Studies in Celtic Survival 9780904531657, 9781407320267

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Studies in Celtic Survival

edited by Lloyd Laing

British Archaeological Reports 3 7 1

977

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 37, 1977: "Studies in Celtic Survival" © The individual authors, 1977

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531657 paperback ISBN 9781407320267 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531657 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page Ed itor 's I n troduct ion L ist o f Contr ibutors 1 .

Br it ish S urv iva l i n Ang lo-Saxon Nor thu mbr ia , b y M. Fau l l

2 .

S egon t iu m a nd t he P os t-Ro man Occupat ion o f Wa les , b y L . La ing

3 .

5 7

Con t inu ity o f S e t t le men t i n Wa les i n t he Centra l M idd le Ages, b y L . A . S . Bu t ler

4 .

1

6 1

T he Quest ion o f Ce lt ic S urv iva l o r Cont inu ity i n S o me E le men ts o f Rura l S et t le men t i n t he S cot t ish H igh lands , b y A. Morr ison

5 .

C e l t ic Con t inu ity i n t he I s le o f Man , b y P . S . G el l ing

6 .

8 3

O ld Norse ' Papar ' Na mes i n Nor th a nd West S cot land , b y A. D . S . Macdona ld

8 .

7 7

Econo my a nd S et t le men t i n Rura l I reland , b y V . B . Proudfoot

7 .

6 7

1 07

T he Med iterranean S ources o f S cu lpture i n S tone among t he I nsu lar Celts a nd t he S urv iva l i n to t he f u l l Med ieva l Age, b y C . A . R . Radford

1 13

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Ms Margaret Faull, M.A., Dip.Ed., Field Officer, West Yorkshire County Council Archaeology Unit Lloyd Laing, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A.Scot., F.R.M.S., Lecturer in Medieval Archaeology, University of Liverpool L. A. S. Butler, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A., Lecturer in Medieval Archaeology, University of Leeds Alex Morrison, M.A., F.S.A.Scot., Lecturer in Archaeology, the University of Glasgow P. S. Gelling, M.A., F.S.A., Reader in Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Birmingham V. B. Proudfoot, B.A., Ph.D., F.S.A., Professor of Geography, the University of St. Andrews A. D. S. Macdonald, B.A., F.S.A.Scot., School of Scottish Studies, the University of Edinburgh C. A. R. Radford, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A., Culmcott, Uffculme, Devon

ED ITOR 'S I NTRODUC T ION

With t he e xcep t ion o f o ne p aper ( No. 2 ) , wh ich h as b een i nc luded b ecause o f i t s r e levance t o t he t he me o f t h is v o lu me, t he p apers h ere p resen ted were a l l g iven a t a Conference o n t he s ub ject o f ' Ce lt ic Con t inu ity ' h eld i n L iverpoo l f ro m t he 2 0 th t o 2 2nd March , 1 976. The o b ject o f t he Conference was t o e xa m ine s o me g enera l q uest ions c onc ern ing c on t inu ity , i n p ar t icu lar , whether i t was p oss ible t o t race t he s urv ival o f s ett le men t t ypes a nd s et t le men t p a t terns , a r t a nd i nst itut ions i n t he Celt ics peak ing a reas o f Br ita in a nd I reland d ur ing t he f irst mil lenn iu m A . D ., a nd t o what e x ten t i fa ny t here was s urv iva l i n to t he Later M idd le Ages a nd b eyond. S peakers a t t he Con ference w ere p ar t icu lar ly c oncerned w ith q uest ions o f C e lt ic ( or Ro mano-Br it ish ) s urv iva l a t t he t ime o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a dvance i n Eng land , a nd s urv iva l a f ter t he Norman Conquest.

A lthough n o f ir m c on-

c lus ions w ere r eached , t he o veral l r esu l t o f t he Conference was t o d e monstra te ar e markab le d egree o f c onservat is m i n t he Ce lt ic-speak ing a reas d ur ing t he p er iod u nder r ev iew.

I. BR IT ISH SURV IVAL I N ANGLO-SAXON NORTHU MBR IA Margaret L indsay Fau l l

A t t h is t ime Xthe lfr ith, a v ery b rave k ing a nd mos t e ager f or g lory , was r u l ing o ver t he k ingdo m o f Nor thu mbr ia.

He

r avaged t he Br itons more e x tens ive ly t han a ny o ther Eng l ish r uler.

He migh t i ndeed b e c o mpared w ith S au l who was o nce

k ing o f I srae l , b ut w ith t h is e xcep t ion , t hat i gnoran t o f t he d iv ine r el ig ion :

t heifr ith was

f or n o r u ler

o r k ing h ad

s ub jected more l and t o t he Eng l ish r ace o r s et t led i t , h av ing f irst e ither e x ter m inated o r c onquered t he n at ives. ( Bede , I , 3 4 ) I n t h is p assage Bede was wr it ing o f e ven ts c . A . D. 6 00 i n t he c onc lud ing p hases o f t he Eng l ish t akeover o f Nor thu mbr ia.

Bu t h ow a ccurate i s h is d es-

c r ipt ion f or t he p reced ing t wo a nd a h a lf c entur ies wh ich s aw t he c o mp lete e stab l ish ment o f Ang lo-Saxon s upre macy o ver t he whole o f Nor thu mbr ia? The s ources a re s i len t a bout t he f a te o f t he Br it ish i nhab itan ts o f t he r eg ion i n t he e ar l ier p r i mary s e t t le men t p er iod o f t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies. Both C e lt ic a nd Eng l ish s ources were d ea l ing w ith t he r ea l it ies o f p o l it ica l p ower

-

o f t he c on tro l o f b road g eograph ica l a reas , r ather t han w ith t he

minu t iae o f e veryday l i fe.

They c oncerned t he mselves e xc lus ive ly w ith t he

a ffa irs o f t he n ob i l ity , i n p ar t icu lar o f t he r oya l h ouses , a nd w ere n ot i n tere sted i n t he f ate o f t he p easan ts , who made u p t he b u lk o f t he p opu la t ion.

1

I t i s t herefore n ecessary t o t urn t o s ources o ther t han t he p urely l i terary i n a ny d iscuss ion o f Br it ish s urv iva l i n Ang lo-Saxon Nor thu mbr ia.

By s urv iva l

must b e u nderstood n ot j us t t he c rude q uest ion o f h ow many o f t he Br it ish s urv ived , b ut a lso wha t w as t he ir p os it ion i n t he n ew s oc iety , d id i n ter marr iage o ccur , w ere a ny Br it ish g roups a b le t o ma in ta in t he ir i ndependence, a nd t o what e x ten t d id t he ir c u lture mod ify t hat o f t he Eng l ish.

A s ub ject p opu lat ion

may i nf luence t he p reva il ing c u lture u nobtrus ively o r o ver t ly :

i fi to ccup ies

a marked ly i nfer ior p os it ion o r i fi t s c u lture h as l i t t le t o c on tr ibute t o t hat o f t he more p owerfu l g roup , i t may l eave f ew s igns o f i t s p resence.

I f i t s s phere

o f i nf luence a nd a ct iv ity i s l im ited , t hen e v idence f or i t s e x istence w il l b e r estr icted t o t he f ew f i elds r e lated t o t hose a c t iv it ies.

Each t ype o f s ource

w il l p rov ide i n forma t ion o n ly a bout i t s i nd iv idua l s phere. a l l s ources must b e c orre lated t o g ive a n o vera l l p icture :

I nfor ma t ion f ro m c on t inu ity o f

Br it ish metalwork ing o r c era m ic t echn iques m igh t p rove o n ly t he s urv ival o f i nd iv idua l c raf ts men , whereas s urv iva l o f r el ig ious p ract ices wou ld i nd icate at enac ity o f b el ief h anded o n w ith in t he c o m mun ity.

Con t inu ity o f Ce lt ic p lace-

n a mes s hou ld p o in t t o ad egree o f b il ingua l is m a nd c o m mun ica t ion b etween t he Br it ish a nd Eng l ish.

S o a lso wou ld t he u se o f Br it ish p ersona l n a mes , wh ich

migh t f ur ther i nd icate s o me i ntermarr iage.

I n a dd it ion p lace-na mes c an p ro-

v ide e v idence f or t he e x is tence o f i ndependen t Br it ish c o m mun it ies , wh ils t I

r eference may b e made t o t he l ega l c odes i n a n a t te mp t t o g auge t he s tatus o f t he Br it ish w ith in t he Eng l ish c o m mun ity . There i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxons who s ett led i n Nor thu mbr ia w ou ld h ave h ad a ny r eason o r d es ire t o f o l low a p o l icy o f g enoc ide o r e ven o f b ru tal s ub juga t ion o f t he n at ive p opu lat ion.

There i s n o e v idence

f or s uch a p o l icy amongst o ther G er man ic g roups , s uch a s t he Franks i n Gau l, a nd t he e v idence f ro m s ou thern Eng land p o in ts t o ac ons iderable d egree o f Br it ish s urv iva l t here ( Fau l l, 1 970 ).

T he f ate o f an at ive p opu la t ion a nd t he ir

s ubsequen t s oc ia l p os it ion a re d eter m ined b y an u mber o f f actors , s uch a s t he amou nt o f r easonab le q ua l ity l and a va ilab le f or s et t le ment whether t he t wo g roups a re o f t he s a me r e l ig i o n , e spec i a ly i f t h is i s Chr ist ian ity , a nd , most impor tan t , t he n ature o f t he i n it ia l s et t le men t a nd t he a t t itudes o f t he t wo g roups t o e ach o ther.

A l arge b and o f n u mer ica l ly s uper ior a nd b et ter a rmed i nvaders ,

d epend ing o n t he ir v iew o f t he n a t ives , may a t te mpt t o k i l l most o f t he i nhab it an ts.

Yet more o f t he n a t ives may s urv ive o n o rgan ised d ec is ive i nvas ion

t han a g radua l i nf i ltra t ion o f sma l l b ands wh ich c annot t o lerate t oo l arge a n O ppos it ion.

On t he o ther h and , sma l l g roups o f s et t lers may s take o ut t he ir

c la i ms a nd a t te mpt t o l i ve i n p eace w ith t hose a round t he m , i n wh ich c ase i t i s t he a t t itude o f t he n at ives wh ich i s t he d e term in ing f actor. I t i s a pparen t t ha t Ang lo-Saxon Nor thu mbr ia c o mpr ised t hree d ist inct r eg ions , e ach h av ing a d if feren t h istory a nd p at tern a nd s et t le men t.

o f Eng l ish o ccupat ion

I n t he East R id ing , wh ich f or med t he n uc leus o f t he k ingdo m

o f De ira , t here was p r i mary Ang lo-Saxon s ett le men t i n t he f i f th c en tury i n t he Va le o f P icker ing , a round S ancton a nd p oss ibly i n t he n or thern wo lds.

Dur ing

t he s ix th c entury t here was a n e xpans ion o f s et t le men t i n to t he n or thern p ar t o f t he Wo lds , w ith t he n or th-western wo lds c loses t t o York a nd Ma lton b eing o ccup ied i n t he l ate s ix th c entury , a nd a long t he N or th Yorksh ire c oas t a t l east a s f ar a s S a ltburn.

Th is p oss ib ly e x tended o ver t he T ees t o Dar l ing ton , where

t he c e metery s hows c u ltura l l inks w ith t he De iran r a ther t han t he Bern ic ian a reas (M iket a nd Pocock , 1 976 ). The n u mber a nd s ize o f t he c e meter ies i n De ira s uggest i n tens ive s et t le men t b y c ons iderab le n u mbers o f p easan t f armers , whose c u ltura l l eve l was p robably o n ap ar w ith t ha t o f t he r ura l Ro manoBr it ish p opu la t ion o f t he a rea ( Fau l l , 1 974, 8 -21). I n Bern ic ia t o t he n or th , t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t i s l ess i n tens ive a nd o n t he who le l ater , p oss ib ly b eg inn ing i n t he l a te f i f th o r e ar ly s ix th c entury. S ett le men t s ee ms t o h ave b een c oncen trated i n t he Coquetda le a rea a nd a long t he Tyne v a l ley , w ith ma jor c en tres a t Ba mburgh a nd i n t he M ilf ie ld Bas in a t Yeaver ing a nd M i lf ield ( f ig . 1 : 5 ).

On ly t en c e me ter ies o f Ang lo-Saxon d ate

a re k nown i n Bern ic ia , a nd t he f ew b ur ia ls wh ich t hey c onta in a nd t he p over ty o f most o f t he g rave-goods p o in t t o r elat ively sma l l n u mbers o f s et t lers , f o ll ow ing a b as ica l ly s ubs is tence e cono my ( Cra mp , 1 970 ; Gos l ing , 1 976 ; M iket , 1 972 ) . 2

Cra mp , C lack a nd

T o t he west o f Bern ic ia a nd e x tend ing s outhwards i nto t he Nor th R id ing o f Yorksh ire, l ay t he Br it ish r ea lm o f Rheged , wh ich r eached i t s z en ith i n t he l ate s ix th c entury u nder Ur ien a nd Owe in.

T o t he w es t o f De ira were t he

Br it ish k ingdo m o f E l met , w hose most p ower ful r u ler ,

Gua l lauc, was a c on-

t e mporary o f Ur ien , ap robab le Br it ish b ase a t Y ork a nd p oss ibly a n i ndepend ent Br it ish p ower i n Craven t o t he n or th-west o f E l met.

2

The Eng l ish were

o n ly a b le t o g a in c on tro l o f t hese a reas a f ter p rotracted s trugg les e x tend ing o ver s o me 2 00 y ears.

The t urn ing p o in t s ee ms t o h ave c o me w ith t he Ang lo-

S axon d efea t o f t he c o mb ined Br it ish f orces a t t he b at t le o f Ca traeth , c .A. D . 6 00, p robab ly s oon a f ter t he Eng l ish h ad t aken o ver York . b y

Th is was f o l lowed

t hef fr ith 's o verrunn ing o f much o f t he a rea , a s d escr ibed b y Bede , a nd

b y Edw in 's c onques t o f E l met a nd e xpu ls ion o f Ceret ic, s on o f Gau llauc , i n 6 17 ( Fau l l , 1 974, 2 3-5 ;

J ones 1 975 ).

By c . 6 38 Rheged h ad p assed s i len t ly

o u t o f e x istence, p oss ib ly b e ing i ncorporated i n to Bern ic ia a s t he r esult o f t he marr iage o f Osw iu ( 642-71) t o R ie m me l th o f Rheged ( Jackson , 1 964 , 4 1-2; K irby , 1 962, 7 6-84 ).

As t hose more western r eg ions, where t he l oca l p op-

u la t ion was a lready Chr is t ian , s ee m t o h ave b een s et t led b y t he Ang lo-Saxons a f ter t he a bandon men t o f b ur ia l w ith g rave-goods , t here i s n o a rchaeolog ica l ma ter ia l f ro m wh ich t o r econstruct s et t le men t p a t terns o r t o t hrow l igh t o n t he f ate o f t he Br it ish ;

p lace-na mes a re t he o n ly mater ia l a va ilab le.

The e v i-

d ence f or Bern ic ia a nd De ira o n t he o ther h and i s a l most e n t ire ly a rchaeo log ica l. I n t he Va le o f P icker ing a nd t he S ancton a rea , t here i s e v idence f or Ang loS axon s ett le men t o n o r v ery c lose t o Ro mano-Br it ish s i tes wh ich h ad c er ta in ly b een o ccup ied i n t he l ate f our th c en tury a nd wh ich were p resu mab ly s t ill i nh ab ited when t he Eng l ish a rr ived i n t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury .

A t S ea mer a nd

Wykeha m i n t he Va le o f P icker ing , t he s tra t if icat ion s ugges ts Eng l ish u se o f c o m merc ia l ly-produced l a te Ro man p ot tery , imp ly ing t rade w ith t he Br it ish a nd s et t le men t u nder p eacefu l c ond it ions ( Fau ll , 1 974 , 1 6-18 ).

S im ilar ly

s et t le men t i n t he s trateg ica l ly impor tan t a rea a round S ancton may h ave t aken p lace b efore i tp assed o u t o f t he c on tro l o f Ro man York ;

t he i n it ia l s et t le men t

may h ave b een o f Ger man ic mercenar ies c harged w ith p rotect ing t he r eg ion a nd c o m mun ica t ions t o t he s ou th ( Fau l l , 1 974, 8 -12 ; 1 973 , 1 2-13 ).

Myres a nd S outhern ,

I f i n t hese t wo r eg ions t he Eng l ish were e stab l ished w ith Ro man

a cqu iescence i n a lready o ccup ied Ro mano-Br it ish s et t le men ts , i t s ee ms p rob ab le t hat mix ing o f t he t wo g roups wou ld h ave t aken p lace, l ead ing e ven tua l ly t o c o mp lete i n tegra t ion. r ecord?

I s t here a ny e v idence f or t h is i n t he a rchaeo log ica l

T he c era m ic ma ter ia l p rov ides v ery l i t t le i nfor mat ion :

t he Ro man g rey

a nd c oarse , c a lc ite-gr it ted wares d isappear , t o b e r ep laced b y h and- made Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery.

There a re a f ew e xa mp les o f g rass-te mper ing

-

o ne

o ut o f s o me 2 00 p ots f ro m S ancton ( i n Hu l l Museu m ), o ne o f t he 4 2 p ots f ro m Hewor th ( in t he Yorksh ire Museu m ) a nd a f ew o f t he S tax ton s et t le men t s herds ( in Doncaster Museu m ).

T h is t echn ique h as b een c la i med a s Br it ish i n s ou-

t hern Eng land ( Avery a nd Brown , 1 972, 8 0-1) b ut a s i ti s i n n e ither t he c o mmerc ia l n or t he n a t ive t rad it ion f or t h is r eg ion , a nd a s i td oes o ccur i n s o me c ont inen ta l Ger man ic a reas , i t s ee ms s afer t o r egard t hese s i mp ly a s v ar ian ts o f n orma l Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery. I t wou ld a ppear t hat t he Ro mano-Br it ish p opu lat ion h ad b eco me d ependen t o n c o m merc ia lly-produced wares a nd t ha t when t he p ottery i ndustry c o l lapsed s o me t ime e ar ly i n t he f i f th c entury , t he v accuu m was f i l led b y t he i nco m ing Eng l ish wares.

The Eng l ish w ou ld h ave

h ad l i t t le o ppor tun ity t o a cqu ire t he u se e ven o f t he whee l , a s t h is was a t echn ical s k il l p robab ly r estr ic ted t o t he c raf ts men i n t he c o m merc ia l e stab l ish men ts. I n t he f our th c entury t hese w ere a l l l oca ted west o f t he Derwen t i n a reas n ot s et tled b y t he Eng l ish u nt il a t l east 1 50 y ears a f ter t hey c eased p roduct ion.

3

Not a l l t he c o m merc ia l p o t tery e ncountered b y t he Ang lo-Saxons would h ave b een whee l- made a nd e ven h ad o pportun it ies b een a va ilable f or t he m t o a cqu ire t he t echn ique , t he i ncen t ives wou ld h ave b een sma l l I n ad o mest ic o r sma l ls ca le i ndustry where l ong-ter m e cono m ics a re l ess impor tant :

when a t ra ined

h and-po t ter sw itches t o whee l-throw ing , a l though e ven tua l ly more e f f ic ien t , t here i s a n im med iate d rop i n p roduct iv ity ( van d er Waa ls, 1 966) . The n a t ive t rad it ion , g o ing b ack t o t he I ron Age , o f c oarse , h and- made , g r it ted wares may h ave c on t inued t hrough t he Ro man p er iod a nd i nto t he p ostRo man e ra i n s o me o f t he more I sola ted a reas, s uch a s t he Penn ines o r o n t he h igher wo lds .

T he d if f icul t ies o f d ist ingu ish ing b etween hand- made p ot tery

o f t he Ro man p er iod a nd u ndecora ted Ang lo-Saxon s herds makes o ne s uspect s o me c ont inu ity o f t rad it ion , b ut t he ma ter ia l i s t oo g enera l ised f or c er ta in ty a nd may s i mp ly h ave b een c ond it ioned b y t he l oca l ma ter ia ls a va ilable . There a re f ew s igns o f I nf luence f ro m Ro man meta lworking t echn iques . An u mber o f v il las ( Gooda l l , 1 972 ) a nd a f ew v il lages ( Congreve , 1 938) h ave e v idence f or s o me I ndustr ia l a ct iv it ies, a nd t hese p robably a cted a s c en tres o f s upp ly f or t he s urround ing c oun trys ide .

As t he v il las d ecl ined a nd e ventua l ly

d isappeared , t he s k il led c raf ts men a ssoc ia ted w ith t he m may h ave r etrea ted t o t he emerg ing Br it ish k ingdo ms i n t he west . Ena me l l ing o n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon meta lwork I s u sua l ly a ccepted a s e v idence f or s urv iva l o f Br it ish t echn iques ( Henry , 1 956, 7 5) .

Two wr ist c lasps w ith

e na me l-covered r ivets f ro m t he o uter d itch a t S tax ton were c ons idered t o b e Ang lo-Saxon ( Brewster , 1 957 , 2 17-18 , f ig . 1 4) , b ut t hey a re t h icker t han i s n or ma l f or Ang lo-Saxon wr ist-clasps .

A s im ilar u nena mel led p iece h as r e-

c ent ly b een f ound i n a Ro man c ontex t a t Doncaster a nd s o t he c lasps p robably b elong w ith t he g roup o f f i rst-century A .D . e na me l led Ro man mil itary e qu ipmen t f ro m t he s ite . 3 F ro m t he i l lustra t ion i ti s impossible t o a ssess t he s ign if icance o f t he i te m f ro m S ancton d escr ibed a s e na me l led b rooch"

"

b ronze f rag ments f ro m

(Myres a nd S ou thern , 1 973, 3 6, f ig . 2 ) .

Mrs . Fow ler ( 1960, 1 963) c ons iders t ha t c lass E a nd F p enannu lar b rooches, wh ich L ong ley ( 1975, 8 ) wou ld d a te t o t he f our th c en tury a t t he e arl iest , were s t il l b e ing manufactured i n n orthern Br ita in a t t he t ime o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t , a nd s o were r ead ily a va ilable f or c opy ing .

S he s uggests t ha t

wh ile c lass C p enannu lars were p robably t he d er iva t ive t ype made b y t he Eng l ish , t he r are e xa mp les o f c lasses A , D a nd E p enannulars b ur ied i n Ang loS axon c e me ter ies were e ither a cqu ired b y t he Eng l ish f ro m B r it ish c raf ts men o r t ha t t he p eop le w ith who m t he b rooches were b ur led were t he mse lves B r it ish .

Penannu lar b rooches d o o ccur i n c ont inenta l G er man ic c on tex ts a nd

more work i s s t il l r equ ired o n t he p ossible c ontr ibut ion o f t hese p ara l le ls t o t he d eve lop ment o f t he Br it ish s er ies .

I n Yorksh ire ( f ig . 1 :

4 ) t here i s a

c lass E4 p enannular f ro m t he c e metery a t S taxton a nd o ne e xa mple e ach o f c lass A l, c lass Band c lass D4 f ro m S ancton , a s we l l a s t wo p oss ib le c lass C p ennanulars . T he c lass C b rooch f ro m F i mber i s v ery p robably o f E ng l ish manufacture a s i th as t he t yp ica l Ang lo-Saxon d ecorat ion o f i ncised z ig zags . As ix th-century ma le b ur ia l f ro m Eastburn (Meaney ' sK irkburn I ) was a cco mp an ied b y ap enannular o f c lass H , wh ich L ong ley s uggests r epresen ts c ontact w ith t he P ict ish a reas . No s im ilar ma ter ia l o ccurs w ith Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls f urther n orth : a n e x tre me ly wel l p reserved c lass F b rooch h as r ecent ly b een

4

f ound d ur ing b u ild ing o pera t ions a t t he S layde , Yar m ( NZ 4 21119) b ut t h is was as tray f ind .

5

Fro m t he Bern lcian a rea t here i s af if th-cen tury c lass G p en-

a nnu lar w ith a n i nhu mat ion a t Woo ler ( NT 9 93280 ) , b u t i n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther g rave-goods, t h is c ould e qua l ly wel l b e a Br it ish b ur ia l . 6 Con t inu ity o f r itua l p rov ides s tronger e v idence f or s urv iva l t han c on t inu ity o f manufactur ing t echn iques a s p eop le may b e q u ite p repared t o g ive u p t he ir mater ia l c ulture wh ile c l ing ing t o t rad it iona l b el iefs .

These a re p reserved

i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n t he b ur ia l r ites, t he most importan t a spects b eing t he p osit ion a nd o r ien ta t ion o f t he b ody 7 a nd t he n a ture o f t he g rave-goods . I n n orthern Br ita in t he n a t ive b ur ia l r ite , g oing b ack t o Neo l ith ic t imes, i s o f c ontracted b ur ia l, u sua lly I n s tone c ists u nder b arrows .

8

I n t he I ron Age i n

s o me a reas, s uch a s t he East R id ing , b ur ia ls were made u nder s quare b arrows, b ut s t il l I n t he c on tracted p osit ion , a nd f requent ly w ith t he h ead a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he g rave ( S tead , 1 971, 2 6-7) .

Or ien ta t ion w ith t he h ead p o int ing s o me-

where b etween t he n orth a nd n or th-east i s t yp ica l o f I ron Age b ur ia ls t hroughout t he who le o f Br ita in :

i t s o me t i mes v eers e ven f urther e ast b ut v ery r arely

I ndeed t o t he west .

Exa m ina t ion o f 5 293 Ang lo-Saxon i nhu ma t ions ( Append ix

I , f ig . 1 :

1 ) ,

1 0

9

e xclud ing t hose o f Northu mbr ia , s hows t hat t he n or ma l p agan

r ite was e x tended o r l oosely-f lexed b ur ia l , e ither s up ine o r o n o ne s ide , w ith t he g rea t ma jor ity o r ien ta ted w ith h eads p o int ing s o mewhere i n t he western s ector o f t he c o mpass :1 1

s o me v ar ia t ions a re a pparent b etween t he k ingdo ms,

a s f or e xa mple w ith a h igher p roport ion o f b ur ia ls o r ienta ted n orth-south among t he Hw icce , b ut t he ma jor c oncen tra t ion l i es I n t he a rc b etween s outh a nd n orthwest w ith t he emphasis f i rm ly o n t he western o r ienta t ion .

Crouched a nd c on-

t racted i n ter ments, f ace-down b ur ia l a nd o r ienta t ion I n t he s ector b etween n orth a nd s ou th-east d o o ccur b ut t hey a re r are a nd o f ten d istinct ive I n more t han o ne o ne a spect .

For e xa mp le , a t I psw ich t he o n ly b ur ia l o ut o f 1 59 w ith h ead

p o int ing t o t he n orth was d oubled u p a nd o f t he 2 00 b ur ia ls a t M itcha m t he s ing le c rouched b ur ia l was o ne o f t he f our w ith h ead a t t he n orth-eastern e nd o f t he g rave .

A t Ho lywe l l Row , o n ly o ne o ut o f 1 00 b uria ls h ad I t s h ead t o t he

e ast a nd t ha t was b ur led f ace-down w ithout a ny g rave-goods .

T he S leaford

c e metery a lone i s d ist inct ive I n t ha t c rouched b ur ia l was t he r ule r a ther t han t he e xcep t ion , w ith 2 25 e xa mp les o ut o f 2 40 b ur ia ls ;

2 27 o f t hese were o r ien-

t a ted w ith h eads t o t he west a nd o ne o n ly , w ithout g rave-goods, t o t he e ast . Crouched b ur ia l s ee ms t o h ave b een r egarded a s p art icu larly s u itable f or c h ildren a nd Meaney ( 1964 , 2 0 ) h as s uggested t ha t t h is may h ave b een i n t he h ope o f f ac il itat ing t he ir r eb irth .

T he a no ma lous a du lt b ur ia ls a re o f b o th

s exes a nd a v ar iety o f a ges, a nd o ccur b oth w ith a nd w ithout g rave-goods ( a lt hough o n o ccasion t he o n ly a no ma lous b ur ia l may b e t he s o le o ne w ithout g rave-goods) .

I tI s p ossib le t ha t t hese were f ore igners f or who m a d if ferent

r i tua l was f e lt t o b e a ppropr itae o r t ha t t he a nswer l i es I n t he c haracter o r o ccupa t ion o f t he p erson c oncerned .

As, h owever, t here I s o f ten o ne c ase o n ly

I n ac e me tery o f s evera l h undred b ur ia ls, t he p ossibi l ity , must a lso b e c onside red t ha t t hese were e ither t he f irst o r l ast i n ter men ts a nd s o w ere e ither c ons ecrat ions o r r itua l c losures .

More work i s r equ ired o n t he s tra t igraph ic

r e lat ionsh ip o f t hese b ur ia ls t o t he o thers i n t ota l ly-excava ted c e meter ies a nd t o t he c lose d at ing o f t he ir g rave-goods . As f ar a s c an b e j udged f ro m t he r e lat ive ly sma l l s a mple o f 1 09 i nter ments f or wh ich d eta ils o f b ody p osit ion a re a va ilable, b ur ia ls o f t he Ro man p er iod

5

i n Northu mbr ia s ee m t o c on t inue t he n a t ive t rad it ions ( see Append ix I f or d eta ils) .

A l arge p roport ion o f t he Ro man b ur ia ls r ecorded h ave b een t hose

i n s arcophag i ,

wh ich p robab ly b e longed t o t he wea l th ier me mbers o f s oc iety

a nd s o may b e u nrepresenta t ive o f t he p opu la t ion a s a who le .

The o ne l arge,

p roperly e xcava ted g roup , c o mpr ising s o me 1 00 I nhu ma t ions, c o mes f ro m t he T rentho l me Dr ive c e metery a t York .

The med ica l r eports h ere i nd ica ted t ha t

a l though t he f e ma les may h ave b elonged t o t he l oca l p opu la t ion , t he ma les were l i ke ly t o h ave i ncluded a h igher p roport ion o f f ore igners, s o l t i s s afer t o e xc lude t hese b ur ia ls f ro m c onsidera t ion .

No d el ibera te o r ien tat ion c ould b e

d iscerned amongst t he T ren tho l me Dr ive i n ter men ts o f e ither s ex .

I ti s n o t

n ecessary t o e xclude a ny o ther b ur ia ls o n t hese g rounds a s s urpr is ing ly f ew I nhu ma t ions a ssoc ia ted w ith t he many f orts o f t he n orth h ave b een e xcavated , a lthough t he a pprox i ma te l oca t ion o f t he c e me ter ies i s o f ten k nown f ro m a nt iquar ian r ecords . The Ro mans s ee m t o h ave i n troduced e x tended b ur ia l a l though t he t rad it iona l c on tracted p os it ion a lso c on t inued t o b e o bserved ;

a s may b e s een , f or e xa mp le ,

w ith t he b ur ia ls a t t he Ma l ton f ort a nd t he n a t ive s et t le ments o f B lea lands Nook , Heaver Fe l l a nd M il l ing ton . A t E l mswe l l t here were t wo c ontracted b od ies I n t he d itch , wh ile b ur ia ls were f ound w ith in t he s et t le ment a t Besslngby a nd Wel ton Wo ld , i nclud ing a n u mber i n d itches a nd c orn-dry ing k i lns .

E ven i f

t hese were b ur ia ls o f s laves o r l abourers, t h is would a ppear t o b e c ont inua t ion i n to t he Ro man p er iod o f at rad it iona l I ron Age r i te i n wh ich b od ies were I nterred o n s e t t le ment s ites, f requen t ly i n r ubb ish o r s torage p its . 1 2

Bur ia l w ith in

t he l i v ing a rea was p roh ib ited b y Ro man l aw s o i tI s n o t s urprising t ha t t hese e xa mp les o ccur o n n a t ive s ites where Ro man s anct ions wou ld h ave h ad l ess f orce . The ma jor ity o f b ur ia ls i n t he a rea a re o r ienta ted s o mewhere b etween n orth a nd n or th-east ( f ig . 1 :

2 ) .

T h is p redom inan t ly n orthern o r ien tat ion

c on t inues t o t he v ery e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod , b e ing f ound , f or e xa mp le , w ith t he e leven b ur ia ls w ithou t g rave-goods made a t Wetherby i n what h ad b een a n o ccupa t ion a rea u nt il wel l i n to t he f ourth c entury .

T he b ur ia ls, wh ich must

p ost-da te t he o ccupat ion , i ncluded f our c ist b ur ia ls .

Th is i s a no ther n a t ive

r ite wh ich c ont inues t hroughout t he Ro man p er iod , w ith e ven c re ma t ion u rns b e ing p laced i n c ists .

S lab c ists a t York a re o f ten a ssoc ia ted w ith g ypsu m

b ur ia l , al a te Ro man r ite w ith p ossible Chr ist ian a f f il ia t ions, o ccurr ing a lso i n s tone c of f ins a t B irk in , Cast leford , L eeds a nd Po l l ing ton .

O ther l a te a nd

p oss ib ly Chr ist ian b ur ia ls a re t hose a t York a nd S ut ton u nder Wh ites tonecl if f I n r eused s arcophag i, i nd ica ting a c hange f ro m p agan a t t itudes t o t he d ead . With t he e xcept ion o f t he Cast leford a nd Po l l ing ton b ur ia ls, t he t h irteen g ypsu m a nd r eused s arcophag i b ur ia ls f or wh ich o r ien ta t ions a re r ecorded p resent a c ons isten t o r ienta t ion o f t he h eads i n a n a rc f ro m n orth-west t o n or th . T he n a t ive t rad it ions a lso s ee m t o h ave c on t inued i n to t he p ost-Ro man p eri od t o j udge f ro m t he f ew c ases a va ilable .

T he c learest e xa mples c o me f ro m

t he Cra mbeck p o t ter ies a t Cast le Howard where f our r ectangular c ists o f l imes tone s labs were i nserted i n to t he k ilns s o me t ime a f ter t hese h ad b een a band oned i n t he l a te f ourth o r e ar ly f i f th c entury .

O ne b ur ia l was a cco mpan ied

b y p art o f an or ma l Crambeck p o t b u t t he o thers h ad g rey a nd d ark b lue o r g reen p ot tery .

The b urn ished g rey p o t , a l though o f Cra mbeck f abr ic a nd

6

t echn ique I s u nparal le led o n t he s ite b u t i s ma tched b y ah and- mode l led , g r itt e mpered b urn ished p o t f ro m S herburn wh ich was a ssoc ia ted w ith l ate-fourth c entury c ircular Ro mano-Br it ish h uts( Wenha m , 1 962 , 3 09-10) .

T he s im i-

l ar ity o f b urn ished Cra mbeck a nd S herburn wares t o b urn ished Ang lo-Saxon 3) may e xp la in why t he S paun ton c ist wh ich c on ta ined " bronze

p ots ( see a bove

s tuds" ( now l ost) a nd a d ark g rey , g r it ted p o t w ith wheel-turned r im a nd b urn ished h and- made b ody , h as s o met i mes b een d escr ibed a s Ang l ian .

A lso

l ikely t o b e p ost-Ro man a re t wo c ist b ur ia ls o n t he North Yorksh ire moors n ear Ward le R igg , o ne o f wh ich h ad b een c ut I nto t he c auseway o f t he Ro man r oad wh ile t he o ther a but ted t he k erb .

T h is r oad s erv iced t he s igna l s ta t ions

o f t he N orth Yorksh ire c oast a nd s o must h ave c ont inued I n a ct ive u se a t l east u nt il t he e nd o f t he f our th c entury .

Ne ither b ur ia l h ad g rave-goods, a s itua t ion

f ound w ith a n u mber o f o ther c ist b ur ia ls wh ich may a lso b e p ost-Ro man I n d ate :

ag roup f ound i n 1 868 a nd 1 869 o n Yearsley Co m mon , a nd a s ing le c ist

a t Naw ton .

On t he North Yorksh ire c oast s even c ist b ur ia ls, b e l ieved t o

b elong t o t he Chr ist ian e ra , were d iscovered d ur ing t he work ing o f Boulby Quarry .

S pears, u rns, s ku lls a nd a s tone c of f in a re a lso s upposed t o h ave

c o me f ro m t he q uarry , s o t hese c ists c ou ld s i mp ly b e Ro man I n d a te . O f t hese v ery l a te b ur ia ls, t he S paunton , Naw ton a nd Cra mbeck c ist b ur ia ls were a l l e x tended a nd a t Wetherby f our were e xtended a nd t hree e i ther f l exed o rc on tracted.

T he t rad it iona l c ontracted p os it ion o ccurs w ith o ne o f t he t wo

b ur ia ls I n t he Ro man r oad , wh i le a t Yearsley , where G reenwel l was a ble t o o bta in I n for ma t ion , t hree were e x tended a nd o ne c on tracted .

T he Crambeck

b ur ia ls h ad t he ir h eads n orth a nd n orth-east a nd t ha t f ro m Naw ton was t o t he n orth-west . I t would s ee m t ha t t he n a t ive t rad it ions o f p redo m inant ly n orthern o r ien ta t ion a nd c on tracted b ur ia l s urv ived , p art icular ly I n t he l ess c os mopol i tan r ura l a reas, t hroughout t he Ro man p er iod a nd I n to t he p ost-Ro man e ra ;

p oss ibly

e ven i n aChr is t ian c on tex t i n v iew o f t he p auc ity o f g rave-goods I n t he l a te c ists.

E arly Chr ist ian i n ter men ts i n S cot land were c erta in ly made I n c ists

s im ilar t o t hose f ound i n Yorksh ire ( Hensha l l , 1 955-6) .

T he l a te c ist b ur ia ls

a re c oncentrated I n t he Howard ian H il ls, w ith a f ew e xa mples f urther n orth I n Yorksh ire ( f ig . 1 :

6 ) , i .e . i n r eg ions wh ich were n ot r eached b y t he Eng l ish

u nt il t he l a ter s ix th o r e ar ly s even th c en tury .

T hese must t herefore h ave b e-

l onged t oo ne o f t he B r it ish k ingdo ms, ( poss ib ly t ha t b ased o n York) wh ich o n a nalogy w ith o ther p ost-Ro man k ingdo ms m igh t b e e xpected t o h ave b een Chr ist ian .

I tI s n o t c er ta in when e x tended west-east b ur ia l was i n troduced

f or Chr ist ians, a l though i ts ee ms t o b e t he r u le i n t he s ub-Ro man Chr ist ian c e meter ies o f S o merset ( Rah tz, 1 968 ), Ancas ter (W i lson , 1 968 ) a nd S co t land ( Hensha l l , 1 955-6 ;

Tho mas, 1 968 ).

T he d anger i n d ef in ing a s Chr ist ian o n ly

t hose c emeter ies i n wh ich t he b od ies a re e x tended west-east w ithout g raveg oods , i s t hat Chr ist ian b ur ia ls i n a reas w ith s trong l oca l t rad it ions wh ich d o n ot f u l ly c onfor m t o t h is r u le, a re l iab le t o b e e xc luded . Pagan Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls I n Northu mbria s ee m t o f o l low t he s a me c onv ent ions a s f ound i n t he r est o f Eng land .

Possib le Chr ist ian c e meter ies

l i kely t o d istort t he p agan p at tern h ave b een om it ted f ro m f i g . 1 : t he o r ien ta t ion o f Northu mbr la i , Eng l ish b ur ia ls;

3s how ing

a l though t he n ew r ules I n-

t roduced b y Chr ist ian i ty may n o t a lways h ave b een s tr ict ly o beyed , t hey must

7

h ave r esul ted i n s o me mod if ica t ion o f r i tua l .

I den t if ica t ion o f d ef in ite Chr ist-

i an b ur ia ls i s s o me t i mes d if f icul t b ecause o f t he p agan t endency t owards weste ast o r ien ta t ion a nd t he c on t inua t ion o fp agan p ract ices I n to Chr ist ian t i mes, wh ile i n ter men ts w ith f ew g rave-goods may n ot b e Chr ist ian b ut t hose o f p oor c o m mun it ies .

O f t he b ur ia ls l i sted b y Meaney ( 1 964) , Hart lepoo l ( D) a nd

L a me l H il l ( Y) a re a l most c ertain ly Chr ist ian a s p robably a re t he e astern g roup o f t he G ar ton I ( Y) c e metery a nd t he G arton S lack 1 (Y) b ur ia ls .

A lso e xcluded

a re t he f ive s econdary b ur ia ls f ro m Rudston I( Y ) , f our o f t he f ive s econdary b ur ia ls f ro m G arton S lack 1(Y ) a nd t he Br ier ton ( D) i n ter ments a s t here i s n o p roof t ha t t hese were Ang lo-Saxon .

The o n ly d ef in ite p agan b ur ia ls t o b e

om it ted a re t he s econdary I nhu ma t ions a t Dr if f ie ld I ( Y ) , where t he b od ies were r anged a round t he b arrow s o t ha t a l l b ut f our h ad t he ir h eads p o in t ing t o i ts c en tre , r esu l t ing i n p urely f ortu itous c o mpass b ear ings . T he g enera l t endency t o a western o r ienta t ion p reva ils i n Northu mbr ia a l though t here i s r a ther more emphasis o n t he n orth-western s ector t han i s f ound i n most o f t he o ther k ingdo ms .

T he p henomenon o f t he c e me tery w ith

as ing le a no ma lous b ur ia l o ccurs i n t he p agan s ect ion o f G arton I w ith a c h i ld b ur ia l o r ien ta t ion e ast-sou th-east a nd i n t he Chr is t ian s ect ion where t he o n ly b ur ia l w ith h ead t o t he e ast , a n a du l t w ithou t g rave-goods , was a lso t he o n ly c on tracted I n ter ment .

A s tr ik ing f eature i s t he h igh p ropor t ion o f c ontracted

b ur ia ls i n t he Northu mbr ian c e meter ies .

The s econdary b arrow b ur ials a t

Uncleby ( Y ) accoun t f or a l arge p roport ion o f t hese a s 3 6 o ut o f 7 5 were c ont racted a nd a no ther 9 c rouched .

T h is was a s even th-century c e me tery , p os-

s ibly j ust e xtend ing i nto t he Chr ist ian p er iod a s o ne i n ter ment h ad a p endant w ith a c ross mo t if .

I th as b een n o t iced a t an u mber o fo ther l a te Ang lo-Saxon

c e meter ies t ha t much l ess c are was g iven t o t he l ay ing o u t a nd b ury ing o f t he d ead :

many o f t he Winna l l b od ies, f or e xa mp le, a ppeared t o h ave b een b ur ied

I n t he p os it ion I n wh ich t hey d ied ( Meaney a nd Hawkes , 1 970 , 3 8-43 ) . was p robab ly a lso t he c ase a t U nc leby .

Th is

Ano ther p oss ible l a te c e metery i s t ha t

n ear E t ton , a s t he o n ly g rave-goods r ecorded were a f rag ment f rom a p a ir o f Ang lo-Saxon b ronze t weezers 1 3 e ast-south -east .

f ound w ith a c on tracted ma le b ur ia l , h ead

Th is was e xcava ted b y G reenwel l f o l low ing t he d iscovery

d ur ing t he c onstruct ion o f t he r a ilway o f s o me f i f ty b ur ia ls, d oub led u p" .

a ll u nburnt a nd

Exclud ing c e meter ies wh ich may b e l a te o r wh ich h ave o ne s ing le u nusua l b ur ia l , an u mber o f s i tes w ith a no ma lous Ang lo-Saxon I nter ments r e ma in i n a l l t hree r eg ions ( see Append ix I I f or d eta iled d iscussion) . I De ira ( f ig . 1 :

4 )

I n De ira b ur ia ls w ith r i tes more a k in t o t he B r it ish t han t he Ang lo-Saxon a re f ound i n t he S ancton a nd Dr if f ie ld a reas, a t F i mber a nd Hornsea , a nd i n t he Va le o f P icker ing .

Four o f t hese a reas h ave a lso p roduced p enannular

b rooches, t hree o n t he s a me s i te a s a no ma lous b ur ia ls .

Or ienta t ion i n t he

n orth-eastern s ector a nd c on tracted b ur ia l o ccur t oge ther a t Hornsea a nd , I n t he S ancton a rea , a t L ondesborough , N unburnho lme a nd S ancton ;

I n a dd it ion

a t Nunburnho l me t he h ands h ad b een p laced u nder t he h ead , ap os it ion a l most u nknown I n Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls b ut o ne wh ich h as b een f ound w ith n a t ive b ur ia ls o f t he Ro man p er iod i n Yorksh ire . 1 4

I ti s i nterest ing t ha t f ace-down b ur ia l

a lso s ee ms t o b e f ound i n t he a reas o f B r it ish-type b ur ia ls, b e ing n o ted a t

8

S ancton , L ondesborough a nd Dr if f ie ld .

Bur ia l I n t h is p os it ion i s k nown f ro m

o ther Ang lo-Saxon c e metere ie , s o met i mes p oss ibly r epresen ting h asty b ur ia l , a s a t E l lough ton ( Y) , o r s acr if ices, a s w ith a f e ma le b ur ia l a t S ewerby ( Y) , a l though a n u mber o f c ases, a s w ith t hree e xa mp les a t Gar ton H ( Y) , c onf or m t o t he p a t tern i n t he r est o f t he c e metery .

Face-down b ur ia l d oes o ccur

o ccas iona l ly i n I ron Age a nd Ro man b ur ia ls, o ne b e ing f ound , f or e xa mp le , a t Welton Wo ld , b ut i ti s c er ta in ly n o t an or ma l a spect .

I t may h ave b een r e-

s erved f or s o meone f e l t t o b e u nusua l o r u npopu lar o r who h ad o f fended a ga inst t he n orms o f s oc ie ty :

i n t he e igh teenth c entury t he Gael ic f e ma le b ards Ma in

n ighean A lasda ir Rua idh a nd Ma irearad n ighean L achat hn were b ur led f ace-down o n Rod i l a nd Mu l l r espect ively a nd i th as b een s uggested t ha t t h is was b ecause t hey h ad d ef ied s oc ia l c onven t ion b y a ssu m ing t he e xclusive ly ma le r o le o f b ard wh ich was r egarded a s a l most a k in t o w itchcraf t (Ma theson , 1 951-2 , 1 5-16) . I t c anno t b e a rgued t ha t t hese t wo c ases r epresent s urv iva l o f a n e ar l ier Ce lt ic r ite b u t t hey d o p rov ide a c on tex t f or s uch b ur ia ls .

I t may b e t ha t i n t he mix-

i ng o f t he t wo c u l tures i n t he f i f th a nd s ix th c entur ies, i nd iv idua ls emerged who d id n o t f i t i nto t he s oc ie ty a nd s o were b ur ied I n t h is manner , b ut t h is must r e ma in s pecua l t ion . O f t he f ive a reas w ith a no ma lous b ur ia ls a nd p enannular b rooches, t he Vale o f P icker ing a nd S anc ton a reas a re t he p r i mary Ang lo-Saxon s et t le ment r eg ions o f Yorksh ire where l a te Ro man a nd Eng l ish s i tes o ccur I n c lose p roxim ity a nd c on t inu ity may b e s uspected o n an u mber o f g rounds ( see a bove p . 3 ) . I ti s p erhaps n o tewor thy t ha t i n t he Va le , 4 miles t o t he west o f S eamer , i s t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s i te o f Wykeha m , aw lchã m n a me , a nd i n t he S ancton a rea , h a lf-way b etween S ancton a nd L ondesborough a nd o lny j ust o ver a mile s outh-west o f t he r oya l c en tre o f Good manha m , i s Market We ighton , aw ictin n a me .

D r . Gel l ing h as s hown t ha t i ti s l i ke ly t ha t w ich m a nd p erhaps a lso

w Tct i in n ames were c o mpound a ppe l la t ives a pp l ied t o v ery e arly Eng l ish s ett l e men ts wh ich h ad a s pec ia l a ssoc ia t ion w ith a Ro man v icus, o r a dm in istra t ive u n it ( Ge l l ing , 1 967) . Yorksh ire .

T hese a re t he o n ly t wo s uch e xa mp les i n t he who le o f

The Dr if f ie ld r eg ion a lso h as a n u mber o f Ro man s t tes a nd was

a ma jor A ng lo-Saxon s et t le men t r eg ion i n t he s ix th c entury , wh ile t he F i mber b ur ials a re o n a n a ctua l Ro man s i te .

On ly Hornsea , where t here h as b een

c oasta l e rosion , i s a t s o me d istance f ro m k nown Ro man s i tes . As f ar a s c an b e j udged f ro m t he g rave g oods, t he ma jor ity o f t he a no mal ' ous b ur ia ls a re s ixth-century i n d a te a nd n one c an b e p ut a s e arly a s t he f i f th c entury .

T he o ccurrence , h owever , o f p enannu lars, wie- n a mes a nd h ands-

u nder-heads, c ontracted a nd n orth-easter ly o r ien ta ted b ur ia ls i n t he s a me a reas s uggests t ha t i n t hese r eg ions a t l east t here was a n i n ter m ing l ing o f B r it ish a nd Eng l ish ;

t ha t t he p enannulars a re n o t t he r esul ts o f l oo t ing o r

r a id ing , b ut were e i ther a cqu ired b y t he Eng l ish p eaceful ly o r t ha t t he p eople w ith who m t hey were b ur led were Br it ish ;

a nd t ha t t he a no ma lous b ur ia ls,

a l though a cco mpan ied b y n or ma l Ang lo-Saxon g rave-goods, a re t hose o f d esc endan ts o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish p opulat ion who h ad a dopted t he Ang lo-Saxon ma ter ia l c u l ture wh ile r e ta in ing t he ir B r it ish b ur ia l t rad it ions . Fe ma le b ur ia ls p redo m ina te i n t he c ases where s ex c an b e a ssigned t o i n ter men ts i n t he B r it ish manner , w ith n ine f e ma le b ur ia ls w ith g rave-goods a nd o ne w ithout , a ga inst o ne ma le b ur ia l w i th g rave-goods a nd t wo w ithout .

9

The b a lance may b e r ect if ied b y p oss ib le ma le b ur ia ls amongst t he f i ve u nsexed b ur ia ls w ithough g rave-goods, t he t hree N unbur it ho l me b ur ia ls ( t hough f ro m t he f inds o ne a t l east o f t hese must b e f e ma le) a nd t he e igh t b uria ls f ro m F i mber a nd S tax ton where t he a ssoc iat ion w ith i nd iv idua l g rave-goods I s u ncer ta in . T he p roport ion o f b ur ia ls w ithout g rave-goods d oes n o t s ee m t o b e a ny g rea ter t han i s f ound I n o ther Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies .

An u mber o f t he b ur ia ls were

q u ite r ichly p rov ided w ith g rave-goods, a s was a lso t he c ase w ith t he t wo f aced own f e ma le b ur ia ls ( t he ma le f ace-down b ur ia l was w ithout g rave-goods) . The f inds i nd ica te t ha t t he d escendan ts o f t he Br it ish p opu la t ion d id n o t h ave a n I nfer ior s ta tus b ut were d istr ibuted t hroughout t he s oc iety , Imp lying t ha t b y t he s ix th c entury t he t wo g roups h ad b eco me i n tegra ted i n t hese p art icular a reas -

I

Bern ic ia ( f ig . 1 :

5 )15

On ly f our s ites w ith p ossib le Br it ish b uria ls r i tes a re k nown i n B ern icia a nd t hese a re n o t e ven a l l c er ta in ly Ang lo-Saxon.

B r it ish o r ienta t ion was

n oted w ith b ur ia ls a t t he d ef in ite Eng l ish s i tes o f Cast le Eden a nd H ow ick , a nd c ist b ur ia l a t How ick a nd w ith t he p ossib le Eng l ish b ur ia ls a t C ornforth a nd Cop t H il l .

C ist b ur ia l i s r ecorded f ro m o n ly a f ew Ang lo-Saxon c e meter ies

a nd I n most c ases t he " c ist" was e ither made f rom r ubb le o r h ad o n ly a s tone c over n o t a n e n t ire c of f in o f s tone s labs .

As c ist b ur ia l i s t he n or ma l n a t ive

r i te I n n orthern Br it ian , i t s ee ms much more l i ke ly t ha t t hese c ist b ur ia ls a re t he r esul t o f B r it ish i nf luence . The most s tr ik ing f ea ture o f t he Bern ic ian b ur ia ls I s t he u nd ist ingu ished n ature o f t he g rave-goods a t a l l b ut t he Cast le Eden s i te .

T he b a lance o f t he

e v idence a t Cop t H il l , Cornfor th a nd How ick i nd ica tes a n Ang lo-Saxon d a te, b ut t he ma jor ity o f t he b ur ia ls a nd t he a ssoc ia ted g rave-goods wou ld b e e qua l ly a t h o me I n an a t ive Br it ish c on tex t .

I t would a ppear t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxon

c om ing h ad c aused l i t t le o r n o c hange I n t he b as ic way o f l i fe , a nd t ha t n o t o n ly t he b ur ia l r i tes b ut a lso t he ma ter ia l c u lture c on t inued w ith f ew mod if ica t ions , a t l east I n to t he s ix th c entury .

S trong s urv iva l would c er ta in ly b e i nd icated

b y t he c on t inu ity o f l oca l a rch itectura l t rad it ions wh ich I th as b een s uggested may h ave i nf luenced t he c onstruct iona l t echn iques emp loyed I n t he h a l ls a t t he r oya l Eng l ish s i te o f Yeaver ing ( W ilson , 1 966, 1 75-6) . None o f t he b ur ia ls a re a ssoc ia ted w ith Ro man o ccupa t ion s i tes , t he c losest b e ing t he Chester-le-S tree t f or t s o me 5 m iles west o f t he Copt H il l I n ter men t . A f ew s tray Ro man o b jects h ave b een f ound i n t he v ic in ity o f Cast le E den , Cop t H il l a nd How ick , i nclud ing a f rag ment o f as econd-century Ro man t ru mpet b rooch , u nassoc la ted w ith a ny o f t he b ur ia ls, a ctua l ly o n t he How ick s i te .

B u t

o f t hese o n ly t he p o t tery a bout 2 m iles n orth-east o f Cast le Eden migh t s uggest a n o ccupa t ion s ite .

