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BAR S2176 2010 ASHRAF STONE AGE TRADITIONS OF MEGHALAYA
B A R
South Asian Archaeology Series 12 Series Editor Alok K. Kanungo
Stone Age Traditions of Meghalaya A study of variation and continuity
Abdullah Ali Ashraf
BAR International Series 2176 2010
South Asian Archaeology Series 12 Series Editor Alok K. Kanungo
Stone Age Traditions of Meghalaya A study of variation and continuity
Abdullah Ali Ashraf
BAR International Series 2176 2010
Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2176 South Asian Archaeology Series No. 12 Series Editor: Alok K. Kanungo Stone Age Traditions of Meghalaya © A A Ashraf and the Publisher 2010 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.
ISBN 9781407307206 paperback ISBN 9781407337210 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407307206 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2010. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.
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Foreword Alok Kumar Kanungo Series Editor, South Asian Archaeology Series International Series of British Archaeological Reports
The International Series of British Archaeological Reports, with its 2160 titles to the present time, is undoubtedly one of the most important places of publication in the discipline of Archaeology. But it is a pity that works on the archaeology of South Asia have been less represented in the series than their interest and value deserves. The archaeological record of South Asia (comprising India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives) is extremely rich. This wealth begins in the Lower Palaeolithic period and includes, for example, the Harappan Civilization, one of the oldest in the world (covering a very large area and having many unique features -- the most ancient known town planning, its architecture and high standards of civic hygiene, its art, iconography, paleography, numismatics and international trade). South Asia also has a large number of earlier, contemporary, and later Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. Moreover, what makes South Asia particularly significant for the study of past human behaviour is the survival of many traditional modes of life, like hunting-gathering, pastoralism, shifting cultivation, fishing, and fowling, the study of which throws valuable light on the reconstruction of past cultures. In the region there are a large number of government and semigovernment institutions devoted to archaeological teaching and/or research in archaeology and a large and professionally trained body of researchers. Of course, a number of universities and other institutions, in the area do have their own publication programmes and there are also reputed private publishing houses. However, British Archaeological Reports, a series of 36 years standing, has an international reputation and distribution system. In order to take advantage of the latter – to bring archaeological researches in South Asia to the notice of scholars in the western academic world – the South Asian Archaeology Series has been instituted within the International Series of British Archaeological Reports. This series (which it is hoped to associate with an institution of organization in the area) aims at publishing original research works of international interest in all branches of archaeology of South Asia. Those wishing to submit books for inclusion in the South Asian Archaeology Series should contact the South Asian Archaeology Series Editor, who will mediate with BAR Publishing in Oxford. The subject has to be appropriate and of the correct academic standard (curriculum vitae are requested and books may be referred); instructions for formatting will be given, as necessary. Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo Fulbright Fellow, Department of Anthropology University of Wisconsin-Madison B-12, Deccan College Faculty Hostel Pune 411006, INDIA email: [email protected]
PREFACE Human adaptation to Northeast India is less known. It is true that various general aspects have been studied and usually interpreted within the conventional framework of prehistory. But here an endeavour has been made to go beyond the conventional limit to explore some new dimensions of the material under study. Hence, our orientation differs a little. To have a better comprehension of the life and cultures during archaeological past of this area, an anthropological evaluation proves more effective and imperative as well. So, we are inclined to resort to anthropological orientation wherever it is necessary. The data incorporated in this study are obtained through archaeological explorations and excavations. This led us to identify three adaptive mechanisms; each stands for adaptive patterns of its own. The variations in adaptive patterns in a
particular time period operating within an area analogous to its eco‐cultural setting are the resultants of subsistence variables among the bands. The contributing variables specific to the emergence of distinct and individual adaptive patterns could better be analyzed by aforesaid approach. The present study leads us to elicit this picture that variations in ‘Broad Spectrum Tradition’ (discussed in the context of Hoabinhian traditions of this area) is not an outcome or result of a particular or specific factor, such as climato‐ecological adjustment, population expansion or sudden exposure to a new technology. It is something else. It is an out come of an interaction of behavioral traits relating to technology, economy and ‘mental template’. This is the key to the understanding of the formations of cultures within a Culture.
A.A.Ashraf
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT At the very outset I extend my gratefulness to Dr. Sankar Kumar Roy, Curator, Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University, for offering me valuable suggestions and encouragements while preparing this Ph.D. dissertation. The crystallization of my present work is an outcome of good wishes and inspirations from the entire department, especially, A.C. Bhagabati, A.N.M. Irshad Ali, B. Choudhury, Professors of the Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University. I am indebted to all of them. I record my grateful thanks to my younger sister Ayesha Ashraf Ahmed, lecturer in Botany, Shillong College and her husband S. Ahmed, Secretary, P.W.D, Meghalaya for providing me the copies of maps and other valuable illustrations. I extend my sincere gratefulness to Professor S.A.S. Ahmed; Head of the Department of Physics, Gauhati University for his valuable and thoughtful advices in order to have clarity to the problem on technometry that constitute an important part of this study.
I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo, Fulbright Fellow, University of Wisconsin‐Madison who accorded his valuable suggestions and took kind interest to get the work published from his institution. I gratefully acknowledge the help rendered to me by scores of my Khasi and Garo friends, especially, Mr. G. Sumer, Archaeologist, Government of Meghalaya, Mr. Agath Sangma, Mr. Thangman Sangma and Mr. Ringjon Marak of Selbal Gre village of West Garo Hills. A profound sense of indebtness issues from the core of my heart to my parents; who always pray to the God so that I may give a meaningful dimension to my work. My mother Syeda Sakina Ashraf stood as moral guide for me and she acted as a constant source of inspiration and a driving force in each and every academic pursuit of mine. I like to express my indebtness to my wife Shahana who extend her silent support in my each and every step.
A.A. Ashraf Gauhati University Guwahati, Assam
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CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements
Contents List of Tables
i iii
v-vii viii-x
List of Illustration CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION Cultural Configuration of Prehistoric Traditions under Study Spectrum Tradition Methodology Analytical Aspects Other Considerations Archaeological Premonition Prehistoric Archaeology in Northeast India with Special Reference to Meghalaya CHAPTER II : LAND AND PEOPLE The Land: Geomorphological Sequences of Northeast India with Special Reference to Meghalaya Northeast India and its Geo‐cultural Feature Physiography Khasi and Jaintia Hills Garo Hills Climate Soil Type Drainage System Lake and Marshes Geology Vegetation Fauna The People The Khasi: Physical Features, Origin Language & Bio‐cultural Linkage Material Culture The Garos Physical Features, Origin & Material Culture V
xi‐xii
1‐17 6 7 10 12 13 14
15
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18 19
20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 26 28
29 29 30 32 33 34
CHAPTER III : THE PREHISTORIC SITES UNDER STUDY 1. Saw Mer (SMR) Type of Site, Mode of Finding, Analysis of Lithic Artifacts Shape of the Artifacts Type of Artifacts Weight of the SMR Artifacts Flake Scars, Interfacetory ridges Striking Platform, Gripping Facility Hafting Facility, Truncation, Contour Working Edge Cortex 2. Makbil Bisik (MBS) Mode of Finding Analysis of Lithic Artifacts, Shapes of the Artifacts Morphological Types Interfacetory Ridges Gripping Facility Hafting Facility Contour, Working Edge Cortex, Truncate 3. Bibra Gre (BBG) Nature of Site, Mode of Finding, Analysis of the Lithic Artifacts, Tool Types Weight of BBG Artifacts, Flake Scars, Interfacetory Ridges Gripping Facility Hafting Facility, Contour Working‐edge, Cortex Truncation CHAPTER IV : COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES: Raw Material Shapes, Tool Types Weight Interfacetory Ridges Gripping Facility Hafting Facility, Truncation, Contour, Cortex VI
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37 40 45 47 49 50 52 53
53 43 58 62 64 67 68 69 70
70 72 79 80 81 82 83
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85 86 90 91 93 94
CHAPTER V :
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTION TO THE LITHIC IMPLEMENTS: A TECHNOMETRIC STUDY
Functional Categories Angular Placement of Working Edge Mode of Execution of an Implements Ratio, Handedness Edge‐grip‐distance, Contact Cutting tools, Jerk‐cutting Tools Edge Angle and Use Wear Dented State, Abrasion State CHAPTER VI : KEY TO THE ARTIFACTS FROM RESPECTIVE SITES CHAPTER VII : SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION CHAPTER VIII : GLOSSARY AND APPENDICES REFERENCE
VII
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100 101 103 104 106 107 108
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132‐138
139‐145
LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Garo Hills: Rock Formation and Types 2.2 Cultural Configuration of Northeast India and Southeast Asia 3.1.1 Classification of Lithic Artifacts and their Frequency Distribution from SMR 3.1.2 Number and Percentile Distribution of Weight within the Respective Tool Type 3.1.3 Number and Percentile Distribution of Weight of Tool Types in the Respective Weight Range 3.1.4 Number and Percentile Distribution of Tools Weight Frequency up to 50 gms 3.1.5 Frequency Distribution of Flake Scars 3.1.6 Distribution of Flake Scars against Tool Types 3.1.7 Distribution of Interfacetory ridges (ifr) in SMR 3.1.8 Type‐wise Breakup of Grip Scars 3.1.9 Frequency Distribution of Hafted Implements 3.1.10 Frequency Distribution of Gripped, Hafted & Non intended Implements 3.1.11 Frequency Distribution of Truncation & their Nature 3.1.12 Contouring Types & their Distribution in the SMR Assemblage 3.1.13 Number & Percentile of Bifacial Contouring Representing the Cross‐Section of SMR Assemblage 3.1.14 Characters of Working Edge (frequency distribution) 3.1.15 Distribution of Characters of Working Edge 3.2.1 Materials from Layer (1) of MBS Excavation and their Frequency Distribution 3.2.2 Material Content of Layer (2) of MBS Excavation and their Frequency Distribution 3.2.3 Material Recovered and their Frequency Distribution: Layer (3) of MBS Excavation 3.2.4 Layer‐wise Breakup of Morphological Types from MBS 3.2.5 Layer‐wise Concentration of Waste Materials in MBS Excavation 3.2.6 Layer‐wise Concentration of Tool Types from MBS Excavation 3.2.7 Shapes of the Implements and their Frequency Distribution 3.2.8 Classification: Morphological Types & their Frequency Distribution (MBS) 3.2.9 Number & Percentile Distribution of Tools against their Weight (MBS) 3.2.10 Percentile Distribution of Weight in Tools Types (MBS) 3.2.11 Distribution of Flake Scars (MBS) 3.2.12 Number & Percentile Distribution of Interfacetory Ridges 3.2.13 Type‐wise Breakup of ifr (MBS) 3.2.14 (a) Frequency Distribution of Gripped and non VIII
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Facilitated Implements (MBS) 3.2.14 (b) Frequency Distribution of Grip and Hafted Implements (MBS) 3.2.15 Contouring Pattern of MBS Artifacts 3.2.16 Bi‐Contour Nature and Frequency Distribution of the Implements from MBS 3.2.17 Distribution of Characters of Working Edge (MBS) 3.2.18 Edge Characters and their Frequency Distribution (MBS) 3.2.19 Nature of truncation and their frequency distribution in MBS 3.3.1 Classification and Frequency Distribution of Morphological Types, BBG 3.3.2 Percentile Distribution of Flake Scars, BBG 3.3.3 Distributional Patterns of Flake Scars against the Tool Types, BBG 3.3.4. Flake scars: Number & Percentage against the distribution of Characters found on both the Surfaces of an Artifact (BBG) 3.3.5 Frequency Distribution of Hafting Facilities, BBG 3.3.6 Frequency Distribution of Gripped, Hafted and non Intended Tools, BBG 3.3.7 Nature of Contouring (face‐wise) and their Frequency Distribution, BBG 3.3.8 Cross‐sectional Contouring of Artifacts from BBG Assemblage 3.3.9 Characters of Working Edge, BBG 3.3.10 Composite Nature of Working Edge in BBG Assemblage and their Frequency Distribution 3.3.11 Frequency Distribution of Cortexed tools in BBG Assemblage 3.3.12 The Nature of Truncation and their Frequency Distribution among the Different Tool Types of BBG 4.1 Percentile Distribution of Shapes (Site‐wise) 4.2 Frequency Distribution of Various Tool Types (in ratio of SMR:MBS:BBG) 4.3 Tools of Hoabinhian Tradition: their Sub‐types and Frequency Distribution 4.4 Distribution of Weight in Percent & Unit (SMR:MBS:BBG) 4.5 Character‐wise Variation of Flake Scars (in unit’s ratio of SMR:MBS:BBG) 4.6 Interfacetory Ridges and its Site‐wise Distribution 4.7 Schematic Profile: Mid ridge, Main Flake Surface, Positive Bulb of Percussion and Striking Platform (frequency in the ratio of SMR:MBS:BBG) 4.8 Distribution Grip Scars (GS): Ratio in Pc & Unit – (SMR:MBS:BBG) 4.9 Frequency Distribution of Contour of Main Flake Surface in BBG Assemblages IX
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5.1.a Frequency Distribution of Functional Types and Sub‐types of SMR Assemblage 5.1.b Frequency Distributional of Major Functional Types, SMR 5.2.a Frequency Distribution of Functional Types and Sub‐types of MBS Assemblage 5.2.b Total 5.3.a Frequency distribution of Functional Types and Sub‐types of BBG Assemblage 5.3.b. Frequency Distribution of Major Functional Types of BBG Assemblage 5.4 a. Percentile & b. Unit Distribution of the Frequencies of Major Functional Types 5.5 Number and Percentile Distribution of Edge Angle and the Placement of Working Edge 5.6 Number and Percentile Distribution of Edge Angle and the Placement of Working Edge 5.7 Operational Mode of the Lithic Implements 5.8.a Placement of Working Edge (frequency distribution of mode of manipulation) 5.8.b Unit Distribution of the Characters of 8a (Unit distribution on the placement of (SMR:MBS:BBG) 5.9 Percentile Distribution of Placement of Working Edge in the Assemblages of SMR,MBS & BBG 5.10 Unit distribution; Placement of Working Edge in the Assemblage of (SMR:MBS:BBG) 5.11 Percentile Distribution of Handedness (Prehistoric) 5.12 Handedness among the Contemporary Population (the Garos) 5.13 Percentile and Unit Distribution of Edge Grip Distance 5.14 Percentile and Unit Distribution on Dentations among the Sites
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Maps and Figures 1.1 Location of Meghalaya in India 1.2 Map Showing Average Annual Rainfall in Meghalaya 1.3 Southeast Asia and its Neighbouring Regions 1.4 Location of Sites in the Rongram‐Ganol‐Ringgi Valley 2.1 Northeast India and its Geo‐Cultural Features 2.2 Administrative Divisions in Meghalaya 2.3 Map of Meghalaya and its Soils 2.4 Map of Meghalaya and its Drainage 2.5 Map of Meghalaya and its Geology 2.6 Altitude‐wise Succession of Vegetation in Meghalaya 2.7 Map of Meghalaya and its Natural Vegetation 3.1.1 Frequency Distribution of Shapes of SMR Artifacts 3.1.2 Frequency Distribution of Tool Types Assemblage 3.1.3 Distribution of Sub‐Types of Scraper (SMR) 3.1.4 Frequency Distribution of Cutting Tools (SMR) 3.1.5 Frequency Distribution of Points (SMR) 3.1.6 Distribution of Other Types (SMR) 3.1.7 Distribution of Hoabinhian (SMR) 3.1.8 Distribution of Tool Making Tools (SMR) 3.1.9 Distribution of Weight against Tool Types (SMR) 3.1.10 Frequency Distribution of Flake Scars (SMR) 3.1.11 Type‐wise Distribution of Flake Scars (SMR) 3.1.12 Distribution of Interfacetory Ridges (SMR) 3.1.13 Frequency Distribution of Mid‐ridge, Main Flake Surface, Positive Bulb of Percussion (SMR) 3.1.14 Frequency Distribution of Bi‐ Contouring Nature of the Implements (SMR) 3.1.15 Nature of Working Edge in SMR 3.2.1 Gradient of the Site MBS 3.2.2 Number and Percentile Distribution of Shapes (MBS) 3.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Tool types 3.2.4 Frequency Distribution of Hoabinhian Types (MBS) 3.2.5 Percentile Distribution of of Weight in Tool Types 3.3.1 Frequency Distribution of various Shapes of the Implements in BBG Assemblage 3.3.2 Frequency Distribution of Tool Types from BBG 3.3.3 Frequency Distribution of Hoabinhian Types (BBG) 3.3.4 Frequency Distribution of Sub‐types of Scrapers (BBG) XI
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Frequency of Contouring Patterns of Artifacts from BBG Frequency Distribution of Edge –line (BBG)
Proximity and Distances in Respect of Scrapers Proximity and Distances in Respect of Points (BBG) Proximity and Distances among the Sites in Respect of Hoabinhian Tradition Techno Economic Pattern and Supporting Materials Unit Distribution on the Placement of Working Edge (SMR:MBS:BBG) Based on 5.6a (Lateral Left) Unit Distribution on the Placement of Working Edge (SMR:MBS:BBG) Based on 5.6c (Lateral Right) Direction of Working Edge in Relation Grip Axis Direction of Working & its Frequency Distribution Vertical Column Showing the Edge Grip Distance Morphometry and Technometry of the Lithic Implements from SMR, MBS & BBG The Culture at a Glance
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7.1 Plates 1.01 Hoabinhian Tool Types from Various Locaties of Garo Hills 1.02 Lithic Implements Representing the Core Cultural Elements 3.1.01 The Site‐Saw Mer Lithic Implements from Saw Mer 3.2.01 The Site‐Makbil Bisik Lithic Implements from Makbil Bisik 3.3.01 The Site‐Bibra Gre Lithic Implements from Bibra Gre 4.01 The Sources of Raw Material (Dolerite) near Garo Hills 5.01 Grip Axis and Method of Manipulation of the Lithic Implements 5.02 Method of Manipulation of the Lithic Implements 7.01 Lithic Reduction Sequences 8.01 Placement of Working Edges with Reduction Grip Axis 8.02 Somatometric Measurements on Wrist Swing
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CHAPTER‐I
1
INTRODUCTION Meghalaya is a hilly region stretching from east to west in the South westernmost corner of Northeast (NE) India (fig. 1.1). It is situated in‐between 89°50′ E ‐ 92°55′ E and 25°5′ N‐26°8′ N. Three prehistoric sites
of the region are brought under the present study. These are Saw Mer in East Khasi Hills, Makbil Bisik and Bibra Gre in West Garo Hills.
Figure 1.1: Location of Meghalaya in India
The NE, as a whole, is topographically characterized by vast flood plains at the middle, flanked by elevated plateaus and basins. It is a sub tropical zone dominated by extensive Southwest monsoon and northeast winter climatic regime, originating from the Bay of Bengal and Eastern Himalayan ranges respectively.
The climate is moderately high and humid, especially at the lowland areas in the middle and ‘continental highland’ type in the extreme Northwest and Southeast and a ‘special highland’ type in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) and Shillong (Meghalaya). 1
The climate of Khasi and Garo Hills is considerably influenced by its topography. The sudden rise of hills in the south immensely affects the southwest monsoon causing heavy rainfall. Infect, the topography, together with seasonal winds, controls the climate of the region which may be divided into four seasons: (a) Spring season: March to April; (b) Summer (rainy season): May to September/October; (c) Autumn season: October‐November; (d) Winter season; December to February. During March and April, the atmosphere gradually warms up and dryness prevails with the advent of spring. The temperature reaches its maximum from May to middle of July, the period, which may be termed as summer season. The mean temperature during this period is between 26° and 28° c. During October and November, the climate becomes cool and temperature falls considerably, and is often aggravated by occasional showers due to cyclonic effect over the Bay of Bengal. The winter season sets in and continues up to the end of February. During these months the temperature at Shillong (close to Saw Mer) comes down to as low as 2° c., while in Garo Hills, the range varies from 14°‐18°c. Rainy season starts by the end of May and continues unto the middle of October, after which the rain gradually decreases. The maximum rainfall occurs in the southern slops of the Khasi Hills. The amount of rainfall decreases uniformly, on the rain shadow area lying towards northern region. Khasi and Jaintia Hills receives the highest rainfall in its southern slopes, which is over Mawsynram and Cherapunjee (fig. 1.2).
