarchy can be interpreted as supporting one single sentence (the topic sentence), the paragraph can be said to constitute one text unit.” It should also be taken into consideration that Halliday and Hasan identify the textual component of the grammar of English as consisting of the features associated with two groups of resources: the structural and the

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cohesive. The first is subdivided into the two areas: information structure and theme-rheme structure. The second is subdivided into four areas: reference, ellipsis and substitution, conjunction, and lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan 1976). The term “reference,” as used by Halliday and Hasan, is an extension of the term as used in philosophy and some types of semantics to mean an act of referring to entities outside the text but within the discourse. Reference in this sense is not necessarily textually cohesive. A characteristic of cohesive reference is that, on second and subsequent mention, instead of being named, the person or thing referred to may be indicated by means of the personal or demonstrative pronouns he, she, this, these, etc. The repetition of nominal may also have a cohesive function, but there is a special characteristic that is produced by the use of unnamed reference. When receivers come across a pronoun or a determiner, they have to mentally identify the linked nominal in order to make sense of the text. This has a very strong cohesive force. Take a look at the following advertising discourse (see example 13). The personal pronoun we and the demonstrative pronoun that are employed in this advertising text to refer to Rolex and the slogan will never change the world, respectively. Various types of repetitions based on references are among the most explicit cohesive devices in text. In this connection, the following text is quite symptomatic (see example 14). The author (Ernest Hemingway) constructed this fictional text focusing on the explicit repetitions of the word circle at the beginning and the end. Other repetitions, fish-fish-fish, he-he-he-he-he, and too far-too far, are also very important construal elements in this discourse. Conjunctions and adverbs are also very important cohesive elements in text. Some authors, such as Hemingway, frequently use them to construct their literary texts. According to Gibson (1966), the usage of the conjunction and to mark additive and temporal relations is very typical for the style of Ernest Hemingway. It is interesting to note that some researchers even call such frequent usages of grammatical elements overcohesive (Simpson 1992). Take a look at the following literary text (see

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example 15). Although Hemingway builds this text through various grammatical and lexical devices, the conjunction and is the key cohesive element, which marks the additive relations. This conjunction, as well as the adverb then, are also very important tools to mark the temporal sequence in discourse (see example 16). This piece of narrative text clearly demonstrates how conjunctions and adverbs can function to construct text based on a temporal sequence. Another important signal of the temporal sequence in text is the enumerative adverb. The usages of these adverbs are quite common in different text types as they are very effective tools in the process of text construction (see example 17). This piece of text from US President Trump’s Address to A Joint Session of Congress clearly shows the potential of the enumerative adverbs First, Secondly, Thirdly, Fourthly, and Finally in the construction of text. Conjunctions and adverbs are also used to construct text based on contrast and cause-effect relations. It should be stressed that the usage of these grammatical devices is common as they are very instrumental tools to build cohesion and coherence in text (see example 18). The sender of this political text (the former UK Prime Minister David Cameron) constructs it through various cohesive devices in order to deliver his arguments, and the conjunction and is one of the most powerful and convincing tools in this political text. It is necessary to stress that some grammatical elements are used in text for different functions that cannot easily be separated. Therefore, we have to take note that some confusion can emerge during the analysis of the textual functions of those grammatical elements. For example, sometimes the indefinite article is used not for the purpose of signalling new information, but for the classifying the object, thing, or notion it refers to. The same is true for the definite article, which classifies, identifies, and indicates uniqueness, or the time adverb now, which signals time. But the major part of the information contained in the use of the grammatical elements exists within the basic structure of text. A sender is

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free to choose the variations and elaborations they think to be most appropriate to express their ideas and persuade the receiver. These ideas have been developed recently within Systemic Functional Grammar identifying three main types of cohesive reference: personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference (Halliday and Matthiesen 2004; 2014). Personal reference depends on the use of personal pronouns (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Possessives are also personal references, which are commonly referential. Demonstrative reference is dependent on the use of determiners (this, these, that, and those) and adverbs (here, now, then, there). In the case of comparative reference we use adjectives (same, other, identical, better, more) or their adverbial correspondences (identically, similarly, less) to forge links with previously mentioned entities. Meanwhile, cohesion itself is not sufficient for the comprehension of a text by the sender because, although the organization of text via numerous and closely interrelated links between its components is quite simple, its inference and interpretation cause challenges. The connexity within text is based not only on the formal links between words and sentences. There is a factor that allows to the receiver to distinguish between the meaningless but formally connected stretch of language and a meaningful text. This factor is coherence, which Enkvist defines as "those linking mechanisms not through overt linguistic elements (such as pronouns, articles, deictics, or conspicuous zero as in ellipsis) but rather through semantic relations and inference” (1989, 374). In fact, coherence is the phenomenon that exists not in language but in society. The problem is that, in order to understand text better, it is necessary to explore the references beyond text. As a result, a new approach gained momentum according to which, alongside cohesion coherence, is the mandatory study of text. Enkvist further explains connexity using the following formula (1989, 375): Connexity = cohesion + coherence. It should be mentioned that De Beaugrande and Dressler also focused on the role of cohesion and coherence in their famous seven standards of textuality: “cohesion; coherence;

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intentionality; acceptability; informativity; situationality; intertextuality” (1980, 20). In addition to cohesion and coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality become the central issues for exploration in the study of text. As a result of this trend, the study of text tends to embrace a more communicative or functionalbased approach. Thus, further development in text linguistics has focused on understanding that human interaction is based on communication through a text, and that even one phrase or sentence can function as a text. Therefore, the study of text has become a mainstream trend in modern linguistics, considering its importance to model a communicative process. The rules of text construction depend on the communicative nature of text rather than certain strict rules, i.e. a text is not the static but the communicative unit with changing boundaries subject to the communicative intention. In fact, a more common approach to defining text is communicative or functional. De Beaugrande emphasizes the role of text in the process of communication (1980, 9): “Language occurrences may have the surface format of single words or sentences, but they occur as texts: meaningful configurations of language intended to communicate.” The meaning of text is defined by how communicators understand and interpret it. Thus, the focus is on the issues related to what information is marked in text considering the communicators’ linguistic and cognitive knowledge as well as the situation where communication takes place. As Enkvist (1989, 376) states: Whatever chunk of verbal expression satisfies certain functional criteria, for instance by occurring as a string which a suitably selected receiver intuitively feels to constitute a communicative unit of some specific and definable type in an authentic communicative situation, qualifies as a text.

Such a definition places the burden on a receiver’s intuitions to make a distinction between text and non-text. We would like to refer to Wodak

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(2009, 39), who recalls the remarks made by Wittgenstein “meanings are formed in use.” Excluding rare cases of deliberate meaninglessness in certain text types, meaning becomes critical for the main function of text, i.e. to communicate. As a background to the difficulties of defining the meaning of text, there is an intuitive knowledge that the linguists share with the speech community. Any receiver is able to answer the question whether a piece of speech is text or not. Enkvist (1989, 375) states that “text is whatever people feel.” It happens on the basis of intuition, which also enables communicators to decide on the grammatical acceptability of a sentence. Developing the definition of text given by Halliday and Hasan (1976), Bloor and Bloor pay special attention to those who actually use texts (real people) in actual circumstances (2004, 5): “A text is any stretch of language, regardless of length, that is spoken or written for the purposes of communication by real people in actual circumstances.” The communicative analysis of the linguistic units gives priority to only one criterion: communicative efficiency. This is also the case for a text, despite the fact that a text has never been considered (except in a few early researches) as the linguistic unit. Any manifestation of the linguistic code can and must be approached from the angle of communicative efficiency. More recent studies (Hengeveld and Mackenzie 2008; Keizer 2015) deal with the complex relationship between the use and meaning of language on the one hand and linguistic form on the other, focusing on the traditional hierarchical structure that includes pragmatics, semantics, morphosyntax, and phonology from the perspective of discourse analysis.

Image and Text Materials (1) And Bentleys and Aston Martins are also being snapped up at showrooms across the UK. (The Sun, July 13, 2011)

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(2) Only one in four older Britons wants the Church of England to remain the country’s official religion, according to research that indicates a decline in belief among the over-50s. (The Daily Telegraph, January 2, 2009) (3) A study by Passenger Focus, the government-funded rail watch-dog, found that many passengers preferred to queue at ticket offices rather than use nearby machines with no queues. (The Times, January 2, 2009) (4) In some of those instances—Adebayor most obviously—Arsenal were more than happy to sell, but only because the player had failed to live up to Wenger’s hopes and expectations. (The Times, August 1, 2011) (5) One resident said she was not even aware that Ms. Harris had a baby son. (The Times, January 2, 2009) (6) Attention will now focus on the fate of other nominees to the commission who were criticized in hearings. (International Herald Tribune, January 20, 2010) (7) Now Free for 3 months. (Daily Mail, December 2010) (8) Last month was the coolest July since 2007. (The Times, August 1, 2011) (9) American Airlines has raised the prospect of a full merger with British Airways and Iberia in a move that would create the world’s largest carrier. (The Times, August 1, 2011) (10) For the past 50 years, the government, the automakers and the American public have had to endure one of the most wasteful standoffs in political and economic history. (USA Today, September 2–4, 2011)

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(11) At that point, however, came the boldest move by any British politician since Margaret Thatcher launched the Falkland task force. (The Daily Telegraph, January 2, 2009) (12) Why “vaping” is a disaster for smokers? E-cigarette maker Gamucci is opening the world`s first airport “vaping zone” in the Terminal 4 international departure lounge at Heathrow today. If the zone is a success, it`ll be seen as a huge victory for the burgeoning e-cigarette industry. But with a name like that it doesn`t stand a chance. Vaping zone. Say it out loud. You can`t, can you? Someone might be listening, and they`d probably punch you right in your stupid face if they heard you. Is this what we’re supposed to call the act of smoking an electronic cigarette? Vaping? Are e-smokers vapists? Because vaping sounds worryingly like a form of sexual assault, or a bewilderingly ill-advised 1980s dance craze. Smokers must be furious. E-cigarettes were their big chance to become socially acceptable again, but whoever came up with “vaping” has ruined it. What’s worse: going outside to smoke, or sitting indoors to vap off? And, just like actual smoking—hot smoking, as the vapists call it—all sorts of neologisms are bound to spring up around e-cigarettes. What`s the vaping equivalent of smirting (smoking and flirting)? Is it varting? And what are we to call cigaretiquette (the generalized behaviour surrounding smoking) in the age of e-cigarettes? Vaprotocol? That sounds like a cheap brand of bronchitis medication. The website Ecicology (itself a terrible word that deserves to be bludgeoned to death) has a glossary teeming with ridiculous new words and phrases. It’s a world of “carts” and “cartos” that you fill with “smoke juice” and accessorise with “a drip tip,” being careful not to “flood your atty.” Imagine being the sort of person who actually talks like this. It’d be like living your entire life inside an Australian remake of A Clockwork Orange directed by Chris Morris.

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Forget bold-print health warnings and close-up pictures of diseased lungs, nothing’s going to repel you from a packet of cigarettes—electronic or otherwise—like knowing that you’ll have to stand in something as ridiculous as a vaping zone to smoke them. (The Guardian, November 25, 2013) (13) A Rolex will never change the world. We leave that to the people who wear them (Newsweek, January 18, 2010) (14) On the next circle the fish’s back was out but he was a little too far from the boat. On the next circle he was still too far away but he was higher out of the water and the old man was sure that by gaining some more line he could have him alongside. He had rigged his harpoon long before and its coil of light rope was in a round basket and the end was made fast to the bitt in the bow. The fish was coming in on his circle now calm and beautiful-looking and only his great tail moving. The old man pulled on him all that he could to bring him closer. For just a moment the fish turned a little on his side. Then he straightened himself and began another circle. (Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea 1952, 78) (15) “It should be of the highest interest,” Anselmo said and hearing him say it honestly and clearly and with no pose, neither the English pose of understatement nor any Latin bravado, Robert Jordan thought he was very lucky to have this old man and having seen the bridge and worked out and simplified the problem it would have been to surprise the posts and blow it in a normal way, he resented Golz’s orders, and the necessity for them. He resented them for what they could do to this old man. They were bad orders all right for those who would have to carry them out. And that is not the way we think, he told himself, and there is not you, there are no people that things must not happen to. Neither you nor this old man is anything. You are instruments, to do your duty. There are

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necessary orders that are no fault of yours and there is a bridge and that bridge can be the point on which the future of the human race can turn. As it can turn on everything that happens in this war. You have only one thing to do and you must do it. Only one thing, hell, he thought. If it were one thing it was easy. Stop worrying, you windy bastard, he said to himself. Think about something else. (Ernest Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1940, 45) (16) “This is nothing. I will not talk of that which is bad. So he had cut both braids close to my head with a razor and the others laughed and I did not even feel the cut on my ear and then he stood in front of me and struck me across the face with the braids while the other two held me and he said, ‘This is how we make Red nuns. This will show thee how to unite with thy proletarian brothers. Bride of the Red Christ!’ “And he struck me again and again across the face with the braids which had been mine and then he put the two of them in my mouth and tied them tight around my neck, knotting them in the back to make a gag and the two holding me laughed. “And all of them who saw it laughed and when I saw them laugh in the mirror I commenced to cry because until then I had been too frozen in myself from the shooting to be able to cry. “Then the one who had gagged me ran the clippers all over my head; first from the forehead all the way to the back of the neck and then all over my head and close behind my ears and they held me so I could see into the glass of the barber’s mirror all the time that they did this and I could not believe it as I saw it done and I cried and I cried but I could not look away from the horror that my face made with the mouth open and the braids tied in it and my head coming naked under the clippers. “And when the one with the clippers was finished he took a bottle of iodine from the shelf of the barber (they had shot the barber too for he belonged to a syndicate, and he lay in the doorway of the shop and they had lifted me over him as they brought me in) and with the glass wand that

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is in the iodine bottle he touched me on the ear where it had been cut and the small pain of that came through my grief and through my horror. “Then he stood in front of me and wrote UHP on my forehead with the iodine, lettering it slowly and carefully as though he were an artist and I saw all of this as it happened in the mirror and I no longer cried for my heart was frozen in me for my father and my mother and what happened to me now was nothing and I knew it. “Then when he had finished the lettering, the Falangist stepped back and looked at me to examine his work and then he put down the iodine bottle and picked up the clippers and said, ‘Next,’ and they took me out of the barbershop holding me tight by each arm and I stumbled over the barber lying there still in the doorway on his back with his gray face up, and we nearly collided with Concepcion Gracia, my best friend, that two of them were bringing in and when she saw me she did not recognize me, and then she recognized me, and she screamed, and I could hear her screaming all the time they were shoving me across the square, and into the doorway, and up the stairs of the city hall and into the office of my father where they laid me onto the couch. And it was there that the bad things were done. (Ernest Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1940, 310–11) (17) Here are the principles that should guide the Congress as we move to create a better healthcare system for all Americans: First, we should ensure that Americans with pre-existing conditions have access to coverage, and that we have a stable transition for Americans currently enrolled in the healthcare exchanges. Secondly, we should help Americans purchase their own coverage, through the use of tax credits and expanded Health Savings Accounts—but it must be the plan they want, not the plan forced on them by the Government. Thirdly, we should give our great State Governors the resources and flexibility they need with Medicaid to make sure no one is left out.

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Fourthly, we should implement legal reforms that protect patients and doctors from unnecessary costs that drive up the price of insurance—and work to bring down the artificially high price of drugs and bring them down immediately. Finally, the time has come to give Americans the freedom to purchase health insurance across State lines—creating a truly competitive national marketplace that will bring costs way down and provide far better care. (US President Donald Trump’s Address to A Joint Session of Congress, Washington DC, February 28, 2017) (18) This morning I want to talk about the future of Europe. But first, let us remember the past. Seventy years ago, Europe was being torn apart by its second catastrophic conflict in a generation. A war which saw the streets of European cities strewn with rubble. The skies of London lit by flames night after night. And millions dead across the world in the battle for peace and liberty. (David Cameron, EU speech, The Guardian, January 23, 2013)

Summary The studies show that text includes some fragments with a range of structural features. In fact, the study of the sentence based on its parts can be formally applied to text analysis as well. However, we can’t define the functional and compositional features of a text, and its stylistic and pragmatic settings, by analysing a single sentence because its structure and features do not reveal the specifics of a text in various functional styles as well as the strategies of the uses of various linguistic devices within a text. Despite these difficulties with defining text (e.g. one word, one sentence, two sentences, a big novel), there is a general understanding that the most important issue is whether it communicates or not, regardless of its size.