T he b ur ia ls may b e long t o Br it ish s et t le ments wh ich h ad

d eve loped s ubsequen t t o t he Ro man p er iod a nd wh ich c ont inued i nto t he Ang loS axon p er iod u s ing t he o ccasiona l Eng l ish o b ject , o r t o m ixed s et t lements o f B r itons a nd Ang lo-Saxons w ith t he s a me b asic s ubs istence c u lture . H I

Rheged a nd E l met ( f ig . 1 :

6 )

Mov ing t o t he a reas h eld b y t he B r it ish u n t il t he l a te s ix th o r e ar ly s eventh c entury , B r it ish o r ien ta t ion h as b een f ound w ith t he Eng l ish b ur ia l a t Hawnby 1 0

wh ile Ang lo-Saxon c ist b ur ia ls o ccur a t Ca t ter ick , Hebden Bank a nd Occaney . The O ccaney c is t l ay a t t he f oot o f Walk ingha m H il l , r ecorded a s Walch ing (e )ha ', " ha m o f t he p eop le o f Wa lca" , i n 1 086.

As h am n a mes s ee m t o b elong t o t f le

e ar ly Anglo-Saxon p er iod ( Cox , 1 972-3) t h is i s l ikely t o b e t he s ett le men t a ss oc iated w ith t he b ur ia l.

Wa lca i s ah ypocor ist ic f or m whose f irst e le men t

i s t he OE p ersona l n a me Wa lh , " a Br iton", p robab ly i nd ica t ive o f mixed p are ntage ( see f ur ther b elow ,

p .

1 2

) . The p lace-na me s uggests t hat Wa lca was

ap erson o f s o me impor tance, a nd i t s c lose g eograph ica l a ssoc iat ion w ith t he u se o f t he Br it ish b ur ia l r i te p o ints t o t h is a s a n a rea where Ang lo-Saxons a nd Br itons i nter m ing led i n t he s even th c entury. T hese a no ma lous b ur ia ls a re a l l l ate a nd p robab ly b elong t o t he f ina l s even th-cen tury p hase o f Ang lo-Saxon e xpans ion a nd i t s a fterma th.

Un l ike

t he B ern ic ian e xa mp les , t he p eop le b ur ied w ith Br it ish r i tes a re e x tre mely wel l p rov ided w ith g rave-goods ;

t he Wa ih p ersona l n a me b orne b y ap ro m i-

n en t me mber o f t he Wa lk ingha m c o m mun ity p rov ides f ur ther c onf ir mat ion t hat t he Br it ish were n o t n ecessar ily o f l ow s tatus.

Cat ter ick , a nd p oss ib ly a lso

Hebden Bank a nd Hawnby , f el l w ith in t he r ea lm o f Ur ien o f Rheged i n t he l at ter p ar t o f t he s ixth c entury , a lthough i th ad b een t aken o ver b y t he Eng l ish b y t he t i me o f t he Ba t t le o f Catraeth , c . 6 00 ( Fau l l , 1 974 , 4a nd 2 4 ). o n t he e astern b oundary o f E l met.

Occaney l i es

On ly o ne p oss ib le Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia l i s

k nown f ro m a ctua l ly w ith in t he k ingdo m o f E l met a nd t he r i tes i nvo lved a re n ot r ecorded.

There i s i n f act v ir tua l ly n o a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l wh ich c an

c onf iden t ly b e a scr ibed e ither t o t he Br it ish E l met ( Fau l l , 1 977b ) o r t o i t s s even th-century Ang lo-Saxon s uccessor ( Fau l l , 1 977c ). I t i s t herefore, n ec essary t o t urn t o t he p lace-na me mater ia l f or i nfor mat ion a bout r e la t ions b etween t he t wo g roups i n t h is a rea. P lace-Na mes ( f ig . 1 : 7 ) T he p lace-na me ma ter ia l f a l ls i n to t hree c lasses : n a mes r eferr ing t o Br it ish s ett le ments , n a mes r eferr ing t o p ossess ion o f l and b y i nd iv idua l Br itons, a nd n a mes t rans m it ted t o t he Eng l ish b y t he Br it ish.

The d is tr ibut ion o f e ach

g roup o f n a mes c ons idered i n r elat ion t o t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t p attern a nd t he s o ils, s hould g ive s o me i dea whether Br it ish s et t le men ts c ont inued a longs ide t he Eng l ish o r o n ly s urv ived a s r ecogn isab le e n t it ies i n t he l ess a t tract ive a reas. I t i s u nfor tuna tely n ecessary t o r estr ic t t h is s tudy t o t he a rea o f Deira b ecause i nsuf f ic ien t ma ter ia l i s a va i lab le f or n or th o f t he T ees. De ira , i nclud ing E l met a nd Craven , a pprox i mated t o t he c oun ty o f Yorksh ire, wh ile B ern icia w ith Rheged a pprox i mated t o Nor thu mber land , Coun ty Durha m , Cu mber land , West mor land , n or th-west L ancash ire a nd s ou th-west S co t land. A d e ta i led s o i l map i s a va i lab le o n ly f or Yorksh ire a nd p lace-na mes v o lu mes o n ly f or Yorksh ire, Cu mber land a nd West mor land , s o i ti s s afer t o e xc lude Bern ic ia a ltogether r ather t han r isk d istor t ions r esu l t ing f ro m a n i nco mp lete c overage. I n t he e astern p ar t o f D e ira t he ma jor a reas o f p r i mary Eng l ish s et t le men t a re i nd icated b y t he g enera l d istr ibut ion o f p agan c e meter ies , b u t mov ing westwards t hese g radua lly p eter o ut a nd i tb eco mes n ecessary t o r ely o n p lacen a mes b e l ieved t o b e long t o t he e ar ly Eng l ish p er iod.

F or t he p urposes o f t h is

p aper , p lace-na mes i n h am , ingas a nd inga- h ave b een a ccep ted a s d iagnost ic

1 1

o f s et t le men t b efore t he e nd o f t he s eve th c en tury ( Cox , 1 972-3 ; 1 966 ;

Fau l l, 1 974a ;

Fau l l , 1 977c ;

K uur man , 1 973-4) .

Dodgson ,

On f ig . 1 :

7 the

t h irteen c a tegor ies i nto wh ich Cro mpton ( 1969) d iv ided t he s o i ls o f Yorksh ire , h ave b een r educed t o t hree g enera l d iv is ions b ased o n v a lue f or e ar ly s et t le men t . C lass A , c o mpr is ing C ro mp ton ' sg roups 1 , 8a nd 1 2 , i s h igh q ua li ty l and wh ich wou ld h ave b een t he most a t tract ive t o e ar ly f ar mers ;

c lass B , c o mpr is ing

g roups 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0 a nd 1 1, I s a n i n ter med ia te c a tegory o f l and s u itab le f or a gr icu lture b ut w ith s o me d isadvantages, wh i le c lass C , c o mpr ising g roups 2 , 3 , a nd 1 3 , I s made u p o f t he v ery p oor moor land a nd mounta in s o i ls a nd t he h eavy c lays .

Most o f t hese g roups would b e s im i lar ly c lass if ied t oday , e xcep t

f or g roup 9 , f ound I n t he Va le o f York a nd e ast o f t he Wo lds, wh ich I s c lass A l and b ut s o me o f wh ich might h ave b een d if f icu lt t o work w ithout modern e qu ipmen t , a nd t he c lass 1 3 a l luv iu ms a nd a rt if ic ia l warp s o i ls f ound i n s outhern a nd a nd western Ho lderness a nd s ou th-east Yorksh ire , wh ich a re e xtre me ly f er t i le b ut wh ich r equ ire modern d ra inage s che mes b efore t hey c an b e b rough t i nto c u lt iva t ion .

Th is s o i l c lass if ica t ion p rov ides a b ackground f or t he c ons idera-

t ion o f t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he s ign if icant p lace-na mes t o t he Ang lo-Saxon s ett le men t p a t tern . I .

P lace-na mes r eferr ing t o B r it ish s e t t le ments T here a re i n Yorksh ire a n u mber o f p lace-names c on ta in ing t he e le ment

Wa la , t he g en it ive p lura l o f Wa lh, wh ich was t he o r ig ina l Eng l ish t er m f or a Br iton .

Wa ih d eve loped a s econdary mean ing o f " s lave" b u t I n p lace-na mes

i s a l most c erta in t o r efer t o B r itons ( Fau l l , 1 975, 3 2-34) .

T he a pp l ica t ion

o f t he t er m s hows t ha t t hese s e tt le ments h ad a r ecogn isab ly Br it ish c haracter , b ut , a t t he s a me t ime , t he v ery f act t ha t t he d ist inct ive f eature , d ist ingu ish ing t he s et t le men t f ro m t hose a round i t , was I t s B r it ish n a ture , i nd ica tes t ha t s uch s et t le men ts were n ot c o m mon .

i n Cu mber land , " the l and o f t he Cumbr ians,

i .e . B r itons" where p resu mab ly most o f t he s et t le ments were Br it ish , n o Wa lh n a mes a t a l l o ccur . ‚

As p lace-names i n wa l- c an b e d er ived f ro m a n u mber o f o ther t er ms a s we l l a s Wa lh ,

o n ly n a mes wh ich I n t he ir e ar ly f or m p reserve a med ia l e,

d er ived f ro m t he a o f t he g en it ive p lura l, c an b e t aken i n to c onsidera t ion a s d ef in ite Br it ish s et t le men ts .

S o me p lace-na mes w ithout t he med ia l e- may

b e s uspected a s a lso b e ing d er ived f ro m Wa la ( Fau l l, 1 977b) b ut must b e e xc luded . O f t he f ive c erta in Wa lh n a mes 1 6

i n t he Nor th R id ing , 1 7 Wa lm ire , "moor

o f t he Br it ish" o n t he 2 00 f t . c on tour a nd t he d eser ted s et t le ment o f Wa lton , " tün o f t he B r it ish" c an b e c ons idered t o o ccupy p referen t ia l s ites o f c lass A l and .

A l l t he p laces w ith Wa lh n a mes l ie e ither j ust o f f o r o n t he e dge o f t he

b est l and f or s e t t le ment i n t he ir a reas. Wa lm ire a nd Wa lton a re a t t he f ar e nds o f t he Va les o f York a nd P icker ing , Wap ley H ouse , " poo l o f t he B r it ish" a t a bout 6 00 f to n t he n orthern e dge o f t he Nor th Yorksh ire moors, l i es t o t he s outh o f T eesda le , a nd Wa lden , " va l ley o f t he B r it ish" a nd Wa lburn , " strea m o f t he B r it ish" a re i n n arrow minor v a l leys r unn ing o f f t he ma jor d a les o f Wensleyda le a nd Swa leda le r espect ive ly . o f t he r id ing .

None o f t he m f a l l o n t he worst l and

I t wou ld s ee m t ha t when t he Eng l ish o ccup ied t he ma jor d a les

t hey a bsorbed t he l oca l B r it ish p opu la t ions w ith in t he n , b ut were p repared t o

1 2

t o lera te t he c on t inued e x is tence o f s epara te B r i t ish c o m mun it ies j ust b eyond t he ir s et t le men t a reas, i .e . t he e Wa lh s et t le men ts o ccupy t he b est s ites l ef t o ver a f ter t he Eng l ish h ad s e lected t he p r i me a reas. I n t he West R id ing t here a re s ca t tered Wa lh s et t le ments o n t he p oorer c lass Ba nd C l ands o f t he c oa l measures, we l l r e moved f ro m a l l t he e ar ly Eng l ish s et t le men ts:

l oca ted a t a bout 9 50 f to n t he s ide o f t he n arrow Hebden Da le i n t he

Penn ines i s Wa ishaw , " copse o f t he B r it ish", n ear Wakef ie ld a nd r ough ly I n t he c en tre o f E l me t i s Wa lton , " tün o f t he Br it ish" ( no . 8 ) a t t he l ow a lt itude o f 1 50 f t , wh i le c o mp lete ly i so la ted i n t he s outhern t ip o f t he c oun ty I s Wa les " the Br it ish"

‚

o ccup ied .

where t he f o lk-na me h as b een t ransferred t o t he s et t le ment wh ich t hey Two Wa lh n a mes, h owever , l i e j ust o n t he o uter e dges o f o ne o f t he

e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t a reas .

Runn ing s ou th f ro m t he R iver N idd a nd

f o llow ing t he f er t i le c lass A magneslan l imestone b e lt ( rough ly t he c ourse o f t he modern A l) , i s al ine o f e ar ly Eng l ish p lace-na mes a nd s eventh-century b ur ia ls. Perched o n t he e dge o f t he magnesian l imestone b e lt a bout 4 mi les t o t he e ast o f Co l l ingha m ( a h äm n a me ) a nd 4 mi les t o t he n orth-east o f Bra mha m ( ha m) i s Wa lton ( no . 9 ) .

About 3 mi les t o t he west o f S ick l ingha l l ( inga-) I s Wa lton Head

wh ich o ccup ies a marg ina l s i te , whereas K irkby Overb low , w ith wh ich l ti s a ss oc ia ted a t Do mesday , i s I n t he c en tre o f t he b est-dra ined l and i n t he a rea ( Jones, 1 966 , 4 9-53) . The s tory o f Wi lfr id ' se ncoun ter w ith a B r it ish wo man a t T idover c lose t o K irkby Overb low a nd h er f l igh t t o h ide h er s on s ub a l l is Bry t tenu m ( probab ly a t Wa lton Head ) , i s c onf ir ma t ion o f t he s urviva l o f r ecogn isable Br it ish s et t le men ts i n t h is a rea i n t he e igh th c entury ( i b id .) .

I t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he

Wa lh s et t le ments, b o th t hose r e la ted t o t he Eng l ish s et t le men ts a nd t hose a t s o me d istance f ro m t he m , were r e lat ive ly i ns ign if ican t , e xp la in ing t he ir c o mpound ing w ith t he e le ment t un , wh ich was u sed f or minor p laces; s er ted o r r epresen ted mere ly b y s ing le f ar ms .

an u mber t oday a re d e-

Na mes s uch a s Wa lden a nd

Wa lm ire , o n t he o ther h and , wh ich r efer t o b road t racts o f l and , s ee m t o I nd ica te l arger a reas t hough t o f a s b asica l ly B r it ish . A s econd t er m a pp l ied t o t he B r it ish was OE B ret tas, wh ich I s d if f icu lt t o d ist ingu ish f ro m ON Bretar ( Sm ith , 1 956 , s .v .) .

B ret- n a mes c on ta in ing t he

Eng l ish e le ment a re l ike ly t o r efer t o i nd igenous Ce lts, b ut t hose w ith t he S cand inav ian a re more p rob le ma t ica l a s o ne must t hen a ssu me t he s urv iva l o f r ecogn isab le Br it ish c o m mun i t ies f ro m t he e ar ly s even th c entury u n t i l a t l east t he l a t ter p art o f t he n in th . I ti s c once ivab le t ha t t he n a me migh t h ave b een a pp l ied t oc o m mun it ies o f I r ish men who h ad c o me t o Eng land w ith t he Norweg ians, a l though l ts ee ms u n like ly t ha t B re tar wou ld h ave b een a pp l ied t o G o ide l ic Ce lts, who a re u sua l ly c a l led S co t tas I n t he e ar ly s ources. Certa in ly t he o ne e xa mp le , B irkby H i l l , Breteb i , 1 086 , wh ich i s c o mpounded w ith t he S cand inav ian e le men t i s we l l away f ro m t he a reas o f Norweg ian s et t le men t i n t he West R id ing. Much more p robab ly t he n a mes r epresen t S cand inav ian isa t ion o f a lready e x ist ing ‚

B ret tas n ames o r e lse r efer t o l ate s e t t le men ts o f B r itons c om ing f ro m a reas s uch a s C u mbr ia . ( nos. 9 a nd 1 0)

-

B irkby H i l l o ccup ies a s im i lar p os it ion t o t he t wo Wa ltons o n c lass B l and a bout 5 mi les t o t he s outh-west o f B ra mha m

a nd a bout 2 m i les o f f t he magnes lan l imestone .

F ur ther s outh a re L edsha m

( ha m) a nd K not t ing ley ( inga-), w ith B ur ton S a l mon ,

1t im

o f t he B ret tas" , a lso

o n t he l imestone s o me 3 m i les e qu id istan t t o t he e ast o f t he m .

F ina l ly o n t he

c lass B l and i n t he c en tre o f E l met i n t he s a me p ar ish a s Wa lton n ear Wakef ield , I s West Bre t ton , " tün o f t he B ret tas" t ogether w ith Monk B ret ton , l y ing a bou t 5m iles t o t he s outh o f Wa lton . 1 3

On ly o ne p lace-na me o ccurs i n Yorksh ire c on ta in ing Cu mbra , wh ich i s d er ived f ro m t he B r itons ' own n a me f or t he mse lves ( Jackson , 1 968-9 , 4 6 ;

Sm ith ,

1 956 , s .v . * Cu mbre ) a nd wh ich may h ave b een r egarded a s l ess i nsu l t ing t han Wa lh . I n C u mberworth , h owever , Cu mbra I s p robab ly a p ersona l n ame , "Cu mbra ' se nc losure" I .

Na mes r eferr ing t o I nd iv idua l Br itons Cu mbra a nd Wa lh were b o th u sed b y t he Ang lo-Saxons a s p ersona l n a mes,

p robab ly t o i nd ica te mixed Eng l ish/Br it ish p aren tage ( Fau l l, 1 975, 3 1-2) . o ccur i n Wa lsden , " va l ley o f Wa lh"

‚

They

an arrow Penn ine v a l ley a t a bout 5 50 f t ,

Wa lshford , t he f ord o f t he G rea t North Road o ver t he N idd , a nd Cu mberworth , o n t he c oa l measures a t a bout 7 00 f tI n t he s outhern p art o f t he West R id ing .

l t

s ee ms more l i ke ly t hese p laces were owned b y s o meone o f t ha t n a me t han t ha t Wa lh/Cu mbra d escr ibes t he n a t iona l ity o f t he owner .

The h ypocor ist ic f or m

Wa lca , wh ich i s d ef in ite ly a p ersona l n a me , I s f ound i n Wa lk lngha m ( see a bove p . 1 1) a nd Wa lk ing ton , o n t he e astern f l ank o f t he East R id ing wo lds.

Wa lh a nd

Cu mbra were e ventua l ly a dop ted I n to t he OE p ersona l n a me s tock a nd u sed w itho ut t hought f or t he ir o r ig ina l mean ing b ut t h is d eve lop ment d id n o t o ccur u nt i l l a te i n t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod ( Red in , 1 919 , x xxv l I l) a nd t he Wa lk ingha m p lacen a me a t l east must h ave b een f or med b efore t hen .

O f t hese n a mes Wa lk ingha m ,

Wa lk ing ton a nd Wa lshford a re c lose t o e ar ly Eng l ish s et t le men t a reas a nd o n C lass A o r Bl and , wh i le Wa isden a nd Cu mberworth a re i n l ess a t tract ive r eg ions . On ly 2 mi les n orth-east o f Wa lk ing ton I s Mo lescrof t , "Mu l 's e nc losure", f ro m OE m i l l ( not t o b e c onfused w ith ON m( i i f ound i n Mu lw lth ,

WY ), "mu le"

a nd t hus " ha lf-breed , o ne o f mixed p aren tage" I t s u se a s ap ersona l n a me f or p eop le o f s o me r ank ( Red in , 1 919, 2 1) s uggests t ha t i t was n ot r egarded a s .

p er jora t ive .

The n a me migh t a lso h ave b een u sed f or t he c h i ld o f a n Eng lish/

S cand inav ian u n ion , a l though o ne o f t he f our Mü l p lace-na mes, Mo lesey ( Surrey ) I s r ecorded l ong b efore t he S cand inav ian s et t le men t b egan ( Ekwa l l, 1 960 , 3 29) , wh i le t he mother o f Mu l , u nderk ing o f Ken t ( d . 6 87 ) , a nd Ceadwa l la o f Wessex was p robab ly B r it ish ( Fau l l, 1 970 , 7 2-4) . T he u se o f Ce lt ic p ersona l n a mes i s l ess v a luab le e v idence f or B r it ish s urv iva l a s p ersona l n a mes a re v ery much a ma t ter o f f ash ion , a lthough a s t here wou ld h ave b een l i tt le i ncent ive f or t he Eng l ish t o a dopt s uch n a mes f ro m t he Br it ish , t he ir u se may i nd ica te B r it ish a ncestry .

As s o f ew Ang lo-Saxon d ocu-

ments s urv ive f ro m n o thern Eng land , e v idence f or t he u se o f Ce lt ic p ersona l n a mes i s a l most e n t ire ly r estr icted t o t hose p reserved I n West R id ing p lacen a mes.

T he s o le e xcept ion i s t ha t o f C d mon ( d . 6 80) , t he Eng l ish p oet a t S t .

H ilda ' s monastery o f S treon sha lch ( Jackson , 1 953 , 2 72) .

The B r it ish p ersona l

n a me Ca me l(e) p robab ly o ccurs I n Ca mb lesforth ( the n earby Ca me la House I s a n Inga- n a me f or med f ro m Ca mb lesforth , s uggest ing a r e la t ive ly e ar ly d a te f or f or t he o r ig ina l n a me) a nd t he l ost minor n a me , C a me ihu l , r ecorded i n 1 230 . Pr im it ive We lsh Ca mbe ls o r OE Ca m , b oth d er ived f ro m B r it ish c ambo, i s f ound I n Ca mpsa l l, a nd O ld We lsh Dew l I s p reserved I n Dewsbury .

T h is i s u n-

l ike ly t o b e ar eference t o S t . Dav id a s i t wou ld b e u nusua l f or h is c u lt t o b e s o p opu lar s o f ar e ast a nd t he n a me f i ts i nto a g roup o f b urh n a mes I n t h is r eg ion wh ich a re a l l c o mpounded w ith p ersona l n a mes.

Dewsbury i s o n c lass B l and

a t ap robab le c ross ing p o in t o f t he Ca lder , a nd C a me lhu l a nd Ca mpsa l l a re o n

1 4

c lass B l and o n t he e dge o ft he C lass A l and a nd c lose t o t he e ar ly Eng l ish s e tt le men t a reas.

Ca mb lesforth , o n t he o ther h and , I s o n t he e dge o f t he c lass B

l and c lose t o t he u na t tract ive l owly ing a rea wh ich was p robab ly s ub jected t o f l ood ing i n t he s ix th a nd s eventh c entur ies ( Rad ley a nd S i m ms, 1 971 f or map s how ing a rea c overed ; H I .

Ram m , 1 971, 1 81-3 ;

Sm ith , 1 958 , 4 4-7 f or d a t ing ) .

Names t rans m it ted t o t he Eng l ish b y t he B r it ish The s urv iva l o f i nd iv idua l p re-Eng l ish p lace-na mes c annot b e t aken a s e v i-

d ence t ha t t ha t s pec if ic p lace was I nhabited i n t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod b y Br itons b ut mere ly t hat t here were B r it ish s peakers i n t he v ic in ity r espons ib le f or p ass ing t he n a mes o n t o t he Ang lo-Saxons .

There I s t herefore l i t t le p o in t t o c arry-

i ng o ut a c o mpar ison o f t he t opography a nd s o i ls o f p laces w ith p re-Eng l ish n a mes w ith t hose o f a d jacen t p laces w ith Eng l ish n a mes, b ut i tI s v a l id t o c o mpare g enera l r eg ions where s uch n a mes o ccur w ith t hose where t hey a re a bsent .

I n

Yorksh ire t he n u mber o f p re-Eng l ish n ames t o s urv ive i n r ecogn isab le f or m h as p robab ly b een d rast ica l ly r educed i n c o mpar ison w ith a reas s uch a s s outhern Eng land .

Apart f ro m c en tres o f ma jor h istor ic importance s uch a s York o r

Ca t ter ick , f ew p re-1086 f or ms a re a va i lab le f or Yorksh ire p lace-na mes.

Many

o f t he n ames may h ave u ndergone r ad ica l c hanges a s t he r esu lt o f f o lk e tymo logy a nd s ound s ubst itut ion ( Jackson , 1 953 , 1 95) d ur ing t he p er iod o f s o me 4 00 y ears b e tween t he ir b e ing b orrowed a nd b e ing r ecorded .

The c lassic e xamp le i s B

B r it ish E buracon , wh ich b eca me p rogressive ly OE Eoforw tc, S cand inav ian J orv ik a nd modern York .

I ti s v irtua l ly impossib le t o r ecogn ise t he Br it ish a ntecedent

I n t he Domesday Euru ic a nd I n t he ma jor ity o f c ases t he B r it ish a nteceden t i s n ot e ven k nown .

A f ur ther e le men t o f e rror may h ave b een i n troduced when

n a mes were r ecorded b y s cr ibes i gnoran t o f t he n orthern d ia lect . The n u mber o f C e lt ic p lace-na mes e le men ts r ecogn ised i n Yorksh ire p lacen a mes i s r e lat ive ly sma l l , w ith n ames f ro m

* cr l j mbaco_

a nd

* penno . . . o ccurr ing

i n much l arger p roport ions t han o ne wou ld e xpect t o h ave b een t he c ase I n t he n or ma l C e lt ic p lace-na me r eperto ire .

T h is p redo m inance o f af ew f or ms s ug-

g ests t ha t t hese a re o n ly a sma l l p roport ion o f t he Ce lt ic n a mes b orrowed a nd t ha t many o ther Ce lt ic n a mes h ave b een d istorted b eyond r ecogn it ion .

I t might

b e worthwh i le f or a Ce lt ic e xper t t o r econsider n a mes wh ich a re d if f icu lt o f i n terpre ta t ion , e spec ia l ly t hose c on ta in ing " unrecorded p ersona l n a mes"

.

1 8

A lso t o b e t aken i nto a ccoun t a re t he a dverse e f fects o f t he S cand inav ian s e t t le men t , wh ich l ed t o t he d isp lace men t o f many Eng l ish a nd p resu mab ly a lso , i n p ropor t ion , Ce lt ic p lace-na mes .

S et t le men ts s uch a s L ondesborough a nd

Nunburnho l me whose n a mes c on ta in a S cand inav ian e le men t b ut wh ich a re a ssoc ia ted w ith p agan Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls h ave p resu mab ly u ndergone r enaming u nder V ik ing I nf luence . Yorksh ire , p art icu lar ly t he East R id ing , was s ub jected t o v ery h eavy S cand inav ian s e t t le men t ( Fe l lows J ensen , 1 972) , wh ich may p art ly a ccount f or t he p auc ity o f C e lt ic n a mes. Professor J ackson ( 1953, 2 21-8) h as s hown t ha t t he n a ture a nd n u mber o f p re-Eng l ish n a mes c an b e c orre lated w ith t he p rogress o f Ang lo-Saxon s et t lemen t.

He d iv ides Eng land i n to f our a reas f ro m e ast t o west :

Area I , t he p r i-

mary s et t le ment a rea , h as f ew C e lt ic n a mes , r estr icted t o t hose o f Ro man t owns a nd p ro m inent r ivers, h il ls a nd f orests ; Area I , l inked w ith Eng l ish e xpansion i n t he e ar ly s eventh c en tury , h as more n ames o f h i l ls, woods a nd sma l l r ivers ; 1 5

Area I I , t he f ina l s tage o f t he e xpans ion , i nc ludes n a mes o f v i l lages, s trea ms a nd h o mesteads, wh i le Area W i s a l most p ure ly C e lt ic .

The East R id ing

s hou ld f a l l i nto Area Ia nd t he r est o f Yorksh ire I n to Area I .

P lot t ing o f t he

n a mes wou ld s ee m t o c onf ir m t h is i n g enera l b ut p resen ts a r a ther a r t if ic ia l p icture a s f i e ld a nd minor l ost n a mes were n ot I nc luded I n t he p lace-name s urv eys o f t he North a nd East R id ings .

F ig . 1 :

7s hows h ow h igh a p roport ion o f

t he Ce lt ic n a mes o f t he West R id ing wou ld h ave f a i led t o a ppear h ad t hese s im il ar ly b een om it ted f ro m t he West R id ing s urvey . I n t he East R id ing , e xc lud ing n a mes s uch a s Ca tfoss a nd Roos where t he Br it ish e le men ts may r epresen t b orrow ing o f t he t er ms I n to t he OE d ia lect , t he o n ly Ce lt ic p lace-na mes a re L even i n Ho lderness, Cra ike H ill a nd p robab ly Bever ley .

None o f t hese a re a ctua l ly w ith in a ny o ft he ma jor Eng lish p r i mary

s et t le men t a reas .

Cra ike H i l l a nd L even , b o th c lose t o t he j unct ion o f c lass A

w ith c lass B l and , a re o n t he o uter western a nd e astern e dges r espect ive ly o f t he Dr if f le ld g roup o f c e meter ies.

Bever ley , o n c lass B l and c lose t o Mo lecrof t

a nd Wa lk ing ton ( see a bove p . 1 4) , i s I n a n a rea wh ich h as p roduced a f ew b ur ia ls b ut wh ich i s o n t he o ther s ide o f t he wo lds f ro m t he Important S ancton g roup o f c e meter ies . A s im i lar s itua t ion o ccurs i n t he North R id ing w ith a marked a bsence o f Ce lt ic n a mes w ith in t he s ix th-century Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t a rea o f t he c oasta l s tr ip a nd t he s even th-century a reas o f t he Howard lan H i l ls a nd Wens leyda le . G la isda le a nd D innand l i e o n t he i n land e dge o f t he c lass A l and o f t he c oasta l s tr ip I n t he v ic in ity o f Wap ley House ( see a bove p . 1 2) .

On ly o n t he c lass B

l and o f t he Va le o f York , s et t led i n t he s even th c en tury , a re t here s ca t tered Ce lt ic n a mes

-

A lne , L ee m ing , Cat ter ick a nd C rayke .

As Ca tter ick was a

ma jor Ro man c en tre w ith e v idence f or a G er man ic p resence b efore t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod a nd a s i tc on t inued t o b e o f importance i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod ( Fau l l, 1 974 , 4a nd 2 4) , I t s n a me may a lready h ave b een k nown t o t he Eng l ish b efore t hey o ccup ied t he a rea .

T here i s e v idence a t Crayke f or l a te

f our th-century Ro mano-Br it ish s et t le men t ( Hayes a nd H l ldyard , 1 959) wh ich may h ave c ont inued i n to t he p ost-Ro man e ra a nd C rayke was c erta in ly o ccup ied s oon a f ter t he Eng lish e ntered t h is a rea i n t he e ar ly s eventh c entury a s Cuthbert was g iven i ta s t he s i te f or a monastery i n 6 85 ( Symeon o f Durha m , 1 40-1) ; b ut f urther e xcava t ions wou ld b e r equ ired t o p rove c on t inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion . Penh i l l I s t he s o le Ce lt ic n a me i n t he Nor th R id ing l oca ted o n c lass C l and . Th is i s ap ro m inent t opograph ica l f eature l y ing t o t he n orth o f Wa lden a nd c learl y v is ib le f ro m Wens leyda le t o i t s n or th . I n t he West R id ing t here I s a n e x tre me ly h eavy c oncentra t ion o f C e lt ic p lacen a mes i n t he E l met r eg ion 1 9

o n t he c en tra l c lass B b lock o f l and , wh ich l ies

b etween t he c lass C l and o f t he Penn ine r idge t o t he west a nd t he c lass A magn es ian l imestone b e lt t o t he e ast . T here a re v ery f ew n a mes o n t he c lass C l and a nd n o Ce lt ic n a mes a t a l l o n t he magnesian l imestone where t he g reat ma jor ity o f t he e ar ly Eng l ish p lace-names a nd b ur ia ls a re f ound .

T he c oncen-

t ra t ion o f Ce lt ic n ame s a lso l i es t o t he e ast o f t he sma ll g roup o f e ar ly Eng l ish p lace-names i n t he western p art o f E l met .

These l i e i n t he v a lleys o f t he A ire

a nd Wharfe a nd h ave o n ly a f ew Ce lt ic n ames i n t he ir im med ia te v ic in ity . T he s tr ik ing f eature o ft he C raven r eg ion i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he West R id ing , i s t ha t t he a reas wh ich h ad t he h eav iest n at ive s et t le men t i n t he

1 6

Ro man p er iod a nd t he a rea where t he Ce lt ic p lace-na mes o ccur a re mutua l ly e xc lus ive .

No t o ne p lace-na m&of Ce lt ic o r ig in i s r ecorded i n t he r ectang le

measur ing s o me 8 miles f ro m e ast t o west a nd 7 mi les n orth t o s outh l oca ted o n t he c lass C l and a bove t he 8 00 f tc ontour t o t he n orth-west o f Grassing ton . Yet t h is a rea i s c overed w i th n a t ive e arthworks, e nc losures a nd h ut c ircles ( K ing , 1 970 ;

Rastr ick , 1 938) .

The Ce lt ic n a mes a re c oncen tra ted o n o r c lose

t o t he l ower-ly ing c lass B l ands o f R ibb lesda le a nd u pper A ireda le , where v ery f ew s i tes o f t he Ro man p er iod a re k nown a part f ro m t he Gargrave v i lla . s im i lar p a t tern o bta ins t hroughout Yorksh ire :

A

Br it ish n a mes a re a t s o me d is-

t ance f rom t he ma in Ro man s et t le men t a reas o f t he Wo lds i n t he East R id ing a nd t he Howard ian H il ls a nd Wensleyda le i n t he North R id ing , wh i le i n E l met t he ma jor g roup o f Ce lt ic n a mes i s i n t he western a nd c entra l p arts o ft he k ingd om u nre la ted t o a ny important Ro man s ites o r k nown c oncen tra t ions o f Ro man s et t le men t . r ena med

-

V irtua lly a l l t he p laces whose Ro man n a mes a re r ecorded were Ca lcar ia ( Tadcaster) , Ca mu lodunu m ( S lack ), Danu m ( Doncaster) ,

De lgov ic ta ( Hay ton), Derven t lo (Ma lton) , I sur iu m Br igantu m ( A ldborough) , Lagen t iu m ( Cast leford ) , L ava trae ( Bowes) a nd Petuar ia ( Brough-on-Hu mber) -

e ven t hough t he Ro man n a ture was s o me t i mes r ecogn ised i n n a mes s uch a s

Doncaster .

The d er iva t ion o f I l k ley f ro m O l icana h as b een s er ious ly q uest ioned

( Ge l l ing , N ico la isen a nd R ichards, 1 970 , 2 4-6) a nd o n ly Eboracu m ( York ) a nd Ca taracton iu m ( Cat ter ick ) c an b e s hown t o r eta in t he ir Ro man n a mes .

The

s ite o f C a mbodunu m c anno t e ven b e d ef in ite ly i den t if ied ( Fau l l , 1 977a) wh i le t he o r ig ina l n a mes o f t he minor Ro man c iv i l ian s et t le men ts o f Ade l , He da m B r idge , M i l l ing ton , Norton , Rotherha m , We therby a nd Thorn ton-le-Street h ave d isappeared w ithou t t race . I tc annot b e a rgued t ha t t he d istr ibut ion o f Ce lt ic n a mes i nd ica tes a c o mp lete c hange f ro m Ro man s et t le men t p a t terns i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod ;

as itua t ion

e spec ia l ly u n like ly i n t he a reas l ef tu n touched b y t he Eng l ish i n t he e ar ly p er iods. The f ew r eg ions wh ich h ave p roduced e v idence f or p ost-Ro man s ett le men t a re t he v ery o nes f ro m wh ich Ce lt ic p lace-na mes a re a lso a bsent .

There a re n o

Ce lt ic n ames i n t he Howard ian H il ls o r o n t he North Yorksh ire moors, b oth a reas where p ost-Ro man b ur ia ls o ccur ( see a bove

p .

) ; n or f ro m Upper N idderda le

7

o r t he moors o n e ither s ide , d esp ite t he C 14 t er m ina l d a te o f A .D . 6 30 ± 7 0 f or t he Fortress D ike e arthworks ( T ins ley a nd Sm ith , 1 974) ;

n or f ro m t he magnesian

l imestone b e lt wh ich i s l ike ly t o h ave b een a ma jor s et t le men t a rea o f t he s ix thc en tury k ingdo m o f E l met ( Jones, 1 975) ;

n or f ro m t he v ic in ity o f S hef f ie ld

where t he Eng lish p lace-na mes o f Wa les, Ecc iesa l l a nd E cclesf ie ld i nd ica te B r it ish a ct iv ity . I t migh t b e a rgued t ha t t he p redo m inance o f Ce lt ic n a ture n a mes a nd t he a bsence o f C e lt ic h ab ita t ive e le men ts , s uch a s lys , "c ourt" s uggest t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxons c hanged t he p a t tern o f s et t le ment s o c o mp lete ly t ha t n o Ce lt ic ‚

s et t le men t s i tes s urv ived a nd t he ir n a mes d isappeared w ith t he m .. A c hange I n s et t le ment p a t terns s uf f ic ient ly r ad ica l t o o b l itera te a l l n a mes i s d if f icu lt t o a ccept , e spec ia l ly a s s o me e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men ts c an b e s hown t o o verl i e f ourth-century Ro mano-Br it ish s i tes .

T he g rea t ma jor ity o f Ce lt ic p lace-

n a mes s ee m t o h ave b een p ure ly t opograph ica l ;

i ti s u nreasonab le t o e xpect

h ab ita t ion n a mes t o s urv ive i ft hey n ever e x isted .

An e xa m ina t ion o f a l l Ce lt ic

p lace-na mes r ecorded f or Br ita in d ur ing t he Ro man p er iod , s hows t ha t , e xc lud ing t hose s et t le men ts e stab l ished d ur ing t he Ro man p er iod whose n a mes 1 7

s ee m t o s how Ro man i nf luence , f or e xa mp le , L inco ln , L indon , c . A .D . 1 50 , L indu m c o lon ia , c . A .D . 6 50 , wherethe o r ig ina l n ame c o mes f ro m a c ogna te o f We lsh i l yn , " lake" w ith La t in c o lon ia a dded l a ter ( Ekwa l l , 1 960 , 2 98 ) , v ery f ew i ndeed c on ta in h ab ita t ive e le ments a nd t hese a re ma in ly c onf ined t o ma jor e arthworks, f or e xa mp le Br it . *jjo_, "a f ort"

The p redo m inance o f

2 0

n ature n a mes may s i mp ly b e af ea ture o f Ce lt ic n ame-g iv ing o r I t may b e t ha t when t he ma jor ity o f t he n a mes were f or med t he s e t t le ments, w ith t he exce p t i on o f t he h il l f or ts w ith t he ir massive r a mparts, were s o s im i lar , p erhaps d ispersed h am lets, t ha t t here was n o p o int t o t he g rada t ions imp l ic it i n s uch Eng l ish e lements a s h im ,

t u n ,

c ot , e tc .

F ur ther more t here I s o f ten d if icu lty i n f i nd ing

r espectab le Ce lt ic e tymo log ies f or p lace-na mes wh ich a re o bv iously n o t Eng l ish i n o r ig in .

Na mes c an b e e x tre me ly t enac ious s o i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t s o me

" Celt ic" p lace-na mes a re i n f act p re-Celt ic.

These wou ld h ave b een f or med

a t ap er iod when t he n u mber o f s e t t le men ts wou ld h ave b een r elat ive ly sma l l a nd most n a mes wou ld h ave b een a pp l ied t o n atura l f eatures.

When more

s et t le men ts d eve loped , a s f or e xa mp le a t Crayke i n t he Ro man p er iod ( see a bove ,

p .

1 6 ), t hey wou ld h ave b een c a l led b y t he n a me a lready i n u se f or t he

p lace a nd t hus g iven a t opograph ica l n a me. l t must t herefore b e c ons idered whether t he d istr ibut ion o f Ce lt ic p lacena mes r ef lects I n s o me way n ot t he d istr ibut ion o f C e lts I n t he Eng l ish p opu lat ion , b ut t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he t wo g roups.

I t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he Ang lo-

S axons d id n o t b orrow C e lt ic n a mes o r e lse d istor ted t he m b eyond r ecogn it ion , I n a reas where t hey s et t led im med iate ly a f ter t ak ing o ver c on tro l .

B ut t hey d id

b orrow t he m f or p laces o n t he e dges o f t hose a reas a nd i n a reas i nto w h ich t hey e xpanded f ro m t he ir o r ig ina l n uc le i o f s et t le ment .

T hus t here a re n o C e lt ic

n a mes i n t he f if th- a nd s ixth-cen tury s et t le ment a reas o n t he Wo lds , i n t he Va le o f P icker ing o r o n t he North Yorksh ire c oast , b ut t here a re s uch n a mes o n t he e dges o f t he Wo lds a nd t he c oasta l s tr ip o f g ood l and .

The n ext p hase , f o l low ing

t he f a l l o f York , was t he Eng l ish s et t le men t o f t he Howard ian H i lls, t he Va le o f York a nd Wens leyda le , a nd a ga in Ce lt ic n a mes a re r are i n t hese r eg ions a nd t end t o o ccur o n t he o utsk irts .

T he f ina l p hase o f Eng l ish e xpansion was i n to

t he West R id ing i n t he e ar ly s even th c en tury , w ith t he i n it ia l a dvance p robab ly t ak ing t he m u p t o t he magnesian l imestone b e lt f ro m wh ich C e lt ic p lace-na mes a re t ota l ly a bsen t .

T he

e ar ly p lace-na mes I n t he western p art o f E l met p ro-

b ab ly r ef lect t he f irst c en tres e stab l ished a s p art o f t he Eng lish s et t le men t f o l low ing t he 6 17 c onquest o f E l met b y Edw in , a nd t he ma jor ity o f t he C e lt ic n a mes a re l oca ted b e tween t he m a nd t he magnes ian l imestone b e lt .

I n Craven

t he Ce lt ic n a mes o ccur o n t he b et ter c lass l and j ust t o t he e ast o f t he t wo e ar ly Eng l ish p lace-na mes o f Bentha m a nd C lapha m . There a re t wo p oss ib le r easons why t he Eng l ish d o n ot s ee m t o h ave b orr owed p lace-na mes f ro m t he l oca l Br it ish p opu la t ion I n t he ir p r i mary s et t lement a reas.

The f i rst I s t ha t wh i le e stab l ish ing t he ir i n it ia l b r idgeheads,

t hey h ad l ess t ime o r i nc l ina t ion f or c lose c on tact w ith t h e n a t ive i nhab itants. Th is, h owever , s ee ms r a ther Imp lausib le I n t hose a reas wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een s et t led b efore t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod a nd where l a te Ro mano-Br it ish a nd e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s i tes a re i n c lose p rox im ity .

Th is i s n ot a n i so lated

p heno menon b ut h as a lso b een o bserved i n o ther r eg ions where t he t rans m ission o f Ce lt ic n a mes m ight h ave b een e xpected , s uch a s i n t he u pper Thames Va l ley where e ar ly a nd c on t inuous G er man ic s et t le men t o ccurs i n t he v icin ity o f Ro man s ites ( Ge ll ing , 1 976 , 8 00-14) .

I n K ent , t he p robab le e ar ly b orrow ing o f Ce lt ic

1 8

p lace-na me e le men ts s uch a s c u mb ( Ekwa l l , 1 960 , 1 36) , t he t rans la t ion o f a f ew C e l t ic p lace-na mes ( Jackson , 1 953, 6 29-30 ;

Sm ith , 1 956 , 5 2 ) , t he c a te-

g ory o f l ts i n t he e ar ly s even th-century Laws o f ithe lberht , e h. XXV I ( At tenborough , 1 922 , 6 -7 ) a nd t he e ar ly p ro m inence o f C anterbury ( Frere, 1 966 , 9 1-3) , a dd u p t o s ubstan t ia l e v idence f or l arge-sca le B r it ish s urv iva l ; y et v ery f ew C e lt ic p lace-na mes s urv ive . A much more l ike ly e xp lana t ion i s t ha t a t t he t ime when e ach n ew a rea was a cqu ired , t here were f ew Eng l ish s peakers amongst t he l oca l p opu la t ion t o p ass o n t he p lace-na mes .

Repet it ion o f an a me i s r equ ired I fl ti s t o b e a dop-

t ed a nd t he Eng l ish a re u n l ike ly t o h ave b orrowed n a mes wh ich t hey h eard o n ly af ew t imes.

I n t he e ar l iest s et t le ment p er iod , e ven I ft he t wo g roups were

l iv ing a longs ide e ach o ther, t he e x tre me d if ferences, b oth i n morpho logy a nd p hone mes, b e tween C e lt ic a nd Eng l ish ( Jackson , 1 953 , 1 95 ; 2 0 ) , must h ave c onsiderab ly i nh ib ited c o m mun ica t ion .

To lk ien , 1 963 ,

Probab ly t he Ang lo-

S axons h ad i l ready g iven n a mes t o t he v ar ious s et t le ments a nd n a tura l f eatures I n t he i m med ia te v icin ity b efore a b i l ing ua l g roup d eve loped i n t he c o m mun ity . By t he t ime t ha t t he Eng l ish h ad e stab l ished o vera l l s upre macy i n a ny p art ic u lar a rea a nd s tarted o u twards e xpansion f ro m t he ir i n it ia l c en tres, s uf f ic ient Br itons wou ld h ave l earn t Eng l ish t o p ass o n t he n a mes o f p laces wh ich h ad e ither b een o f l i t t le importance o r f ar e nough r e moved f or t he Eng l ish n o t y et t o h ave f e lt t he n eed f or t he m t o b e n a med .

Tha t s uch a b i l ingua l g roup d id

a ppear i s s hown b y t he OE t er m f or a t ransla tor , wea lhstod , l i tera l ly " one who u nderstands B r it ish" ( Fau ll , 1 975 , 2 6) .

Th is e xp la ins why t he C e lt ic

n a mes t end t o o ccur i n t he s a me g enera l a reas a s t he e ar ly Eng l ish p lacen a mes a nd b ur ia ls b ut o n t he e dges o f t he r eg ions n o t a t t he c entres .

The

f act t ha t i t was t he Eng l ish a nd n o t t he B r it ish n a mes wh ich s urv ived i n t he p r i mary s ett le men t a reas i mp l ies o ccupat ion b y c onsiderab le n u mbers o f Ang lo-Saxons. M in i ma l c o m mun ica t ion b etween t he t wo g roups c anno t b e d educed f ro m t he i ncomprehension o f t he mean ing o f t he Ce lt ic p lace-na mes, s hown b y t auto log ica l f or ma t ions s uch a s Chetwde , C reekh ll l G a te , Cr ick le , Cr ikelez, Cr igg lestone , Pend le , P enh i l l, Pen istone a nd Penny H i l l .

Trans m iss ion o f

t hese C e lt ic n a mes p robab ly o ccurred c entur ies a f ter t he ir ­c rea t ion b y wh ich t i me t hey may h ave c o me t o b e r egarded s i mp ly a s al abe l f or t he p lace . T he Eng l ish e le men t may n o t h ave b een a dded a t t he t ime o f t he b orrow ing b ut a t al a ter d a te when t he mean ing o f t he n a me h ad b een f orgo t ton .

Tha t t he

Eng l ish f orgot t he mean ings e ven o f t he li own p lace-na mes may b e s een i n t he l a ter a dd it ion o f e le men ts w ith I den t ica l mean ings i n s uch n a mes a s S e merwa ter, ( 1153) f ro m OE

mere

+

Pennu l ( 1258) f ro m We lsh p en

wa ter ( Ekwa l l, 1 960 , 4 12) o r Pend le H i l l ( Lanes) -

OE h y l l

±

h y l l ( i b id .

‚

3 61) .

The p a ttern t hen wou ld s ee m t o b e t he t ota l l ingu ist ic s ub mers ion o f t he B r it ish i n t he most f ert i le a reas o f t he c oun tywhere t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t led f i rst .

When t he Eng l ish moved o ut t o o ccupy t he r est o f t he g ood l and , t he

B r it ish c o m mun it ies were a lso a bsorbed b ut l ef t t races o f t he ir e x istence I n t he s urround ing p lace-names.

T he u p land r eg ions, s uch a s Upper N idderda le ,

t he G rass ing ton r eg ion a nd t he North Yorksh ire moors, where t here i s a lso a d ear th o f Ce lt ic n a mes, were l ess a t tract ive t o t he Ang lo-Saxons who , a s t he c onquerors c ou ld t ake t he ir p ick o f t he b est f ar m ing l and .

1 9

P resu mab ly

b y t he t ime t he Eng l ish d id b eg in t o s et t le o r n a me t hese p arts t here h ad b een ar e tract ion o f Br it ish s et t le men t . I n s o me a reas B r it ish c o m mun ites were a b le t o ma inta in a s epara te e x ist ence l ong e nough f or t h is t o b e r ecorded i n n a mes r eferr ing t o t he ir B r it ish n a ture .

These o ccur e i ther i n i nhosp itab le , I so la ted r eg ions, s uch a s t he

Penn ines o f t he western a nd s outh-western p arts o f t he West R id ing , o r , more f requen t ly , o n t he p oorer f ar m ing l and o n t he o uter f r inges o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t a reas, s uch a s o n t he e dges o f t he magnes ian l imestone b e lt o r i n t he minor v a l leys r unn ing o f f t he ma jor d a les where t he ma in Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t was o ccurr ing .

These Br it ish c o m mun it ies were p robab ly r espon-

s ib le f or t he p reserva t ion a nd e ventua l t rans m iss ion o f t he C e lt ic p lace-na mes f ound i n t he ir v ic in ity , f or e xa mp le t hose n ear B irkby H i l l, West Bre t ton , Wa lton ( no

8 ) a nd Wap ley House .

As a rchaeo log ica l e v idence e lsewhere i n

Eng land p o in ts t o t he a dopt ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon ma ter ia l c u lture i n Wa ih s et t le men ts ( Fau l l , 1 975 , 4 3, n . 1 01),

l t may b e t ha t t he a spect wh ich s truck

t he Eng l ish a s p art icu lar ly " Br it ish" was t he c on t inued u se o f t he B r it ish l anguage wh ich e nsured t he s urv iva l o f t he B r it ish p lace-na mes. 2 1 Conc lus ion The c ourse o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le ment o f Northu mbr ia v ar ied f ro m a rea t o a rea , r ang ing f ro m a g radua l b u i ld-up o f Eng l ish s treng th i n De ira t o a d ec is ive m i l itary c a mpa ign i n E l met .

A lthough t here i s l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l

e v idence f or i n tens ive Eng l ish s et t le men t i n Bern ic ia d ur ing t he p agan p er iod , s o t ha t t he p opu la t ion may h ave r e ma ined b asica l ly B r it ish , t he s ources s how t ha t i t was a s f irm ly u nder Eng l ish p o l it ica l c on tro l i n t he s eventh-cen tury a s was De ira t o t he s outh .

The b lanket c over o f Eng l ish p lace-na mes o ver t he

who le o f Northu mbr ia ( i n c ontrast w ith t he l a ter S cand inav ian n a mes, wh ich t end t o o ccur i n t he p referen t ia l r eg ions) I nd ica tes Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t a t t he p easan t l eve l o f s oc ie ty t hroughout t he who le o f t he k ingdo m p r ior t o t he S cand inav ian o ccupa t ion .

Desp ite t he d if ferences i n t he c ond it ions u nder wh ich

t he Eng l ish a nd t he B r it ish f i rst c a me i nto c ontact , i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t i n a l l t he r eg ions wh ich c o mpr ised s eventh-century Nor thu mbr ia

-

De ira , E l met ,

Bern ic ia a nd Rheged as ign if icant p roport ion o f t he p opu la t ion wou ld h ave h ad s o me B r it ish a ncestry . -

The a bsence o f Ce lt ic p lace-na mes i n t he p r i mary s et t le ment a reas c an n o l onger b e t aken t o p rove t he e x ter m ina t ion o f t he B r it ish p opu lat ion , e spec ia l ly c ons ider ing t ha t t he s trongest a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or s urv iva l o f B r it ish e sca ta log ica l b e l iefs c o mes f ro m t he East R id ing , wh ich h as t he l east n u mber o f Ce lt ic n a mes. The Wa ih/Bret tas p lace-na mes p o in t t o s cat tered e xa mp les o f B r it ish c o m mun it ies s urv iv ing f or a t ime a s r ecogn isab le e nt it ies o n t he l ess a t tract ive s i tes o n t he e dges o f t he ma jor Eng l ish s e t t le men t a reas a nd I n t he u p land r eg ions ;

t he ir t o ta l a bsence f ro m t he East R id ing wou ld s ee m t o c on-

f i rm t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence wh ich s uggests t ha t w ith in t he ma jor f i f th a nd s ix th-cen tury Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t a rea , t he l oca l B r it ish i nhab itants d id n o t s urv ive i n i ndependence b ut were a ss im i la ted i n to t he Eng l ish c o m mun i ty Probab ly a s t he r esu lt o f t he b reakdown o f t he Roman c o m merc ia l e stab l ishmen ts, i t was t he ma ter ia l c u lture o f t he Ang lo-Saxons wh ich p redo m ina ted t hroughout t he k ingdo m , a lthough i n Bern ic ia o f s uch a g enera l ly p overty-

2 0

s tr icken a nd u nd ist ingu ished n a ture t ha t s ites o f t he Eng l ish e ra a re d if icu lt t o d if feren t ia te f ro m t hose o f e ar l ier p er iods . T he o n ly a ccura te way t o g auge t he s ta tus o f t he B r it ish w ith in t he Eng l ish c o m mun ity wou ld b e f ro m l i terary e v idence b ut , u nfortuna te ly , p robab ly a s a r esu lt o f t he d isrup t ion c aused b y t he S cand inav ian i nvasions, t here a re n o e xtan t e ar ly Northu mbr ian l ega l c odes c o mparab le t o t hose f or s outhern Eng land .

I n t he e ar ly e leventh c entury Archb ishop Wu ifstan I o f York c o m-

p iled a n u mber o f c odes, ( Bethuru m , 1 950 , 4 59) , i nc lud ing t he Nor leoda Laga ( L ieber mann , 1 903-16 , 4 58-61 ;

Wh ite lock . 1 954 , n o . 5 2) , wh ich l ays d own

werge lds f or v ar ious r anks o f s oc iety , amongst t he m f ree Wa las : And g if W il is man [ var iant r ead ings Wi l isc man , Wea i isc mon , Wa l iscus ] g e eo P a et h e h bbe h iw isc l andes 7 m ege c yn inges g afo l f or br ingan , p onne b i ( eh V I I )

h is werg i ld CXX [ or

C CXX ] s c i l l .