The average annual rainfall of the area is 12,000 mm and at Mawsynram; it is 14,670 mm as per the data based on the records of the last ten years. For this reason, Mawsynram has the distinction of being the rainiest place in the world. The average annual rainfall of the Upper Shillong (Saw Mer) is 2750 mm, while it is 2680 mm in Asannang Gre (close to Makbil Bisik and Bibra Gre). The seasons commence and break at slightly different times in different parts of the region; but the climate at the end of May is more or less common to all places. Over the foothills and at the low altitudes, the climate is moderate even during the winter season. As a whole, the climate of the area is not extreme. Cloudiness is a common phenomenon over the hills and different types of clouds are seen from season to season. Fogs mist, nimbus clouds are quite frequent during rainy season and can be seen at a very low height as well (Ahmed 2001). The hills and plains of seven states (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura; oblate Sikkim is included as eighth state) that makeup Northeast India have been occupied by different waves of Mongoloid people who came from the north and east of southeast Asia at different periods (Bhagabati 1988). The earliest such migration took place well before the beginning of the historical period in the region (Lebar et al. 1964; Bayard 1979). Of theses ancient migrants, except the Khasis of Meghalaya, the Austroasiatic linguistic group of people (Mon Khmer) (Das 1978), all other speak dialect belonging to the Tibeto‐Chinese family of languages which is further divided into number of sub families (after Dixon 1922 and Das 1968). 2
Figure 1.2: Map Showing the Average Annual Rainfall in Meghalaya
Northeast India is known for its vivid and rich cultural heritages. This is due to its trans‐continental corridor connecting South, Southeast and East Asia. In this region there has been a harmonious adjustment of physical and cultural environments. Each wave of immigrants to the region faced three options: absorption, isolation and extinction. The physical features of the region facilitated and still facilitate the coexistence of varied culture. Culture is always silent; the silence has its voice. It is the reflection of the past on the present. The culture of Northeast did not come out of vacuum; it rests on past. Or we may say the message of culture sent from the past is recorded in the tradition, mostly in material culture even today. Following such clues, we can look back to the past. This is ethno history of the people who have no written history of their own. Human migration or movement is not aimless. Culture does not act independent of ecology, rather it works in tune with the given environment where it originated and flourished. As a natural course, a culture
expands and acts as an impelling force for breaking or expanding its territorial boundary. Reasons for this are many: one of them is the over exploitation of naturally available resources that jeopardizes the existence of a cultural group (Ashraf 1990). It propels a culture to extend its horizon of distribution in search of an area, initially ecologically negotiable and economically viable for its subsistence. There is an inherent tendency of a cultural group to avoid uncertainty of any form. As observed among the aboriginal tribes of Northeast, the initial process of such movement starts with either at family or at village level but that within its defined territorial limit. And subsequently, it is followed by migration in mass. This is what the present studies reveal. This process was at work during prehistoric period as well; otherwise distribution of the similar cultures under allied ecological conditions would not have been possible. The process has its genesis in the past, and the present cultural phenomena are the reflection of the distant past. 3
Under a given ecological condition, a given cultural mindset is created. The legends from major ethno cultural groups of this region point to this fact, which is transmitted through age old oral traditions as notion spontaneity. All such cultural groups while reckoning their original habitat refer that they migrated from highland environment of different parts of Southeast Asian countries, closely akin to their present habitat. This oral tradition gets its support from the material culture from both the regions. The prehistoric material culture of Northeast India exhibits an overall homogeneity, especially; with the introduction of blade‐flake and pebble‐ flake traditions and these become more conspicuous towards the later phases represented by ground and polished implements (Sharma 1980; Sonwal 1987; Mahanta 1995). The inter‐territorial homogeneity in the prehistoric tradition is currently related to a particular linguistic family known as “Tibeto‐Chinese”. It has further been segmented into a number of sub‐families among the different tribes living in various pockets. But there is an exception, the upper Khasi Hills present incomparable prehistoric sites, but they form a distinctive homogenous class within themselves. This is being followed by their exclusive Austroasiatic linguistic affiliation, viz., the Mon Khmer (locally known as Khasis), the sole representative of Austric Super family. This adds an additional, at the same time, an important dimension to this phenomenon. The issue of linguistic correlation with ethnic cultures of prehistoric Southeast Asia was raised as early as 1932 by Robert Heine Geldern (Ha Van Tan 1990: 353). His reconstruction of three prehistoric cultures related to three languages of austric origin influenced the later researchers like Colani
(1938), Beyer (1948), Loewenstein (1957) and others; but the hypothesis faced severe criticism for its unexplainable sequential gaps (Tan and Vuong 1961; Bron Son 1977; Bellwood 1978). Whatsoever is the case, with regard to correlation, the fact is that the contemporary linguistic scenario of the given population of Northeast is comparatively less complicated in the sense of its solitariness among the Austric linguistic groups. This further reveals the impact of influx of Mongoloid population over the prehistoric Northeast who altered the ethnic composition in terms of racial characters. The example is the Khasis who although are racially Mongoloid (Das 1968) speak Austric language. This may also be true to the Sulungs (Sulu), a linguistically lesser‐known tribe of Arunachal Pradesh confined to in and around Parsi Parlo. This is a prehistoric site, which yield waisted axes and hoes peculiar to Hoabinhian sites in Viet Nam (Colani 1929; Ha van Tan 1990; Ashraf 1994) and Qingloi‐Tibetan Plateau (Ku’n 1957). According to F‘u‘er‐ Haimendorf (1950) and Stonor (1952: 72), the Sulungs were the autochthons to the region, speaking a dialect unintelligible to the tribes that encapsulate them (Deuri 1982). Two hypotheses may be forwarded for this phenomenon: I) Retention of Austric language in the form of Mon Khmer (Bellwood 1992) dialect with the alteration of racial characters in Mongoloid (Das 1986) make‐up among the Khasis itself dispels the notion of supremacy of one ethnic group over another. It is rather a phenomenon that could be related to a catastrophic imbalance in the distribution of sex ratio among the earlier population group, i.e., Austric. The reason behind is not easy to 4
explain now, but the circumstantial evidence suggests for a substitution against the deficit part of the ratio, and accordingly, the members of the mongoloid population who compensated that deficit part, acted merely as biological father. Now, let us arrange the consequences in the following manner: (a). Because of the role of a biological father, the Austric mother transmitted the language through generations and it remained as mother tongue among the highly bio‐culturally diffused population now known as the Khasis. (b). The role of the biological father could be a contributing factor that led the society towards matriarchy at an early stage of the process and subsequently responsible for the development of matrilineal characters among the present day population of the Khasi Hills. In the given context it can fairly be said that in Meghalaya, the Khasis were the originator of the process, while the Garos and later on the deflected group‐ the Rabhs 1 were the adaptor to the process. These observations may raise some questions, because matriarch ate tied to the theory of origin of family from the promiscuous stage. This axiom has it that the earliest family relations were between mother and child, since the father was not known. Here in Khasi Hills it is slightly different from the set doctrine, because the succeeding cultural phase clearly indicates that‐ (i) The prehistoric man of Khasi Hills knew their father but his role was quite passive in all aspects of life except perhaps providing
external security to the estranged members of the family. (ii) Because of the same reason, at one stage they failed to continue their hunting activities as mainstay of livelihood. (iii) For the same reason they could not adopt shifting mode of cultivation, because it involves tremendous organized manpower in clearing jungles. As a result, in economic front they remained as an island among the shifting cultivators who surrounds them. A similar situation might have occurred with the Sulungs who inhabit in the Arunachal Pradesh of Northeastern region of India. Their existence in the region, date back to the arrival of other Tibeto‐Chinese linguistic groups. The ethno‐archaeology of the region suggests that the most dominant Nishis later encircled the Sulungs during iron using stage (Ashraf 2002). For the sake of survival, the Sulungs entered into a kind of economic and other cultural adjustments. They admitted the overall supremacy of the Nishis, and gracefully accepted them as their masters. Thus, they become bilingual. The entire phenomena are still observable in the region. In domestic level, they continue to retain their traditional dialect, quite unintelligible to their master 2 . What is felt is that, it is a matter of cultural juxtaposition and an example of symbiotic existence over the time for the sake of survival. The same may be the case with the Khasis, but the only difference is that the former is related to physical or cultural adjustment while the latter is biological.
. Based on Lexico‐statistic method it has been estimated that the length of separation of the Garo language from original Bodo dialect is about 2000 years (Burling and Bhattacharya 1956: 67‐73).
. According to Haimendorf (1950: 7) and Stonor (1972: 11) the Sulungs are the autochthons to the region that speak a dialect unintelligible to the tribes that encapsulated them (Deuri 1982: 5).
1
2
5
II) To delve into this phenomenon, the problem relating to the historicity of migration and language need to be taken into account. The existence of some lithic atifacts, uncommon to Prehistoric Northeast India, especially the ‘8’‐ shaped waisted hoes; ‘T’‐shaped hammer, necked hoes etc. in the existing habitat of the Sulungs and the continuity of the characteristically peculiar language among them; point toward some positive cultural association in the past. The prehistoric culture flourished in the Khasi Hills with its distinctive tool kit and Austrasiatic linguistic base. This coexistence may raise some problem, which at present stands as an island among the Tibeto‐chinese linguistic pool. How can it be interpreted? A number of queries come to fore: Had the existing population been the author of the unparallel prehistoric tools collected from Barapani (Umium) and Saw Mer. It is often suggested that the Austro‐Asiatic people were the author of Hoabinhian cultures at its earliest phase of formation (Ha Van Tan 1990). They radiated at different directions and were exposed to the local situation, grew under varied ecological zones and underwent variations but, at the same time, they retained some of the basic characteristic elements peculiar to the parent culture. We should not lose sight of this fact that the variation does not mean a total transformation. Local evolution of cultures might have taken place in an area exhibiting ecological heterogeneity within the wider ecologically homogeneous zone. This is what is assumed to have happened in the high altitude ecology in Khasi Hills and comparatively low altitude ecology in Garo Hills of Meghalaya. This may be taken as a product of an adaptive process. While understanding the process, the strata caused by racial, cultural, linguistic and
ecological factors need to be taken into account. All may not have contributed their share equally to this process. This determines the quantitative and qualitative configuration of a culture. This becomes explicit when we study the Hoabinhian culture in Garo Hills‐ a center of spectrum tradition. Cultural Configuration of Prehistoric Traditions and the Area under Study Northeast India as bio‐cultural extension of the Southeast Asia entered more prominently into the process of cultural assimilation during Mesolithic or Hoabinhian cultural phase (Wormen 1949; Sharma 1988; Tarleng 1991; Ashraf 2001). This post Pleistocene traditions were brought to the region by various ethnic groups belonging to Austric and then by Mongoloid population at a much later date, the latest being the Lisu and Akhas (Aka) of Arunachal Pradesh. A Mongoloid population linguistically belonging to Sino‐ Tibetan family entered into the Chao Phraya Valley of Thailand only a few centuries ago (Higham 1989). Except the Sulungs of Subansiri Valley, who needs further conformation, all other Austric groups are being racially extinct leaving only the cultural remnants in the from of material culture and language. On the other hand, the Mongoloid population of various linguistic sub families of Tibeto‐ Chinese family subsequently dominated the entire hilly region of Northeast India. From that point of view of chrono‐culture the early post Pleistocene or the Mesolithic cultural phase may be considered as the safe lower level for ethno archaeological assessment in Northeastern region; while the upper limit remains open and depending on the degree of diffusion of cultural elements. 6
Spectrum Tradition Within the given framework, it is observed that artifacts conducive to geo‐cultural process occasionally got charged with emotive factors and became a part of the local tradition. When it spills over beyond its ethno‐cultural and geo‐cultural boundaries, it may be termed as Spectrum tradition as it spreads fast and far and wide in fragments or in its total form. The whole process apparently acts in a common ecocultural system at a given period and within this limit various cultural bands may have either acquired or adopted or retained these cultural elements or traits through the process of assimilation and migration. These traditionally charged cultural elements when got transform into an artifact become a part of cultural type. Such cultural type may more assertively be used as an index fossil to ascertain the degree of culture contacts among the various independent bands who entered into the process. In wider context, the process of cultural development in prehistory is manifested in its gradual transformations of tool traditions along with local variations. The whole process was activated within a defined period of time and space conditioned by local situation. But this trend suddenly got disrupted in Southeast Asia towards the end of Pleistocene epoch. Infect, this dramatic situation arose out of changing climatic conditions and topography resulting from the advances and retreats of the glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere. The Pleistocene climatic changes of Southeast Asia were not much conspicuous as to those that took place in other parts of the world (Shutter Jr. and Shutter 1975; Jennings 1971; Bellwood 1992). The change forced most parts of the world, including India in general (excluding NE India), to
shift into a new technological arena. This is in the form of microliths to cope with the situation that arose out of this climatic change, affecting the global warming system. As already mentioned, the process had no direct bearing on Southeast Asia but an immense indirect impact on the land and a challenge to the people of Southeast Asia came from Pleistocene fluctuations in sea levels. During the Ice Age, sea levels were considerably lower and much of the insular Southeast Asia, such as Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Palawan, were a part of the continent known as the Sunda Shelf (fig. 1.3); similarly, the Sahul shelf, bridges New Guinea and Tasmania to Australia. During the Pleistocene, at the time of low sea level, there was a favourable condition for cultural migration between the islands of Southeast Asia, the New Guinea and Australia; while during post Pleistocene, because of high sea level Southeast Asia was geographically divided into two parts: Mainland, comprising China south of the Yangtze (Bell wood 1992: 56), Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indo‐china and Peninsular Malaysia and India in the Northeast 3 . The Island Southeast Asia comprises Indonesia, East Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines and Taiwan. This unique . The same words which Peter Bellwood (1992: 56) used to justify the inclusion of Yangtze of south China to mainland Southeast Asia may be dubbed for Northeast India: Northeast India is an integral part of Southeast Asia in cultural and linguistic terms and many thousands of speakers of languages in the Tai, Tibeto‐ Burman and other, sub groups of Sino‐Tibetan family (Das 1968) still live in larger parts of Northeast India. The dominance of Austroasiatic linguistic group in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya further gives an impetus to the problem. So it is rather impossible to understand the later stages of Southeast Asian prehistory without reference to Northeast India. 3
7
situation had created an atmosphere of isolation for the divergence of gene pools (Shulter Jr. and Shulter 1975: 11) and of cultural adaptation. The impact of sea level fluctuation during the end Pleistocene was so forceful that it almost shuttered the general trend of cultural development. Consequently, a number of local traditions emerged, mostly in a reversed fashion of Lower Palaeolithic period. Among these traditions, the most prolific one is the ‘Hoabinhian’, because it spread fast and far and wide, even upto Northeast India. This new exploitative implements are distinguished by simple flakes using the cobble as raw material. In this connection, it may be mentioned that the crudeness along with their morphological features often tempted the archeologist to relate them to the earlier cultural phases. The typical Hoabinhian implements which we encountered in Meghalaya are also reported from the upland of Hoabinhian sites in Burma (Myanmar), Viet Nam, Thailand, Cambodia and Malaysia. The location of the sites and variety of the assemblages indicate a wide spread adaptation to the ecology of Northeast. Against this backdrop, let us now turn to the post Pleistocene tradition brought under the present work. Here our focal point of study concerns itself with the attribution pertaining to prehistoric traditions. Their process of development and consequences in the light of available
Hoabinhian impinging sites distributed over various localities of Meghalaya. The term tradition has wide spread application in archaeology. The reconstruction of history of prehistoric cultures, which also includes ‘tradition’, is solely based on material evidences derived out of given archaeological context. Here the context implies cultural settings of the sites against its geomorphologic and ecological background. While studying traditions, the status of a site is determined through widely acclaimed cultural traits manifested in an assemblage, having less ambiguity, constituting a part of fairly established traditionally controlled tool type. The tool making tradition, as an example may found continuing in use by a single band or may share it in different ways by different cultural bands of more or less contemporary period. Thus the tradition implies a degree of cultural continuity (Brain M. Fagan 1988: 507‐09). Ha Van Tan (1976: 159), on the other hand, defined tradition with more clarity: “Tradition means the characteristics, the cultural styles fixed in time and transmitted from generation to generation. The origins of these characteristics might have been linked to the conditions in which man acted on his environment, conditions whose stability during a particular period or in a particular area served to fix them; and once stabilized they were transmitted by habit, and the prehistoric tradition was born”. We must keep it in our mind that Hoabinhian in a definite prehistoric chronological context maintained a long history of tradition, sometimes in a more localized form with varied characters.
8
Figure 1.3: Southeast Asia and its Neighbouring Regions: Map to Show Sites Discussed in Text
Two technical traditions in the lithic industries of Meghalaya have been identified in the Hoabinhian context: the Cobble Tool Tradition (Pebble‐Flake) as found in Bibra Gre and the Stone‐Block Tool Tradition as found in Makbil Bisik and Saw Mer. Thus the traditions within a tradition itself indicate a variation in basic subsistence strategy, particularly, if they exist in a common ecological belt. It is an interesting phenomenon which needs to be examined from various angles. The tool tradition with certain artifacts known as “index‐fossil” (Trigger 1968: 528) or ‘type fossil’ constitutes the Hoabinhian culture. It developed during epi‐ Palaeolithic or Mesolithic phase in early Holocene epoch in Southeast Asia. Unlike other parts of India, no typical microlithic
traditions have been found in Northeast India but the Hoabinhian tradition represented by the index fossil like sumatraliths, short axe, broad axe, lanceolate etc., has been recovered in the course of our exploration in different localities of Garo Hills (plate 1.01). The presence of a particular type of index fossil common to other prehistoric site at Upper Shillong in Khasi Hills and West Garo Hills reveals a generic relationship between the two (plate 1.02). But at the same time there is a distinct variation in their respective assemblages. The variation and continuity between the assemblages of these sites located within same topographical zone adds an additional dimension to the understanding of the cultural development of this wide area. These prehistoric sites are subdivided into regional economic groups 9
defined largely on the basis of (a) Similarities or differences in material culture, and (b) environmental factors that control the configuration of material culture within a defined ecological setting. At the present state of our knowledge, it is not possible to correlate these cultural groups in absolute chronological terms, but a relative chronology can be worked out after the Southeast Asian cultural Groups 1 . In this context it may be mentioned that three inland and three coastal groups are brought under a chronological framework through radiocarbon determination. “The inland groups with their associated chronologies are called Sonvi (C. 18,000 – 9000 BC), Hoabinhain (C. 9000 BC) and Bacsonian (C. 8000 BC). The terminal dates for the Bacsonian and the Hoabinhian are not yet known, but probably lie in the period 3000‐2000 BC, depending on the region in question” (Higham 1989:35). The coastal groups in Viet Nam are referred to as ‘cultures’ by Ha Van Tan (1980) and Nguyen Van Hao (1979). The most prominent of these cultures are: Bau Archaeologists, including J.M. Mathews (1968: 94), are of the opinion that the Hoabinhian is essentially post‐Pleistocene and, therefore, ‘Mesolithic’. Differences in opinion continue to exist; some scholars, viz. Solheim (1969), Gorman (1970), Dunn (1970) and Golson (1971) suggested a late Pleistocene date for its beginning (Ha Van Tan 1997: 35). According to Gorman (1970: 82) the Hoabinhian techno complex in Viet Nam first appeared during the late Pleistocene (about 13000‐14000 BP) and continued as a recognizable complex until ca. 5000 to 6500 BC. But the new evidences from Lang Vanh Cave and Xom Trai Cave of Viet Nam show that the Hoabinhian extended that much earlier (17000‐18000 BP) than the date expounded by Gorman. From the large number of radio carbon determinations now available from various sites in South East Asia, it is clear that the early stage of the Hoabinhian belongs to the late Pleistocene. 1
Tro, Hoa Loc, Ha long and Cai Beo. Although later in date, (5085±60 BC) (Bayard 1984) to 4545±60 BC (Nguyen Van Hao 1979), these cultures were greatly influenced by Hoabinhian traditions or ‘Hoabinhian inspired’ (Higham 1989) stone technology, or Hoabinhoid Industry (Ha Van Tan 1997: 37). The cultures from the areas already referred to might have diffused into the areas ecologically more or less homogeneous. Movement of cultures from one place to another is a long drawn out process, which should be viewed from the stand point of reciprocity. At this juncture, at least two things may be forwarded in affirmation: i) The particular importance of these sites is that they exhibit a stone tool assemblage with strong Southeast Asian affinities, especially, of Hoabinhian traditions. (ii) All most all the classical forms of Hoabinhian stone tool traditions representing even the earlier stages of development (plate 1.01: 1, 2, 3, 9 & 10) were found to have been existed among different cultural subgroups of Meghalaya. This is one of the major aspects to be noted while discussing the prehistory of Meghalaya in a given cultural background. Methodology In contrary to general practice of collecting tools from a site 2 with a preordained construct, an attempt has been made to see the matter of its own. For this we have given emphasis on the process of collection 3 of artifacts and collected the whole lot 2
. In this study a site denotes high concentration of artifacts. 3 . Collection of each and every artifact that has been found exposed or embedded over a specified area or section (river section). So the sample size solely depends on the given situation. 10
(Tolstoy 1958) at least from two sites, namely Saw Mer and Bibra Gre. So far Makbil Bisik is concerned; the materials come from a stratified zone brought under a small scale excavation. Materials collected
from all the three sites are systematically documented and initially brought under conventional methods of classification by using typo‐technology as base.