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The communicative analysis of the linguistic units gives priority to only one criterion: communicative efficiency. This is also the case for a text, despite the fact that a text has never been considered as the linguistic unit (except in a few early researches). Any manifestation of the linguistic code can and must be approached from the angle of communicative efficiency. When we consider text from the communicative angle, some high evaluation criteria are used as the pragmatic factor dominates other factors. This is due to the simple fact that text as a whole fulfils an important social task: to ensure communication among the members of social groups by the exchange of actual information. Thus, the study of text is mainly based on three major factors: structural (formal), semantic (meaning), and communicative (functional). In fact, the focus on these issues has gradually shifted the sphere of the linguistic interests from text to discourse.

Study Progress Questions (1) Explain the difference between structural and communicative approaches in the study of text. (2) All the italicized words refer to something mentioned before, or after, in the following newspaper text. Identify the role of the articles and pronouns in these references: Unpublished texts by Ernest Hemingway about the hunt for German Uboats off the Cuban coast during the Second World War are part of an important collection of the writer’s works to be released next week. While serving on a ship tracking Nazi submarines in the Gulf of Mexico, Hemingway wrote in code about his exploits. The notes are among 3,000 letters and other writings by the Nobel laureate to be made accessible online from Monday by curators at the writer’s former residence in Cuba, where he lived from 1939 to 1961. (The Times, January 2, 2009).

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(3) Comment on the cohesion and coherence in the following fictional text: In the dark the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness. He was very fond of flying fish as they were his principal friends in the ocean. He was sorry for the birds, especially the small delicate dark terns that were always flying and looking and almost never finding, and he thought, “The birds have a harder life than we do except for the robber birds and the heavy strong ones. Why did they make birds so delicate and fine as those sea swallows when the ocean can be so cruel? She is kind and it comes so suddenly and such birds that fly, dipping and hunting, with their small sad voices are made too delicately for the sea.” (Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea 1952, 47–8)

UNIT II FROM TEXT LINGUISTICS TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Learning Goals and Outcome This unit aims to introduce to students the advanced topics in text linguistics and discourse analysis such as text pragmatics, intention, communicative structure, and information structure, focusing on a functional approach that merges the notions of grammar and coherence in text and discourse. Another important topic is the role of context, especially its psychological, social, and cultural aspects. There are two aspects of discourse analysis. One focuses on the structure of discourse while the other explores discourse as the main factor in dealing with the functions of morphological and syntactical units and devices. For example, articles, conjunctions, adverbs, and word order can be explained by discourse strategies. But mainly, the researches cover both aspects. The unit will help students to understand text and context, which is very important during the production of a complex social and communicative event defined as discourse.

Content and Themes 2.1. Text pragmatics Despite the fact that the linguistic aspects of text have always been central in the studies of text, researchers also focus on the role of extra-linguistic

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factors and, first of all, of people who use text in society. Thus, in modern functionalism it has come to be applied to the study of language from the point of view of the participants of the communication process, especially in the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction, and the mutual effects the participants have during communication. The field focuses on an area between pragmatics, semantics, sociolinguistics, text linguistics, and discourse analysis. Pragmatics, which is considered as the study of language use in relation to the structure of language and the context of use, plays an important role in the analysis of text communication (Levinson 1983; Mey 2001; Verschueren 2003). According to Levinson, pragmatics studies the relation between the structure of a semiotic system and its usage in context, and forms the general theory of meaning along with semantics (Levinson 1983). The main focus in pragmatics is implicit meaning, as the ways of its manifestation through the structure of language require investigation of what is presumed and inferred. As we can see, linguistic pragmatics is dealing with language, meaning, and context. It also seems obvious that a meaning of a text is required: a text must mean in order to function, and its form must enable a receiver to derive meaning from it. A familiarity with the context, either in its original form in connection with the speech act or in a sufficiently complete and accurate reconstruction, may be needed before we understand what a text is all about. We have to note that not only word, word combination, or sentence but also text acquires meaning in context. In this regard, Lyons pays special attention to the link between text and context (Lyons 1981, 189): “Text are constituents of the contexts in which they are produced; and contexts are created, and continually transformed and refashioned, by the speakers and writers in particular situations.” Van Dijk defines context in the following remarks (1998, 23): “As to the context, on the other hand, this is said to include the participants and their roles, goals, settings and shared knowledge.”

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This understanding of context brings us closer to another fundamental problem in text communication: the role of the participants, i.e. the sender and the receiver of text. On the other hand, Enkvist (1989, 375) writes: To be meaningful, and to satisfy the definition of a text as a meaningful sequence of symbols in language, the text must be interpretable. Connexity, consisting of coherence and cohesion, obviously results from interpretability: a person who can interpret a text can set up the necessary cohesive and coherent links within that text.

In fact, connexity in text implies linking not only sentences but also ideas. On the other hand, as linking sentences and ideas is based on the subjective assumptions related with the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign, the controversy of its meaning, and the various pragmatic and cognitive factors, the receiver of text is facing ambiguity. Ambiguity can be divided into two broad categories: lexicalgrammatical and textual. Both may be deliberate or unintentional. Lexicalgrammatical ambiguity normally occurs when a word or a syntactic structure has apparently more than one meaning in, or in spite of, its context; vagueness or obscurity can usually be reduced to ambiguity. We usually think about such linguistic phenomena as homonymy and polysemy, keeping in mind linguistic context (Yule 2006). Pragmatics offers methods for the disambiguation of words and sentences through contextualization. Deliberate lexical ambiguity separates the two meanings of a homonym like race/race, and an unintentional ambiguity is usually actualized or clarified in the linguistic context. Syntactical ambiguity is observed on the level of word combinations and sentences. If a sentence is syntactically ambiguous within its context, it must be poorly written. All the notoriously ambiguous sentences and groups like the shooting of the hunters, as well as less obvious ones such as summer school, foreign language teaching, can be disambiguated if the context is reasonably informative (Chafe 1971). It is also important to note that the tendency of all languages to use many

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present and past participles independently as adjectives with a slightly different stable meaning gives rise to ambiguities like lost, striking, as well as the fact that grammatical or functional words themselves represent a common source for ambiguity. Prepositions, pronouns, and articles have many meanings, or it is sometimes very difficult to identify the referents of pronouns, articles, and most phrasal verbs. Lexical ambiguity is both more common and more difficult to actualize than grammatical ambiguity. Words may have anything from one meaning to many, and the meanings may be close to or remote from each other. Sometimes, a word has two meanings that are both equally effective (pragmatically and referentially) in the relevant stretch of language, e.g. book, direct. You can find ambiguities in most words and sentences if you try hard enough—that is the nature of language. All ambiguities are referential since they prompt two or more images of the reality, and it is necessary to establish the meaning in which an ambiguous word or sentence is used from the relevant context. Meanwhile, textual ambiguities sharply differ from lexicalgrammatical ones as it is not clear what the strategy of the sender is in using these ambiguities and whether they are intentional or not. In this regard, Eco (2011, 35) writes: When one has a text to question, it is irrelevant to ask the author. At the same time the reader cannot give just any interpretation, simply depending on his or her fancy, but must make sure that the text in some way not only legitimizes but also encourages a particular reading.

The idea of the “intention of the author (or sender)” was widely discussed in the researches on the functional-pragmatic approach to the study of language. Eco further clarifies his approach to the notion of intention, distinguishing “the intention of the author, the intention of the reader, and the intention of the text” (2011, 35). The other two intentions defined by Eco were extensively discussed in his books The Role of the Reader (1979) and The Limits of Interpretation (1991). In The Role of the

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Reader, he analyses the reader’s (or sender’s) ability to construct meaning while reading texts (mainly literary). He gives a strong argument in favour of the view that meaning is produced not only thanks to the structure of text but also thanks to the interpretable ability of the reader, who makes inferences and constructs meaning based on interaction (1979). In The Limits of Interpretation, Eco argues that, during communication, text acquires its own intention due to the limits of interpretation imposed by text, and there are a limited number of reasonable interpretations of any given text. Eco discusses these limits, suggesting that signs can be created to constrain interpretations and criticizing total subjectivity during interpretation (1991). He further highlights the issues of the limits of interpretation and intention of text in his attempts to look at these issues from the perspectives of the semiotics of text: To say that the interpretations of a text are potentially unlimited does not mean that interpretation has no object—no existing thing (whether fact or text) to focus on. To say that a text has potentially no end does not mean that every act of interpretation can have a happy end … Recognizing the intention of a text means recognizing a semiotic strategy. Sometimes the semiotic strategy is detectable on the grounds of established stylistic conventions. If a story begins with “Once upon a time,” I have a good reason to assume that it is a fairy tale. (Eco 2011, 37, 41)

So, we can come to a conclusion that text is not as open as a system of linguistic signs due to the fact that the process of text construction imposes limits for the possible linguistic choices that can be made by a sender, and at the same time, these linguistic signs rule out the possibilities for unlimited interpretation for a receiver. Interpretability is some sort of interaction between text and context in the process of discourse construction. Obviously, the receiver’s ability for interpretability depends on their personal (psychological) mood, such as their individual capacity for perception, which is mostly considered as creativity.

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The sender uses certain linguistic elements for construction cohesion and coherence in order to make from a stretch of language a text. On the other hand, the linguistic elements constructing cohesion and coherence become strong cognitive devices helping the receiver to infer and to interpret text and thus carry out certain cognitive modifications in discourse. Further aspects of text pragmatics, which represent interest, are the use of various linguistic elements for the weighing of expectation in case of implicit relations in discourse. Normally, the meaning of text exists in the relevant linguistic elements and can be understood by a receiver via various explicit grammatical, lexical, and stylistic devices. But information, as a rule, is not fully explicated in the linguistic elements, as any text constructed by a sender for a receiver is the product of an invisible compromise based on the assumption of these discourse participants who do not experience any constraints in understanding thanks to the shared knowledge common within a certain culture. This factor enables the discourse participants to convey certain parts of information in an implicit way. With a view of such an approach in the process of text understanding, it is necessary to look at certain mental patterns. The linguistic elements clearly demonstrate to the receiver how to connect textual information with an already-existing information model. Therefore, the meaning of text is understood thanks to the active interaction between the information explicated in text and implicit meaning. Thus, discourse participants understand text in different ways depending on their shared knowledge, experience, and ability to use linguistic elements. As the significant part of textual information is usually explicated via the relevant linguistic elements, their pragmatic and cognitive strategies help the receiver to understand text. Hence, text emerges as a crucial element both in linguistic and in interdisciplinary approaches to discourse. Linguists has traditionally acknowledged the fact that the production of discourse takes place in the

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course of the construction of text by a person. It is believed that discourse analysis original aimed at the exploration of two major issues: (1) how text acquires meaning; (2) what makes text connected and interpretable? As we see, discourse analysis mainly focuses on intertextuality. At the same time, text linguists also indicates its relevance for the study of text. But if we compare discourse with the similar definitions of text, such an understanding does not shed light on how to differ it from text. Enkvist explains the difference between text and discourse as follows (1989, 371– 2): Those who are fond of this distinction usually define it in terms of whether we look at a text as divorced from its situational context, or as discourse and part of a situation, to cite a classic example, as long as a No Smoking sign is on the desk of a linguist, who studies its linguistic structure as such and apart from its original situational context, it remains a text. But once it is hung on the wall, or is studied as a specimen of a text recovered from a wall in a specific kind of room and with a specific situation-bound function, it becomes a piece of discourse.

Despite the obvious difficulties in making a clear difference between text and discourse (it sometimes causes the synthesis of text linguistics and the grammar of text with discourse analysis), the above factor helps to understand the difference. Text is a final product or final result, whereas discourse is a process of text construction. As we can see, a text can be studied as the real product of certain activity, while discourse is more complex. If we want to study it we have to reveal the idea and intention of the sender, that is to say it is necessary to define presuppositions hidden behind the explicit linguistic form. Text is viewed mostly as the formal construction used for messaging, while discourse is regarded on the level of mental processes. Therefore, discourse analysis mostly deals with the extra-linguistic factors beyond text. For example, the consistent use of the definite determiners in the text of discourse implies a shared knowledge and experience of the sender with the receiver that may not actually exist in text. This reference called exophoric can be clearly shown by the

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traditional uses of pronouns and the definite article in the following political and media texts (see examples 1 and 2). The receiver of the first text (political) may want to show whether the implicit associations between Britain, us, our shores, our society, and the whole country are inferable and interpretable by the audience, keeping in mind their cognitive ability. The whole information actualized via the uses of the personal pronoun us, the possessive pronoun our, and the definite article the exists within the text, although the use of the form in plurality implies a shared knowledge with the audience that may not actually exist. It is some sort of address to the readers who are outside the text but within discourse. The sender of the second text from USA Today describes how the sport event took place in the underlined period of time. The sender presupposes the knowledge of the situational context by the receiver and indicates it through the demonstrative pronoun this summer. Thus, discourse analysis as a field of intertextual study represents a special interest to the sociologists, psychologists, and other researchers in humanities and social sciences.

2.2. Discourse and its structures Any phenomenon discourse also has a structure. Despite the numerous researches with different approaches in this field, the linguists accept the existence of almost similar relations between the parts or fragments of discourse. Thomson and Mann introduce the theory of rhetoric structure and the interesting model of discourse structure (Thompson and Mann 1988). According to this theory, any unit of discourse is linked with other units through meaningful relations. These relations are called rhetoric. The rhetoric relations perform the function of addition in order to achieve certain goals of the sender. The discourse unit, which is part of rhetoric relations, can vary from maximum (the whole discourse) to minimum. The structure of discourse is characterized by hierarchy and the similar rhetoric relation for all levels of hierarchy. The rhetoric relations can be asymmetric and symmetric.

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Ford (1993) considers the structure of discourse from the perspectives of the uses of the adverbial clauses, including those of time, condition, and cause. She attempts to explain the functional differences depending on the use of the subordinate clauses vis-à-vis the main clause. It is stressed that the subordinate clauses used in prepositions have a larger scope of functions than those used in postpositions, and in general terms help to organize the structure of discourse. One point in the study of discourse should be stressed: the difference between written and spoken communication. Most of us are aware of the way in which we structure large chunks of information in writing as it is a planned speech and we are encouraged to plan what we are going to write about, paragraph by paragraph. Spoken communication is more complex due to the fact that it is rarely carefully planned and mostly totally spontaneous. But in both cases, the way information is structured during the process of communication is very important. When we deliver a message to a receiver, whether orally or in writing, we instinctively impose a structure in our speech and try to organize what we send in a way that will make it easier for a receiver to understand. Thus, it is postulated that speech can be seen as displaying the information structure, encoding the importance of the elements in any message with formally identifiable units of information. Various linguistic and extras-linguistic devices provide the main signal for such units. Linguists have made use of information both in a general sense and as formulated in statistical terms, derived from the theory of communication. In its general sense, this fundamental concept is used by several linguists (Michael Halliday, Wallace Chafe, and other researchers) as a basis for a theoretical account of the structure of messages. Most of us are aware of the way in which we structure large pieces of information, and when we study language we can see that we do subconsciously impose a structure on our written or oral speech as a part of the act of communication. Thus, it is postulated that speech can be seen as displaying the information structure, encoding the importance of the elements in any message with

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formally identifiable units of information. Various linguistic and extralinguistic devices provide the main signal for such units. Discussing the structure of discourse, Givon (1990) indicates that the internal structure of discourse is motivated by several factors, including topic and participant continuity, temporal continuity, and action or theme continuity. Such structuring of context creates the basics for revealing and the description of the information structure of language units that help to construct temporal continuity in text. Meanwhile, he gives priority to referential continuity, classified as the retrospective and prospective characterized by their formal signals. For example, the retrospective reference implies the definite referent, while the prospective reference implies the indefinite referent. Chafe (1994) considers the discourse structure as the intonation unit that is the mode of discourse relevant to a focus in consciousness. Each intonation unit usually has one element of new information, and the opposition of new and old information is interlinked with the prosodic (stress and unstressed) and lexical (pronominalization—name) actualization of certain references. It should be noted that not all linguists agree with such an opposition of new and old. According to this approach, the categories of new and old do not create a real opposition (Luchjenbroers 1996, 145). Such an assumption is based on the argument that new information is not always new and old information is not always old (Chafe 1994). Asher and Lascarides (1994) discuss the mechanisms and types of inference from the angle of the interaction between the intentional and information structures of discourse. Other researches focus attention on the relationship. In fact, they are free to use any linguistic device for this coding of the elements depending on their pragmatic intention (Umbach 2004). Foley (1994, 1678) considers the information structure of linguistic constructions as the relatively marked coding of the elements of the structure. In fact, the sender is free to use any linguistic device for this coding of the elements depending on their pragmatic intention.