And g if h e n e g e eo b uton t o h ea lfre h ide , P Dnne s i h is wer LXXX s c hi . ( V I I , 1 ) And g if h e a en ig l and n bbe 7f r eah f reoh man mid LXX s c h l l . ( eh . V I II )

sy,

f org i lde h ine

And i f a Wa ih p rospers s o t ha t h e h as a h ide o f l and a nd c an p roduce t he k ing 's t r ibute , t hen h is werge ld I s 1 20 s h i l l ings. And i fh e d oes n o t p rosper b eyond h a lf a h ide , t hen h is wer g e ld i s t o b e 8 0 s h i l l ings . And i fh e h as n o l and a nd n ever the less i s f ree , h e i s t o b e p a id f or w ith 7 0 s h i l l ings . Af ree Eng l ish c eor l w ith a h ide o f l and , t he n or ma l h o ld ing , was r a ted a t 2 00 s h il l ings ; t he h igher f i gure o f 2 20 s h il l ings g iven i n s o me t ex ts f or a Wa lh i s l i ke ly t o b e as cr iba l e rror a nd t he 1 20 s h i l l ings o f T ext D i s p robab ly c orrect , a s a Br iton wou ld b e more l i ke ly t o h ave a l ower werge ld t han h is Eng l ish e qu iva len t

The i nfer ior s ocia l p os it ion o f t he B r it ish wou ld r ef lect s tandard

G er man ic p ract ice i n d ea l ing w ith t he n at ive p opu la t ion i n t he a reas wh ich t hey t ook o ver , s uggest ing t ha t t he Wa las o f t he Nor leoda L aga a re i nd igenous B r itons a nd n ot l a ter Im m igran ts f ro m Ce lt ic a reas o utside Eng land . Wu ifstan s ee ms t o h ave a sse mb led h is c odes f ro m a n u mber o f e arl ier s ources a nd Pro fessor D

Wh ite lock h as s uggested t o me t ha t h is s ect ions o n

Wa las may h ave b een c op ied f ro m t he l a te s eventh-century West S axon L aws o f I ne, e h

XXX I I ( At tenborough , 1 922, 4 6-7 )

The s a me t er m Wi l isc mon

o ccurs i n b o th c odes a nd t he p roport ion o f 1 20 t o 2 00 s h i l l ings f or a Br it ish l andho lder a s a ga inst a n Eng l ish l andowner , a nd t he 8 0 s h il l ings werge ld f or t he Br iton w ith h a lf a h ide o r l and , a re t he s a me a s i n t he L aws o f me ;

o n ly

t he l and less man i s v a lued a t 1 0 s h i l l ings more t han i n Wessex a nd t he f igure o f l xx may h ave b een a s cr iba l miscopy ing o f l x .

P ro fessor Wh ite lock p o ints

o ut t ha t t he c odes s how t ha t Wu ifstan was i n terested i n t he p oss ib il ity o f p oss ess ion o f l and e n t it l ing a man t o r ise i n t he s oc ia l s ca le a nd s o a cqu ire a h igher werge ld , a nd t ha t i n me ' sL aws h e f ound a c lause t o p rov ide h im w ith f urther s upport .

I t may b e t ha t Wu lfstan was aware o f p rov isions i n e ar l ier

Northu mbr ian l aws f or Wa las h o ld ing o ne h ide o f l and o r l ess b ut u sed t he West 2 1

S axon v ers ion wh ich b et ter s u ited h is p urpose.

T here i s n o e qu iva len t i n t he

Nor l eoda Laga t o t he West S axon s yxhynde wea lh w ith a t hegn 's h o ld ing o f s ix h ides , a nd p oss ib ly t h is c lass d id n o t e x ist i n Nor thu mbr ia.

Whether t he

l aw i s u lt i ma tely West S axon o r Nor thu mbr ian i n o r ig in , i ti s un l ike ly t ha t t he d escendan ts o f t he Br itons wou ld s t il l h ave b een i den t if iab le i n Nor thu mbr ia i n t he e leven th c entury , b u t Wu lfstan may h ave t hough t t ha t t he r eference w as t o We lsh men f ro m Wa les.

The Nor l eoda L aga must b e t reated w ith c au t ion

a s e v idence f or t he p os it ion o f Wa las i n Nor thu mbr ia a t a ny p er iod b u t , i fi t were b ased o n e ar ly Nor thu mbr ian l aw , i t wou ld s uppor t t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t hat t here were s uf f ic ien t Br itons i n t he Nor thu mbr ian c o m mun ity t o r equ ire p rov is ion t o b e made f or t he m i n t he l ega l c odes , a nd t ha t t hese i nc luded men own ing a s much l and a s a n Eng l ish c eor l a lthough n ot p erhaps a s much a s at hegn. T he g rave-goods w ith t he b ur ia ls i n t he Br it ish t rad it ion i nd ica te Br it ish s urv iva l a t t he h ighest a s wel l a s t he l owest r anks o f s oc iety.

Th is i s c on-

f or med b y t he e v idence o f t he Br it ish p ersona l n a mes a nd t he n a mes i nd ica t ive o f mixed p aren tage f ound c o mpounded i n p lace-na mes , p o in t ing t o i n ter marr iage b etween Br itons a nd Ang les :

t hose p reserved i n t he p lace-na mes must r e-

p resent o n ly a v ery sma l l p ropor t ion o f s uch n a mes i n u se. I t s hou ld b e r eme mbered t ha t A lch fr ith was p robab ly t he s on o fR ie m me ith o f Rheged ( see a bove

p .

3 ) a nd t hat Eanfr ith s ee ms t o h ave b een t he f ather o f t wo c h i ldren

b y aP ict ish w ife who m h e must h ave marr ied wh ile i n e x ile i n P ic t land b et ween 6 17 a nd 7 33 ( Hun ter B la ir , 1 954 , 1 60 ).

T hese were p robab ly p o l it ica l

marr iages b u t t hey d o s how t hat t he Nor thu mbr ian r oya l h ouse was b y n o means a verse t o marry ing n on-Eng l ish b r ides n or t o t he s uccess ion o f t he ir o f fspr ing ; t here s ee ms n o r eason why t he ir s ub jects s hould n ot h ave f o l lowed s u it.

I t

i s i n terest ing t o s pecu late o n t he p oss ib le e f fect o f h av ing h ad a Br it ish w ife o r mother a nd a lso o f t he i nf luence o f t he p ro longed p er iods s pen t i n e x ile a t n on-Eng l ish c our ts o n me mbers o f t he r oya l h ouse i n t he ir a t t itude t o t he N Br it ish s ub jects w ith in t he ir k ingdo m. Edw in 's n ephew Herer ic was i n e x i le i n i n E l met when h e was p o isoned ( Bede , I V , 2 3 ) a nd Edw in h i mself may h ave b een b rough t u p a t t he c our t o f Cadfan o f Gwynedd ( Bro mw ich , 1 961, x cv i ix cv i i i ).

I n t h is e ar ly p er iod t hough , i ti s p erhaps u nw ise t o t h ink o f t he Br it ish

a nd Eng l ish a s s epara ted b y e normous h u ifs , a nd e ven r e l ig ion may n ot h ave b een s uch a g rea t d iv ider

-

Chr ist ian Br it ish k ings waged war a s f i erce ly o n

e ach o ther a s a ga inst t he p agan Eng l ish , who i n t he ir t urn o f ten c ame i nto c onf l ict w ith o ne a nother.

A f ter a ll Cadwa l lon , a Chr ist ian Br it ish k ing , a nd

Penda , t he p agan Eng l ish k ing o f Merc ia , were q u ite p repared t o u n ite t o b r ing a bou t t he d estruct ion o f Edw in , a Chr ist ian Eng l ish k ing , ( Bede , I , 2 0 ). The Br it ish were p robab ly s im ilar i n p hys ica l a ppearance t o t he Eng l ish ( Fau l l , 1 970 , 2 48-63 ) a nd f ew a spects o f t he b as ic way o f l i fe o f t he o rd inary Br it ish p easan t wou ld h ave s ee mes a l ien t o a n Eng l ish p easan t.

Once t hey h ad

a dop ted t he Eng l ish l anguage a nd mater ia l c u l ture, t here was p robab ly v ery l i t t le i ndeed t o d ist ingu ish t he ir d escendan ts f rom t he Ang lo-Saxons a par t p erh aps f ro m a n i nher ited l ower werge ld a nd a dherence i n s o me r eg ions t o c er ta in t rad it iona l p ract ices , s uch a s b ur ia l r i tes.

With t he c om ing o f C hr is t ian ity

a nd t he impos it ion o f u n ifor m b ur ia l r i tes e ven t h is l at ter d ist inct ion wou ld s oon h ave d isappeared . The c o mp lete a ss im ila t ion o f t he Br it ish c o mponen t h ad p robab ly b een a cco mp l ished b y t he t ime o f t he S cand inav ian s e t t le men ts

2 2

a nd t he d isrup t ion wh ich t hey c aused must h ave swept away a ny s urv iv ing minor d if ferences b e tween Br r t ish a nd Eng l ish d escendan ts.

The o n ly l i terary

e v idence i s t he p oss ib le r eference t o c lasses o f Br itons p reserved b y Archb ishop Wu ifstan a nd i ti s t he a rchaeolog ica l a nd p lace-na me mater ia l wh ich prov ides t he c lue t ha t t he Nor thu mbr ian p opu lat ion was b y n o means p ure ly German ic i n o r ig in.

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APPEND IX I RO MAN AND POST-RO MAN BURIALS I N NORTHU MBR IA

Th is l ist c overs o n ly t hose b ur ia ls l ike ly t o b e l ate i n d ate , made i n c is ts o r f or wh ich t he o r ien tat ion o r b ody p os it ion i s r ecorded .

For p lo t t ing f ig .

1 : 2 , i th as b een a ssu med t ha t i n d escr ip t ions wh ich a re n o t e xp l ic it a bou t t he o r ien ta t ion , f or e xa mp le " ly ing n or th a nd s outh" , t he f irs t c o mpass p o int men t ioned r efers t o t he h ead , a s t h is i s ac onvent ion o f ten f ound i n t he l i terat ure ; s uch e xa mp les h ave , h owever , b een d if feren t iated o n f ig . 1 : 2f ro m t hose whose o r ienta t ion i s c er ta in.

L oca t ion 1 . Aco mb , Wy .

Deta i ls A y outh w i th f eet p o in t ing n ear ly

Arch , V( 1779) ,

s outh a nd a n a du lt w ith f ee t t o t he

2 26-7 .

s outh-west ; 2 . Ade l , WY .

3 .

Beadne l l, N .

Reference

b o th i n s tone c of f ins.

Three c of f ins, o ne h av ing t he f eet t o t he s outh .

Lew thwa lte, 1 869 , i i.

N ineteen c ist b ur ia ls i n trus ive i n

‚

4 th s er .,

Bronze Age c a irn , I nc lud ing e x ten-

XLIX ( 1971) ,

d ed a du lt , h ead t o n orth ;

5 3-69.

c h i ld , h ead t o n orth ;

e x tended

f l exed b ur ia l ,

h ead t o e ast , w ith c lass A3 p ena nnu lar . 4 .

5 .

Bess lngby , EY .

B irk ln , WY .

Three b ur ia ls w ith in t he s et t le ment , YAJ , XXXVII o ne I n ac rouched p osit ion u nder

( 1951) , 4 38-40,

ac ha lk c a irn a nd a nother I n ap it .

5 23-4 .

Gypsu m b ur ia l I n c off in .

PSA, 2 nd s er., XVI I I ( 1899-1901) , 1 29-30 .

6 . B lea lands Nook , EY .

Twe lve b ur ia ls, t en o f t he m c on-

Mort i mer , 1 905,

t racted ;

1 94-6, f i g . 4 89.

f our w ith h eads n or th-

n orth-east , s even w ith h eads n orthe ast , o ne h ead s outh-west . 7 .

Bo tcherby , C .

L ead c of f in c on ta in ing wooden c of f in , h ead n orth-west .

8 . Bou lby , NY .

S even c ist b ur ia ls.

‚

os,

I V ( 1878) ,

3 25. A tk inson , 1 882 , 1 1-12 ; XM XXV ( 1920) , 5 1 n .

2 6

9 .

1 0.

Brough-on-

Two f irst-century A .D . c ist

Ant J , XVII I

Humber, EY .

b ur ia ls, o ne o f ap r iest .

( 1938) , 6 8-74 .

Camp Graves, N .

Two c ists " ranged e ast t o west",

Arch J , X I ( 1854) ,

c on ta in ing i ron sword , b ronze j ug

2 30.

a nd 3 0 Ro man s i lver c o ins. 1 1.

Car l is le, C .

S tone c ist l ined w ith o ak p lanks

Hodgson , 1 840,

a nd l ead , c onta in ing f ive s econd-

I V , 3 00n .

c en tury c o ins a nd p ew ter p h ia l ; t wo o ther l ead c off ins n earby . Oak c of f in c overed b y ah uge s tone, l y ing n orth a nd s outh . T i le g rave c onta in ing i ron n a i ls p robab ly f ro m wooden c off in ,

c _ y ,

Os, X I I ( 1893) , 3 71.

Q,

X II I ( 1895) , 2 51-2 . Os,

l y ing n orth a nd s outh . Cof f in w i th h ead t o s outh .

n s, LXXIV ( 1974) , 1 2 .

U.

Cast ieford , WY .

Gypsu m b ur ia l i n c of f in , h ead t o

JRS , LVI I ( 1967) ,

e ast .

1 79 ;

Ra m m , 1 971,

1 95. 1 3 .

Cast le Howard ,

F our c ists, t wo w ith h ead t o n orth

Corder, 1 928 ,

NY .

a nd t wo a pprox i ma te ly n orth-north

1 0-12 a nd 1 8-20 .

e ast ; 1 4 .

1 5.

t hree o f t hese were e x tended

?Chape l House

You th b ur led c lose t o t he wai l o f

Far m mi lecast le ,

M

mi lecast le , f eet t o e ast ;

( 1930) , 1 54.

N .

c ia ted o b jects.

Crambe , NY .

C ist c onta in ing Cra mbeck a nd c a l-

Yorksh ire Ph i lo-

c i te-gr it ted s herds, h ead t o n orth .

s oph ica l S ociety

n o a sso-

4 th s er ., V I I

Annua l Report , ( 1966) , 2 8 . 1 6.

E l mswe ll, EN.

Two c ontracted b ur ia ls " fac ing

Congreve , 1 937 ,

s ou th", o ne h av ing i t s h ead t o t he

1 9-20 .

e ast ; 1 7 .

n o g rave-goods.

Fu iwe l l H i l ls, B ody 9 ' 6 '' l ong , h ead t o west , n ear Muncre mouth , w ith t wo Ro man c o ins n ear t he r ight D . h and a nd c overed w ith f our l arge f kt

Q

,p t. I , 6 4.

s tones, f ound I n 1 759. 1 8.

Green Ha m merton , C of f in , h ead t o n orth .

YAJ , XLIV ( 1972) ,

WY .

2 19 ;

r ecords o f

t he Yorksh ire Museu m . 1 9.

2 0 .

Heaves Fe l l, W.

Housesteads, N .

C on tracted b ody w ith b lue b ead ,

CW , n s, X I I ( 1912) ,

r ing a nd p enannu lar .

3 97-402.

E xtended ma le b ody , h ead n orthn orth-west , f ound w ith f ragmen ts 2 7

4 th s er ., X ( 1933) , 8 8 .

o f af e ma le b ody u nder f l oor o f b u i ld ing V I I I . Ex tended b ody w ithout g rave-goods. AA , 4 th s er., X I I ( 1935) , 2 36 . 2 1.

L eeds, WY .

G ypsu m b ur ia l I n c off in, h ead d ue n orth .

Ba tty , 1 877 , 9 ; Parson a nd Wh ite 1 830 , 1 , 2 74-5.

2 2 .

Ma lton , NY .

2 3 .

Maryport , C .

Twenty-f ive i nhu ma t ions , s even o f t he m c rouched .

JRS , XL W ( 1954) , 9 0-1.

T hree o r f our c ists f ound I n t he

PSA , 2 nd s er .,

Ro man c e metery .

V I II ( 1879-81) , 3 93 .

2 4.

M i l ling ton , EY .

Ten i nhu mat ions, a l l c on tracted a nd w ith h eads t o n orth ;

Mort i mer , 1 905,

t hree

1 70-1.

h av ing t he r igh t h and u nder t he h ead . 2 5.

Naw ton , NY .

C ist a l igned n orth-north-west

XL ( 1962) ,

c on ta in ing e x tended b ur ia l w ith

3 07-10 .

h ead t o n orth . 2 6.

Newcast le , N .

C ist w ith f rag men t o f i nscr ibed s lab Arch .J ., XX I , o n c over , c onta in ing p ot , g lass ( 1864) , 8 8 . v esse l, p ottery l a mp . S tone c of f in l y ing n ear ly n or th a nd

‚

s outh c on ta in ing Castor ware p ot ;

2 nd s er.,

XXV ( 1904) , 1 47-9 .

s econd c of f in f ound a d jacent t o t h is. 2 7 .

New ton , NY .

S econdary c ist b ur ia l I n B ronze

Hayes a nd Rut ter ,

Age b arrow . 2 8 .

2 9 .

1 964, 3 8 .

Per ish Crayke ,

Bur ia l I n g rave l i ned w ith Ro man

NY .

K itson C lark , 1 935 ,

t i les a nd c overed w ith t wo s tone s labs, h ead n orth-east .

1 20.

P iercebr ldge , D .

C ist a l igned n or th-nor th-west t o

OS,

s outh-south-east , c on ta in ing b ody

V I I ( 1934-

3 6) 2 42-4 .

o f a wo man w ith Ro man n a ils , g lass t ear b ot t le i n al ead c asket . Ma le b ur ia l a nd t hree c ist b ur ia ls

DN , o s ., X I

o f af e ma le a nd t wo ma les , a l l

( 1958-65) , 1 72-4 .

a l igned n or th-sou th a nd w ithout g rave-goods. A lso t wen ty-four b ur ia ls, s o me i n c ists, f ound 1 856-7 , w ith h orse s ke letons a nd Ro man p o t tery a nd c o ins o f t he e ar ly s econd t o m id t h ird c entur ies. 3 0 . Po l l ing ton , WY .

G ypsu m b uria l i n c off in , h ead t o west . YAJ , XXX III ( 1951) , 5 26-7 .

2 8

3 1.

S ancton, EY .

Two i nhu ma t ion , o ne i n ac ist .

Foster, 1 882 , 1 2-13 .

3 2 .

3 3 .

S ou th S h ie lds, D .

S paun ton, NY .

C ist b uria l 3 00 y ds s outh-west

AA , 4 th s er ., I

o f f ort .

( 1925) , 1 9.

C ist b ur ial o f e x tended ma le , r igh t

Ho me , 1 905, 4 6-7 .

h and u nder s ku l l, f ound 1 893 w ith b urn ished p ot , b eads a nd " bronze s tuds" S econd c ist n earby .

OS r ecord c ards, n o . S E 7 8 NW U.

3 4 .

S ut ton-under-

S arcophagus o f Coscon ia Ma m m io la , YAJ , XL ( 1962) ,

Wh itestonec l if f ,

h ead n or th-north-west , r eused f or

2 98 .

Two c ists a l igned e ast-sou th-east

Hayes a nd Rut ter ,

t o west-north-west .

1 964 , 5 4-6 .

NY . 3 5. Ward le R igg , NY .

Two s labs

o f o ne , wh ich c on ta ined a sma l l c on tracted s ke leton , p ene tra ted t he s lab meta l l ing o f t he Ro man r oad , t he o ther , i n wh ich n o r e ma ins were f ound , d id n o t d isturb t he meta l ling . 3 6 .

We lton Wo ld , EY .

T h irty-f ive a du lt a nd f if teen i nfan t I nhu ma t ions i n s ha l low g raves s ca t tered o ver 2 2-acre Ro mano-

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o Mr . R . W. Mackey , t he e xcavator , f or

B r it ish f ar m s ite . Bur ia ls n ora l low ing me a ccess ma l ly n ex t t o b oundar ies o r a d jacent t o t h is mater ia l i n t o b u i ld ings, wh ich a re a l igned a dvance o f p ub l icat ion .

n or th-south a nd may h ave p art ly

d eter m ined t he o r ien ta t ion o f t he b ur ials.

O f t hese t wenty h ad h eads

t o t he n orth , t wo t o t he n orth-east , s ix t o t he e ast , t wo t o t he s ou th , o ne t o t he s outh-west , o ne t o t he west a nd t wo t o t he n orth-west . C rouched a nd f lexed i nhu ma t ions were ma in ly f ro m t he f irst t o t he e nd o f t he t h ird c entury A .D ., wh i le t he e x tended b ur ia ls were a l l l a ter t han A .D . 3 50.

Two b od ies h ad

b een i n terred i n f i l ledin c orn d r iers o ne i n t he b ack-f i l l o f t he c ha lk q uarry , t wo o n t he s ide o f ad rover oad a nd t hree i n d itches, t here was o ne f ace-down b ur ia l;

The o n ly

g rave-goods were a p ot w ith a n e ar ly b ur ia l a nd a l ead s p ind le whor l .

2 9

3 7 . We therby , WY .

E leven b uria ls, i nc lud ing f our

YAJ , XXX I ( 1934) ,

c ists a nd o ne w ith r oof ing s la tes,

1 71-5 .

a l l w ith h eads p o in t ing b etween n orth-and n orth-east ;

f our were

e x tended a nd t hree f lexed o r c ont racted . 3 8 . Years ley , NY .

3 9 . York .

G roup o f c ist b uria ls, i nc lud ing

Greenwe l l, 1 877 ,

t hree e xtended a nd o ne c on tracted .

5 50-f.

C ist b ur ia ls, o ne w ith h ead 50 west

RCH M , 8 1, vand

o f n or th , of ten a ssoc ia ted w ith t he

v ii i ;

u se o f g ypsu m .

8 4 , x ii i.

S even g ypsu m

b ur ia ls o r ien ta ted b etween n orthwest a nd n orth . T rentho l me Dr ive c e metery , b ody p osit ion c ou ld b e d eter m ined f or a pprox i mately 1 00 b ur ia ls , t he ma jor ity o f which were e x tended ; o r ienta t ion t o a l most a l l p o ints o f t he c o mpass o ccurred , b ut t he h eav iest c oncentra t ion f e l l i n t he s ector b etween west a nd n orth .

3 0

Wenham , 1 968 .

O r i e n t a t i o n o f C i s t B u r i a l s a t Y o r k

L f

‚ 4

0 0

APPEND IX I I ANO MALOUS ANGLO-SAXON BUR IALS I N NORTHU MBR IA

I .

De ira ( f ig . 1 : 4 ) I n De ira s i tes w ith u nusua l b ur ia ls t end t o o ccur i n g roups.

1 .

T he S ancton a rea F our s i tes i n t he S ancton a rea h ave p roduced c ontracted b ur ia ls.

The

Ro l leston Papers i n t he Ash mo lean Museu m make i t c lear t hat t here were i nh u mat ions i n t he S ancton Wo ld c re mat ion c e me tery b ut p rov ide d eta iled i nforma t ion a bou t b ur ia l r i tes o n ly f or t hose i n t he c e metery l y ing n ex t t o t he c hurch a t t he f oot o f t he wo ld ( Fau l l , 1 977 ).

Rol leston wr ites t ha t Foster t old h im

t ha t most o f t he b od ies were c on tracted , a nd n o tes t hat t h is was c er ta in ly t he c ase w ith t he b ur ia l o f ay outh w ithou t g rave-goods a nd p robab ly s o w ith a b ur ia l w ith t hree b rooches, i ron k n ife, p ar t o f a n i ron r ing a nd a n amber b ead. Both o f t hese a re d escr ibed a s l y ing " nor th a nd s outh" a nd , a s most p eop le r efer t o t he h ead f irst when d escr ib ing o r ien ta t ion , t h is s uggests t ha t t he h ead was a t t he n or thern e nd.

Foster , 1 882, d escr ibes a n a dd it iona l s even b ur ia ls :

o ne e x tended , w ith h ead t o t he n or th-west , o ne f l exed , t hree c rouched a nd t hree c on tracted.

The c rouched b ur ia l h ad a f l in t a rrowhead a nd s evera l

g lass a nd amber b eads.

A "much c on trac ted" f e ma le b ur ia l h ad t wo wr ist-

c lasps , ab uck le , f our b rooches a nd 2 3 amber b eads , wh ile a ma le c on tracted b ur ia l h ad a n i ron k n ife , s pear a nd " socket" a nd h ad b een b ur ied f ace d own . These i n terments s ee m t o h ave t aken p lace i n t he s a me v ic in ity a s a Ro man c ist b ur ia l a s Foster r ecords t hat a l i t t le t o t he n or th o f t he v illage were : s o me l arge f lat s tones p laced e dgew ise f or a bout f ive f eet i n l eng th a nd c overed o ver w ith o ther f la t s tones.

I ns ide was a s ke leton , much

d ecayed , a lso s o me f ragmen ts o f a Ro man u rn a nd c harcoa l. He a lso men t ions s ee ing a nother Ro man b ur ia l e as t o f t he c ist " taken o ut o f a n e xcavat ion" , wh ich mus t p lace i ti n t he c re ma t ion c e metery o n t he s u mm it o f t he w o ld . An u mber o f e xcava t ions h ave t aken p lace a t L ondesborough ( Swan ton , 1 964 ; s ee a lso Swan ton , 1 967 a nd T odd , 1 975 ), 4 m iles t o t he n orth-w es t o f S ancton , b ut r ecord s surv i v e o ft h e bur i a l r i tes i n o n ly f ive c ases , a ll a pp aren t ly f e ma le.

Two o f t hese , p os it ions u nrecorded , w ere d iscovered t o-

g ether w ith a h orse j aw-bone d ur ing c ha lk-d igg ing i n 1 880 :2 2

o ne, h ead t o

t he s outh-wes t , w as w ithout g rave-goods , b ut t he s econd , h ead t o t he n or thw est , h ad a n i ron k n ife n ear h er r igh t s hou lder , t hree b ronze s trap- moun ts , ab lue g lass b ead , ab ronze a rm let , i ron l atchl if ter , p a ir o f b ronze a nnu lar b rooches , h a lf a b ronze wr ist c lasp a nd a b ronze b e lt f asten ing ( t hese f inds a re l i sted a s g raves 2 a nd 3 i n Swan ton , 1 964 ).

3 2

T he c on tracted b ody o f a

wo man , h ead p o in t ing w est-nor th-west w ith a b ronze a nd i ron a nnu lar b rooch a t h er n eck a nd a n i ron k n ife b y h er k nee ( Swan ton g rave I ) , was s ubsequen t ly e xcava ted b y Canon Ra ine. 23

A f l exed b ur ia l , h ead t o t he e ast , was a cco m-

p an ied b y ap ot , t wo b ronze c lasps a nd a b ronze b rooch.

Two a nnu lar b rooches ,

two p la in b ronze d iscs , g lass a nd amber b eads a nd a n i ron r ing a nd b uck le may a lso h ave c o me f ro m t he s a me b ur ia l ( Swan ton g rave 7 ).

One b ody , o r ien tat ion

unknown , h ad b een i nterred c hest-down , t ogether w ith b eads , t hree c ruc ifor m brooches , al arge a nnu lar made f ro m a d eer 's h orn t ine , a n o b long b ronze p late , p a ir o f g ird le h angers , ap a ir o f wr ist c lasps a nd a sma l l p ot ( Swan ton g rave 9 ) .24 On t he o ther s ide o f t he wo ld , a mi le t o t he n or th a t Nunburnho l me were f ound t hree s ke letons wh ich l ay i n ab ent u p p os i t ion , w ith t he s ku l ls t owards t he e ast , a nd t he a r ms a ppeared t o h ave b een t urned u p b eh ind t he h ead ( Bow man , 1 855 ). The g rave-goods c ons isted o f t wo s i lver w ire e arr ings , o ne moun ted w ith a r ed b ead a nd o ne w ith a b lue , t wo t w isted s i lver w ire f inger r ings , t hree b rooches, t wo wr ist c lasp h a lves , ap in a nd e arp ick moun ted o n ar ing , a n urn , s everal i ron o b jects , ab ronze b uck le a nd a s tr ing o f amber , g lass a nd p orce la in b eads wound a round t he n eck o f o ne b ody a nd t he l ef t a rm o f a nother 25 T he d escr ipt ions o f t he Nor th Newba ld c e metery , 2m iles s ou th o f S ancton , a re e x tre mely v ague w ith n o o r ien ta t ions b e ing g iven a nd o n o ccas ion t he s a me grave-goods a scr ibed t o d i f feren t b od ies ( Sheppard 1 902 ;

1 902a ; 1 907 ).

O f

t he s ix s keletons , t wo were e x tended , o ne f lexed , t he p os it ions o f t wo ( one a c h ild ) w ere n ot men t ioned a nd o ne was " doub led o ver".

On ly t he c ontracted

b ur ia l , t he b ack o f whose h ead h ad b een b roken i n , a lthough p erhaps n ot i n a nt iqu ity , a nd t he c h ild were w ithou t g rave-goods, t he o ther f our b e ing we ll prov ided. 2 .

Dr if f ield Three miles n or th-eas t o f t he Eastburn b ur ia l wh ich was a cco mpan ied b y

t he p ennanular b rooch i s t he Cheesecake H i l l b arrow wh ich p roduced s o me 3 5 s econdary Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls.

The ma jor ity o f t he 2 0 whose o r ien tat ions

were r ecorded h ad t he ir h eads p o in t ing b etween n or th a nd west. t he ir h eads t o t he n or th :

T hree h ad

a n e x tended ma le b ur ia l w ithout g rave-goods

(Mor t i mer , 1 905 , 2 88, n o. 5 ) , a n e x tended f e ma le b ur ia l w ith t wo a nnu lar brooches , t wo a rmlets o f b eads , t wo i ron k n ives , an eck lace o f 4 0 t o 5 0 b eads, ab uck le , r ing , b ronze c lasps a nd t ags ( i b id., 2 87, n o. 3 ) , a nd a c rouched f e ma le w ith f ive b eads ( i b id., n o. 2 ) who h ad b een l a id o ver a nd a t r igh t a ng les t o a n e x tended ma le b ur ia l l y ing west-eas t.

One b ur ia l , p os it ion u n-

r ecorded a nd w ithou t g rave-goods, h ad b een l a id e ast-nor th-east t o westn or th-west , i n r ela t ion t o t he b arrow , i .e. w ith h ead d ue e ast ( i b id., 2 88, n o. 7 ) a nd t here was a lso o ne f ace-down b ur ia l o f a n e x tended f e ma le, h ead p o int ing t o t he s outh-west , b ur ied w ith t wo b ronze a nnu lar b rooches , b eads , a n i ron k n ife, b ronze f inger-r ing a nd a c ruc iform b rooch ( t h id., 2 91, n o. 7 ) . There w ere n o c on trac ted b ur ia ls h ere n or amongst t he b ur ia ls e xcava ted b y Mort i mer a t n earby Dr if f ie ld I , a lthough s ix t here were c rouched a nd h e b el ieved t hat t wo b ur ia ls f ound b y l abourers must h ave b een d oub led u p t o f i t i n t he g raves ( ib id., 2 82 ). 3 3

3 .

F i mber The F i mber c e metery c ons isted o f s econdary b ur ia ls i n a Bronze Age barrow

o n wh ich t he Chr ist ian c hurch was s ubsequent ly b u i lt .

The c lass C p enannu lar

was w ith o ne o f t wo b ur ia ls, o r ien ta t ions a nd b ody p osit ions u nrecorded , f ound c lose t o t he s outh wa l l o f t he c hurch .

A t l east s ix o ther b od ies were f ound w ith

f ragmen ts o f i ron a nd Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery s o me 8 0 y ards t o t he s outh-east a nd t hese a ccord ing t o t he work men " had t he l egs more o r l ess p u l led u p" ( I bid ., 1 92) , ad escr ip t ion wh ich Mort i mer u ses f or b oth c rouched a nd c ontract ed b ur ia ls.

Ro mano-Br it ish a ct iv i ty o n F i mber h i l l i s s uggested b y t he Ro man

p ot tery a ssoc ia ted w ith t wo s take h o les ( i b id ., 1 91) a nd f inds o f c o ins i n t he c hurchyard .2 6 4 .

Hornsea A t Hornsea , o n t he e ast c oast , t wo r ows o fb ur ia ls were e xcava ted ; f our

f lexed b ur ia ls, o ne e x tended b ur ia l a nd t hree o f t he f our c rouched b ur ia ls had t he ir h eads p o int ing b etween s outh-east a nd s outh-west , wh i le t he o ther c rouched b ur ia l a nd t he t hree c on tracted b ur ia ls h ad t he ir h eads b etween west a nd n orth . T he c ontracted b ur ia l w ith h ead d ue n orth h ad a n I ron k n ife a nd a s i lver d isc, t he c on tracted b ur ia l , h ead d ue west , h ad a c ruc ifor m b rooch , a n a nnu lar b rooch , p ot tery a nd a n eck lace , a nd t he v ery s trong ly c on tracted b ur ia l o f ac h i ld, w ith h ead j ust n orth o f west was w ithout g rave-goods.

No Ro man s et t le men t i s y et

k nown I n t he v ic in ity o f Hornsea , a lthough t he c onstant a nd e xtensive c oasta l e ros ion must b e t aken i nto a ccount .

T he c losest k nown s e t t le ment i s 4 mi les

away i n S ea ton p ar ish ( TA 1 4454625) , where o ne o f t he d itches a lso p roduced as herd o f s ta mped Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery .2 7 5 .

The Va le o f P icker ing The S tax ton c e metery wh ich p roduced t he c lass E p enannu lar, i s s i tuated

o n t he s outhern e dge o f t he e astern e nd o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , aq uarter o f a mi le t o t he s outh-west o f a Ro man s et t le men t wh ich may a lso h ave b een o cc up ied b y t he Ang lo-Saxons ( Brewster , 1 957) .

An u mber o f e xcava t ions h ave

b een c arr ied o ut h ere , n one o f t he m a dequa te ly p ub l ished b u t Meaney n otes t ha t p ho tographs i n S carborough Museu m s howed t ha t t wo o f t he f ive b ur ia ls e xcava ted i n 1 939 were

"

c rouch b ur ia ls"

.

T he f i nds f ro m S tax ton a re s ixth-

c entury w ith a f ew f i f th-century o b jects, wh i le t hose f ro m t he S ea mer c e metery , s o me 2 m i les t o t he north , a re ma in ly s eventh-cen tury . T he e xcava t ions h ere were , h owever , a l l c arr ied o ut l ast c entury a nd a g rea t d ea l o f ma ter ia l h as b een l ost i n q uarry ing a nd s ouven ir-hunt ing .

T here may h ave b een a n

e ar l ier u nrecorded p hase a ssoc ia ted w i th t he f i f th-cen tury s e t t le men t , h a lf a mi le t o t he s outh-east , wh ich h ad b een e stab l ished a longside a l a te RomanoB r it ish s et t le men t ( Fau l l, 1 974, 1 7 ; Rut ter a nd D uke , 1 958) . On ly o ne b ody was p roper ly e xcava ted i n s i tu a nd t h is i s d escr ibed a s h av ing b een b ur ied I n ak nee l ing p osit ion , i .e . c on tracted . W ith i t were a k n ife , b one a nd I ron f ragments, s uggested b y Meaney t o b e f ro m a p urse a nd b uck le , a nd ab ronze r ing f ro m a g ird le .

3 4

I.

B ern icia ( f ig. 1 : 5 ) T he most d ef in ite Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia l s how ing Br it ish i nf luence i s t ha t f ro m

Cast le Eden , D , d iscovered i n 1 775 t ogether w ith a s ix th-cen tury c law-beaker ( Bruce- M itford , 1 952 ).

T he b ody s ee ms t o h ave b een e x tended b u t w ith a

Br it ish o r ienta t ion a s t he h ead was a t t he e astern e nd o f t he g rave.

The g rave

h ad b een c overed w ith a c a irn o f s tones , af eature a lso n ot iced w ith a n u mber o f t he i n ter men ts u ncovered d ur ing q uarry ing a t How ick , N .28

O f t he s ix teen

b od ies , o ne, w ithou t g rave-goods , l ay w ith h ead t o t he s outh , as l ight ly f lexed b ur ia l w ith k n ife f rag men ts a nd a h orse-b it a nd l impet s hel ls n earby , h ad i ts h ead t o t he west , af e ma le , w ith h ead t o t he n or th-west h ad a f l in t , a nd a f our th i ntermen t w ith t wo g lass b eads , ak n ife a nd t hree q uar tz p ebbles, h ad i ts h ead t o t he n or th-east .

The o n ly d ist inct ively Ang lo-Saxon o b ject i n t he c e metery

was a n u nassoc iated s pearhead w ith s p l it s ocket.

A b rown g lass b ead w ith

wh ite s p ira l mark ings a nd b lue d ots , t hought t o h ave b een f ound w ith o ne o f t he b ur ia ls , c ou ld b e Eng l ish a lthough p ara l lels d o o ccur i n n on-Ang lo-Saxon c ont ex ts.

O therw ise, t he u nd ist ingu ished g rave-goods c ou ld e qua l ly we l l h ave

b elonged i n an at ive Ro mano-Br it ish o r e ven I ron Age c on tex t. One c rouched b ur ia l a t How ick ( Bosanquet ts n u mber I ) was n ot o n ly c ove red b y s tones b ut a lso h ad a l arge f lagstone o ver t he f eet s uggest ing p ar t ia l c ist b ur ial.

O ther c is ts o f p oss ib le Ang lo-Saxon d ate were d iscovered i n 1 822

a t Cornfor th , Thr is l ing ton , D .

There were s o me e leven b ur ia ls , e ach c ov-

e red b y l arge f lagstones s uppor ted o n s tones a rranged a round t he b ody.

The

b ones o f ah orse a nd p robab ly a d og w ere f ound i n o ne g rave b u t t he o n ly g raveg oods w ere t wo s pearheads.

These c ou ld c once ivably h ave b een I ron Age i n

d ate a l though t he a bsence o f a ny b arrow a nd t he r egu lar s pac ing o f t he g raves a rgues a ga inst t h is.

T he o n ly n ote made o n t he o r ientat ions was t hat t hey were

i n v ar ious d irect ions a nd n ot e ast-wes t.

O f more u ncer ta in d a te i s t he Cop t

H i ll, Hough tonle-Spr ing , D s econdary b arrow b ur ia l i n ac ist made o f s tones s et o n e dge.

T here were n o g rave-goods b u t t he s econdary n ature, t he e x-

t ended p os it ion a nd t he o r ien ta t ion w ith h ead t o t he west s uggest t ha t t h is may b e Ang lo-Saxon. I I.

Rheged a nd E l met ( f ig. 1 : 6 ) A n u mber o f c ist b ur ia ls , o r ien ta t ion n ot r ecorded , were d iscovered i n

1 959 d ur ing r oad c onstruc t ion o n t he e astern s ide o f t he Ro man r oad a t t he ma jor Ro man s i te o f Ca tter ick i n t he n or thern p ar t o f Yorksh ire ( Pocock , 1 970, 4 07, n . 2 ).

The f inds i nc luded s ix s pearheads , a n i ron d agger , as h ield -

b oss a nd a n e ar ly s even th-century c ruc ifor m b rooch.

Ano ther c ist , a t Hebden

Bank n ear Easthorpe ( Meaney 's App leton-le-S treet ) c on ta ined a s ke leton w ith ap a ir o f g o ld e arr ings , a n amber n eck lace , sma l l u rn a nd b one c o mb.

The

c ist i t se l f i s n ot d escr ibed b u t a s i t was l oca ted i n t he s a me a rea o f t he Howard ian H ills a s t he ma jor ity o f l ate a nd p ost-Ro man c is t b ur ia ls , i t was p robab ly o f t he s a me t ype.

The g rave-goods, wh ich were t aken t o Cast le

Howard a nd a ppear n ow t o b e l ost , a re o f t he r ich k ind wou ld u sua l ly c haract eris es l a te b ur ia ls.

T h is i s a lso t he c ase w ith t he g rave-goods

-

al eather

g ird le w ith g arnets a nd g o ld r ivets , o ne b ronze a nd f our s i lver a nnu lar b rooches , o ne s i lver a nd o ne g o ld h a irp in , as tone s p ind le-whor l , b lue g lass b eads , a k n ife a nd b ronze h ang ing b ow l

-

f ound i n t he p r i mary b arrow b ur ia l o f ay oung

wo man w ith h ead p o in t ing n or th a t Hawnby o n t he n or th Yorksh ire moors.

3 5

F rom t he e as tern b oundary o f E l me t c omes t he O ccaney b ur ia l o f ay oung man w i th a p a ir o f b ronze b ird-headed a nnu lar b rooches o f t he l a ter s even th c en tury . T he t yp ica l n a t ive c is t o f l imes tone s l abs l ay e as t a nd w es t b ut i t i s n o t k nown i n w h ich d irec t ion t he h ead p o in ted .

3 6

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1 6 .

o n wh ich t hey a re l oca ted ,

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WY

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7 8 .

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p 1

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f ie ld n a me

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FOOTNOTES

1 .

Is hou ld l ike t o e xpress my g ra tefu l t hanks t o Mrs . Dorothy Payne f or d raw ing t he maps a nd f i gures wh ich a cco mpany t h is p aper .

U n less

o therw ise s ta ted a l l r eferences t o Ro man b ur ia ls may b e f ound i n Append ix I , t o Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls i n Meaney , 1 964 , a nd t o p lacen a mes I n Sm ith , 1 928 ; 1 937 ; 1 961-3 . 2 .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o Mr . R . M iket f or i nfor ma t ion a nd c o m ments o n Ang lo-Saxon B ern ic la .

3 .

la m I ndebted t o Mr . T . G . Manby f or h is a dv ice o n t hese p ieces.

4 .

For t hese c lassif ica t ions s ee a ppend ices t o F ow ler , 1 963 .

5 .

I nfor ma t ion f ro m Ms . M . B rown .

6 .

I nfor mat ion f ro m Mr . M iket .

7 .

The f o l low ing d ef in it ions a re emp loyed i n t h is p aper :

e x tended , b ur ia ls

where t he b od ies were a t f u l l l eng th , whether s up ine , o n o ne s ide o r f ace d own ;

f lexed where t he k nees were s l ight ly b en t ;

c rouched

where t he a ng le a t t he k nees o r t he a ng le o f t he l egs w ith t he b ody was 9 00 o r g rea ter ; c on tracted , where t he a ng le a t t he k nees a nd o f t he l egs t o t he b ody were b oth a cute a ng les ; s trong ly c ontracted , where t he b ody must h ave b een t i ed t o k eep i ti n t ha t p os it ion .

Un less o ther-

w ise s ta ted c o mpass b ear ings I n a l l c ases r efer t o t he d irect ion i n wh ich t he t op o f t he s ku l l was p o int ing , i .e . wh ich t he h ead l ay . 8 .

9 .

t he e nd o f t he g rave a t

S ee t he n u merous e xa mp les I n Mort i mer , 1 905 a nd t he v olu mes o f AA, CW a nd YAJ. Iam g ra tefu l f or t h is I nfor mat ion t o Mr . R . Wh i mster , who i s s tudy ing I ron Age b ur ia l r i tes f or a d octora te a t Durha m Un iversity .

1 0 .

Th is was b ased o n t he s u m mar ies g iven b y Meaney , 1 964 a nd o n r epor ts f or s ites w ith l arge n u mbers o f i n ter men ts ( references a s g iven I n Meaney ) .

Reports o n c er ta in ma jor s i tes h ave y et t o a ppear i n p r in t

a nd t hese may s l ight ly a lter t he p icture.

Probab le Chr ist ian b ur ia ls ,

s uch a s Ca mer ton , S o merset , were e xc luded f ro m t he s ta t is t ics . Co mpass b ear ings a nd r eferences t o s ectors o f t he c o mpass a re g iven t hroughout i n ac lockw ise d irect ion , s o t ha t , f or e xa mp le , o r ien ta t ion t o t he west c overs a l l b ur ia ls w ith h eads p o in t ing b etween west a nd west-north-west . I f.

Wh i le many b ur ia ls h ave b een f ound u nder c ircu mstances wh ich p rec luded a ccura te r ecords b e ing made , e xcava t ion r epor ts h ave s t il l a ppeared I n modern t imes f a i l ing t o d escr ibe e xact p osi t ions a nd o r ien ta t ions,

4 6

f a l l ing t o s ta te wh ich was t he h ead a nd wh ich t he f oot o f t he g rave , o r g iv ing o n ly t he d irec t ion i n wh ich t he ma jor ity o f t he b ur ia ls were p o int ing w ithout a ny e xact f igures, a nd t hese h ave h ad t o b e e xc luded f ro m t he s ta t is it ics.

I n o ther c ases o n ly t hose b ur ia ls wh ich y ie lded

g rave-goods were d escr ibed , t hus p robab ly d istort ing t he p icture .

The

n ineteen th-century r eports where t he a ctua l s ke leton was d rawn a re i n f ac t p referab le t o t hose modern r eports where , f or t he s ake o f e cono my , o n ly t he o ut l ines o f t he g raves a re s hown w ith a d ot r epresen t ing t he h ead , mak ing i tn ecessary t o r e ly o n t he e xcava tor ' sa ssess ment o f t he p osit ion o f t he b od ies. 1 2 .

I n for ma t ion f ro m Mr . Wh i mster .

1 3 .

I dent if ied a s s uch b y t he B r it ish Museu m : E ag les.

1 4 .

i nfor mat ion f ro m Mr . B .N .

F or e xa mp le w ith t he l a te o r p ost-Ro man c ist b ur ia l a t S paun ton I n t he Va le o f P icker ing a nd t hree o f t he b ur ia ls f ro m M i l l ing ton , o n ly 2 m i les n orth-west o f N unburnho l me .

1 5.

F ig . 1 :

5s hows t he ma jor Ro man s ites a nd s tray f inds f ro m t he v ic in ity

o f t he s i tes w ith b ur ia ls i n t he B r it ish t rad it ion : t ed f ro m t he Ordnance S urvey r ecord c ards. 1 6 .

t hese h ave b een p lot-

F or Ward le R igg , l y ing o n ar idge b etween New tonda le a nd Whee lda le , Sm ith ( 1928 , 8 8) s uggests a p ossib le d er iva t ion f ro m wa la , dl a nd h rycg , mean ing " r idge a bove t he v a l ley o f t he We lsh men"

.

For t h is

d er ivat ion a f or m *Wa leda ler igg migh t h ave b een e xpected n ot t he Wa lda ler lgg r ecorded i n 1 252 :

t he f ive d ef in ite Wa lh n a mes i n t he

N orth R id ing , e ven i n q u ite l a te r ecord ings, a l l h ave t he med ia l ewh ich I s a bsent f ro m t he Ward le R igg f or ms.

T he n a me I s u n l ike ly

t o b e d er ivod f ro m w eard-hy l l, "wa tch-h i l l" f ound i n Ward le , C hesh ire , a nd Ward le , Lancash ire , a s t hese b oth h ave a n ri n t he ir e ar ly f or ms a nd t he n a me wou ld b e t auto log ica l, mean ing " r idge o f t he wa tch-h i l l" I ti s more p robab le t ha t i td er ived f ro m wa ld , dl a nd h rycg , r idge "

a bove t he N ooded v a l ley"

.

T he a rea i s wooded t oday a nd wa ld was

o f ten a pp l ied t o h igh f orest l and ( Ekwa l l, 1 960 , 4 91 a nd 4 97 ) . 1 7 .

O n t he Wa ih n a mes o f t he North a nd West R id ings s ee a lso J ones , 1 966 , 4 7-55 .

1 8 ,

T he Ce lt ic n a mes o f Yorksh ire h ave b een r e-exa m ined i n T ho mson . 1 964 b ut t h is d ea lt o n ly w ith n a mes a lready s uggested a s C e lt ic .

1 9.

T hese n a mes w i l l b e d iscussed i n d eta i l i n F au l l, 1 977b where t he r ef erences may a lso b e f ound f or t hose Ce lt ic f i e ld-na mes n ot l i sted i n Sm ith , 1 961-3 .

2 0 .

Is hou ld l i ke t o e xpress my t hanks t o Dr . M . G e l l ing f or a l low ing me t he u se o f t h is ma ter ia l p r ior t o h er own p ub lica t ion .

2 1.

I th as s o me t i mes b een s uggested t ha t t he u se b y u p land s hepherds o f a n e nu mera t ion s yste m wh ich i s o bv iously Ce lt ic i n o r ig in , r epresen ts t he l ast s urv iv ing v est ige o f t he n a t ive C e lt ic s peech .

4 7

Ce lt ic n u mera ls

a re w idespread i n . n orthern Eng land w ith f orty-three o f t he n inety-four r ecorded e xa mp les c om ing f ro m Yorksh ire , t he ma jority i n t he western a nd u p land p ar ts e spec ia l ly Wensleyda le , N idderda le a nd C raven ( Barry , 1 969) .

Barry s uggested t ha t t he n u mbers c ou ld b e s urv iva ls f ro m t he

Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod o r impor ta t ions b y e i ther S cot t ish d rovers o r We lsh l ead- m iners .

T he s im i lar ity o f t he s yste m t o t hat o f Modern

We lsh , e spec ia l ly i n t he s econd d ecade o f t he s core , s trong ly s uggests t ha t i ti s al a ter importa t ion ( Greene , 1 975-6 , 3 07-8) . 2 2.

These a re d escr ibed i n l et ters d ated Apr il 2 6 , Apr il 2 9 a nd May 2 6 , 1 880 s en t t ogether w ith a s ketch t o Professor Ro l leston b y t he Rev. R . Wilton , r ec tor o f Londesborough.

Iam g ratefu l t o Mr . P . D . C .

Brown o f t he Ash mo lean Museu m f or p erm iss ion t o q uote i n for mat ion f ro m t he Ro l leston Papers.

2 3 .

L et ter f ro m Ra ine t o Ro l leston d a ted May 2 4 , 1 880 .

2 4 .

Th is i s l i sted b y Meaney u nder Market We ighton :

t he c onfus ion b etween

L ondesborough , Market We ighton a nd S ancton i s t he r esult o ft he u se o f Market We ighton a s ap osta l a ddress i n t he n ineteenth c entury ( Fau l l , 1 977 , f r i .) . 2 3.

These g rave-goods a re c urren t ly b e ing r e-exa m ined b y Mr . M . Pocock .

2 6 .

I nfor ma t ion f ro m Mr . B .N . Eag les.

2 7 .

I nfor ma t ion f ro m Mr . B .N . Eag les .

2 8 .

Iam i ndebted t o Mr . M ike t f or a l low ing me t he u se o f h is n o tes o n t he R .C . Bosanquet Papers i n t he Museu m o f An t iqu it ies, Newcast le-uponT yne , wh ich d ea l w ith t hese b ur ia ls.

4 8

ABBREVIATIONS

AA

Archaeo log ia Ae llana

Ant J

Ant iquar ies J ourna l

Arch

Archaeo log ia

Arch J

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

C

Cu mber land

CW

Transact ions o f t he Cu mber land a nd West mor land Ant iquar ian a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety

D

County Durham

DN

Transact ions o f t he Arch itectura l a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety o f Durha m a nd Northu mber land

EP NS

Eng l ish P lace-Na me S oc ie ty

EY

East R id ing o f Yorksh ire

GM

The G en t le man ' s Magazine L ibrary ; ( London , 1 887 )

H MP

Hu l l Museu m P ub l ica t ions

JRS

J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies

Med Arch

Med ieva l Archaeo logy

N

Northu mber land

NY

North R id ing o f Yorksh ire

OE

O ld Eng lish

PSA

Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon

RC H M

Roya l Co m m isson o n H istor ica l Monu men ts, Eburacu m ( London , 1 962)

W

West mor land

WY

West R id ing o f Yorksh ire

Y

Yorksh ire

LL

Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ournal

4 9

Ro mano-Br it ish Re ma ins,

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A tk inson , J . C . ( 1882) . ( London , 1 882) . A ttenborough , F . C.

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( 1922) .

( Ca mbr idge , 1 922 ;

Avery , M. a nd Brown , D . XXXVI I ( 1972) , 6 6-8I. Barry , M . ( 1969) . L ife , V I I ( 1969) , Ba t ty , J . Bede .

( 1877 ) .

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r epr int New York , 1 963) . ( 1972) .

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"Trad it iona l e nu mera t ion I n t he North Country", 7 5-91.

Fo lk

T he H istory o f Rothwe l l ( Ro thwe l l , 1 877 ) .

H istor ia Ecc lesiast jca t rans lated i n Bede ' s Ecc lesiast ica l H istory o f

t he Eng l ish Peop le , e d . B . Co lgrave a nd R .A .B . Mynors ( Oxford , 1 969) . Bethuru m , D .

( 1950) .

"S Ix a nony mous O ld Eng lish c odes"

‚

J ourna l o f

Eng l ish a nd G er man ic Ph i lo logy , XLIX ( 1950) , 4 49-63 . Bow man , W.

( 1855) .

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‚

S axon a nt iqu it ies d iscovered a t Nunburnho l me , n ear

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Brewster , T .C . M . ( 1957) . "Excava t ions a t Newha m ' sP it , S tax ton , 1 947-48", YAJ , XXX IX ( 1957) , 1 93-223 . Bro mw ich , R .

( 1961) .

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"The Cast le Eden v ase"

‚

Br it ish Museu m

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( Ro man Ma lton a nd D istr ict Report , n o . 1 , York , 1 928) . Cox , B .H .

( 1972-3) .

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I n h ir n i n t he M id lands a nd East Ang l ia" Cra mp , R .J .

( 1970) .

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( 1972-3 ), 1 5-73.

"The Ang lo-Saxon p er iod", Durha m County a nd C ity

w ith T eess ide , e d . J . C . Dewdney ( Br it ish Assoc ia t ion f or t he Advance men t o f S c ience , Durha m , 1 970) , 1 99-206 . Cra mp , R .J ., C lack , P .A .G . a nd G os l ing , P . F .

( 1976) .

"The e ar ly med ieva l

p er iod" Archaeo logy I n t he North , e d . P . A. G . C lack a nd P . F . G os l ing ( 1976) , 3 8-46 . ‚

5 0

Cro mp ton , A . ( 1969 ).