Plate 1.01: Hoabinhian Tool Types from other localities (Nangl Bibra, Selbal Gre, Watiabri, Thebrong Gre and Rongram) of Garo Hills, Meghalaya. 11
In third stage, we have gone deep into the process by using six schedules 4 to treat each and every artifact, totaling 621 in number. The sample size of each site is not the same for the reason mentioned already. To avoid disparity among the varied ‘sample sizes’ of the sites, a tactical device is adopted. It merely replaces percent into unit. The results are found to be more convenient for comparative analysis. The schedules include both metric and physical verification, such as tool types, length, breadth and thickness; shape, weight, nature of flake scars, hafting facility; gripping facility, contour, mid‐ridge; main flake surface; bulb of percussion; cortex and working edge. In the fourth stage, the actual working field of a tool is worked out through techno‐ metric analysis, using schedules, developed with an approach to obtain additional information on: (i) Edge‐angle (Kobayashi 1975: 115 –27), i.e. angle between working edge and grip‐axis (approach varies), and (ii) Distance between thumb‐pad‐scar 5 (TPS) and palm‐pad‐scar 6 (PPS). Analytical Aspects (i) The applicability of type fossil concept is quite effective in tool traditions of Meghalaya. But at the same time, it is equally misleading if not viewed in its proper context. This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated through the acquired samples (plate 7.01). So the type fossils which are considered as one of the solid base to understand tool tradition and other typological aspects are assessed meticulously to its best and possible extent.
(ii) The traditional approach which centers on the working edge and typo‐ technology is slightly modified in this study. While studying material culture of Stone Age, we generally put emphasis on typo‐ technological aspects of a tool. This approach is one of the most widely used traditional approaches, which often is employed to identify a culture within a tentative chronological framework. Contrary to the so called working edge, we put emphasis on the blunt or gripping edge because of the fact that in a hand operating tool the gripping part played a vital role. It is obvious that a tool with a defective handle or grip can never be considered as an effective one. So, in that sense, a cutting edge should always be defined in terms of grip‐axis. Now the question is what does this grip‐axis mean? In this context, it is interesting to note that most of the stone artifacts from Meghalaya exhibit some sort of provisions for gripping or handling in the form of either flake‐scars (here by termed as grip‐ scars: GS) or thick edge with definite contour and also grooves and tang for hafted tools. In one of the surfaces of a tool, grip‐scar (GS) is found in the form of a semi‐circular or oval scar to place the thumb pad (here by termed as TPS) and to place the palm pad (PPS). TPS and PPS are always found in a common plane and the imaginary line drawn across the TPS and PPS is termed as ‘grip‐axis’ (plates 5.01.a and 8.01: p99 & 134). Rotating force of the grip axis may term as ‘torque’. And the angle between the torque and point of impact of the working edge determines the direction of operation and actual working space of a given tool.
4
. for schedules, see Chapter-VIII . flake scars meant for gripping 6 . flake scars meant for gripping 5
12
Plate 1.02
Other Considerations: (a) An established fact is that stone artifacts of Garo Hills were made exclusively of dolerite with a very few exceptions. This aspect is further confirmed through microscopic examination. The process reveals some interesting results; it exhibits source‐variation of raw materials amongst the cultural groups. This may be considered as culture related phenomenon. (b) State of preservation may be measured in terms of patination through metric analysis. Degree of patina, we believe, if assessed meticulously may provide a tentative time depth involved against an assemblage of stone tools. So it could be
taken as determiner of comparative time depth of tools found in a common geo‐ ecological unit. Parameters for this analysis are: i) Soil samples from the place of occurrence of tools used for this purpose need to be passed through chemical examination. ii) Mode of occurrence of soil and material. iii) Mean weight of patina extracted under controlled specification. As the process itself involves a major topic of research, we simply verified the prospects of the aspect physically, and the results are found encouraging. 13
(c) Technology is studied through cross examination of various parameters, included in schedules B, C, D and E. Schedule ‘C’ which includes contour, main flake surface (mfs), interfacetory ridges (ifr) and striking platform provides information on (i) Technique employed in shaping a tool, while schedules D and E provide data on (ii) Methods of manufacturing a tool. (d) Knapper’s perceptive level is attempted to assess through functional efficiency and gripping comfort of a tool as they are the most vital aspect of a hand‐ operating tool. At this point it may be said that they had a definite idea behind in removing each and every flake with a definite aim of having a better grip from the tools he made. Experiments on “lithic reduction sequences” (Bradley 1975) of the given sites clearly indicate that the production of a tool does not take place in aimless direction; it is systematic in true sense of the term (plate 8.01). It is a matter of mind and a product of the psychological make up of an individual –a member of a defined cultural group and person or individual, not isolated from one another. Individual’s action reflects the personality and cultural identity. This is what was reflected in ‘mental template’ (Deetz 1967: 45) or ‘precepta’ (Tugby 1958: 24). While working with a detractable material such as stone or bone, the mistake can not be easily corrected; the maker has to proceed on with mistake or has to discard (Thomas 1974: 12). Options are there (Wilmsen 1974: 201); but systematization in a definite direction is more expected in a culture, otherwise, the cultural grouping during the past would not have been possible. (e) Tools as an indicator of means of livelihood (Man‐material ‐ land relationship) Distribution of Stone Age sites along with their distinctive assemblages of tools is
critically examined to get an idea of the nature of habitat. Availability of resources and mode of economic practices for livelihood acts as a driving force for technological innovation over general trends as incised standardization of a wider variety of specialized tools and become a part of local tradition. Easy access to the field of subsistence operation and availability of raw materials is one of the major factors that encouraged man in selection of a habitat or in other words habitat itself reflects the mode of livelihood of primitive people. The tool‐kits of the assemblages often reflect the means of livelihood. An insight into the tool‐kits indicate two sets of artifacts distinguishable on the basis of the concept of prehistoric economy which revolves round the hunting, gathering, fishing and food producing. Tools may be categorized into two: the Principal and auxillary taking their functional aspects into consideration. Practically, auxilliary tools always out numbered the principal tools for obvious reason as in the case of a plough or a digging stick. Archaeological Premonition Meghalaya is an integral part of Northeast region of Indian Union. The landscape of the region as a whole has undergone a series of profuse changes, partly because of active tectonic activities and partly, under the influence of different human factors. Northeast being a part of Indian Union is under the political sphere of South Asia, but ethno‐geographically, it may better be treated as an extension of Southeast Asian geocultural complex, (Worman 1949). But this complex is not so simple as one may thinks of. Complexity in the geocultural process is due to polygonal origin and subsequent transformations of landscape 14
and cultures developed through interactive influences. The process got activated more conspicuously, from late Pleistocene owing to various regional and global factors. Because of the close interrelationship between the land and the people, it calls for an integrated approach in order to delve into the problem, or else, there is every possibility of moving towards blind alley. Mere conventional approach under the given circumstances does not always bring forth the real picture. A holistic approach only may elicit something genuine and that acts in variance with the assumed ‘facts’. Just to realize the situation of Northeast, only glimpses of a few archeological riddles are put forth. There are only two material items of prehistoric past, namely, stone artifacts and pottery in Northeast. Among them, pottery tradition that originated in the prehistoric past is still in vogue among certain aboriginal tribes of Northeast. These crude pottery types remain at its archaic state which could well be taken as a replica of the past ones. Stone artifacts have ceased to exist long ago. But use of these materials in different functional context is still in vogue almost among all the ethnic groups of Northeast. Therefore, one must be very careful in fixing the status of a prehistoric site in archeological context. While dealing with geomorphology for setting up the chrono‐cultural sequences of the Garo Hills it must not be forgotten that it is a land of traditional jhummers, practicing shifting cultivation from the time immemorial. As a result, surface soils of most of the accessible slopes of the hills are being found under repeated human interference. Consequently, over periods of time, a lot of geological debris creeps down the slopes and settled towards its foot, as if a colluvial deposit. Sometimes, it may also constitute an artificially created stratified
implementiferous zone as are found at Didami, Thebrongri, Miching Granchep II and III and some pockets of Rongram. Thereby a mere superficial observation can be misleading. Prehistoric Archaeology in Northeast India with special Reference to Meghalaya Prehistory of Meghalaya can not be viewed in isolation, but as an integral part of the North East India as a whole. The entire region in the earlier works was referred to as Assam (Raikar and Chatterjee 1980). The preservation of stone artifact is an age‐ old practice. It is a custom among the tribes of Northeast. These supernatural, heavenly objects, as they believe, are viewed with reverence for various reasons pertaining to benevolent causes (Goswami 1961). That is why whenever such artifacts are encountered, these are preserved with reverence as an heirloom (Singh 1997). In a sense the beginnings of prehistory started with the collection of artifacts by the tribes themselves, without any doubt as non‐ academic process. Later in the late nineteenth century, the Europeans who brought to limelight the significance of such artifacts world wide, many of them are now housed in different institutions of the world (Dani 1960; Sharma 1980). Sir John Lubbock first reported prehistoric tools from Assam in 1867, appeared in Athenaeum. It deals with some polished stone axes collected by Captain E.H. steel. He continued his investigation and his collection of stone axes were appeared in his contribution to the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Steel 1870). R.D. Banerji, the first Indian archaeologist in 1924 while carrying out systematic study in Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA). He recorded his findings in the caption of “Neolithic 15
implements from the Abor (Adi) country” (Archaeological Survey of India’s Annual Report 1924: 25). From the same J.P. Mills and J.H. Grace during 1933‐35 collected stone tools and were preserved in Pitt River Museum, Oxford which were systematically studied by Dani (1960). The same collection was further reviewed by Sharma and their Southeast Asian linkage was pointed out (Sharma 1966, 1980). In 1969‐70 Bopardikar, while conducting archaeological survey in the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh indicated the existence of ‘preneolithic and Neolithic’ phases of cultures in this area (Bopardikar 1972). The first excavations of a Neolithic site in the region was conducted at Daojali Heading in North Cachar Hill of Assam, by M.C. Goswami and T.C. Sharma in 1962‐63 yielded polished Neolithic tools with corded wares as dominant types from 76 cms thick occupation deposit (Goswami and Sharma 1962‐63; Sharma 1967, 1981; Allchin 1968). This was followed by the archaeological excavations at Sarutaru and Marakdola located at the foothills of Meghalaya, near Guwahati by S.N. Rao needs to be mentioned (Rao 1973, 1977; Thapar 1985). Parsi Parlo in Arunachal Pradesh is a stratified Neolithic site. The excavation (1982‐83) revealed three successive phases in its 100 centimeters thick cultural deposit. It started from aceramic Neolithic under the influence of Hoabinhian tradition to the iron using (Ferrolithic) stage through the Ceramic Neolithic (Ashraf 1990, 1998). Ramesh (1989) conducted an intensive and extensive study on Stone Age cultures in West Tripura with an emphasis on geomorphologic condition. And for Neolithic sequence of that area he obtained a C‐14 determination of 3450±110 BP). Systematic Investigations in different parts
of Manipur made its beginning from 1967 by O.K. Singh (1980, 1983, 1986, 1991, 1997). It throws important light on the cultural sequences of the area. The beginning of Stone Age Archaeology in Meghalaya dates back to 1931 (Walkar 1937) and started with the collection of prehistoric antiquities (stone axes, adzes and hoe‐blades). This was followed by Goswami and Bhagabati in 1959 who reported about a rich prehistoric site of Rengchang Gre (Goswami and Bhagabati 1959). Prehistoric archaeological studies in Garo Hills, Meghalaya received momentum with the introduction of Prehistoric Archaeology as a specialized branch in the Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University in 1966 (Sharma and Sharma 1968; Sharma and Singh 1968). At present, nearly three‐ dozen sites represent the Stone Age cultures in Meghalaya, except two all are located in the Garo Hills. Of the explored sites, only four‐ Selbal Gre, Rongram and Makbil Bisik have been subjected to limited excavation (Sharma 1980; Thapar 1981; Mahanta 1995; Ashraf 1999). With the initiative of the Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University Several eminent archaeologists visited Garo Hills, viz – K. de. B. Codrington (1969), H.D. Sankalia (1970), S.N. Rajguru (1977), V.N. Mishra and R.S. Pappu (1978). Basing on the materials from the Garo Hills six doctoral dissertations have so far been completed. Sharma (1972) based his study on the stone tools of The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. He studied Quaternary deposits developed in different river valleys of the Garo Hills; stratigraphic evidences identified were investigated with cultures belonging to different phases and he tried to present a chronological basis that was modelled after the ‘series’ 16
Figure 1.4: The Location of the Sites in the Rongram‐Ganol‐Ringgi Valley of Garo Hills
followed by Sanakalia. Medhi (1980) carried out a survey of Quaternary formations in the Garo Hills. He endeavoured to establish the geomorphologic backgrounds of Stone Age culture of the Garo Hills. Sonowal (1987) studied the Stone Age cultures with major emphasis on the flake and pebble industries of the Garo Hills. She attempted to shed light on the typo‐technological aspects of the stone tools of the Palaeolithic periods. Mahanta (1995) while studying on the Stone Age cultures of Selbal Gre from the Garo Hills tried to understand and reconstruct the prehistoric cultures of this area by employing typo technological dimension of the tools. Sharma (2002) studied the cultural affinities of Northeast India with Southeast Asia through the Prehistoric sites of Western Garo Hills. She also tried to reconstruct the prehistoric
settlement survey.
pattern
through
extensive
Sharma and Roy (1985: 89‐91) discovered a pebble chopper tool tradition in the Simsang Nangal Valley at Nangl Bibra in 1978. In the same complex another lithic tradition of flake tools and a few microliths on chart and jasper justified the presence of late Stone Age traditions. Since 1981, the trend seems to have deviated, putting more emphasis on ethno archeological approaches. A critical study on the new line was attempted by Roy (1981) where the salient features of material cultural elements of the Neolithic past and the present are correlated by studying the shifting cultivation of the Garo Hills.
17
CHAPTER ‐ II 2
LAND AND PEOPLE The Land Geomorphic Sequences of North East India with Special Reference to Meghalaya Northeast, a cluster of seven states, located in the easternmost part of India, is an integral landmass characterized by hills, mountains and valleys. The geomorphic history of the region exhibits a series of
interrelated events, which can be reconstructed on the basis of surface as well as now available through drilling undertaken by various oil agencies (Murthy 1968: 10‐15). The geomorphic sequences of the area, based upon works of various authorities, are presented below.
Figure 2.1: Northeast India and its Geo‐Cultural Features
The most prominent feature of the region is the narrow Brahmaputra valley, flanked by the Arunachal Himalaya to the north and east; the Patkai‐Naga‐ North Cachar Hills to the southeast. The surma valley is on the northeast of N.C. Hills. The Naga Hills extend to the south into Manipur and to the southeast into the Lushai Hills and the adjoining Hills in Tripura and then into the
alluvial plains of Bangladesh; the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills rising abruptly from the plains. Northeast, in the broad sense, consists of very ancient Archaean and Shillong Series rocks, exposed in large parts of the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir (Karbi) Hills. These are similar to rocks exposed in the rest of 18
the peninsula in Bengal and Bihar as an integral part. About 472 myr ago, the eastern part of the Khasi Hills, the Jaintia Hills and the western part of adjacent Karbi Hills became a basin of sedimentation of sandstones and shale of Shillong Series (Sarkar et al. 1964: 159). These were later uplifted and became a landmass. The region remained a landmass till Permo Carboniferous times. Then about 250 myr ago in the Arunachal Himalayan region to the north and to the south and west of the Shillong Plateau, sedimentation began. In these basins were deposited the coal‐bearing sediments of the Gondwanas – marine in the Himalayan region and fresh water in the west of the Garo Hills. By the end of Jurassic times about 150 myr ago, the Khasi Hills experienced plateau volcanism, through east‐west fissures, along which the southern block foundered and the northern block rose, as a result of which the sea intruded into the southern block and deposited the upper cretaceous sediments around 110 myr ago. This happened unto Eocene times, about 60 myr ago; and by that time the area had reached stable shelf conditions and fossiliferous calcareous formations began to be deposited. During the Palaeocene, large parts of the Shillong plateau and the Karbi Hills became basins of fresh water sedimentation – in which Therria sandstones were deposited. The Garo Hills, the Jaintia Hills and the Karbi Hills remained a landmass till mid‐Eocene times. During the late Eocene times sedimentation continued in the submerged portion of the southern Garo Hills, in the southern margins of the Khasi Hills and the depressed southeastern part of the Jaintia
Hills. During the same period, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and the Mizoram were under sea, while the Karbi Hills stood as high ground and there was no sedimentation. The Khasi Hills were rising relatively more compared to the Garo and Jaintia Hills. At the end of Oligocene (about 30 myr ago), part of upper Assam experienced uplift exposing the earlier deposited sediments, that is, Barail sediments deposited during 40 myr ago. During the lower Miocene (about 25 myr ago) the Khasi and Jaintia Hills became uplifted, while the Karbi Hills and its adjoining area to the east became depressed after having remained a landmass from late Eocene times; and Surma sediment were deposited. After Miocene times uplift started on a large scale and during Pliocene (about 10 myr ago) there was a rapid uplift of the Himalayan source area to the north and the northeast, resulting in the deposition of thick beds of pebbles, cobbles and boulders forming the Dihangs. During the Pleistocene (about 1 myr ago) upward movement continued; forming the mountain chains in the Himalayan region along with river terraces at three different heights indicating that there were three major periods when uplift was relatively rapid. The Brahmaputra Valley entered into its present configuration during Pleistocene and recent times. The present physiography of the region is a result of 100 myr of geomorphological activities of uplift and down sinking in different parts at different geological periods. 19
Physiography Meghalaya is a new name added to the political map of India. It constitutes the territory popularly known as the Khasi and Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills, named after the tribes of the soil. These territories were the part of Assam Hill division till the
creation of the state under the Republic of Indian union in 1972 (figs. 1.1 and 2.2). From geo‐ethnic and archaeological point of view the entire region may be divided into two broad divisions, namely the United Khasi Hills and the Khasi‐Jaintia and the Garo Hills.