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We can identify at least three levels of language on which the sender makes choices: (1) the vocabulary choices that a sender makes; (2) the choice regarding the aspects of syntax; (3) the way these levels of language can operate in texts. The lexical and syntactic patterns as well as their function on the level of text are crucial in the structuring of discourse. Thus, all these issues have become central in the researches on text and discourse grammar that focus attention on the fact that the sender uses different devices from grammar to ground information in text and discourse. For example, foregrounding or new information appears thanks to background (old or given), and their correlation defines the dynamics of text and discourse structure (see example 3). The indefinite article used with the word mother in the first part of this media text signals new information. The signal of old information is the definite article, and it is used in the second part of the text with the word woman. Both grammatical and lexical elements help the sender of this text to form the opposition of new and old information. The opposition of new and old information gives a strong impetus to further development of the text topic, but this development is also based on two types of cohesion. One of the patterns identified here is the lexical cohesion derived from the notion of the semantic field (the use of words and phrases from a particular area of meaning), which was discussed in the previous unit. The sender of the text under analysis uses words (mother-woman) from the semantic field of female. Another pattern that exists within the text is called explicit or direct repetition (see examples 4 and 5). In example 4, the direct lexical repetitions of An artist—The 44-year old artist, based on the specific distribution of information new (through the indefinite article an) and old (through the definite article the), is the very strong textual factor in this media discourse. The formal repeat of Good news based on the specific (close contact) distribution of new and old information is also the very strong textual factor in example 5. .

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Various types of repetitions are also frequently employed by politicians for the purpose of emphasizing those issues that are expected to be important for themselves and their audience. In this respect, the repetitions used by American politicians draw a special interest, as these lexical devices play a very important role in their discourses (see examples 6, 7, and 8). All three texts come from the American political discourse, which is very dynamic especially during the presidential campaign. The repetition of the word tomorrow employed by former US President Barack Obama serves as a signal for such emphasizing. The same tool is also frequently employed by US President Donald Trump. During his presidential campaign announcement speech, he extensively used the repetitions of words, word combinations, and sentences $24 trillion-$24 trillion, We will be there soon- we're gonna be there very soon-We're gonna be there very soon, our-our-our-our, you look-you look- you look, I come in from-I come in from. One is another important element in the construction of information structure in discourse (see examples 9 and 10). New information is introduced in these newspaper texts thanks to the element one followed by the use of the possessive pronoun his red book and the demonstrative pronouns this and that, which indicate old information. The cohesion pattern of the first text is formed by the lexical cohesion one significant object and red book. The second text pattern is formed by the direct repetition one day and that day. Such usages of the element one are also quite common during the construction of narrative texts in fiction. For example, John Steinbeck extensively employed it in his fictional discourse (see examples 11 and 12). One is a crucial tool used by the author in both pieces of narrative text as a marker of new information followed by the use of the words afternoon (example 11) and morning (example 12) and also the phrase in September (example 9). It is obvious that all these temporally marked words and phrases afternoon, morning, and in September strongly support these narrative texts based on the flow of thought and the flow of time.

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Different temporally marked grammatical elements, words, and phrases also help to distribute the specific type of information in discourse. Media discourse is an excellent platform for such a function of these linguistic devices (see examples 13 and 14). The opposition of new and old is defined by the time reference now as well as by the temporally marked phrases and words such as in February and One day used in the newspaper text from The Times. Now is used for introducing a new portion of information in the social advertising text that comes from USA Today. The adverbs now and today are also frequently employed in this function in political discourse (see examples 15 and 16). The usages of Now and Today in this political discourse by former US President Barack Obama ideally show how these elements can function to introduce a new stage in the flow of thought. It is interesting that the conjunctions and, but and the adverb then can also function to introduce new information in discourse (see example 17). These markers play an important role in the construction of this piece of text in the political discourse of President Trump. Thus, all these linguistic devices considered as the discourse markers help the receiver to understand the flow of thought and at the same time the flow of time in the discourses under analysis. They are very important tools to introduce new information (which implies a new chapter or new stage), focusing attention on the issue the sender would like to raise or emphasize in discourse. Another important factor to be mentioned here is the correlation between information structure and other structures in discourse. For example, the cause-effect or cause-result connections are represented through various grammatical devices or are simply implied in discourse. A number of researchers (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Warner 1985; Enkvist 1989) investigated the grammatical devices (conjunctions, adverbs) that signal cause-effect connections used, first of all, to serve a certain pragmatic goal of the sender. Such discourse markers of argumentation explicate logical reasoning for any argument and represent a sequential structure. But alongside these explicit devices, a logical reasoning can be

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presented in an implicit way as well. During the representation of argumentation, these explicit and implicit relations construct certain information and cognitive structures in discourse. As one of the most important properties of text is the intention, the sender makes great efforts to reflect it in the information structure of discourse. For this purpose, the easiest and simplest way is to change the normal word order in the sentence. Such a word order change, called inversion, has a strong pragmatic effect and helps the receiver to identify focus in the whole discourse. In addition to the discussed linguistic devices there is another effective instrument for distributing information in text and discourse called word order. We have already noted that the old-new information structure based on the subject-verb-object order is considered normal for the English sentence. Any unusual change in word order has a pragmatic effect and signals that emphasis has been switched to another part of the sentence. In the normal subject-verb-complement sentence, the communicative dynamism will be on the complement or the last word. If, however, any component of a sentence is “abnormally” put at the head of a sentence, that component will carry a heavy communicative dynamism. The way in which elements within a sentence are ordered can give weighting to one or more aspects and reduce, or remove, others. Take a look at the case of reordering the sentence elements within text. Considering media discourse, we see strong pragmatic and cognitive effects of word order in this type (see examples 18, 19, and 20). The adverbial elements in too many districts, In Iraq, In four major cities, By 2001, and On the morning of Sept. 11 appear at the front position in these media and political texts. Such fronting of the adverbial has the effect of emphasizing the new or important idea contained in it, giving a strong impulse to the related processes throughout the discourses under analysis. Pragmatically and stylistically coloured word order enables the creation of an emotional image thanks to the moving of these space and time references to the front position.

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We can observe the case where, for the same purpose, the sender brings even the verb to the front (see example 21). The placing of the verb comes before the subject news in this newspaper text signals the importance of the surprising fact that has just been introduced for the readers of Forbes. Such word order changes relate with the inversion of a statistically regular sequence of elements, i.e. inversion highlights the element that stands in the untraditional position and thus gives additional communicative and emotional impulse to the whole text. The cases of inversion are more typical for the headlines in newspaper discourse (see example 22). The author of this newspaper article also moves the verb says to before the subject Labour in order to highlight the political significance of this report. The analysis of the whole newspaper text confirms that the inversion of word order in the headline has a certain pragmatic goal to focus attention on the political debate between the representatives of Tory and Labour in the British parliament on the issue of healthcare. The patterns of word order under analysis operate to make text coherent and cohesive, and ultimately make it a complete unit at the levels of structure and meaning in the process of discourse construction. Such reordering, which is common in different discourse types, has clear pragmatic and cognitive functions. These patterns of word order establish a relationship between discourse participants and establish the nature of that potential audience in the sense that certain text types often address an implied audience rather than an actual one. Thus, the focus here is on the issues related to what information is marked in discourse considering the discourse participants’ linguistic and cognitive knowledge as well as the situational context of when and where communication takes place. Recent publications in this field deal with the social and cultural aspects of context that have a systematic impact on grammatical form (Alturo, Keizer, and Pairato 2014, 194). This approach suggests that linguistic elements are, first of all, rule based as they construct an information structure in text and discourse.

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Various linguistic devices belonging to all levels of the structure of language are used to construct the information structure in discourse. They play a major role in the construction of thematic continuity in discourse. In fact, serving as the signals for the receiver they have different communicative weights. Given the human ability to keep a certain amount of information in memory, these signals eventually perform strong cognitive functions in order to ensure global connexity in discourse.

Image and Text Materials (1) Now, I’ve always had a clear view about immigration. I believe that immigration has brought significant benefits to Britain, from Polish heroes who fought for us during the war to West Indians who helped us to rebuild afterwards; from those who’ve come to our shores seeking a safe haven from persecution, to those who’ve come to make a better life for themselves and their families and, in the process, have enriched our society by working hard, taking risks and creating jobs and wealth for the whole country. (David Cameron, UK Prime Minister, March 25, 2013) (2) This summer, many of baseball’s top contenders pulled off mega trades designed to get them to the playoffs. Today, several may be wondering whether they should’ve just ignored the July 31 non-waiver trade deadline. (USA Today, September 2–4, 2011, 6) (3) A mother has been arrested on suspicion of the murder of a 21-monthold boy, his body covered in injures. The woman, named locally as 29-year-old Collete Harris, and a 24year-old man believed to be her boyfriend were questioned by child abuse officers twice this week before being released on bail. (The Daily Telegraph, January 2, 2009, 12)

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(4) An artist singing folk songs over a loudspeaker was last night awarded the Turner Prize. Susan Philipp’s eight minute recording of Scottish lament Low-lands Away was designed to be played under bridges in her native Glasgow. But it boomed out from three loud-speakers in an empty room for the exhibition at London’s Tate Britain. It was the first “sound installation” to be shortlisted in the controversial prize’s 26-year history, rather stretching the definition of an outstanding contribution to the “visual arts.” The 44-year-old artist said she was “honoured.” (Daily Mail, December 7, 2010, 12) (5) The joint announcement by the Obama administration and the auto industry of ambitious fuel economy standards to push gas mileage to 54.5 miles per gallon by 2025 is good news. Good news for those who worry about the lack of a coherent national energy policy; good news for those who are concerned that America continues to make itself vulnerable to unfriendly regimes whom we depend on for oil; good news, frankly, for those who want to see America keep part of its industrial base intact. (USA Today, September 2–4, 2011, 7) (6) Virginia, I have just one word for you, just one word. Tomorrow. Tomorrow. After decades of broken politics in Washington, 8 years of failed policies from George Bush, twenty-one months of campaigning, we are less than one day away from bringing about change in America. Tomorrow you can turn the page on policies that put greed and irresponsibility before hard work and sacrifice. Tomorrow you can choose policies that invest in our middle class, create new jobs and grow this economy so that everybody has a chance to succeed. Not just the CEO but the secretary and the janitor; not just the factory owner but the men and women who work the factory floor. Tomorrow you can put an end to the politics that would divide a nation just to win an election; that puts reason

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against reason, and city against town, Republican against Democrat; that asks us to fear at a time when we need to hope. Tomorrow, at this defining moment in history, you can give this country the change that we need. It starts here in Virginia. It starts here in Manassas. This is where change begins. (Barack Obama, Night Before the Election, the Last Rally, Manassas, Prince William County, Virginia, November 3, 2008) (7) According to the economists—who I'm not big believers in, but, nevertheless, this is what they're saying—that $24 trillion—we're very close—that's the point of no return. $24 trillion. We will be there soon. That's when we become Greece. That's when we become a country that's unsalvageable. And we're gonna be there very soon. We're gonna be there very soon. (Donald Trump, Presidential Campaign Announcement Speech, Trump Tower, New York, June 16, 2015) (8) So we have to rebuild our infrastructure, our bridges, our roadways, our airports. You come into LaGuardia Airport, it`s like we are in a third world country. You look at the patches and the 40-year-old floor. They throw down asphalt and they throw. You look at these airports, we are like a third world country. And I come in from China and I come in from Qatar and I come in from different places, and they have the most incredible airports in the world. (Donald Trump, Presidential Campaign Announcement Speech, Trump Tower, New York, June 16, 2015) (9) One insignificant object related to his homecoming gives me disproportionate pleasure: his red book. This is the personal health record issued to every child at birth for logging their growth, vaccination and other medical data. (The Times, August 1, 2011, 39)

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(10) One day, we promised ourselves, when I get that job/millionaire/ lucky lottery ticket, I will have a quilted handbag that didn’t cost 29 pounds on eBay and come with “Chanelle” printed in the faux-leather lining. That day never came, of course, and it’s less likely that it will. (The Daily Telegraph, January 2, 2009, 25) (11) The bay mare Nellie quickly grew complacent. As she walked about the yellowing hillsides or worked at easy tasks, her lips were curled in a perpetual fatuous smile. She moved slowly, with the calm importance of an empress. When she was put to a team, she pulled steadily and unemotionally. Jody went to see her every day. He studied her with critical eyes and saw no change whatever. One afternoon Billy Buck leaned the many-tined manure fork against the barn wall. He loosened his belt and tucked in his shirt-tail and tightened the belt again. He picked one of the little straws from his hatband and put it in the corner of his mouth. Jody, who was helping Doubletree Mutt, the big serious dog to dig out a gopher, straightened up as the ranch-hand sauntered out of the barn. (John Steinbeck, The Red Pony, 147–8) (12) The summer passed, and the warm bright autumn. And then the frantic morning winds began to twist along the ground, and a chill came into the air, and the poison oak turned red. One morning in September, when he had finished his breakfast, Jody`s mother called him into the kitchen. She was pouring boiling water into a bucket full of dry midlings and stirring the materials to a steaming paste. (John Steinbeck, The Red Pony, 153) (13) Writer George, 53, spent a year sifting through Scottish Highlands sediment before proposing to sweetheart Tina Lear. Now they are making plans for their wedding. (The Times, August 1, 2011, 19)

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(14) The doctor will hear you now Want better health care? Start asking more questions. To your doctor. To your pharmacist. To your nurse. What are the test results? What about side effects? Don’t fully understand your prescriptions? Don’t leaved confused, because the most important question is the one you should have asked. Go to www.ahrg.gov/questionsaretheanswers or call 1-800-931AHRQ (2477) for the 10 questions every patient should ask. Questions are the answer. (USA Today, September 2–4, 2011, 7) (15) I took office at a time when many around the world had come to view America with skepticism and distrust. Part of this was due to misperceptions and misinformation about my country. Part of this was due to opposition to specific policies, and a belief that on certain critical issues, America has acted unilaterally, without regard for the interests of others. And this has fed an almost reflexive anti-Americanism, which too often has served as an excuse for collective inaction. Now, like all of you, my responsibility is to act in the interest of my nation and my people, and I will never apologize for defending those interests. But it is my deeply held belief that in the year 2009—more than at any point in human history—the interests of nations and peoples are shared. The religious convictions that we hold in our hearts can forge new bonds among people, or they can tear us apart. The technology we harness can light the path to peace, or forever darken it. The energy we use can sustain our planet, or destroy it. What happens to the hope of a single child—anywhere—can enrich our world, or impoverish it. (Barack Obama, First Speech Before the United Nations General Assembly, 64th Session, September 23, 2009, New York) (16) That is the future America wants—a future of peace and prosperity that we can only reach if we recognize that all nations have rights, but all nations have responsibilities as well. That is the bargain that makes this work. That must be the guiding principle of international cooperation.

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Today, let me put forward four pillars that I believe are fundamental to the future that we want for our children: non-proliferation and disarmament; the promotion of peace and security; the preservation of our planet; and a global economy that advances opportunity for all people. (Barack Obama, First Speech Before the United Nations General Assembly, 64th Session, September 23, 2009, New York) (17) For too long, we've watched our middle class shrink as we've exported our jobs and wealth to foreign countries. We've financed and built one global project after another, but ignored the fates of our children in the inner cities of Chicago, Baltimore, Detroit—and so many other places throughout our land. We've defended the borders of other nations, while leaving our own borders wide open, for anyone to cross—and for drugs to pour in at a now unprecedented rate. And we've spent trillions of dollars overseas, while our infrastructure at home has so badly crumbled. Then, in 2016, the earth shifted beneath our feet. The rebellion started as a quiet protest, spoken by families of all colors and creeds—families who just wanted a fair shot for their children, and a fair hearing for their concerns. But then the quiet voices became a loud chorus—as thousands of citizens now spoke out together, from cities small and large, all across our country. (President Donald Trump, Address to A Joint Session of Congress, Washington DC, February 28, 2017) (18) School districts across the USA are laying off teachers this summer–a pattern that has become an annual rite in some places where budgets are shrinking and enrolments are dropping. About the only upside to the cutbacks is the opportunity they offer to winnow out our low-performing teachers and leave the best talent in the classroom. But in too many districts, that`s not happening. The result?