" Ske tch map o f t he s o i ls o f Yorksh ire" , A S urvey o f

t he Agr iculture o f Yorksh ire , e d. W. Harwood Long ( London , 1 969 ), 1 5. Dodgson , J . MeN. ( 1966 ).

" The s ign if icance o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f t he Eng l ish

p lace-na mes i n ingas , inga- i n s outh-east Eng land", Med.Arch., X ( 1966 ), 1 -29. Ekwa ll , E . ( 1960 ). The Conc ise Ox ford D ict ionary o f Eng l ish P lace-Na mes , 4 th e d. ( Ox ford , 1 960 ). F au ll,

M .L .

( 1970) .

"L ingu ist ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he s urv ival

o f t he Ro mano-Ce lts a nd t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he Ang lo-Saxons d ur ing a nd a f ter t he S et t le men t Per iod" 1 970) .

‚

M .A . D iss.

(Macquar ie Un ivers ity ,

Fau ll, M .L . ( 1974) . "Roman a nd Ang l ian s et t le men t p a t terns i n Yorksh ire", Northern H istory , I X ( 1974) , 1 -25. Fau l l, M .L . 1 -24 .

( 1974a ) .

"Br itons a nd Ang les i n Yorksh ire", S tud iu m , V I ( 1974) ,

Fau ll, M .L . ( 1975) . "The s e mant ic d eve lop men t o f O ld Eng l ish wea lh", Leeds S tud ies i n Eng l ish , V I I I ( 1975) , 2 0-44. Fau ll, M .L . ( 1977) . S axon c e meter ies" Fau l l, M .L .

‚

( 1977a) .

T he n a ture a nd r e la t ionsh ip o f t he S ancton Ang loAn t J , LVI , p t . 2( 1977 , f or thco m ing ) . "The Ro man p er iod"

‚

Archaeo log ica l S urvey o f West

Yorksh ire , ( Wakef ie ld , 1 977 , f orthco ming ) . F au ll, M .L .

( 1977b) .

"The Br it ish p er iod"

Fau ll, M .L .

( 1977c) .

"The Ang lo-Saxon p er iod" ‚ ib id .

F e l lows J ensen , G . ( 1972) . ( Copenhagen , 1 972) .

,

i b id .

S cand inav ian S e t t le men t Na mes i n Yorksh ire

F oster, M .

( 1882) .

O ld Yorksh ire , e d . W. Sm ith ( London , 1 882) , I I , 1 2-13 .

F ow ler , E .

( 1960) .

"The o r ig ins a nd d eve lop men t o f t he p enannu lar b rooch

i n Europe"

‚

P ioceed ings o f t he Preh istor ic S oc iety , XXV I ( 1960) , 1 49-77 .

F ow ler , E . ( 1963) . "Ce lt ic meta lwork o f t he f i f th a nd s ixth c entur ies, A .D .: ar eappra isa l" Arch J , CXX ( 1963) , 9 8-160 . ‚

F rere, S .S . ( 1966) . "The e nd o f t owns I n Ro man B r ita in" T he C iv itas Cap ita ls o f Ro man B r ita in , e d. J . S . Wacher , ( Le icester ,1966) , 8 7-100 . ‚

G e l ling , M . w 1ch m"

‚

( 1967) . " E ng l ish p lace-na mes d er ived f ro m t he c o mpound Med Arch , X I ( 1967) , 8 7-104 .

C e i ling , M . ( 1976) . The P lace-Na mes o f B erksh ire ( EPNS , v o l. 5 1, Ca mbr idge , 1 976) , I I . G e l l ing , M ., N ico la lsen , W.F. H . a nd R ichards, M . Towns a nd C it ies i n B r ita in ( London, 1 970) . G ooda ll , I .H . Yorksh ire"

‚

( 1970) .

T he Na mes o f

( 1972) . " Industr ia l e v idence f ro m t he v i lla a t L ang ton , East YAJ, XLIV ( 1972) , 3 2-7 .

5 1

G reene , D . ( 1975-6) . The I r ish n u mera ls o f Card igansh ire " S tud la Ce lt ica , X-X I ( 1975-6) , 3 05-11. G reenwe l l, W.

( 1877) .

Br it ish Barrows ( Oxford , 1 877) .

Hayes, R .H . a nd H i ldyard , E .J . W . ( 1959) . a t Crayke" YAJ , XL ( 1960) , 9 0-111.

"Ro mano-Br it ish d iscover ies

Hayes, R .H . a nd Rut ter , J . G , ( 1964) .

S

‚

Wade '

Causeway ( Scarborough a nd

D istr ict Archaeo log ica l Research Reports, n o. 4 , S carborough , 1 964) . Henry , F .

( 1956) .

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t he c lo isonne t echn ique" 1 956) , 7 1-90 . Hensha l l, A .S .

( 1955-6) .

‚

Dark Age Br ita in ,

e d . D .B . Harden ( London ,

"A l ong c ist c e me tery a t Parkburn S and P it ,

Lasswade , M id loth ian" Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f Ant iquar ies o f S co t land , LXXXIX ( 1955-6) , 2 52-83 . ‚

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( 1905) .

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r epr int

T he Evo lut ion o f a n Eng l ish T own ( London , 1 905) . ( 1954) .

"The B ern ic ians a nd t he ir n orthern f ront ier"

S tud ies i n Ear ly B r it ish H istory , e d . H .M . C hadw ick ( Ca mbr idge , 1 954) , 1 37-72 . J ackson , K .

( 1953) .

1 953) .

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J ackson , K .

( 1964) . "On t he Northern Br it ish s ect ion i n Nenn ius" S axon , K . J ackson e t a l ( Ca mbr idge , 1 964) , 2 0-62 .

J ackson , K . XXV I

‚

( 1968-9) .

"Addenda a nd

‚

Ce lt a nd

c orr igenda t o EPNS v o ls XXV a nd

EPNS J ourna l , I( 1968-9) , 4 3-52 .

J ones, G .R .J .

( 1966) .

o f o ur v i l lages" ( 1966) , 4 5-57 .

‚

"The c u lture l andscape o f Yorksh ire:

t he o rig ins

T ransact ions o f t he Yorksh ire Ph i losoph ica l S oc iety

J ones, G .R .J . ( 1975) . " Ear ly t err itor ia l o rgan izat ion i n Gwynedd a nd E l met ' Northern H istory , X ( 1975) , 3 -27 . K ing , A .

( 1970) .

K irby , D .P.

Ear ly Penn ine S et t le ment ( Clapha m , 1 970) .

( 1962) .

" S tra thc lyde a nd Cu mbr ia :

d eve lop men t t o 1 092" K irby , D .P .

( 1974) .

‚

as urvey o f h istor ica l

CW , n .s., LX I I ( 1962) , 7 7-94 .

"The k ingdo m o f Northu mbr ia a nd t he d estruc t ion o f

t he Vo tad in i" T ransact ions o f t he East L o th ian An t iquar ian a nd F ie ld Na tura l ists ' S oc iety , X IV ( 1974) , 1 -13 . ‚

K itson C lark , M . ( Leeds, 1 935) .

( 1935) .

A Gazet teer o f Ro man Re mains I n East Y orksh ire

K uur man , J . ( 1973-4) . "An e xa m ina t ion o f t he ingas, Inga- p lace-na mes i n t he East M id lands" EPNS J ourna l, V I I ( 1973-4) , 1 1-44 .

5 2

Le w thwa lte , G .

( 1869) .

Ade l . ;

i t s Nor man Church f ounded b y K ing S tephen

a nd o ther e ar l ier a nt iqu i t ies ( York , 1 869) . L ieber mann, F .

( 1903-16) .

D ie G ese tze d er Ang lesachsen ( Ha l le , 1 903-16) .

Long ley , D . ( 1975) . T he Ang lo-Saxon Connex ion ( Br it ish Archaeo log ica l Reports, n o . 2 2 , Oxford , 1 975) . Matheson , W. ( 1951-2) . " N o tes o n Mary Mac leod" Gae l ic S oc iety o f I nverness, XLI ( 1951-2) , 1 1-25. Meaney , A . L . ( 1964) . ( London , 1 964) .

‚

T ransact ions o f t he

A G azet teer o f Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon B ur ia l S i tes

Meaney , A . L . a nd Chadw ick Hawkes, S .

( 1970) .

Two Ang lo-Saxon Ce meter ies

a t W inna ll, Winchester, Ha mpsh ire ( Med Arch S oc iety Monograph , n o . 4 London , 1 970) . M iket , R .

( 1972) .

"

Pagan Ang lo-Saxon B ern icia"

‚

Counci l f or B r it ish

Archaeo logy G roup 3 News let ter, I ( Sep te mber , 1 972) , 2 -4 . M iket , R . a nd Pocock , M . ( 1976) . An Ang lo-Saxon c e metery a t G reenbank , Dar l ing ton' Med Arch , XX ( 1976 , f orthco m ing ) . ‚

Mort i mer , J .R .

( 1905) .

For ty Y ears Researches i n Br it ish a nd S axon

Bur ia l Mounds o f East Y orksh ire ( London , 1 905) . Myres , J .N . L . a nd S outhern , W. H .

( 1973) .

T he Ang lo-Saxon Cre ma t ion

Ce metery a t S ancton , East Yorksh ire ( H MP, n o . 2 18 , Hu l l, 1 973) . Parson , W. M. a nd Wh ite , W. a nd York , ( 1830) .

( 1830 ).

Anna ls, H istory a nd G uide o f L eeds

Pocock , M . ( 1970) . "A n ote o n t wo e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon b rooches" XLI I ( 1970) , 4 07-9. Rad ley , Ja nd S i m ms, C . ( 1971) . a nd N a ture ( York , 1 971) . Rahtz, P .A .

( 19f8) .

Yorksh ire F lood ing

-

‚

YAJ

s o me e f fects o n Man

" Sub-Ro man c e meter ies i n S o merse t"

‚

Chr ist ian ity

I n B r ita in , 3 00-700 , e d . M . W. Bar ley a nd R . P.C. Hanson ( Le icester , 1 968) 1 95-7 . Ra m m , H . G .

( 1971) .

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Ro man Yorksh ire, e d . B . M . B ut ler ( Le icester , 1 971) 1 79-99 . Ra istr ick , A . ( 1938) . " Iron Age s et t le men ts i n West Yorksh ire" XXX IV ( 1938) , 1 15-50 . Red in, M . ( 1919) . ( Uppsa la , 1 919) .

‚

YAJ ,

S tud ies o n Unco mpounded Persona l Names I n O ld Eng l ish

Rutter , J . G . a nd Duke , G . ( 1958) . Excava t ions a t C rossga tes n ear S carborough , 1 947-56 ( Scarborough a nd D istr ict Archaeo log ica l S oc iety Research Report , n o. 1 , S carborough , 1 958) . S heppard , T . ( 1902) . L oca l Ant iqu it ies e tc . i n Hu ll Museu m ( H MP, n o . 3 . 2 nd e d ., Hu l l, 1 902) , 1 0-12 .

5 3

S heppard , T . ( 1902a) . S axon An t iqu it ies r ecen t ly f ound n ear Hu l l ( H MP, n o. I f, Hu l l, 1 902) , 1 -8 . S heppard , T .

( 1907) .

Notes o n t he more importan t a rchaeo log ica l d iscover ies

i n East Yorksh ire ( l i Mp , n o . 4 6, Hu ll, 1 907) ,

p .

6 3 .

Sm ith, A .H . ( 1928) . T he P lace-Na mes o f t he Nor th R id ing o f Yorksh ire ( EPNS , v o l. 5 , Ca mbr idge , 1 928 ). Sm ith , A .H . ( 1937) . T he P lace-Na mes o f t he East R id ing o f Yorksh ire a nd York ( EPNS , v o l . 1 4, Ca mbr idge , 1 937) . Sm ith , A .H . ( 1956) . Ca mbr idge , 1 956) .

Eng l ish P lace-Na mes E le men ts ( EPNS , v o ls. 2 5, 2 6,

Sm ith , A .G .

"Post-g lac ia l d epos its i n S outh Yorksh ire a nd Nor th

( 1958) .

L inco lnsh ire"

‚

The New Phy to log ist , LVI I ( 1958) , 1 9-49.

Sm ith , A .H . ( 1961-63) . T he P lace-Na mes o f t he West R id ing o f Yorksh ire ( EPNS , v o ls. 3 0-37 , Cambr idge , 1 961-63) . S tead , 1 ,M .

( 1971) .

"Yorksh ire b efore t he Ro mans;

s o me r ecen t d iscover ies"

S o ld ier a nd C iv i l ian i n Ro man Yorksh ire , e d . R .M . But ler ( Le icester, 1 971) , 2 1-43 . Swan ton , M . ( 1964) . " A n Ang l ian c e metery a t L ondesborough i n East Yorksh ire" ‚ YAJ , XLI ( 1964) , 2 62-86. Swan ton , M . ( 1967) . "An e ar ly A la mann ic b rooch f ro m Yorksh ire", Ant J , XLVI I ( 1967) , 4 3-50 . S y meon o f Durha m .

S y meon is Dune l mensis Opera e t Co l lectanea , e d . J .

Hodgson H inde ( Surtees S oc iety , v o l . 5 1, L ondon , 1 868) . Tho mas, A .C .

( 1968) .

"The e v idence f ro m Nor th B r ita in"

‚

Chr ist ian ity I n

B r ita in , 3 00-700 , e d . M . W. Bar ley a nd R . P.C. Hanson ( Le icester , 1 968) , 9 3-121. Tho mson , R .L . ( 1964 ).

"Ce lt ic p lace-na mes i n Yorksh ire"

‚

Transact ions

o f t he Yorksh ire D l iect S oc iety , v o l. X I , p t . LX W ( 1964) , 4 1-55 . T ins ley , H .M . a nd Sm ith R .T .

( 1974) .

"Eco log ica l I nvest iga t ions a t a

Ro mano-Br it ish e arthwork i n t he Yorksh ire Penn ines" 2 3-33 .

‚

YAJ , XLV I ( 1974 ),

T odd , M . ( 1975) . "T he ' A lam man ic ' b rooch f ro m L ondesborough , Y orks." An t J , LV , p t . 2( 1975) , 3 84-8 . T o lk ien , J .R .R . ( 1963) . "Eng l ish a nd We lsh" O ' Donne l l L ectures ( Card if f , 1 963) , 1 -42 . v an d er Waa ls, J .D . p rob le ms"

‚

( 1966) .

‚

A ng les a nd Br itons:

"Ear ly c era m ics i n t he Nether lands:

t he

t wo

Cera m ics a nd Man , e d . F .R . Ma tson ( London , 1 966) , 1 24-39.

Wenha m , L .P . ( 1962) . " Seven a rchaeo log ica l d iscover ies i n Yorksh ire" YAJ , XL ( 1962) , 3 07-10 . \ Venham , L . P. ( 1968) . York ( London , 1 968) .

T he Ro mano-Br it ish Ce metery a t T rentho l me Dr ive ,

5 4

Wh ite lock , D .

( 1954) .

Eng l ish H istor ica l Docu ments a bout 5 00-1042

( London , 1 954) . Wi lson , D .M .

( 1966) .

1

Med ieva l Br ita in I n 1 965" Med Arch , X ( 1966) , 1 68-

7 6. Wi lson , D .R .

( 1968) .

"An e ar ly Chr ist ian c e metery a t Ancaster"

Chr ist ian i ty I n Br ita in , 3 00-700, e d . M. W. Bar ley a nd R . P. C. Hanson ( Le icester , 1 968) , 1 95-7 .

5 5

2 .

S EGONT IU M AND THE POST-RO MAN OCCUPAT ION OF WALES L loyd La ing

The r ecen t e xcavat ions o f Mr. R ichard Wh ite o n t he s i te o f t he Ro man f or t a t A berffraw i n Ang lesey , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een r efor t if ied i n t he p ost-Roman p er iod a nd was t rad it iona l ly t he s eat o f t he p r inces o f Gwynedd ( Selk irk , 1 975 , 8 4-5 ), r a ises t he q ues t ion a s t o whether o ther Ro man f or ts i n t he f ron t ier r eg ions o f Br ita in c on t inued t o b e o ccup ied a f ter t he o f f ic ia l w ithdrawa l o f t he mil itary g arr isons. I n Wa les , t he e v idence p o in ts t o s uch ap os t-Ro man o ccupat ion o n an u mber o f s i tes. A t S egont iu m ( Caernarvon ) Wheeler 's e xcavat ions o f 1 920-23 p roduced a c er ta in amoun t o f e v idence f or a p ost-Ro man r eoccupat ion , u sua l ly o ver looked b y l ater wr iters.

The c learest e v idence f or a p os t-Ro man c onstruc t iona l

p hase i n t he f or t c a me f ro m t he S E g uardroo m o f t he SW g a teway , i n wh ich a sma ll s entry-box was b u i lt o ccupy ing a bou t t wo t h irds o f t he a rea o f t he g uardroo m.

Th is was a pparen t ly i nser ted when t he g uardroo m was a lready

i n r u ins ( Whee ler , 1 923, 9 3-4 ), a nd a lthough o f n o d irect c hronolog ica l v a lue , ab ronze s cea t ta o f Eanred o f Nor thu mbr ia ( 808-840 ) was f ound a d jacen t , j ust b elow t he l owest s tep o f t he p ostern (Wheeler , 1 923, 9 4 ). o n ly e v idence f or p ost-Ro man o ccupat ion a t S egon t iu m.

Th is i s n ot t he

Whee ler was i ncl ined

t o v iew t he wat t le-and-daub h u ts wh ich o ver lay t he f i l led i n d itches o f t he f or t a s b e ing t he r e ma ins o f s quat ter o ccupat ion d ur ing a p er iod o f a bandon men t i n t he f our th c en tury.

T here i s n o r eason h owever t o s uppose t ha t t he h uts

were e rected im med ia te ly a f ter t he i n f il l ing o f t he d itches , a nd t he a bsence o f f inds f ro m t he m migh t q u ite e as ily b e t aken t o i nd ica te a l ater d ate.

More

s ign if ican t , t here a re t wo p enannu lar b rooches o f p os t-Ro man t ypes f ro m t he s i te.

T he f irs t i s o f F ow ler 's t ype F ( f or d iscuss ion , F ow ler , 1 963, 1 03-5 ;

La ing , 1 975 , 3 06 ;

L ong ley , 1 975 , 8 ) , a nd was f ound w ith in t he f or t t hough

n ot i n as trat if ied d epos it ( Wheeler , 1 923, 1 38 ).

The s econd i s more d iag-

n ost ica l ly p os t-Ro man , a nd i s a n i ron e xa mp le o f F ow ler 's t ype H ( f or t he t ype, F ow ler , 1 964 , 10 ;

La ing , 1 975 , 3 08 ;

L ong ley , 1 975 , 1 0-12 ).

Th is

t oo c a me f ro m a n u nstra t if ied c on tex t w ith in t he f or t ( Wheeler , 1 923, 1 37, n o. 5 ) , a nd i s u n l ikely t o b e e ar l ier t han t he f i f th c en tury .

Many y ears a go

V . E . N ash- W il l ia ms d rew a t ten t ion t o t he f ormu lae o n t he P en machno s tones f ro m Gwynedd , a nd p o in ted o ut t ha t t he u se o f t he t er ms c iv is a nd mag istratus o n o ne o f t he s tones imp l ied a s urv iva l o f a n o rdered s yste m o f g overn men t i n N .W . Wa les i n p ost-Ro man t imes , b ased o n t he Ro man mode l ( NashWill ia ms , 1 950 , 9 3 ).

He s uggested t ha t t h is may h ave b een c en tred o n

S egon t iu m , wh ich s ee ms v ery l ike ly i n v iew o f t he p ost-Ro man o ccupa t ion. The p oss ib ility o f t he s urv iva l o f S egon t iu m a s af ocus f or t he p ost-Ro man a dm in is trat ion o f Gwynedd makes c er ta in o ther p heno mena more r ead ily e xp l icab le.

Mr . George Boon h as s uggested t hat t he method ica l work o f

5 7

d estruct ion o f t he mithraeu m a nd t he c leans ing o f t he s i te b y f ire ' denote t he f ury o f Chr ist ians wel l a cqua in ted w ith t he n a ture o f t he b u ild ing ' ( Boon , 1 960 , 1 56 ), a nd p o in ts o ut t ha t a s t h is t ook p lace i n t he l ate f our th c en tury , o n ly a s hor t s pan s eparates t h is f ro m P eb l ig , t he s on o f Magnus Max i mus , t o who m t he a d jacen t c hurch i s d ed icated.

Cou ld S egon t iu m n ot a lso h ave b eco me a f ocus

f or p ost-Ro man Chr ist ian ity i n t he a rea? Aber f fr aw a nd S egon t iu m d o n o t s tand a lone among t he Welsh f or ts a s t he on ly p ost-Ro man s urv ivors. S t il l i n Gwynedd , t he f or t o f Pen L lystyn a t Brynk ir a ppears t o h ave h ad a p a l isade s et u p w ith in i ta f ter t he a bandon men t o f t he r egu lar f or t b u i ld ings , w ith v ar ious s ubs id iary f eatures.

A s crap o f

c o lour c oa ted ware migh t s ugges t ac onstruct ion s o met i me i n t he f our th c en tury ( Hogg , 1 968, 1 57 ).

Hogg h as p o in ted o u t t he p rox im ity o f t he o gha m

b i l ingua l me mor ia l s tone t o I cor ix , wh ich s tands l ess t han a q uar ter o f am i le away a nd d a tes f ro m t he s ix th c en tury , a nd h as a lso p o in ted o ut t ha t t he p lacen a me L lystyn i ncorpora tes t he e le men t L lys , at er m u sua l ly a ssoc iated w ith ap os t-Ro man c our t.

Cou ld P en L lystyn h ave b een t he L lys o fI cor ix?

Ap ost-Ro man me mor ia l s tone i s s im i lar ly t he e v idence f or p ost-Ro man o ccupat ion a t To men Y Mur , n ow i n Gwynedd ( f ormer ly Mer ioneth ).

Th is

s tone, n ow l ost , i s r e markab le f or i t s u se o f t he p agan Ro man f or mu la D ( is ) M(an ibus ), a p heno menon n ot u nco m mon o n Chr is t ian s tones i n I t a ly b u t w itho ut p ara l le l i n Wa les.

The man c o m me morated was Barectus Carantus ,

( Nash- W i l l ia ms , 1 950 , 1 72 ).

The n a me Caran tus a ppears o n as tone f ro m

L iddesda le (Macdona ld , 1 935-6, 3 5 ). I tp resu mably d ates f ro m t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury , a nd i n v iew o f t he r e mote s ituat ion o f T o men , migh t r easonab ly b e t aken a s e v idence f or c on t inu ity o f u se o f t he s i te. Post-Ro man p enannu lar b rooches p rov ide c lues t o l a ter o ccupa t ion o n a c oup le o f o ther Welsh f or ts.

There i s aC lass G b rooch f ro m Cas te ll Co h en ,

Radnor a pparen t ly a ssoc ia ted w ith f our th c entury p ot tery ( Fow ler , 1 963, 1 41 ). The d at ing o f t he C lass G b rooches h as b een e x tens ively d ebated , a nd i th as b een s uggested t hat s evera l d if feren t t ypes a re r ecogn isab le.

The Castel l

Co l leñ b rooch h owever c o mpares c losely w ith t hose f ro m p ost-Ro man c on tex ts i n S o merset , a nd a f i f th-century d ate i s p robab le f or i t .

( For d iscuss ion o f

t he t ype , L ong ley , 1 975 , 1 3.) An F b rooch c o mes f ro m Caersws , Mon tg o mery (Wheeler , 1 923, f ig . 6 0 ). Caer Gyb i, a f our th-century f or t a t Ho lyh ead , Ang lesey i s o f i n terest i n a nother c onnec t ion , f or t rad it iona l ly t he s i te o f t he f or t was g iven t o S t. Gyb i

i n t he f i f th c en tury , a nd w ith in i th e f ounded

ac hurch , o f wh ich t he p resen t c hurch i s t he s uccessor .

T he d onor was

Maelgwyn , a nd t h is wou ld p ut t he e ven t a round 5 40 ( Tho mas , 1 971, 3 4 ). The p heno menon o f r oya l d ona t ions o f f or ts t o e ar ly c ler ics i s w idespread i n Br ita in

-

c lass ic c ases a re Burgh Cast le, Ebches ter a nd Bradwe l l.

S uch

g if ts wou ld b e mean ing less u n less t he f or ts s t il l h ad s o me r o le t o p lay i n s oc iety. On t he f ron t ier o f Wa les , t he s i te o f Heronbr idge , Chesh ire i s o f e xcep ti ona l impor tance.

T h is s i te h ad Ro man i ndustr ia l a ct iv ity i n t he f our th c en tury ,

a nd a s hr ine w ith a n a ltar t o t he Ma tres O h lototae, a s we l l a s Ro man c re mat ion b ur ials. I n t he f ourth c en tury i nhu mat ion b ur ia ls w ere d epos ited o n t he s i te , a nd t hese may h ave c on t inued i nto t he f i f th.

A t l east 2 0 a re r ecorded , w ith

e ast-west o r ienta t ion a nd a n a bsence o f g rave-goods , imp ly ing Chr is t ian

5 8

b ur ia l ( Bu llock , 1 972, 8 ) .

Bu llock h as s uggested t ha t a s t he b ur ia ls were a l l

male t h is imp l ies s o me s or t o f monast ic c o m mun ity , a nd h as p o in ted o ut t ha t p ar t o f t he c e metery was l a ter i ncorporated i n to a l arge e ar thwork b etween r oad a nd r iver , s im i lar t o t he v a l la o f Ce lt ic Chr ist ian monaster ies , ( Bu llock , 1 972, l oc.c it.).

The n earby p lacena me o f Eccleston i nd ica tes t he p resence

o f a n e ar ly p ost-Ro man c hurch i n t he a rea ( f or e ccies n a mes , Ca meron , 1 968 ). The p resen t wr iter h as a lso d rawn a t ten t ion t o as herd o f h and- made p ot tery , p oss ib ly p agan Ang l ian , f ro m t he s i te ( La ing , 1 976 ). Chester i tself u ndoubted ly c on t inued t o b e o ccup ied a f ter t he w ithdrawa l o f t he Ro man f orces.

The p ost-Ro man f inds i nclude a b rooch o f C lass H4

( Fow ler , 1 963, 1 44 ) a nd a mushroo m-headed p in ( Fow ler , 1 963, 1 56 ). A t t he t ime o f wr it ing e xcavat ions a t Abbey Green l ook a s t hough t hey a re g o ing t o p roduce e v idence f or a n i n teres t ing s equence , a ssoc iated w ith impor ted Med iterranean C lass B p ot tery .1 None o f t h is e v idence o n i t s own i s p ar t icu lar ly s trong , b u t c u mu lat ively i t migh t p o int t o t he c on t inu ing o ccupa t ion o f t he s i tes o f Ro man f or ts i n Wa les a nd o n t he We lsh b order , a nd w ith t he c ont inu ity o f t he s i tes , p oss ib ly s o me c ont inu ity o f t he a dm in istra t ion t hey r epresent. f ined e i ther t o Wa les.

The p heno menon i s n o t c on-

T here i s al im ited amount o f e v idence f ro m Nor thern

Eng land f or t he s urv iva l o f s o me f or ts.

Marypor t , O ld Car l is le, Car l is le

a nd l ess c er ta in ly Brougham a ppear t o h ave s urv ived i n Cu mbr ia , wh ile t wo o f t he s upp ly b ases f or Hadr ian 's Wa l l , Chesterho im a nd Corbr idge, may h ave h ad c iv i l s ett le men ts wh ich o ut l ived t he a bandon men t o f t he Wa l l ( t hough c urren t e xcavat ions a t Chesterho l m migh t s uggest a n e ar l ier a bandon ment o f t he s i te t han was f or mer ly s upposed ).

A t L ancaster t he f our th-century f or t

a ppears t o h ave c on t inued i n to t he f i f th , a s i s imp l ied b y as herd o f f i f thc entury A fr ican r ed s l ip w are f ro m r ecen t e xcavat ions ( Pot tery , 1 976 , 1 87 ). S uch a c ont inu ity c ou ld h e lp t o e xp la in many s urv iva ls o f a pparen t ly Ro mano-Br it ish p heno mena i n Chr ist ian Ce lt ic Br ita in.

Cou ld Ro man f or ts

n ot h ave b een t he b ases o f t he s hadowy l a te Ro man p ersona l it ies whose L at in n a mes a ppear o n p ost-Ro man me mor ia l s tones, t he Ro man f ounders o f t he d ynas t ies o f t he l a ter C elt ic k ingdo ms? r ev iva l o f Chr ist ian ity?

Cou ld f orts h ave p layed a p ar t i n t he

NOTE 1 .

My t hanks t o t he e xcavator , Mr . J ohn McPeake, f or i nfor ma t ion a bout t h is s i te.

ADDENDU M T o t he a bove m igh t b e a dded t he Ro man a ltar f ro m Loughor , i n Swansea Museu m , w ith a n a dded o gha m i nscr ipt ion.

5 9

REFERENCES

Boon , G . C ., 1 960.

' A Te mp le o f M ithras a t Caernarvon-segon t iu m ', Arch. Ca mb. C IX ( 1960 ), 1 36-172. Bu 'lock , J . D ., 1 972 Pre-Conquest Chesh ire , 3 83-1066 , Ches ter . Ca meron , C ., 1 968.

' Ecc les i n Eng l ish P lace-na mes ', i n Bar ley , M. a nd Hanson , R . P . C . ( Eds.) Chr ist ian ity i n Br ita in , 3 00-700 , L e icester , 8 7-92.

Fow ler , E ., 1 963. ' Cel t ic Meta lwork o f t he F if th a nd S ix th c en tur ies A. D .' , Arch. J . CXX ( 1963 ), 9 8-160. Hogg , A . H . A ., 1 968. ' Pen L lystyn : a Ro man F or t a nd o ther Re ma ins ', Arch. J . CXXV ( 1968 ), 1 01-192. La ing , L ., 1 975. The Archaeo logy o f L ate Ce l t ic Br ita in a nd I re land , c . 4 00-1200 A .D., L ondon. La ing , L ., 1 976. ' So me Pagan Ang l ian F inds f ro m Dees ide ', Ches ter Archaeolog ica l J ourna l , 5 9 ( 1976 ), 5 0-51. Long ley , D ., 1 975. Hang ing Bow ls , P enannu lar Brooches a nd t he Ang loS axon Connex ion , Ox ford , B .A. R. 2 2. Macdona ld , G ., 1 935-6.

' On Two I nscr ibed S tones o f t he Ear ly Chr ist ian

Per iod f ro m t he Border D istr ict ', P .S .A .S . LXX ( 1935-6 ), 3 3-39. Nash- W il l ia ms ,

V .

E ., 1 950.

Ear ly Chr ist ian Monu men ts o f Wa les , Card if f .

Potter , T ., 1 976. ' Recen t Work i n t he Nor th Wes t ', Current Arch. 5 3 ( Ju ly 1 976 ), 1 82-187. S elk irk , A ., 1 975.

' Round-Up Wales ', Curren t Arch. 5 0 (May , 1 975 ), 8 4-5.

Tho mas , A . C ., 1 97 1. Oxford.

The Ear ly Chr is t ian Archaeo logy o f North Br ita in ,

Whee ler , R . E . M., 1 923. S egon t iu m a nd t he Ro man Occupat ion o f Wa les , Y Cy m mrodor , XXX I I I ( 1923 ).

6 0

3 .

CONT INU ITY OF S ETTLE MENT I N WALES I N THE CENTRAL M IDDLE AGES L . A . S . But ler

T he t he me o f Ce lt ic s urv iva l i s p ar t icu lar ly a ppropr iate t o t he s tudy o f med ieva l Wa les, s ince t he p ast e xp lo its o f L lywelyn t he Grea t a nd Owa in G lyndvr a nd t he l i terary s k il ls o f Ta l ies in a nd Da fydd a p Gw i ly m h ave c ont inued t o i nsp ire t he many s ucceed ing g enerat ions.

The e v idence o f p ast

o ccupa t ion o f t he l and t hrough i t s b u i ld ings a nd e ar thworks h as b een f ar l ess p roduc t ive o f l i terary e ndeavour , b ut i s e qua l ly a c o m men tary u pon t he c hara cter o f t he p eop les i n Wales a nd t he c ont inu ity o f t he ir s et t le men t . The t he me o f s urv iva l may f irst b e e xa m ined t hrough t he c on t inu ity o f u se o f s ite f ro m t he e ar ly Chr is t ian p er iod t o t he wan ing o f t he midd le a ges.

On

s ecular s i tes a s trong n atura l d efence c an c on t inue t o i nv ite o ccupa t ion f or many c en tur ies ;

s im i lar ly t he f er t ile c haracter o f o ne v a l ley , f avourab ly

c o mpared t o n e ighbour ing v a l leys, may a t tract c on t inuous s et t le men t when c l i ma t ic c ircu mstance d ictates i n ter m it ten t u se e lsewhere.

S ince o ccupa t ion

i s s o c lose ly t i ed t o e cono m ic a nd p o l it ica l c ond it ions , t h is t ype o f s i te i s c ons idered more f u l ly l ater . I ti s l ikely , h owever , t hat t he c hurches a nd b ur ia l g rounds r epresen t o ne c ategory o f s ite l east l iab le t o b e t ransferred when p opu la t ion moved.

The

' g ird le ' p attern o f d ispersed s et t le men t was a s trong e le men t f or c on t inu ity w ith t he c hurch p laced e qu id istan t f ro m t he f arms a nd h ouses o f t he t ownsh ips f ro m w h ich t he worsh ippers c a me.

I ndeed t he p hys ica l n ecess ity o f h av ing

ac onstan t s ource o f wa ter f or b ap t is m a nd f or c leans ing t he h o ly v esse ls mean t t hat a s pr ing o r we l l was c onsecra ted t o t he u se o f t he c hurch a nd p opu lar ly a ssoc iated w ith t he p atron s a in t . S uch h oly wel ls may b e t he i ndependen t f ocus o f worsh ip a s a t L langyb i, Caerns. b ut more u sua lly t he ir p resence e ncouraged t he p ar ish c hurch t o r ema in i n ap ermanen t p os it ion , a s a t L iange lyn in o r Mwn t.

I t i s o n ly r are ly

t ha t ac hurch was t ransferred t o an ew s i te a nd t hen o n ly f or t he most u rgen t n atura l r easons.

The a dvance o f t he s and d unes o n t he c oasts o f S ou th Wa les

c aused t he a bandon ing o f Kenf ig a nd t he n ew b u i ld ing i n t he 1 5th c entury o f v il lage c hurches a t Ty thegston a nd Py le.

More p rosa ic r easons l ay b eh ind

t he t ransfer o f Do iwyddelan c hurch t o an ew s i te i n 1 500.

Maredudd a p I euan

f eared t hat h e a nd h is f am i ly might b e ambushed b y b r igands o n t he ir way t o worsh ip . T he a rch itecture a nd s cu lpture o f t he c hurches c an o ccas iona l ly s how a d ist inct ive Ce lt ic c haracter , b u t more o f ten t hey d isp lay a s i mp l ic ity c rea ted by p oor r esources a nd a c u ltura l b ackward ness r esu lt ing f ro m p o l it ica l i sol at ion ( Tho mas 1 970 ).

I n t h is r espect o ne c an s ee i n t he u se o f i n ter lace

6 1

d es ign o n c rosses a nd d oorways a t imelag b etween t he o ccurrence o f t hese d es igns i n Merc ia a nd t he ir u se i n Wales.

The c rosses a t Mer thyr Mawr i n

c en tra l G la morgan , t he s ou th d oorway a t P enmon i n Ang lesey a nd t he g ravemarkers n ear t he s outh t ransept a t S tra ta F lor ida ( Ystrad F 1 'zr ) p rov ide e v idence o f c on t inu ity l ong a f ter t hese i n ter lace f or ms h ad b een a bandoned i n Nor man Eng land.

Fon ts w ith h u man masks, s quare-browed a nd l ong-ch inned ,

h ave a n a ncestry f ur ther b ack i n p ost-Ro man I ron Age; amp le a t L lanwr thw l i l lustrates t he t ype we l l.

at welf th-cen tury e x-

The e v idence o f t i melag i n a rch itectura l d es ign i s n ot s o marked i n t he t wel f th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies.

I nstead t here i s ap reference f or s i mp l ic ity

a nd p ur ity i n d es ign whether i n l ate Ro manesque a s a t Towyn , Mer ioneth o r i n e ar ly Goth ic a s a t Beddge ler t. There i s l i t t le o f t he e xuberance o f a bstract d es ign wh ich c harac ter ises Nor man a rch itectura l d eta il i n Herefordsh ire o r Yorksh ire ; t here i s r are ly t he e ncrustat ion o f n atura l ist ic l eaf d es igns wh ich o rna men ts t he a bbeys o f t he western M id lands.

I t may b e t hat t h is s i mp l ic ity i s ar ef lect ion o f t he

i n trac tab il ity o f t he b u ild ing s tones r ender ing t he m u nsu itab le f or h igh-rel ief s cu lp ture, b u t e qua l ly i t may b e t ha t t he p ur itan ica l c harac ter o f t he C uldee t rad it ion c ont inued t o f ind r eady e xpress ion i n t he C isterc ian r eform move men t r ather t han i n t he s u mptuous f orms o f C lun iac work .

Th is p ur itan c haracter

i n a rch itecture r e ma ins s trong i n t hose a reas d istan t f ro m Eng l ish i n f luence u nt il t he 1 5th c entury .

There i s ac orrespond ing s i mp l ic ity i n p lan b oth i n

monaster ies a nd i n p ar ish c hurches; t h is s hows i n t he v ir tua l a bsence o f a ps ida l-ended c hurches , i n t he p la in c ruc iform p lan o f t he g reat c hurches , a s i n t he r ebu ild ings a t S t. Asaph , Neath a nd Maenan , a nd t he a bsence o f l atemed ieva l c o l leg ia te s em i-octagona l e astern a rms , i n c on trast t o Madeley , Hereford , a nd ma jor S co tt ish c hurches ( e.g . L in l ithgow , Ho ly Rude a t S t ir l ing ). The e stab l ish men t o f C isterc ian a bbeys may b e s een a s an ew f actor i nt errup t ing t he p aroch ia l p a ttern a lready emerg ing .

I n many c ases , h owever ,

t here i s ac lose l ink b etween t he l ord 's c our t ( or i lys ) a nd t he a bbey w h ich h e f ounds a nd h is f am i ly c on t inues t o p atron ise.

A t Va l le Cruc is t he l ord 's lys

s tands o n D inas Bran , t he monastery l i es i n t he v a l ley b e low , v is ib le f ro m i t ;

a nd t he a n t iqu ity o f t he s i te i s i nd icated b y t he c ross k nown a s t he P illar

o f E l iseg , j ust n or th o f t he monastery .

A s im i lar r e la t ionsh ip o ccurs a t

Aberconwy a nd Degannwy , a nd p oss ib ly i nf luenced t he c ho ice o f s i te a t Cy m mer , S tra ta F lor ida a nd Ta l ley .

The h istor ic l ink w ith t he c our t o f

Hywe l Dda was c la i med b y Wh it land a nd s erves t o s how t he e x ten t t o w h ich t he C isterc ians were h e irs t o a n o lder r e l ig ious t rad it ion.

Th is i s i n s trong

c ontras t t o t he n ove lty a nd i solat ion o f s im i lar C isterc ian f oundat ions i n Norman Eng land a nd i n c on trast a lso t o t he i n trus ive c haracter o f t he Bened ict ine h ouses i n Wa les f ounded b y t he Nor man b arons i n t he c ourse o ft he c onques t. Con t inu ity i n t he l oca t ion o f t he c en tres o f l ordsh ip i s more d if f icu l t t o a rgue e xcept i n c arefu l ly s e lected c ases : Aber f fr aw o n Ang lesey i s t he b est e xa mp le, t hough D inefwr i n t he T owy v a l ley a nd Ma thrafa l i n t he u pper S evern

v a l ley a re o thers.

The s urv iva l o f t he p re-ex ist ing c o m mo ta l u n its

a s t he b as is f or l oca l g overn men t a f ter t he Norman i nvas ions i s ap heno menon

6 2

a lready e xa m ined i n Cered ig ion ( Edwards 1 956 ) a nd l ess c lear ly d iscernable i n Ar fon a nd E if ionydd .

I n C red ig ion t he Nor man c ast les were p laced o ne

i n e ach c o m mote d ur ing t he c a mpa igns o f 1 110-1135 ;

f ur ther n or th i n Ar fon

t here i s as im i lar c o inc idence a ssoc ia ted w ith t he i nvas ion o f 1 080-90.

S o me

i n terna l a rrange men ts o f t he t ownsh ips w ith in t he c o m mote r e ma ined l i t t le a ltered f or t ax p urposes.

T he r espons ib il it ies a ssoc ia ted w ith t he b ond

t enan ts o f t he l ord 's c our t i n r epa ir ing b u ild ings were a dopted b y t he Eng l ish o f f ic ia ls l i tt le a l tered a f ter t he c onquest o f Gwynedd o r were f o l lowed b y t he Nor man b ishops o f S t. Dav ids i n t he ir l ands i n Dy fed t o t he s outh. T he L aws a t tr ibu ted t o Hywe l Dda g ive a n i dea l ised p a t tern f or t he c or nmote a nd i ts c o mponen t p ar ts (W il ia m 1 960 , 5 9-60 ) : Ic o mmo te

=

2r oya l t ownsh ips

=

2t ownsh ips

+

4 mu l t ip le e sta tes (ma eno l ) for bon dmen

=

+

I mu lt ip le e state f or t he c hance llor

=

+

I mu lt ip le e s ta te f or t he r eeve (maer )

=

+

6 mu lt ip le e states f or f ree n otab les ( uche iwyr )

=

2 4

=

5 0 t ownsh ips

( c wmwd )

( tref i ) 16 4 4

The e x ten t t o wh ich t h is i dea l ised p a t tern c an s t il l b e t raced o n t he g round o r c an b e t raced t hrough t he l ate med ieva l e state d ocu men ts h as b een e xa m ined i n many p apers b y Professor J ones-P ierce a nd b y Professor G lanv il le J ones ( c ited i n But ler 1 971, 2 52-6, 2 74-5 ;

s ee a lso Sm ith 1 972, a nd J ones 1 975 , 8 ).

I n l arge measure i t was t he c on t inu ity o f p r incely p ower t ha t e nsured t he c ont inu ity o f t h is p at tern , a nd mu lt ip le e states (maeno l ion ) s urv ived i n Gwynedd u n t il t he Edward ian Conquest.

Even a c entury a f ter t he c onquest o n t he

e states o f t he B lack Pr ince t he ma jor e le ments i n t h is p at tern c an b e t raced a nd n o t u n t il t he c o m mu tat ion o f t he b ond men 's d u t ies c an t he p a t tern b e r eg arded a s o bso lescen t.

The c on t inu ing p ay men t o f gwest fa w ith in t he maeno l ion ,

a s i n f i f teen th-cen tury Cered ig ion , s hows t hat t h is p a t tern a nd i t s o b l igat ions h ad a l ong l i fe ( Jones-P ierce 1 959 ). T he emergence o f t he gwely a s a n e xp los ive f orce f ash ion ing s et t le men t f ro m a t l east t he 1 2th c en tury , i fn o t e ar l ier , a nd p rov id ing a n a lternat ive p at tern o f t enur ia l i nf luence u nder m ined t he i nterna l c oherence o f t he c or nmota l a rrange men ts b u t d id n ot s upp lan t t he m.

The gwe ly was a f or m o f

h old ing w ith i ts own mo mentu m i nsp ired b y t he n eed t o p rov ide s u itab le l and f or a l l t he s ons o f t he f am i ly .

I t c ou ld r esu lt i n a mu lt itude o f f arms o r h u t-

g roups ( t yddynau ) t hroughout a c luster o f a d jacen t t ownsh ips r ef lec t ion o f t he f er t il ity o f t he gwe ly h o ld ing c oterm inous w ith t he t ownsh ip

-

a s ad irect

o r i t c ou ld emerge a s o ne c onso l ida ted

-

-

a s e v idence o f t hree o r f our g enera-

t ions i n wh ich o n ly o ne s on was p roduced ( or s urv ived ) a nd i n wh ich p rof itab le marr iages were a rranged.

The f ormer p a t tern c orresponds t o t he mid-15th

c entury s i tuat ion a t Castel l i n Ar l lechwedd ( Jones-P ierce 1 942 );

t he l at ter

c orresponds t o t he s ituat ion a t Tref lys i n E if ionydd ( Gresha m 1 973, 1 46-153 ). The i dea l ised r e la t ionsh ip o f f arm ( t yddyn ) t o t ownsh ip i s g iven i n t he L aws ( R ichards 1 957, 1 19-120 ), b ut i n r ea l ity s e ldo m c onfor med t o i t .

6 3

I n a n

e cono m ic s ys te m f i ne ly a d jus ted t o t he e nv ironmen t , t he t roub les o f 1 284 a nd 1 404 may h ave h ad a d ispropor t iona te e f fec t u pon t enure a nd c u l t iva t ion i n u p land Wa les , f ar g rea ter t han t he e f fec t t ha t t he c o mparab le t roub les i n 1 268 a nd 1 381 h ad u pon l ow land E ng land . I tc anno t f a ir ly b e c la i med t ha t d ispersed s e t t le men t r ef lec ts ap r im i t ive C e l t ic s urv iva l a nd t ha t c onso l ida ted h o ld ings o r n uc lea ted s et t lemen t r epres en ts d eve loped S axon o r N orman i n trus ive p a t terns. I ns tead b o th t endenc ies , t owards c onso l ida t ion a nd t owards f ragmen ta t ion , w ere i nheren t i nt he s oc ia l s ys te m . F or t he p r inces t he t endency t owards c onso l ida t ion was s t rong t h is w as a ch ieved b y d irec t e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he c ommo ta l h o ld ings ( t wo r oya l t ownsh ips , o ne l ow land , t he o ther u p land ) b u t f ound i t s a rch i tec tura l e xpress ion -

i n t he b u i ld ing o f c as t les l i t t le d i f feren t i n c oncep t f rom t hose o n t he Marcher t err i tor ies o f t he N orman b arons . T he l i gh t ly d e fended c our ts a lso h ave t he ir N orman e qu iva len ts i n t he k ing 's h ouses , a s a t C l ips tone o r Woods tock , o r i n t he l ord 's h a l ls a t B oo thby P agne l l a nd H u t ton C o lswa in . A t t he Edwardi an c onques t s ome o f t hese p r ince ly h a l ls w ere p hys ica l ly t ranspor ted t o t he n ew c as t les : Y s tu mgwern w as moved b od i ly t o H ar lech. S im i lar h a l ls c ont i nued t o b e b u i l t a f ter t he c onques t a nd t he h a l ls o f C efn-yfan i n D o lbenmaen o r P las-ucha i n Cymmer a re l i t t le d i f feren t e xcep t i n s ize f ro m t he ir Eng l ish c oun terpar ts ( Hogg 1 954 ;

Sm ith a nd L loyd 1 964 ).

T he u se o f moa ted e nc losures

t o s urround t hese h a l ls i s r are , e xcep t i n a ng l ic ised a reas s uch a s Mae lor S aesneg o r c oas ta l Gwen t . L ower d own t he s oc ia l s ca le t he v i l lage O rgan isa t ion d escr ibed i nt he L aws c an o ccas iona l ly b e t raced b y a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork . S et t le men ts s uch a s P is ty l l i n L leyn a nd Ardda i n Ar l lechwedd s how a p a t tern o f h u ts s tr ung i rr egu lar ly a long a h i l ls ide ( Bu t ler 1 971, 2 60-4 ) ; a t s uch s e t t le men ts t he c ommon sm ithy a nd t he c ommuna l k i ln s hou ld b e l oca ted w e l l away f ro m t he d o mes t ic b u i ld ings ( E manue l 1 967 , 1 23 ). W i thou t e xcava t ion p rec ise i den t if ica t ion i s e x treme ly d if icu l t . I ti s a lso i mposs ib le t o d e term ine w ithou t e xcavat ion w he ther t he h ouses w ere u sed j o in t ly b y man a nd c a t t le . T he L aws d o n o t g ive a ny p rec ise g u idance u pon t h is p o in t . T he ' t hree o ld t es t i mon ies ' t oe s tab l ish ownersh ip a re t he h ear th s tone , t he moun t ing b lock a nd t he o ld k i ln , a nd t he t hree p ossess ions t o f ur ther a c la im t o d adanhu t a re t he h ouse , t he b arn a nd t he d ry ing-k i ln t oge ther w i th t he p lough l and ( E manue l 1 967 , 1 28 , 2 88-9 ). O ccas iona l ly i n t he u p land s i tes i n Gwynedd a nd Me ir ionydd s uch a c o mb ina t ion o fb u i ld ings c an b e s een . S ome o f t hese a re t he s easona l ly o ccup ied s u mmer d a iry h ouses ( hafodau , l ues tau ) s i tua ted o n t he moun ta in g round a nd p rov is ioned f rom t he o ld h o mes tead ( hendre ). T he e ase w ith w h ich t hese h uts c ou ld b e e rec ted u pon o pen g round ( maes t i r ) i s s hown b y t he c o mmon r igh t t ob u i ld ing ma ter ia l , n ame ly t wo r oof t russes a nd a r idge b eam ( E manue l 1 967 , 1 30 , 3 64 ). T he e qua l r ap id i ty w ith w h ich a n i l lega l b u i ld ing c ou ld b e r emoved i s s hown b y t he p rov is ion i n t he L aws t ha t s uch a h ouse s hou ld b e r emoved w i th in n ine d ays , c u t away l eve l w ith t he s ur face o f t he g round ( Wade-Evans 1 909 , 6 1, 2 10 ). T h is f ra i l ty i n p easan t b u i ld ing c on t inued w e l l i n to t he 1 9 th c en tury , b o th i n t he i so la ted s i t ing a nd i n t he p r im i t ive c harac ter o f t he b u i ld ing . H owever , a l though t he p a t tern o f s i t ing i n d ispersed l oca t ions i s l arge ly a p roduc t o f C e lt ic c u l tura l t rad it ions a nd o f t he n eed t o h usband t he l im ited r esources o f t he l and a s e f f ic ien t ly a s p oss ib le , t he p r im i t ive c harac ter o f t he b u i ld ing i s l ess s pec if ica l ly C e l t ic b u t i s r a ther a d irec t r esponse t o t he p oor b u i ld ing ma ter ia l l oca l ly a va i lab le. 6 4

T he E dward ian C onques tb roke t he C e lt ic w or ld

-

p hys ica l ly , e cono m ica l ly

a nd s oc ia l ly . I np hys ica l t ert hs t he p resence o f t he Eng l ish p r inces a nd l ords , t he ir c as t les a nd t he ir t ax c o l lec tors w as a c ons tan t r em inder o f t he a c t o f c onques t . Econom ica l ly t he f ounda t ion o f t he d efended b oroughs a nd , i n it ia ll y , t he e xc lus ion o f t he We lsh f ro m t he r igh ts a nd p r iv i leges o f t hese b oroughs r e inforced t he a c t o f c onques t a nd s t i mu la ted t he g rea ter e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he c onquered l ands . S oc ia l ly t he e f fec ts o f t he c onques t w ere more i ns id ious. T he ' f ree n o tab les ' ( uche iwyr ) h ad t o a ccep t p os it ions o f a u thor i ty u nder t he Eng l ish k ings o r s ee t he ir l ands d im in ished . Many c hose t o a c t a s r eeves , a s r hag laws o r a s b arones , a dm in is ter ing t he L aws t rad it iona l ly a t tr ibu ted t o Hywe l D da b u t w h ich w ere s t i l l u ndergo ing mod i f ica t ion a nd a dd ition i n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4 th c en tur ies. T he f am i ly o f E dny fed V ychan ( 'Wr ion Eden ' ) t ransf erred f rom t he s erv ice o f L lywe lyn a p G ruf fydd t o t ha t o f Edward I ; t he f or tunes o f L lys E uryn a nd P enrhyn Creuddyn a s w e l l a s o f t he Ang lesey c lan w ere b ased o n s uch a c hange o f l oya l ty ( Rober ts 1 969 ). S im i lar ly t he ' barons ' o f Ede irn ion r eta ined t he ir l ands l i t t le d im in ished f or t he t wo c en tur ies t ha t s panned t he c onques t . H owever t he s ys te m o f p ar t ib le i nher i tance f urn ished a ggress ive l and lords , b oth E ng l ish a nd We lsh , w i th a n u nr iva l led o ppor tun i ty t o e xp lo i t t he p it fa l ls i n t he We lsh t enur ia l s ys tem . T he w ay i n wh ich t h is w as a ccomp l ished h as b een i l lus tra ted b y t he a c t ions o f t he B o ldes i n t he C onway v a l ley ( Jones-P ierce 1 942 ) a nd a s im i lar p rocess l i es b eh ind t he r ise o f t he Wynnes o f N annau ( Tho mas 1 972 ). F rom t he m id f our teen th c en tury o nwards t he s urv iva l o f aC e l t ic i den t i ty l i es n o t i nt he n a ture o f s e t t le men t o r i n t he t enac i ty o f t ranshu mance b u t i n ap r ide i np ed igree r e in forced b y t he s ys te m o f f osterage a nd i n af i erce ly p ro tec t ive r espec t f or t he We lsh l anguage. T he b ards ( pence r dd ) v is ited t he h o mes o f t he n ob le men , r ecord ing t he ir f am i ly p ed igrees a nd c oncoc t ing h era ld ic c oa ts , c omposed o des i n t he ir h onour a nd p ra ised t he ir h osp ita l ity t o v is i tors a nd t he ir g eneros ity t o t he C hurch . F ro m t he p oetry o f T a l ies in a nd t he T r ioedd y B eddau t o t he c ywyddau o f L ew is G lyn C o th i a nd Rhys G och Eryr i i s al i v ing t rad i t ion w h ich w as f ur ther n our ished b y t he a ccess ion o f t he T udor d ynas ty a nd i t s c oncern w i th p ed igree a nd Ar thur ian l egendary h ist ory . F rom t h is d a te C e l t ic s urv iva l a nd C e l t ic r ev iva l b eco me i nex tr icab ly i n ter tw ined . As S ir J ohn Wynn o f Gwyd ir wro te , a nd h e w i th b e t ter r eason t han mos t , " a g rea t t e mpora l l b less ing i ti s a nd a g rea te h ear ts e ase t o a man t o f i nd t ha t h e i s w e l l d escended".