Figure 2.2: Administrative Divisions in Meghalaya
1. The Khasi and Jaintia Hills The united Khasi Hills, extending unto piedmont belt is located between 2501′ and 2601′ North latitude and between 90047′ and 92052′ East longitude. It covers an area of 9851 Sq. Km. The land consists of four plateaus rising abruptly above the low plains of Bangladesh near Sylhet, to a height of about 1200 m AMSL at Cherapunji, close to Mawsyanram, the rainiest place of the earth. Another plateau at Mawphlang is located at a higher level towards further north. This is the highest tract within the Meghalaya. Shillong, the capital of the state with its peak (Shillong peak) at 1956.3 m AMSL is included in this part. The altitude of the capital is 1800 m AMSL. The region in between Shillong and its peak is known as Upper Shillong. Saw Mer, the area under study is situated at 6.4 km. south west of Shillong on way to the
Shillong peak. From Shillong the hills lower down towards north, forming two plateaux at different stages: one at the elevation of 1213 m AMSL at Barapani and the other at 606.5 m AMSL at Nongpuh. After this the Piedmont belt begins, stretching east west and ultimately merged with the Brahmaputra Valley in further north. A striking feature of the drainage pattern of the Shillong plateau is the straight stream courses, which follow joints and faults (Mathur 1968: 14) produced during the uplift. The stiff gorges in the South Khasi Hills is the result of the relatively greater uplift of this block, head ward erosion along joints by antecedent streams, and the control exercised by the well‐jointed Cretaceous – Tertiary sandstone cover. 20
Garo Hills The Garo Hills form the western part of Meghalaya and also the western and southern boundaries of the state. It is situated between 2509′ and 2601′ North latitude and 89049′ and 9102′ East longitude. The total area of Garo Hills is 5043 sq. km. The Garo Hills is a dense irregular hilly mass of low elevation forming the western extremity of the Assam Range dividing the valley of Brahmaputra and Surma. The conglomeration of hills stress mainly with an east‐west orientation rising above the plains, presents a picturesque landscape of mountains, valleys, plateaux and pen plains, and numerous rivers, streams and other water bodies. The area has an average elevation of 600 m AMSL but gradually increases in height to reach the Tura range, which traverses the region from the southeast to the northeast. The two main ranges of the region – the Tura and the Arabella running parallel, extend from Tura to Sijie and the Simsang Valley. The Tura range runs almost through the center of the Garo Hills and it joins with Shillong (Khasi Hills) to the east. Nokrak, the highest peak with an elevation of 1411m AMSL is located 12 km. southeast of Tura, the administrative nerve center of Garo Hills. The Arabella range with its highest peak rising to 983 m AMSL is located to the north of Tura range. The Kailas (1023 m) and Balpakram (858.6 m) are the two other peaks, which are situated on the east of Someswari River. The Kailas, which stands as tower among the hills in the vicinity, is regarded by the Garos as Chitamang, meaning the abode of departed souls.
The Balpakram is also regarded as a sacred place by the Garos (Choudhury 1958: 12). The hills are covered by dense forest and the hill slopes are converted to jhum fields. Climate The climate of Garo Hills cannot be generalized though it is said to be temperate (Majumdar 1980: 15) in general sense. The areas adjoining the Khasi Hills are much colder in comparison to the areas adjoining the plains. The Garo generally recognize two seasons, wachikari (the rainy season) and arankari (the season when the soil becomes dry). Besides, they have also segmented these major seasons as, balwakari (a part of wachikari: the season of winds, corresponding roughly to April‐May) and Su’urikari (a part of arankari: the season of extreme cold, corresponding roughly to December‐January). The calendar year of Garo begins with a’aokari (the season of opening plots for jhum cultivation), followed by a’asokari (the season of burning the plots), migekari (the season of planting), a’jakra clangkari (the season of first stage of weeding), Sampang dangkari (second stage of weeding), migekari (the third stage of weeding), mirakari (the season of harvesting), dongrokari (the lazier season) is considered as the best season because the climate during the period becomes pleasantly cool and dry (Majumdar 1980: 16). The fertility of the soil varies greatly from place to place in Garo Hills. It is the fanning out basins, close to the river mouth, especially confluence of rivers, creeks between the hills are traditionally considered arable for wet cultivation in the higher altitudes. In the lower altitudes it is the piedmont belt that offers more suitable land in the form of flat valleys of small rivers. As pointed out by Majumdar (1980) 21
these lands are quite advantageous for permanent cultivation, because besides being fertile, “these are beyond the reach of flood waters which seasonally destroy crops in the low lying areas in the plains” (Majumdar 1980: 17). Interestingly, some of the very old nokmas (village headman) inhabiting in the upper reaches of Garo Hills view the matter in different way; the foothills region for them may be regarded as a ‘fertile zone’ but from the health and
agricultural point of view this could never be considered suitable because of its hazardous affect and subjected to frequent havoc caused by herds of wild elephants. Soil Type The soil type of Garo Hills may be divided into two groups on the basis of nature and composition (Goswami 1956): i) Soils on the hills proper, and ii) Soils on the bottomlands.
Figure 2.3: Map of Meghalaya and its Soils The soil on the hills is formed according to Drainage System the availability of rocks in the locality. This, Lying in the tropical humid zone, the Garo however, predominantly consist either of Hills receive sufficient rainfall that conglomerate, gneiss or sand stone. It is facilitate in the formation of many rivers reddish in colour and usually fine in and rivulets. Almost none of the rivers are texture. The conglomerate soils on the hills navigable in true sense, except in its lower contain pebbles, which are small to courses near the plains. Most of the rivers medium in sizes. The soil in the bottom of originate from the Tura and Arabella the hills or near the river valley is formed range. The banks of the rivers, especially by transported soils from the hills above. towards the upper reaches are densely wooded with creepers, bamboos and other In texture, they are not uniform, mostly tall trees and virtually no beam of sunlight clayey–loam. The colour of the soil ranges pierce through the canopy of the forest. from dark gray to black due to presence of These, along with constant roaring of the organic materials (fig. 2.3). river make the atmosphere extremely wild, virgin and piquant (plate 3.3.01). 22
The rivers flowing down northward are ‐ the Dit, Ringgi, Damring (Krishnai), Manda and the Didram and those following westward are the Ganol (Kulu), Galwang, Rongkai, and the Dalni. Those following southward are the Sanda, Bugi (Bhugai), Darang (Nitai), Bandra, Sim Sung (Someswari) and Rompha. All the rivers originate in the region itself but it is not easy to follow their courses for greater distances because of inaccessible banks and deep gorges. The beds of the rivers are quite slippery which consist of huge
boulders, gravels and pebbles mostly rounded or oval in shape. The depth varies frequently at a shorter distance and accordingly velocities of the waters vary from high to moderate (fig. 2.4). The Garo Hills, which raise relatively less, compared to the Khasi Hills; the basement was not exposed, and the consequent streams are mostly controlled by the structures (monoclines and faults) in the sediments (Murthy 1968: 14).
Figure 2.4: Map of Meghalaya and its Drainage
The drainage basin of the Garo Hills may be divided into two zones: i) The northern river basin, and ii) The southern river basin. In the northern river basin there are at least eleven sub‐river basins. The largest is the Damring River and its tributaries. In the south, river basins can be demarcated into fourteen sub‐river basins. The largest is the Simsang River and its tributaries. Lakes and Marshes The largest natural lake in the region was formed during 1897 earthquake is located at Damring valley (Sharma 1976). Its depth 23
varies from 3 m to 3.6 m at places in its 13 km length. The other notable lakes (locally known as beel) in Garo Hills is Boro beel and Kata beel. In the upper reaches there are two lakes – one on the Nokrek hills at the height of about 1213 m AMSL and another at Makbil Bisik at a height of 889 AMSL. Geology Meghalaya is characterized by the presence of a wide variety of rock types originated during various epochs of the earth’s evolution from Achaean period (3600 myr) up to the recent times. The various
geological formations of the region are: (a) Archaean Gnessic complex with acid and basic intrusive: (b) Shillong group of rocks
(c) Lower Gondwana rocks (d) Sylhet trap, and (e) Cretaceous sediments.
Figure 2.5: Map of Meghalaya and its Geology
The general stratigraphical sequence of these rock formations as observed in the Khasi and Garo Hills (both are an integral part of Shillong Plateau) of Meghalaya is given in table 2.1. 1. Archaean Rocks The Archaean genesis complex which uplifted to its present height of about 600‐ 800m AMSL is exposed on the southeastern part of Khasi hills and northern parts of Garo Hills are believed to be the northeastern extension of the Indian peninsular shield separated by the Bengal plains. It consists of a variety of metamorphic rocks, the common among which are biolytic gneiss, biolytic granulites, amphibolites, banded magnetic, quartzite, biolite schist etc. the foliation trend is in the NE‐SW direction and they are affected by two main folding movements, the earlier one along E‐W axis and the latter along NNE‐SW axis. Basic igneous rocks later intruded these rocks.
2. Pre‐Cambrian Rocks The foliation trend is in the NE‐SW direction and two main folding movement’s earlier one along E‐W axis and the latter along NE‐SW axis affect them. Aplites, pegmatite and vein quartz are the common rock types, origin of which is likely related with granite bodies and there may be more then one phase of granitic‐ pegmatic activity during the long Pre‐ Cambrian time. 3. Permo‐carboniferous Rocks In the extreme western part of the Garo Hills, near Singrimari there is a very small patch of exposure of Lower Gondwana rocks. The rocks include sandstone, pebble bed, carbonaceous shale with streaks and lenses of coal and occasional impressions of vertebrata indices. The sandstone dips westward and is intruded by dolerite dyke. 24
4. Jurassic Rocks Dolerite and basalt dykes are found in the Archaean rocks of Garo Hills, between NNE‐ SSW and NE‐SW, which is nearly, coincide with the grain of the country rocks. Alkali lamprophyre dykes are also found in the Archaean rocks of northeastern Garo Hills. This probably belongs to the igneous activity during the Jurassic period. In the western Garo Hills unaltered dykes of doleritic and basaltic composition intrude the gneisses in the form of sills and dykes. 5. Tertiary Rocks Sediments of Tertiary origin are distributed all along the southern border of the Garo Hills and many other places in the southwestern part of the region. The Gondawana sediments are 350 myr. The Shella formation of Jaintia group of rocks consists of sandstone, clay and coal seams followed by the Siju limestone formation. The Kopili Formation is about 500m thick, overlying the Shella Formation. It consists of alternations of thin beds of stand stone and thick shale beds with sporadic thin bands of fossil ferrous limestone. The Simsang, Baghmara and Chengapara Formation constitute the Garo Groups. The Simsang formation overlies the Kopili Formation. This consists of cross‐bedded sandstone altering with siltstone‐sandstone units. The Baghmara Formation overlies the Simsang Formation. It consists of irregular beds of coarse feldspathic sand with minor claystone, pebble conglomerate and huge silty clay beds. The Chengapara Formation overlies the Baghmara Formation. It consists of fine‐grained micaceous sand,
blue to brown sandstone and clays with a thin marly bed at the base. Over the Chengapara Formation lie the Dupi Tila Group of rocks. It consists of alternations of coarse feldspathic sandstone with lenses and beds of pebbles of quartz and sandy mottled clay. 6. Quaternary Deposits Isolated patches of older alluvium overlie the Tertiary rocks which consist of beds of assorted pebbles with coarse, loose sand and brownish clay. This usually forms flat topped low hillocks and mounds of red soil cover. Prehistoric lithic artifacts in Meghalaya have so far been found only within the alluvial deposit at varying depths. 7. Recent Deposits Recent alluvium is found in the river valleys and flood plains in the foothill region. It consists of fine silty‐sand and yellowish brown clay with occasional pockets and layers of coarse sand and rounded pebbles. The following table shows the rock formation and types in united Khasi Hills and Garo Hills (Sinha 1983, 1885). Important geomorphological evidence of neotectonic activity in the Garo Hills is evident from large‐scale stream migration, deranged drainage and rectilinear stream courses (Sunhat et al. 1983). The rocks of Garo Hills have been severally affected by monoclines and fault due to tectonic movements. The Process of decomposition of rocks like dolerite occurs at a faster rate due to physical and chemical weathering effect. All the lithic artifacts made of dolerite are heavily patinated. The colour of the patina varies from yellowish brown to brown. 25
Table 2.1: Garo Hills: Rock Formation and Types
The sequence of rock formations that are recognized in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills is given below: (Baruah 1968: 27): Quarts – to urmaline rocks, Epidiorites Quartzites Interformational Conglomerate Phyllites with shale and talc‐chlorite schist Quartzite Inter formational conglomerate Current and cross‐bedded quartzite Basal Conglomerate.
……………………….unconformity Gneiss and schist Vegetation While grouping the vegetation pattern of Meghalaya Ahmed (2001) made her study along with the works of other scholars (Griffith 1847, 1848; Hooker 1854, 1872, 1897, 1904; Clarke 1955; Rajkhowa 1961; Rao and Banigrahi 1961; Raju 1964; Rao 1968, 1974, 1977; Hajra 1975; Rao and Kharkonger 1979; Balakrishnan 1981, 1983; Baishya and Rao 1982; Joseph 1982; 26
Anonymous 1984 and Haridasan and Rao 1985, 1987). Based on these works, she further investigated and systematized the vegetation of Khasi and Jaintia Hills as given in fig. 2.6 below. This has been incorporated with the vegetation of Garo Hills, grouped under Tropical Evergreen Forest, Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests and the Savanna and Bamboo Forests
philippensis, Thevesia palmata etc. Most of these trees are infested with innumerable climbers and lianas and its branches with dense growth of epiphytic orchids, ferns and aroids. The lush green vegetation of the tropical evergreen forest of Garo Hills forms rich species diversity. This is composed of trees like Castanopis tribuloides, C. indica, Mesua ferrea, Antidesma acuminata, Phoebe attenuata etc. Some of these trees are tall but with thin bole. Smaller trees like Oreochide integrifolia, Thevesia palnata etc. are also found. Tropical Semi‐evergreen Forests The species under this Forest type are few. It is distributed in the northeastern and northern slopes of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, up to elevation of 1200 m AMSL, where annual rainfall stands at 1500 cm –2000 cm. The species of these forests include Dillenia pentagyna, D. Indica. Hovenia acerba, Elaeocarpus floribundus, etc. from the top conopy, Symplocos paniculata, Rhus acuminata, Ficus hirta etc. from the second conopy. Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests: Deciduous forests are much extensive in Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills. In Khasi and Jaintia Hills the important trees of this forest type includes Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, Gmelina arborea, Artocarpus chaplasha, Schima Khasiana, Albizia lebbeck Croton jaufra, careya arborea, Bridelia retusa etc. In Garo Hills this type of forest is dominated by Schima wallichii, Calcicarpa arborea Alnus nepaleomisis, Byttneria asparia, shorea robusta, Mangiferra indica, Famarindus indica etc. Besides these some common shrubs, creepers and herbaceous plants have also been found.
Figure 2.6: Altitude‐Wise Succession of Vegetation in Meghalaya (after A.A. Ahmed 2001)
Tropical Evergreen Forests These forests are distributed in three tires at lower elevation near catchments areas in Khasi and Jaintia Hills. All the tiers exhibit dense and impenetrable herbaceous undergrowth. The top tier consists of trees like Artocarpus fraxinifolius, Bischofia javanica, Castanopsis indica, Cynometra polyandra, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Elacocarpus robustus, Firmiana colorata, Lannea coromandelica, Musa ferrea etc. The second tier is composed of tress like Ficus racemosa, Garcinia pedunculata, Mangifera sylatica etc. (fig. 2 .7). The third tier consists of Goniothalamus simonsii, Ixora subsessilis, Mallotus 27
Among these Berberies wallichiana, Mahonia nepalensis, Agapets auriculata, Leuxifolia, Viola scrpens etc. are common. The traditional cultivated plant of the region includes rice, sweet potato, tapioca, chilly, maize etc. Further, the Garo Hills is well known for its high‐grade cotton production. Bamboo Forests Bamboo forests in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills are not a Common sight in contrary to the other parts of Northeast. This type of forest is not natural but it appears in the Jhum fallows of 15 to 20 years and often forms pure patches at places (Ahmed 2001). Bamboo forests are plentifully abundant in all over the Garo Hills. Typically, bamboo forests also come up in the jhum fallows of different ages. The common bamboo species are Dendocalamus hamiltonli, D. gigantea, Bambusa bambos, Cephalustachyum latifolium, Melocanna bambusoides etc. Sub Tropical Pine Forest This type of forest is restricted to Shillong plateau in Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Pinus kesiya is the principal species of the forest which coexist with a few broadleaved trees like Schima khasiana, Myrica esculena etc. Temperate Forest The site Saw Mer area, situated at 4 miles (7 km) from Shillong, is surrounded by this type of forest. It occurs at an elevation of 1800 m and above and is chiefly confined to upper Shillong and Shillong peak (Ahmed 2001). The dominant type in this forest is Rhododendron, Quercus and Castanopsis. The trees are heavily laden with festoons of moss and epiphytes – mostly orchids. The forest floor cushioned with a thick humus deposition. 28
Grasslands and Savanna Grassland is not a climax type but represent seral community. It is distributed throughout the Shillong plateau. The dominant grasses are Setaria glauca, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Cyperus sp. etc. (Ahmed 2001). Another striking aspect of the vegetation the Khasi and Jaintia Hills and also in the Southern Garo Hills is the insectivorous plant, commonly known as ‘pitcher plant’, botanically known as Nepenthes Khasiana. Fauna The Khasi Hills is not rich compared to Garo Hills in faunal wealth. Among the animals leopards, wolves, jackals, foxes, wild hog and several kind of deer are found. Among the birds category, hawks, hornbills, parrot, mainah, red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). Himalayan black bulbul (Hypsipetes madagascariensis), Red vented bulbul, long tailed broad bill, barbet etc. are common. Among reptiles include many snakes and lizard. Of which king Corbra (Naga Lannah), Indian Cobra, Coral snake, viper, Pithon, green tree racer (Elaphe Prasmnia), red‐necked kulback etc. are worth mentioning. The densely forested hills of Garo Hills have preserved various kinds of wild animals. Species of 35 mammals, 426 birds, 62 replies, 14 amphibians and 62 fishes have been recorded (Ghosh 1984: 74). Among the primates, five species‐the gibbon (Hoolack), the Rhesus macaque, capped languor; Assamese macaque and slow Loris are found. Of the carnivores, wild dog, large Indian civet, hog‐badger, yellow‐throated marten, tiger, Himalayan black bear, jackal etc. are found. Other animals include gaur, goral, elephant, barking deer, sambar, porcupine, pangolin, Malayan shrew, Indian flying fox etc.