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When students return to school over the next few weeks, they’ll find some of the best teachers gone and some of the worst still in their classrooms. In four major cities, the top teachers leave schools at about the same rate as the least successful teachers, according to a study released last week by TNTP, a non-profit educational advocacy group formerly known as The New Teacher Project. Many schools don’t even try to keep what the report calls these “irreplaceables.” Schools fail to value or to reward their most valuable players more than their least successful teachers. The consequences are devastating. Hiring good teachers and firing bad ones is the single best way to improve education. TNTP estimates that the nation’s 50 largest urban school districts lose approximately 10,000 “irreplaceables” a year. TNTP identified the “irreplaceables” by analysing student test scores to determine how much value teachers added to students’ learning. (USA Today, August 9, 2012, 9) (19) We have set a clear and focused goal: to work with all members of this body to disrupt, dismantle, and defeat al Qaeda and its extremist allies—a network that has killed thousands of people of many faiths and nations, and that plotted to blow up this very building. In Afghanistan and Pakistan, we and many nations here are helping these governments develop the capacity to take the lead in this effort, while working to advance opportunity and security for their people. In Iraq, we are responsibly ending a war. We have removed American combat brigades from Iraqi cities, and set a deadline of next August to remove all our combat brigades from Iraqi territory. And I have made clear that we will help Iraqis transition to full responsibility for their future, and keep our commitment to remove all American troops by the end of 2011. (Barack Obama, First Speech Before the United Nations General Assembly, 64th Session, September 23, 2009, New York)

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(20) By 2001, Tillman had reached the pinnacle: He had become the president’s principal pilot. On the morning of Sept. 11, Tillman arrived at Sarasota, Bradenton International Airport a few hours before the scheduled return to Washington. Threats against Air Force One are common he says, but they’re mostly just disgruntled people making false claims. All of them are checked out. “In this case, there was nothing like that,” he says. (USA Today, September 2–4, 2011, 2) (21) Former Citigroup chairman Sandy Weill listed his 6,744-sq-ft apartment at 15 Central Park West for an astonishing $88 million in November, promising to donate the proceeds of the sale to charity. Now comes news that Ekaterina Rybolovleva, the 22-year-old daughter of Russian billionaire Dmitriy Rybolovlev, is buying the condominium. Rybolovleva is currently studying at an undisclosed U.S. university and plans to stay in the apartment when visiting New York. According to a source familiar with the sale, she paid the full asking price of $88 million, setting a record for highest individual transaction in New York City history. (Forbes.com, December 20, 2011) (22) “Patient choice going in reverse” says Labour Patient choice in the NHS is “going backwards” after new figures showed a decline in the number of people who have chosen where to receive outpatient hospital treatment, the shadow care minister, Liz Kendall, has said. Just over half (52%) of NHS outpatient appointments were made through the “choose and book” service in the third quarter of this year, according to figures released in a parliamentary answer to Kendall by the health minister Dan Poulter. This marks a decline on the 57% of such appointments made in the first quarter of 2010—the last full quarter when Labour was in office.

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Choose and book is an electronic referral system designed to allow patients to select the date, time and location of an outpatient appointment at a hospital or clinic. Kendal said: “Andrew Lansley claimed it was ‘no decision about me without me.’ But in fact what he did was fundamentally shift the power to GPs rather than really shifting the power to patients. “The fundamental flaw in the Tories’ reform is that they have failed to realise the ultimate goal has got to be giving more power to patients and families. It is really important that clinicians are leading changes but the goal is patient power, people power. That is the only way you are going to get the big and sustainable changes we need.” Kendall said that the Tory approach contrasted with changes introduced by the previous government. “Labour gave people a choice over where to have their operation for the first time. We also enshrined the right for patients to make choices about other local services in the NHS constitution. But under David Cameron, patient choice is going backwards. The proportion of people getting outpatient appointments at the hospital of their choice has gone down since 2010.” Jeremy Hunt, who was promoted to the post of health secretary last year after a collapse in trust under Lansley, is keen to portray himself as the patients’ champion. However, Kendall said Hunt was simply seeking to “airbrush” changes that are occurring anyway. “The Tories don`t want to talk about their reforms any more. Hunt is trying to airbrush what they have really been doing for three and a half years—airbrush it out of history. But in fact we are starting to see the consequences of the changes just as we warned when the bill was going through parliament.” The shadow minister said recent closures of walk-in centres, established by the last government to provide primary NHS care at the weekend or in the evenings, highlighted the danger of handing too much power to GPs.

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Hunt this month cited the British Medical Association, which said that money had been wasted on urgent care centres located in the wrong places, to argue that the government was “sorting” a mess left by Labour. Kendall said: “GPS are responsible for commissioning services. Lo and behold they are not commissioning services like walk-in centres, which provide alternatives to GPS. Walk-in centres have flexibility and a range of different services—it is about fitting services around people`s lives. The Tory policy is, let’s go back to the old family doctor … They are championing the producer rather than the user. (The Guardian, November 25, 2013, 14)

Summary Discourse analysis cannot be carried out by ignoring the mental patterns because they are real basic requirements for choosing the necessary communicative information for such strategic purposes as the construction of information and the cognitive structures of discourse. The sender uses the linguistic elements when trying to convey their pragmatic intention to the receiver, while, on the other hand, these elements represent very important cognitive perspectives for the receiver, as they give instructions for cognitive operations to be performed by the receiver of the text. Thus, we have to underline a clear difference between the pragmatic perspectives of the sender and the cognitive perspectives of the receiver. It can be assumed that the information structure of text can be considered from the perspectives of the sender, and the cognitive structure of text from the perspectives of the receiver. During the production of discourse, these structures play a crucial role involving context, society, and knowledge.

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Study Progress Questions (1) Discuss pragmatics from linguistic perspectives. (2) Find out about the difference between text and discourse by analysing their definitions given by different researchers. (3) Explain the difference between communicative structure and information structure. (4) Comment on the proportion of explicit and implicit meanings in discourse. (5) Describe the current status of text linguistics and discourse analysis including your own view about their prospects.

UNIT III DISCOURSE AND SOCIETY

Learning Goals and Outcome This unit aims to introduce the advanced topics in discourse studies that can shed light on the role of discourse in society. Such a general issue in discourse studies as the approach to this unique social interaction from the perspectives of pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and cognition is also in focus as it plans to provide knowledge about the contemporary discourse theories. It underlines the significance and application of the study of discourse with a view to shaping student’s perceptions and understanding of the sociological, political, cultural, and economic contexts during verbal communication. Thus, it will enable students to better understand the nature of verbal communication and how text and discourse studies can help learners to become effective communicators with an understanding of their role in social life.

Content and Themes 3.1. Types and genres of discourse Further studies in discourse reveal its nature as a social practice. This view has prevailed in critical discourse studies since its first introduction by Fairclough (1995) and his colleagues. I would like to reiterate the abovementioned definition of discourse, given by Enkvist (1989), that it is the synthesis of text with context based on the situational component.

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Wodak indicates four layers of context in the discourse-historical approach within critical discourse analysis (2009, 38–9): x

the intertextual and interdiscoursive relationships between utterances, texts, genres, and discourses

x

the extra-linguistic social/sociological variables

x

the history and archaeology of texts and organizations; and the institutional frames of the specific context of a situation … In this way, we are able to explore how discourses, genres and texts change due to socio-political contexts.

Thus, text, context, and discourse are closely interrelated with types and genres that define the nature and the role of discourse in society. As a social phenomenon, discourse can be verbalized as various types (such as fictional, political, media, academic, etc.), genres (such as novels, political speeches, newspapers, lectures, etc.) and subgenres (such as short stories, editorial columns, etc.). Fairclough suggests that “genre or type may be characterized as a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity” (1995, 27). According to topic, discourses are divided into three broad categories: (a) literary, (b) institutional (media, political, legal, etc.), and (c) academic or scientific. Meanwhile, there are certain crucially important factors relevant for all discourse types. First, discourse is fixed in text and, second, it is constructed to arouse and hold the interest of the receiver. Therefore, it must have cognitive foundation. In addition, almost all types are strongly ideologically marked (van Dijk 1998) and culturally motivated. Thus, discourse and its types depend on an individual (text and cognition) and society (ideology and culture). But there are of course some differences as well. In contrary to most media or political discourses, literary and academic discourses (books, research papers) do not take place in real time; i.e. the prerequisites differ. Despite the obvious pragmatic intentions, as the major characteristics for all types of discourse, almost all genres of political discourse and certain

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genres of legal discourse (such as court discourse) tend to be more convincing, influencing, and even manipulating compared to literary or academic discourse. As communication takes place in real life as well as fiction, it is necessary to mark the distinction between the texts of these two types of contexts. According to this criterion, although some genres of the newspaper are fictional, many of them reflect real-life events. The fundamental differences between the texts in real and fictional discourse are conditioned by their contextual features. The fictional text does not address the receiver directly but only through the sender. The newspaper text aims to inform, to manipulate, and to convince the receiver explicitly or implicitly. The characteristic features of the real-life communication are the cooperative principles of the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance, and manner (Grice 1975). Meanwhile, these maxims are not prerogatives for the literary discourse and they are frequently violated to create emotionality, ambiguity, vagueness, and polysemy for various pragmatic and stylistic effects. The main issues requiring special attention in the fictional or literary discourse are the internal world of the sender (writer or poet), their psychological mood while creating a certain literary work, and the sender’s desire to be expressive or not (see examples 1 and 2). In the text of literary discourse, linguistic structures, statements, arguments, promises, orders, and apologies influencing the receiver, encouraging or even urging them to act, do not address them directly. All these messages are filtered via the consciousness of the sender and the textual images as well as the receiver’s receptive powers. It is widely accepted that the aesthetic-cognitive function of literature exceeds the function of factual information that is characteristic of real-life discourse. In addition, literary discourse can ideally fulfil the aesthetic-cognitive function due to the richness of culturally motivated structures in this type and its relevant genres and subgenres.

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However, this is also the case for other types of discourse, for example written genres of political or media texts. On the other hand, literary, academic (research articles, monographs, lectures addressed to big audiences), and newspaper discourses (analytical articles, comments) tend to be chaotic and virtual. This might account for the sender’s desire to invite the receiver to think. In contrary, political, legal, and some academic discourses (regular lectures) lack such chaos and virtual character. Thus, the real-world discourse is basically dialogic, whereas the literary discourse is polylogic. Talbot indicates the genre hybridization in media discourse (Talbot 2007) that traditionally covers press, radio, television, etc. Nowadays, we can also add new media such as social networks, blogs, and smartphone apps. The role media plays in society is very important and this factor leads to the phenomenon of hybridization based not only on genres within media discourse but also on various discourse types such as “political media discourse” (Fetzer 2013, 3) and “financial media discourse” (Pilkington and Sinapi 2014). Another important factor in media discourse is that the core of the informative function of language exists in media texts (Wodak and Busch 2004), i.e. the facts of topic and extra-linguistic reality, including reported ideas or theories. Meanwhile, few media texts are purely informative: most include expressive and vocative functions with an emphasis on one of the two. Many of these texts encourage an imaginary audience to spell out a variety of weak implicative along these lines persuading the audience. Nowadays, vocative texts are more often addressed to a readership than a reader. There are two important features typical for all vocative texts. The first characteristic feature in all vocative texts is the relationship between the writer and the readership, which is realized in various types of socially or individually determined grammatical relations or forms of address. The second feature is that these texts must be written in a language that is immediately comprehensible to the receiver. However, strictly speaking,

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vocative or informative texts do not contain the expressive function—it exists in these texts only unconsciously or implicitly. Most informative texts will either have a vocative thread running through them or vocative function concerns only certain parts of these texts related to recommendation, opinion, or value-judgment. Any text can be entirely informative; i.e. a certain part of it must imply subjectivity. Expressive texts usually carry a message, while the degree of its vocative component varies and is a matter of argument depending partly on its proportion of universal and cultural components. So, the epithets-expressive, informative, and vocative are used to show the emphasis of text. If we look at the literary and media discourses, there are also obvious differences in the function of the literary texts that deliver storytelling or narrative, and in the function of the media texts that deliver messages. Some of the grammatical elements discussed in units 1 and 2 from the perspectives of text and discourse construction are in fact strong temporal markers of a dynamic sequence of events that can be described as retelling past experiences in which language recreates past events as a narrative or storytelling. Narratives are traditionally considered as recounting real or fictional events. Oral narratives from daily life are good examples of recounting real events that happened recently. Labov (1977) analysed the oral narratives of pre-teenagers, adolescents, and adults of the New York black community and identified them as a temporal sequence of events. He indicates the following elements in the structure of these narratives: x

Abstract: a brief summary of the whole story

x

Orientation: the time, the place, the situation

x

Complicating action: the content or events of the narrative

x

Evaluation: an indication of the point of the narrative

x

Result or resolution: the termination of the series of events

x

Coda: a summing up that signals the end of the narrative

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Newspapers and stories are both written narratives. In the case of fictional storytelling, the sequence of events is not related to past experience. On the other hand, despite the clear difference between newspaper narrative and narrative fiction, they have common patterns due to the fact that both are referred to as stories. Newspaper texts, as the typical informative texts, are concerned with any topic of knowledge and are designed to deliver information, whereas literary texts, as they often express value judgments, tend to lean towards expressiveness. At the same time, we have to take into consideration that newspaper texts are read entirely for their informative content, as newspapers contain more than just the news of the day. The news is presented in the newspaper text in particular way, i.e. in the pattern of storytelling, in contrast to other informative texts such as certain subgenres of advertising texts and various instructions for use that usually contain the specific technical details of a product and recommendations by a manufacturer (see examples 3 and 4). Thus, in newspapers as well as fiction, we have an account of real or fictional events creating a narrative. Given the abovementioned factors, newspaper discourse represents a special interest among the genres of media discourse, which is considered one of the richest functional styles. The term “newspaper” implies that the related text is expected to reflect the events of the recent past as well as comment on and analyse them. Newspapers therefore contain news about certain events, but presentations of this news may vary. For example, the British newspapers are divided into the broadsheets such as The Guardian and The Financial Times, the middle-range tabloids like The Daily Mail, and the tabloids like The Sun and The Mirror (Tunstall 1996). The main difference between the broadsheets and the tabloids concerns the structure of their texts as well as the proportion of news stories and advertising: broadsheets contain more news reporting, whereas tabloids contain more advertising. But the recent trends show that all kinds of newspapers tend to include more advertising due to the obvious market reasons. Competition is seen to operate to ensure a high-quality product. If the

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newspaper is of a poor quality then people will not buy it. Therefore, newspapers contain not only news but also comment, advertising, and entertainment. Advertising is a vital source of revenue for all newspapers. Newspapers that attract a lot of advertising can sell their product at a lower price and afford a whole range of devices to make their product attractive to the potential audience. In fact, these differences condition the relevant subgenres in newspapers: news, comment and analysis, advertising, and entertainment. In addition, news, analytical articles, comments, and entertainments vary pragmatically and stylistically. For example, news is traditionally neutral and contains the main message to be delivered to the audience without considerable emphasis. In contrast, the authors of the analytical articles have more freedom in terms of the distribution of information, which enables them to be flexible in the use of various linguistic devices for emphasis. On the other hand, the reader of newspapers is not entirely the receiver of new information on recent events. They are the receiver of selected information on recent events, and this information is usually presented with clear ideological marking that makes it very difficult for the reader to make an independent judgment on what their actual viewpoint of these events is. Another important issue in presenting news is that newspapers present facts in a way that is designed to arouse the reader’s interest and curiosity. It is also possible to present facts in a way that will influence the reader’s view of them. Despite the fact that with the development of online newspapers this rule is changing, the newspaper texts of both types have similar characteristics: some news is presented in the form of information and some is presented in the form of storytelling or a narrative (see examples 5 and 6). In fact, these differences condition the relevant genres in newspapers: news, comment and analysis, advertising, and entertainment. In addition, news, analytical articles, comment, and entertainment vary pragmatically and stylistically. For example, news is traditionally neutral and contains a

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main message to be delivered to the audience without considerable emphasis. On the contrary, the authors of the analytical articles have more freedom in terms of the distribution of information, which enables them to be flexible in the use of various linguistic devices for emphasis. On the other hand, the reader of newspapers is not entirely the receiver of new information on recent events. They are the receiver of selected information on recent events, and this information may usually be presented with clear ideological marking that makes it very difficult for the reader to make an independent judgment on what their actual viewpoint of these events is. Another important issue in presenting the news is that newspapers present facts in a way designed to arouse the reader’s interest and curiosity. It is also possible to present facts in a way that will influence the reader’s view of them. Meanwhile, the situation is changing rapidly with the development of new information technologies. Now, the traditional function of newspapers of recounting recent real events is challenged by various media sites as they make this process very close to real time, resulting in the convergence of online newspapers with media sites. As a result, we see how various genres and subgenres of the traditional and new media discourses combine. We can continue such a juxtaposition of different discourse types, genres, and subgenres. But, in any case, the ultimate goal is the realization of the intention of the discourse participants, which results in the success of discourse as a unique and very complex social interaction. Thus, the sociolinguistic approach has become the mainstream trend in discourse studies prioritizing the collective mind over the individual (Teubert 2010), and social situations over communicative situations (van Dijk 2009).

3.2. Sociocognitive approach Further studies emphasize a more pluralistic and sociolinguistic approach to discourse, as reflected in the remarks made by Teubert (2010, 2):

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The only reality that counts is the reality we find constructed in the discourse, in this entirety of texts that have been exchanged and shared between people who make up society. We never cease contributing to this limitless, all-encompassing blog uniting humankind that I call discourse.