6 5

REFERENCES

Bu t ler , L . A . S . 1 971:

' The S tudy o f Deser ted Med ieva l S et t le men ts i n

Wa les ' i n M. W. Beresford a nd J . G . Hurst ( Edd.), Deser ted Med ieva l V il lages ( 1971) 2 49-276. Edwards , J . G . 1 956 : ' The Nor mans a nd t he We lsh March ', Proc. Br it ish Acade my , 4 2 ( 1956 ), 1 55-177. Emanue l , M. D . 1 967 :

The La t in T ex ts o f t he Welsh L aws ( Card if f 1 967 ).

Gresha m , C . A . 1 973 :

E if ionydd ( Card if f 1 973 ).

Hogg , A . H . A . 1 954 :

' A Four teen th Cen tury House-S ite a t Cefn-y-Fan , n ear

Do lben maen , Caernarvonsh jre ', Trans. Caerns. H ist. S oc., 1 5(1954 ) , 1 -7. J ones , G . R . J . 1 975 : ' Terr itor ia l Organ isa t ion i n Gwynedd a nd E l met ', Nor thern H istory , 1 0 ( 1975 ), 3 -27. J ones-P ierce , T . 1 942 : ' The Gafae l i n Bangor MS 1 939 1, Trans. Hon . S oc. Cy m mrodor ion ( 1942 ), 1 58-188 [ Sm ith 1 972 , 1 95-228 ]. J ones-P ierce , T . 1 959 : ' Med ieva l Card igansh ire aS tudy i n S oc ia l Or ig ins ', Cered ig ion , 3( 1959 ), 2 65-279 [ Sm ith 1 972, 3 09-328 1. -

R ichards , M. 1 957 : Rober ts , G . 1 969 :

Cy fre ith iau Hywel Dda ( Caerdydd 1 957 ). Aspects o f We lsh H istory ( Card if f 1 969 ), 1 79-215.

Sm ith , J . B . ( Ed.) 1 972 : Med ieva l Welsh S oc iety : s e lected e ssays b y T . J ones P ierce ( Card if f 1 972 ). Sm ith , P . a nd L loyd , F . 1 964 : ' P las-ucha , L langar , Corwen ', T rans. Anc. Mon . S oc., 1 2 ( 1964 ), 9 7-112. Thomas , W. G . 1 970 :

' Med ieva l Church-bu ild ing i n Wa les ' i n Moore , D .

( ed .), The I r ish S ea Prov ince i n Archaeo logy a nd H istory ( Card if f 1 970 ), 9 3-7. Tho mas , C . 1 972 :

' Pat terns a nd Processes o f E sta te Expans ion i n t he 1 5th

a nd 1 6th c en tur ies ', J ourn . Mer ioneth l ist , a nd Rec. S oc., 6 ( 1972 ), 3 33-342. Wade-Evans , A . 1 909 : Wil ia m , A . H . 1 960 :

We lsh Med ieva l Laws ( Ox fo rd 1 909 ). L ly fr I orwer th ( Caerdydd 1 960 ).

6 6

4 .

THE QUEST ION OF CELT IC S URV IVAL OR CONT INU ITY I N SO ME ELE MENTS OF RURAL S ETTLE MENT I N THE S COTT ISH H IGHLANDS A lex Morr ison

I n 1 895 , i n a monu men tal s tudy , t he German h istor ian August Me itzen a t te mp ted t o d e monstra te t he e x istence i n Europe o f z ones o f r ura l s et t le men t a nd a gr icu lture b ased o n r ac ia l g roup ings.

I n t h is ' e thno-genet ic ' t heory

Me itzen s aw t he s ing le f armstead o r E inze lhof w ith r ectangu lar , b lockl ike f ield p a t tern a s Celt ic i n o r ig in , wh ile t he g rouped s et t le men t was s upposed ly i n troduced by German ic i nvaders (Me itzen , 1 895 ).

Th is b road , r a ther

s i mp l is t ic , g enera l isa t ion d id n o t s urv ive f or l ong a nd t he e f fects o f c l i ma te , s o il , l andfor ms , t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween s et t le men t a nd a gr icu ltura l s yste m a nd , o f c ourse , n at ive c u lture a nd c usto m , a re n ow a ccepted a s e qua l ly imp or tan t ( t hough n ot e qua l ly o pera t ive ) f actors i n t he e vo lut ion o f s et t le men t f or ms. We k now t hat f or ms o f C elt ic c u lture a nd s oc iety e x isted f or c entur ies i n t he Br i t ish I s les a nd t ha t many e le men ts s urv ived i n to med iaeva l a nd l ater t i mes.

F ieldwork a nd d ocu men tary r esearch i n Wa les ( Jones 1 953, 1 959 ,

1 960 , 1 961, 1 963, 1 964 ;

J ones-P ierce 1 961, 1 963;

1 971) a nd i n I re land ( Du ignan 1 944 ; McCour t 1 950 , 1 955, 1 971;

Bowen 1 971;

Evans 1 939 , 1 957 ;

Bu t ler

J ohnson 1 958, 1 961;

Proudfoot 1 959 , 1 961) h ave r evea led s urv iva ls

o f Cel t ic e le men ts i n t he a gr icu lture a nd r ura l s et t le men t p at tern i n to a t l east t he med iaeva l p er iod .

S uch r esu lts a re much more d if f icu l t t o a ch ieve

f or t he H ighlands o f S cot land , where t he ma in p rob le ms a re t he s carc ity o f d ocu men tary e v idence a nd t he d if f icu lt ies e ncoun tered i n a t te mp t ing t o i den t ify e ar ly s et t le men t r e ma ins a nd f ield p a t terns. Ev idence o f as urv iv ing s et t le men t p a ttern i n t he H igh lands i s u nfor tuna te ly n o o lder t han t he 1 8th c entury . Re ma ins o n t he g round a re f ro m a n e ra when d rast ic c hanges b y improve men t , e nc losure, c learance a nd o b l itera t ion were a lready u nder way. The c onso l ida t ion o f s ca t tered h o ld ings a nd l ater i n trod uct ion o f s heep were c aus ing t he d is in tegra t ion o f wha t h ad o nce b een a t r iba l o r p atr iarcha l r e lat ionsh ip b etween t enan t a nd s uper ior .

Pay men t o f r en t

ma in ly i n k ind was d isappear ing i n f ace o f t he i ncreas ing d e mand f or moneyr en t b y t he more c os mopol i tan l andowners who were t he f ormer c lan c h iefs. The c hanges h ad b een made p oss ib le b y as er ies o f Acts o f t he S co t t ish Par l iamen t i n t he l ate 1 7th c entury , p ar t icu lar ly t he D iv is ion o f Co m mon t ies Act a nd t he Act a nen t Lands Ly ing Runr ig , b o th p assed i n 1 695.

The t rans-

f ormat ion was h astened b y t he J acob ite R is ings o f 1 715 a nd 1 745 a nd t he c onsequen t improve men ts i n c o m mun ica t ions i n t he H igh lands.

S ince t he

r esu lt ing r ural l andscape w as t he p roduct o f r evo lut ionary r a ther t han s low e volut ionary p rocesses ( Ca ird 1 964 ), i ti s o bv ious t hat much e v idence o f

6 7

e ar l ier p a t terns a nd u sages h as b een l os t .

F or tuna te ly , s o me l andowners

c omm iss ioned l arge-sca le s urveys o f t he ir p roper ty i n a dvance o f i mprove men t a nd i ti s f rom t hese a nd t he s urveys p roduced b y t he C om m iss ioners f or t he F or fe ited E s ta tes a f ter t he J acob i te R is ings t ha t s o me p ic ture o ft he d is in tegrat ing s ys te m c an b e o b ta ined . Examp les o f t h is t ype o f e v idence c an b e s een i n t he Breada lbane E sta te P apers i nR eg is ter H ouse , E d inburgh a nd p ar t icu lar ly i n t he S urvey o f L ocht ays ide c arr ied o u t i n 1 769 ( McAr thur 1 936 ). T he L och tays ide l ands w ere d iv ided i n to o f f ic iar ies , a dm in is tra t ive d iv is ions w h ich p robab ly e vo lved f rom t he e ar l ier b aron ies. McKerra l ] . ( 1944 ) n o tes a n e ar l ier C e lt ic a dm in is tra t ive u n i t , t he t ua th , ag roup o f t ownsh ips r un b y a no f f icer k nown a s at o iseach , b u t l i nks w ith 1 8th c en tury u n its a re d i f f icu l t t op rove. W ith in t he o f f ic iar ies w ere t he f arms , f arm ' t owns ' o r t ownsh ips g roup ings p erhaps o r ig ina l ly -

b ased o n t he n eed f or c ommuna l d efence , w ork ing o f t he l and a nd o wnersh ip a nd h and l ing o f t he p lough a nd p lough-team b y s evera l f am i ly g roups . T he f arms o n L och tays ide w ere s ub-d iv ided i n to p lough iands a nd h orsegangs , s ugges t ive o f w ork ing q uan t i t ies , a s w e l l a s mark iands , i nd ica t ing mone tary o r r en ta l v a lue . T he f arm o rf arm t own h as b een s een b y many a u thors a s a s urv iva l o f t he C e l t ic b a ue ; t he n ame h as c er ta in ly s urv ived i n f arm n ames : Ba l le more ( ' b ig t own ' ), B a l l i menoch ( 'm idd le t own ' ), Ba l l inda l loch ( ' town o f t he h augh o r l eve l meadow ' ) , Ba l l in lone ( ' town o f t he meadow ' ) , Ba l lamacnach tane ( 'McNaugh ton 's t own ' ). T he mark iand d eno m ina t ion s urv ived i n Margmore ( ' the g rea t mark iand ' ), Margbeg ( ' the l i t t le mark iand ' ) a nd Marragdow ( ' the b lack mark iand ' ). E ach f arm o r t ownsh ip h ad o ne o r more s e t t lemen t c lus ters c ompr is ing dwe l l ings , o u thouses a nd b arns i n al i near , r ec tangu lar o r i rregu lar g roup ing . Exa mp les o f t hese l ayou ts h ave b een p ub l ished b y G ran t ( 1961, F ig . 1 ) , G a i ley ( 1962 ) , F a irhurs t ( 1964 , 1 967 , 1 968 , 1 969 , 1 971). W ith in t he f arms w ere t he d i f feren t c lasses o fl and , t he a rab le , d iv ided i n to i nf ie ld a nd o u t f ie ld , t he meadow , g rass o r p as ture , w oods a nd moor land . Mos t o f t he moor o r r ough g raz ing l ay b eyond t he h ead-dyke. T h is p a t tern o f s e t t le men t w as c ont ro l led t o ag rea t e x ten t b y t rad i t ion , c ond i t ions o ft enancy a nd me thods o f w ork ing t he l and . T he me thod o f c u l t iva t ion w as c harac ter ised b yt wo i mpor tan t f ea tures : t he d iv is ion o f t he a rab le i n to i n f ie ld a nd o u t f ie ld , a nd t he p rac t ice o f r unr ig . T he i n f ie ld w as c ropped c on t inuous ly a nd r ece ived a l l t he manure f rom t he f arm , w hereas o n ly a p ropor t ion o f t he o u t f ie ld w as c u l t iva ted u n t i l t he s o i l f er t i l ity w as e xhaus ted , w hen a n ew s ec t ion w ou ld b e c u l t iva ted , t he a bandoned p or t ion l y ing f a l low f or s ome y ears. R eferr ing t oB a l l i menoch , o n t he n or th s ide o f L och T ay , t he l and s urveyor n o ted i n 1 769 : " The o u t f ie lds a re c o mmon ly k ep t t hree y ears i n a nd t hree o r f our o u t" ( McAr thur 1 936 , 8 -9 ). T he a rab le l and w as h e ld i n r unr ig , t he r igs c ons is t ing o f l ong , f a ir ly n arrow s tr ips f ro m a q uar ter t o o ver h a l f a n a cre i n a rea , s epara ted f rom a d jo in ing s tr ips b y b a lks o f u ncu l t iva ted , o f ten w eedin fes ted , l and . S o t ha t e ach t enan t w ou ld h ave a s hare o f d i f feren t q ua l i t ies o fl and , t he s tr ips w ere i n term ixed , n o t enan t h av ing h is a rab le l and i n o ne b lock . I n s ome r eg ions , r igs w ere a l lo t ted t o t enan ts f or o n ly s hor t p er iods ay ear o r t hree y ears a f ter w h ich t he l and w as r e-a l lo t ted . -

6 8

-

T h is l a ter a ccep tance o f r unr ig a s as har ing o f l and may h ave b een q u i te d iferen t f ro m i t s o r ig ina l mean ing . T he p rob le m i s s t i l l u nder d iscuss ion a nd was t he s ub ject o f ac on ference h e ld a t Musse lburgh i n 1 969 ( Wh it t ing ton 1 970 ). T he u se o f t he t erm r unr ig f or i n term ixed s tr ips o f a rab le l and h as b een c la imed b y s o me a u thor i t ies a s ad er iva t ion f ro m t he G ae l ic r o inn-ru i th ( ' d iv is ion-run ' ). T h is , h owever , w as n ever a c om mon ly-used t erm , a nd i t s ee ms more l ike ly t ha t t he G ae l ic w as d er ived f rom t he L ow land , p robab ly o r ig ina l ly Ang l ian , ' r un-r ig ' ( Gran t 1 930 ; Ma t ley 1 966 ; Wh i t t ing ton 1 973 ). H . L . Gray , i n h is s tudy o f E ng l ish f i e ld s yste ms ( 1915 ), g ave c urrency t o t he i dea o f a ma in ly C e l t ic i n f ie ld-out f ie ld s ys te m d eve lop ing i n ah igh land e nv ironmen t . H is w ork g a ined w ide a ccep tance a nd i n f luenced r esearchers i n t he f i e ld o f s e t t le men t s tud ies u n t i l c ompara t ive ly r ecen t t imes ( e .g . K irb is 1 952 ). H owever , i ti s n ow k nown t ha t t h is f orm o f c u l t iva t ion e x is ted i nn on-Ce l t ic r eg ions ( e .g . Uh l ig 1 961 ) a nd i n t he n or th o f Eng land , w hence i t may h ave s pread i n to L ow land S co t land i n t he med iaeva l p er iod , a nd e ven l a ter i n to t he H igh lands ( Dodgshon 1 973 ; B arrow 1 962 ). Ma t ley ( 1966 ), h as s ugges ted a G erman ic o r ig in f or mos t o f t he t erms a ssoc ia ted w i th i n f ie ldo u t f ie ld a gr icu lture. T here w ere s evera l j o in ttenan ts t o af arm , o ccas iona l ly a s many a s t en , b u t more u sua l ly b e tween f our a nd e igh t . T he l eases w ere s hor t , i n mos t c ases o ne y ear a t at ime , a nd a p ropor t ion o f t he r en t w as p a id i n k ind ( gra in , b u t ter , c heese , s heep , e tc ., )a nd i n s erv ices s uch a s t he c u t t ing a nd c arry ing o f p ea ts a nd t he p rov is ion o f men a nd h orses f or h arrow ing a nd h arves t ing o n t he l a ird 's o r c h ief 's l and . I n fer ior t o t he j o in ttenan ts w ere t he c ro f ters a nd c o t tars , who h ad a sma l l a rea o f i n f ie ld b u t n o o u t f ie ld a nd n o r igh ts i n t he c o m mon g raz ings o r moor .

T he ir r en t w as p a id ma in ly i n t he f orm o f s erv ices

t o t he j o in ttenan ts. C ro f ts w ere a lso g iven t o p ersons p rov id ing a s erv ice t o t he c ommun i ty a nd p lace-names i nd ica te f ormer o ccupan ts M i l l Cro f t , Sm i th 's C rof t , F erner 's C ro f t , B oa t Cro f t , B aker 's Cro f t , P iper 's Cro f t , e tc . -

T he s cat tered f ounda t ions o f t hese s et t le men t c lus ters f orm t he ma jor e le men t i n t he r e ma ins o f t h is v an ished c u l tura l l andscape. A t yp ica l c lus ter m igh t c ons is t o f al ong-house o r b yre-dwe l l ing i n w h ich t he a n i ma ls w ou ld b e s ta l led a t o ne e nd a nd s epara ted f rom t he d we l l ing e nd b y al i gh t p ar t i t ion o r p erhaps o n ly b y t he c en tra l h ear th i n s o me e xamp les. G a i ley ( 1962 a ) n otes a n amaz ing s im i lar ity b etween t hese s truc tures a nd med iaeva l b yre-dwe l l ings e xcava ted i n D evon ( Jope & T hre l fa l l 1 958 ; F ox 1 958 ). T h is may b e y e t a no ther i nstance o f e lemen ts o f s e t t le men t a nd a gr icu lture b e ing i n troduced t o t he S co t t ish H igh lands a t al a te d a te a nd s urv iv ing l ong a f ter t hey h ad d isa ppeared f ro m o ther r eg ions o f t he Br it ish I s les , i n t h is c ase a s tone-bu i l t s truc ture p erhaps r ep lac ing e ar l ier f orms i n l ess d urab le ma ter ia ls . O ther b u i ld ings w ere o f s hor ter r ec tangu lar s hape , t he d we l l ings o f t he c ro f ters a nd c o t tars , b arns a nd p oss ib ly o u thouses f or i mp le men ts , e tc. T he c lus ter m igh t a lso i nc lude a r ick-yard o r k a i lyard ; i n many c ases i th as b een p oss ib le t o e qua te t he n umber o f k a i lyards w i th t he n umber o f j o in t-tenan ts o n af arm ( Ga i ley 1 963 ). T he u pper b oundary o ft hese j o in ttenancy f arms w as t he h ead-dyke , w h ich s epara ted a rab le , meadow a nd w ood land f ro m moor a nd moun ta in . B eyond t h is b oundary l ay a more d is tan t a nd d e tached c o mponen t o f t he s e t t le men t

6 9

p a t tern , t he s h ie l ing . T hese w ere d is tan t g raz ings o r h i l l-pas tures t o w h ich c a t t le w ere d r iven f or s evera l w eeks i n t he s ummer , a l low ing t he c rops t o r ipen u nd isturbed i n t he u nenc losed r igs a nd r el iev ing p ressure o n p as ture w ith in t he h ead-dyke. S h ie l ing h u ts w ere sma ller t han a ny o f t he s truc tures i n t he p ermanen t s e t t le men ts , o f c ircu lar , o va l o r s ub-rec tangu lar f orm a nd b u i l t o f d ry-s tone o r t ur f . F ie ldwork p lus a rchaeo log ica l a nd d ocumen tary e v idence s how t ha t t here w ere r eg iona l v ar ia t ions i n t h is a gr icu l tura l a nd s et t le men t p a t tern , d ue p robab ly t o d i f ferences i n r e l ief , c l i ma te a nd l oca l t rad it ion .

T here w ere

r eg ions w ere o u t f ie ld , a s s uch , w as u nknown , b u t where s h ie l ings e x is ted c lose t o t he s e t t lemen ts a nd w ere s o me t i mes u nder g ra in c rops ( Ada m 1 960 ; M i l ler 1 967 ). I n o ther a reas t here w as n o u ph i l l h ead-dyke b oundary b u t , p erhaps a s a n a d jus tmen t t o more r o l l ing t erra in , as urround ing ' r ing-dyke ' s epara ted dwe l l ings a nd a rab le l and f ro m t he r ough g raz ing a nd moor land ( Fa irhurs t 1 964 , 1 968 ). E lsewhere , d i f ferences i n s tructures a nd l ayou t o f s et t lemen ts may h ave b een d ue a s much t o t he t ype o fb u i ld ing ma ter ia l a va i lab le a s t o r eg iona l c u l tura l v ar ia t ion . T hese , t hen , w ere t he c o mponen t p ar ts o f as oc io-econo m ic s ys te m w h ich w as f i ne ly a d jus ted t o i t s e nv iron men t , b ackward a nd e x tre me ly c onserva t ive. T he e v idence d escr ibed , h owever , i s s t i l l o n ly f or t he 1 8th c en tury . S o me d ocumen tary e v idence e x is ts f or t he p rev ious c en tury a nd a l i t t le e ar l ier , p lace-names a nd f arm n ames c an b e t raced i n r en ta l r o l ls , b u t t here a re n o maps o rp lans , a nd a l mos t n o i n forma t ion o n s et t le men t f orms , l oca t ions o r a grar ian s ys te ms . T he p rob lem , f or t he f i e ld a rchaeo log is t a nd e xcava tor , i s o ne o f i den t if ica t ion . G iven t ha t ap easan try e x is ted i n t he S cot t ish H ighl ands d ur ing t he med iaeva l p er iod , w here w ere t he ir s et t lemen ts l oca ted a nd w ha t s hou ld o ne e xpec t t o f i nd? R eferences b y e ar ly t rave l lers i n S co t land t o h ousetypes , s e t t le men t f orms o r a gr icu ltura l t echn iques i n t he H igh lands a re e x tre me ly r are a nd l eave l i t t le h ope o f ma ter ia l s urv iva l ( Hume Brown 1 891; M itche l l 1 901, 1 905 ). W i l l iam Marsha l l , wr it ing o n t he a gr icu l ture o f P er thsh ire i n t he 1 8 th c en tury ( 1794 ) s a id : " Former ly s od h u ts w ere t he c om mon h ab ita t ions o f t he t enan try o f t he C en tra l H igh lands s ods , o r t h ick t ur f , t aken f ro m t he p asture l ands , a nd h av ing r e ma ined a f ew -

y ears i n t he c apac i ty o f w a l ls , w ere p u l led d own a nd s pread o ver t he a rab le f i e lds a s manure". Bur t ( 1754 ) d escr ibed a H igh land d we l l ing o f t he e ar ly 1 8th c en tury : " The w a l ls w ere a bou t f our f ee t h igh , l i ned w ith s t icks w a t t led l ike a h urd le , b u i l t o n t he o u ts ide w ith t ur f ; t h inner s l ices o f t he s ame s erv 'd f or t i l ing . c a l l d ive t .

a nd

T h is l as t t hey

When t he h u t h as b een b u i l t s o me t ime , i ti s c over 'd w i th w eeds a nd g rass ; a nd Id o a ssure y ou Ih ave s een s heep , t ha t h ad g o tu p f ro m t he f oot o f a n a d jo in ing h i l l , f eed ing u pon t he t op o f t he h ouse".

7 0

T ho mas K irke , w r i t ing i n 1 679 : " The h ouses o ft he c o m mona lty a re v ery mean , mud-wa l l a nd t ha tch t he b es t : ; b u t t he p oorer s or t l i ve i n s uch m is e rab le h uf ts a s n ever e ve b ehe ld ; men , w o men , a nd c h i ldr en p ig a l toget her i n ap oor mouse-ho le o f mud , h ea th , a nd s o me s uch l ike ma t ter ; i n s o me p ar ts , where t ur f i s p len t ifu l , t hey b u i ld u p l i t t le c abb ins t hereo f , w ith a rched r oo fs o f t ur f , w ithou t as t ick o f t imber i n i t ; w hen t he ir h ouses a re d ry e nough t o b urn , i ts erves t he m f or f ue l , a nd t hey r e move t o a no ther". None o f t hese b r ie f a nd i nco mp le te a ccoun ts c an b e d a ted e ar l ier t han t he 1 5th c en tury ; s o me u ndoubted ly r e fer t o t he meanes t a nd p oores t f orms o f dwe ll ings , a nd b ias , p re jud ice a nd e xaggera t ion mus tb e t aken i n to a ccoun t . T he f i e ld-archaeo log is t s eek ing t ang ib le r e ma ins c an d er ive l i t t le e ncouragemen t f rom s uch d escr ip t ions.

T hey p erhaps r ef lec t t he p over ty a nd u nse t t led

n a ture o f t he p er iod b e tween t he 1 3t h a nd m id-l8th c en tur ies , w ith w ar fare , c lan f euds a nd g enera l i nsecur ity o f t enure . L ack ing d ocumen tary a nd f i e ld e v idence , t he o r ig ins o f t h is a grar ian a nd s et t lemen t p a t tern , w he ther C e l t ic o r n o t , c anno t e as i ly b e t raced b ackwards i n t ime . On t he o ther h and , t he c o mpara t ive ly n umerous r e ma ins o f s e t t lemen ts a nd d efended s i tes o f t he S cot t ish I ron Age w ou ld s eem t o ofer s o me h ope o f f i nd ing , b y e xcava t ion , e le men ts w h ich may h ave s urv ived i n to t he med iaeva l p er iod a nd l a ter . A t many s i tes i n t he H igh lands r e ma ins o f l a te 1 8th-ear ly 1 9 th c en tury s e t t le men t c lus ters o ccur c lose t o , o r d owns lope f ro m , h u t-c irc les a nd a nc ien t f i e ld-dykes wh ich s ee m t o b e ma in ly I ron Age i n d a te .

An e xamp le o f t h is c an b e s een a t K i lphed ir , i n t he S tra th o f

K i ldonan ( Fa irhurs t &T ay lor 1 971 ). H owever , n o r e ma ins h ave y e t b een d iscovered wh ich w ou ld s a t is fac tor i ly f i l l t he c hrono log ica l g ap b e tween t he t wo p er iods r epresen ted , b e tween t he h u t-c irc le a nd t he b yre-dwe l l ing . Many p reh is tor ic s i tes d o h ave e v idence o f u se i n med iaeva l t imes ( Morr ison 1 974 ) , b u t t hese a re ma in ly d e fended o r f or t if ied s i tes w h ich , b e-

i ng d urab ly b u i l t , p erhaps o f fered h ab i ta t ion o r r e fuge i n l a ter t imes w ithou t t oo much e f for t i n r econs truc t ion o n t he p ar t o f t he med iaeva l o ccupan ts. Bu t t hese s ites d o n o t h e lp i n t he s earch f or s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty , f or c lear ly t hey r epresen t o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he p opu la t ion a nd mos t p robab ly n o t t he p easan ts. I n r ecen t y ears more e v idence h as b ecome a va i lab le t o s uggest t hat i n C e lt ic a reas s uch a s I re land a nd Wales i n med iaeva l t i mes a nd p robab ly e arl i er b o th f ree a nd u n free l eve ls o f r ura l s oc ie ty e x isted ( S tevens 1 966 ). Proud foo t , i n h is s tudy o f t he e conomy o f t he I r ish r a th ( 1961) , h as s uggested a Dark A ge o r e ar ly med iaeva l f orm o f r ura l s oc iety i n s o me r eg ions o f I re land w i th a f ree , p erhaps ma in ly p as tora l , c ommun i ty l i v ing i n t he r a ths o r d efended f arms teads . T he l ower , u n free l eve l o f s oc iety o ccup ied o pen c lus tered s et t lemen ts , s epara te f ro m t he r a ths , w h ich may h ave b een a ncest ra l t o t he l ater ' c lachan ' o r t own iand c lus ters b u t w h ich h ave l e f t f ar l ess e v idence o f t he ir e x istence t han t he r a ths . I n S co t land , a s men t ioned a bove , t here a re d e fended s i tes w ith t races o f o ccupa t ion i n med iaeva l t imes , b u t 7 1

t he e v idence i s s t i l l i nsu f f ic ien t t o s ee t hem a s p ar t o f a ny s tra t i f ied s oc ia l . s ys te m . I n P er thsh ire t here a re many r e ma ins o f s tonebu i l t r ing -for ts o r h omes teads ( Wa tson 1 913 , 1 915 ). T hey measure 1 8 t o 2 5 r n i n d ia meter w i th wa l ls 2 .5 t o 4 .5 m i n t h ickness . S tewar t ( 1 969 ) h as r ecen t ly a na lyse1 t he d is tr ibut ion a nd l oca t ion o f t hese s truc tures i n G len lyon a nd S tra th tay , a nd s ugges ts t he m a s t he f arms teads o f a ma in ly p as tora l r ura l e conomy , s ome p erhaps a ssoc ia ted w i th e ar ly C hr is t ian m iss ionary a c t iv i ty i n t he a rea . O ne s i te , a t L i t igan , w as p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted i n 1 969 ( DES , 1 969 , 3 5 ). S o me s lag a nd f ragmen ts o f r o tary q uerns w ere r ecovered , a lso c harcoa l , w h ich g ave a r ad iocarbon d a t ing , a t o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion , o fA .D . 8 40-1020 ( p ersona l c ommun ica t ion f ro m D r . M . E . C . S tewar t ). T he i mp l ica t ion i s p ro m is ing , b u t o ne r ad iocarbon d a te means l i t t le a nd f ur ther f i e ldwork a nd e xcava t ion a re n ecessary i n t h is r eg ion . I n S tra th tay , r ema ins o f t hese s truc tures h ave b een f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th l a te 1 8th-ear ly 1 9th c en tury s et t lemen t r u ins a t L und in ( Lundun ) a nd D un taggar t ; e lsewhere i n t he a rea , more r ecen t f arms r eta in a ' dun ' e le men t i n t he ir n ames , e .g . Dun tay lor ,D un tu im , D unsk iag a nd D unacree ( S tewar t 1 969 , 3 1 ). I ft h is c an b e c ons trued a s aC e l t ic s et t lemen t e le men t w h ich s urv ived i n to t he med iaeva l p er iod , w hen a nd h ow d id t he s cat tered s et t le men t-c lus ters o f t he f arm-townsh ips d eve lop , i n w ha t f orm a nd o f wha t ma ter ia l? T he s yst em t ha t s urv ived i n to t he 1 8 th c en tury i n t he H igh lands h ad a l tered g rea t ly t hrough t ime. C e l t ic o r ig ins w ere mod if ied b y l oca l u sage , c lan c us to m a nd wha tever d egree o f f euda l isa t ion o ccurred . T he p ic ture i s f ur ther b lurred b y t he l a te a dop t ion a nd r e ten t ion o f i deas a nd t echn iques w h ich h ad a lready d isappeared f rom o ther r eg ions o f t he B r i t ish I s les a nd b y t he n ecess i ty f or a d jus tmen t t o w ha t w as i n many p laces a v ery d i f f icu l t e nv iron men t . T here a re n ow s ome t races o f o r ig ins i n l a te p reh is tor ic t imes a nd i n t he Dark Ages , b u t s o f ar a s t he p easan try o f t he S cot t ish H igh lands i s c oncerned t hose ' Dark Ages ' c an b e e x tended b y s ome h undreds o f y ears. T he q ues t ion i s n o t s o much o ne o f C e l t ic s urv iva l a s o f o vera l l s urv iva l .

7 2

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7 3

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t erns i n Nor th-west Wa les , Geo graph ie e t H isto ire Agra ires , Nancy ( 1959 ), 3 13-328. J ones, G . R . J . 1 960. The p a t tern o f s ett le men t o n t he Welsh b order , Agr ic. H ist . Ray., 8 ( 1960 ), 6 6-81. J ones , G . R . J . 1 961. Ear ly t err itor ia l o rgan izat ion i n Eng land a nd Wales , G eogr . Ann ir ., 4 3 ( 1961), 1 74-181. J ones, G . R . J . 1 963. The t r iba l s ys te m i n Wa les : ar e-assess men t i n t he l igh t o f s et t le men t s tud ies , We lsh H ist . Rev., 1(1960-63 ), 11-132. J ones , G . R . J . 1 964. The d istr ibu t ion o f b ond s et t le men ts i n Nor th-west Wa les , Welsh H ist. Rev., 2 ( 1964 ), 1 9-36. J ones-P ierce , T . J . 1 961. Pastora l a nd a gr icu l tura l s et t le ments i n e ar ly Wa les , G eogr. Ann ir ., 4 3 ( 1961), 1 82-189. J ones-P ierce , T . J . 1 963.

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s et t le men t a t Beere , N or th T aw ton , Devon , Med ieva l Archaeo logy , 2( 1958 ), 1 12-140. 7 4

K irb is , W.

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1 952.

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McAr thur , M., 1 936. S er ., 2 7. McCour t , D ., 1 950.

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-

r elat ing t o S cot land , Proc.

S oc. An t iq. S cot ., 3 5 ( 1900-01), 4 31-638 a nd 3 9 ( 1904-05 ), 5 00-527. Morr ison , A . 1 974. S o me p reh istor ic s i tes i n S cot land w ith med iaeva l o cc upa t ion , S cott. Archaeo l. F oru m , 6( 1974 ), 6 6-74. Proudfoo t , V . B ., 1 959.

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7 5

Wa tson , W. J . 1 913. The c ircu lar f or ts o f N or th Per thsh ire, Proc. S oc. An t iq. S cot., 4 7 ( 1912-13 ),-30-60. Wa tson , W. J . 1 915. C ircu lar f or ts o f L orn a nd Nor th Per thsh ire , Proc. S oc. An t iq. S cot., 4 9 ( 1914-15 ), 1 7-32. Wh it t ing ton , G . 1 970. 6 9-73.

The p rob le m o f r unr ig , S cot t. G eog . Mag ., 8 6 ( 1970 ).

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7 6

5 .

CELT IC CONT INU ITY I N THE I SLE OF MAN P eter S . G el l ing

The p rob le m o f Celt ic s urv iva l i n t he I s le o f Man means p r i mar i ly : h appened t o t he n a t ive Ce lt ic s tock d ur ing t he V ik ing p er iod?

wha t

I n i mmed ia tely p re-Norse t imes t he i s land was Celt ic i n t he s ense t ha t Ce lt ic l anguages were s poken t here a nd t ha t i tb elonged t o ac u ltura l r eg ion whose c en tre was i n I reland.

Accord ing t o Oros ius t he i s land was i nhab ited

b y S co ts i n t he f irst q uar ter o f t he f i f th c en tury A . D. ( H istor iae a dversu m p aganos 1 , 1 2, 8 1), a nd t h is i s i nheren t ly q u ite p robab le , b ut i ti s h ard t o s ay whether i t was t he r esu lt o f r ecent s et t le men t , c o mparab le t o t he movemen t i n to Da lr iada , o r o f a much e ar l ier i nvas ion.

Br it ton ic s peech was

k nown i n t he i s land b y t he e nd o f t he f i fth c en tury ( Jackson 1 953, 1 73 ) a nd c ontacts w ith Br it ton ic-speak ing a reas p ers isted d own t o t he V ik ing Age. When t he Norse p er iod h ad p assed t he p r inc ipa l l anguage i n t he i s land was Gael ic , c losely a k in t o t he Gael ic o f S cot land , b u t t he i s land was n o l onger ar ecogn isable p ar t o f a Ce lt ic c u ltura l a rea. The f a te o f t he n at ive p opula t ion d ur ing t he Norse p er iod i s e x tre me ly o bscure.

There a re a t l east t wo w ide ly d ivergen t v iews o f t he V ik ing s et t le-

men t , n e ither o f wh ich c an b e d isproved .

The f irst i s t o s ee i ta s t he work o f

ar estr ic ted g roup o f we l l-to-do s et t lers who f or med a r ul ing c lass c on tro ll ing a s ubs tan t ia l ly u nd isturbed n at ive p opu lat ion. n o s er ious d iscon t inu ity a s a Cel t ic i s land.

On t h is v iew Man s u f fered

The s econd i s t o e nv isage a much

l arger n u mber o f s et t lers , i nclud ing p eop le o f v ery h u mb le s ta tus , who would h ave c ompeted w ith t he l oca l p opu la t ion a t e very l eve l o f s oc iety , a nd who were n umerous e nough v ir tua lly t o o b l itera te t he n at ive Celt ic s peech a nd c u lture. For t he a rchaeo log ist most o f t he i s land 's p ast i s wrapped i n o bscur ity , b u t t here a re o ccas iona l p a tches o f l ight , a nd o ne o f t hese i s i n t he p er iod C .

2 00 B .C. t o A .D . 2 00 , r ough ly t he t ime o f t he g rea t c ircu lar t imber h ouses

o n Ba l lacagen a nd Ba l lanorr is i n t he s ou th o f t he i s land . ( The r epor t o n t he l ate Professor Bersu 's e xcavat ion o f t hese s i tes h as r ecen t ly b een p repared f or p ub l ica t ion b y Dr. Radford .) A t t he s a me t ime t wo sma l l b ut s trong ly f ort i f ied p romon tory f or ts were o ccup ied , C lose f l y c ho l lagh a nd Ba l lan icho las , t he f irs t c oasta l , t he s econd i n land ( Gel l ing , P . S . 1 958 a nd 1 968 ).

The

h ouses o n a l l t hese s i tes , whether mass ive o r r elat ive ly sma l l, whether o f s tone o r o f t i mber , were c ircu lar .

The a rchaeo log ist wou ld d ear ly l ike t o

k now whether t hese t ypes o f s ett le men t p ers isted d own t o t he V ik ing Age, o r , i ft hey d id n ot , what t ook t he ir p lace. Unfor tunate ly , a f ter a bout t he s econd c entury A .D. v ir tua l ly n oth ing i s k nown a bout s ecu lar s i tes f or s o me 4 00 y ears.

T here i s , i ndeed , ah in t a t t he Braa id t hat a s ubstant ia l r ound h ouse

7 7

o f t rad i t iona l k ind w as s t i l l i nu se w hen t he s i te p assed i n to Norse h ands , b u t i tw as p oss ib ly a lready r u inous w hen t he N orse s e t t lers a rr ived , a nd w as s imp ly u sed a s ac onven ien t s tar t ing-po in t f or b u i ld ing a r ough c ircu lar p en ( see b e low p . 7 9).

Au se fu l w a ter s upp ly a nd a n a pparen t a bundance o f l arge

s tones may h ave b een e nough t o c ause t he N orse d we l l ing t o b e b u i l t o n t he s ame s po t . T here i s o ne s i te K iondroghad i n K irk Andreas w h ich may b e f i rm ly d a ted t o t he p er iod i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t he V ik ing Age ( Ge l l ing , -

-

P . S . 1 969 ) b u t i ts ee med t o b e as pec ia l ised me ta lwork ing e s tab l ishmen t a nd s o may n ot h ave b een a t yp ica l o ccupa t ion s i te. A p a t tern-s tone s ugges ted t ha t t he w ork d one t here i nc luded e name l l ing , a nd i ti s i n teres t ing t o s pecu la te t ha t t h is e s tab l ishmen t ( or o ne l i ke i t ) f or w h ich t he n a tura l d a te i s i n t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies may h ave p ers is ted l ong e nough t o h ave p roduced t he r a ther u n insp ired e name l led moun ts f ound w i th t he B a l ladoo le b oa t-bur ia l ( Bersu a nd W i lsdon 1 966 , p 1 . 1 ) . T here w as ab u i ld ing a t K iondroghad a t l eas t i n a n e ar ly s tage o f t he s i te 's h is tory ar ough ly o b long w ooden b u i ld ing s o me 1 5 f ee t b y 8 w h ich p rov ided a h in t t ha t t he c ircu lar s hape w as n o t t he -

-

o n ly o ne t o b e f ound i n t he i s land w hen t he f i rs t V ik ings a rr ived , b u t K iondrog had i s i n teres t ing p r i mar i ly b ecause i ts hows t ha t t he i s land b e longed f irm ly t o t he I r ish c u l tura l s phere . F ur ther i n forma t ion a bou t t he i mmed ia te p re-V ik ing p er iod w i l l p robab ly c o me f rom a s i te a t Ba l lacra ine i n K irk G erman ( SC 2 85815 ), f or w h ich a d a te r ound a bou t t he s even th o r e igh th c en tury s ee ms a t p resen t l ike ly . As a t K iondroghad t here i s e v idence f or c ra f tsmansh ip , a nd t he t wo s i tes a re s im il ar , b e ing l ow mounds p ro jec t ing i n to v ery marshy g round ;

b u t w hereas

K iondroghad h ad v ir tua l ly n o a r t if ic ia l p rov is ion f or d e fence t he s i te a t Ba ll acra ine a ppears t o h ave b een q u ite h eav i ly f or t if ied , t hough t he e v idence f or t h is n eeds t o b e t es ted b y f ur ther e xcava t ion .

O ne p o in t w h ich d oes s ee m t o

emerge i s t ha t a t Ba l lacra ine o ne o r more r ound h ouses o f r e la t ive ly l igh t t imber c ons truc t ion w ere i n u se n o t l ong b e fore t he V ik ing Age. T he o n ly o ther g l i mpse o f l i fe i n t he i s land i nt he p er iod c . 6 00-800 i s p rov ided b y ma ter ia l r e la ted t o t he e ar ly C hr is t ian c hurch . S urpr is ing ly l i t t le i s k nown i n d eta i l , b u t c rosses a nd i nscr ip t ions f rom a n umber o f k ee il a nd c hurch s i tes t ake t he ir h is tory b ack i n to t he p re-Norse p er iod , i n s ome c ases t oe . 6 00 . S t . P a tr icK 's Cha ir , i nK irk Marown , w h ich i s i n terpre ted b y D r . Rad lord a s t he b ur ia l p lace o f aC e l t ic s a in t , i s u nconnec ted w ith e i ther c hurch o r k ee i l.

T he o u ts tand ing p iece i n t h is b ody o f e v idence i s t he C a l f o f Man

c ruc if ix ion ( Megaw 1 958 ; K inv ig , 1 975 , p ls . 1 0 a nd 1), w h ich s hows f am il i ar i ty w ith t he p roduc ts o fI r ish me ta l-workers . i ta lso s hows t ha t av ery g ood s tandard o f a r t is t ic s k i l l e x is ted i n t he i s land i n t he e igh th c en tury , a nd makes i te as ier t o b e l ieve t ha t a t s i tes l i ke K iondroghad t here w ou ld h ave b een f u l ly c o mpe ten t c ra f tsmen . I n c on tras t w i th a l l t h is t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w h ich b eg ins w ith t he p agan b ur ia ls o f t he l a te n in th c en tury f orms a n e n t ire ly n ew h or izon . Apar t f rom t he b ur ia ls i tc ons is ts ma in ly o f b u i ld ings a nd c arved s tone c rosses. T he b ur ia ls t he mse lves , i n teres t ing a s t hey a re , c on tr ibu te l i t t le t o t he p rob le m o f C e l t ic s urv iva l . T hey s how t ha t t here w as a w e l lto-do p agan e lemen t among t he e ar ly s e t t lers w ho c hose t o b e b ur ied w i th p agan r i tes , b u t t h is i s h ard ly s urpr is ing , a nd l eaves u s n one t he w iser a s t o t he t o ta l n umber o f s e t t lers.

7 8

T he h ouses a re a l i t t le more i nfor ma t ive, a s t hey a re o f ak ind wh ich h as n o f orerunners i n t he i s land , b ut wh ich i s f am il iar i n o ther Norse c on tex ts. . They a re k nown f ro m a t l east f ive s ites.

Three o f t he s i tes a re c oasta l

p ro mon tory f or ts wh ich o ver look o r o ver looked r iver mou ths , w ith f or t if icat ions wh ich i n o ne c ase c ou ld b e p roved a nd i n t he o ther t wo a re a ssu med t o b e o lder t han t he Norse h ouses ( Bersu 1 949 ;

Ge l l ing , P . S . 1 952 a nd 1 959 ).

I f t hese were i ndeed t he dwe l l ings o f ac oasta l wa tch ma in ta ined b y t he k ings o f Man t he s ty le o f b u i ld ing i s n ot s urpr is ing , a s t he d ynasty r e ma ined s trong ly S cand inav ian t o t he e nd , b ut i tt el ls u s l i t t le a bou t t he c u ltura l a f f in it ies o f t he p opu lat ion a t l arge.

I t i s more i nstruct ive t o c o mpare t wo s i tes

where t here i s n o s uggest ion o f o f f ic ia l c on tro l : Cashen ( Fleure a nd Dun lop 1 942 ;

t he Braa id a nd Doar l ish

Ge l l ing , P . S . 1 964 a nd 1 970 ).

The ma in

b u i ld ing o n t he f or mer s i te i s s o me 7 0 f eet l ong a nd 3 0 f eet w ide i n t he c en tre , w ith o u tward-curv ing wal ls.

A s econd l ong b u ild ing may a t l east a t o ne s tage

h ave b een a b yre , b u t i t c lear ly h ad a c o mp l icated s tructura l h istory wh ich h as n o t s o f ar b een e luc ida ted.

Im med ia tely a d jacen t a re t he r e ma ins o f a

s ubs tan t ia l c ircu lar b u i ld ing i n wh ich t wo v ery d if ferent p er iods o f c onstruct ion c an b e s een.

The e ar l ier wa l l s ee ms t o h ave b een a mass ive e ar th b ank ,

w ith a n o uter s tone k erb , o f ak ind a ppropr iate t o ar ound h ouse o f t he Ba l lacagen t ype , a nd o ne wou ld l ike t o s ee i n i te v idence f or a Norse t akeover o f aC e lt ic h o mes tead.

Unfor tuna te ly t he s econd p er iod o f c onstruct ion ,

c ons is t ing o f d ry wa l l ing wh ich c an h ard ly h ave b orne a r oof , h as j ust a s g ood ac la im t o b e t he o ne wh ich e x isted i n t he V ik ing Age.

There were n o sma l l

f inds t o pov ide d at ing e v idence f or t he Braa id l ong h ouses , b u t i th ard ly s ee ms p oss ib le t o p lace a t l east t he l arger o f t he m i n o ther t han t he Norse p er iod , a nd i fs o i t s ure ly r epresents t he h o me o f ap rosperous s et t ler , a man o f t he s a me s or t o f s ta tus , t hough n ot n ecessar ily o f t he s a me d ate , a s t hose whose b ur ia ls were e xcavated b y Bersu. An e n t irely d if feren t p icture i s p resented b y t he s i te a t Doar l ish Cashen ( Ge l l ing , P . S . 1 970 ). Here t he s o le e v idence f or a d ate i n t he Norse p er iod c ons ists o f t he o b long p lan a nd t he t r ipar t ite d iv is ion o f t he ma in p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing i n to a c entra l f loor w ith t wo r a ised b enches.

I t was a sma l l c ot tage-

l ike b u i ld ing , measur ing a bou t 2 3 f eet b y 1 0 i n terna l ly , s et o n t he e ast s ide o f a sma l l e nc losed f ar myard .

A t t he s outh-east c orner o f t he y ard t here was a

c orn-dry ing k i ln , a nd d ot ted a bout i n t he v ic in ity t here were a n u mber o f sma l l h uts o r p ens.

Whoever l ived h ere must h ave b een i n v ery h u mble c ircu m-

s tances , t ry ing t o p ract ise mixed f ar m ing a t a bout 7 00 f eet a bove s ea l evel o n what c an n ever h ave b een b etter t han marg ina l l and , wh ich s uggests t hat i n h is d ay a l l t he e ven p assab ly g ood l and was o ccup ied . Yet t he man who was t hus c onde mned t o t he v ery f r inges o f c u lt ivat ion was a pparen t ly o f S cand inav ian s tock , i f we may j udge f ro m t he p lan o f h is h ouse.

Th is i s n o

more t han a n i nference , b ut i ti s t he n atura l o ne, a nd i fi ti s a ccepted i ti s p erhaps o ur c learest p iece o f e v idence t ha t Norse s et t lers were n ot c on f ined t o t he w ell-to-do c lass. I ti s e ven more s ub ject ive t o a t te mp t t o i n terpret t he c rosses i n r e la t ion t o t h is p rob le m , a nd mat ters a re n ot made e as ier b y u ncer ta in t ies o f d ate. I f t he h istor ica l a ssoc ia t ion o f t he Maugho ld c ross i nscr ibed c rux Gur iat i s a ccep ted , i tp rov ides a welco me f ixed p o in t i n t he e ar ly n in th c en tury ( Cubbon 1 971, p . 1 0 ).

I t i s n ot c lear whether a ny c rosses c an b e a ss igned

7 9

t o t he l ater n in th c entury , a nd a b reak i n p roduct ion , i fo n ly a br ief o ne , migh t b e e xpected.

By t he e ar ly t en th c en tury a t l east s o me o f t he i nvaders h ad b een

c onver ted t o Chr ist ian ity , p oss ib ly b y l oca l Chr ist ians , p oss ib ly b y miss iona r ies f ro m I re land.

There a re n o g rounds f or p referr ing o ne o f t hese p os-

s ib il it ies r ather t han t he o ther e xcep t p erhaps t he f act t ha t t he s k i l led masons who b u i lt t he r ound t ower o n S t . Pa tr ick 's I s le a t Pee l mus t h ave c o me f ro m I re land.

When t he c onvers ion h ad r eached t he s tage o f c reat ing a r enewed

d e mand f or me mor ia l c rosses a s er ies b egan most o f wh ich c an b e s ecure ly d ated t o t he t en th c en tury . i t ) was Gau t .

The p ioneer ( t hough we h ave o n ly h is w ord f or

There were n o d oubt n u merous c rosses a va i lab le f or h im t o

c opy , a nd h e c hose t o u se a f or m o f t he r ing-headed c ross wh ich h e d ecorat ed i n a n a ustere a nd a t l east p ar t ly S cand inav ian f ash ion .

H is c la im , o n a

c ross a t K irk M ichael , t o h ave ' made t h is a nd a l l i n Man ' s ee ms t o imp ly t ha t t here h ad b een a h iatus i n p roduct ion , b ut t ha t n ow t here was a n ew t ype wh ich t he p asser-by might b e s ure was t he work o f Gau t.

He k new t he Borre

s ty le , a nd l ater t he s cu lptor o f t wo c rosses a t K irk Braddan was a dep t a t t he Ma m men s ty le ( Cubbon 1 971, p . 3 8 ).

On ly i n t he e leven th c en tury d oes

t h is awareness o f s ty l ist ic d eve lop men ts i n S cand inav ia d isappear .

S evera l

o f t he t en th o r p oss ib ly e ar ly e leven th c entury c rosses b ear f igure o rna men t , a nd t hey make i tq u ite c lear t ha t i t was a ssu med t ha t a nyone who s aw t he m was f am i l iar w ith S cand inav ian my tho logy a nd l egend.

The K irk Braddan c rosses

s how r ea l a r t ist ic q ua l ity , b ut t he d ecora t ion o f t he g rea t ma jor ity i s s i mp ly f o lk a r t o f av ery u npreten t ious a nd u nsoph ist icated k ind , t hough a cceptable t o t he modern e ye t hrough t he c onv ict ion o f i t s e xecu t ion. Th is i s n a tura l ly as ub ject ive j udge men t , b ut mos t o f t he c rosses s ee m much more a t h o me i n ap easan t t han i n a n a r istocra t ic mil ieu , imp ly ing t hat t he c oun try a t l arge was t horough ly S cand inav ian ised .

Yet i ti s t he c rosses t he mse lves wh ich

p rov ide , i n t he f orm o f p ersona l n a mes , a l mos t t he o n ly e v idence f or Ce lt ic s urv iva l i n t he t en th c entury .

T he Gaut c ross a t K irk M ichae l was c om m is-

s ioned b y Meibr idg i s on o f A thakan t he sm ith

-

c lear ly t h is was a C e l t ic

f am i ly a nd i n a l l t h ir teen o f t he f or ty-s ix n a mes wh ich o ccur i n r un ic i ns cr ip t ions a re Ce lt ic. S o s o me Ce lt ic s urv iva l t here mus t h ave b een , t hough -

t hese p ersona l n a mes a re v ir tua l ly t he o n ly e v idence f or i ti n t he V ik ing Age p roper , t ak ing t h is t o b e t he p er iod A .D . 8 00-1100, u n less we a dd t he p ers istence o f t he s anct ity o f c er ta in s i tes s uch a s Maugho ld f ro m p re-Norse t o Norse t imes , s o meth ing wh ich migh t s urv ive a s ubstant ia l c hange o f p opu lat ion , a nd n eed n ot i nd icate u nbroken Chr is t ian u sage. P lace-na mes p rov ide n o s uch e v idence.

O f t wenty-three n a mes r ecorded

b efore t he e nd o f t he k ingdo m o f Man a nd t he I s les o n ly t hree a re Ce l t ic , a nd p robab ly p re-Norse :

Rushen , Doug las , a nd t he n a me Man i tself .

T he o ver-

whe lm ing p redo m inance o f Norse n a mes may p oss ib ly b e e xp la ined o n t he g rounds t hat t hey r epresen t t he l anguage o f t he r u l ing c lass , wh ile i n t he c oun trys ide a t l arge C elt ic n a mes were n or ma l ly u sed , b u t t h is i s ar a ther d espera te e xped ien t , a nd i th as b een p o in ted o u t t hat i ft h is was r ea l ly t he c ase , i t was a t l east v ery u nusua l ( Ge l l ing , M. 1 970 ). The v iews p u t f orward i n t he a r t ic le j ust q uoted w il l s hor t ly b e r estated i n as l ight ly mod if ied f or m ( Ge l l ing , M. f or thco m ing ), b ut t here s ee ms t o b e n o r eason f or n o t t ak ing t he e v idence o f t he O ld Norse n a mes a t i t s f ace v a lue a nd c onc lud ing t hat t he i s land was a t l east f or a t ime o verwhe lm ing ly Norse i n s peech .

8 0

Much o f t he e v idence f or t he Norse p er iod i n Man c o mes f ro m t he t i me o f t he k ingdo m o f Man a nd t he Is l es, wh ich b eg ins i n t he l as t q uar ter o f t he e leven th c entury , when t he o r ig ina l s et t le men t was l ong p ast a nd when i n most p laces t he V ik ing Age was c om ing t o a n e nd.

The k ings n ever l ost t he ir

S cand inav ian i den t ity , b ut i ti s c lear t ha t Gael ic was o ne o f t he l anguages understood a t t he r oya l c our t , a nd t ha t t he Gael ic e le ment i n t he k ing 's e nt ourage was a pprec iab le (Megaw 1 976 ).

Th is s hou ld n ot i nf luence t oo g reat ly

o ur e s t i mate o f c ond it ions i n Man i t sel f , e spec ia l ly a s r egards t he t en th a nd e leven th c entur ies.

A s tudy o f s o me o f t he maps r ecen t ly p ub l ished b y t he

A t las C omm it tee o f t he Conference o f S cot t ish Med iaeva l ists (McNe il l a nd N icho lson 1 975 ) s uggests t ha t i n s o me p ar ts o f t he I s les S cand inav ian s et t lemen t w as r ela t ive ly l ight , a nd i ti s p robab ly t o t he I s les t hat we s hou ld l ook f or t he ma in t hread o f Ce lt ic c on t inu ity i n t he k ingdo m.