Figure 2.7: Map of Meghalaya and its Natural Vegitation
The People Little is known about the history of settlement of the region traditionally known as the Khasi and Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills of Meghalaya. But historically the Khasi and the Garo are believed to be the autochthons to the region. These two ethnic groups though linguistically different, but they share more or less a common cultural configuration so far their matry‐centred social system is concerned. For better understanding, let us view the salient features of the two groups of people independently, as they are distributed in two different eco‐cultural zones of the area under study. The Khasi Like almost all the ethnic groups of Northeast, it is believed that the Khasi migrated somewhere from Southeast Asia. Their language is fairly well known since later 19th century and at present its speaker stood around ten lacs. Physical Features The Khasis are physically characterized by a skin colour ranging dark to a light
yellowish brown. Head hair is black and straight; it is scanty on the face. The head varies from long to medium with a trend of high mesocephalic index and high vault. The face is mesoperosopic. The nose is mesorrhine, nostrils large and prominent and the forehead being vertical is of medium hight and breadth. Supra orbital ridge is traceable. The eye‐slit is somewhat obliquely set and the eye‐colour is blackish brown. The nasal depression is shallow and the nasal bridge is concave. The malars are moderately prominent and of small size. The mouth is large, the lips thick. In stature, the average Khasis are short, with well built body. The people are good‐ tempered and industrious. The origin The problem of origin of the Khasi remains in the mist. However, it is almost established that they are quite distinctive in their physical appearance and language forming an island between the Indo‐ Mongoloid in the Northeast. There is no documented evidence regarding their origin and migration. A general belief based on the legends is that the Khasis 29
Language The present Khasi language varies up to certain degrees from area to area (Ghosh 1992) divided into eleven types according to their area of distribution: 1. Amwi: southern Jaintia Hills 2. Shella: southern Khasi Hills 3. Warding: southern Khasi Hills 4. Myriaw, Nongkhlaw, Nong Pong, Maram; Mawlang: mid eastern Khasi Hills. 5. Jowai: central Jaintia Hills. 6. Bhoi: northeast Khasi Hills. 7. Cherra: mid southern Khasi Hills. 8. Nongkrem, Mylliem, Laittyngkot, Lyniong Khasi: central Khasi and Jaintia Hills. 9. Manar, Nongwal, Jirang: north Khasi Hills. 10. Mawpran: mid Southern Khasi Hills. 11. Nongstoin, Langrin: western Khasi Hills. Among these groups the most commonly used Khasi dialect is the Cherra dialect. The Khasis do not have any script of their own in the earlier days. Bio‐cultural Linkage It is a fact that the Khasis undoubtedly possessed certain archaic racial elements like dolichocephalic platyrrhine, which according to Haddon is pre‐Dravidian, and to Dixon (1922: 1‐3) is Negroid. But its significance may not be reckoned because of the availability of other dominating physical characters that incline more towards Mongoloids. The later prompts Guha to reconsider the Khasi as Palaeo‐ mongoloid dolicho‐mesocephal type.
entered Northeast from Myanmar via Patkai range – many other tribes had perhaps followed the same route in the later times. It is a general agreement that the Khasi are the earliest migratory to the Northeast and perhaps their habitat in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills antedates the arrival of Indo‐mongoloids and other group of people like Dravidian and Aryan inhabited in different parts of the Northeast India. Another legend based belief which the Khasis prefer to follow is that they liked to be known as the Hynniew Treps (Seventh Huts) – a group of seven families out of 16 families, who decided to live on the earth, while the remaining nine families choose to live on the heaven. The later group is known as Khyndai Hajrong (Nine Huts). The Khasis of Jaintia Hills preferred to be known as Pnars then as Syntengs as it means the backward community who were left behind in their westward migration. (Ahmed 2001). Whatsoever, be the implication of these legends, it is the need of the hour to evaluate the things from the Anthropo‐archaeological perspective. They speak a dialect known as Khasi, which is grouped by Wilhelm Schmidt (1904) with Mon Khmer language of Austro‐Asiatic language family 1 . . The Austroasiatic linguistic family is most wide spread and geographically fragmented in mainland Southeast Asia. It includes approximately 150 languages in two major sub‐ groups: Mon‐Khmer of the Southeast Asia and the Khasi of northeast India. The Mon‐Khmer subgroup is the largest and contains Mon (in Lower Myanmar), Khmer (in Combodia) and Vietnames, besides many other tribal languages, such as Khasi of northeast, Munda of eastern India, Nicobaries, the Aslian language of Malaya. It is also believed that Astroasiatic languages were once widely distributed in south China, even as far north as 1
Yangtze river and possibly northern Sumatra (Bellwood 1992: 109). Many of the prehistoric sites of northeast Tahiland, such as Non Nok Tha, Ban Chang etc. were inhabited by the speakers of this family. 30
The Khasis share a number of cultural elements both with that of Mongoloid population of Northeast India, as well as Austric population of Southeast Asia.
Without going into details, here, some of these cultural features in generalized form are given.
Table 2.2: Cultural Configuration of North East India and South East Asia
Some of the features outlined above elicit some important and significant dimension of the area under study. Some cultural traits quite distinctive to a population who linguistically belong to Mon‐Khmer (Austric) but racially Mongoloid group make the situation problematic but significant at the same time. The question remain which one is earlier, was the
Mongoloid accept the language from Austric group or the Austric transformed into the Mongoloid racial fold. If we examine the ethnic situation of the past, we are inclined to assume that the Austric might have constituted the earlier stratum than that of Mongoloid as revealed by the assemblages of Pre‐Neolithic sites of Saw Mer and Barapani of East Khasi Hills. 31
So far the prehistoric cultural phases are concerned, it is the Neolithic phase, which can be termed as, a phase of maximum cultural diffusion among the various ethnic groups or bands inhabited the Northeast; prior to that each group or band maintained its insular cultural and racial entity. Material Culture Two distinct cultural phases have so far been identified in the United Khasi and Jaintia Hills. The first phase represents the Mesolithic period and was more or less homogenous in nature. It was restricted mostly to the upper reaches of the Hills. This well‐defined phase may be termed, as Sawmerian cultural phase existed around 7th –8th millennium B.C. (Chapter – VII). The second phase represents the contemporary Khasi culture is again broadly homogenous in nature and it spreads up to the Foothills belt and across its territorial boundary during the historical past. In this connection it may also be mentioned that the intermediatery phases are yet to be ascertained, which however, have been represented so far by a few Stray finds of ground and polished stone axes characterized by shouldered and rounded butt. Like other parts of Northeast, this lithic phase may have intruded into the historical (iron using stage) period (Ashraf 1990: 37). Whatsoever are the cultures of the past and present, the people of Khasi Hills mostly relied upon his bows and arrows for hunting as their chief occupation, followed by gathering. This was a need‐based economy – a strategy for subsistence. In the later stage the prevailing customs played a major role in changing the economic pattern. So to understand the origin and
development of material culture of the people of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, one has to consider at least two factors juxtaposing with the need or requirement and sentiment or psychological aspect of behaviour. The Megalithic custom has sentimental attachment to the place where family sepulchers and memorial stones stand (Bhowmik 1971: 133), the practice of village sacred groves (Ahmed 2001), less inclination towards jhum cultivation (Bhowmik 1971) perhaps be some of the reasons which make them comparatively less mobile in respect of habitat, in comparison to the other ethnic groups of Northeast. This is a vital factor in the man‐ land‐relationship in relation to the conservation of forest‐based economy in a tropical country. On the contrary, the Khasis become more exploitative within a confined area for years together. And that perhaps initially forced them to maintain the habit of preserving at least a plot with essential herbs with the attribution to sacred grove. The bows and arrows and the spears, were once the chief weapon for hunting, essential to their mode of subsistence gradually becoming less important in the face of, enhanced technology and the controlled economy. The more they become biased towards the controlled mode of food production, the more they became tied to a given area of exploitation. The permanent field cultivation becomes the mainstay of their economic life. The Khasi is the only major ethnic group in the Northeast practicing hoe‐ cultivation besides the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh in a different situation. Jhum cultivation is almost restricted in the upper reaches of Khasi and Jaintia Hills but it is confined to the foothills belt mostly in Bhoi and 32
Lyngngam area (Bhowmik 1977: 131). This could be a late adaptation to the process as indicated by the ethnographic parallel and other archaeological records. The traditional method of fishing was by poisoning. Use of nets and bamboo –traps are introduced in the Khasi Hills at a much later date. Community fishing is very popular among them till today. Traditional mode of securing jungle products like firewood, roots, tubers, fruits and honey are still in vogue. Use of betel nut with lime is highly prolific among the Khasis. Rice is the staple food and the rice‐ beer is considered as traditional beverage, is also used for ceremonial purposes. The Khasi houses are made of stone, wood, reeds and straw. Using of iron nail in house building was considered to be a taboo. The Khasis are good craftsman. They used to make mats from grass, cane and bamboo‐splits. They also know the art of making pottery. Potter’s clay is black in colour. The earthen vessels are sometimes decorated with some signs and patterns. The Khasi is one of the specialized tribes having the knowledge of metallurgy. They procure the raw material from stagnant bogs. The crude iron ore is then smelted and refined in furnaces with the help of piston bellow, built – indigenously. The Khasi society is characterized by matrilineal descent. They reckon their lineage in terms of their mothers’ clan. Property of a family is owned by the housewife. The Khasi practice tribal endogamy and clan exogamy. They are strictly monogamous. Cross cousin marriage is permitted with certain conditions.
The disposal of dead body is made by cremation. Before cremation they preserved the body for some time in the home following traditional method. The Khasi religion is monotheistic (Mawrie 1981) which they call Niam Khasi or Niam Tynrai. They believe in U Blei Nongthaw (one Supreme God). He is above gender and above number (Ahmed 2001). The monotheistic Khasi religion later become associated with animistic beliefs such as cult of fertility, worship of mountain and river, spirits, glorification of ancestors, etc. (Gurdon 1914). The Garos The homeland of the Garo is the United Garo Hills of Meghalaya. According to Sangma the term ‘Garo’ is misnomer, carrying no meaning in their language (1995: 33). They call themselves A’ chik mande, meaning ‘Hill Man’. The Garo is linguistically related to the other Bodo groups of the Tibeto‐Burman linguistic sub‐ family, such as the Rabha, the Kachari, the Dimasa, the Koch, the Moran, the Chutiya and the Hill Tippera, distributed in various parts of Assam (Majumdar 1980: 18). The Garo language, varies up to certain degrees from area to area based on the changes of morphology, phonology etc. Garo dialects may be divided into nine sub‐ groups (sub‐tribes‐according to Majumdar 1980), as to the area of inhabitance: 1. The awe – foothills‐ Bajengdoba area (bordering Assam) 2. The Chisak – East Garo Hills‐ Rongjeng area. 3. The Matchi‐Dual – East Garo Hills – foothills belt. 4. The Matabeng – Central Garo Hills and Foothills belt. 5. The Ambeng – The whole of west Garo Hills. 33
6. The Ruga‐ Chibok – West Garo Hills: Bugi River valley. 7. The Gara‐ Ganching – West Garo Hills: Baghmara area. 8. The Atong‐ East Garo Hills: Siju area (Simsang River Valley). 9. The Megam‐ West Khasi Hills: Bordering East Garo Hills. Among the sub‐groups the Atong and Megam are quite distinct from the other sub‐groups. The Atong represent an archaic from of language and it is unintelligible to the speakers of other sub‐ groups. On the other hand the Megam is confined to the West Khasi Hills, bordering the district of East Garo Hills. They are known to Khasi as lynggam/Langrin. Both of them maintain marital relationship with the members of other groups. The Physical Features The physical characters of the Garo have close relationship with the tribal inhabiting the plains of Assam, North Cachar Hills, Mikir Hills and parts of Tripura. They are generally sturdy people having flat and broad nose, medium or short stature (Bordoloi 1991: 13). The average height is estimated at 160cm for the male and 145 cm for the female. They have round and short faces. Complexion ranges from light to dark brown. The man rarely has hair on their face. Lower limbs are generally short (Playfair 1909: 23). The Origin As to the origin of the Garo, there is no concrete evidence having historical value. The Garo folklores loaded with stories of their migration from Tibet. Playfair vividly describes the migration of the Garo from Tibet under the leadership of two chiefs, Jappe‐Jalingpa and Sukpa‐Bongipa (1909: 8‐14).
A common root of origin between the Bodos of the Brahmaputra Valley and the Garos of the hills makes the palaeo‐ethnic situation of Garo Hills more complicated but significant at the same time from the point of assimilation and distribution of ethnic groups. With the present state of knowledge, it is not the ethnic, but from cultural view point, it can fairly be said that the Garo Hills witnessed successive waves of cultures. This may chrono– culturally be divisible into two broad divisions, viz. the Contemporary cultures of the people of Garo Hills, and secondly, the Palaeo‐cultures of the people of Garo Hills. On the basis of proximity and variation, the contemporary cultures of the Garo Hills have been assigned to at least nine aforesaid sub‐tribes. In this context it is worth mentioning that on the basis of Lexico‐statistic Method, Burling and Bhattacharya have estimated the date of separation of the Garo language from original Bodo dialect at about 2000 years ago (1956: 67‐73). Again, according to Majumdar (1980) the Atong represent the most archaic sub‐tribe among the Garos and they have striking similarity with the Koch and the Rabhas in respect of their spoken languages. None of them (Koch and Rabha) are now practicing shifting cultivation, which, however, was in vogue at a few generations ago. Material Culture So far the prehistoric cultural phases are concerned the picture still remains obscure for the dearth of data on the palaeo‐linguistic and biological prehistory. However, the present state of knowledge, lead us to infer that the earliest process of colonization in Garo Hills began during the Mesolithic period. During that period two distinct cultural bands under a common cultural banner 34
the Hoabinhian, had been operating in Garo Hills in a more or less contemporary time plane (Chapter‐VII). These two cultural bands might have got later on sub divided into a number of sub groups and the process reached to its zenith during the Neolithic time as revealed by divergent material contents distributed in whole of Garo Hills. Though divergent in nature, the material cultures of all the sub groups point towards the shifting mode of cultivation as mainstay of economy in the Garo Hills. This phenomenon has been persisting even today. The change that took place is not in form but in raw material. Previously it was stone and now it is iron. Unlike the other hilly tribes of Northeast, who set up their village high up in the hill slopes, the Garo preferred undulated valleys in the hills for their settlement, preconditioned by regular source of drinking water, natural protection from wind and other external forces and also the availability of suitable land for jhum cultivation. They live in small hamlets and near the village a sacred space called asong is left undisturbed where memorial stones are often erected. A Garo often possesses two houses; one in the village and the other in his jhum field. The field houses called borang are built high up in the trees to watch and to protect the agricultural field and person himself from the wild animals. The Garo houses are constructed on hill slopes. The platform is resting on the piles maintaining uniform horizontal level of the platform. The house is built of bamboo, strengthened with log and wood and secured with cane and bamboo slip. Virtually no means of transportation was available in Garo Hills except human energy. Travelling of all sort, was made on
foot. Rivers are not navigable in most places. But in a few instances the dug out canoes are put to use by the Atong of Baghmara area (Southern Garo Hills). Occasional use of bamboo raft for fishing in West Garo Hills is also seen. There is no animal traction. They carry their load in carrying‐baskets, made of bamboo and cane of different shapes and sizes, for various purposes. These are Kera, Kokreng, Koksi, Kokchikok, pachi, Jengkok, donceng etc. washing‐bamboo tubes, gourds of various species (raised as venti cultural items) are also used as container for liquids. For gathering as well as agricultural purposes the Garo use da (broad bladed chopper): ate and a’te mongren; long stick with a hook like projection: angusing; Gitchi‐hoe with iron blade with bamboo handle and matha‐digging stick. To supplement the horticultural economy, the Garos have to exploit a wide range of natural items, non‐derelict types. They gather different parts of plants such as the roots, tuber, stem, and leaves, shoot etc. Some are eaten raw, while others are consumed by soaking, boiling, roasting, grinding or other special preparation. They extensively used Kalchi (alkali: prepared by burning plantain stem), salt and chilies in cooked food. Wild plants are gathered mainly for food and for medicinal uses. Among the important items mention may be made of Bambusa tuida, Amarphophalus companulatus, Alpina allughas, Bauhinia variegate, colocasia esculenta, curcuma aromatica, Dioscareta alata, D. bulbifera, D. hispida, Ipomoea batatas, Manihot esculentus, Tamarindus indica, Solanun ferox, Momordica chararitia Manihot esculentus, Leucas linifolia, Syzygium jambos, Solanum ferox, Psidium guajara, Chenopodium album, Canavalia 35
gladiata, Typhonium trilabatum, Zingibera casumunar etc. (Sharma 1995). Hunting played a less important role in Garo Hills for subsistence during the past and in present time. In this context the remark made by Playfair (1909: 47) is worth mentioning, “…although the hills are so full of games, the Garos knows very little about hunting and tracking”. This seems to be an echo of prehistoric past. It may be surmised that here the various cultural bands operating during Mesolithic period were more biased towards foraging and food producing than that of hunting. The archaeological data under this study lend support to the above inference. The remark made by Playfair (1909) attests the continuation of the Mesolithic past to the early period of twentieth century. Whatever may be the situation, the Garo shows ingenuity in setting up of certain traps and snares based on ‘tension and lever‐released principle. Besides, they also apply some other devices, such as by spears – salu pasrok (iron‐headed bamboo spear, having no mid‐ridge on the blade), Salu‐dikil (having mid‐ridge) and Salu (without iron head: pointed split bamboo to act like a spear), bra‐chre (bow and arrow): made of bark‐string and bamboo and with or without iron‐tip, bra‐dona (Booby trap), Matcha nol/dengrip chaka (Cage trap): for tiger and other big games, baga chaka (noose trap), gongsot Sa’a (baited noose trap) and jal (net). They also know pitfall and stockade methods.
Fishing is another important corroborative activity in the subsistence strategy of the Garos. It is executed by bare hand, by poisoning water, and by implements. For poisoning they used ruti (fruit of Randia dumetorum), roots (makal) and the bark (rubok) of Barringhtonia acutangula (Sharma 1995). The fishing implements include various types of basket‐traps, spears and nets. The fishing traps are: asok (automatic trap), Silcha (valveless), Simpach & Ripokpea (valved) and Chempa (double valved). Cho’ong and Kusa (mono and multi‐dented spears) are also used by Garos for catching fish in water current of high velocity. The practice of making simphak (bark cloth) from the bark of tree Phakram (Trema orientalis) is considered to be the survival of Mesolithic element. The use of animal hides for clothing or such other purposes was not in vogue in Garo hills since Mesolithic period as indicated by the rare occurrence of skinning tools in archaeological context (Chapter V and VII). The Garos are traditionally animists. There is a Supreme Being called Tatara‐Rabuga. They believe that earth was created by Nostu‐Nopantu under the command of Tatara‐Rabuga. Saljong is the Sun God in whose honour, the Wangala‐the prime festival of the Garos is celebrated. Besides, there are many manevolent and benevolent Gods and Spirits.
36
CHAPTER ‐ III
3
THE PREHISTORIC SITES UNDER STUDY Type of Site: open‐air site on the elevated flats of hill ridge, overlooking streams, lakes and peniplain.
The prehistory of Meghalaya which could culturally be assigned to Epi‐Palaeolithic or Proto‐Neolithic was influenced greatly, by Hoabinhian tradition with successive accretions. Hoabinhian elements are associated with all the sites under study. These sites are situated in a varied setting, but within a common geographical unit consisting of hilly terrains. Hoabinhian artifacts are found associated with three types of hilly sites situated in Eastern Khasi Hills and Western Garo Hills of Meghalaya: (i) Open site on the elevated flats of the hill ridges; overlooking streams/lakes and pen plain (plate 3.1.01). (ii) Broad gullies at the down of the hill slopes (plate 3.2.01), and (iii) On the bank of the confluences of rivers having wide basin and broad flood plains (plate 3.3.01). In the light of the above, a site‐wise breakup of the material is discussed below: 1. Saw Mer (SMR)
Mode of Finding: Surface find, exposed over the rain –washed eroded surface Analysis of Lithic Artifacts Raw material: rhyolite – a high‐grade clay stone locally available.
Total collection: 195 pieces of stone artifacts.