The intriguing issue here is that people with different social backgrounds, such as gender, age, race, and social status, along with different levels of individual knowledge use texts in context in order to construct discourse. In his book Discourse and Society, van Dijk further specifies context as “what is defined to be relevant in the social situation by the participants themselves” (2009, 5). In general terms, a sociocognitive approach is based on the notion of “context model schema,” which van Dijk (2008, 76) defines as: x

Settings: Time/Period, Space/Place/Environment

x

Participants (self, others)

x

Communicative roles (participation structure)

x

Social roles types, membership or identities

x

Relations between participants (e.g. power, friendship)

x

Shared and social knowledge and beliefs

x

Intentions and goals

x

Communicative and other Actions/Events

Thus, for the last decade the issue of whether discourse is more a social or individual practice has become central in discourse studies. The recent researches (van Dijk 2008; 2009; 2014; Wodak 2009; Teubert 2010) in this field clearly show this dilemma. In contrast to the sociolinguistic views supporting the idea on the direct link between social structures and discourse structures, van Dijk argues that the communicative situation based on the subjectivity of participants dominates this link, which is in fact indirect. Van Dijk attaches great importance to the issue of subjectivity in discourse, prioritizing an individual practice vis-à-vis a social practice (2009). In other words, discourse carries on a system of

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values of person and constructs cognitive changes. According to the sociocognitive approach, although both social and individual factors are crucial in discourse, the individual factors obviously prevail due to linguistic and rhetoric choices that participants can make regardless of age, gender, race, and social status. Thus, the subjectivity of the discourse participants and the communicative situation based on this as well as social structures are linked to knowledge that constructs discourse. The definition of discourse given by Wodak is quite symptomatic from this perspective (Wodak 2009, 39): “Furthermore, I distinguish between discourse and text: discourse implies patterns and commonalities of knowledge and structures, whereas a text is a specific and unique realization of a discourse.” It is widely accepted that discourse is an ideal place for the generation of knowledge (Foucault 1969). In his book Discourse and Knowledge: A Sociocognitive Approach, van Dijk argues that “most of human knowledge is acquired and shaped by discourse” (2014, 5). In fact, discourse participants add new knowledge to their background knowledge in the process of discourse production. So, knowledge in discourse is related to the internal context of the discourse participants, which conditions the subjectivity of discourse. Meanwhile, despite the main focus on the individual and subjectivity in the sociocognitive approach to discourse (which is actually the combination of two concepts: the social and the cognitive), it does not fully ignore the mainstream trend in discourse studies, i.e. the sociolinguistic approach the van Dijk attaches special importance to on this issue, focusing on the triangle of discourse, cognition, and society: “Whereas all approaches in CDS study the relations between discourse and society, a sociocognitive approach claims that such relations are cognitively mediated” (2016, 64). Thus, the sociocognitive approach to discourse studies relies not only on certain linguistic phenomena and the pragmatic intention of the sender, but also on the cognitive ability of the receiver (e.g. background or shared knowledge, intercultural competence) as well as social situations. For

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example, it is obvious that metaphorical expressions do not explicitly support communication as well as certain grammatical and lexical devices, but the oppositions they construct give impetus to the receiver for relevant associations and eventually strong cognitive operations. This is the case in the political discourse specifically (see example 7). In this political discourse, the sender (David Cameron, the former UK Prime Minister) uses the elements from figurative language: “Britain is stronger, safer and better off,” which implies a sort of opposition with Britain which “is weaker, unsafe and worse.” All these expressions from the conservative agenda manifest the patterns and communalities of knowledge. The politician uses the rhetorical devices to convey his pragmatic intention to the receiver, while on the other hand these elements from figurative language represent very important cognitive tools for the receiver of the text in this political discourse. The elements of literal language can also fulfil the same function in order to encourage discourse participants in cognitive operations (see example 8). Ernest Hemingway used simplistic and at the same time cognitively effective linguistic elements in his novel The Old Man and the Sea. The author constructed this text focusing on the explicit repetitions of the personal pronoun he-he-he-he-he-he-he-he-he. The factor of person gives additional value to the time-and-space continuum in this discourse supported by the adverbs then, there, the conjunction and, and the temporally and spatially marked words and expressions for a moment, for some time, finally, behind, at the top, and far side. As the very important cognitive techniques to determine the effectiveness of any type of discourse, the elements from both figurative and literal language offer rich information on the syntactic, stylistic, and semantic preferences of a sender and how they change depending on the pragmatic and cognitive perspectives of all discourse participants (we will discuss this issue in detail in the next unit) Thus, a number of social factors shape the perception and understanding of the sociological, political, cultural, and economic contexts. This is very

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important during the production of a complex event defined by social and communicative situations called discourse. In addition, subjective individual factors can also influence various discourse practices.

Image and Text Materials (1) She was flaming with passion. Now that at last she need not wear the mask of indifference and pride that she had forced herself to assume she cast aside all reserve and all self-control. The words poured from her trembling lips in a virulent stream. (Somerset W. Maugham, Collected Short Stories volume 2, 2002, 532) (2) When the launch came in to Port Wallace one of the harbor police told him that the harbor master had a chit for him. It was from the Governor’s secretary and informed him that His Excellency desired to see him as soon as convenient after his arrival. It was ten in the morning. Alban went to the club, had a bath and shaved, and then in clean ducks, his hair neatly brushed, he called a rickshaw and told the boy to take him to the Governor’s office. He was at once shown in to the secretary’s room. The secretary shook hands with him. (Somerset W. Maugham, Collected Short Stories volume 2, 2002, 532) (3) All-New Kindle fire HDX ULTRA LIGHT Astonishingly light at 374 grams Fast 2.2 GHz quad-core processor Lightweight magnesium unibody design Exclusive 339 ppi, 8.9”HDX display 8MP rear-facing camera plus front-facing 720p HD camera. (The Guardian, November 25, 2013, 38)

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(4) NUROFEN Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules Contains Ibuprofen Information for the user Read all of this leaflet carefully because it contains important information for you. This medicine is available without prescription. However, you still need to use Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules carefully to get the best results from them. Keep this leaflet. You may want to read it again. If you have any further questions after you have read it, ask your doctor or pharmacist. You must contact a doctor if your symptoms worsen or do not improve after 3 days for children and adolescents between 2 and 18 years and after 10 days for adults. If any side effects get serious, or if you notice any side effect not listed in this leaflet, please tell your doctor or pharmacist. In this leaflet: (1) What Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules are and what they are used for (2) Before you take Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules (3) How to take Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules (4) Possible side effects (5) How to store Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules (6) Further Information

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(1) What Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules are and what they are used for The active ingredient (which makes the medicine work) is ibuprofen. It belongs to a group of medicines known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs provide relief by changing the body`s response to pain, swelling, and high temperature. Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules is used for the relief of: -Headaches and migraine pain -Dental pain and neuralgia -Period pain -Rheumatic, muscular and back pain -Feverishness and symptoms of cold and flu (2) Before taking Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules Do not take Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules if you: -are allergic to ibuprofen or any of the other ingredients (see section 6) or to aspirin or other painkillers -have (or have had two or more episodes of) a stomach ulcer, perforation or bleeding -have had a worsening of asthma, skin rash, itchy runny nose or facial swelling when previously taking ibuprofen, aspirin or similar medicines -have had gastrointestinal bleeding or perforation when previously taking NSAIDs (Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) -are taking other NSAIDs painkillers or more that 75 mg aspirin a day -have severe liver or kidney problems -have heart problems, high blood pressure or blood coagulation disorder -have breathing difficulties -are in the last 3 month of pregnancy -are under 12 years old

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Check with your pharmacist or your doctor before taking this product if you: -have or have had asthma -have kidney, heart, liver or bowel problems -have high cholesterol or previously have had a heart attack or stroke -have a history of gastrointestinal disease (such as ulcerative colitis, Crohn`s disease) -have Systemic Lupus Erythematotus (a condition of the immune system causing joint pain skin changes and other organ disorders) -are a smoker -are in the first 6 months of pregnancy -have hereditary problems of fructose intolerance or are in a controlled potassium diet (see “important information about some of the ingredients of Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules”). Taking other medicines To reduce the risk of side effects, do not take this product with other NSAID containing products (e.g. aspirin, ibuprofen …) Some medicines may effect or be affected by treatment with ibuprofen Avoid taking this product with corticosteroid tablets, quinolone antibiotics or drugs that are prescribed: -to thin your blood or prevent clotting (e.g. warfarin) -to stimulate your heart (e.g. glycosides) or treat high blood pressure -to help you pass water (diuretics) -for the temporary suppression of your immune system (e.g. methotrexate, ciclosporine, tacrolimus) - for mania or depression (e.g. Lithium or SSRIs) -for pregnancy termination (e.g. mifepristone) -for HIV treatment (e.g. zidovudine) Speak to your pharmacist or doctor before taking Ibuprofen with other medicines

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Other warnings -Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules belongs to a group of medicines which may impair fertility in women. This is reversible on stopping the medicine. It is unlikely that Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules used occasionally will affect your chances of becoming pregnant. However, tell your doctor before taking this medicine if you have problems becoming pregnant. -Medicines such as Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules may be associated with a small increased risk of heart attack or stroke. Any risk is more likely with high doses or prolonged treatment. Do not exceed the recommended dose. -If you have heart problems, previously had a stroke or you might be at risk of these conditions (for example if you have high blood pressure, diabetes, or high cholesterol or are a smoker) you should discuss your treatment with your doctor or pharmacist -There is a risk of renal impairment in dehydrated children and adolescents Pregnancy and breast feeding Do not take in the last 3 months of pregnancy or if you are breastfeeding. Speak to your doctor if you are in the first 6 months of pregnancy. Important information about some of the ingredients of Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules This medicine contains -50.5 mg of sorbitol per dose, a source of 12.6 mg of fructose per dose -14 mg of potassium per dose (3) How to take Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules This product is for short term use only. You should take the lowest dose for the shortest time necessary to relieve your symptoms.

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Adults, the elderly and children & adolescents between 12 and 18 years: Take 1 or 2 capsules with water, up to three times a day as required. Leave at least four hours between doses. Do not take more than 6 capsules in 24 hours. Do not give to children under 12 years. In children and adolescents between 12 and 18 years: If in children and adolescents Nurofen Express is required for more than 3 days, or if symptoms worsen a doctor should be consulted. In adults: Do not take for longer than 10 days unless your doctor tells you to. If symptoms persist or the pain or fever worsen, or if any new symptoms occur, consult your doctor or pharmacist. If you take more Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules than you should, you may feel drowsy or nauseous. You should seek immediate medical advice in the event of an overdose, even if you feel well. If you forgot to take Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules. Simply refer to the directions above on how to take the medicine and do not take more than advised. (4) Possible side effects Like all medicines, Nurofen Joint & Back Pain Relief 200 mg Soft Capsules can cause side effects, although not everybody gets them. If you suffer from any of the following, at any time, during your treatment STOP TAKING the medicine and seek immediate medical help: pass blood in your faeces (stools/motions) pass black tarry stools vomit any blood or dark particles that look like coffee grounds

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difficulty in breathing, unexplained wheezing, worsening of existing asthma other allergic type reactions (e.g. swelling of the face or throat, low blood pressure, fast heart rate) STOP TAKING the medicine and tell your doctor if you experience any of the following side effects, or anything unusual happens: indigestion or heartburn abdominal pain (pains in your stomach) or other abnormal stomach symptoms a skin rash (which may be severe), itchy skin or blisters Medicines such as Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules may be associated with a small increased risk of heart attack (“myocardial infraction”) Please tell your doctor or pharmacist if you experience any of the following side effects, they become worse or if you notice any other effects not listed: oedema (fluid retention), high blood pressure (hypertension) and heart failure heart failure headache nausea, diarrhoea, constipation, vomiting and flatulence (wind) skin peeling kidney and liver disorders blood disorders. The first signs can be fever, sore throat, mouth ulcers, flu-like symptoms, severe exhaustion, unexplained bleeding, and bruising. meningitis symptoms such as fever and chills, severe headache, nausea, vomiting and stiff neck (in patients with existing auto-immune disorders such as systemic lupus enythematosus).. worsening of colitis of Crohn`s disease (inflammation of the bowel).

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If any of the side effects gets serious, or if you notice any other effects not listed in this leaflet please: tell your doctor or pharmacist Reporting of side effects If you get any side effects, talk to your doctor or pharmacist or nurse. This includes any possible side effects not listed in this leaflet. You can also report side effects directly to the Yellow Card Scheme at: www.mhra.gov.uk/yellow.card. By reporting side effects, you can help provide more information on the safety of this medicine. (5) How to store Nurofen Express 200 mg Liquid Capsules Keep all medicines out of sight and reach of children Do not use after the expiry date stated on the carton after EXP. The expiry date refers to the last day of that month. Do not store above 25 degrees C. Store in the original pack. (6) Further information Each capsule contains the active4 ingredient Ibuprofen 200 mg. They also contain: Macrogol 600, Potassium hydroxide 50%, solution (E525), Gelatin, Sorbitol liquid, Partially Dehydrated (E 420), Purified Water, Ponceau 4R (E 124), Lecithin (E 322) or Phosphatidylcholine in Medium Chain Tryglicerides, Tryglicerides (medium chain), Ethanol, White ink, (Titanium Dioxide (E 171), Polyvinyl Acetate Phthalate, Macrogol 400, Ammonium hydroxide (E 527), Propylene Glycol). Manufacturer: Reckitt Benckiser Healthcare International Ltd, NG90 2 DB, UK License holder: Reckitt Benckiser Healthcare (UK) Ltd., Slough, SL 1 4AQ Product License number: Pl 00063.0648 Date of revision: July 2014

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(5) Far left gives Le Pen an unexpected lift The far-right leader Marine Le Pen faces an uphill battle in France’s presidential runoff, less than two weeks away. But she has seen daylight through a small window, and from an unlikely source: her defeated counterpart on the far left. Alone among all of Frances’s major political personalities, Jean-Luc Melenchon, the leader of his own “France Unsubjugated” movement, who finished a strong fourth in Sunday’s voting, has refused to endorse Ms. Le Pen’s opponent, the former economy minister Emmanuel Macron. (The New York Times, April 7, 2017, 5) (6) Webcams invade the class In the halls of Yuzhou No.1 High School in central China, students refer to them simply as “the camera.” When the first bell sounds before 7 a.m., their fish-eye lenses spring to life, broadcasting live as students sit at their desks and measure geometric angles, pass notes or dose during breaks. Before long, thousands of people—not just parents and teachers—are watching online, offering armchair commentary. (The New York Times, April 7, 2017, 1) (7) I fought this campaign in the only way I know how, which is to say directly and passionately what I think and feel—head, heart and soul. I held nothing back, I was absolutely clear about my belief that Britain is stronger, safer and better off inside the European Union and I made clear the referendum was about this and this alone—not the future of any single politician including myself. But the British people have made a clear decision to take a different path and as such I think the country requires fresh leadership to take it in this direction. (David Cameron, the UK Prime Minster, resignation speech, June 24, 2016)

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(8) He unstepped the mast and furled the sail and tied it. Then he shouldered the mast and started to climb. It was then he knew the depth of his tiredness. He stopped for a moment and looked back and saw in the reflection from the street light the great tail of the fish standing up well behind the skiff`s stern. He saw the white naked line of his backbone and the dark mass of the head with the projecting bill and all the nakedness between. He started to climb again and at the top he fell and lay for some time with the mast across his shoulder. He tried to get up. But it was too difficult and he sat there with the mast on his shoulder and looked at the road. A cat passed on the far side going about its business and the old man watched it. Then he just watched the road. Finally he put the mast down and stood up. He picked the mast up and put it on his shoulder and started up the road. He had to sit down five times before he reached his shack. (Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea, 1952, 105)

Summary A number of functional and critical studies have shown the dynamics of text in the close interaction of language users. In so doing, these studies have demonstrated how dialectical relationships are maintained and how they translate into the sociocultural structures and social practice often called discourse. The contemporary discourse theories address all these issues from the perspectives of either society or individual. The most recent studies in this field add extensive attention to the sociocognitive approach to discourse studies focusing attention on the relationship between text, talk, context, and discourse. In general terms, text functions in a complex hybrid of social and communicative situations that define the nature of any (interpersonal or institutional) discourse. Keeping this in mind is essential to the understanding of the multichannelled processing of human speech in a complex communication environment.

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Study Progress Questions (1) Give relevant examples from the different types, genres, and subgenres of discourse (literary, media, political, legal) and try to analyse them in a comparative way. (2) Explain the difference between sociolinguistic and sociocognitive approaches to discourse studies. (3) What is the role of subjectivity in the sociocognitive approach to discourse studies?

UNIT IV DISCOURSE AND REPRESENTATIONS

Learning Goals and Outcome This unit aims to investigate the linguistic and rhetoric representations of concepts in discourses across languages and types. These representations are considered from the perspective of shaping those concepts that reflect cultural identity of the discourse or certain global concepts. In addition, the specific features of types and genres of discourse also influence the process of conceptualization. For example, fictional discourse can ideally reflect this process due to the richness of culturally embedded structures in this type and its relevant genres. We have chosen those linguistic devices that represent such universal concepts as time, space, person, life, gender, ideology, and power. These concepts are among those that play a crucial role in the cognitive structure of discourse. The qualitative analysis carried out in this unit will help students to understand and learn to use the traditional linguistic methods (contextual analysis), as well as some of the newly developed linguistic methods such as the method for identification metaphorically used words and expressions in discourse (Steen et al. 2010). The corpora were selected in order to include different languages and cultures to reflect their peculiarities and at the same time to demonstrate some universal features.