Man was t he r ichest

p ar t o f t he k ingdo m , a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence c o mb ines w ith i nheren t p robab i l ity t o s uggest t ha t i t was t he most h eav ily s et t led.

I n t he l ate t h ir teen th

c en tury many p eop le o f Norse s tock may h ave l ef t Man t o f ind a more c ongen ia l way o f l i fe i n t he I s les , a nd t h is was p robab ly t he t ime when Gael ic s peech r eg a ined t he a scendancy .

I f i ti s r ea l ly t rue t ha t t he Celt ic e le men t i n Man was

s er ious ly a t tenuated d ur ing t he Norse p er iod , i t wou ld b e n atura l t o l ook f or s o me o u ts ide i nf luence t o e xp la in t he r ecuperat ion o f Gael ic a f terwards.

The

c lose r ese mblance b etween Manx a nd S cot t ish Gael ic s uggests s trong ly t o t he l ayman t hat t h is i nf luence c a me f ro m S cot land , p erhaps t hrough c on tacts w ith t he l ess S cand inav ian ised p ar ts o f t he I s les.

8 1

REFERENCES

Bersu , G . 1 949. x x ix , 6 2.

' A p ro montory f or t o n t he s hore o f Ra msey Bay ', An t. J .

Bersu , G . a nd Wilson , D . M. 1 966.

Three V ik ing g raves i n t he I s le o f Man

( Soc. Med. Archaeo l., monograph s er ies , n o. 1 , L ondon ). Cubbon , A . M. 1 971.

The a r t o f t he Manx c rosses , ( Doug las ).

F leure , H . J . a nd Dun lop , M. 1 942. An t. J . x x i i, 3 9. Gel l ing , M. 1 970. 8 7 , 1 37

' G lendarragh C irc le a nd a l ignmen ts '

' P lace-na mes o f t he I s le o f Man ', J . Manx Mus. v i i, n o.

Gel l ing , M. ( f or thco m ing ). ' Fur ther t houghts o n Manx p lace-na mes ' f or thc om ing i n D innseanchas. Gel l ing , P . S . 1 958. ' Close f l y c ho l lagh : P . P . S . x x iv , 8 5.

a n I ron Age f or t i n t he I s le o f Man ' ,

Gel l ing , P . S . 1 959.

' Excavat ion o f aP ro mon tory f or t a t Cass f l y h aw in ', Proc. I .O. M . Nat. H ist. An t iq. S oc. v i , n o. 1 , 2 8.

G el l ing , P . S . 1 964.

' The Braa id s i te ', J . Manx Mus. v i , n o. 8 0 , 2 01.

Ge ll ing , P . S . 1 968.

' Excavat ion o f aP ro montory f or t o n Ballan icho las ', Proc. I .O. M . Nat. H ist. An t iq. S oc. v i i, n o. 2 , 1 81.

Ge ll ing , P . S . 1 969. x i i i, 6 7.

' A meta lwork ing s i te a t K iondroghad ', Med . Archaeo l.

Ge l l ing , P . S . 1 970. ' A Norse h o mestead n ear Doar l ish Cashen ', Med . Archaeo l., x iv , 7 4. J ackson , K . H . 1 953.

L anguage a nd h istory i n e ar ly Br ita in ( Ed inburgh ).

K inv ig , H . H . 1 975. T he I s le o f Man : h istory ( L iverpoo l ). McNe i l l , P . a nd N icho lson , R . 1 975. c . 1 600 ( S t. Andrews ). Megaw , B . H . S . 1 958. 7 5, 5 7. Megaw , B . R . S . 1 976.

as oc ia l , c u l tura l a nd p o l it ica l

An h istor ica l a t las o f S cot land c . 4 00-

' The Ca lf o f Man c ruc if ix ion ',J . Manx Mus. v i , n o.

u npub l ished t ypescr ip t , p ar t o f wh ich was r ead t o

t he a nnua l c onference o f t he Counc il f or n a me s tud ies i n Grea t Br ita in a nd I re land h eld i n Ed inburgh o n Apr il 4 th 1 976.

8 2

6 .

ECONO MY AND S ETTLE MENT I N RURAL I RELAND Bruce Proudfoot

T he p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o e xa m ine t he s urv iva l o f Celt ic , t hat i s, n a t ive I r ish , f orms o f r ura l s et t le men t a nd a ssoc iated e cono m ies i n to t he p er iod f o l low ing t he Ang lo-Nor man I nvas ion o f I re land i n 1 169.

We r estr ict

t he u se o f t he t erm med iaeva l t o t he p er iod a f ter t he I nvas ion , a nd d escr ibe t he p rev ious p er iod a s p re- med iaeva l.

Any a t te mp t a t d iscuss ing t he s urv iva l

o f i nd igenous p re- med iaeva l f eatures o f r ura l s et t le men t a nd e cono my i nto t he l a te t welf th a nd t h ir teen th c entur ies i s e ven more d if icu lt t han i s u sua l i n s uch s tud ies o f c on t inu ity f or t he s ources o f i n for mat ion a re v ar ied a nd d isc ont inuous , a nd t he ir i n terpreta t ion i s o f ten c on tent ious.

For t he mil lenn iu m

b efore t he I nvas ion t here i s as ubstan t ia l b ody o f a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l wh ich p rov ides c ons iderab le , a lbe it p oor ly d ated , e v idence f or t he r econst ruct ion o f c er ta in a spects o f r ura l I r ish l i fe a t t ha t t ime.

Docu men tary

s ources d at ing t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t h is mil lenn iu m p rov ide e v idence , o therw ise u nobta inab le, o f t he s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd h istor ica l f ra mework w ith in wh ich t he i nterpretat ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence c an b e p laced.

The

e x ten t t o wh ich t he d ocu men tary e v idence p rov ides a n ' i dea l ised ' r ather t han a' rea l is t ic ' v iew o f t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod i s d ebatab le.

S o a lso i s t he

e x ten t t o wh ich t he d ocu men ts d escr ibe e ar l ier s tates o f a ffa irs r a ther t han c onte mporary ( co mpare J ackson , 1 964 ).

Espec ia l ly w ith in t he l ast d ecade

i ncreased a tten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he h is tory o f t he p er iod b efore t he Ang loNor man I nvas ion b y an ew g enerat ion o f I r ish h istor ians more r eady a nd a b le t o c ope w ith t he c o mp lex it ies o f O ld a nd Midd le I r ish a nd t he p rob le ms o f n at ive I r ish d ocu men tary a nd l i terary s ources.

I n 1 968 Byrne s urveyed t he

p rev ious t h ir ty y ears ' work wh ich p rov ided i n c ons iderab le measure t he b ases f ro m w h ich r ecen t d eve lop men ts h ave s prung. t h is p aper , h e d rew a t ten t ion

O f impor tance t o t he t he me o f

t o t he s ign if icance o f \ Va lsh 's r esearch i nto t he

h istory o f t he g reat manuscr ipt s ources a nd t he ir c o mp i lers , a nd h is i l lustrat ion o f t he c ont inu ity b etween p re- med iaeva l I reland a nd t he Gael ic wor ld o f t he f i f teen th a nd s ix teen th c en tur ies.

These n a t ive d ocu men tary s ources c an

b e s upp le men ted e spec ia l ly b y t he ' o f f ic ia l ' d ocu men ts n eeded b y Church a nd S ta te f or a dm in istra t ive p urposes i n I reland a s i n o ther p ar ts o f t hese i s lands i n t he med iaeva l p er iod. Paradox ica l ly , f or t he b et ter d ocu men ted med iaeva l p er iod t he a rchaeo lo g ica l e v idence i s c urren t ly p oorer t han f or t he p rev ious p er iod.

P erhaps

e ven more s tr ik ing ly t han f or o ther p er iods , t he c oncentrat ion o f a rchaeolog ica l a ct iv ity h as b een s o much g reater i n n or thern I re land t han i n o ther p ar ts o f t he i s land t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t , i fn ot imposs ible , t o g enera l ise f ro m t he a va ila b le e v idence.

Moreover , f or a l l a reas t he d ocu men tary e v idence h as u n t i l

r ecen t ly b een u t il ised more f or t he s tudy o f t he p o l it ica l h istory o f t he

8 3

med iaeva l p er iod t han f or t he t ypes o f s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic i nqu ir ies wh ich wou ld p er m it a n e va luat ion o f t he c hanges i n r ura l s et t le men t a nd e cono my b rought a bout b y t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion. THE PRE- MED IAEVAL PER IOD A w ide v ar iety o f s et t le men t f orms b e long ing t o t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod i s r ecogn isab le a lthough k now ledge o f t he ir f unc t ion a nd c hrono logy i s l im ited . I n a dd it ion t o r ura l s ecu lar s i tes , w ith wh ich t h is p aper i s e spec ia l ly c oncerned , r el ig ious a nd u rban s et t le men ts a re a lso k nown f or t he l ater p ar t o f t he p er iod. I t i s g enera l ly a greed t ha t u rban s ett le men ts a re t he r esu lt o f V ik ing i nf luences b ut t he c on t inued u se o f s o me e ar ly h il l-for ts s uch a s Cathedra l H i l l , Downp atr ick , wh ich t ook p lace i ndependen t ly o f V ik ing i nf luence , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f l arge monast ic c entres a t s i tes s uch a s Ar magh , mus t h ave a dded a n earu rban , i fn ot f u l ly u rban , d i mens ion t o t he s et t le men t p a t tern. I r ish s oc iety o f t he p reInvas ion p er iod i s g enera l ly r egarded a s e ssen t ia l ly r ura l a nd h ierarch ic.

I t i s , t herefore , r easonab le t o p ostulate t ha t t he a s-

s oc iated s et t le men t f orms migh t , t o s o me e x ten t a t l eas t , b e a rranged i n a h ierarch ic f ash ion. S uch a rrange men ts migh t b e f ound b oth w ith in t he s a me f orm o f s et t le men t a nd b etween d if feren t f or ms o f s et t le men t , f or e xa mp le, ah ierarch ic a rrange men t o f r a ths a nd o f c rannogs migh t b oth b e f ound , b ut e qua l ly a n u mber o f sma l l r aths might b e t r ibu tary t o al arger c rannog , a nd a l l migh t b e t r ibu tary t o ah i l l-for t.

S ince g roups o f p eop le, whether t hough t

o f i n s oc io-econo m ic o r p o l it ica l t erms , g enera l ly o ccupy s pec if ic a reas o r t err itor ies we wou ld a lso e xpect t ha t a ny s uch s oc ia l h ierarchy m igh t b e r ef lected s pat ia l ly . The b as ic p o l it ical u n it o f wh ich we h ave d ocu men tary e v idence i s t he t uath.

For t he e ar l iest h istor ica l p er iod b efore 6 00 t he t uath c an b e d ef ined

b est a s ag roup o f p eop le s uf f ic ien t ly l arge t o b e r uled b y ak ing a nd c onsc ious o f i t s d ist inct iveness f ro m n e ighbour ing g roups .

Impor tan t ly t here s ee ms t o

h ave b een c ons iderable c ontact b etween t he e ar ly Chr ist ian miss ionar ies a nd t he k ings o f i nd iv idua l t ua ths u nder whose a uthor ity o r p ro tect ion t hey p res u mab ly l ived. Author ity amongst t hese e ar ly Chr ist ians was w ie lded b y b ishops e ach o f who m h ad h is own j ur isd ict ion u sua l ly c o-ex ist ing w ith t he t ua th .

Boundar ies o f t he t ua ths a t t h is t ime, h owever , a re i l l-def ined e xcep t ,

p erhaps , where t hey c o inc ide w ith p ro m inen t p hys ica l f ea tures ( MacNioca il l , 1 972, 2 7-8 ).

The e x ten t t o wh ich t uath b oundar ies r e ma ined a t l east r ela t ive ly

c onstan t d ur ing t he f o l low ing c entur ies i s f ar f ro m c lear a s g roups o f t ua ths were a ssoc iated t ogether t o f or m k ingdo ms o r p rov inces wh ich e xpanded a nd c on trac ted w ith t he f luctua t ing f or tunes o f t he d om inan t d ynast ies .

The l a ter ,

e leven th c entury , s ources a re d if f icu lt t o i n terpre t b oth f ro m a n h is tor ica l a nd t opograph ic p o in t o f v iew , n ot l east b ecause o f t he ir e labora t ion o f t he d octr ine o f a n im me mor ia l h igh k ingsh ip ( Byrne 1 968 ).

Wh ile s uch mater ia ls

were c er ta in ly i nf luen t ia l i n mou ld ing t he a sp irat ions o f c on te mporary p r inces t hey make more d if f icu lt t he i n terpretat ion o f e ar l ier p o l it ical h istory.

N ever-

t he less , t he l ater g row th i n r oya l a uthor ity c an b e t raced n ot o n ly i n t he Anna ls b ut a lso i n t he c harters a nd i n t he p a tronage o f a r t a nd a rch itecture i n t he e leven th a nd t we lf th c entur ies.

By t hen d ef in ite t err itor ia l k ingsh ips

l im ited t o s ing le f am il ies h ad r ep laced e ar l ier t r iba l f ederat ions ( co mpare

8 4

Kel leler , 1 968 ).

Aga inst t h is b ackground o f d ocu men tary a nd t opograph ic

u ncer ta in ty i t i s n ot p erhaps s urpr is ing t ha t i ti s d if icult i fn ot imposs ib le t o r ea l is t ical ly a ssoc iate more t han a f ew i nd iv idua l a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w ith p ar t icu lar t err itor ies a t s et t i mes i n t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod.

The d a te

a nd f unc t ion o f s uch l inear e ar thworks a s The Danes Cast a nd The B lack P ig 's Dyke i n D own a nd Ar magh wh ich p resu mab ly s erved t o d e marca te a d jacen t t err itor ies a re u ncer ta in.

S o t oo a re t he r e la t ions t o t hese e ar thworks o f t he

n u merous r aths wh ich l i e n ear t he m ( H. M.S.O., 1 966 1 44-5 ; S t. J oseph , 1 969 , 3 9 ).

Nor man a nd

I t s hou ld a lso b e s tressed t ha t w ith in t he b road c ate-

g or ies o f monu men ts t ha t c an b e r ecogn ised , s uch a s h il l-for ts a nd r a ths , t here a re v ar iat ions i n t he s ize a nd c o mp lex ity o f e nc los ing b anks a nd d itches, many o f wh ich s ee m n ot t o h ave b een o f d efens ive mil itary s ign if icance. Whether t he more c o mp lex s i tes were a lways o f s pec ia l s oc ia l o r p o l it ical impor tance a nd were a ssoc iated , t herefore , w ith l arger t err itor ies i s a ga in u ncer ta in . RATHS AND CASHELS The most n u merous f i e ld monu men ts s urv iv ing f ro m t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod a re t he r a ths o r r ing-for ts.

These a re t yp ica l ly c ircu lar e nclosures

s urrounded by a n e ar then b ank w ith a n e x terna l d itch. s l igh t c oun terscarp b ank o u ts ide t he d itch. mult ip le b anks a nd d itches a re k nown.

S o me r a ths h ave a

As men t ioned a bove s i tes w ith

I n s o me e xcava ted e xa mp les i ti s c lear

t ha t t he e nclos ing b ank c o l lapsed a nd t he d itch was i n f i l led , e ither d el iberate ly o r t hrough n atura l p rocesses o f wea ther ing , d ur ing t he p er iod t he s i te was o ccup ied .

Raths a re f ound i n av ar iety o f l ocat ions, b oth o n t he s umm its o f

l ow g lac ia l mounds s uch a s d ru m l ins a nd o n t he s lopes o f s uch mounds , a s wel l a s o n l evel g round a nd o n s lop ing h il ls ides.

The ma jor ity , b ut b y n o

means a l l , a re f ound o n r e la t ive ly we l l-dra ined s o ils , b ut s i tes a re a lso f ound i n l ow marshy a reas a nd o n p ea ty moor land a t t he p resen t marg ins o f c u lt ivat ion.

Af ew e xa mp les a re k nown where r aths h ave b een b u ilt b y p ar t ly s carp-

i ng t he s ides o f an a tura l mound o r b y l evel l ing t he t op o f s uch a mound o r a h il ls lope ( f or e xa mp le, Co l l ins , 1 968b ; Proudfoo t , 1 953 ). However , t he i n ter ior o f t he r ath i s u sua lly a t as im ilar l evel t o t he g round o u ts ide , o r c onforms t o t he n atura l s lope o f t he t erra in.

Where r aths e nc lose smal l

h illtops t hen t he i n ter ior w il l n atura l ly b e s l igh t ly h igher t han o uts ide.

S o me

r aths w h ich a re h igher t han t he g round o u ts ide were d e l iberately h e ightened a t t he t ime o f b u i ld ing , o r s uccess ively d ur ing t he p er iod o f o ccupa t ion. I n s ize t he e nclosed a reas o f r a ths v ary f ro m l ess t han 2 0 m t o s o me 8 0 m i n d ia meter.

L arger c ircu lar e nc losures a re k nown , b ut t hese a re c o m mon ly

c lass if ied a long w ith h il l-for ts , a l though t he d ist inct ion b etween t he t wo c a tegor ies i s c lear ly a rb itrary . The c en tral e nclosed a rea o f r aths w ith mu l t ip le b anks a nd d itches i s g eneral ly n o more t han 3 0 m i n d ia meter . b e c on jo ined , o r h ave a t tached e nc losures.

Rare ly , r aths may

Cashe ls , wh ich a re t he s tone-

b u ilt c oun terpar ts o f t he e ar then r a th a re a lso f ound , e spec ial ly i n a reas o f t h in s o ils where s tone i s r ead ily a va ilab le, e ither f ro m t he u nder ly ing g lac ia l d epos its o r f ro m r ock o u tcrops.

The d ist inct ion b etween r ath a nd c ashe l i s

s o mewha t a rb itrary , f or e nc los ing b anks o f e ar th s trong ly r evetted w ith s tones o ccur , a nd v ar ia t ions i n b u i ld ing t echn ique a re f ound e ven o n t he s a me s i te. 8 5

The e nc los ing wa l ls o f s o me c ashe ls i ncorpora te n atura l f eatures , a nd s o me s ites o n t he s umm its o f s teep-s ided r ocky o utcrops s ee m t o b e more t han u sua l ly d efens ive i n c haracter.

S o me c ashels i n t hese s i tuat ions o ccur i n

a ssoc ia t ion w ith w idely s paced e nc los ing b anks o r wa lls , o r w ith c o mp lex s tone-wa l led e nc losures. c ashe l

-

S uch a s i te i s Caherco m maun where t he c entra l

a mere 3 0 m i n d ia meter i n terna l ly

i s s i tuated o n t he e dge o f a

-

s teep c l if f a nd s urrounded b y w idely s paced c oncen tr ic wa l ls.

T h is s i te ,

c lass if ied b y Barry Raf tery ( 1972 ) a s ah i ll-for t h igh l igh ts t he p rob le ms o f d ev is ing a mean ingfu l c lass if ica t ion o f f i eld monu men ts whose c haracter is t ics c annot b e e as ily a ss igned t o d ist inct ive c ategor ies. On ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he a pprox i mate ly 3 0,000 r aths a nd c ashels k nown t o e x ist h ave b een e xcavated.

However , t he e v idence p roduced s ug-

g ests t ha t most s i tes were s ing le i solated f ar msteads p ract is ing a m ixed l ives tock a nd g ra in e cono my ( Proudloot , 1 961).

There i s l i t t le e v idence t ha t

impress ive ly e nc losed s i tes , s uch a s Garranes o r Ba l lyca tteen , h ad a marke d ly d i ferent e cono my f ro m t he more f requen t s i mp ler s i tes.

I tw ou ld b e

s urpr is ing i ft here were n ot r eg iona l a nd t e mpora l v ar iat ions i n t he e cono my o f r a ths a nd c ashe ls, b ut t here i s i nsuf f ic ien t e v idence t o d e mons tra te t h is. The o n ly c lear r eg iona l t ra it i s t he p resence o f d o mest ic p ot tery , p resu mab ly made o n i nd iv idua l s ites , i n n or theast I re land t he s o-ca lled s ou terra in w are ( Ryan , 1 973 ). -

The e xcava ted f inds f ro m r a ths a nd c ashels p rov ide e v idence n o t o n ly f or mixed f arm ing b u t a lso f or h un t ing a nd g ather ing wh ich were c lear ly much l ess s ign if ican t , p erhaps b ecause t hese a ct iv it ies w ere c oncen tra ted o n o ther s i tes s uch a s t he c ook ing-p laces r eferred t o i n t he e ar ly l i terary s ources.

There

i s c ons iderab le e v idence f or a v ar iety o f i ndus tr ia l a ct iv it ies b e ing c arr ied o ut i n r a ths. S p inn ing , weav ing a nd i ron-work ing were t he mos t c o m mon . Ev idence f or b ronze-work ing i s a l most a s c o mmon a s f or i ron-work ing. Co l l ins ( 1968a ) h as s uggested t ha t t he e v idence f or meta l-work ing i s b et ter i n terpreted i n t erms o f i t ineran t c raf ts men r ather t han i n t er ms o f t he o cc upan ts o f e ach s i te b e ing t he mselves s k il led i n t he p rocesses o f sme lt ing o res a nd manufactur ing i ron a nd b ronze o b jects.

There may h ave b een s o me

s pec ia l isat ion i n meta l-work ing i n t he l arge t r ip le- r a mpar ted r a ths a t Garranes a nd Ba l lycat teen where t here was a lso e v idence f or g lass-work ing . I th as b een s uggested t hat t hese r aths may h ave b elonged t o t he E oganach t k ings t o whose r et inues meta lworkers may h ave b een a t tached ( Hawkes i n O 'R iorda in a nd Har tnet t , 1 943, 4 2 ), b ut e ven i ft h is were t he c ase , t he s i tes were s carce ly l arge e nough f or s uch s pec ia l ist c raf ts men t o h ave o ccup ied t he m c on t inuous ly f or t here i s a bundan t e v idence f or t he u sua l w ide r ange o f r ath a ct iv it ies o n t hese s i tes. A lthough most r a ths were e ssen t ia l ly s e lf-suf f ic ien t f ar msteads , i t wou ld b e e n t irely e rroneous t o e nv isage t he m a s b e ing e n t irely i solated i n e cono m ic t erms.

Trade p layed a sma l l b ut s ign if ican t p ar t i n t he ir e cono my , a nd t he

e xchange o f g oods a nd s erv ices d ocu men ted i n t he l i terary s ources , a nd c o m mon i n a ny h ierarch ic s oc iety , i s b u t o ne a spec t o f s uch t rade.

Raw

mater ia ls f or t he manufacture o f many o f t he sma l l o b jects f ound o n t hese s i tes mus t h ave c o me f ro m a d istance , e ven i ft he g oods t he mse lves d id n o t . F in ished g oods

e spec ia l ly p erhaps t hose made o n s o me o f t he more s pec ia l ised

8 6

i ndustr ia l s ites must h ave b een t raded.

S im i lar f in ished g oods may h ave b een

impor ted f ro m Br ita in o r t he Con t inen t a s Ro man a nd p ost-Ro man p ot tery was ( Bateson , 1 973 ).

Even i fs o me o f t he Ro man f inds i n I re land r epresen t l oot ,

t he a cqu is it ion o f t h is mus t h ave c rea ted d ispar it ies i n wea lth a nd t hese i n t urn were l ikely t o s t i mu la te t rade.

The d evelop men t o f monast ic c o m mun i-

t i es o f c ons iderab le s ize must a lso imp ly t he t ransfer o f g oods a nd s erv ices , t hat i s , t rade, b etween r el ig ious a nd s ecu lar me mbers o f s oc iety .

The

impact o f t he V ik ings u pon t rade must , i n t he e leven th a nd t we lf th c en tur ies a t l east , h ave b een s ign if ican t w ith t he f ound ing o f t o wns wh ich d epended f or t he ir v ery e x istence u pon t rade , t he impact o f wh ich must h ave b een f el t t hrough t he r ura l a reas. S o me r a ths were o ccup ied f or a c ons iderable p er iod o f t ime a s s ugges ted b y t he e v idence f or s ubstan t ia l mod if icat ion o f i n terna l s tructures ,

There

h as b een a t endency t o i n terpret ma jor s tructura l c hanges i n t er ms o f as hor t s urv iva l p er iod f or wooden , s tone , o r c lay-wa l led s tructures , f or e xa mp le, h ouses.

Wh ile i ti s t rue t hat t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or s tructures h as

o f ten b een s l ight b ecause o f l ater c u lt ivat ion o f s ites i t s hou ld b e r e me mbered t hat e lsewhere i n Br ita in , e ven i fn ot i n I re land , t here a re e x tan t e xa mp les o f f ar mhouses a nd b arns o fb as ica l ly s im ilar c onstruct ion wh ich h ave s urv ived f ro m t he l a ter Midd le Ages.

S uch b u ild ings n eed n ot h ave d eep f oundat ions ,

n or b e s upported b y mass ive t imbers s et i n l arge p ost-ho les wh ich wou ld l eave s ubstan t ia l a rchaeolog ica l e v idence were t he b u ild ings n ow t o d ecay o r b e d e mol ished.

I t wou ld b e wrong t o u nderest i mate t he q ua l ity o f s tone b u ild ing

o r wood c onstruct ion t hat may h ave b een u sed i n t he b u ild ings w ith in r a ths o r c ashe ls.

The e x tan t r ema ins o f c hurch b u ild ings s uch a s r ound t owers ,

o r t he Ora tory o f Ga l la n ts , o r e ar ly c hurches i n mor tared s tone ( Leask , 1 955 ) s uggest t he r ange o f s k il ls a va ilab le f or b u ild ing i n s tone, wh i le t he s urv iv ing r e ma ins o f t i mberwork f ro m c ran r iogs o f t he f irst mil lenn iu m A .D . o r e ar l ier p rov ide c lear e v idence f or s k il led c raf ts mansh ip i n t he work ing o f l arge s tructura l t imbers.

The o ccupa t ion o f s i tes s uch a s Feerwore o r L issue where

t here i s e v idence f or c hanges i n s tructure o r r ebu ild ing s hou ld t hen b e e nv isaged i n t erms o f c entur ies r a ther t han d ecades. Raths a nd c ashels a re w ide ly d istr ibu ted a cross t he who le c oun try , t he ir d istr ibu t ion i n many a reas b road ly s im i lar i n e x ten t , b u t n o t n ecessar i ly i n d ens ity , t o t ha t o f modern f arms.

There s ee ms l i t t le d oub t t ha t t h is w ide-

s pread o ccurrence o f s i tes o n av ar iety o f s o i l t ypes was made e cono m ica l ly f eas ible b y t he i n troduct ion a nd c o m mon a va ilab il ity o f i ron t oo ls , e spec ia l ly s ign if ican t b e ing i ron a xes t o a id i n f orest c learance a nd t he h eavy c oul ter p lough t o b reak u p more c layey s o ils a nd c lose g rown s od-covered g round. New c rops s uch a s r ye a nd e spec ial ly o a ts , a nd t he r o le o f t he e ar ly monast ic c o m mun it ies i n p ro mot ing a gr icu l tura l improve men t a re , o ne e xpects , a lt hough t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i s s canty , s ign if ican t d eve lop men ts i n t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod.

The w idespread c learance o f l ow land wood land c an

b e n oted i n many p o l len d iagra ms (M itchel l , 1 956 ) a nd e xpans ion o f s et t le men t g enera l ly c an p erhaps b e i n ferred f ro m t he d a t ing o f many r aths t o t he s econd p ar t o f t he f irst mil lenn iu m A . D. Even t h is b road s uggest ion i s , h owever , d if f icu lt t o s ubstan t ia te s ince methods o f d a t ing a re p resent ly i nadequate t o e stab l ish more t han a mos t

8 7

g enera l c hrono log ica l f ramework , a nd i ti s r are ly p oss ib le t o b e c er ta in t ha t s i tes w ere s tr ic t ly c on temporary ( Proud loo t , 1 970 ). P erhaps t he e ar l ies t s i te f or w h ich t here i s g enera l a gree men t a s t o d a te i s t he r a th a tF eerwore i n c oun ty G a lway w h ich o n an umber o f g rounds i s l i ke ly t o d a te f rom t he E ar ly I ron Age w i th a c en tra l d a te a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he Chr is t ian e ra f or wha t w as c lear ly a l eng thy p er iod o f O ccupa t ion . C on tac ts w i th t he Ro man o r im med ia te P os t-Roman w or ld s ugges t d a tes f or a n u mber o f e xcava ted s i tes b u t t he ma jor ity o f s i tes s o f ar e xcava ted c an b e d a ted o n ly i n g enera l t erms t o t he E ar ly C hr is t ian p er iod . T ha t s uch a p er iod d a t ing i s i n d ras t ic n eed o f o verh au l i s c lear f rom t he s o f ar s ke le ta l c hrono log ica l f rameworks e s tab l ished b y Dr . J oesph Ra f tery o n t he b as is o f h is w ork a t L ough G ara ( 1972 , 2 -6 ) a nd b y B arry Ra f tery o n t he b as is o f h is e va lua t ion o f ma ter ia l f rom e xcava ted h i l l-for ts ( 1972 , 5 1-55 ). T here i s e v idence , h owever t en tat ive , f or t he o cc upa t ion o f s ome r a th a nd c ashe l s i tes a t d a tes i n t he w ho le m i l lenn iu m b e fore t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion . I n a n e ar l ier p aper ( Proudfoo t , 1 970 ) w e b r ief ly d iscussed e v idence f or t he c on t inued o ccupa t ion o f r a ths o r f or t he ir c ons truc t ion i n med iaeva l t imes . S o me o f t he v iews e xpressed t here h ave a lready b een d iscussed b y L ynn ( 1 975 ) , G lasscock ( 1971 ) , G raham ( 1972 ) , a nd Barre t (19 72 ). S evera l d i f feren t a rgu men ts w ere a dvanced i n 1 970 b u t p erhaps n o t c lear ly e nough d is t ingu ished . V ar ious p oss ib i l it ies w i l l b e d ea l t w ith i n t urn . 1 .

C ons truc t ion o f r a ths i n med iaeva l t imes c urren t ly n o c er ta in e xamp les o f t hese a re k nown , a nd t he a rgumen ts r ema in a s s ta ted i n 1 970.

2 .

S i tes c on t inu ing i nu se t hrough t he s econd h a l f o f t he t we l f th c entury

-

w ithou t s uch mass ive a l tera t ion a s t o c hange t he b as ic n a ture o f t he s i te. Al i ke ly e xamp le o f t h is i s a t Ba l lyaghagan w here t he r a th w as h e igh te ned w i thou t f i rs t b e ing a bandoned a s i nd ica ted b y t he a bsence o f at ur fl i ne o ver t he p r imary o ccupa t ion . T he o ccupa t ion o n t op o f t he h e igh tened e ar thwork w as d a ted b y g lazed p o t tery t o t he t h ir teen th o r f our teen th c en tur ies. S ou terra in w are c on t inued i n u se r egard t he s herds f ound i n t he u pper l eve l a s e ar l ier p er iod . Ano ther e xamp le i s t he r a th h e igh tened o n an umber o f o ccas ions p r ior t o c en tury , O ccupa t ion . 3 .

a nd t here i s n o r eason t o r ubb ish s urv iva ls f ro m t he a t Ba l lynarry w h ich w as i t s f i na l , t h ir teen th

S i tes c on t inu ing i n u se t hrough t he s econd h a l f o f t he t wel f th c en tury w ith mass ive a l tera t ion t o -the s truc ture o f t he s i te s o a s t o c hange i t s n ature , f or e xamp le , b yt he b u i ld ing o f a mo t te o ver t he e ar l ier h ab it a t ion . T he mos t l i ke ly e xamp les o f t h is a re a t C as t le s kreen 2 a nd L is mahon . A t n e ither s i te w as t here e v idence f or t he a bandonmen t o f t he s i te p r ior t o i t s r econs truc t ion . I n t he l as t p hase o f t he p re -mo t te o ccupa t ion a t C as t leskreen 2 a n umber o f o b jec ts o f Eng l ish c harac ter a ppear , w h i le t he s tructura l e v idence f or t he o ccupa t ion o n t he t op o f t he mound a t L is mahon w as s ugges t ive o f c on t inued n a t ive o ccupa t ion .

4 .

S i tes o ccup ied b efore a nd a f ter t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion w here i ti s

u n cer ta in

t ha t o ccupa t ion w as c on t inuous. T he s i te a t Ba l ly founder h ad b een o ccup ied o ver a l ong p er iod b u t i tc ou ld n o t b e d eter m ined whether o r n o t t he o ccupa t ion w as c on t inuous.

8 8

Whereas r ecen t d iscuss ions h ave o f n ecess ity b een c oncerned w ith c hrono log ical p rob le ms o ft he t ypes d iscussed a bove , t he b roader p rob le ms o f i n terpretat ion s hou ld n o t b e f orgot ten.

I f we a ssu me t ha t a t as i te l ike

Cast leskreen 2 t he n at ive o ccupan t was d ispossessed b y a n Ang lo-Nor man t hen t he q uest ion a r ises a s t o wha t h appened t o h i m.

Was h e a bsorbed i n

o ther , n e ighbour ing , I r ish s et t le men ts , a nd i fs o wha t s or t were t hey?

Were

t hey i n t he ' I r ish T own iands ' k nown f ro m med iaeva l d ocu men tary s ources ( Orpen , 1 915 ;

Buchanan 1 973 )?

I f , i nstead o f b e ing a bsorbed i n a n I r ish

s ett le men t , h e e stab l ished h i mse lf a new , what f orm o f s et t le men t d id h e b u ild ; what was h is s tatus i n r ela t ion t o o ther n at ives a nd t o t he Ang lo-No rmans? On t he o ther h and i ft he mot te a t Cast leskreen 2 were b u il t b y t he o r ig ina l i nhab itan t , a s s ee ms l ikely a t L is mahon , i n im itat ion o f t he c a mpa ign f or ts o f t he i nvaders ,th is must s urely imp ly t ha t t he owner h ad a cqu ired s o me r o le i n t he s oc iety b e ing r e-formed b y t he Ang lo-Nor mans.

I f t he r ing-work a t

Dro more , c ounty An tr im ( Col l ins , 1 970b ) was o f med iaeva l d a te t hen t he s a me k inds o f p rob le ms a re r a ised f or h ere a ga in i s as i te whose f i na l a ppeara nce was motte l ike , y et whose i nhab itan ts s ee m l ikely t o h ave b een I r ish. Fur ther n or th i n t he s a me c oun ty , t he s i te a t Doon more ( Ch ilde , 1 938 ) a lso p oses s im i lar p rob le ms f or h ere t oo i s as i te o f mot te l ike a ppearance i nh ab ited i n t he t h ir teenth c entury b y n a t ive o ccupan ts who , i n t h is i nstance, h ad a cqu ired a t l east o ne e ver ted r im c ook ing p ot a nd a g il t-bronze p endan t o f Ang lo-Norman s ty le. F IE LDS F ie lds c lear ly a ssoc ia ted w ith r a ths , o r o therw ise d atab le t o t he p remed iaeva l p er iod , a re r are.

Best k nown a re t hose a t Cush where t he f ields

c an b e s ecure ly l inked w ith s o me o f t he r aths , t he d ate o f wh ich i s , h owever , uncer ta in.

A t L issach igge l i n L outh a c o mp lex o f f ie lds , h uts a nd c a irns

( presu mab ly t he r esu lt o f s tone c learance ) were p lanned b y Dav ies ( 1939 ), a nd i t s ee ms r easonab le t o s uggest t ha t t hese f eatures a nd t he c ashe l i n t he ir midst a re c on te mporaneous. i s more c o mp lex .

The s ituat ion a t Cahergu il la more i n L i mer ick

F ie lds , as unken way a nd t he r e ma ins o f l ong r ectangu lar

h ouses d at ing t o t he f our teen th t o s ix teen th c entur ies c o mpr ise a d eser ted med iaeva l v il lage ( O 'R iodra in a nd Hun t , 1 942 ). t he f i e lds a re s evera l r aths.

With in t he e nclos ing b anks o f

Here w e s ee m l ikely t o h ave a r are c ase where

t he r e la t ions b etween p re- med iaeva l a nd med iaeva l s et t le men ts c an b e c lear ly d e mons tra ted.

I nterest ing ly , Cahergu il la more s ee ms s im ilar i n f orm t o

med iaeva l v il lages i n e astern I reland t ha t h ad manor ia l s tatus a nd s ee m t o h ave h ad a ssoc iated o pen f i e lds.

A t G ood land i n c ounty An tr i m sma l l r ect-

a ngu lar f ie lds , e ar l ier t han h uts o f l a te med iaeva l d ate , may h ave b een p loughed , f or r idges c an b e c lear ly s een i n t he f ie lds.

The r e lat ionsh ip o f t hese f ie lds

t o t he p resent t own iand b oundar ies a nd e ar l ier s im ilar d iv is ions i s u ncer ta in ( Case e t a l., 1 969 ). Aer ia l p hotography ( Norman a nd S t. J oseph , 1 969 ) h as r evea led t races o f f ur ther f i e ld p at terns p robab ly c on te mporary w ith r aths a nd c ashe ls. Var ia t ion i n b oth f orm a nd s ize o f i nd iv idua l f i e lds o ccurs b ut t he b as ic p at tern s ee ms t o b e t hat o f sma ll e nclosures g enera l ly much l ess t han a n a cre i n s ize.

By t he v ery n ature o f t he e v idence l arge o pen f ields l ater s ubd iv ided

8 9

a nd e nc losed w i l l l eave f ew t races s o t ha t t he s ize o ff i e lds k nown f rom a er ia l P hotography i s l i ke ly t o b e b iased .. T here i s t herefore l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t o s uppor t t he v iew t ha t o pen a nd e nc losed f i e lds c o-exi s t ed i n p remed iaeva l t imes . CRANNOGS Crannogs a re o ccupa t ion s i tes o n i s lands i n l akes . T he i s lands w ere o f ten f ormed a r t if ic ia l ly w ith s tones , s o i l , t imber , o r o ccupa t ion d ebr is. S o me c rannogs h ad r e ta in ing p a l isades o f t imber a nd s takes , o r as tone b u i l t w a l l , a nd o ccupa t ion l ayers b ased o n l a id t imbers o rb rushwood f l oors. Causeways c onnec ted s ome c rannogs t o t he ma in land w h i le o ther c rannogs s eem t o h ave h ad sma l l j e t t ies t o w h ich b oa ts c ou ld b e f as tened . Af ew c rann ogs a re a t t he v ery e dges o f l akes a nd c ou ld P resu mab ly h ave b een r eached f rom t he l and r e la t ive ly e as i ly . T he c us tom o f l i v ing o n sma l l i s lands i n l akes g oes b ack i nI re land t o t he N eo l i th ic . Af ew o f t he b et ter k nown c rann ogs h ad t he ir b eg inn ings i n t he l a te Bronze Age a nd s i tes a re k nown f ro m t ha t p er iod t hrough t o t he s even teen th c en tury A . D . w hen s o me c rannogs w ere i nu se a s d e fended s trong p o in ts. T he l arge q uan t i t ies o f ma ter ia l b rough t f rom t he l ake s hore t o c rea te t he a r t i f ic ia l i s land wh ich w as t o b e o ccup ied r epresen t av ery c ons iderab le e xpend iture o f e f for t w h ich mus t i mp ly a c er ta in d egree o f s oc ia l O rgan isa t ion , f or a s ing le f am i ly c ou ld s carce ly h ave c omp le ted s uch a t ask u na ided w ith in ar easonab le p er iod o f t ime. T he u se o f s tone f or r e ta in ing w a l ls o f s o me c rannogs a nd t he p robab le o ccurrence o f s tone h u ts o n s ome c rannogs s ugges t c lose l i nks b e tween c rannog a nd c ashe l b u i lders . C rannogs , l i ke r a ths a nd c ashe ls o f w h ich i n e very w ay t hey s eem t o b e t he c oun terpar ts , v ary i n s ize b u t i n s p i te o f t hese d i f ferences t here i s as urp r is ing u n iform i ty i n t he e cono my o f t he c rannog d we l lers o f t he p re-med iaeva l p er iod . E ssen t ia l ly t he e cono my w as b ased o n m ixed f arm ing t he k eep ing -

o fl i ves tock a nd t he g row ing o f g ra in , p resumab ly o n t he l ands s urround ing t he l ake o r marsh i n w h ich t he c rannog w as s i tua ted . S omewha t s urpr is ing ly , l i t t le a dvan tage s eems t o h ave t aken o f t he f ood r esources w h ich c ou ld h ave b een p rov ided b y t he i m med ia te marsh l and o r l ake e nv ironmen ts o f t he s i tes t hems e lves.

A s w i th r a ths a nd c ashe ls i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o d emons tra te r eg iona l

o r c hrono log ica l d i f ferences i n e cono my b e tween d iferen t s i tes b ecause o f t he d if icu l t ies o f c lose ly d a t ing i nd iv idua l c rannogs . I ti s a lso d i f f icu l t t o s how c hanges o n as ing le s i te , f or s uccess ive o ccupa t ion l ayers a re s e ldom s uf f ic ien t ly e x tens ive o r s uf f ic ien t ly w e l l s ea led f rom e ach o ther t o e nab le a dequa te c o mp ar isons t o b e made .

H owever , a t L agore s o me c ompar isons b e tween t he s uc-

c ess ive p er iods o f o ccupa t ion c an b e made , a l though t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he e v idence i s d i f f icu l t e ven a ccep t ing t he e xcava tor 's d a t ing f or t he v ar ious P hases o f t he s i te .

Ana lays is o f t he a n i ma l r ema ins s hows t ha t t he p ropor t ion

O fp ig a nd s heep i ncreases s uccess ive ly i n P er iods I a nd I I a s c ompared w i th I , w h i le o x c orrespond ing ly d ec l ines. H encken ( 1 950 ) s ugges ted t ha t t h is m igh t b e ar ef lec t ion o f t he d is turbed c ond it ions c aused b y t he c om ing o f t he N orse men , w hose a t tacks u pon t he s i te a re r ecorded i n t he A nna ls . A l though t he n umber o f f i nds o f q uerns i s i nsuf f ic ien t t o g ive s uch a d e ta iled i d ea o f c hanges i n t he e conomy i t may n ever the less b e s ign if ican t t ha t P er iod I h ad 9 0

7q uern f rag men ts , l b 3 , a nd T a If ragmen t.

Th is e v idence s l igh t t hough i t

i s s eems d iff icu lt t o r econc i ld w ith t he Norse i nvas ion t heory.

The c hange

i n t he p ropor t ions o f t he v ar ious a n i ma l b ones might , i nstead , b e r e lated t o t he c hanged i n terna l p o l it ica l s ta tus o f t he o ccupan ts o f t he c rannog , f or t he h istor ical e v idence s uggests t hat t he e ar l ier o ccupan ts were t he h igh k ing a nd h is c our t who were r ep laced a t al a ter s tage b y c h ief ta ins w ith o n ly l oca l s overe ign ty , whose t r ibu tes , ma in ly i n c a t t le would p resu mably h ave b een sma l ler t han t hose o f t he h igh k ing .

Changes a lso s ee m t o h ave t aken

p lace i n t he t ype o f meta l-work ing c arr ied o n a t t he s ite.

I ron-work ing

c harac ter ised Per iods I a nd I l whereas b ronze- a nd g lass-work ing were t yp ica l o fl b.

The c hangeover migh t h ave b een d ue e ither t o t he i n terna l

P ol it ica l s i tua t ion o r t o a sw itch t o t he war-t i me p roduct ion o f i ron t oo ls a nd weapons d ur ing t he Norse d isturbances o f t he n in th c en tury .

S im i lar v ar ia-

t ions were r ecorded i n t he a n i ma l r e ma ins f ro m Ba l l inderry C r annog No. 1 , ( Hencken , 1 936 ), where t he p ercentage o f o x b ones f el l n ot iceably a f ter t he o r ig ina l t en th c entury o ccupat ion , wh ile p ig r ose a nd s heep a nd g oa t f e l l. These s ites c on trast w ith t he sma l ler c rannog a t Lough Faughan where t he p ercen tages o f d if feren t a n i ma ls f ro m t he s tructura l e ar ly h ab ita t ion a nd medi aeval l eve ls were s o s im ilar a s t o i nd icate a s tab le l ivestock e cono my o ver ac ons iderable p er iod ( H. M. J ope i n Co l l ins , 1 955, 7 7 ).

The p ercentage o f

r ed d eer b ones was l ower i n t he l ater l eve ls t han i n t he s tructura l l eve ls , r ef lect ing p erhaps t he i ncreas ing s carc ity o f t he a n i ma l r esu lt ing f ro m c ont inued t i l lage a nd f orest c learance d ur ing t he t ime t he s i te was o ccup ied. Few r ecent ly e xcava ted c rannog s i tes h ave p rov ided e v idence f or t he ir o ccupa t ion d ur ing t he med iaeva l p er iod im med ia te ly a f ter t he Ang lo-Nor man I nvas ion .

Ma jor s ites s uch a s L agore o r t he Ba l l inderry Crannogs s ee m t o

h ave b een a bandoned b efore t h is d ate.

There s ee ms t o h ave b een c ons iderab le

t h irteen th a nd f our teen th c entury o ccupa t ion a t I s land Mac Hugh ( E. M. J ope 1 952a ) b u t t he d ate o f t he p reced ing o ccupat ion a nd t he s tra t igraph ic r e la t ions h ips o f t he e ar l iest med iaeva l mater ia l a re u ncer ta in. H ILL-FORTS The s yste ma t ic s tudy o f h i l l-for ts i n I re land h as o n ly b egun w ith in r ecen t y ears. T he d if f icu lt ies o f d ef in ing h il l-for ts a s as eparate c a tegory o f s i te h ave a lready b een men t ioned i n c onnect ion w ith t he ir d ist inct iveness c o mpared w ith r aths a nd c ashels.

A f ur ther c ategory o f s i te wh ich p oses p rob le ms o f

s eparat ion f ro m h il l-for ts i nc luded p ro mon tory f or ts s o me o f wh ich i n t er ms o f b oth s ize a nd c o mp lex ity o f e nc los ing s tructures a re s im ilar t o h il l-for ts , o thers i n t erms o f s ca le a re s im ilar t o r aths o r c ashels. A lthough s o me h il l-for ts a re o f r egu lar c ircu lar o u t l ine a nd a t t he sma l ler en d o f t he ir s ize r ange a re s epara ted f ro m r aths o n ly b y t he ir g rea ter s ize , t he l arge h i l l-for ts , e nclos ing many a cres , must h ave d ifered i n f unc t ion f ro m sma l l s ites e ach o ccup ied o n ly b y as ing le f am ily .

Much o f t he r ecen t

d iscuss ion o n h il l-for ts ( B. Raf tery , 1 976 ) h as b een c oncerned w ith t he ir o r ig ins a nd e ar ly f unct ions , r ather t han w ith t he ir l ater u se wh ich i s o f more im med ia te c oncern i n t he p resen t c on tex t.

I nc luded amongst t he h il l-for ts

a re a n u mber o f s i tes wh ich c an b e i den t if ied f ro m d ocu mentary a nd p lace

9 1

n ame e v idence a s ' Roya l s i tes ' o f n a t iona l o r r eg iona l impor tance .

Tara ,

Ra th C roghan , Ema in Macha ( Navan F or t ) a nd D un A i l inne a re r egarded , r espec t ive ly , a s t he t rad i t iona l s ea ts o ft he H igh K ings o fI re land , a nd t he K ings o f C onnaugh t , U ls ter a nd L e ins ter . O ther r oya l s i tes a re a lso d ocumen ted , d oub t less r ef lec t ing t he c hang ing i mpor tance o f l oca l k ings i n t he s oc ia l , p o l it ica l a nd m i l i tary a f fa irs o f d i f feren t r eg ions o f t he c oun try . S uch s i tes v ary i n s ize a nd i n t he s truc tura l f ea tures wh ich c an b e r ecogn ised i n t he f i e ld , o r a s ar esu l t o f e xcava t ion . T he ir f unc t ions , a nd t hose o f t he c omp lexes o f w h ich t hey s o me t i mes f orm p ar t , a s a t T ara , a re s t i l l u nc lear f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence. I t s eems p oss ib le t ha t s o me s i tes were p r imar i ly o f r i tua l s ign if icance , o thers o f e conom ic o r m i l itary i mpor tance , a lthough t he d is t inc t ion b etween t hese d i f feren t f unc t ions may b e e xaggera ted b y o ur own t endency t o d isaggrega te s uch f unc t ions . P rob le ms o f i n terpret a t ion a lso a r ise f rom t he l im ited e xcava t ion t ha t h as b een c arr ied o u t . Wa i les ( 1976 ) h as r igh t ly d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he f ac t t ha t many s i tes r egarded a s ma jor h i l l-for ts a re e nc losed b y v ery sma l l r ampar ts wh ich c anno t o n s uper f ic ia l f i e ld e v idence b e c ons idered a s d e fens ive i n a ny way . T ha t s uch f i e ld e v idence may c oncea l r emnan ts o f mass ive b anks a nd d itches i s , h owe ver , c lear f rom t he e v idence a t C a thedra l H i l l , D ownpa tr ick ( Proudfoo t , 1 956 ), a l though h ere i ta ppears l i ke ly t ha t b y t he l a ter p ar t o f t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod t he d efences h ad f a l len i n to d isrepa ir , i n marked c on tras t t ot he s i tua t ion e ar l ier . T h is l a ter e v idence i s c omparab le w i th t ha t f rom s ome r a th a nd c ashe l s i tes w here e nc los ing b anks , d i tches , a nd w a l ls s ee m t o h ave f a l len i n to d isrepa ir w h i le t he s i tes w ere s t i l l o ccup ied . S uch s tructura l e v idence c onf irms t he e v idence f rom l ack o f f i nds s ugges t ive o f w ar l ike a c t iv it ies f rom mos t s i tes o f t h is p er iod .

As H ughes ( 1972 , 2 64-5 ) h as p o inted o u t , t he

l i terary s ources a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a re a t v ar iance o n t h is ma t ter b u t c an t o s ome e x ten tb e r econc i led i fw ar fare i s t hough t o f i n t erms o f s peedy b order r a ids r a ther t han p ro trac ted s iege t ac t ics. T he g enera l p rob le ms o f c hrono logy a nd o r ig ins a re a s d if f icu l t t o h i l lf or ts a s f or r a ths. O n a t l eas t t wo s i tes s e t t lemen t o f L a te Bronze Age d a te i s k nown . T he mos t e x tens ive a nd b es t d ocumen ted s e t t le men t o ft ha t d a te s o f ar r ecovered i s t ha t a t Ra thga l l ( B. R af tery , 1 976 ). A t t ha t p er iod t here w as a t l eas t ap ermanen t ly o ccup ied v i l lage b u t i ti s n o t k nown w he ther o r n o t i tw as d efended . O f s im i lar d a te i s t he e ar l ies t s et t le men t a t C a thedra l H i l l , Downpa tr ick , a ga in p robab ly u nde fended . Wh i le c oarse p o t tery o f ' f la t-r i mmed t ype ' c on t inued i nu se t he s i te w as e nc losed b y s ubs tan t ia l d efences o f d itch a nd t imber p a l isade o r r eve t ted b ank . T he a ssoc ia t ion o f t wo L a te B ronze Age g o ld h oards w i th t he e ar ly o ccupa t ion i s l i ke ly a nd t he ir f ur ther c onnec t ions o u ts ide I re land w i th S co t land ( Proud foo t , 1 955 ) p erhaps s ugges t s ome o f t he i n f luences t ha t w ere i mpor tan t i n c hang ing t he w ho le f abr ic o fI re land a nd S co t land a t t ha t t ime ( compare MacK ie , 1 976 , 2 3 ). T he e v idence a t Ca thedra l H i l l , D ownpa tr ick s ugges ts c on t inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion t hrough t he l ong p er iod f rom a d a te p erhaps a s e ar ly a s 6 00 B .C. t o t he f our teen th c en tury A . D. t o w h ich d a te t he l a tes t med iaeva l p o t tery f rom t he s i te b e longs. F rom t he s o f ar l im i ted e xcava t ion t here i s c er ta in ly n o s ign o f a ny b reak i n o ccupa t ion d ur ing t h is p er iod , a nd s ubs tan t ia l e v idence f or ma jor p er iods o f a c t iv ity w hen t he d e fences w ere mod if ied a f ter f a l l ing i n to d isuse. F inds f ro m t he l a ter p re-med iaeva l p er iod i nc lude s ou terra in w are p o t tery a nd sma l l o b jec ts

9 2

s uch a s b ronze p ins c o mparable i n e very r espect w ith f inds f ro m r a th a nd c ra i mog s i tes i n t he s a me a rea a ss igned t o t he s a me d ate. g ra in s torage a nd s lags me ta l-work ing .

Large p its s uggest

On o ther s ites , s uch a s Ar magh , Freestone H il l a nd Dun A i l inne , t here i s ex tens ive e v idence o f s trong c on tacts w ith t he Ro man Wor ld.

A t C logher

(Warner i n De laney , 1 974 , 2 7 ) impor ted p ot tery p rov ides e v idence f or o cc upat ion i n to t he Ear ly Chr ist ian p er iod , p erhaps c eas ing a bout A .D . 8 00. Many h i l l-for ts s i tes s ee m t o h ave b een a bandoned b y t h is t ime a lthough s o me were r e-occup ied t o a minor e x ten t i n t he med iaeva l p er iod .

I t h as o f ten b een

a rgued t ha t many o f t he more p rest ig ious s i tes o f t he Pagan p er iod were a bandoned w ith t he c om ing o f Chr ist ian ity , b ut s i tes s uch a s Ar magh a nd Cathedra l H il l, Downpa tr ick , were c lear ly Chr ist ian ised a nd r e ma ined a s imp ortan t c en tres i n to t he Midd le Ages a nd l ater ( co mpare d e Paor , 1 958, 3 2 a nd 4 8 ).

The a bandon men t o f ma jor s i tes must h ave c aused a v ar iety o f

c hanges i n s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isat ion g enera l ly , a nd i n t he r e la t ive impor tance o f d if feren t s i tes.