Shape of the Artifacts Most of the artifacts are angular due to mode of occurrence of the raw materials in the form of fractured blocks. Taking into consideration, contour of the materials, they are placed broadly under ten categories of shapes, viz. rounded, square, rectangular, ovate, semi‐circular, crescent, trident, ‘8’ shaped and irregular (fig. 3.1.1). The predominant shapes in the assemblage are: (1) Triangular (32.8%) followed by (2) Rectangular (28.7%), (3) Ovate (14.3%), (4) Trident (8.2%), (5) Rounded (6.2%), (6) Semi circular (3.6%), (7) Crescent (2.6%), (8) Irregular (2.1%), (9) Square (1%), and (10) ‘8’ shaped (.5%).
In Khasi language saw means four and mer is mile i.e. the locality is situated at 4 miles (7 km) away from Shillong proper. The altitude of the site is 1650 m AMSL with an average temperature of 260C (maximum) and 20C to 10C (minimum). The average annual rainfall is 2500 mm to 3000 mm.
37
Plate 3.1.01 THE SITE‐SAW MER
38
Figure 3.1.1: Frequency Distribution of Shapes of SMR Artifacts Table 3.1.1: Classification of Lithic Artifacts and their Frequency Distribution from SMR
39
Type of Artifacts Artifacts of SMR are classified typologically under seven general categories. These are further sub‐divided into a number of sub‐ types (table 3.1.1). The main types along with their sub‐types are discussed below. The assemblage of Saw Mer includes 195 lithic artifacts. The types are shown in descending order along with their number and percentage against the total collection. Scraper (104: 53.3%), cutting tools (32: 16.9%), points (12: 6.2%), Hoabinhian (7: 3.6%), tool making tool (TMT) (6: 3.1%), and cores (1: .5%) (fig. 3.1.2).
Scraper Within the 104 numbers of scrapers in the SMR assemblage the following sub‐types are recognised:
Thumb‐scraper (37.5%), side scraper (14.4%), convex scraper (12.5%), end scraper (11.5%), round scraper (10.6%), concave scraper (6.7%), composite scraper (2%), side cum end scraper (0.5%), side cum notch scraper (0.5%), and notch scraper (0.5%). Cutting Tools The number of cutting tools in the SMR assemblage is 33, which consists 16.9% in the assemblage.
Figure 3.1.4: Frequency Distribution of Cutting Tools
Figure 3.1.2: Frequency Distribution of Tool Types Assemblage from SMR
The sub‐types of cutting tools (fig. 3.1.4) may be shown as follows – knife (33.3%), chisel (18.2%), blade let (15.2%), knife blade (12.1%), blade flake (9.1%), pick‐axe (6.1%), butted scraper (3%) and crescent (3%). Points There are 32 nos. of points in the assemblage with a percentage of 16.4. Points of SMR is divided into 10 sub‐types: spear head (40.6%), points cum scraper (15.6%), arrow‐head (9.4%), borer (6.3%), burin (6.3%), point cum knife (6.3%), tang‐ point (6.3%), borer cum knife (3.1%), borer cum scraper (3.1%), tranchet (3.1%).
Figure 3.1.3: Distribution of sub‐types of Scraper from SMR 40
Figure 3.1.5: Frequency Distribution of Points
Others This category consists of 6.2% of the SMR assemblage. This includes chunk (75%), waste flake (16.7%) and broken tools (8.3%) (fig. 3.1.6). Hoabinhian Type of Tools This category includes 7 (3.6%) in the SMR assemblage. The sub‐type of tools of Hoabinhian tradition are – lanceolate tip (57.1%), chipped axe (14.3%), Sumatraliths (14.3) and waisted scraper (14.3%) (fig. 3.1.7).
Tool Making Tools (TMT) This category includes two sub‐types in the assemblage of SMR. The percentage of TMT is 3.1%, of which 66.7% is punch and 33.3% is fabricators (fig. 3.1.8). Core In SMR assemblage only simple core without any sub‐types have been found. The percentage within the assemblage is 0.5.
Figure 3.1.6: Distribution of other types Figure 3.1.7: Distribution of Hoabinhian Figure 3.1.8: Distribution of TMT
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LITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM SAW MER (For details refer to chapter VI) Plate SM 1 (A and B: two faces)
42
Plate SM 2 (A and B: two faces)
43
Plate SM 3
Plate SM 4
44
Plate SM 5
Weight of the SMR Artifacts 79.5% of lithic artifacts of SMR are of less than 51 grams in weight. Of which the highest concentration is 34.2%, belongs to 5 to 10 grams category, followed by 16–20 gms (16.8%), 11–15 gm (13.5%), 22–25 gm (16.5%); 27–35 gm (11.6%) and 40–45 gm (10.3%). The sequential gap in the range of weight distribution in the assemblage is due to the non‐existence of artifact in the specific category of weight.
Type‐wise break up of the artifacts along with their corresponding weight is shown at various intervals through the following tables (tables 3.1.2‐4 and fig. 3.1.9). Higher frequency of lighter tools may be contributed to the hunting as a major economy, where the principal tool in the form of arrowhead, and the auxilliary tools, especially, the tools for skinning played a major role.
Table 3.1.2: No. and Percentile Distribution of Weight in the Respective Tool Type
45
Table 3.1.3: No. and Percentile Distribution of Weight of Tool Types in the Respective Weight Range
Table 3.1.4: No. and Percentile Distribution of Tools – Weight Frequency up to 50 gms.
Figure 3.1.9: Distribution of Weight against Tool Types 46
Table 3.1.5: Frequency of Distribution of Flake Scars
150 – 200: Cutting tool = 1 200 – 250: Hoabinhian = 1 250 – 300: cutting tool = 1 Others =1 2 Flake scars Distribution of flake‐scars and nature of inter facetory ridges between the flake scars of an artifact is taken into consideration to understand the utilitarian aspects and the technique of manufacturing a lithic implement. Distribution of flake scars on a lithic artifact is classified under eight categories, viz.– (a) Lateral (L): flake scars confined only to the lateral sides (b) Distal (D): flake scars confined only to the distal end. (c) Proximal (P): flake scars confined only to the proximal end. (d) Lateral‐distal (LD): flake scars confined only to the lateral and distal. (e) Lateral‐proximal (LP): flake scars confined only to the lateral and proximal. (f) Lateral‐distal‐Proximal (LDP): flake‐ scars all over the artifacts at least on one of the surfaces of an implement. (g) Distal‐proximal (DP): rusticated to only the ends of an implement. (h) None (N): flake scars not available.
Figure 3.1.10: Frequency Distribution of Flake Scars
Interfacetory Ridges Four categories of interfacetory ridges are considered to work out its nature, viz. Parallel, overlap, assorted and Nil.
N.B.: Both the surfaces of an implement are taken in to consideration without any distinction.
Table 3.1.7: Distribution of Interfacetory Ridges (ifr) in SMR. Sl Nature of Distribution No. interfacetory ridges No. PC 1 Parallel 122 62.6% 2 Over lap 27 13.8% 3 Assorted 36 18.5% 4 Nil 10 5.1% 5 Total 195 100%
Frequency distribution of flake scars all over the artifact is highest in SMR with a percentage of LDP at 44.2. It is followed by L – 32.4%, LP – 8.7%, N – 3.5%, P – 1.5%, D – 1%, DP – 1%. Placement of flake scars and their percentile distribution are shown as follows (tables 3.1.5‐6 and figs. 3.1.10‐11). 47
Table 3.1.6: Distribution of Flake Scars against Tool Types
Figure 3.1.11: Type‐Wise Distribution of Flake Scars (D&P represent 1% each for scraper and 0.5% (P) for TMT)
Mid‐ridge, Main Flake Surface (mfs) and Positive Bulb of Percussion (pbs):
Figure 3.1.12: Distribution of ifr
Only worked out the present and the absent aspects of these features in the lithic artifacts of SMR are considered. Mid‐ridge Out of the total collection of SMR, only 23.1% artifacts have possessed a mid‐ridge on the upper surface, while both the surfaces exhibit only 1.5% (fig. 3.1.13a). Main‐flake Surface (mfs) The lower surface of majority of the lithic implements with a percentage of 88.2 exhibits mfs in SMR. The mfs of upper 48
surface (in case of doubly detached flaked tools) is only 5.1% (fig. 3.1.13b) Positive Bulb of Percussion: 51.3% of implements of SMR exhibit pbs. on the
lower surface and 1% on upper surface (in case of doubly detached flake) (fig. 3.1.13c).
Mid ridge Main flake surface Positive bulb of percussion Figure 3.1.13 (a –c): Frequency Distribution of Mid‐ridge, Main Flake Surface and Positive Bulb of Percussion (P – present, A – absent)
Striking Platform Out of the total collection of 195, lithic artifacts from SMR 116 nos. exhibit striking platform with a percentage of 59.5. Gripping Facility Most of the lithic implements from SMR exhibit some sort of provisions for gripping or handling in the form of either flake scars or a thick edge with definite contour. The
flake scars that had been made preconcevivably for comfortable grip is termed as grip‐scar. Thus, the flake‐scars intended for gripping an implement may basically be found in two forms, viz. – Thumb pad scar (TPS) and Palm pad scar (PPS). The availability of TPS and PPS on one of the surfaces of an implement may further be shown below (table 3.1.8).
Table 3.1.8: Type‐Wise Break up of Grip Scars
49
Among the grip scars, the frequency of TPS is highest with a percentage of 66.7, followed by the combination of TPS‐PPS (4.6%) and PPS (3.6%). Thus, the presence of grip scars in the lithic assemblage of SMR is 74.9%. 1/4th of the collection (25.1%) are devoid of any type of grip scars. But out of 25.1% of non‐grip scar implements, 11.8% are facilitated with hafting devices in the form of tang or grooves (including constriction). So, the actual number of artifacts in non‐facilitated category is 26 (13.3%) (tables 3.1.9‐10). Hafting Facility On the basis of provision for hafting, the implements are placed under four
categories, viz.– Tang, grooved, tang‐ grooved and none. Out of 23 numbers of hafted implements – 11.8% of the total collection, grooving is found on 7.2% of tools followed by tang (3.1%) and tang‐groove (1.5%) (table 3.1.9). 13.3% of non‐intended lithic artifacts of the SMR assemblage may not be discarded as waste flake; instead, the circumstantial evidence suggests that they could be used as a casual implement for various purposes, such as, scraping, cutting etc. (table 3.1.10).
Table 3.1.9: Frequency Distribution of Hafted Implements
Table 3.1.10: Frequency Distribution of Gripped, Hafted and None Intended Implements
Truncation Intended horizontal breaking of a tool is considered as a truncated tool. The nature of breaking is determined through physical verification from its ‘outline’. These are: oblique, straight, concave and convex. Out of 20 (10.3%) truncated tools in the SMR assemblage straight exhibits 70%, followed by oblique 25.0% and convex 5.0% (table 3.1.11). It may also be mentioned that out of 20 truncated tools 20% belongs to the tools of Hoabinhian tradition.
Contour Contour is determined through physical verification of both the surfaces (upper and lower) of lithic implements. Three types of contour are found on either of the surfaces, viz– plain, convex and concave (table 3.1.12). They may further be shown in five categories by taking into consideration both the surfaces together as a single whole (fig. 3.1.13). This represents the cross section of the implement.
Table 3.1.11: Frequency Distribution of Truncation and its Nature 50
Table 3.1.12: Contouring –Types and their Distribution in the SMR Assemblage
Table 3.1.13: Number and Percentile of Bifacial Contouring Representing the Cross‐Section of SMR Assemblage
Figure 3.1.14: Frequency Distribution of Bi‐Contouring Nature of the Implements of SMR
Working Edge 51
The edge line/point and the slope of the edge (edge slope) are taken as morphological character in respect of working edge of lithic implements of SMR. The edge line exhibits four basic characters, viz.– straight, pointed, concave and convex with or without an edge slope in the form of uni‐bevelling or bi bevelling. In this connection, it may be mentioned that most of the artifacts exhibit multiple characters;
thus it needs more precision through enhanced (technometric) study. The occurrence of basic characters of working edge in the assemblage against the composition of the constituents of characters of the individual artifacts is shown as follows: (fig. 3.1.15 and tables 3.1.14‐15).
Figure 3.1.15: Nature of Working Edge in SMR Table 3.1.14: Characters of Working Edge (frequency distribution)
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Table 3.1.15: Distribution of Characters of Working Edge (WE)
Straight uni‐bevel character of WE is found highest with 20%; it is followed by uni‐ bevel‐convex 19.5% and straight‐pointed‐ uni‐bevel 12.3%. The rest of the characters of WE exhibit less than 7.5% (table 3.1.14). Among the occurrences of characters of WE in the assemblage uni‐beveling shows the highest percentage with 29.6 that followed by ‘straight’ 23.1%, ‘convex’ and pointed 15.1% each and bi‐beveling 10.6%. The least among the characters of working edge is concavity representing only 3.1% (fig. 3.1.15). Cortex Cortexed and non‐cortexed artifacts are seggregated through physical verification. Two types of cortexing are considered – general cortex and pebble cortex. Their presence on any of the surfaces of an artifact is recorded as partial or in its total form. This is made to assess the extent of exploitation of raw material while knapping an implement. The assemblage of SMR exhibits 82.1% non‐cortexed implements. Out of the cortexed tools, 15.1% are partially cortexed, while 2.8% are totally cortexed. Length x Breath x Height Significance of these measurements sustains only on the type of implements of those, which have standard form and make a class by themselves. Great variation in the tool type within the same category of class
bears any decisive results from these measurements. As the tools are more or less heterogeneous in its form, this aspect is met with the weight of the specimens. 2. Makbil Bisik (MBS) A Camp cum factory site situated on a broad gully at the down of the hill slopes. Mode of Finding: Surface finds together with the excavated materials. Makbil Bisik, literally meaning “the land of bear” is located at the source region of Makbil stream, which took the form of a lake with a fanning out puddly bank. Its natural conditions and mineral content attract wild animals to wallow. The locality is surrounded by moderately high and steep hills all around, except the east. Consequently, it took the shape of a gully criss‐crossed by number of runnels that creeps down along the arteties. The site covers an area of 200 sq.m. (approx.) is situated on a gentle ridge‐slope, having a gradient of 60 from its foot (fig. 3.2.1). The altitude of the site is 970.5 metres AMSL.
Figure 3.2.1: Gradient of the Site MBS 53
Explored materials from the surface were examined through small scale excavations with an objective to correlate the surface finds in its archaeological context, i.e. to fix‐ up its relationship with the stratigraphical sequences. The test‐pit measuring 2m x 2m was laid down in the site itself, where the concentration of artifacts was visibly high and seems to be quite potential for the purpose. While removing the vegetation coverage from the trench area, it is found that the surface soil is not much disturbed, unlike that of SMR (plate 3.2.01). The test pit revealed three successive layers – layers (1), (2) and (3) till they resting upon a sterile layer encountered at a depth of 90 cm. BS. Barring a few typological variations in the content of materials in each layer, they are homogeneous in all practical aspects and may be considered as a single culture deposit without any break. The layers are distinguished solely on the basis of pedological aspects. The circumstantial evidences along with the results of the test‐ pit further confirmed that the deposition in and around the trench are primary in nature and thus, they may be defined as in situ deposition. Infect, the nature of deposition and the content of materials encountered in the successive layers of the ‘test‐pit’ suggest that the area under excavation is situated on a naturally depressed region, well within the site itself. Lithic materials subsequently filled it up over a period of times (mode of deposition is yet to be ascertained). Extent of homogeneity among the layered materials suggests its application with a common cultural folk who used the locality for a considerable period of time. The composition of the archaeological materials from the trench and its surroundings deserve a common
treatment which, however, be made after giving a brief review of the excavated materials in its archaeological context. In a 2m x 2m trench, digging continued up to the sterile layer encountered at a depth of 90cm BS. Beneath the implementiferous zone, the soil is yellowish brown in colour, loamy in character, and fine in texture. In this connection, it may be mentioned that Plate 3.2.01: The Site‐ Makbil Bisik
54
the site in general rests upon a sandy‐ gravel bed at a gradient of 60 (fig. 3.2.1). The gradient, together with high porosity of the soil, makes the site drier than that of its surroundings which helps to preserving the materials in a good and more or less, undisturbed condition. The dryness of the area is unfavourable for the Jhumers to use it as an agricultural land in later dates. Layer (1) (4 to 16 cm BS) It is consisted of dark brown clayey soil along with angular cobbles. The thickness
of the layer is 12 cm. A thin film of blackish brown soil, now almost disintegrated, occasionally capped it. High concentration of cultural remains in the following morphological types was recovered (table 3.2.1). It consists of dark brown clayey soil along with cobbles of smaller size. This 24 cm thick, clayey‐cobbley layer is capped by layer (1). Archaeological remains from the layer (2) are shown under the following morphological classification (table 3.2.2).
Table 3.2.1: Materials from Layer (1) of MBS Excavation and their Frequency Distribution
Layer (2): (16‐40cm B.S.): It consists of dark brown clayey soil along with cobbles of smaller size. This 24 cm thick, clayey‐cobbley layer is capped by layer (1). Archaeological remains from the layer (2) are shown under the following morphological classification (table 3.2.2).
Layer (3): (40‐89cm BS) It consists of yellowish brown loamy soil with occasional appearance of rounded pebbles. The 49cm thick cultural deposit yields the following morphological types (table 3.2.3).
55
Table 3.2.2: Material Content of Layer (2) of MBS Excavation and their Frequency Distribution
A comparative analysis of the materials (table 3.2.4) from the three successive layers of the ʹTrial‐trenchʹ clearly indicates the homogeneity in cultural remains. The presence of major tool types in the sequence with a slight
modification and variation in the technological aspects at a later stage, as suggested by the subsequent increase in occurrence of chips from bottom to top has been noticed (tables 3.2.5‐6).
56
Table 3.2.3: Material Recovered and their Frequency Distribution: Layer (3) of MBS Excavation
Table 3.2.4: Layer‐Wise Break‐up of Morphological Types from MBS
57
Table 3.2.5: Layer‐Wise Concentration of Waste Materials in MBS Excavation Layer (1) Layer (2) Sl. Waste material No. No. (%) No. (%) 1. Chips 1522 95.6 890 91.2 2. Chunks 55 3.5 63 6.5 3. Blanks 15 0.9 23 2.3 Total 1592 100.0% 976 100.0% Table 3.2.6: Layer‐Wise Concentration of Tool Types from MBS Excavation Layer (1) Layer (2) Layer (3) Sl. Major types No. No. (%) No. (%) No. (%) 1. Scraper 64 47.8 27 42.1 60 46.5 2. Tools of Hbn 18 13.4 11 17.2 8 6.3 tradition 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Borer Point Knife Blade flake Microliths Others Total
13 11 11 5 nil 12 134
9.7 8.2 8.2 3.7 nil 9.0 100.0
3 3 3 5 nil 12 64
4.7 4.7 4.7 7.8 nil 18.8 100.0
Analysis of Lithic Artifacts 336 number of specimen from MBS are taken for analysis which include entire lithic artifacts from the ʹtest‐pitʹ and the materials already got exposed over the trench owing to the erosion of surface soils. The materials so collected were verified physically on the following aspects: Shapes of the Artifacts Triangular form is the predominant shape, which constitutes 31.5% of the lithic assemblage. This is followed by rectangular 26.8%, rounded 15.2%, and semi circular 4.8%. Shapes in other categories, such as, square, sickle shaped, ʹ8ʹ shaped, and trident represents less than a percent of
6 3 13 12 19 8 129
4.6 2.3 10.0 9.3 14.7 6.3 100.0
Layer (3) No. (%) 679 85.5 50 6.3 65 8.2 794 100.0%
No. 151 37
(%) 46.2 46.2
22 17 27 22 19 32 327
6.7 5.2 8.3 6.7 5.8 9.8 100.0
total tools. 9.5% represents ovate and irregular shaped tools (table 3.2.7). Table 3.2.7: Shapes of the Implements and their Frequency Distribution Sl. Shape of the tools No. PC (%) No. 1. Rounded 51 15.2 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10
58
Square Rectangular Triangular Oval Sickle shaped ‘8’ shaped Trident Semi‐circular Irregular Total
2 90 106 32 2 2 3 16 32 336
0.6 26.8 31.5 9.5 0.6 0.6 0.9 4.8 9.5 100.0%
LITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM MAKBIL BISIK (For details refer to Chapter VI) Plate MB 1(two faces)
59
Pate MB 2: (for details refer to Chapter VI)
Plate MB 3: (for details refer to Chapter VI)
60
Plate MB 4: (for details refer to Chapter VI)
Plate MB 5: (for details refer to Chapter VI)
61
Figure 3.2.2: Number and Percentile Distribution of Shapes
Morphological Types Artifacts of MBS are classified typologically under eight general categories. These are further sub‐divided into a number of sub‐ types. The major types and their respective sub types are discussed below:
Major Types They are shown in descending order in frequency distribution against the total specimen of 336: Scraper (163:48.5%), Cutting tool (63:18.7%); Points (47:14.0%) tools of Hbn tradition (37:11%); others (10:3.0%); digging tools (8:2.4%); cores (6:1.8%) and TMT (2: 0.6%) (fig. 3.2.3).