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Content and Themes 4.1. Linguistic representations of concepts Linguistic conceptualization has presented continuing interest in cognitive linguistics and discourse studies (Langacker 2002; Lenz 2003; Hart 2011; Chilton 2013). A special emphasis has been placed on the fact that there is a strong correlation between concepts and their defining parameters. Obviously, cognitive linguists have traditionally prioritized person and other cognitive categories such as time and space. For example, proximity and distance are objective parameters in terms of space, while it is a person who defines these parameters in social life (Chilton 2003). Langacker (2002) draws attention to this factor while investigating the relationship between deictic expressions (demonstrative and personal pronouns, adverbs of time and space, etc.) that refer to the space parameters (proximity and distance) and subjectivity. Cap (2014) discusses three types of proximization (spatial, temporal, and axiological) to position participants in the complex environment of political and other institutional discourses. On the other hand, subjectivity is based on person and on defining space and time parameters in accordance with their will. From this perspective, the book Deictic Conceptualization of Space, Time and Person (Lenz 2003) is symptomatic as it focuses on the potential of adverbs of time and space as well as of personal and possessive pronouns to conceptualize space, time, and person. On the other hand, Hart (2011) discusses conceptualization from the perspective of the role deictics play along with metonyms and other linguistic devices. Chilton (2013) also focuses attention on various aspects of the linguistic conceptualization of time. Meanwhile, Evans (2010) suggests a distinction between conceptual representations and linguistic structures, and examining their relation. In general terms, these studies have brought to our understanding that discourse helps to reveal a number of linguistic conceptualizations. It is interesting that most of these linguistic devices used in conceptualization are also well-known as the traditional cohesive elements

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in text and discourse discussed in the previous units. There are two polarized positions on the relationship between cohesive elements on the one hand and concepts and conceptual metaphors on the other. One extreme, strongly associated with contemporary metaphor theory, maintains that among linguistic devices only metaphorically used words represent conceptual or cognitive metaphors (Lakoff 2006). This is because metaphorically used words are considered as the reflections of conceptual metaphors, which can also be represented by gestures, cultural traditions, and colour, for example. In contrast is a functional approach that merges the notions of grammar and coherence in discourse (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Enkvist 1989; Roulet et al. 2001; Halliday and Matthiessen 2004; 2014). In general terms, this approach suggests that cohesive elements are, first of all, rule based as they construct grammatical and lexical cohesion in discourse. By doing so, they build coherence and, in the ultimate issue, harmony among concepts. We will consider the crucial role of linguistic devices in conceptualization, and the best platform for that is discourse. For example, it is obvious that time and space are among the critically important universal concepts that strongly influence human life, and various linguistic representations of these concepts are very common in different types and genres of discourse. Despite the fact that these two key concepts matter in any type of discourse, various genres and subgenres of media discourse are the best platforms to reveal the potential of certain lexical and grammatical devices to represent time and space. The following newspaper discourse illustrates this (see example 1). A large number of different linguistic devices (temporal: for years, future, and now, and spatial: Britain, Continent, London, here, and European Union) are used by the author of this newspaper text to build cohesion and coherence. At the same time, these devices function to conceptualize time and space in this discourse. During discourse production, a person feels the necessity to localize time and space, constructing an egocentric structure of context models that relies on deictic expressions such as I, we, now (van Dijk 2008, 77). The

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following academic discourse illustrates this (see example 2). This academic text is an abstract of the lecture “Our Simple but Strange Universe” delivered by Professor David Spergel at Oxford University, November 10, 2016. Our universe, we, now, and I operate in this discourse defined by the relevant context model—the analysis of the universe where we live. In addition, the combination of we and I constructs a specific opposition highlighting the importance of the individualization I at the end of this text. The model we have now determined is used in discourse to bring an element of additional personal and temporal representations. These and other explicit linguistic representations of time, space, and person build a relationship between the sender (Professor David Spergel) and the receivers (students and lecturers) and also establish the nature of that audience. On the other hand, time and space are critical for a person because these three concepts are mirrored in life (see example 3). This political speech by the former US President Barack Obama clearly demonstrates how time and space represented by the explicit start, last rally, began nearly 2 years ago, every corner of this country, here, Northern Virginia, Maine, Texas, Montano, and implicit this grammatical and lexical devices play a crucial role in the physical positioning of the person represented by we. The fictional text that describes the certain period of the life of the hero (Kino) in John Steinbeck’s novel The Pearl ideally reflects how the lexical and grammatical devices can represent time, space, and person, which can be characterized as the time-space-person continuum. Take a look at the following piece of text from this story (see example 4). As we can see, the author prefers to use the time adverbs now and in the morning, the spatially marked expressions the little road ahead of them and a good distance from the town, the personal pronouns they and them, and the names Kino and Juana to build cohesion and coherence in this very dynamic fictional discourse, which was constructed based on the time-

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space-person continuum. Therefore, they are key elements representing the concepts of time, space, person, and life. There are various linguistic devices that conceptualize the person and, at the same time, position them in terms of space and time in the Azerbaijani language (see example 5). The direct repetition of the proper noun Sonadan, Sona is accompanied by the ellipsis Sanki bilirdi ki, As it seemed (she knew) in this literary Azerbaijani text. The trends of direct repetition and ellipsis in this continuum of representation of person in Azerbaijani texts can be accounted for by certain reasons, including the existence of a strong system of cases and the lack of any formal linguistic representations of gender (except such lexical items as woman and man) in this language. The strong case also helps to position a concrete person (Sona) in terms of space and time. Now we will focus on another crucial concept in the social life, that is gender, which is, first of all, associated with the person. Various linguistic devices are used to conceptualize person and gender in the following political text on Women’s Health Week in the United States (see example 6). This Statement from the White House contains several direct repetitions of words—women-women-women-women-women-women-women, mothersmothers, fathers—which are critical in terms of cohesion and coherence and, at the same time, are very powerful tools for conceptualizing both person and gender. Articles and demonstrative pronouns used in some languages (French, Spanish, etc.) are among those linguistic devices to conceptualize gender, which also function to build cohesion and coherence in text (Weinrich 1971). The following media text illuminates this (see example 7). The anaphoric reference of the definite article la ministre to the previous part Fleur Pellerin helps to construct this very dynamic newspaper text. At the same time, the usage of the article la (the usage of the demonstrative pronoun cette is also possible) can be considered as the desire of the sender to conceptualize gender. There are some other interesting cohesive devices to conceptualize gender (see example 8). The

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author of this fictional text (Agatha Christie) has several purposes for borrowing the French les femmes to conceptualize gender. First, the French phrase les femmes draws attention to the cultural identity of the hero (Henry Poirot is a French-speaking Belgian in the novel) in this fictional discourse. Further usage of women, constructing certain opposition between French and English versions, is another strategy to make this text cohesive and coherent, and at the same time to focus on gender. In addition, the French la femme has a specific cultural value (gradually, this value has become global). For example, the expression chercher la femme has become popular in other languages and different genres. So, the conceptualizations of gender via the lexical cohesion les femmes and women have strong cognitive effects in this discourse. In this regard, we have to take into consideration the fact that certain languages (e.g. Russian, French, Spanish, German) have formal grammatical (pronouns and articles) references to person and gender that actually do not conceptualize person and gender (see example 9). The syntactic construction ɂ ɜɨɬ ɨɧɚ—ɜɨɥɹ! And here is she—freedom! is critical in this fictional Russian text from the perspective of its markedness (due to the specific word order), which subsequently results in the strong cataphoric function as well as its formal reference to person and gender, ɨɧɚ. Meanwhile, the next part of the text includes the linguistic devices (the male name ȿɝɨɪ, the direct repetitions of the demonstrative pronoun ɨɧ) used to conceptualize person and gender in this discourse. The difference between ɨɧɚ and ɨɧ is obvious as the first refers to language and the second to the outside world. Consequently, the demonstrative pronoun ɨɧ conceptualizes person and gender and builds cohesion and coherence in this discourse, whereas the demonstrative pronoun ɨɧɚ can only build formal references. It is interesting to note that the linguistic representations are sometimes used, not to conceptualize person and gender, but rather to evoke a poetic effect and build cohesion in text. This is the case, first of all, in fictional discourse. For example, Ernest Hemingway creatively used the personal

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pronoun her and the Spanish articles to refer to the sea in the following fictional discourse (see example 10). The personal pronoun she, the Spanish feminine article La, and the masculine article El are repeatedly used by the author in order to demonstrate the hero’s attitude to the sea, building associations between the sea and female. That is why these lexical and grammatical devices do not actually conceptualize person and gender, but rather function for poetic effect and also for cohesion and coherence. When we discuss the role of time, space, person, and gender, we can’t forget ideology. The concept of ideology has been widely discussed in critical discourse studies, which suggest that “ideologies are produced by discourses” (van Dijk 1998, 33). On the other hand, this concept has a strong correlation with another concept: war. The scope and frequency of usages of their linguistic representations in different discourse types and genres are so wide that they gradually construct various conceptual metaphors, such as “ideological difference is war.” Ideology and war are two key concepts in Ernest Hemingway’s novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, which describes the Spanish Civil War. Ideological difference is one of the main reasons why civil wars take place, and therefore these two concepts construct the conceptual metaphor “ideology is war.” On the other hand, the construction of texts and discourses is the result of the author’s linguistic choice being predetermined by the linguistic and social contexts. Hemingway creatively and extensively used various repetitions, not only to build cohesion and coherence but also to represent the conceptual metaphor “ideological difference is war.” Let’s look at the following dialogical text from the same novel (see example 11). The explicit syntactic and lexical repetitions my father was a republican-my father was also a republican, they shot-they shoot-they don’t shoot, republicans-republican, all his life-all his life, and The United States-The United States build cohesion and coherence in this fictional discourse. At the same time, they are the key elements that represent the conceptual

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metaphor “ideology is war.” Such an explicit and in some ways simplistic introduction of the conflict of ideologies can be justified because of the author’s strong desire to reveal the real face of this kind of war, where different social groups fight and kill each other only because of differences in terms of their political affiliations or ideological preferences. In this connection, the following text is quite symptomatic (see example 12). The explicit syntactic and lexical repetitions they shot-they shot-they shot and voted-voted-voted play a major role in the construction of this fictional discourse. All these representations help to perceive the two key concepts ideology and war. At the same time, the author focuses attention on the fact that this war takes place due to the sharp ideological differences, implying this via the words left, fascists, socialists, and syndicate of tramway drivers. Hemingway frequently employs the explicit lexical and syntactic repetitions to represent this conceptual metaphor. It should also be noted that the writer uses various repetitions to represent “ideological difference is war” in a certain country and within a certain historical context. Thus, “ideological difference is war” as the universal conceptual metaphor gains sociocultural value in the process of its representation in discourses across cultures and genres. Casasanto suggests that this process results in the construction of certain conceptual representations (Casasanto 2009, 129), which are considered in contrast to the linguistic representations. Steen and his colleagues focus on certain instances when cohesive elements refer to metaphor, suggesting that such a reference in discourse “would make the current proposition containing the cohesive element metaphorical” (Steen et al. 2010, 15). Meanwhile, they call these instances implicitly metaphorical, which can be easily recovered or made explicit in discourse. This method was developed by Steen et al., who focus on certain instances when cohesive elements refer to metaphor, suggesting that such a reference in discourse “would make the current proposition containing the cohesive element metaphorical” (2010, 15). Meanwhile, they call these instances implicitly metaphorical, which can be easily

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recovered or made explicit in discourse. The process of conceptualization via rhetorical devices such as metaphors, metonyms, and metaphorically used words draws a special interest that will be highlighted in the next section.

4.2. Metaphoric representations of concepts Metaphorical devices and other elements of the figurative language are key for representing global, local, or cultural concepts in discourse (Underhill 2012). Despite the fact that we use the terms “metaphorical devices,” we do not focus on indirect word use and analyse only those metaphorically used words and expressions (metaphors, metonyms, etc.) that operate at the level of the conceptual structure of discourse. The study of the role of metaphorical devices in conceptualization has recently become a mainstream trend in the cognitive-discourse paradigm (Musolff 2004; Kovecses 2005; Semino 2008; Hart 2011). The remarks made by Hart are quite interesting in this regard (Hart 2011, 75, 79): As with agentless passives, Cognitive linguistic analyses of metonymy suggest it carries some conceptual import … In other words, metaphorical expressions in discourse reflect and reinforce the way we think about given phenomena in the world.

Now we will analyse metaphors, metonyms, and other metaphorically used words that illustrate rhetoric conceptualizations and their rhetoric parameters in the best way. The method for the identification of metaphorically used words is ideal for our analysis of various types of natural discourse and will be instrumental to extracting the rhetorical devices from our data. It requires revealing links between metaphorical expressions and concepts and the conceptual metaphors they represent in discourse, and aims “to find expressions in language that are potentially metaphorical in cognition, which is meant to suggest that it is in principle possible to connect them to research on psychological processes and their

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products” (Steen et al. 2010, 9). We will use this method for the analysis of metaphors, metonyms, and other rhetorical devices in comparatively small pieces of texts. According to Semino (2008), small pieces of texts can be used to highlight differences and similarities between genres, as well as rhetorical and even ideological aspects in discourse. As time and space are among the critically important universal concepts that strongly influence the way of human life, metaphorical devices for its conceptualization are very common in different languages and types and genres of discourse. On the other hand, time is critical for humans because it is mirrored in life. Lakoff (1993) draws special attention to the conceptual metaphor “life is a journey” in his conceptual metaphor theory, suggesting that the best way to understand such abstract phenomena like “life” lies in such practical experiences as travelling. In fact, such famous conceptual metaphors as “life is a journey,” “love is a journey,” “marriage is a journey,” or “career is a journey” are the integral parts of the conceptual metaphor “journey” as movement in time and space. From this perspective, “journey” is perceived as the person’s or any other living/non-living object’s movement in time and space. Take a look at the following political media discourse (see example 13). Here we can read the remarks published in the BBC news made by Sir Tom, who was the organizer of a visit of former US President Barack Obama to Scotland. In order to justify his decision to invite the former US President, he uses various metaphors such as “from the south side of Chicago to the White House has been an epic, historic journey,” and “the man who made that journey” to represent the conceptual metaphor “career is a journey.” Such a perception of “time and life” through “journey” is common in different cultures, for example, “life road” (in English), “hԥyat yolu” (in Azerbaijani), “ɠɢɡɧɟɧɧɵɣ ɩɭɬɶ” (in Russian), and “la route de la vie” (in French). Let’s consider the following Azerbaijani fictional text (see example 14). The metonymic expressions GecΩ keçir [The night passes] and Ay do÷anda [When the moon rises] identified in this fictional discourse conceptualize time and build a specific time continuum. Or look

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at this Azerbaijani fictional text (see example 15). The metonymic expression Yollar apard [The roads took] is used by the author repeatedly to represent time and space reflecting a certain period of the life of “our poet,” who is the main character in this novel. The analysis of the metaphorical representations of concepts in the discourses across genres and languages can be considered as a very productive way to understand the correlation between universal or global concepts and local or cultural concepts. The process of metaphorical representations of global concepts sometimes even changes their identities by converting them into local concepts, or vice versa. In addition, a specific attitude to global concepts in a certain society or social groups constructs cultural metaphors, which are obviously more complex, as Kovecses suggests (2005). The specific feature of a particular discourse type, genre, or subgenre also influences this process. The concept “ideology” is quite symptomatic in this regard. The scope and frequency of usages of its rhetorical representations in different languages and genres are so wide that they become cultural metaphors, and theoretical discussions of their origin give way to new interpretations. Take a look at the following fictional text (see example 16). Despite the fact that a number of rhetorical devices are used to conceptualize “ideology” (Western politicians and editorials, the aging, square-jawed Kremlin brutes), the metaphor “Cold War” is key in this discourse. This metaphor has had a long history as the very explicit source for reference to ideology since its first appearance in American political discourse. Of course, this factor still dominates and encourages people to use it in political media discourse (see example 17). The journalist chooses to add the famous metaphor “the Cold War habit of mind” to show the political division in a more creative way. Meanwhile, the original reference of this metaphorical expression gradually becomes non-essential due to its perception as something divisive, which is in very close proximity to human life (see example 18). “Cold War” appears to be a very strong tool used to demonstrate usual functions such as no war, or no

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peace situation. Such a perception of the metaphor “Cold War” is also common in Russian literary discourse, as the Russian National Corpus suggests (see example 19). This and other instances of the usage of ɯɨɥɨɞɧɚɹ ɜɨɣɧɚ [Cold War] imagery in the Russian literary and other types of discourse give us additional arguments to state that “Cold War” has become deeply rooted in Russian discourse compared with other non-Western discourses (for example, Azerbaijani). This is due to Russia’s direct involvement in this war, regardless of the negative historical impacts from its results. Thus, Cold War imagery and language create common connotations and implications for Russia and the West. This fictional text by Darya Simonova clearly shows how “Cold War” can function successfully in different times, spaces, and cultures. Thus, universal concepts gain sociocultural value in the process of their representation in discourse and, as a result, relevant conceptual metaphors of the Cold War appear. On the other hand, some cultural concepts gradually gain universal nature in the globalized world or in the discourse of globalization (Oke 2009). Those metaphors, metonyms, and metaphorically used words that represent cultural concepts are accepted as realia in the discourse of certain cultures and become part of it. For example, ɞɨɜɟɪɹɣ ɧɨ ɩɪɨɜɟɪɹɣ is believed to be an old Russian proverb. Meanwhile, it is interesting that the late US President Ronald Reagan gave a second life to this expression using its calque trust but verify during his tough talks with Soviet leadership in the context of the Cold War era. Its usage by an American politician and further widespread popularity in the form of a calque (its calque in Azerbaijani is not so popular) in different genres of American discourse (as the analysis of the American national corpus suggests) seem to be reasonable. Trust but verify conceptualizes pragmatism, which is a valuable product of American discourse. All these factors give rise to new questions about its origin, and relevant theoretical discussions give way to new interpretations.