Perhaps t he d evelop ing monast ic s i tes t ook

o ver t he e cono m ic a s we l l a s t he r el ig ious f unct ions o f s o me e ar l ier s i tes. Archaeo logy c an a s y e t c on tr ibute l i t t le t o t he s tudy o f t hese c hanges , o r p rov ide much s ubstan t ia l e v idence a s t o t he r e lat ive impor tance o f h i l l-for ts a t t he t i me o f t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion. PRO MONTORY FORTS Pro mon tory f or ts h ave b een d ist ingu ished a s as epara te c a tegory o f s ett le men t s ite s ince Westropp 's c lass ic s tudy o f ' The Anc ien t For ts o f I reland ' ( 1902 ).

Most o ccupy r ocky c oasta l h eadlands , a lthough a f ew a re

s ituated i n land o n moun ta in s purs o r r idges.

Mater ia l f ro m t he v ery sma l l

n u mber o f s ites e xcavated d oes l i tt le t o a ss ist i n t he ir d a t ing .

By a na logy

w ith s ites i n Cornwa l l a nd Br it tany s o me may d a te t o t he Ear ly I ron Age b u t n o I r ish p ro mon tory f or ts h ave b een d ated t o e ar l ier t han t he Ear ly Chr ist ian P er iod.

S o me s i tes were c lear ly r e-used i n v ar ious l ater p er iods , b u t t here

i s n o e xcavated e v idence t o p rove c on t inu ity o f o ccupa t ion f ro m p re- med iaeva l i n to l a ter t imes.

The e cono my o f t he p ro mon tory f or t a t L arrybane o n t he

n or th An tr im c oast was s hown b y e xcava t ion t o b e s im ilar t o t ha t o f t he t yp ica l r ath f arms tead a lthough t he n a ture o f t he s i te , b u t n ot i t s s ize , s erved t o d ist ingu ish i tf ro m t he t yp ica l r a th.

S o me sma l l f or t if ied p re- med iaeva l s i tes

n ot o n c oasta l s i tuat ions , s uch a s Dund r nm i n c oun ty Down , i n many ways f or m a l i nk b etween s tr ict ly p ro mon tory f or ts a nd sma ll h i l l-for ts s uch a s Dunbeg , a lso i n Down ( Proudfoot a nd Wilson , 1 961-2, 1 07-8 ).

The s im i lar ity

b etween s o me o f t he l arger , west c oast , p ro mon tory f or ts a nd o ther h il lf or ts h as a lready b een men t ioned. A t p resen t , t he f unc t ions o f p ro mon tory f or ts a s u n its i n t he o vera l l s et t le men t p at tern r e ma in u ncer ta in. OTHER S ETTLE MENTS A ll t he s ites p rev ious ly d iscussed h ave b een e nc losed w ith wa l ls , b anks o r d itches wh ich h ave, i n g enera l , l ef t o bv ious f ie ld r e ma ins. A v ar iety o f o ther s et t le ment f or ms h as b een r ecogn ised , o f ten a s ar esu lt o f c hance f inds b e ing made.

However , c aut ion s hou ld b e e xerc ised i n e x trapo lat ing

9 3

f rom s uch f i nds t o a ssumed s et t lemen t f orms.

A n i ns truc t ive e xamp le o f

t h is i s p rov ided b y e xcava t ions a t B a l lycroghan , c oun ty D own ( Hodges , 1 955 ). T he e ar l ier d iscovery o f t hree s words o f . L a te Bronze Age t ype i nv ar ious s tages o f f i n ish m igh t r easonab ly h ave b een i n terpre ted t o imp ly t hat a b ronzesm ith 's w orkshop ( and h ab ita t ion ) w as i n t he i mmed ia te v ic in ity . I ns tead , t he e xcava tor d iscovered t hree c ook ing-p laces w h ich w ou ld s eem t o i nd ica te t ha t t he a rea w as o n ly t e mporar i ly s e t t led , p erhaps i ndeed o n ly s easona l ly o ccup ied , u n t i l t he e s tab l ishmen t o f ar a th f arms tead n earby d ur ing , p res u mab ly , t he p re- med iaeva l p er iod . A s um mary o f t he v ar ie ty o f s et t lemen t f orms i s g iven i n Append ix One , w i th b ib l iograph ic r eferences . A s w i th c ook ing-p laces , s ome c oas ta l s i tes may h ave b een o ccup ied o n ly t e mporar i ly o r s easona l ly , a nd t h is may a ccoun t f or t he f ew s truc tura l r ema ins a ssoc ia ted w i th s ome o ccupa t ion s i tes i n t hese l oca t ions . On t he o ther h and , c oas ta l s i tes w i th r e la t ive ly s ubs tan t ia l h ouses a re k nown , a s a t B eg in ish , w here r e ma ins o f f i e lds w ere a lso r ecorded ( O 'Ke l ly , 1 956 ). H u t g roups s i tua ted n ear r a ths o r c ashe ls a re k nown f rom s evera l l oca t ions , f or e xamp le a t t he Two M i le S tone i n D onega l ( Dav ies , 1 942 ) , L issach igge l i n L outh ( Dav ies , 1 939 ) a nd a t ' t he S pec tac les ' , C arra ig A i l le , L ough G ur ( O 'R iorda in , 1 949 ). Enc losed a nd u nenc losed h u t g roups h ave b een r ecorded a t S crabo b u t t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he h i l l-for t i su nknown ( H .M .S .O., 1 966 ). Nat ura l ly c lus ters o f sma l l h u ts w ithou t l arge b anks a nd d i tches s urround ing t hem w ou ld l eave f ew t races , a nd i ft he h u ts w ere o f w ood , f ew , i fa ny , r e ma ins w ou ld b e v is ib le o n t he g round t oday . F or t h is r eason i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t s o f ew s i tes o f t h is t ype a re k nown , a nd t hose ma in ly a t o r a bove t he p resen t l im its o f c u l t iva t ion . H owever , af ew s i tes h ave b een f ound i n f er t i le l ow land a reas a t C amus i n c oun ty D erry a nd Ma lone i n B el fas t . Both -

s i tes w ere f ound d ur ing c ommerc ia l e xcava t ions s o t ha t c omp le te d e ta i ls o f t he s i tes a re n o t a va i lab le. P its , i n terpre ted a s g ra in s torage p i ts , a nd l arge h o l lows , p erhaps w ork ing h o l lows l ike t hose a t L it t le Woodbury , were f ound o n b o th s i tes ( May , 1 945 ; Q u inn , 1 930-31 ; P roudfoo t , 1 957 ). S herds o f s ou terra in w are w h ich w ere f ound i n p i ts o fu ncer ta in d a te may p rov ide e v idence f or a s im i lar s i te b eneath t he c lachan a t Murphys town i nD own ( Buchanan e t a l ., 1 957 ). H ab i ta t ion s i tes i n marsh land l oca t ions a re a lso k nown ( O 'R iorda in , 1 949 ).

S o t oo a re c ave s i tes , b o th a t c oasta l l oca t ions ,

a s a t B a l l in toy w here t he c aves may h ave b een o ccup ied i n to t he med iaeva l p er iod , a nd i n land a s a t K i lgreany ( Jackson , 1 934 ; Morr is , 1 935 ). S i tes o n wh ich s pec ia l ised i ndus tr ia l a c t iv it ies w ere c arr ied o u t i nc lude G lannafeen i n C ork w here i ron sme l t ing w as c arr ied o n i n a sma l l h u t p oss ib ly o f p remed iaeva l d a te , a nd I n ishkea N or th a c oasta l s i te w here d ye manu factur ing o ccurred ( O 'Cu i l leana in , 1 955 ;

H enry , 1 945 ).

I ron-sme l t ing was a lso

i n tens ive ly p rac t ised o n t he s i te k nown a s S t .Gobne t 's H ouse , Ba l lyvourney , b u t t he r e la t ion o f t h is i ndus tr ia l a c t iv ity t o t he r e l ig ious f unct ions o f t he s i te a re u nso lved ( O 'Ke l ly , 1 952 ). A par t f ro m s i tes a lready men t ioned , t he o ccurrence o f S ou terra ins w ithou t a ssoc ia ted r a ths s hou ld b e n o ted . S ome o f t hese mus t h ave h ad a h ouse c over ing t he e n trance , a s a t C ra ig H i l l i n An tr im ( Wa terman , 1 956 ) b u t f ew t races o f s uch s tructures h ave b een r ecorded .

9 4

RA T h AND BA TLE Apar t f ro m t he f ew o pen s i tes f or wh ich a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r ema ins i th as b een a rgued , p ar t ly o n d is tr ibu t iona l g rounds a nd p ar t ly o n l i terary a nd p lace-name e v idence , t h't o pen s i t -. 9wh ich h ave l e f t f ew i fa ny t races mus t h ave b een w idespread a nd h ave c o-ex is ted w ith t he r a ths a nd o ther ma jor f orms a lready d escr ibed ( Proud foo t , 1 957 e h . 5 ; P roud foo t , 1 959 , 11-115 ; P roud foo t , 1 961, 19 ). P erhaps t hese w ere c lus tered , u nde fended s e t t le men ts o ccup ied b y p eop le o f i n fer ior s oc ia l s ta tus t o t he f ree f armers o f t he r a ths , a nd t he c h ief ta ins o f t he l arger more p res t ig ious s i tes. S uch o pen c lus ters o f s et t lemen t m igh t w e l lb e t he b a i le ( ba l ly ) w h ich h ave b eco me i ncorpora ted s o f requen t ly i n I r ish p lace-names . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f B a l ly t own iands h as p rev ious ly b een u sed t o s ugges t s o me s pa t ia l d is t inc t ion b e tween a reas d om inan t ly o ccup ied b y r a ths a nd t hose o ccup ied b y o pen , c lus tered s e t t lemen ts , w h ich m igh t b e t ermed ' pro to-

c lachans '. S ince t he s ugges t ion w as o r ig ina l ly made w ith r e ference t o c oun ty D own t he a rgu men t h as b een u sed more w ide ly a nd s ome c au t ionary c o mmen ts a re n ow , p erhaps , n eeded .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f Ba l lytown iands a s r ecorded

b y t he Ordnance S urvey i nt he e ar ly n ineteen th c en tury i s n o t n ecessar i ly t he t o ta l d is tr ibu t ion o f n ames i ncorpora t ing t he e lemen tb a ue , n or i s t he d is tr ibut i on p a t tern o f t own iands s hown o n t he Ordnance S urvey maps t he t o ta l d ist r ibu t ion o f a l l u n its t ha t a t s ome s tage o r o ther h ave b een k nown o r d es igna ted a s t own iands. Mor ton ( 1957 ) h as d iscussed p lace-names many o f wh ich c ont a in t he B a l lye le men t i n t he B el fas t a rea a nd r e fer t o a reas d es igna ted a s t own lands i n s even teen th c en tury g ran ts . N o t a l l t hese t own iands h ave s urv ived a s s uch a nd h al f o f t he s even teen th c en tury n ames w ere n o t r ecorded b y t he Ordnance S urvey . C ompar ison o f e ar ly s even teen th c en tury d ocumen ts p rov ides a l terna t ive f orms o f t he s ame n ame a nd i n many c ases p roves t ha t e x ist ing t own iand n ames w ithou t t he e le men t B a l ly- f ormer ly c on ta ined i t . F or n or th D own Greeves ( 1 955 ) h as l i s ted t own iand n ames a nd a l iases g iven i n e ar ly s even teen th c en tury I nqu is i t ion d ocumen ts a nd f rom t hese i tc an a ga in b e s hown t ha t t he t o ta l d is tr ibu t ion o f p lace n ames i ncorpora t ing b a ue i s more e x tens ive t han t he n ine teen th c en tury Ordnance S urvey B a l ly- n ames . Whe ther t h is w ou ld b e s o i n a reas w here B a l ly- t own iands a re l ess c ommon i su ncer ta in a lthough McCour t 's ( 1971 ) d iscuss ion a nd d is tr ibu t ion map o f t own iand n ames i ncorpora t ing t he e le men ts t own a nd t on s ugges t t ha t s uch m igh t w e l l b e t he c ase. Wh i le t he a rgu men t t ha t t he b a i le w ere t he s e t t le men ts o f t he u nfree i n t he p re-med iaeva l p er iod i s a n a t trac t ive o ne , a nd t he e x tens ion o f t he a rgu men t t ha t many o f t he ir i nhab itan ts b ecame t he u n free o f t he i ncom ing Ang lo-Normans ( Buchanan , 1 970 ; 1 973 ; McCour t , 1 971 ) i s e qua l ly a t trac t ive , t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r egre t tab ly r ema ins u nava i lab le. A s s tressed b efore l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he s e t t le men t p a t tern o f t he med iaeva l p er iod .

9 5

M :ED IAEVAL S ITES The c on trast , t herefore , b etween t he e v idence f or p re- med iaeva l a nd p ostInvas ion s et t le men t f or ms i s s tr ik ing .

Known f or ms o f s e t t le men t a re

f ewer a nd e xcava ted e v idence i s s parse. The o n ly f ield monumen ts wh ich c an b e c lear ly r ecogn ised a s med iaeva l a re mo ttes a nd b a i leys , a nd s o me s tone c ast les a nd monast ic o r c hurch s i tes d atab le b y t he a rch itectura l d e ta ils o f s urv iv ing b u ild ings t o t he l ater t we lfth a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies. Fo l low ing o n f ro m t he p ioneer work o f Orpen ( 1911-20 ), maps s how ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f mot tes h ave b een c o mp i led a nd p ub l ished f or n or thern I reland by J ope ( 1952b ), f or I re land a s a who le b y G lasscock ( 1975 ), a nd f or Mea th b y Graha m ( 1975 ).

I n e ssen t ia ls t he d is tr ibut ion o f mot tes r ef lec ts t he d egree

o f p enetrat ion b y t he Ang lo-Norman i nvaders d ur ing t he i n it ia l y ears o f c onques t , b ut i ti s n ot a lways c lear f ro m t he l im ited a rchaeolog ica l e v idence whether mo ttes were e rected e xc lus ive ly b y t he N or mans o r whether s o me were e rec ted b y n at ive c h iefs.

S uch s ee ms l ike ly t o h ave b een t he c ase w ith

mot tes b u i lt i n I r ish-he ld a reas i n West U lster , f or e xa mp le.

T here i s a lso

t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t s o me s i tes i den t if ied a s mot tes may b e r a ised r a ths , t he h e igh ten ing o f wh ich may h ave o ccurred b efore o r a f ter t he Ang lo-Nor man I nvas ion.

That s o me mot tes were b u ilt w ith in o r o n t op o f p re-ex is t ing r aths

i s c lear f ro m f i e ld e v idence , s o t oo i s t he u t i l isat ion o f n atura l f ea tures s uch a s mounds o f g lac ia l s ands a nd g rave ls. The p reh istor ic b ur ia l mound a t Know th s ee ms t o h ave b een u t il ised a s as et t le men t s i te a t d if feren t p er iods , b ut i n t ota l f or s o me c ons iderable t ime , d ur ing t he f irst mil lenn iu m A . D., t he f ina l s et t le men t b e ing a t a ny t ime i n t he c en tury b efore o r a f ter A . D. 1 000.

Fro m t he l a te t wel f th a nd t hrough t he t h ir teen th c en tury t he t op o f

t he l arge mound was o ccup ied a nd t he s i te must h ave g iven t he impress ion o f ah uge mot te.

A mor tared s tone b u ild ing was c onstructed o n t he s u mm it

a nd a c ons iderab le amoun t o f g lazed p ot tery was i n u se ( Eogan , 1 974 ). With in t he a rea h e ld b y t he Ang lo-Normans mo ttes a ppear t o h ave d if fered i n t he ir f unct ions , t o j udge f ro m t he ir s i te c haracter ist ics ( G lasscock , 1 975 ). S o me were b u ilt i n c o m mand ing s itua t ions o ver look ing t he s urround ing c oun trys ide o r s trateg ic r iver c ross ings.

O thers s ee m t o h ave b een b u i lt a s f ron t ier

f or t if icat ions , wh ile s o me a re f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith l ow land manor ia l c en tres p rotect ing v i l las t ha t d eveloped n earby.

I ti s p erhaps o n ly i n t h is

l ast c ase , a nd i n s im i lar s itua t ions where s tone c ast les a nd v il ls a re a ssoc iat ed t ha t we h ave c lear f ie ld e v idence t o s ubs tan t iate t he f eudal o rgan isat ion t hat l ay b eh ind t he Ang lo-Norman d isrup t ion o f t rad it iona l I r ish r ura l s ett lemen t a nd e cono my. Chrono log ica l ly l ess c er ta in f ie ld e v idence i s p rov ided b y n ow d eser ted b oroughs a nd v i l lages a nd b y moated s i tes.

The h istor ica l b ackground a nd

s o me l a te-surv iv ing e xa mp les o f v i l lages w ith o pen f i elds a nd s cat tered S tr ip h o ld ings were a na lysed b y O tway-Ru thven ( 1951) a nd l ater b y O Loan ( 1961).

F ield a nd a ssoc ia ted d ocu men tary e v idence h as b een c ons idered

b y G lasscock ( 1970 , 1 971) who h as d rawn a t tent ion t o t he w ide p o ten t ial o f d eser ted med iaeva l s i tes i n c on tr ibut ing t o af uller k now ledge o f Ang loNor man s et t le men t.

He h as mapped t he d istr ibu t ion o f moated s i tes s hown

o n t he f irst e d it ion o f t he Ordnance S urvey s ixinch maps a nd d iscussed t he

9 6

v ar iety o f s quare a nd r ec tangu lar e ar thworks i nc luded b y t h is b lanke t t erm. T here i s amarked c oncen tra t ion o f s uch s i tes i n t he s ou th a nd e as t o f t he c oun try . T he ma jor i ty a re t hough t t o h ave b een t he d e fended r es idences o f A ng lo-Norman t enan ts a nd c en tres o f l oca l c on tro l a nd a dm in is tra t ion , d a t ing ma in ly , p erhaps , t o t he l a te t h ir teen th a nd e ar ly f our teen th c en tur ies . On t he b as is o f f i e ld a nd d ocumen tary e v idence v ar ious c a tegor ies o fb oroughs h ave b een d is t ingu ished . I nt he s tr ic t ly r ura l c on tex t , p erhaps t he mos t i mp or tan t i st he r ura l-borough f or w h ich t here i s s o me d ocu men tary r eference t o b urgages o r b urgesses , b u t w h ich w as p r i mar i ly a gr icu l tura l i n f unc t ion a nd n ever a t rue t own .

P resumab ly s uch r ura l-boroughs w ere u n its w ith in

a dm in is tra t ive a nd e conom ic s ys tems a rranged i n h ierarch ic f ash ion c u lm inat i ng i n t he l arger t owns a nd c i t ies o f t he Ang lo-Nor man h e ld a rea a s aw ho le. A t al ower l eve l i n t he h ierarchy t han t he b oroughs a re p resumab ly t he manor ia l v i l lages w ith s tr ic t ly l oca l f unc t ions . T he r e la t ions b e tween moa ted s i tes a nd t hese o ther f orms o f s e t t lemen t i n troduced b y t he Ang lo-Normans s t i l l r e ma in t ob e c lar if ied , a s d o t he r e la t ions b e tween s uch med iaeva l s e t t le men ts a nd t he ir n a t ive p redecessors . W idespread e xcava t ion o f as i te s uch a s Cahergu i l la more i n L i mer ick , w h ich w as d escr ibed e ar l ier , m igh t p rov ide i nva luab le e v idence f or t he t rans it ion f rom o ne mode o f r ura l s e t t le men t t o a nother . Wh i le C ahergu i l lamore may b e t hough t o f a s ad eser ted med iaeva l v i l lage t he f unc t ion o f t he s i te a t G ood land , c oun ty An tr im i s p uzz l ing .

Here

s o me o ne h undred h u ts a re s i tua ted i n p rev ious ly a bandoned f i e lds , n ow o pen g raz ing b eyond t he l im i ts o f p resen t c u l t iva t ion . T he f ew e xcava ted h u ts p roduced l i t t le o ccupa t ion d ebr is , b u t s o me p o t tery o f f i f teenth-s ix teen th c en tury d a te. T he r e la t ionsh ip o f t h is s i te t o o ther e le men ts o f t he med iaeva l s et t lemen t p a t tern i su nknown ( Case e t a l ., 1 969 ). On ac oun trys ide b as is t he d is tr ibu t ion o f manors , manor ia l v i l ls , a nd b oroughs i s s t i l l u nknown s o t ha t t he s pread o f s uch f ea tures t hroughou t e ven t he Ang lo-Norman h e ld a reas i s a lso u nknown . I th as b een a rgued b y O twayRu thven ( 1 965 ) t ha t v i l lages w i th o pen f i e lds a nd s cat tered s tr ip h o ld ings w ere o f f undamen ta l i mpor tance i n t he r ura l e conomy a l though r e la t ive ly l arge c o mpac th o ld ings w ere a lso k nown .

T he r e la t ionsh ips o f s uch v i l lages a nd

f i e ld p a t terns t o p re-ex is t ing p a t terns r e ma in t o b e d iscovered , s o t oo d o t he i n ter-re la t ionsh ips b e tween t he v ar ious s e t t lemen t f orms k nown t o h ave e xi s ted i nt he l a ter t wel f th , t h ir teen th a nd f our teen th c en tur ies . A s ar esu l t o f r ecen t s t ud ies ( e .g . Empey , 1 971 ) a nd o f e ar l ier w ork b y Orpen ( 1 91 5 ) a nd O tway-Ru thven ( 1946-7 ) t he b road p a t terns o f med iaeva l t err i tor ia l d iv is ions a re b ecom ing c learer b u t i n g enera l t he r e la t ionsh ip o f p ar t icu lar s i tes t o a dm in is tra t ive a nd o ther f unc t iona l a reas i s made d i f f icu l t b y o ur a lmos t t o ta l l ack o f k now ledge o f t he h is tory o f m inor a dm in is tra t ive u n its a nd t he l oca t ion o f t he ir b oundar ies. S ome c oun t ies , Down f or e xamp le , d o n o t r ea l ly a ppear a s a dm in is tra t ive u n i ts u n t i l t he s even teen th c en tury . S o me a reas s e t t led b y t he A ng lo-Normans w ere c lear ly s ubd iv ided d ur ing t he p rocess o f i n feuda t ion b u t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f med iaeva l s i tes i n r e la t ion t o s uch a reas c anno t b e d iscussed mean ing fu l ly u n t i l c hrono log ica l e v idence f or t he o ccupa t ion o f i nd iv idua l s i tes i s o bta ined f rom i ndependen t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . I n t hese ' n orman ised ' a reas t he e x ten t t o w h ich t he B aron ies r ep resen t a mod if ica t ion o f e x is t ing p a t terns o f o rgan isa t ion i s s t i l l u ncer ta in . The o r ig in o f Baron ies o u ts ide t hese a reas i s e ven more u ncer ta in , a s i s t he 9 7

r e la t ionsh ip o f t hese c iv i l u n its t o t he e cc les ias t ica l d iv is ions o fb ishopr ics o r d ioceses . I n many p ar ts o f t he .coun try , e ven i n t he ' nor man ised ' a reas , o ld d is tr ic t d iv is ions , o f ten b ased o n t opograph ica l u n i ts , s tand o u ts ide t he s urv iv ing a dm in is tra t ive u n i ts , a nd may r ef lec t e ar l ier , p re- med iaeva l o rg an isa t ion .

S o me c orrespond i n ag enera l w ay w ith t he t ua ths r ecogn isab le

f rom t he l a te p re- med iaeva l h istor ica l s ources . H owever , i ti s c l ear f rom t hese s ources t ha t s uch d iv is ions w ere t hemse lves i n as ta te o ff l ux i n t he l as t f ew c en tur ies b efore t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion . S urv iv ing a t t he sma l les t s ca le i s t he t own iand , au n it o f c er ta in ly p re- med iaeva l d a te whose f unc t ions b o th t hen a nd a f ter t he I nvas ion a re u ncer ta in . The o ccurrence o f t own iand n ames i n t he I r ish c har ters c op ied o n t he s pare l eaves o ft he B ook o fK ei ls , p robab ly i n t he t we l f th c en tury , a nd i nt he p reInvas ion c har ter o f N ewry Abbey , a s w e l l a s t he v ery f orm o f t h e t erm i t se lf s ugges ts t ha t t h is u n i t s hou ld b e a ssoc ia ted w ith a f unc t ion ing s e t t le men t u n it . Whe ther t own iands s hou ld b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c ommones t o f a l l f i e ld monu men ts t he r a ths , o r w i th t he e x iguous c lus tered s e t t lemen ts , t he b a u es , d iscussed e ar l ier , i s u nknown . I ft he ir a ssoc ia t ion w ith e i ther c an b e s hown f or t he p re-med iaeva l p er iod i ts t i l l l eaves u nanswered t he q uest ion o f t he f unc t ion o f t he t own iand i n t he med iaeva l p er iod . POTTERY Archaeo log ica l e v idence f or a t l eas t s ome i n tegra t ion o f n a t ive a nd i nvader i n n or thern I re land c an b e f ound amongs t t he p o t tery f rom e xcava t ions o n v ar ious s i tes o f p os tInvas ion d a te . I ti s e xceed ing ly u n l ike ly t ha t u se o f S ou terra in w are , c om mon o n p re-med iaeva l s i tes i n e as t U ls ter , c eased i mmed ia te ly t he a rea w as o ccup ied b y t he Ang lo-Normans ; more l i ke ly t ha t f or s ome p urposes a t l eas t i tg radua l ly w en t o u t o fu se a s g lazed p o t tery o r o ther mass-produced w ares w ere manu fac tured l oca l ly a nd s pread t hrough b oth n a t ive a nd Ang lo-Norman c ommun i t ies . S ome i nd ica t ion o f t h is p rocess c an b e h ad f rom t he p ropor t ions o f n a t ive a nd i n trus ive p o t tery i n s uccess ive med iaeva l l eve ls a t Ca thedra l H i l l , D ownpa tr ick , an a t ive s i te wh ich c ont i nued i nu se i n to t he med iaeva l p er iod p resu mab ly w i th l i t t le i n i t ia l c hange i n f unc t ion , b u t g rea ter c hange a s o ther a reas w ere d eve lop ing u rban a c t iv it ies away f rom t he h i l l-for t s i te . I n t he l owes t med iaeva l l eve l l ess t han 1 5% o f t he p o t tery w as i n trus ive , b u t t h is p ropor t ion r ose t o j us t3 0% i nh igher med iaeva l l eve ls , e xcep t i n t he i mmed ia te v ic in i ty o f a n i ron b loomery , p robab ly q u ite l a te i n t he med iaeva l o ccupa t ion s equence , w here i n trus ive p o t tery made u p 6 0 p er c en t o f t he t o ta l. A lready b y a bou t 1 200 a t D undrum , w here e ar ly Ang lo-Nor man m i l itary w orks w ere b u i l t o n a n e ar l ier n a t ive s i te , p o t tery o ccurs w h ich i ncorpora tes e le men ts o f b o th t he Eng l ish s ty le c ook ing p o t a nd n a t ive I r ish p o t tery t rad it i ons ( H .M .S .O . ,, 1 966 , 1 33-5 ). Dur ing t he l a ter t h ir teen th c entury , c ook ing p o t tery , p resumed t o b e o f l oca l manu fac ture , w as u ndergo ing mod i f ica t ion a s s hown b y t he u ng lazed c ook ing p o ts w ith e ver ted r ims f ro m dough C as t le , D own , w h ich s eem t o i ncorpora te e le men ts o f S ou terra in w are , c rannog w are , a nd Eng l ish t rad i t ion ( Wa terman , 1 954 , 1 28 ).

T ha t s uch p o t tery i s

n o t c on f ined t o e as t U ls ter h as b een s hown b y t he o ccurrence o f s im i lar ware a t C oney I s land a t t he s ou thwes t s hores o f L ough N eagh ( Addyman , 1 965 , 9 8 ) ,

9 8

i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith o ther p o t tery more l ike t he t yp ica l a sse mb lage o f c rannog ware f ro m west U lster a t I s land Mac Hugh ( Dav ies , 1 954 ).

S im i lar c rannog

ware h as b een f ound a t Harry Avery ' s Cast le o n ly f our mi les f ro m I sland Mac Hugh , as i te o f c ons iderab le i n terest wh ich f unct ioned e ssen t ia l ly a s at ower h ouse , a l though t he a ppearance o f t he g atehouse s uggests a s uper f ic ia l a cqua in tance w ith Eng l ish m il itary b u ild ing ( Rees-Jones a nd Water man , 1 967 ). A l l t he e v idence c i ted h ere s uggests b orrow ings b etween n a t ive a nd Ang loNor man .

The c rannog ware wh ich h as b een f ound o n av ar iety o f s i tes , s o me

a s l ate a s t he s ix teen th c en tury , p rov ides e v idence f or a l ong s urv iv ing t rad it ion o f n at ive p ot mak ing i n s outhern U lster. CONCLUS IONS The Ang lo-Nor mans e n ter ing I reland , i n s earch n ot o f p lunder b ut o f r en ts (Warren , 1 969 ), were n o t i nvad ing a n empty l and n or o ne whose s oc ia l a nd p ol it ica l i nst itut ions , a lthough d if feren t , were e n t irely u nknown t o t he m. Co mp arab le C e lt ic-speak ing a reas i n Wa les , w ith t he ir own d ist inct ive p a tterns o f s et t le ment a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , h ad a lready b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he Ang lo-Norman p o l ity a nd t o v ary ing e x ten ts r e-organ ised.

I t wou ld b e r ash

t o a ssume t ha t p at terns o f r e-organ isat ion , e ven i ft hey s ee m r ather s im ilar i n s urv iv ing d ocu men ts , h ad n ecessar i ly s im i lar e f fects o n t he l andscape. Recen t s urveys o f f ield s ys te ms ( Baker a nd But l in , 1 973 ) h ave s uggested s o meth ing o f t he d if ferences t hat mus t h ave e x isted f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion t hroughou t Eng land a nd Wales a t ag iven d ate i n t he Middle Ages , a nd t he c o mplex it ies o f d evelop men t t ha t wen t o n i n a ny o ne r eg ion t hrough t ime. We s hou ld n ot , t herefore , e xpec t t he impact o f t he Ang lo-Nor mans i n I re land t o h ave b een un ifor m e ven i n t he mos t s trong ly h e ld a reas. Moreover , i n I re land a t t he t ime o f t he I nvas ion t here mus t h ave b een r eg iona l d if ferences.

Econo my a nd s oc iety were n ot s ta t ic b u t were r eact ing

t o p ol it ica l c hanges a nd r eorgan isat ion i n l eadersh ip b oth s ecu lar a nd r el ig ious , a nd t o e cono m ic c hanges i nduced n ot l east b y t he g row th o f t owns. I t i s i nt erest ing t o s pecu late a s t o t he e x ten t t o wh ich Church r eorgan isa t ion i n t he mid-twe l f th c entury , w ith t he e stab l ish men t o f ah ierarchy r u l ing w ith in t he f ra mework o f ad ef in ite d iocesan , t err itor ia l s ys te m , r ep lac ing a n e ar l ier monas tery-based O rgan isat ion , i s ar ef lect ion o f t he c hang ing s pa t ia l r eo rgan isa t ion o f t he s ecu lar e cono my . N or h ad I reland b een a t ota lly i so lated i s land b efore t he I nvas ion , im mune t o i nf luences f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he Br it ish I s les a nd t he Con t inen t . S uch i nf luence i s d ocu men ted , f or e xa mp le , i n t he r elat ions b etween t he Church a nd p ol it ica l l eaders.

Mu irchear tach O 'Br ia in h ad g iven Cashe l t o t he Church i n

1 101 a f ter e ccles iast ica l r e form h ad b een u rged u pon h im b y Can terbury . As L ia m d e P aor ( 1967 ) h as d e monstra ted , t ang ib le p roof o f t he Eng l ish i nf luence i s s een i n Cor mac 's Chape l a t Cashel , b egun i n 1 127 a nd c onsecra ted i n 1 134. Equa l ly i mpor tan t , t here i s e v idence b oth a t Cor mac ts Chapel a nd e lsewhere o f l inks w ith France , a nd more t han a d ecade b efore t he I nvas ion o f 169 t he f irst C istercian Abbey a t Mel l ifon t h ad b een s tar ted a nd , i n 1 157, c onsecra ted ( Leask , 1 958 ).

A lready b e fore t he I nvas ion s o me 6 3 h ouses o f August in ian

c anons w ere e stab l ished , s o me a s n ew f oundat ions , o thers a s c onvers ions o f o ld f ounda t ions ( Wat t , 1 972 , 2 1, 4 5 ).

9 9

T he r o le o f t he C hurch i nb o th mod ify ing a nd p reserv ing f ea tures o f p remed iaeva l I r ish s oc ie ty a nd e cono my a f ter t he I nvas ion i s o n ly o ne a spec t o f t he n umerous p rob le ms s t i l l awa it ing a t ten t ion . I ti s d if icu lt t ob e l ieve t ha t t he h igh ly o rgan ised C is terc ian monas ter ies , f or e xamp le , d id n o th ave a p ro found e f fec t o n r ura l s e t t le men t a nd e conomy t hroughou t t he c oun try . O ther i n f luences , s uch a s t hose o f t he Ang lo-Normans t he mse lves , may h ave b een more l im ited b ecause o f t he ir r es tr ic ted d is tr ibu t ion w ith in t he c oun try . Undoub ted ly n ew p a t terns o f r ura l s e t t le men t a nd e conomy w ere e s tab l ished i n t he c en tur ies f o l low ing t he Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion . H owever , s o me o lder s e t t lemen t f orms , s ome r a ths a nd c rannogs , c on t inued i nu se o r w ere r eo ccup ied . I n a reas s e t t led b y t he Ang lo-Normans i ti s n o t a lways c lear f rom t he l im i ted a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w he ther mo t tes w ere e rec ted e xc lus ive ly b y t he i nvaders o r w he ther s o me w ere e rec ted b y t he I r ish. Beyond t hese s et t led a reas I r ish c h ie f ta ins , o n s o me o ccas ions a t l eas t , im ita ted t he f orms i fn o t t he f unc t ions , o f i n troduced modes o f d e fence. I nc ip ien tu rban d eve lopmen ts , whether b ased o n l ong-es tab l ished s i tes o f i mpor tance , s uch a s Downpa tr ick a nd Armagh , o r o n V ik ing c en tres s uch a s D ub l in , c l ear ly c ont inued a nd e xpanded . T rade , w ith e xpor t o f g ra in f rom s ome a reas , i s b e t ter d ocumen ted t han b e fore , b u t t he e f fec ts o f s uch c o mmerc ia l isat ion o n r ura l s et t lemen t a nd f i e ld p a t terns a re u nknown . Re la t ions b e tween t he b u i lders o f l a ter s tone c as t les , moa ted s i tes , a nd t he r ura l f arm p opu la t ion a re a lso u nk nown . Archaeo log ica l f i e ldwork a nd e xcava t ion h ave t he p oten t ia l t o a ugmen t t o av ery c ons iderab le e x ten t t he h is tor ica l s ources. H owever , f u l l u se o f a l l a va i lab le e v idence , h istor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l , i s n ecessary t o e s tab l ish t he e x ten t t o w h ich n a t ive I r ish e le men ts s urv ived a nd w ere i ncorpora ted i n t he p a t terns o f med iaeva l r ura l s e t t lemen t a nd e cono my .

1 00

APPEND IX ONE S ELECT B IBL IOGRAPHY OF UNE NCLOSED S I TES

( a )

Assoc iated w ith o r s i tuated n ear r aths a nd c ashels

' The S pectac les ' a nd h uts a t Carra ig A il le :

S . P . O 'R iorda in , Proc. Roya l

I r ish Acad . 5 2C ( 1949 ), 3 9-112. L issach iggel :

0 . Dav ies , L outh Archaeol. J . 9( 1939 ), 2 11.

Two Mi le S tone : ( b )

0 . Dav ies , J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 7 2 ( 1942 ), 9 8-105.

Open s i tes , b u ild ings o f uncer ta in t ype

Ca mus , c o. Derry :

A . MeL. May , U lster J . Archaeo l. 8 ( 1945 ), 6 0-62.

Ma lone , B el fast : D . B . Qu inn , Proc. Be lfast Na t. H ist . a nd Ph il. S oc. ( 1930-31), 4 6-49. Murphy town : ( c )

R . H . Buchanan e t a l., U lster J . Archaeo l. 2 1(1958 ).

S andh i l l s ites

S . P . O 'R iorda in , An t iqu it ies o f t he I r ish Coun trys ide ( 1953 ), 1 00. Dundru m , c o. Down : A . E . P . Co ll ins , U lster J . Archaeo l. 1 5 ( 1952 ), 2 -26 ; U lsterJ. Archaeo l. 2 2 ( 1959 ), 5 -20. ( d )

House-s ites

S t. Gobne t 's House, Ba llyvourney : S oc. 5 7 ( 1952 ), 1 8-40. G lanna feen :

M. J . O 'Ke l ly , J . Cork H ist. a nd Archaeo l.

C . O 'Cu i leana in , J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 8 5 ( 1955 ), 9 4-99.

Ba l l ingoo la marsh land h ab ita t ion s i tes : An t iq. I reland 7 9 ( 1949 ), 1 26-139. -

( e )

S . P . O 'R iorda in , J . Roya l S oc.

S tone b u ild ings

c o. Kerry c o mprehens ive s urvey : ( 1957 ), 4 5-166. -

Beg in ish w ith f i elds : 1 59-194. -

I n ishkea Nor th ,

Co.

F . Henry , Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad. 5 8C

M. J . O 'Ke l ly , Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad . 5 7C ( 1956 ),

Mayo

-

w ith s tone c arv ings :

An t iq. I re land 7 5 ( 1945 ), 1 27( 1951), 6 5-69.

F . Henry , J . Roya l S oc.

J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I re land 8 1

1 01

( 1 )

S outerra ins w ithou t a ssoc ia ted e nc losures

Harryv il le , c o. An tr im :

E . M. J ope , U lster J . Archaeo l. 1 3 ( 1950 ), 5 3.

Cra ig H il l , c o. An tr im 1 9 ( 1956 ), 8 7-91.

w ith h ouse :

-

Toberdoney , c o. Down : 1 29-132.

A . E . P . Col l ins , U lster J . Archaeo l. 2 7 ( 1964 ),

Downv iew Pk . West , Bel fast : ( g )

B . K . Dav ison , i b id., 1 24-128.

Caves

Ba ll in toy , K i lgreany : ( h )

D . M. Water man , U lster J . Archaeo l.

co.

An tr im :

J . W. J ackson , I r ish Na tura l ists J . 5( 1934 ), 1 04-109.

H . L . Morr is , J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 6 5 ( 1935 ), 2 54-296.

Cook ing P laces

M. J . O 'Kel ly , J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 8 4 ( 1954 ), 1 05-156.

B IBL IOGRAPHY A b ibl iography o f r a ths a nd c ashels e xcavated a nd p ub l ished b efore 1 970 i s g iven i n Proudfoot ( 1970 ).

These d eta ils a re n ot r epeated h ere , u n less s pe-

c if ic r eference t o p o in ts i n c on ten t ion h as b een made i n t h is p aper . Addyman , 1 965 :

P . V . Addyman , ' Coney I sland , Lough N eagh.

.. .

U lster J . Archaeo l. 2 8 ( 1965 ), 7 8-101. Baker a nd But l in , 1 973 :

A . R . H . Baker a nd R . A . But l in , S tud ies o f F ie ld

S yste ms i n t he Br it ish I s les ( 1973 ). Barret t , 1 972 :

G . F . Barret t , ' The R ing-for t :

as tudy i n s et t lemen t

g eography w ith s pec ia l r eference t o s outhern c o. Donega l a nd t he D ing le a rea , c o. Kerry '. Bateson , 1 973 :

Unpub. Ph.D. Thes is , Queen 's Un iv. B e l fast ( 1972 ).

J . D . Ba teson , ' Ro man mater ia l f ro m I reland :

ar econs idera-

t ion ', Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad. 7 3C ( 1973 ), 2 1-97. Buchanan , 1 970 :

R . H . Buchanan , ' Rura l S et t le men t i n I reland ', Chapter 9

i n I r ish Geograph ica l S tud ies i n Honour o f E . Estyn Evans , e d . N . S tephens a nd R . E . G lasscock ( 1970 ). Buchanan , 1 973 :

R . H . Buchanan , ' F ie ld S ystems o f I re land ', C hap ter 1 3 i n

S tud ies o f F ie ld S yste ms i n t he Br it ish I s les , e d. A . R . H . B aker a nd R . A . But l in ( 1973 ). Byrne , 1 968 : F . J . Byrne , ' I reland b efore t he N or man I nvas ion ' , I r ish H istor ica l S tud ies 1 6 , no. 6 1(1968 ), 1 -14. Case e t a l., 1 969 :

H . J . Case e t a l., ' Land Use i n Good land Town land , Co.

An tr im f ro m N eo l ith ic T i mes u n t il Today ', J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 9 9 ( 1969 ), 3 9-53.

1 02

Ch ilde , 1 938 :

V . G . Ch i lde, ' Doon more , A Cast le Mound n ear Fa ir Head ,

Co. An tr im ', U lster J . Archaeol. 1 (1938 ), 1 22-135. Col l ins , 1 955 :

A . E . P . Col l ins, ' Excavat ions i n Lough Faughan Crannog ,

Co. Down ', U lster J . Archaeo l. 1 8 ( 1955 ), 4 5-82. Co l l ins , 1 968a :

A . E . P . Co l l ins , ' Set t le men t i n U lster , 0 -1100 A .D.',

U lster J . Archaeo l. 3 1 ( 1968 ), 5 3-58. Co ll ins , 1 968b :

A . E . P . Co l l ins , ' Excava t ions a t Dro more R ing- Work ,

Co. An tr im ', u lsterJ. Archaeol. 3 1 ( 1968 ), 5 9-66. Dav ies , 1 939 :

0 . Dav ies , ' Excava t ions a t L issach igge l ', Coun ty Louth

Archaeol. J . 9( 1939 ), 2 09-243. Dav ies , 1 950 :

0 . Dav ies , Excavat ions a t I sland MacHugh ( Supp i. Proc.

Belfast Na t. H is t. a nd Ph i l. S oc. 1 950 ). Delaney , 1 974 :

T . G . D elaney e d., Excavat ions 1 974 ( 1974 ).

d e Paor , 1 958 :

M. a nd L . d e Paor , Ear ly Chr ist ian I reland ( 1958 ).

d c Paor , 1 967 :

L . d e Paor , ' Cormac 's Chapel :

t he b eg inn ings o fI r ish

Ro manesque ', i n Nor th Munster S tud ies e d . E . Rynne ( 1967 ), 1 33-145. Empei, 1 971:

C . H

Empey , ' The Can treds o f t he Med iaeva l County o f

K i lkenny ', J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I reland 1 01 Eogan , 1 974 :

( 1971), 1 28-134.

G . Eogan , ' Repor t o n t he e xcavat ions o f s o me p assage g raves ,

u nprotected i nhu ma t ion b ur ia ls a nd a s et t le men t s i te a t Know th , Co. Meath ', Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad. 7 4C ( 1974 ), 1-112. G lasscock , 1 970 :

R . E . G lasscock , ' Moa ted S ites , a nd Deser ted Boroughs

a nd V il lages....' Chapter 1 0 i n I r ish Geograph ica l S tud ies i n Honour o f E . Estyn Evans , c d. N . S tephens a nd R . E . G lasscock ( 1970 ). G lasscock , 1 971:

R . E . G lasscock , ' The s tudy o f Deser ted Med iaeva l

S et t le men ts i n I re land ( t o 1 968 )', Chapter 1 1 i n Deser ted Med iaeva l V il lages c d. M. Bersford a nd J . G . Hurst ( 1971). G lasscock , 1 975 : R . E . G lasscock , ' Mot tes i n I reland ', Chateau-Ga il lard 7( 1975 ), 9 5-110. Graham , 1 972 :

B . J . Graha m , ' The s et t le men t p a t tern o f Ang lo-Norman

East mea th ', Unpub. Ph.D. Thes is , Queen 's Un iv. Be lfast ( 1972 ). Graha m , 1 975 :

B . J . Graha m , ' Ang lo-Nor man S et t le men t i n c oun ty Meath ',

Proc. Roy . I r ish Acad . 7 5C ( 1975 ), 2 23-248. Greeves , 1 955 :

J . H . R . Greeves , ' Nor th Down a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he XVlth

Century ', Bu l l. U lster P lace Na me S oc. 3 ( 1955 ), 1 3-20. H . M .S.0., 1 966 :

Archaeolog ica l s urvey o f Northern I re land , Govern men t

o f Nor thern I reland , An Archaeo log ica l S urvey o f Coun ty Down ( 1966 ). Hencken , 1 936 : H . O 'Ne i l l Hencken , ' Ba ll inderry Crannog No. 1 ' , Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad. 4 3C ( 1936 ), 1 03-239. Hencken , 1 950 H . Hencken , ' Lagore Crannog ....', Proc. Roy. I r ish Acad. 5 3C ( 1950 ), 1 -247. 1 03

Hodges , 1 955 :

H . W. M. Hodges , ' The Excavat ion o f a Group o f Cook ing-

P laces a t Ba l lycroghan , Co. Down ', U lster J . Archaeol. 1 8 ( 1955 ), 1 7-28. Hughes , 1 972 : Kath leen Hughes , Ear ly Chr ist ian I re land : t he S ources ( 1972 ). J ackson , 1 964 : K . H . J ackson , The O ldest I r ish Trad it ion : t he I ron Age ( 1964 ). J ope, I 952a :

E . M. J ope, ' Rev iew o f

O l iver Dav ies.

..',

I n troduct ion t o

aw indow o n

' Excava t ions a t I s land MacHugh ' b y

U lster J . Archaeo l. 1 5(1952 ), 134 -137.

J ope, 1 952b :

E . M. J ope, ' H istor ic monu men ts ' i n Bel fast i n i ts Reg iona l S et t ing , e d. F . J ones ( 1952 ), 1 09-118.

Kel leher , 1 968 :

J . V . Ke lleher , ' The Pre-Nor man I r ish G enea log ies ',

I r ish H istor ica l S tud ies 1 6 , n o. 6 2 ( 1968 ), 1 38-153. L eask , 1 955 : ( 1955 ).

H . G . L eask , I r ish Churches a nd Monast ic Bu ild ings Vo l. 1

L eask , 1 958 : ( 1958 ).

H . G . L eask , I r ish Churches a nd Monast ic Bu ild ings Vo l. 2

Lynn , 1 975 :

C . J . Lynn , ' The Med iaeva l R ing for t

-

a n a rchaeo log ica l c h i m-

e ra? ', I r ish Archaeo l , Res. Foru m 2 p ar t l (1975 ), 2 9-36. MacK ie , 1 976 : E . MacK ie , ' The V itr if ied For ts o f S cot land ', Chap ter 1 1 i n H il lfor ts... e d . D . W. Hard ing ( 1976 ). MacN ioca il l , 1 972 :

G . MacN ioca il l, I reland Be fore t he V ik ings ( 1972 ).

McCour t , 1 971: D . McCour t , ' The Dyna m ic Qua l ity o fI r ish Rura l S et t le men t ', Chap ter 7 i n Man a nd h is Hab itat e d. R . H . Buchanan , E . J ones , a nd D . McCour t ( 1971). Mitchel l , 1 956 :

G . F . Mitchel l , ' Post-Borea l Pol len D iagra ms f ro m I r ish

Ra ised Bogs ', Proc. Roya l I r ish Acad. 5 7B ( 1956 ), 1 85-251. Mor ton , 1 957 : D . Mor ton , ' Former Town iand Na mes i n T ha th C ina men t ', Bu l l. U lster P lace Na me S oc. 5 ( 1957 ), 4 6-53. Nor man a nd S t . J oseph , 1 969 :

.E .R . Norman a nd J . K . S . S t. J oseph ,

The Ear ly Deve lop men t o f I r ish S oc iety .... ( 1969 ). O 'Loan , 1 961 :

J . O 'Loan , ' The manor o f C loncurry , Co. K ildare , a nd t he

f euda l s yste m o f l and t enure i n I re land ', J . Dep t . Agr ic. ( Dub l in ), 5 8, ( 1961), 1 4-36. O 'R iorda in a nd Har tnet t , 1 943 :

S . P . O 'R iorda in a nd P . J . Hartnet t , ' The

Excavat ion o f Ba l lycat teen For t , Co. Cork ', Proc. Royal I r ish Acad. 4 9C ( 1943 ), 1 -43. O 'R iorda in a nd Hun t , 1 942 :

S . P . O 'R iorda in a nd J . Hunt , ' Med iaeva l

dwel l ings a t Cahergu il la more , Co. L i mer ick ', J . Roya l S oc. An t iq. I re land 7 2 ( 1942 ), 3 7-63.

1 04

Orpen, 1911-20: G. H. Orpen, Ireland under the Normans, 1169-1333, 4 vols. (1911-20). Orpen, 1915: G. H. Orpen, 'The Earldom of Ulster', J. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland 41 (1914), 30-42. Otway-Ruthven, 1946-47: J. Otway-Ruthven, 'Anglo-Irish shire government in the thirteenth century', Irish Hist. Stud. 5 (1946-47), 1-28. Otway-Ruthven, 1951: J. Otway-Ruthven, 'The organisation of Anglo-Irish agriculture in the Middle Ages', J. Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ireland 81 (1951), 1-13. Otway-Ruthven, 1965: J. Otway-Ruthven, 'The character of Norman Settle­ ment in Ireland', Historical Studies 5 (1965), 75-84. Proudfoot, 1953: V. B. Proudfoot, 'Excavation of a Rath at Boho, Co. Fermanagh', Ulster J. Archaeol. 16 (1953), 41-57. Proudfoot, 1955: V. B. Proudfoot, The Downpatrick Gold Find Archaeol. Res. Publications (Northern Ireland) 3 (1955). Proudfoot, 1956: V. B. Proudfoot, 'Excavations at the Cathedral Hill, Downpatrick...1954', Ulster J. Archaeol. 19 (1956), 57-72. Proudfoot, 1957: V. B. Proudfoot, 'Settlement and Economy in County D own from the Late Bronze Age to the Anglo-Norman Invasion', Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis Queen's Univ. Belfast (1957). Proudfoot, 1959: V. B. Proudfoot, 'Clachans in Ireland', Gwerin 2 (1959), 110-122. Proudfoot, 1961: V. B. Proudfoot, 'The economy of the Irish rath', Mediaeval Archaeol. 5 (1961), 94-122. Proudfoot, 1970: V. B. Proudfoot, 'Irish Raths and Cashels: some notes on Chronology, Origins and Survivals', Ulster J. Archaeol. 33 (1970), 37-48. Proudfoot and Wilson, 1961-2: V. B. Proudfoot and B. C. S. Wilson, 'Further Excavations at Larrybane Promontory Fort, Co. Antrim', Ulster J. Archaeol. 24-5 (1961-2), 91-115. Raftery, 1972: B. Raftery, 'Irish Hill-Forts' in The Iron Age in the Irish Sea Province ed. c. Thomas (1972), 37-58. Raftery, 1976: B. Raftery, 'Rathgall and Irish Hillfort Problems' Chapter 16 in Hillforts ed. D. W. Harding (1976). Raftery, J, 1972: J. Raftery, 'Iron Age and Irish Sea: Problems for Research', in The Iron Age in the Irish Sea Province, ed. C. Thomas (1972), 1-10. Rees-Jones and Waterman, 1907: S. G. Rees-Jones and D. M. Waterman, 'Recent work at Harry Avery's Castle, Co. Tyrone', Ulster J. Archaeol. 30 (1967), 76-82. Ryan, 1973: M. Ryan, 'Native Pottery in Early Historic Ireland', Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 73C (1973), 619-645. 105

Wa iles , 1 976 : B . Wa iles , ' Dun A il inne : An I n ter i m Repor t ' Chap ter 1 5 i n H il lfor ts.... e d D . W. Hard ing ( 1976 ), Warren , 1 969 :

W. L . Warner , ' The I n terpre ta t ion o f Twe lf th Cen tury I r ish

H istory ', H istor ica l S tud ies 7 ( 1969 ), 1 -20. Water man , 1 954 : D . M. Water man , ' Excava t ions a t dough Cas t le , Co. Down ' U lster J . Archaeo l. 1 7 ( 1954 ), 1 03-163. Wa t t , 1 972 :

J . Wat t , The Church i n Med iaeva l I re land ( 1972 ).

Westropp , 1 902 : T . J . Westropp , ' The Anc ien t For ts o fI reland....', Trans . Roya l I r ish Acad . 3 1(1902 ), 5 79-730.

1 06

7 . OLD NORSE ' PAPAR ' NAMES I N N . AND W. S COTLAND: SU M MARY A idan Macdona ld

The H istor ia Norweg iae s ays t ha t b efore t he Norse c a me , Orkney was i nhabited b y Pet i ( P icts ) a nd Papae. t hough t o f t rad it iona l ly a s p ygm ies ;

t he Papae were p r iests , a nd a n i s land

was s t i l l c a lled Papey a f ter t he m. a s Afr icans a dher ing t o J uda is m. f irst Norse i nco mers.

The P icts h ad b y t h is t ime c o me t o b e The H istor ia , h owever , r egards t he m

Both g roups were d estroyed u tter ly b y t he

T h is d escr ipt ion o f t he p apae, wr it ten t o wards t he

e nd o f t he 1 2th c en tury , i s i ndependen t o f An, who , i n h is I s lend ingab6k , r ef ers t o p apar i n I ce land.

Accord ing t o An, t hey l ef t b ecause o f t he h ea then

Norse c o lon ists a nd were I r ish.

An's I s lend ingab6k was wr it ten 1 134 x 1 138.

The Landn mab6k , wh ich was p robab ly d er ived l arge ly f ro m An, g ives s o me a 1d it iona l t opograph ica l d eta il :

i t ment ions Papey a nd Papy l i i n I ce land ;

a nd K irk iuboer ( a lso i n I ce land ), where p apar h ad b een p rev ious ly.

T heoder ic ,

wr it ing b efore 1 188, a lso men t ions men f ro m I reland who l ived i n I celand b ef ore t he N orse a rr ived , s ay ing t ha t t hey were v ery f ew i n n u mber. These Norse a ccoun ts r ece ive s o me c onf ir ma t ion f ro m D icu il , a n I r ishman wr it ing o n t he Con t inen t c . 8 25.