Figure 3.2.3: Frequency Distribution of Tool Types in MBS
Scraper constitutes the largest category, having 12 sub‐types. Number and percentile distribution of each subtype
against the total number of scrapers (163) are placed in sequential order:
62
Of 47 points, borer and points (spear‐head and unclassified) represent the highest frequency of 20:42.6%. It is followed by burin (4:8.5%), borer cum knife (2:4.3%), and borer cum scraper (1:2.1%).
Side scraper (40:24.5%); round scraper (40:24.5%); end scraper (17:10.4%); notch scraper (17:10.4%), convex scraper (15:9.2%); nail/thumb scraper (9:5.5%); composite scraper (8:4.9%), concave scraper (6:3.7%); side cum end scraper (5:3.1%); nose scraper (3:1.8%); keel/steep scraper (2:1.2%) and side cum notch scraper (1:0.6%).
Tools of Hoabinhian Tradition This category in MBS is represented by 37 nos. (11%). Eight sub types are recognized. They are chopping tools (11:29.7%); lanceolate tip (7:18.9%); short axe (6:16.2%); waisted axe (4:10.8%) chipped axe and broad axe (3:8.1% each); lanceolate butt (2:5.4%) and chopping axe (1:2.7%) (fig. 3.2.4).
Cutting Tools This constitutes 7 subtypes, together representing 63 tools with a percentage of 18.7 in the MBS assemblage. The number and percentile distribution within the category is: knife (27:42.8%), blade flake‐ knife (21:33.3%), blade let (10:15.9%); wedge (2:3.2%); crescent, adze and pickaxe represents 1:1.6% each.
Others This category includes 3 sub types in 10 artifacts (3.0%) of the assemblage. The types are chunk (7:70%); waste flake/simple flake (2:20%) and sling ball (1:10%).
Points Five sub types are recognized. They together constitute 14% of the assemblage.
Figure 3.2.4: Frequencey Distribution of Hbn Types
Digging Tool Digging tool is represented by picks numbering 8 in the assemblage. Thus, the category represents 2.4% out of 336 artifacts of MBS.
Cores This category consists of 3 sub types ‐ simple core (3:60%); fluted core (2:40%) and spherical core (1:20%). They together represent 6:1.8% of the assemblage. 63
Tool Making Tools (TMT) This category is represented by 2 artifacts belonging to a single subtype designated as abrader/fabricator. TMT represents only 0.6% of the total collection. Weight Out of 336 lithic artifacts from MBS, 169 (50.3%) are below 50gms in weight. It includes 17 (5.1%) miniature implements of microlithic tradition. The next highest concentration of tools in the given interval of weight is 50 to 100 gms (16.7%). It is followed by 101 to 150 (11.3%); 151to 200 gm (5.4%); 201to 250gm (2.9%), 251 to 300 (4.2%); 301 to 350 gm (2.7%); 351 to 400 gm (1.2%); 401 to 450 gm (.9%); 451 to 500 gm (.6%); 501 to 550gm (1.2%); 551 to 600gm (.3%); 601 to 650g, (nil); 650 gm Plus (2.1%). Among the tool types scrapers exhibit highest concentration, of 106 artifactshaving weight less than 50gms. The PC represented by this category in the entire assemblage is 31.5%, followed by cutting tools (33:9.8%); and points (26:7.7). In 50 to 100 gm category highest concentration is found again among the scrapers (25:7.4%); followed by cutting tools (17:5.1%) and points (11:1.0%). In 101 to 150 gm category scrapers again shows the highest concentration (16:4.8%), followed by cutting tools (10:3.0%), Hbn. (6:1.8%) and points (5:1.5%). In 151 to 200 gm category again scraper shows the highest concentration (8:2.4%), followed Hbn. (7:2.1%). In 201 to 250 gm category again scraper shows the highest concentration (4:2.5%), followed by Hbn. (3:3.6%). 251 to 300 gm category Hbn represents the highest concentration (6:1.8%). 64
From 301 to 650 gm above the highest concentration among the tool types is found to be Hbn (13:3.9%); followed by digging tool (Pick) (5:1.5%). The tool types represented by less than 5 numbers (i.e. 1.5%) in any of the category of weight are not shown and these treated as negligible (table 3.2.9). Flake Scars Distribution of flake scars on an artifact is classified under eight categories, including a category designated as ‘none’ for those tools that have no flake scars, other than the main flake surface. The distributional patterns of flake scars are projected in the table (table 3.2.10). More than half (55.6%) of the total collection of tools from MBS is thoroughly worked, having flake scars all over. Flake scars restricted only to the lateral sides represent 23.5% of implements; while LP represents 9.5%; LD (4.5%); DP (1.5%); P (0.9%); D (0.6%). 3.9% of the collection under “none” is virtually unworked. Interfacetory Ridges (ifr) Set pattern of interfacetory ridges in the given lithic assemblage is indicative to the technique employed in giving the final shape of a tool. Three basic types of ifr are recognized to evaluate its pattern: viz. (1) Parallel: Elongated and narrow flake scars along with parallel interfacetory ridges. ‐ Blade/pressure flaking technique. (2) Overlap: Semi‐circular or oval shaped flake scars with looped interfacetory ridges. ‐ anvil technique.
Table 3.2.8: Classification: Morphological Types and their Frequency Distribution
(3) Assorted: A combination of both parallel and overlap. A fourth category is kept for the tools having no ifr but the mfs. They are categorized as ʹNoneʹ (table 3.2.11). The patterns of ifr indicate that pressure flaking or blade technique was predominant at MBS. 58.9% of tools are a product of this technique. Use of hammer
technique is apparent on 16.7% of artifacts. An admixture of above techniques is found among 18.7% of implements. While 5.7% exhibits only main flake surface (mfs). Frequency distribution of the ifr among the various types of artifact is shown below: (table 3.2.12). 65
Mid Ridge, Main Flake Surface and Positive Bulb of Percussion Mid Ridge 30.4% of the MBS assemblage exhibits a mid ridge on the upper surface of the tools.
No mid ridge is found on the opposite surface. Type wise frequency of the character is as follows scraper (11%) Hbn (1.5%) points (7.5%), CT (8.9%), DT (0.9%), TMT (Nil), core (nil) others (0.6%); Total = 102 (30.4%) in the assemblage.
Table 3.2.9: Number and Percentile Distribution of Tools against their Weight
Figure 3.2.5: Percentile Distribution of of Weight in Tool Types 66
Table 3.2.11: Number Distribution of ifr
Table 3.2.10: Distribution of Flake Scars
and
Percentile
Table 3.2.12
1. N.B.Upper column indicates out of total No. of specific ifr type. 2. Lower column indicates % out of total collection (i.e. 336).
Main Flake Surface Majority of the implements (80.7%) exhibits mfs. on its lower surface. While the upper surface (infect both the surfaces) exhibits only 6% in the assemblage. Positive Bulb of Percussion 55.1% and 1.5% of the implements of MBS exhibits a positive bulb of percussion on the lower and the upper surfaces respectively. Gripping Facility Out of 336 artifacts, 251 (74.7%) exhibits grip scars on one of the surfaces of an implement. They are present in three
manners, such as grip‐scars in the form of TPS and PPS and the presence of both TPS and PPS on a common plane. 57.1% of the assemblage exhibits only TPS, while 8.3% are facilitated only with PPS. A combination of both TPS and PPS is found on 9.2% of implement. Thus, out of 251 grip‐scared implements, TPS represents the highest frequency (192: 76.5%). It is followed by TPS ‐ PPS combination (31: 12.4%) and PPS (28: 11.1%). TPS and TPS‐ PPS combination together constitutes 88.9%, which is indicative to the general trend in respect of operational mood (table 3.2.13). 67
Table 3.2.13: Type‐Wise Break up of Grip‐Scars
categories, viz. tang, groove, tang‐groove and none. In the assemblage of MBS 25 (7.5%) exhibits hafting facility in various forms viz. tang is represented by 6 (1.8%) groove 14 (4.2%) and a combination of both tang and groove 5 (1.5%) (tables 3.2.14 a and b). 17.8% of non facilitated artifacts of MBS assemblage may not be considered as waste product, instead they could be used for various purposes as grinder, TMT, scraper etc.
Out of 336 artifacts 85 (25.3%), i.e. almost 1/4th is devoid of any type of grip scars. In this connection it should be mentioned that out of 25.3% of non‐grip‐scar implements 25:7.5% are facilitated with hafting devices in the form of tang, and grooves (also includes constriction). So the actual number of non‐facilitated category stands on 60 (17.9%) (table 3.2.14). Hafting Facility On the basis of provision made for hafting the implements are placed under four
Table 3.2.14a: Frequency Distribution of Gripped and Non‐Facilitated Implements Hafting facility Tang Groove Tang & Total None G. Total groove No. Pc No. Pc No. Pc No. Pc No. Pc No. Pc 6 1.8% 14 4.2% 5 1.5% 25 7.5 311 92.5% 336 100% Table 3.2.14 b: Frequency Distribution of Gripped and Hafted Implements Gripped tool Hafted tools Total None Grand total No. 251
Pc 74.7%
No. 25
Pc 7.5%
No. 276
Pc 82.2%
68
No. 60
Pc 17.8%
No. 336
Pc 100.0%
Contour Either of the surfaces of an implement exhibits 4 types of contour namely, plain, concave, convex and humped. Upper
surface of 90.2% are convex in contour; while it is plain, which is the dominating character for the lower surface with a percentage of 68.4 (table 3.2.15).
Table 3.2.15: Contouring Pattern of MBS Artifacts
The types of the contour are sub divided into four categories by taking into consideration of both the surfaces together as a single whole. In these categories Plano‐ convex exhibits the highest frequency of 218 in the assemblage with a percentage of 64.9 (table 3.2.16).
concave and convex with or without an edge slope in the form of uni‐beveling or bi‐beveling. Like that of Saw Mer most of the artifacts exhibit multiple characters (fig. 3.2.23). In the following chapter an attempt has been made to find out the effective working area of an implement through metric analysis. The basic characters of working edge (table 3.2.17) and the composition of the constituent of characters against the individual artifacts (table 3.2.18) are shown in the following tables. Straight –unibevel character of WE is found highest with 18.7%. It is followed by UX (12.8%) and SB (10.7%), BX (8.6%), SPU (7.1%). The rest of the characters exhibit less than 5% (table 3.2.18). Among the characters of ‘edge slope’ in the assemblage unibevelling shows the highest frequency with 61.2%; while in the character of edge alignment it is straight cutting edge with a percentage of 37.5. This is followed by convex (27.2%), pointed (20.8%), concave (14.4%).
Table 3.2.16: Bi‐Contour Nature and Frequency Distribution of the Implements from MBS
Working Edge The edge alignment and the slope of the edge (edge slope) are taken as morphological character in respect of working edge of an implement. The alignment of working edge exhibits four basic characters, viz. straight, pointed, 69
Table 3.2.17: Distribution of Characters of Working Edge
Cortex Only 0.9% of the lithic assemblage exhibits a fully cortexed body except its intended scars. However, the remnant of cortexed surface is found among 57 artifacts in either of the one or both surfaces. The percentage of such implement is 17.0. In this connection it may be mentioned that the presence of cortexed surface, in one or the other form, on both the surfaces of an implement, strongly suggest that the MBS people used open caste doleritic (originated in intruded form) blocks. These were already exposed and weathered while used as raw material. So, instead of quarrying the material from its sources they preferred naturally fractured lumps available in its vicinity. Truncate Truncated tools represent 16.1% in the MBS assemblage, of which oblique truncation represents 33.3%, straight 64.8% and
convex 1.9%. Out of 54 truncated tools the Hbn alone represent 40.7%. 3. Bibra Gre (BBG) Bibra means confluence and Gre/grea in Garo term means place. Thus in Garo language it stands for the “place of confluence”, an appropriate term used for the locality where the site exists. This locality is situated at a distance of about 8 Kms. southeast of Asannang Gre, the Sub divisional Head quarters of the Western Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. The site is located on a flat parabolic landmass overlooking the rivers Ganol and Didari flowing at about 5 meters below the site. Situated near the mouth of the Didari on the left, the site is in fact undulated on the right bank of the river Ganol. Close to it, Didari merged with the later leaving a wide flood plain in the form of a basin on its opposite bank. (Plate 3.3.01).The altitude of the site is 900 m AMSL. 70
Table 3.2.18: Edge Characters and their Frequency Distribution, MBS
71
Table 3.2.19: Nature of truncation and their frequency distribution in MBS
Nature of the Site Geologically a riverine and culturally a habitational site with cobble flaked tradition is characterized by its very location near the confluence of two rivers. This is a common phenomenon to all other cobble‐flaked cultural sites in Northeast. Mode of Finding / Occurrence This is a stratified site. Artifacts are embedded in the exposed vertical section of the river Ganol and a few were lying scattered on the river bed due to erosion of a portion of the site. Analysis of lithic artifacts Ninety artifacts have been collected by the Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University since its discovery in 1992. Shape Barring the flaked portions the overall contour of the artifacts are smooth and angle less. This is because of the pebbleic nature of the raw materials. In fact the shapes of the implement were largely determined by the selection of cobbles in its natural form and size, as per the knapper’s requirements. Six basic shapes are found in the assemblage. They are successively shown in order of frequency distribution:
Rectangular (37:41.1%); ovate (23:25.6%); triangular (17:18.9%); rounded (10:11.1%); trident (2:2.2%) and irregular (1:1.1%). Tool Types Artifacts of BBG are classified typologically under five general categories. Taking into consideration other details, they are further subdivided accordingly into a numbers of sub types. The major types and their respective sub types are discussed below: Among the major types, implements of Hoabinhian (Hbn) tradition alone represent 55.6%. It is followed by scraper (21.1%), cutting tools (16.7%); points (5.5%) and digging tools (1.1%). I. Tools of Hoabinhian Tradition More than half of the assemblage (55.6%) is of this category. Consisted of nine sub‐ types, viz. chopping axe (16.7%); sumatraliths (12.2%); chipped tool (6.7%); chipped axe (5.6%); lanceolate (4.4%); short axe (3.3%); broad axe (2.2%); pestle (2.2%); ponder (2.2%): This morphological classification is subjected to further modification through techno metric analysis based on edge angle.
72
Figure 3.3.1: Frequency Distribution of Various Shapes of the Implements in BBG Assemblages
Plate 3.3.01: BIBRA GRE
73
Figure 3.3.2: Frequencey Distribution of Tool Types from BBG
II. Cutting tools This constitutes three sub‐types, together representing 16.7% of artifacts in the BBG assemblage. Percentile distributions of the sub‐types within the category are: wedge (53.4%); knife (33.3%) and chisel (13.3%).
IV. Points Only two sub‐types – borer and simple points representing this category by 2.2%: and 3.3% respectively, in the assemblage. However, the technometric analysis altered the constituent considerably.
III. Scraper Four sub‐types constitute the category of scraper. Percentile distributions of sub types are as follows: round scraper (47.3%); side scraper (26.3%); end scraper (21.1%) and convex scraper (5.3%)
V. Digging Tools Only pick is recognized typologically for this category and it represents only 1.1% in the assemblage.
74
Figure 3.3.3: Frequency Distribution of Hbn Types
75
LITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM BIBRA GRE ((For details refer to chapter VI) Plate BB 1 Dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower) surfaces
76
Plate BB 2
Plate BB 3
77
Plate BB 4 (Dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower) surfaces)
78
Figure 3.3.4: Frequency Distribution of sub‐types of Scraper Table 3.3.1: Classification and Frequency Distribution of Morphological Types, BBG
79
Weight of the BBG Artifacts Out of the 90 lithic artifacts from BBG 12 (13.3%) are below 50 gms in weight; out of which 7.8% belongs to the category of scrapers followed by points 3.3% and cutting tools 2.2%. Range from 51 to 100 gms in the weight of artifacts exhibits 14.4%, of which scrapers contain 8.9%; Hoabinhian 3.3% and 1% each for points and cutting tools. 101 to 150 gm consists of 13.3%, of which scrapers: 1.1%; Hoabinhian: 6.7%; points: 1.1% and cutting tools: 4.4%. 151 to 200 gm exhibits 15.6%, of which scrapers: 2.2% and 6.7% each by Hoabinhian and cutting tools. 201 to 250 gm. consists of 10%, of which scraper: 1.1%; Hoabinhian 7.7% and cutting tools 1.1%. 251 to 300 gm comprises 3.3% of artifacts, of which Hoabinhian 2.2% and cutting tools 1.1%. 301 to 350 gms exhibit 6.6%, of which Hoabinhian 5.6% and digging tools 1%. 351 to 400 gms: artifacts of this range include only Hoabinhian tools having a percentage of 8.9%, similarly, 401 to 450 gm Hoabinhian, 7.8% 451 to 500 gm Hoabinhian 4.4% 501 to 550 gm Nil 551 to 600 gm Nil 601 to 650 gm Hoabinhian, 1.1% 651 above Hoabinhian 0.1% No artifacts other than Hoabinhian are found within the range of 300 to 650 gm. This range constitutes 27.8% in the BBG assemblage.
Flake Scars Distribution of flake scars on an artifact is classified under eight categories, including a category designated as ‘none’ for those tools that have no flake scars other than the main flake surface. The distributional patterns of flake scars are projected in the table 3.3.2. 21.1% of BBG assemblages are devoid of any flake scars other than the cobble flake (mfs) surface. Table 3.3.2: Percentile Distribution of Flake Scars, BBG
Interfacetory Ridges (Ifr) Set pattern of interfacetory ridges of the BBG assemblage gives an idea in the final stage of preparation of an implement. None category includes artifacts with main flake surface only and also one or two independent flake scars without having any Ifr as mentioned above. More than half (53.9%) of the assemblage of BBG belongs to this category indicting less energy input in manufacturing a tool. Blade technique was known to them but it was not popular, instead either percussion or hammering techniques was a traditionally accepted one next to none. Application of blade techniques is represented by 1.7% in the form of parallel ifr in the assemblage. 80
Table 3.3.3: Distributional Patterns of Flake Scars against the Tool Types
Table 3.3.4: Flake scars: number and Percentage against the Distribution of Characters found on both the Surfaces of an Artifact. Nature of Side I Side II Grand total Sl. interfacetory No. No. PC No. PC No. PC ridges 1 Parallel 2 2.2% 1 1.1% 3 1.7% 2
Overlap
13
14.4%
45
50.0%
58
32.2%
3
Assorted
12
13.3%
10
11.1%
22
12.2%
4
None
63
70.0%
34
37.8%
97
53.9%
Total
90
99.9%
90
100.0%
180
100.0%
Mid‐ridge, Main‐flake Surface and Positive Bulb of Percussion Mid ridge: Only 3.3% and 2.2% of the BBG assemblage exhibits a mid‐ridge on the upper and the lower surface of an artifact respectively. Main Flake Surface (mfs) 88.9% of the assemblage exhibits mfs on the lower surface; while 3.3% on both the surfaces. In other words, 3.3% of artifacts are doubly flaked to have a main flake surface on both the surfaces. Positive Bulb of Percussion Presence of positive bulb of percussion in the BBG assemblage is quite negligible, representing only 1.1% in the entire collection.