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We can apply the same approach to the analysis of another conceptual metaphor “time is money,” which occurs with high frequency in Englishspeaking discourse in contrast to its usages in the form of an explicit calque in Russian (ɜɪɟɦɹ ɞɟɧɶɝɢ) and a partially explicit calque in French (le temps, s-est de l’argent) and Azerbaijani (vaxt qzldr) discourses. It is interesting that due to historically proven associations between money and precious or semiprecious metal coins, the French use the word l’argent [silver] in order to refer to money, whereas qzl [gold] was historically used instead of money in Azerbaijani discourse. More and more frequent usages of rhetoric representations of pragmatism and other cultural concepts in the form of calques in Azerbaijani, Russian, and other nonWestern discourses give way to those arguments that explain this phenomenon from the perspective of the impacts of globalization.

Image and Text Materials (1) For years, Britain’s relatively vibrant economy has attracted a steady flow of young people fleeing a lack of opportunity in their home countries on the Continent. London, in particular, is full of young Europeans, including entrepreneurs, bankers, fashion designers, artists, waiters and students, all free to resettle in Britain and make their future here without so much as a visa. But now those immigrants, many of whom have helped give London its dynamic, global feel, face uncertainty as Britain debates whether it wants to remain a member of the European Union. (International New York Times, May 16, 2016, 1)

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(2)

(3) Let me start by noting, Virginia, that this is our last rally. This is the last rally of a campaign that began nearly two years ago. We’ve gone to every corner of this country, from here in Northern Virginia to the rocky coasts of Maine, to the open plains of Texas, to the open skies of Montana. (Barack Obama, Manassas, Virginia, November 3, 2008). (4) Now they could see the little road ahead of them, deep cut with sanddrifted wheel tracks. With the wind gone there would be footprints, but they were a good distance from the town and perhaps their tracks might not be noticed. Kino walked carefully in a wheel rut, and Juana followed

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in his path. One big cart, going to the town in the morning, could wipe out every trace of their passage. (John Steinbeck, The Pearl, 1988, 63–4) (5) Hԥrԥ öz mövqeyinԥ çԥkildi, tԥkcԥ Sonadan baúqa. Sona sanki bu gԥliúi gözlԥyirdi. Sanki bilirdi ki, Seyid buraya mԥhz onu görmԥyԥ gԥlmiúdir (Ԥzizԥ Cԥfԥrzadԥ, Alԥmdԥ sԥsim var mԥnim, 1972, 65). [Each one has left, only except Sona. As it seemed Sona was waiting for this visit. As it seemed (she knew) that Seyyid came here to see her]. (Aziza Jaffarzadeh, There is My Voice in the World, 1972, 65) (6) À 9000 km de Paris, Fleur Pellerin peut envisager une seconde carrière. La ministre déléguée aux PME et à l’Économie numérique a droit à un traitement de star depuis son arrivée dans sa ville natale, Séoul, trente-neuf ans après avoir été recueillie orpheline dans une rue de la capitale sud-coréenne. (Le Figaro.fr, 26.03.2013)

[Fleur Pellerin can consider a second career 9,000 km from Paris. The Minister responsible for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Innovation and the Digital Economy has been treated as a star since the arrival in her home city, Seoul, where she was taken thirty-nine years ago as an orphan in a street of the South Korean capital.] 7. “Les femmes,” generalized Poirot. “They are marvelous! They invent haphazard—and by miracle they are right. Not that it is that, really. Women observe subconsciously a thousand little details, without knowing that they are doing so. Their subconscious mind adds these little things together—and they call the result intuition” (Agatha Christie, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, 1926 , 120). (8) ɂ ɜɨɬ ɨɧɚ- ɜɨɥɹ! ɗɬɨ ɡɧɚɱɢɬ—ɡɚɯɥɨɩɧɭɥɚɫɶ ɡɚ ȿɝɨɪɨɦ ɞɜɟɪɶ, ɢ ɨɧ ɨɱɭɬɢɥɫɹ ɧɚ ɭɥɢɰɟ ɧɟɛɨɥɶɲɨɝɨ ɩɨɫɟɥɤɚ. Ɉɧ ɜɞɨɯɧɭɥ ɜɫɟɣ ɝɪɭɞɶɸ ɜɟɫɟɧɧɟɝɨ

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ɜɨɡɞɭɯɚ, ɡɚɠɦɭɪɢɥɫɹ ɢ ɩɨɤɪɭɬɢɥ ɝɨɥɨɜɨɣ. ɉɪɨɲɟɥ ɧɟɦɧɨɝɨ ɢ ɩɪɢɫɥɨɧɢɥɫɹ ɤ ɡɚɛɨɪɭ. (ȼɚɫɢɥɢɣ ɒɭɤɲɢɧ, Ʉɚɥɢɧɚ Ʉɪɚɫɧɚɹ 1974, 422) [And here is she—freedom! It means—the door has been shut down behind Egor, and he has appeared in the street of a small town. He has taken breath of the spring air with the whole chest, has closed his eyes tight and has turned his head. (He) has walked a little and has leaned over the fence.] (Vasily Shukshin, The Red Snowball Tree, 1974, 422) (9) The White House Washington May14, 2017 As we celebrate Women’s Health Week, beginning with Mother’s Day, we recognize the importance of providing women access to the best, evidence-based health information and care, and growing our medical knowledge through basic and applied research support. Today, women are living longer, healthier than their mothers. The number of women dying from heart disease and cancer—the top two killers of women in America—has been decreasing for decades. Thanks to new breast cancer treatments, our healthcare professionals have saved lives and improved the quality of life for millions of women. We must continue to foster an environment that rewards these needed advances in research. Ensuring affordable, accessible and quality health care is critical to improving women’s health and ensuring that it fits their priorities at any stage of life. In particular women should have access to quality prenatal, maternal, and new born care. Under the current healthcare system, however, the lack of choice in health insurance and in healthcare providers, along with skyrocketing, premium and out-of-pocket costs are failing our citizens, our families, and in particular, our women. Studies show that women are often the primary healthcare decision-maker for their family and they deserve better options.

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I am committed to working with Congress to help mothers—and fathers—have paid family leave so that childcare is accessible and affordable, and to invest in the comprehensive care that women receive at community health centres. Through their reforms, and my 2018 Presidential Budget, we will enable access to the critical healthcare services women need. (10) He always thought of the sea as la mar which is what people call her in Spanish when they love her. Sometimes those who love her say bad things of her but they are always said as though she were a woman. Some of the younger fishermen, those who used buoys as floats for their lines and had motor-boats, bought when the shark livers had brought much money, spoke of her as el mar which is masculine. They spoke of her as a contestant or a place or even an enemy. (Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea, 1952, 23) (11) “My father was a republican all his life,” Maria said. “It was for that they shot him.” “My father was also a republican all his life. Also my grandfather,” Robert Jordan said. “In what country?” “The United States.” “Did they shoot them?” the woman asked. “Qua va,” Maria said. “The United States is a country of republicans. They don’t shoot you for being a republican there.” (Ernest Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1940, 127) (12) They were of the left as many others in Valladolid. When the fascists purified the town they shot first the father. He had voted Socialist. Then they shot the mother. She had voted the same. It was the first time she had ever voted. After that they shot the husband of one of the sisters. He was a

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member of the syndicate of tramway drivers. (Ernest Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1940, 127) (13) Announcing Barack Obama’s visit in April Sir Tom said: “From the south side of Chicago to the White House has been an epic, historic journey and it will be a true honour to hear that story from the man who made that journey.” (BBC News, May 26, 2017) (14) Yaxú, mԥn yatdm. Gegԥ keçir. Sԥn dԥ uzan. Ay do÷anda gedԥrik. (øsmayl ùxl, Dԥli Kür, 1968, 29) [O key, I am going to sleep. The night passes. You go to bed too. We will go out when the moon rises.] (Ismail Shikhli, The Wild Kura, 1968, 29) (15) Yollar götürüb aparanda ayrlmúdq úairimizdԥn. øl keçdi, ay doland, onu yenԥ yollar qaytarb gԥtirdi. Vԥtԥn torpa÷nda bir-iki il dost-aúna, qohum-ԥqrԥba vԥ istԥkli balas ilԥ birlikdԥ nԥfԥs almamú, yollar onu yenidԥn alb apard … (Ԥzizԥ Cԥfԥrzadԥ, Alԥmdԥ sԥsim var mԥnim, 1972, 130) [When the roads took our poet, we were apart from him. The year passed, the moon turned around, he was taken back home by the roads. After just one-two years of being together with friends, relatives and the dear child at home, the roads again took him away.] (Aziza Jaffarzadeh, There is My Voice in the World, 1972, 130) (16) In those days, dwelling on the iniquities of the Soviet system was routine for Western politicians and editorials in most newspapers. In the context of student life and politics, it was just a little distasteful. If the CIA was against communism, there must be something to be said for it. Sections of the Labour Party still held a candle for the aging, square jawed Kremlin brutes and their grisly project, still sang the Internationale at the annual conference, still dispatched students on goodwill exchanges. In the

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Cold War years of binary thinking it would not do to find yourself agreeing about the Soviet Union with an American president waging war in Vietnam. (Ian McEwan, Sweet Tooth, 2012, 15) (17) Part of the problem is that the Cold War habit of mind, with its division of the world into two rival, ideologically cohesive camps, dies hard. (International Herald Tribune, August 26, 2011, 2) (18) A Cold War fought by women New evidence shows that female aggression helps explain peer pressure to meet standards of appearance and conduct. (International New York Times, November 20, 2013, 1). (19) ɉɪɢɟɡɠɚɥ Ɋɨɦɚ. ɋɥɚɜɚ Ȼɨɝɭ, ɛɟɡ ɫɭɩɪɭɝɢ. Ɋɚɡɵɝɪɚɥɢɫɶ ɫɰɟɧɵ ɛɨɣɤɨɬɚ ɢ ɯɨɥɨɞɧɨɣ ɜɨɣɧɵ. (Ⱦɚɪɶɹ ɋɢɦɨɧɨɜɚ, Ʌɟɝɤɢɟ ɤɪɵɥɵɲɤɢ, 2002, 66) [Came Roma. Thanks to God, without his spouse. There were scenes of boycott and cold war.] (Darya Simonova, The Light Wings, 2002, 66).

Summary Discourse ideally demonstrates how certain linguistic and metaphorical representations generate knowledge in text not only resulting in conceptualization but also revealing those linguistic and rhetoric parameters that define global and cultural concepts. For example, now and then (linguistic) and time is money (rhetoric) are such defining parameters of time. The reason why the issue of conceptualization has always drawn attention in humanities and the social sciences is that concepts and their defining parameters have a strong correlation with physical experience and are thus major factors that regulate individual and social life, as concepts last in both the mind and society. It is obvious that language and linguistic and metaphorical devices are key in such a process of regulation.

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A special emphasis should be placed on the fact that there is a strong correlation between linguistic and metaphorical devices of conceptualization and subjectivity in discourse. Comparing the metaphorical devices of conceptualization with its other linguistic devices, we can state that metaphorical devices are more complex, especially from the perspective of different discourse types and genres, and are mostly motivated by the subjective attitude of the discourse participants. Therefore, it appears that metaphorical representations of human cognition more often present an element of subjectivity within the discourse. This stands in contrast to other linguistic representations that present objectivity. As language and imagery create common connotations and implications in discourse, certain concepts gain sociocultural value in the process of their representations. And the social motivation of such representations helps to define certain relations between discourse participants. The sender uses the linguistic and metaphoric devices to convey their pragmatic intention to the receiver, while on the other hand these devices represent very important cognitive perspectives for the receiver, as they give instructions for cognitive operations to be performed by the receiver of the text. Thus, we have to make a clear difference between the pragmatic perspectives of the sender and the cognitive perspectives of the receiver.

Study Progress Questions (1) Analyse the pragmatic and cognitive effects of linguistic and metaphorical representations in the following political discourse: Obama Inaugural Address January 20, 2009 My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. I thank President Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition.

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Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents. So it has been. So it must be with this generation of Americans. That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. Our health care is too costly; our schools fail too many; and each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet. These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land—a nagging fear that America’s decline is inevitable, and that the next generation must lower its sights. Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many. They will not be met easily or in a short span of time. But know this, America—they will be met. On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord. On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn out dogmas, that for far too long have strangled our politics. We remain a young nation, but in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things. The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-

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given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness. In reaffirming the greatness of our nation, we understand that greatness is never a given. It must be earned. Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the fainthearted—for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things—some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labor, who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom. For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across oceans in search of a new life. For us, they toiled in sweatshops and settled the West; endured the lash of the whip and plowed the hard earth. For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn. Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we might live a better life. They saw America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater than all the differences of birth or wealth or faction. This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth. Our workers are no less productive than when this crisis began. Our minds are no less inventive, our goods and services no less needed than they were last week or last month or last year. Our capacity remains undiminished. But our time of standing pat, of protecting narrow interests and putting off unpleasant decisions—that time has surely passed. Starting today, we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of remaking America. For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of the economy calls for action, bold and swift, and we will act—not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our

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commerce and bind us together. We will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology’s wonders to raise health care’s quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do. Now, there are some who question the scale of our ambitions - who suggest that our system cannot tolerate too many big plans. Their memories are short. For they have forgotten what this country has already done; what free men and women can achieve when imagination is joined to common purpose, and necessity to courage. What the cynics fail to understand is that the ground has shifted beneath them - that the stale political arguments that have consumed us for so long no longer apply. The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works—whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. Where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. Where the answer is no, programs will end. And those of us who manage the public’s dollars will be held to account—to spend wisely, reform bad habits, and do our business in the light of day—because only then can we restore the vital trust between a people and their government. Nor is the question before us whether the market is a force for good or ill. Its power to generate wealth and expand freedom is unmatched, but this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control—and that a nation cannot prosper long when it favours only the prosperous. The success of our economy has always depended not just on the size of our Gross Domestic Product, but on the reach of our prosperity; on the ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart—not out of charity, but because it is the surest route to our common good. As for our common defense, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals. Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights

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of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience’s sake. And so to all other peoples and governments who are watching today, from the grandest capitals to the small village where my father was born: know that America is a friend of each nation and every man, woman, and child who seeks a future of peace and dignity, and we are ready to lead once more. Recall that earlier generations faced down fascism and communism not just with missiles and tanks, but with the sturdy alliances and enduring convictions. They understood that our power alone cannot protect us, nor does it entitle us to do as we please. Instead, they knew that our power grows through its prudent use; our security emanates from the justness of our cause, the force of our example, the tempering qualities of humility and restraint. We are the keepers of this legacy. Guided by these principles once more, we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort— even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We will begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people, and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan. With old friends and former foes, we’ll work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet. We will not apologize for our way of life, nor will we waver in its defense, and for those who seek to advance their aims by inducing terror and slaughtering innocents, we say to you now that our spirit is stronger and cannot be broken; you cannot outlast us, and we will defeat you. For we know that our patchwork heritage is a strength, not a weakness. We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus—and nonbelievers. We are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this Earth; and because we have tasted the bitter swill of civil war and segregation, and emerged from that dark chapter stronger and more united, we cannot help but believe that the old hatreds shall someday pass; that the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve; that as the world grows smaller, our common humanity shall reveal itself; and that America must play its role in ushering in a new era of peace.