S o me o f h is i nfor man ts h ad b een i n f ar

n or thern l a t itudes a nd h e h i mself h ad p ersona l k now ledge o f s o me o f t he i s lands o f Br ita in.

D icu il s ays t ha t I r ish h er m its h ad l ived i n t he Faeroes

f or n ear ly 1 00 y ears (C. 8 25 ), b ut t ha t t hese i s lands h ad b een a bandoned b y t he a nchor ites b ecause o f V ik ing p irates. The i mpor tan t Norse a ccounts , f ro m wh ich most o f t he d ocu men tary e v id ence f or t he p apar i s d er ived , d ate t o o r o r ig ina te i n t he 1 2th c en tury.

Even

a l lo w ing t ha t t hey d raw o n u n in terrup ted o ra l t rad it ions o f t he p r i mary s et t lement p er iod , t he a ccuracy o r o therw ise o f s uch t rad it ions c annot b e e s tab l ished o n a pr ior i g rounds.

A c hrono log ica l g ap o f 3 00 y ears o r more t herefore

e x ists b e tween t he d epar ture o r e xpu ls ion o f s o me o r a l l o f t he p apar f ro m t he A t lan t ic i s lands g enera l ly a nd t he f irst wr it ten a ccoun ts o f t he m b y t he ir s uccessors. m ind.

The o bv ious imp l ica t ions o f t h is g ap must b e k ep t c arefu l ly i n

Bu t t here i s s ubstan t ia l a gree men t among t he Norse s ources t ha t t he

p apar were I r ish h erm its , whether dwe l l ing a lone o r i n g roups , a nd t he b road a ccuracy o f t h is p icture s ee ms t o b e c on f irmed t o s o me e x ten t b y t he e ar ly 9 th c en tury D icu il. i The I r ish d ocu menta t ion i s i nconc lus ive. a nchor i te i n Oengus 's Fl ire :

Papa i s u sed o f a n I r ish

Ne m o f Aran , c oarb o f Enda ;

4 0a men t ions p robab ly t he s a me i nd iv idua l.

L aud 6 10f .

P opa i s u sed o f Pa tr ick i n t he

V ita Tr ipar t ita a nd i n t he L is more L ives , b u t n ot n ecessar ily a s as pec ia l ised e cc lesiast ica l t i t le, a nd p opa s ee ms u sua l ly t o b e u sed i n ap urely s ecu lar c ontex t a nd t o b e l arge ly c on f ined t o t he U lster Cyc le o f I r ish s aga.

1 07

The

Fl ire a lso s ays :

p upu a pud S co t tos i d e st p apa :

t he Book o f L e inster .

a nd Ne m i s c a l led Pdpu i n

Popa , p upu ; e tc. s ee m t o b e r are g enera l ly a nd p upu

o f a n a nchor ite i s l arge ly r estr icted t o t he o ne i nd iv idua l.

i t i s n or ma l ly

a ssu med t ha t Norse b orrowed p apa f ro m I r ish , b ut i ti s a t l east w or th p os ing t he q uest ion : who b orrowed t he t er m , i n i t s s pec ia l ised mean ing o f h er m it , f ro m who m? 2 2 7 p apar p lace-na mes a re k nown t o t he wr i ter s o f ar i n N a nd W S cot land : 9i n S het land ;

7i n Orkney ;

2i n Ca ithness ;

a nd 9 i n t he Hebr ides.

There

s ee ms t o b e n one i n S uther land , ma in land Ross a nd Cro mar ty , ma in land I nverness , o r a l l Argy l l. Outs ide t h is a rea , t here a re a pparen t ly n o i nstances i n t he SW g enera l ly , e spec ia l ly Ga l loway , o r i n I re land. Papcas t le i n Cu mber land ( a Ro man f or t ) i s t aken t o c onta in p apa , a s i s G len F aba i n t he I s le o f Man .

I ce land ic e xa mp les h ave a lready b een men t ioned.

T he f o llow ing

l is t i s b ased ma in ly o n t he Ordnance S urvey Name-books a nd t he OS 6 i nch s heets : S het land 1 .

Papa G eo , A ithst ing , Ma in land.

W. Burra.

4 .

I s le o f Noss. N . Unst.

Pap il Wa ter , Fet lar . 7 .

Pap il , N . Ye l l.

2 .

Papa L it t le ( i s land ). 5 .

8 .

P apa ( i s land ).

3 .

6 .

Papa S tour ( i s land ).

Pap il ,

Pap il G eo , 9 .

Pap i l ,

an a dd it ion , J akobsen l i sts 8 n a mes c onta in ing p ob i, p oba, e tc.,

r eferr ing t h is e le men t t o p apa.

But i n g enera l n e ither t he l oca t ions n or t he

a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uppor t h i m. s heets ).

5o f t hese n a mes a ppear o n t he OS 6 i n .

Orkney 1 .

Pap leyhouse , Eday .

K irkwa l l.

4 .

2 .

Pap lay , Ho lm , Ma in land .

Pap ley , S . Rona idsay .

6 . Papa Westray ( i s land ). N . Rona idsay ).

7 .

5 .

3 .

P apdaje,

P apa S tronsay ( is land ).

S teeven o 'Papy ( a r ock o f f t he s hore o f

Ca ithness 1 . 2 .

Pape l , Can isbay ( a r ock o f fshore o ppos ite t he p ar ish c hurch ). P ap igoe, Wick ( a lso Pap i G eo ).

Hebr ides

1 . Bayb le , L ew is. 2 . Pabay , More & Beg , L ew is ( i s lands ). i n Taransay ( i sland ), Harr is. 4 . Pabbay ( i s land ), Harr is. 5 . N . U ist. 7 .

6 .

3 . Pa ib le P a ib le,

Pabbay ( two a d jacen t sma l l i s lands , b o th s o c a lled ), S . U ist .

Pabbay ( i s land ), Barra.

8 .

Pabay ( i s land ), S kye.

9 .

Papad il, Rhu m .

( These s i tes a re t aken f ro m t he OS I i n . s heets a nd h ave n o t y et b een e xa m ined i n a s much d eta il a s t hose i n t he o ther g roups. W ith r egard t o t he g enera l o bserva t ions ( be low ), i tw i l l b e a s w e l l t o b ear i n m ind t hat t he h is tor ical s i tuat i on h ere may h ave b een d if feren t f ro m t hat o f t he N . I s les a nd Ca ithness.)

1 08

Many f actors i nf luenc ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f t hese n a mes

-

s uch a s t he

g enera l a va ilab i l ity o f l and f or s et t le men t , g eo log ica l c ons idera t ions a nd p erhaps d i f fer ing emphases i n t he s ubs istence e cono my p ract ised ( vary ing d ependence o n p astora l o r a rable l and , f ish ing a nd f ow l ing ), a cc iden t o f l andfa l l i n sma l l a nd f ra i l c raf t i n al arge o cean o f c apr ic ious w inds a nd c urr ents, a dequate s he lter f or men , b easts a nd b oats

-

h ave n ot y et b een l ooked

a t t horough ly. But c er ta in b road o bserva t ions may p o in t t o t he e ssen t ia l a ccuracy o f t he Norse a ccoun ts. 1 .

S o me o f t he s i tes ( not a l l n a mes c o inc ide w ith s urv iv ing c hurch o r g raveyard s i tes ) h ave p roduced r e ma ins o f t he mater ia l c u lture o f t he I r ish a nd P ic t ish c hurches , wh ich a re u sua l ly d ated t o t he p reV ik ing p er iod.

2 .

Bo th i n t he N . a nd W. I sles , t he n a mes t end t o a vo id t he l arge l and masses ; t h is t endency s ee ms t o b e c onf irmed b y t he v ir tua l a bsence o f p apar n a mes f rom t he ma in land o f S cot land .

3 .

T here a re more s uch n a mes i n S het land t han i n Orkney ;

i n t he

Hebr ides t hey a re c oncen trated o verwhe lm ing ly i n t he L ong I s land : as trong e re m it ica l e le ment among t he p apar s ee ms t o b e i nd ica ted b y t h is emphas is o n sma l l i s lands a nd e x tre me marg ina l a reas. And a t l east a n u mber o f t hose i nvo lved were n ot p r i mar i ly , o r , p erhaps , a t a ll c oncerned w i th miss ionary o r p astora l a ct iv it ies among t he l ow -a l p eop le :

I ce land a nd t he Faeroes were u n inhab ited i n p re-Norse

t imes a nd t he p apar i n I celand wou ld n ot r e ma in a longs ide p agans. The p apar , t hen , i nc luded a s ign if icant e le men t o f ma in ly I r ish a scet ic a nd e re m it ica l g roups a nd i nd iv idua ls e stab l ished i n t he A t lant ic i slands b y t he 8 th c entury , p oss ib ly a lready i n t he 6 th i n t he N . a nd W. I sles , i f Ada mnan 's a ccoun t o f Cormac u a L ia tha in 's v oyage t o Orkney , a nd i t s imp l icat ions, a re t aken a t f ace v a lue.

I t may b e s upposed t hat P ict ish a s wel l a s

I r ish a nchor ites s et t led i n a t l east Orkney a nd S het land ( wh ich were i nhab ited b y P ic ts ;

a nd i ti s k nown t ha t Orkney was c on tro l led , a t a ny r ate s pas mod ica l ly ,

b y t he o ver-K ing o f t he P ic ts ) :

t he mater ia l e v idence f or t he p resence o f

P ict ish Chr ist ian ity h as a lready b een a l luded t o ;

t he l oca t ion o f t he 2 Ca ith-

n ess n ames s trong ly s uggests a n a pproach u p t he E . c oas t f ro m ma in land P ict land , p ara l le l t o t ha t u p t he W. c oast f ro m I re land a nd S cot t ish Da lr iada. The H is tor ia Norweg iae o n ly men t ions t he P ic ts a s f orm ing t he s ecu lar p opu la t ion o f Orkney , b u t i n most r espects t here wou ld p robab ly b e f ew o bv ious d ifferences b etween P ic t ish a nd I r ish a nchor ites o r e cc les iast ics g enera l ly . And P ic t ish Papae wou ld b e Papae r a ther t han Pet i. T o w ha t e x ten t t hey were d ispersed b y t he e ar ly Norse r a ids a nd s e tt lemen ts c annot b e k nown a ccurately .

The ma ter ia l e v idence s uggests t he s ur-

v iva l o f s o me n a t ive Chr is t ian ( l ay ) p opu lat ion a nd o f a t l east a r ud i men tary Chr ist ian O rgan isat ion w ith a cco mpany ing c hurches a nd/or b ur ial g rounds i n t he Norse " pagan" p er iod.

Most p apar n a mes a re d irect ly a ssoc ia ted w ith

c hurch o r g raveyard s i tes wh ich s t il l s urv ive a s s uch , o r s urv ived i n to med ieva l o r p os t- med ieva l t imes.

I n t he N . I s les a nd Ca ithness ( t he p os it ion i n t he

W. I s les h as y et t o b e l ooked i n to ), a f ew a re t he s i tes o f med ieva l p ar ish c hurches :

3i n Orkney ;

2i n S het land ; 1 09

Ii n Ca ithness.

Bu t n ot a l l s i tes

which have produced Early Christian material remains in the N. Isles (to take 2 geographically well-defined areas) are designated by a papar name. It is also not known, of course, whether or not the early Norse pirates and settlers designated all Celtic ecclesiastics in the islands as papar, or whether they were aware of distinctions among such of function and purpose. Since such distinctions would not have been clear-cut in any case in churches which were largely or wholly monastic, it seems quite likely that papar was a colloquial blanket-term. In that case, it is reasonable to suggest that the element was applied as a place-name only to church sites of all kinds which had been (temporarily) abandoned (other sites may have been so designated at one time: survival of any kind of evidence is accidental). Other churches, perhaps many others, were not abandoned; and the evidence strongly sug­ gests that the gap in occupation at those that were was not long - perhaps only spanning the period of raiding and primary settlement. When conditions became less turbulent, they were reoccupied (by Celtic ecclesiastics?). But by that stage a papar name had been applied, and to a greater (or less) extent it stuck. (This proposition is based on a suggestion made to me in conversation by Dr. C. A. R. Radford.)

FOOTNOTES 1. The historical discussion is based on A. O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500-1286 (2 Vols.), Edinburgh and London 1922: Vol. I, pp. 330-1, 339, 340-1 and pp. xxxii, li-lii, lxiv, bod, xcii. 2.

The linguistic discussion is based on Contributions to a Dictionary of the Irish Language. N-0-P. Arranged by Maud .Joynt. Royal Irish Academy. Dublin and London: entries for papa; popa; popan; pupu.

110

''

PAPAR

'

' '-----

NAMES

IN N. & W. SCOTLAND 0

20 40 -==--===--

·1 m, e s

----------------------111

8 .

THE MED ITERRANEAN SOURCES OF S CULPTURE I N STONE AMONG THE I NSULAR CELTS AND THE S URV IVAL I NTO THE FULL MED IEVAL AGE C . A . Ra legh Rad ford

Th is p aper i s c oncerned w ith t he s cu lpture a rch itec ture

-

-

a nd i nev itab ly w ith t he

o f t he I nsular Ce lt ic wor ld i n t he p er iod b etween t he f a l l o f

t he Ro man E mp ire a nd t he f l ower ing o f t he f u l l Ro manesque s ty le i n t he t welf th c entury .

The a r t i s Chr ist ian a s t he c onvers ion o f t he I nsu lar Celts

t ook p lace a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he p er iod .

Chr ist ian ity a rose i n t he u rban

wor ld o f t he Med iterranean a nd a l l Chr ist ian a r t i n t h is p er iod i s p rofound ly i nf luenced b y t he c lass ica l a r t o f t he Med iterranean w or ld.

Chr ist ian ity ,

moreover , i s t he h a m mer wh ich f orged t he f u l l M idd le Ages a nd t he ir c u lture o n t he a nv il t hat was C elt ic a nd German ic t r iba l s oc iety . u sed d e l ibera tely .

The metaphor i s

There a re a s er ies o f impu lses f ro m t he c lass ica l s ou th

wh ich w ork o n t he n at ive a r t a nd t ransfor m i t .

For r easons wh ich w il l

s hor t ly b eco me a pparen t t hese impu lses a re more e as ily r ecogn izab le t han t he n a t ive b ackground a nd i ti s o n ly b y i so lat ing t he m t hat t h is b ackground c an b e p roper ly a pprec ia ted. Arch itecture a nd s cu lp ture i n s tone were n ot n at ive i n t he I nsu lar Ce lt ic wor ld o f t he f i f th c entury . The masterp iece k nown a s t he T uroe s tone I s tands a l most a lone.

T he t echno logy t hat h ad made b u ild ings o f mor tared

masonry a nd s tone s cu lp ture p oss ib le i n Ro man Br ita in was a l ien a nd r e ma ine d a l ien , t hough Ce lt ic t as te i ncreas ing ly a f fected t he s cu lpture d ur ing t he f our c en tur ies t ha t t he p rov ince o f Br itann ia s urv ived .

But a f ter t he b eg in-

n ing o f t he f i f th c entury t he i nf luence o f Ro man Br ita in i s m in i ma l i n t hese f i elds ;2

i ti s b road ly t rue t o s ay t hat t he a dven t o f Chr ist ian ity f ound t he

I nsu lar C e lt ic wor ld a n a rea w ith n o n a t ive t rad it ion o f masoncraf t o r o f s tone c arv ing .

The s a me i s t rue o f S axon Eng land b efore 6 00.

I n b oth a reas t he

n at ive b u ild ing t echn ique w as i n t imber o r e ven f l i ms ier mater ia ls a nd o f t h is p ract ica l ly n oth ing h as s urv ived. But t h is l ost a rch itecture a nd s cu lpture i n t imber a nd f or t he p resen t p urpose i ti s s uf f ic ien t t o c on f ine t he a rgu men t t o t imber i s s o meth ing t ha t -

-

c annot b e n eg lected i n a ny a pprec iat ion o f I nsu lar Cel t ic a r t . e xa mp le :

To t ake a n

n o I r ish c hurch o f mor tared s tone t ha t c an c onv inc ing ly b e a t tr ibu-

t ed t o ad ate e ar l ier t han t he e igh th c entury s urv ives a nd e ven i n t ha t c entury most o f t he g reater a nd more impor tant c hurches were o f wood.

3

The

c athedra l o f L ind isfarne , b u i lt i n t he m idd le o f t he s even th c entury , b y t he I r ish m iss ionary , S t. F inan , was o f s awn t imber , ' i n t he manner o f t he I r ish ' (more S co t toru m ), a s B ede n otes. 4

T he e n larged c hurch o f S t . Br ig id a t

K ildare , a s d escr ibed b y ' Cog itosus ' i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he s even th c entury ,5 c an most s a t isfactor ily b e r econstructed a s a wooden b u ild ing .

1 13

I n

plan, it was probably rectangular and quite small, like the tenth century Cathedral of Clonmacnois, 6 which measures 19 m by 9 m. Even more sig­ nificant, the illuminator of the Book of Kells saw no incongruity in repr9sent­ ing the Temple of Jerusalem as a wooden building in the native Irish style. 7 Moreover the walls and roof of the Temple are richly decorated with motifs that bear only a perfunctory relationship to the architectural form. It is impossible to say whether the decoration of the Temple and, by im­ plication, that of contemporary Irish churches of wood, was painted or sculptured. Both media were probably in use and later developments suggest that the main members may have been decorated in relief. To take sculpture in the narrower sense: for the great Irish high crosses the evidence is equally cogent, though it takes a different line. One of the commonest series of illustrations in early Christian funerary art is taken from the Latin prayer, known as the Orde commendationis animae, which long formed a part of the Office for the dying. The series appears in painting in the Roman catacombs and in sculpture on many early Christian sarcophagi. 8 There is no firm and universal order for the petitions, but Noah and the Ark, the Sacrifice of Isaac and Daniel in the Den of Lions give a sufficient idea of the content, which was gradually extended to include purely Christian subjects, of which scenes connected with St. Paul and St. Anthony, the hermits of the Theban desert, may be singled out for their popularity in the Insular Celtic world. A typical petition of the Latin prayer runs: 'De]liver, O Lord, the soul of Thy servant, as Thou didst deliver Noah from the flood.' In Ireland a rather more florid version is included in the vernacular in the Martyrology of Oengus. The corresponding petition runs: 'Free me, O Jesus, from every ill on earth, as Thou savedst Noah, son of Lamech, from the flood.' 9 The prayer was therefore current in Ireland, in the Insular Celtic world, in E_. 800. But the iconographical tradition illustrating it had meanwhtile fallen into disuse in most of the West; it forms no part of the repertory of the Saxon high crosses of the late seventh and eighth centuries, though individual scenes may appear in other contexts. Celtic tradition was conservative and the conclusion can be drawn that the iconography found on the Irish high crosses of the ninth and tenth centuries was transmitted within the Insular Celtic world, that it goes back to the original Christian impulse of the fifth and sixth centuries. If this is so, the medium must have been wood. This is a perishable material, but enough survives to show that wooden models were not lacking for this sculpture. An outstanding example is afforded by the great doors of the church of Santa Sabina in Rome.10 In their present form these folding doors date from the thirteenth century, but most of the panels are of the fifth or sixth century. The subjects are different, but the style - an old classical narrative tradition - is significant. It lies behind the scenes on the Irish high crosses, of which the Fall and Noah's Ark on the Broken Cross at Kells may serve as an example.11 The iconography of these crossies is not con­ fined to the scenes from the Ordo commendationis animae; it is more com­ plex and is influenced by later impulses from without. The e�isential point is the emphasis laid on this series, 12 in which the Insular Celtic world stands apart, and the evidence which it affords of a continuing trarlition in wooden sculpture going back to the earliest days of Christianity in these islands.

114

The e ighth c en tury s ee ms t o h ave b een t he p er iod when c hurch b u ild ing i n mor tared s tone f irst makes i t s a ppearance i n I re land .

The e v idence i s c o m-

p lex a nd n eed n ot b e d eta iled i n t he p resen t c on tex t , b u t t he d a te c annot b e s er ious ly c hal lenged , t hough t he r eservat ion must b e made t ha t b u ild ing i n t imber l ong c ont inued , p erhaps e ven f or s o me o f t he more impor tan t c hurches. The s ource o f t he n ew t echn ique was i n a l l p robab i l ity S axon Eng land ;

t he

t echno logy was p robab ly among t he n ove lt ies wh ich were a ppear ing i n I ona , a bout 7 00 , i n t he t ime o f Ado mnan .

The i nf luence o f e xchanges b etween

1 3

Eng land a nd I reland a t t h is d a te a nd d ur ing t he p rev ious c entury c annot h ave b een n eg l ig ible.

Adhe lm w as i ndeb ted t o I r ish t eachers a t Ma l mesbury a nd

h ad l a ter c ontacts w ith h is C e lt ic n e ighbours.

And i t was t he d ie-hard c on-

s erva t ives , who g ave Mayo o f t he Eng l ish i t s n a me , a f ter t he ir d efeat a t t he S ynod o f Wh itby.

Not on ly i deas , b u t t echno logy f o l low s uch c ontacts.

Both t he Cel t ic a nd t he T euton ic p eop les h ad f lour ish ing n a t ive t rad it ions o f a rch itecture a nd s cu lpture i n wood a nd a c er ta in p ara l lel d evelop men t must b e e xpec ted a s ar esu lt o f t he impact o f c lass ica l mode ls o n t hese t rad it ions. But t he a t t itudes o f t he t wo p eop les were d if feren t . was c onservat ive.

The I nsu lar Cel t ic wor ld

The S axons , c onver ted t o Chr ist ian ity , were r ecep t ive

a nd embraced n ew c usto ms w ith e nthus ias m.

S t . Wi lfred b u ilt h is c hurches

a t R ip en , a nd Hexha m , i n t he Con t inen ta l manner i n d ressed s tone w ith s tone c o lu mns.

1 4

Nor was i to n ly t he t echn ique t ha t d if fered .

The t en th c entury

Cathedra l o f C lo m macno is i s at rad it iona l r ectangu lar b u ild ing w ith t he a n tae o f t he w ooden s ty le ;

i t was t he mode l f or t he f irst Norse c a thedra l o f Man ,

a lso o f t he t enth c entury .f

5

T he I r ish c hurch a dopted n e ither t he a psed a nd

p or t icoed p lans o f t he Con t inen ta l lyinsp ired c hurches o f s even th c en tury Ken t ,

1 6

wor th ,

1 8

n or t he c o lu mned a rcade o f Recu lver ,1 7 n or t he b r ickwork o f Br ixa l l o f t he s even th c entury .

There i s n o d es ire t o impress t he

Med iterranean wor ld w ith t he e x ten t t o wh ich i t was u p-to-date. There i s n o k nown p ara l le l t o t he a ct ion o f Abbot Ceo lf r id o f J arrow , who s en t a s a n o ff er ing t o t he Pope , n ot a n Ms. i n I nsu lar Ma juscu le w ith I nsu lar o rna ment , s uch a s t he Book o f L ind isfarne , b ut t he Codex Am iat inus , a n Ms. i n u nc ia l , w ith min iatures i n ap urely c lass ica l manner . 19 The s a me s p ir it o f i nnovat ion i s a pparen t i n t he f i eld o f s cu lp ture.

The

g lory o f S axon Nor thu mbr ia c u lm inates i n t he g rea t h ierat ic f igures, l ike t he Chr ists o n t he c rosses o f Ru thwel l a nd Bewcast le. 20 S im i lar f igures w il l o n ly a ppear i n t he I nsu lar C e lt ic wor ld many c entur ies l ater , when s cu lp tors a dorned t he d oorway o f t he Round T ower o f Brech in c ross a t Dysar t O 'Dea. 2 2 T o t ake a nother e xa mp le :

2 1

a nd r a ised t he h igh

t he v ine s cro ll , more p ar t icu lar ly t he i nhab ited

v ine s cro l l , wh ich was s o p opu lar among t he S axons , f ound l i t t le f avour i n t he I nsu lar C e lt ic wor ld. Chr is t 's w ords : e igh t ieth p sa l m.

T he v ine i s a n a nc ien t Chr ist ian s ymbo l, a n a l lus ion t o

' I am t he t rue v ine ', ( S t. J ohn , x v , I ) , r eferr ing b ack t o t he The Chr ist ian v ine s cro l l was model led o n p agan v intage

s cenes a nd c ou ld b e a dop ted a s a' neu tra l ' d ecora t ion , wh ich n eed g ive n o o f fence t o p agans 2 3

Bu t t he s tar t ing p o in t o f t he S axon d evelop men t d oes n ot

g o b ack t o t he f our th o r f i f th c en tury.

I t was c on te mporary , t aken f ro m s uch

s ources a s S yr ia , t he h o me land o f t he g reat o rgan iz ing Archb ishop o f Can terbury , Theodore o f T arsus ( 669-90 ).

1 15

Exa mp les may b e s een i n t he

Um mayad Pa lace o f Mscha t ta , e xecu ted f or a n Arab Ca l iph o f t he s even th c entury , b y Chr ist ian work men .2 4

A t Recu lver , b u ilt i n t he t ime o f Theodore

h i mself , t he Ang lo-Saxon i nhab ited v ine-scro l l may b e s een i n i t s f inest a nd e ar l iest f orm.25

Usua l ly i ti s s t if fer a nd more f or ma l , a s a t J edburgh , w h ich

a lso b elongs t o t h is e ar ly s tage ;

Ih ave a rgued e lsewhere t hat t he s lab i n

q uest ion p robab ly b e longs t o t he s hr ine o f S t. B o is il , t he master o f Cuthber t. 2 6 These a re among t he b est e xa mp les o f t he v ine s cro l l.

More u sua l ly i t i s

s i mp ler , w ithout t he a n i ma ls a nd b irds , a nd e xecuted i n a n e ven s t if fer mou ld , a s , f or i nstance , o n t he e ighth c en tury c ross s ha f t a t Aber lady .27 Throughou t t he p re-Conquest p er iod Ang lo-Saxon s cu lpture r e ma ined i n c lose t ouch w ith Con t inenta l d eve lop men ts.

C arol ing ian i nf luences c an b e

d etected i n t he g reat s er ies o f a rch itectura l s cu lptures t hat a dorned t he c hurch o f Breedon-on -the-H jl l.28

But t he o u ts tand ing i l lustrat ion o f t hese

c ontacts i s t he i n troduc t ion i n to Ang lo-Saxon s cu lpture o f t he Caro l ing ian a can thus.

Th is o ccurred i n t he c ourse o f t he n in th c en tury a nd i s most t e l-

l ing ly i l lus trated b y t he g rea t c ircu lar c ross-sha f t a t d a te o f wh ich h as b een t oo o f ten wr itten d own.

Wo lverha mp ton ,

2 9

t he

Th is l eng thy d igress ion h as a t te mp ted t o b r ing o ut t he c lose c onnect ion b etween Ang lo-Saxon a nd Con t inenta l a r t i n t h is a ge a nd , b y c on tras t , t he i nd iv idua l ity o f I nsu lar Ce lt ic a r t.

I t i s t rue t hat Ce lt ic a nd Ang lo-Saxon a r t

h ave many e le men ts i n c o m mon. Th is i s more p ar t icu lar ly t he c ase w ith t he Manuscr ipts , s o t ha t i t was l ong p oss ib le t o d iscuss w ith v igour a nd h eat t he p lace o f o r ig in o f s uch a masterp iece a s t he Book o f L ind isfarne. p aper i s n ot c oncerned w ith Manuscr ipts. s cu lpture a lso.

But t h is

There a re c o m mon e le men ts i n

The i n ter lace i s a n e xa mp le.

T he n in th c entury s arcophagus

t ha t c on ta ined t he r e l ics o f S t. A lkmund i n t he c hurch o f t hat n a me i n Derby wel l i l lustrates t he more s oph ist icated Ang lo-Saxon u se o f t h is mo t if . The a rched me mbers o n t he a ng les c urve o ver a nd e nc lose t he s ides , r eproduc ing t he l i t t le h ouse ( do muncu lus ) t ha t was t he s hr ine o f t he s a in t.

The p a ttern

r epresen ts a nd was i n tended t o r epresen t t he w ickerwork f i l l ing b etween t he u pr igh ts o f t he o r ig ina l. 3 0

I t i s at rans lat ion i n to s tone o f t he wooden h ouse

i n wh ich S t. Chad was e nshr ined n ear ly t wo h undred y ears e ar l ier i n t he Church o f L ich f ield .

The S arcophagus i s e xcep t iona l ;

i n ter lace were u sed i n t he a r t o f b oth p eop les. d ist ingu ished.

o rna men ta l p anels o f

Bu t t he t wo c an g enera l ly b e

T he Con t inen ta l i nf luences t ha t a f fected Ang lo-Saxon a r t s o d eep ly a lso r eached t he Ce lt ic wor ld.

The v ine s cro l l a ppears o n s o me o f t he c rosses ,

s uch a s t he Cross o f Bea l in i n n in th c entury I reland 3 1

o r t he t wo c rosses o f

t he t en th c entury a t P ena l ly i n S outh Wa les ,3 2 b u t t hese a re e xcep t iona l a nd t he Welsh c rosses n a med were e rected a t at ime when S axon i nf luence was s trong a nd We lsh Pr inces were r egular ly a ppear ing a s w itnesses t o c har ters i ssued a t t he c our t o f t he S axon r u lers. 3 3 Even i n t he f ar n or th t he s lab a t H ilton o f CadbO 1 134 i ncorpora tes a v ine s cro ll t ha t i s ac lose p ara l le l t o c arv ings i n Nor thu mbr ia.

Bu t a ga in i ti s n ot t yp ica l o f Ce lt ic a r t.

T he p heno menon t ha t i s c o m mon t o b o th Celt ic a nd Ang lo-Saxon a r t i s t he i dea , t he c usto m , o f e rect ing t he h igh c ross.

T he f or m a nd t he d ecora-

t ion may d if fer a nd d o d if fer , b ut t he h igh c ross i s ac o m mon e le men t t hat

1 16

d ist ingu ishes t he I nsu lar s cene f ro m t ha t o n t he Con t inent .

The Con t inen ta l

wr iter o f t he V ita o f S t. Wi l leba ld , who r ecorded t ha t t he b oy was o f fered t o t he s erv ice o f God a t t he f oot o f t he c ross, f eels i tn ecessary t o a dd , i n e xp lana t ion :

' f or i ti s t he c usto m o f t he S axon r ace ( in Br ita in ) t o mark o u t

t he h o ly p laces ( l oca s ancta ), n ot b y a n o ratory , b ut b y t he s tandard o f t he h o ly c ross r a ised o n h igh.

I n I re land t he s eventh c en tury p lan o f t he

monastery o f T ech Mo l ing ( S t. Mu l l ins ) s hows t hese c rosses s et a bout t he s che ma t ic c irc le r epresen t ing t he e nc losure a nd e ven b eyond i t s l im its. 36 Wooden c rosses p receded t hose o f s tone i n t he I nsu lar wor ld 37 a nd i t wou ld s ee m p robable t hat t he e rect ion o f t hese c rosses i s a Ce lt ic c us to m a dop ted w ith t he o ther e ar ly Chr ist ian c usto ms t hat s urv ived i n t h is a rea.

I n

Eng land t he g rea ter f requency o f t he f igured h igh c ross i n N or thu mbr ia a nd Merc ia , t he r eg ions mos t i nf luenced b y t he I r ish miss ionar ies , s uggests t hat t he Ang lo-Saxon c usto m was o ne o f t hese a dopted f ro m t he Celt ic c hurch. T he e ar l iest s urv iv ing s tone s cu lpture i n I reland makes u se o f as ign if ican t t echn ique.

F igures a nd i n ter lace a re c arved i n v ery l ow r el ief o r i nc ised .

These a re b as ica l ly t he me thods o f t he wood c arver a nd a re a n i nher itance f ro m t he l ong p er iod when I nsu lar Ce lt ic s cu lpture was i n wood . n iques a re c o mb ined a t F ahan Mura ,3 8 where

Both t ech-

sma l l i nc ised f igures f lank t he

i n ter laced c ross i n l ow r el ief o n o ne s ide o f t he s te le.

A t Carndonagh 39

s im ilar f igures o ccur o n as tele i nc ised w ith a ' mar igo ld ' c ross , at ype t hat g oes b ack t o t he e ar l ies t d ays o f I nsu lar Chr ist ian ity . 40

These t wo c arv ings

a re n o t f ar r e moved i n d ate f ro m t he g rea t Nor thu mbr ian c rosses o f Ru thwe l l a nd B ewcast le.

They i l lustrate a s tage when t he n a t ive Celt ic a r t was t ry ing

t o mas ter n ew i deas a nd a dap t i t se lf t o at echno logy o f s tone. i s a lso f ound i n t he Ce lt ic n or th , b ut a t ar ather l a ter d ate. Pap il i n S het land ,

4 1

The s a me s tage The s te le f ro m

f orms p ar t o f al arge c o l lect ion , i nclud ing f rag men ts f ro m

a t l eas t o ne t o mb-shr ine.

The s tele i s o f i nterest n o t o n ly f or t he u se o f t he

i nc ised t echn ique, c o mb ined w ith l ow r e l ief , b u t f or t he i nc lus ion o f av ery i nd iv idua l v ers ion o f t he T e mptat ion o f S t . An thony , t he h er m it o f t he T heban d eser t , who f igures i n t he Ordo c o m menda t ion is a n i mae.

Two monstrous

b irds w h isper i n to t he e ars o f as ku l l, d escr ib ing t he p leasures o f t he s ensua l wor ld , wh ich t he s a in t s o f irmly r e jected .

Here , i n u lt i ma T hu le, i s t he f ina l

p roof o f t he u n ity o f t he I nsu lar Ce lt ic wor ld , b oth a r t ist ica l ly a nd r el ig ious ly. The i nc ised t echn ique o f t he l i on a t Pap il w ith i t s s p ira l j o in ts a nd d oub le o u tl ined b ody b e longs t o ag enus more w ide ly r epresen ted i n t he a r t o f t he Mss., a s, f or i nstance , i n t he L ion o f S t . Mark i n t he Book o f Durrow , a n I r ish Ms. o f t he e igh th c entury . 42

T he b roken s te le f ound i n t he c e metery o n t he B r ough

o f B irsay o n t he Ma in land o f Orkney ,

4 3

p rov ides a f ur ther e xa mp le o f t h is

t ype, o n wh ich t he f igure s cu lp ture i s a ssoc ia ted w ith t he i nd igenous b ackground a r t o f t he P ic t ish s ymbo l. T h is r ather d iscurs ive a na lys is may s ee m t o h ave h ad more t o d o w ith Ang lo-Saxon t han w ith I nsu lar C e lt ic a r t.

Bu t t he c on trast b etween t he t wo

i s b o th r elevan t a nd a n ecessary p re lude t o wha t f o l lows. S axon c hurch

-

T he e ar ly Ang lo-

a nd a l most a l l t he s urv iv ing a r t i s e cc les iast ica l

s elf o n i t s a ssoc iat ion w ith Ro me.

-

p r ided i t -

Th is a ssoc ia t ion w ith Ro me f ound i t s

e xpress ion i n ar ecep t iv ity t o n ew i deas.

The Cel t ic c hurch , b y c ontrast ,

was c onserva t ive a nd t enac ious o f i t s own t rad it ions.

I nsu lar Ce lt ic s cu lpture

i n t he t en th a nd e leven th c entur ies r epresen ts t he c u lm ina t ion o f al ong n at ive

1 17

a nd Chr ist ian t rad it ion .

I t must b e i nferred t ha t al arge p art o f t h is t rad it ion

was o r ig ina l ly e xpressed i n woode n c arv ings, wh ich h ave n ow p er ished. s a me i s t rue o f c on te mporary a rch itecture.

T he

Dur ing t hese f ive c en tur ies t he

n at ive t rad it ion h ad b een p rofound ly mod if ied b y t he s uccess ive i mpact o f i nf luences c om ing f ro m t he c lass ica l , Med iterranean wor ld.

The f inal s tage

o f t h is e vo lut ionary p rocess c an b est b e a pprec ia ted i n t he I r ish h igh c rosses , wh ich f orm t he l argest a nd f ines t c orpus o f I nsular Celt ic s culpture n ow s urv iv ing .

I t i s t hrough a n a na lys is o f t h is mater ia l t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o a rr ive

a t a n a pprec ia t ion o f t he b as ic n at ive t rad it ion b y e l im ina t ing t he a l ien e lements. A t t he s a me t ime s uch a n a na lys is w il l l ead t o a n a pprec ia t ion o f t he impor tance o f t he s uccess ive b orrow ings f ro m o u ts ide. The s urv iv ing c on ten t o f t hese c rosses a nd t he ir s ty le i nd ica te t ha t t he most impor tan t o f t he o uts ide i nf luences a rr ived w ith t he e ar l iest C hr ist ian i deas , d atab le o n h istor ica l g rounds t o t he f i f th a nd s ix th c entur ies. p erhaps b est i l lustrated b y t he a rch itecture.

Th is i s

T he s i mp le r ectangu lar p lans

a nd t he a bsence o f a ny t race o f mod if ica t ions d a t ing a f ter c . 5 00 c on trast w ith t he c on te mporary a ppearance o f Ang lo-Saxon c hurches o f t he e ar l ies t Chr is t ian p er iod d at ing f ro m t he s even th c entury . b e d rawn f ro m t he s cu lpture.

Bu t t he s a me c onc lus ion may a lso

The c rosses o f t he t en th a nd e leven th c entur ies

s t il l i nc lude i l lustrat ions f ro m t he s er ies o f t he Ordo c o m menda t ion is a n i mae , a longs ide o ther s cenes , i nc lud ing sma ll n arrat ive e p isodes , o f ten i n u nrela ted j ux tapos it ion.

A f ter c . 7 00 t he s uccess ive impac ts s ee m l argely t o h ave c o me

t hrough S axon Eng land ;

t hey i nc lude n ew i conograph ica l t he mes s uch a s t he

O ld a nd New T esta men t t ypes.

But t he e xac t s ource o f t hese i nnova t ions

wou ld r equ ire much f ur ther s tudy , a s t he l ine o f d eve lop men t i s s e ldo m c lear . What i s more impor tan t i n t he p resen t c on tex t i s t he s trong i nd iv idua l is m o f t he I r ish c rosses , wh ich p resen t af us ion o f i deas t hat owes much t o n a t ive models , wh ich h ave p er ished. The e leven th c entury s aw t he Nor man Conques t o f Eng land t ha t b rought t hat c oun try i n to t he g enera l Ko ine o f t he west European Ro manesque. I n t he f ie ld o f s cu lpture t h is b rough t a bout t he d ecay o f t he f igured h igh c ross. S cu lp ture o n a monu menta l s ca le b eca me a l mos t e n t ire ly a p ar t o f a rch itectu re a nd s ubord ina te t o t he a rch itectura l s che me. b een e xaggerated.

T he s peed o f t he c hange h as

The g rea t wooden r oofed c athedra l o f York , where t he

a is le less n ave h as a r oof s pan o f 1 3.75 m, l ooks b ack t o t he e ar ly C hr ist ian t rad it ion o f c hurch a rch itecture , a s e xe mp l if ied i n t he g rea t S a l ian c a thedra ls a nd c onte mporary b u i ld ings i n c en tra l France.

I th as l i tt le i n c o mmon w ith

t he r is ing Ang lo-Norman s choo l , wh ich s oon c a me t o d om inate t he E ng l ish Ro manesque.

Yet York was t he work o f a Nor man Archb ishop , b u i l t i n t he

l ast g enerat ion o f t he e leven th c entury.

But t he f uture was w ith t he n ew s ty le ,

wh ich a ga in was a dopted w ith e nthus ias m i n Eng land , s o t ha t Durham , a work o f t he e ar ly t we lf th c en tury , s tands i n t he v an o f t hose d eve lop men ts t ha t l ed o n t o t he Go th ic . 44 I t was t h is n ew Eng l ish s choo l o f a rch itecture a nd s cu lp ture t ha t w as d est ined t o r evo lu t ion ise I nsu lar Ce lt ic a r t. t o t he n ew

And i t i s o n t he b as is o f i t s r eact ion

i deas t hat t he s urv iva l o f t h is a r t mus t b e j udged .

a l c ross was t he f irst a nd most i mpor tan t c asua l ty . t he a ssess men t d if f icu lt .

The monu men t-

Th is i s al oss t ha t makes

As i n Eng land s cu lp ture n or ma l ly b eca me a n

1 18

a d junc t o f a rch itec ture.

T he j udg men t must d epend o n av ery h asty a ssess-

men t o f t h is s cu lpture i n S co t lind , Wa les a nd I reland d e l ibera te.

-

t he o rder i s

I n S cot land t he d ynasty o f Ma lco l m Can more , wh ich c a me t o p ower i n t he l ate e leven th c en tury , was p ermeated w ith Ang lo-Nor man i nf luences.

The

d ynas ty a nd i t s f o l lowers w ere t he o n ly impor tan t p atrons o f t he a r ts i n t he s outhern a nd r icher p ar ts o f t he c oun try a nd t hey e nsured t ha t t he n ew s ty le p redom ina ted ; i n t he ir v iew i te xpressed t he d es ired e cc les iast ica l r efor ms. I n t he p er iphera l r eg ions o f t he n or th a nd west t here was a t f irst I r ish i nf luence , s hown , f or i nstance , i n t he c hurch o f S t . Magnus o n Eg ilsay , Orkney . 45

But b y t he l a ter t wel f th c entury , s tar t ing w ith t he f ounda t ion o f

K irkwa l l Cathedra l i n 1 137 , e ven t he a reas s t il l u nder Norse r u le b eca me o pen t o t he n ew s ty le , f or t we lf th c entury Norse a rch itecture was i t se lf o f Eng l ish i nsp ira t ion. t ectura l d eta il.

S cu lp ture i n t hese c ond it ions b eca me c on f ined t o a rch i-

The emergence o f t he C elt ic s p ir it , i n s uch f ie lds a s West

H igh land s choo l o f monu men ta l f unerary s cu lpture , h ad t o awa it a much l a ter a ge 4 6 Cond it ions i n Wa les w ere v ery s im ilar.

Gruf fydd a p Cynan , t he f irst

Welsh r u ler t o e stab l ish a s o l id p ower-base i n t he t wel f th c entury , made ' t he l and o f Gwynedd t o s park le w ith l ime-washed c hurches , a s t he f irma men t s park les w ith s tars.'

Men f e lt t ha t i t was t he b eg inn ing o f an ew a ge, when

t he t r ibu te , f ro m wh ich t h is q uotat ion i s t aken , was wr it ten a f ter h is d ea th i n 1 137. B ut t he c hurches wh ich h e b u ilt f o llowed t he n ew Ang lo-Nor man f ash ion , w ith in t he l im its imposed b y t he p over ty o f t he c oun try a nd t he i n tractab il ity o f t he b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls.

The s econd s tage i n t he r ebu ilt c hurch o f t he o ld

Welsh c o m mun ity o f P en mon , Ang lesey , a das g o ing b ack t o t he f i f th o r s ix th c entury , i s o r thodox t we lf th c en tury Eng l ish work , w ith t he s cu lpture c onf ined t o a rch itectura l d eta i l.

T he a rches o f t he c ross ing a nd t he a rcad ing o f

t he t ransept wou ld n ot b e o u t o f p lace i n a sma l l c hurch o n t he o ther s ide o f C lawdd O f fa.

I t i s t rue t ha t t he t ympanu m b e long ing t o t he f irst s tage i s

e xecu ted i n t he f lat l inear s ty le t hat b e longs t o a n o lder t rad it ion , b ut i ti s s et f irm ly i n t he a rch itectura l c ontex t o f t he s outh d oor o f t he n ave.

T h is i s

work o f t he a ge o f Gruf fydd a p Cynan , wh ile t he s econd s tage b e longs t o t he t i me o f h is s uccessor , Owa in Gwynedd , who r u led i n t he m idd le o f t he c en tury . The s ame s urv iva l o f a n o lder t rad it ion c an o ccas iona l ly b e o bserved e lsewhere , b ut a ga in i n af ir m ly a rch itectura l c ontex t.

The r eset a rch o f t he mid-twe lf th

c entury c hurch o f Aber f fr aw , wh ich m ight b e t ermed t he Pa lace Chapel o f t he Pr inces o f Gwynedd , i s a n o r thodox , sma ll-sca le Ang lo-Norman c hancel a rch , b ut t he o uter r ing o f v ousso irs a re e xecu ted i n t he s a me f ia t l inear s ty le.

I n

s p ite o f s uch s urv iva ls , t he v ictory o f t he n ew , Eng l ishinsp ired , Ro manesque was a pparent ly a s c o mp lete i n Wa les a s i n S cot land. 47

The r esurgence o f t he

o ld s p ir it c an h owever b e o bserved a t ar ather e ar l ier d a te i n t he Nor th Wa les S choo l o f monu men ta l s cu lpture ,

4 8

wh ich was b eg inn ing t o s how i t se lf a t t he

e nd o f t he t we lf th c entury , i n as tructure l ike t he s hr ine a t Pennan t Me langel l. 49 I ti s o n ly i n t we lf th c en tury I re land t hat t here i s ar ea l s urv iva l o f t he o lder t rad it ions. The Ro manesque o f t h is a ge was o ne o f t he g rea t f lower ings o f I r ish a r t. I t i s t oo w e ll k nown t o n eed i l lustra t ion a nd c ou ld h ard ly b e i l lustra ted a s at a il-p iece t o t h is d iscuss ion.

I n works l ike t he d oorways o f

K ille s h in o r C lonfer t Ca thedra l5 0 t he s ur face d ecora t ion s preads i n af i l my

1 19

p at tern o ver t he a rch itectura l s et t ing i n a way t ha t i s a l ien t o t he n or ma l Ro manesque o f wes tern Europe a nd c arr ies o n t he i deas o f a n e ar l ier a ge. Th is p aper h as b een c oncerned w ith t he a l ien , Med iterranean e le men ts wh ich i nf luenced I nsu lar Celt ic a r t b etween t he f a l l o f t he Ro man Emp ire a nd t he emergence o f t he f u l l Ro manesque i n t he c ourse o f t he e leven th a nd t wel f th c en tur ies. o pen ing s im ile

-

The b as ic Ce lt ic c ontex t

-

t he a nv il , t o r eturn t o t he

i s e lus ive , f or t oo much o f t he e v idence h as b een l ost.

Bu t

s o meth ing o f t h is c on ten t c an p erhaps b e d iv ined b y s ubtrac t ing t he a l ien e le men ts t raceable a t v ar ious p er iods a nd watch ing t he g row th o f t he r es idue. Abstract p a t tern , a s o pposed t o t he r epresenta t iona l f orm o f c lass ica l a r t , i s c lear ly o ne e le men t.

A l ove o f g eo metr ica l p a t tern a nd i ts u se t o c over

p lane s urfaces i s a nother .

A s tudy o f t he h igh c rosses o f t he t en th a nd

e leventh c entur ies s uggests t hat a h orror v acu i was a lso c haracter ist ic o f Ce lt ic a r t.

But t h is i s ac haracter ist ic t ha t i ts hared w ith t he a r t o f o ther

p eop les o f t he b arbar ian n or th.

More impor tant i n many ways i s t he

c on-

s ervat ive a t t itude t o n ove lty a nd h ere Ce lt ic a r t a cts i n s harp c on trast w ith Ang lo-Saxon o r Eng l ish a r t.

I t s hows a t enac ity a nd a d eterm ina t ion t o ma in-

t a in i t s own h onoured t rad it ions , e ven when p repared t o a ccept a nd a ss im ilate a l ien c on tr ibu t ions. 5 1 d or man t.

T here a re p er iods a nd p laces when Ce lt ic a r t a ppears

The t wel f th a nd t h ir teen th c entur ies were o ne s uch p er iod , t hough

t he t im ing v ar ies f ro m p lace t o p lace.

P erhaps t he f a irest c o m men t i s a

v ery o ld o ne , o ne wh ich may b e c ons idered a ppropr ia te i n t he c on tex t .

The

w ind b loweth where i tl i steth a nd t hou p erce ives t t he f orce t hereo f , b u t c ans t n ot t e l l whence i tc o meth o r wh ither i tg oeth.' ( S t . J ohn , i i, 8 ).

1 20

L IST OF ABBRE V IA T IONS

Arch. J .

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l.

Bede

Bedae H istor ia e cc ies iast ica g ent is Ang loru m ( ed . C . P lu m mer , 1 896 ).

C lapha m

A . W. C lapha m , Eng l ish Ro manesque Arch itecture b efore t he Conquest ( 1930 ).

Cruden

S . Cruden , The Ear ly Chr ist ian a nd P ict ish Monu men ts o f S cot land ( 1964 ).

Henry ( 1965 )

F . Henry , I r ish Ar t i n t he Ear ly Chr ist ian Per iod t o 8 00 A . D. ( 1965 ).

Henry ( 1967 )

F . Henry , I r ish Ar t d ur ing t he V ik ing I nvas ions ( 1967 ).

T RSAI

J ourna l o f t he Roya l S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f I re land .

Kendr ick

T . D . Kendr ick , Ang lo-Saxon Ar t t o A .D . 9 00 ( 1938 ).

L eask

H . G . L eask , I r ish Churches a nd Monast ic Bu ild ings , ( 1955 ).

Med. Arch .

Med ieva l Archaeo logy .

T oesca

P . Toesca , S tor ia d el l 'Ar te i ta l iana , i( 1927 ).

1 21

i

FOOTNOTES

1 .

JRSA I , l xx iv ( 1944 ), 2 3-52.

2 .

Med . Arch., x v ( 1971), 8 -10.

3 .

L eask , 5 -9.

4 .

Bede , I I , 2 5.

5 .

V ita I S anc tae Br ig idae , c ap. v i i i i n Acta S anctoru m mens is Februar i i, i , 1 41.

6 .

Arch. J ., l v i, S upp le men t ( 1952 ), 1 8.

7 .

Henry ( 1967 ), c o lour p la te B .

8 .

Toesca , 3 1-3 a nd 4 2.

9 .

Henry Bradshaw S oc iety , x x ix ( 1905 ), 2 84.

1 0.

T oesca , 2 67-70.

i f.

Henry ( 1967 ), p 1. 9 6.

1 2.

Henry ( 1967 ), 1 42-4.

1 3.

Bede , I I , 1 5.

1 4.

V ita Wi lfr id i e p icop i a uctore Edd io , c app. x v i i a nd x x i i i n Ro l ls S er ies LXX [ , i , 2 5 a nd 3 3.

1 5.

Unpub l ished .

1 6.

C lapha m , f ig. 7 a nd 8 .

1 7.

C lapha m , p 1. 3 .

1 8.

C lapha m , p 1. 6 .

1 9.

Kendr ick , 1 13, P1 .x l i i.

2 0.

Kendr ick , p 1. x lv i i i.

2 1.

D . MacG ibbon a nd T . Ross, Ecc iesast ica ] . Arch itec ture o f S cot land H ( 1896 ), f ig . 6 12.

2 2.

A . K ings ley por ter , The Crosses a nd Cu lture o fIre land , 1 931, f ig . 8 7.

2 3.

E .g . a t S . Costanza , Ro me ( Toesca , 1 64-7 ;

2 4.

K . C . Cresswe l l , Ear ly Mus l i m Arch itecture , i( 1932 ), p 1. 6 3-77.

2 5.

Archaeolog ia , l xxv i i ( 1927 ), 2 41-56.

2 6.

Arch.

2 7.

Kendr ick , p 1. i .

J.,

c x i i ( 1955 ), 4 3-7.

1 22

c f . i b id ., 2 6-27 ).

2 8.

Archaeo log ia , l xxv i i ( 1927 ), 2 19-40.

2 9.

Arch. J ., c xv i i ( 1960 ), 7 1-81.

3 0.

Derbysh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , ( f or thco m ing ).

3 1.

Henry ( 1965 ), p 1. 8 8.

3 2.

V . E . Nash Wi ll ia ms , The Ear ly Chr ist ian Monu men ts o f Wa les ( 1950 ), n o. 3 63.

3 3.

J . E . L loyd , H istory o f Wa les , ( 1912 ), 3 53.

3 4.

Cruden ,

3 5.

V ita Wi ll iba ld i e p iscop i E ichsted tens is , c ap. ii n Monu men ta G er man iae

P l.

H istor iae :

1 9.

S cr ip toru m , x v , 8 8.

3 6.

Henry ( 1965 ), 1 35 , f ig. 1 7.

3 7.

E .g . t ha t e rected b y Oswa ld a t Heavenf ie ld ( Bede , I I , 2 ).

3 8.

Henry ( 1965 ), p 1. 5 4.

3 9.

Henry ( 1965 ), p 1. 5 9.

4 0.

An t iqu ity , v i i i ( 1934 ) , 4 7-51.

4 1.

Cruden , p 1. 4 .

4 2.

Henry ( 1965 ), c o lour p late E .

4 3.

Cruden ,

4 4.

P l.

7 .

F or a s urvey s ee A . W. C lapha m, Eng l ish Ro manesque Arch itecture a f ter t he Conques t ( 1934 ).

4 5. 4 6.

T he Nor thern I s les ( ed . F . T . Wa inwr ight , 1 962 ), 1 83-6. K . A . S teer a nd W. M. Banner man , L ate Med ieva l Monu men ta l S cu lpture i n t he Wes t H igh lands ( 1977 ).

4 7.

( For thco m ing ).

Cu lture a nd Env iron men t ( e d. I . L i. Foster a nd L . A lcock , 1 963 ), 3 55-72.

4 8.

C . Gresha m , Med ieva l S tone Carv ing i n Nor th Wa les ( 1968 ).

4 9.

Archaeo log ia Ca mbrens is , c v ii i ( 1959 ), 8 1-113.

5 0.

T hese a nd o ther e xa mp les a re b est s tud ied i n t he d e l ica te d raw ings o f H . G . L eask ( Leask , 9 4-168 ).

5 1.

C f . K . H . J ackson o n t he e ar ly Chr is t ian I nscr ip t ions o f t he I r ish S et t lers i n Wa les i n The Ear ly Cu ltures o f Nor thwest Europe ( ed. Cyr il Fox a nd Bruce D ick ins , 1 950 ), 2 07-8.

1 23