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To the Muslim world, we seek a new way forward, based on mutual interest and mutual respect. To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society’s ills on the West—know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy. To those who cling to power through corruption and deceit and the silencing of dissent, know that you are on the wrong side of history; but that we will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench your fist. To the people of poor nations, we pledge to work alongside you to make your farms flourish and let clean waters flow; to nourish starved bodies and feed hungry minds. And to those nations like ours that enjoy relative plenty, we say we can no longer afford indifference to the suffering outside our borders; nor can we consume the world’s resources without regard to effect. For the world has changed, and we must change with it. As we consider the road that unfolds before us, we remember with humble gratitude those brave Americans who, at this very hour, patrol faroff deserts and distant mountains. They have something to tell us, just as the fallen heroes who lie in Arlington whisper through the ages. We honour them not only because they are guardians of our liberty, but because they embody the spirit of service; a willingness to find meaning in something greater than themselves. And yet, at this moment—a moment that will define a generation—it is precisely this spirit that must inhabit us all. For as much as government can do and must do, it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American people upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break, the selflessness of workers who would rather cut their hours than see a friend lose their job which sees us through our darkest hours. It is the firefighter’s courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but also a parent’s willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate. Our challenges may be new. The instruments with which we meet them may be new. But those values upon which our success depends—

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honesty and hard work, courage and fair play, tolerance and curiosity, loyalty and patriotism—these things are old. These things are true. They have been the quiet force of progress throughout our history. What is demanded then is a return to these truths. What is required of us now is a new era of responsibility—a recognition, on the part of every American, that we have duties to ourselves, our nation, and the world, duties that we do not grudgingly accept but rather seize gladly, firm in the knowledge that there is nothing so satisfying to the spirit, so defining of our character, than giving our all to a difficult task. This is the price and the promise of citizenship. This is the source of our confidence—the knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny. This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed—why men and women and children of every race and every faith can join in celebration across this magnificent mall, and why a man whose father less than sixty years ago might not have been served at a local restaurant can now stand before you to take a most sacred oath. So let us mark this day with remembrance, of who we are and how far we have travelled. In the year of America’s birth, in the coldest of months, a small band of patriots huddled by dying campfires on the shores of an icy river. The capital was abandoned. The enemy was advancing. The snow was stained with blood. At a moment when the outcome of our revolution was most in doubt, the father of our nation ordered these words be read to the people: “Let it be told to the future world … that in the depth of winter, when nothing but hope and virtue could survive … that the city and the country, alarmed at one common danger, came forth to meet [it].” America. In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children’s children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter;

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and with eyes fixed on the horizon and God’s grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift of freedom and delivered it safely to future generations. Thank you. God bless you and God bless the United States of America. (2) What is the role of subjectivity in metaphorical representations in discourse?

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Vachek, Josef 1970. The linguistic school of Prague: an introduction to its theory and practice. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 137– 151. Verschueren, Jef. 2003. Understanding Pragmatics. London: Arnold. Warner, Roland. 1985. Discourse Connectives in English. New York: Garland Weinrich, Harald. 1971. “The Textual Function of the French Article.” In Literary Style, edited by S. Chatman, 221–34. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, Henry. 2007. Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wodak, Ruth and Barbara Busch. 2004. :Approaches to Media Texts.” In The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, edited by J. Downing, J. Wartella, D. McQuail and P. Schlesinger, 105–22. London: Sage. Wodak, Ruth. 2009. The Discourse of Politics in Action: Politics as Usual. London: Palgrave Macmillan Yule, George. 2006. The Study of arlandLanguage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

APPENDIX (TESTS)

(1) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Functional linguistics deals with: the structure of language the system of language meaning the use of language linguistic form

(2) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Rheme is: old information new information unimportant information new or important information old or unimportant information

(3) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Theme is: old information new information unimportant information new or important information old or unimportant information

(4) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Functionalists are primarily concerned with: the structural aspects of language the cognitive aspects of language the communicative aspects of language the biological aspects of language the social aspects of language

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(5) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Appendix (Tests)

Which remarks are the best for explaining the difference between text and discourse?: text is written, whereas discourse is spoken text is fictional, whereas discourse is real world text can exist in isolation from the outside world, whereas discourse must be connected with the outside world text is planned, whereas discourse is spontaneous text is dealing with linguistic factors, whereas discourse is dealing with extra-linguistic factors

(6) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

According to topic discourse types are divided into: individual, institutional individual, literary individual, public, literary literary, institutional, academic, or scientific literary, institutional

(7) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

The main function of text is: to manipulate to convince to narrate to communicate to recommend

(8) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

The information structure of text reflects: interpretation expressiveness argumentation informativity pragmatic intention

Studies in Text and Discourse

(9) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Contexts are usually divided into: social and individual cultural and linguistic linguistic and public linguistic and physical cultural and social

(10) The information structure of text includes: (1) old information vs. new information (2) old information vs. new or important information (3) past vs. future (4) new information (5) old information

(11) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

What is meant by the term “cohesion” in the study of text and discourse?: logical connection formal connection repetition word order markedness

(12) In text linguistics, discourse is usually described as: (1) text + context, where context contains a situational component (2) sequence of events (3) text and co-text (4) word and sentence (5) repetition

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(13) Traditional approaches to studies in text are: (1) structural, communicative (2) cognitive, functional (3) propositional, communicative (4) structural, cognitive (5) structural, functional (14) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which of the following grammatical elements can play the role of an explicit cohesive device in text?: to have at or and to be

(15) Anaphora refers to: (1) something mentioned after (2) something beyond language (3) space (4) time (5) something mentioned before (16) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

This definition of discourse, “discourse implies patterns and commonalities of knowledge and structures,” was given by: T. van Dijk W. Chafe N. Fairclough R. Wodak M. A. K. Halliday

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(17) Discourse types are usually classified as: (1) public and individual (2) fictional and non-fictional (3) individual and institutional (4) genres and subgenres (5) temporal and spatial

(18) What is meant by the term “coherence” in text grammar? (1) logical connection (2) formal connection (3) repetition (4) word order (5) markedness (19) Background knowledge is: (1) academic knowledge (2) cultural knowledge (3) conventional knowledge (4) informative knowledge (5) elementary knowledge (20) M. A. K. Halliday defines text as: (1) a well-formed sequence of a minimum of two and up to a limited number of lexical and functional morphemes with regular alternation (2) a sequence of meaningful symbols (3) a specific and unique realization of a discourse (4) any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole (5) any stretch of language, regardless of length, that is spoken or written for the purposes of communication by real people in actual circumstances

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(21) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Appendix (Tests)

The sociolinguistic approach to discourse implies that discourse is: an individual practice a mental pattern the structure of knowledge background knowledge a social practice

(22) Critical discourse analysis was first developed by: (1) R. Wodak (2) M. A. K. Halliday (3) N. Fairclough (4) W. Chafe (5) T. van Dijk (23) The standards of textuality include: (1) cohesion, coherence (2) cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, intertextuality (3) informativity, situationality, intertextuality (4) connexity, intentionality d) acceptability, situationality (5) acceptability, intertextuality (24) According to N. Enkvist, connexity means: (1) coherence (2) cohesion (3) repetition (4) cohesion + coherence (5) inversion

Studies in Text and Discourse

(25)

Systemic functional grammar identifies the following cohesive references: (1) personal, demonstrative, comparative (2) (3) (4) (5)

temporal, spatial personal temporal, spatial personal, demonstrative

(26) Grammatical cohesive devices are: (1) conjunctions, adverbs (2) conjunctions, articles (3) conjunctions, pronouns (4) conjunctions, pronouns, articles, adverbs (5) conjunctions, pronouns, articles, adverbs, ellipsis, word order (27) Personal references are: (1) personal pronouns (2) personal and possessive pronouns (3) possessive pronouns (4) demonstrative pronouns (5) adjectives (28) Cataphora refers to: (1) something mentioned after (2) something beyond language (3) society (4) time (5) something mentioned before

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(29) Demonstrative references are: (1) determiners (2) adverbs (3) adjectives and adverbs (4) determiners and adverbs (5) determiners and adjectives (30) Comparative references are: (1) adjectives, adverbs (2) adjectives (3) demonstrative pronouns (4) articles (5) possessive pronouns, articles (31) According to the sociocognitive approach, discourse is: (1) a social practice (2) an individual practice (3) a mental pattern (4) background knowledge (5) more individual than social practice (32) Cohesion exists in: (1) the fictional world (2) society (3) real world (4) language (5) culture

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(33) The main structures of discourse are: (1) rhetoric, information (2) grammatical, information (3) rhetoric, cognitive (4) grammatical, cognitive (5) information, cognitive (34) Cohesion is divided into the following areas: (1) reference, conjunction (2) reference, conjunction, lexical cohesion (3) reference, ellipsis and substitution (4) reference, ellipsis and substitution, conjunction, lexical repetition and cohesion (5) reference, lexical repetition and lexical cohesion (35) The sociocognitive approach to discourse was introduced by: (1) T. van Dijk (2) M. A. K. Halliday (3) R. Wodak (4) P. Chilton (5) N. Fairclough (36) Lexical cohesive devices are: (1) lexical repetition, lexical cohesion (2) inversion, presupposition (3) anaphora, cataphora, word order (4) anaphora, cataphora, exophora (5) lexical cohesion

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Appendix (Tests)

(37) Media discourse first of all delivers: (1) storytelling (2) argumentation (3) message (4) manipulation (5) recommendation (38) Fictional discourse is mostly: (1) manipulative (2) narrative (3) informative (4) expressive (5) vocative (39) Coherence exists in: (1) language (2) grammar (3) society (4) fictional worlds (5) syntax (40) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which grammatical elements are explicit devices to construct temporal relations in discourse?: articles, prepositions conjunctions, adverbs prepositions, adverbs modal verbs infinitive, gerund

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(41) Old information in discourse is usually marked by: (1) personal pronouns, indefinite articles (2) prepositions, modal verbs (3) definite article, demonstrative pronouns (4) conjunctions (5) adverbs (42) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which syntactical device plays a crucial role in the information structure of discourse?: ellipsis clause word order conjunction repetition

(43) Discourse participants are: (1) the audience (2) the sender of text, receiver of text (3) the senders of text (4) the receivers of text (5) people (44) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which grammatical elements play a crucial role in the information structure of discourse?: prepositions modal verbs interjections infinitives, gerunds articles

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Appendix (Tests)

(45) According to N. Fairclough, a type of text or discourse is: (1) the specific context of a situation (2) the intertextual and interdiscoursive relationships between texts and discourses (3) a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity (4) a social practice (5) shared knowledge (46) Grammar beyond sentence is dealing with: (1) phrases, sentences (2) words, phrases, sentences (3) phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, sentences (4) texts (5) texts, discourses (47) Discourse is fixed in: (1) society (2) the real world (3) fictional worlds (4) text (5) the sentence (48) Institutional discourses include: (1) media, political, legal, religious (2) daily conversation, political, legal (3) media, political, fictional (4) daily conversation, fictional (5) media, political

Studies in Text and Discourse

(49) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (50) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which of these linguistic devices is a major cognitive tool in discourse?: preposition word order conjunction ellipsis metaphor The relationship between knowledge and discourse was first discussed by: F. de Saussure N. Chomsky M. Foucault L. Bloomfield J. Derrida

(51) Culture is strongly marked in: (1) academic discourse (2) legal discourse (3) daily conversation (4) fictional discourse (5) news discourse (52) Identify the types of information in discourse: (1) cognitive, language (2) language, informative (3) cognitive, language, communicative (4) cognitive, informative (5) language, manipulative

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(53) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Appendix (Tests)

Subjectivity is the main factor in the following approach to discourse: sociocognitive sociolinguistic functional communicative cognitive

(54) Any type of discourse usually includes: (1) storytelling (2) genres (3) genres and subgenres (4) manipulation (5) subgenres (55) According to T. van Dijk, context includes: (1) participants (2) participants and their roles, goals, settings, and shared knowledge (3) intertextual and interdiscoursive relationships between utterances, texts, genres, and discourses (4) text and co-text (5) text (56) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Which grammatical elements are explicit devices that manifest cause-effect relations in discourse?: articles modal verbs conjunctions modal verbs prepositions

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(57) Which discourse type is fully characterized by expressiveness?: (1) media discourse (2) political discourse (3) academic discourse (4) daily conversation (5) fictional discourse (58) New information in discourse is usually marked by: (1) a definite article (2) conjunctions (3) prepositions (4) indefinite article and the element one + (5) modal verbs (59) All discourse types are strongly: (1) manipulative (2) informative (3) argumentative (4) culturally motivated (5) ideologically marked (60) T. van Dijk suggests the following triangle: (6) Discourse-communication-society (7) Cognition-text-discourse (8) Communication-text-society (9) Discourse-cognition-society (10) Text-discourse-society

AUTHOR INDEX

Barthes Roland, 2, 3 Beaugrande de Robert, 1, 19, 20 Cap Piotr, 80 Casasanto Daniel, 86, Chafe Wallace, 1, 8, 10, 33, 39, 40 Chilton Paul, 80 Dijk van Teun A., 1, 2, 6, 32, 58, 64, 65, 66, 81, 85 Dressler Wolfgang, 3, 19 Eco Umberto, 34, 35 Enkvist Nils, 3, 4, 6, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 33, 37, 43, 57, 81 Evans Vyvyan, 80 Fairclough Norman, 1, 6, 57, 58 Firbas Jan, 7 Foley William, 40 Ford Cecilia, 39 Foucault Michel, 1, 2, 66 Gibson William, 17 Givon Tally, 8, 40 Grice Peter, 59 Halliday Michael, 1, 4, 8, 12,13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 39, 43, 81

Hart Christopher, 80, 87 Hasan Rugayya, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 43, 81 Konig Erlich, 10 Kovecses Zoltan, 87, 89 Labov William, 61 Lakoff George, 81, 88 Langacker Ronald, 80 Lenz Friedrich, 80 Levinson Stephen, 32 Luchjenbroers June, 40 Lyons John, 32 Mann William C., 38 Saussure Ferdinand de, 2, 7 Semino Elena, 87, 88 Talbot Mary, 60 Teubert Wolfgang, 6, 64, 65 Thompson Sandra, 38 Tunstall Jeremy, 62 Wittgenstein Leonard, 21 Wodak Ruth, 20, 58, 60, 65, 66 Yule George, 33

SUBJECT INDEX

ambiguity, 33, 34, 59 ambiguity, syntactical, 31, 33 ambiguity, lexical, 1, 5, 9, 14, 16, 17, 18, 33, 34, 40, 41, 42, 67, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86 ambiguity, textual, 3, 4, 5, 12, 16, 18, 34, 36, 41, 59 argumentation, 43, 44 Azerbaijani, 83, 88, 89, 90, 91 broadsheet, 18, 43 cause-effect, 18, 40 choice, 41, 53, 54, 85, 94, 101 cognitive structure, 55, 79 coherence, 16, 18, 19, 29, 31, 33, 36, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85 cohesion, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 29, 36, 41, 42, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85 Cold War, 89, 90, 97 communicative situation, 65, 66 concept, 39, 83, 85, 89 conceptual metaphors, 81, 87, 88, 90 conceptualization, 80, 87, 88, 97, 98 connexity, 11, 19, 33, 46 creativity, 35 Critical Discourse Analysis, 2, 6, 58, culture, 36, 58, 79, 86, 88, 90, 102, Daily Mail, The 26, 41, 47 English, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 24, 44, 84, 88, 91 fiction, 13, 42, 59, 62 Financial Times, 62 French, 2, 83, 84, 88, 91 Generative Linguistics, 3 genre, 58, 60, 89

German, 28 Guardian, The 25 global concepts, 89 globalization, 90, 91 ideology, 58, 79, 85, 86, 89 individual, 35, 53, 58, 64, 65, 66, 68, 97, 100 information structure, 8, 9, 12, 17, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 55 institutional, 58, 80 intercultural competence, 66 internal context, 66 knowledge, 1, 2, 20, 21, 32, 36, 37, 38, 45, 55, 57, 62, 65, 66, 67, 94, 97, 104 local concepts, 89 media, 6, 13, 38, 41, 43, 44, 58, 60, 61, 62, 64, 78, 81, 83, 88, 89, metaphor, 81, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91 metonymy, 87 Mirror, The 25 narrative, 18, 42, 61, 62, 63 power, 54, 65, 79, 101, 102, 103, Russian, 10, 53, 84, 88, 90, 91 Slavic languages, 7, 10 social situation, 64, 65, 66, sociocognitive approach, 2, 6, 64, 65, 66, 77, 78 sociolinguistic approach, 64, 66 space, 13, 45, 65, 66, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90 Spanish, 83, 84, 85, 95, Sun, The 25, 47 Systemic Functional Grammar, 19 tabloid, 62 time, 9