Gripping Facility Out of 90 artifacts, 46 (51.1%) exhibits grip scars in the following order: TPS (16:17.8%); PPS (21:23.3%) and the combination of TPS and PPS (9:10.0%). In the assemblage of BBG scrapers represent 18.9% Grip scared tools. Hbn 22.2%, points 3.3% and cutting tools 6.7%. 48.9% of BBG assemblage is devoid of any type of grip scars. It should be mentioned that out of 48.9% of non‐grip scared implements 8.8% are facilitated with hafting device in the form of tang and grooves (also includes constriction). So the actual number in non facilitated category stands on 41.1%. 81
Hafting Facility On the basis of availability of hafting facility, the implements of BBG are categorized under 3 groups, viz‐ tang, groove and none (table 3.3.5). In the
assemblage of BBG, only 7.8% exhibits hafting device in the form of tang and groove. In these categories tang represents 1.1%, while the groove 6.7% (table 3.3.6).
Table 3.3.5: Frequency Distribution of Hafting Facilities Hafting facility Tang Tang Total None G. Total No. PC No. PC No. PC No. PC No. PC 1 1.1% 6 6.6% 7 7.8% 83 92.2% 90 100.0% Table 3.3.6: Frequency Distribution of Gripped, Hafted and Non‐Intended Tools Gripped tool Hafted tool Total None G. Total No. PC No. PC No. PC No. PC No. PC 46 51.1% 7 7.8% 53 58.9% 37 41.1% 90 100.0%
A simple cobble spall without further modification often proved to be suitable for operating in BBG context. Contour In BBG assemblage either of the surfaces of an implement may exhibits three types of contour, viz. convex, plain and concave. Upper surface of 74.5% of implements are convex in contour. It is followed by the
plain with a percentage of 23.3 and concave 2.2% (table 3.3.7). Face II (lower surface) also exhibits a higher percent of convexcity, representing 51.1%, followed by plain 42.2% and concave 6.7% (table 3.3.8 and fig. 3.3.5). The overall contour of an implement by taken into consideration of both the surfaces may further be sub‐divided into 7 categories as shown in (table 3.3.7).
Table 3.3.7: Nature of Contouring (face wise) and its Frequency Distribution Artifact (BBG) Sl. No. Contour UPPER SERFACE LOWER SERFACE No. PC No. PC 1 Plain 21 23.3% 38 42.2% 2
Convex
67
74.5%
46
51.1%
3
Concave
2
2.2%
6
6.7%
Total
90
100.0%
90
100.0%
Figure 3.3.5: Frequency of Contouring Pattern of Artifacts from BBG 82
Table 3.3.8: Cross Sectional Contouring of Artifacts from BBG Assemblage
Working Edge Alignment of the working edge and its slopes is taken for consideration to fix the nature of working edge of an implement. The alignment exhibits four basic characters viz. straight, pointed, concave and convex with or without an edge slope in the form of uni‐bevelling and bi beveling. A cluster of characters of working edge may be seen in a single artifact. These are recorded initially, but for further verification through techno metric analysis. The basic characters of working edge (fig. 3.3.5 and table 3.3.9) and the comparison of the consistent of the characters (fig. 3.3.6) are shown in the following pages. Uni‐bevel convex (uc) and straight unibevel characters of the WE exhibit the
highest frequency in the BBG assemblage with a percentage of 30.0 and 20.0 respectively. This is followed by bi‐bevel– convex 10.0%; PUX 8.9% and SB 7.8%. The rest of the characters of WE exhibit less than 4.5%. In edge slope category uni‐ bevelling is a dominating character, having 71.8% in the category or 30.8% among the assemblage. Cortex 94.4% of the BBG assemblage exhibits pebble cortex on upper surface. Of which 66.7% and 27.8% are in total and partial state respectively. The lower surface exhibits 3.3% total and 6.7% partial cortex. 10% of the collection exhibits pebble cortex on both the surfaces. Type wise distribution of cortex is shown in (table 3.3.10).
Table 3.3.9: Characters of Working Edge
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30.80%
35.00% 25.80%
30.00% 25.00% 20.00%
17.20%
12.10% 9.10%
15.00%
Series1
4.00%
10.00%
1.00%
5.00% 0.00% Straight
Concave
Convex
Pointed
Flat base
Unibevel
bibevel
Figure 3.3.6: Frequency distribution of Edge Line
Table 3.3.10: Composite Nature of working edge in BBG Assemblage and their Frequency Distribution
Truncation This character is available in 34.4% of implements of the BBG. Of which Hbn alone represents 74.2%. The characters of
truncation are represented by oblique (9:10.0%); straight (21:23.3%) and convex (1:1.1%).
84
Table 3.3.11: Frequency Distribution of Cortexed Tools in BBG Assemblage
Table 3.3.12: The Nature of Truncation and their Frequency Distribution among the Different Tool Types of BBG
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CHAPTER ‐ IV
4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES
Altogether 621 numbers of artifacts from SMR, MBS and BBG are initially brought under morphological study. The quantum of materials varies from site to site because of the fact that these were collected under specific condition applicable to the sites under study. No selection of materials was made at the site itself, instead, the whole lot of artifacts was considered as an assemblage. Thus, a total of 195 artifacts were found available on the eroded surface of Saw Mer; while only 90 were ascribed to Bibra Gre. These were collected from a stratified implementifarous layer, naturally exposed in the river section situated at Bibra Gre on the confluence of Didari and Ganol rivers. Makbil Bisik represents 336 artifacts yielded from a ʹTest‐pitʹ laid down at the site. Here, the classification of artifacts under various types and subtypes are made on the basis of their form and method of manufacturing. Five schedules for this purpose have been used (Schedules:A‐E:p. 137‐139). In this connection, it may be mentioned that besides this conventional method of classification, another approach based on technological aspects has been attempted (Chapter‐V), to understand more precisely the cultural affinities among the assemblages. This will be viewed in terms of their proximity and distance within a given chrono‐cultural frame work. The form deals with the culture process and its growth. The basis is material evidence, equipped with certain tool types in the form of ʹindex fossilʹ, used as an indicator of cultural entity.
The latter approach involves the technical aspects and this may be termed as technometry of tools. Through this it is an endeavour to find out the effective working area (working edge) of a tool and the field of operation or the media over which it has been used. This, in turn, may help in understanding the basic as well as supplementary subsistence pattern of the author of an assemblage. In this chapter an attempt has been made to concentrate only on the morphological aspects in a comparative manner. Raw Material Dolerite was exclusively used by the prehistoric people of Garo Hills, while it is high grade clay stone known as rhyolite that was preferred by the prehistoric people of Khasi Hills. At least five slides from each assemblage have been examined. The slides from Garo Hills revealed a common mineral composition of rock belonging to basal group. Minerologically, the raw material exhibits a more or less common composition, consisting mainly of plagioclases (lath‐shaped) {(Naca) AL2 Sio8}, Pyroxene, olivine and iron oxide. The characteristically subophitic textures along with the minerals indicate the name of the rock as dolerite‐ a dyke rock. (Personal communication: Professor A. Mazumdar, Departmentof Geology, Gauhati University 2002). In Garo Hills, using of dolerite as a raw material is common and a culturally controlled phenomenon. But its source varies amongst the cultural bands of Garo Hills. For instance, the material used at 86
Shapes Predominancy of shape(s) in the lithic assemblages of Meghalaya is largely controlled by the mode of occurrences of raw material. In contrary to BBG, raw materials in SMR and MBS are found to exist in the form of fractured angular faceted blocks. On the other hand, cobbles in various shapes and forms were used at BBG. The contours of these were smooth and edge less. The Prehistoric people of BBG preferred roughly rectangular or oval shaped cobbles for making implements. As regards the shape, it is nature based and thus, it is only a matter of selection of raw materials in their desired forms (table 4.1). Although some of the shapes recurred more frequently, yet it may not be considered as traditionally controlled phenomenon.
Bibra Gre is doleritic cobbles collected from river beds; while the raw material used at Makbil Bisik comes from out‐crop exposed in the form of fractured blocks situated close to the site. Texturally, raw material is homogenous (medium grained) in MBS, while it is heterogeneous (fine, medium and coarse) in BBG. Heterogeneity at BBG is because of drifting nature of raw materials from various sources and subsequently deposited on the riverbeds of Didari and Ganol situated close to the site. Raw material of Saw Mer is entirely different from that of BBG and MBS. At Saw Mer it is rhyolite a locally available and extensively used raw material as that of the dolerite in MBS and BBG. So, in all the cases, the ranges of selection of raw material remained confined only to the local limit and were traditionally controlled without having any sign of further experimentation.
Table 4.1: Percentile Distribution of Shapes (Site wise) Sl. No. Shape SMR 1 Rounded 6.2 % 2 Square 1.0 % 3 Rectangular 28.7% 4 Triangular 32.8% 5 Ovate 14.3% 6 Sickle Shaped 2.6% 7 Semi‐circular 3.6% 8 Trident 8.2% 9 ‘8’ shaped 0.5% 10 Irregular 2.1% 11 Total 100.0%
Tool Types Eight major types are typologically identified, of which seven are considered as typologically attributed ʹfunctional typeʹ, while the remaining ones as ʹcultural typeʹ attributed to type‐fossil. Determination of cultural types may lead one to the
Sites MBS 15.2 % 0.6% 26.8% 31.5% 9.5 % 0.6% 4.8% 0.9% 0.6% 9.5% 100.0%
BBG 11.1% ‐ 41.1% 18.9% 25.6% ‐ ‐ 2.2% ‐ 1.1% 100.0%
understanding of culture formation and growth within a broad time frame. Typological classification exhibits that scraper as a class of implements for economic pursuits constitutes highest frequency in the assemblages of Saw Mer (53.3%) and Makbil Bisik (48.5%). Bibra 87
Gre, on the other hand, BBG maintained a comparatively low profile in this regard by representing only 21.1%.
Proximity and distances among the assemblages in respect of scrapers may be shown as follows: (ratio in unit of 100 in SMR: MBS: BBG)
Plate 4.01: The sources of Raw Material (Dolerite) near the site at Garo Hills
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Figure 4.1: Proximity and Distances in respect of Scrapers
If this type of implements stood to represent a particular economic activity, then obviously there is a close proximity between SMR and MBS than that of BBG. Here it maintained a distance of 22 to 26 units from these sites (fig. 4.1).
Points in the form of spear‐head and arrowhead may more reliably be considered as an offensive weapon for pursuing the subsistence economy related to hunting.
Figure 4.2: Proximity and Distance in Respect of Points
Observation, analysis and inference on fig. 4.2: 1. SMR maintained a positive distance of 7 units and 31 units over MBS and BBG respectively. 2. MBS exhibits a positive distance of 24 units from BBG and a negative distance of 7 units from SMR. 3. BBG clearly sets apart itself from the above mentioned economic pursuits by 24 to 31 units from other two sites.
Hunting and gathering as subsistence economy has so far been identified as basic occupation of the prehistoric people of Saw Mer and Makbil Bisik. At this stage it is difficult to find out the basic economy of Bibra Gre, because it consistently maintained a substantial distance from both the sites but in more pronounced way with that of Saw Mer. 89
Frequency distribution of various tool types further indicates that in Saw Mer, hunting is the primary subsistence strategy while gathering is supportive one. In case of Makbil Bisik it is reverse. It is interesting to note that unit distribution of cutting tool in the ratio of SMR (32): MBS (36): BBG (32) itself speaks of a general category of implements. From utilitarian point of view, these were equally important to all the sites under study to carry out day‐to‐day activities. No digging tools have been found in Saw Mer. The unit distribution of 0:69: 31
further consolidates the hypothesis on economic pursuits. Digging tools were supposed to be used to pursue the gathering economy in the lower altitude. Ascertaining the economic activities through this classification (table: 4.2) is certainly not a full proof one as it excludes the functional aspects of cultural types. A more comprehensive picture may emerge out if we deal the same data from different angles based on technometry of tools, (Chapter‐V).
Table 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Various Tool Types A. Morphological types (functional) Sl. No. 1 Scraper 2 Points 3 Cutting tools 4 Digging tools 5 Tool Making tools (TMT) 6 Cores 7 Others Total B. Morphological types (cultural) 1 Tools of Hbn. Tradition Grand total
Percentile distribution 53.3: 48.5: 21.1 16.4:14.0: 5.5 16.9: 18.7:16.7 0: 2.4:1.1 3.1:0.6:0 0.5:1.8:0 6.2: 3.0:0 96.4: 89.0: 44.4 3.6: 11.0:55.6 100:100:100
Unit distribution 43:39:17 46:39:15 32:36:32 0:69:31 84:16:0 22:78:0 67:33:0 294:310:95 5:16:79 299:326:174
A. Morphological types (functional) = 42: 44: 14 units General B. Morphological type (cultural) = 5: 16: 79 units Certain culturally determined tool types assemblages under study in a distinct and well established as tools of Hoabinhain in a varied proportions (table 4.3) and also traditions are only considered here and the concentration Hoabinhian elements in used as one of the bases in understanding the lithic assemblages (ratio in units): the cultural affinities between the sites. (SMR:MBS:BBG) (fig. 4.3) are shown as These ʹindex fossilʹ constitutes a part of the below:
90
Figure 4.3: Proximity and Distances among the Sites in Respect of Hbn Tradition Table 4.3: Tools of Hbn. Tradition: their sub types and Frequency Distribution Ratio in S. N. Tools of Percentage Hoabinhian SMR:MBS:BBG Tradition (Cultural Sub‐ types) 1 Broad axe 0: 0.9: 2.2 2 Chipped axe 0.5:0: 5.6 3 Chopping axe 0: 0.3: 16.7 4 Chopping tool 0: 3.3: 16.7 5 Lanceolate 0: 0.9: 4.4 6 Lanceolate butt 0: 0.6: 0 7 Lanceolate tip 2.1: 2.1: 0 8. Ponder 0: 0: 2.2 9 Pestle 0: 0: 2.2 10 Short axe 0: 1.8: 3.3 11 Sumatralith 0.5: 0: 12.2 12 Waisted tools 0.5: 1.2: 0 13 Total constituent 3.6: 11.1:55.5 % in the assemblages
The unit distribution in this regard further displays the proximity and distance among the sites (table 4.3). SMR and MBS maintained a negative distance of 74 and 63 units respectively from BBG, which stands at 79 units. In other words, the Makbil Bisik to a great extent is influenced by the Hoabinhian cultural elements, but at the same time within this blend, MBS tends to vary in its economic pursuits as is reflected by the general constituent of the lithic assemblage. Weight Details in respect of weight of the artifacts are shown site wise in the preceding chapter. Here only the relevant aspects are highlighted. 79.5 % (56 units) of Saw Mer assemblage is below 50 gms in weight. It is 50.3% (35 units) in Makbil Bisik. This category in Bibra Gre represents only 13.3 % (9 units). In 50 to 300 gms category SMR maintains a negative distance of 17 and 31 units from MBS and BBG respectively. No artifact beyond 300 grams is found at SMR (table 4.4). The high frequency of light duty tools and the absence of artifacts beyond 300 gms at SMR point towards mobile economy
Total % of 3 sites ‐ 3.6 + 11.1 + 55.5 = 70.2 % Ratio in units ‐ 3.6/70.2 x 100: 11.1/70.2 x 100: 55..5/70.2 x 100 = 5: 16: 79 units Among the three sites, BBG contains highest number of ʹtype fossilsʹ in its assemblage ‐ 55.5%. It is followed by MBS (11.1%) and SMR (3.6%). It is worthy to mention that more than half of the assemblage of BBG belongs to this category and hence, it deserves the status of Core cultural site in terms of Hoabinhian lithic tradition. 91
Interfacetory Ridges (Ifr.) Pattern of interfacetory ridges are greatly influenced by the mode of flaking and, accordingly, it may be used as a technique indicator of tool manufacturing. Parallel ifr. is a product of either blade or pressure flaking technique. Despite the differences in raw materials the application of this technique is quite high in Saw Mer (62.6%) and Makbil Bisik (58.9%). It reflects the idea‐adaptation at a certain point of time and become a traditionally controlled cultural trait. Raw material of BBG is same like that of MBS, but it is interesting to note that though the BBG people acquired the technique, its application was quite limited (1.7%) and thus culturally inert. This may be the result of: 1. A shift towards the ʹCobble‐spallʹ or ʹPebble flakeʹ culture, or 2. This pebble flaked culture people were uninterested in switching over to a new technique of manufacturing tools. In both the cases the traditional technology based on direct/indirect percussion technique was adhere to by the BBG people as indicated by the interfacetory ridges of the overlapped flake scars. The frequency of this category of implements in the assemblage of BBG is 32.2%. Same technique was also applied in splitting the cobble where there is no interfacetory ridges, but the main flake surface. In terms of ifr., this category of implements is termed as ʹNoneʹ, representing, 53.9% in the assemblage. Here they simply splitted the cobble longitudinally into two halves to produce one or more (?)1 implement at a very low energy input but its frequency distribution positively indicates its potentiality in
attuned with nomadic way of life. This proposition may further be substantiated by the very location of the site over an open hill ridge, which in all probabilities may be used as a temporary camp site. Table 4.4: Distribution of weight in Percent and Unit (SMR:MBS:BBG)
Flake scars Proximity in the distributional patterns of flake scars among the three lithic assemblages (table 4.5), pertain to a common use of the implements at least up to a certain degrees. The applicability of this proposition, however, restricts only to the cultures having a common eco‐cultural background. Nevertheless, it is not a full proof analogy, but it may provide a tentative trend in relative terms. Proximity and distance in this regard among the sites is projected through the following composite table 4.5. Table 4.5: Character‐Wise Variation of Flake Scars (in units, ratio of SMR: MBS: BBG) 1. Lateral (L) = 38: 28: 34 2. Distal (D) = 20: 12: 67 3. Proximal (P) = 10: 6: 84 4. L + D = 66: 34: 0 5. LP = 28: 35: 37 6. LDP = 37: 46: 17 7. DP = 17: 27: 57 8. None (N) = 13: 14: 73
Variation Between the Sites: SMR ‐ MBS = 4 units MBS ‐ BBG = 21 units BBG ‐ SMR = 17 units 92
coping with their subsistence strategy and so it could be recognized as a traditionally
controlled phenomenon without any sign of discretion.
Table 4.6: Interfacetory Ridges and its Site‐Wise Distribution Sl. No. Pattern of ifr. Ratio in percentage Ratio in Units 51: 48: 1 1 Parallel 62.6: 58.9: 1.7 2 Overlap 13:8: 16.7: 32.2 22: 27: 51 3 Assorted 18.5: 18.7: 12.2 35: 38: 25 4. None * 5.1: 5.7: 53.9 8: 9: 83 100.0 %: 100%: 100% Total 291/2: 301/2: 40 * includes artifacts with mfs and defused flake scar without having any ifr. Table 4.7: Schematic Profile: Mid‐ridge, Main Flake Surface, Positive Bulb of Percussion and Striking Platform (frequency in the ratio of SMR:MBS:BBG) Sl. Morphological characters Ratio in percentage Ratio in Units of 100 No 1 Mid‐ridge 23.1: 30.4: 3.3 41: 53: 6 2 Main flake surface 88.2: 80.7: 88.9 34: 31: 35 3 Positive bulb of percussion 51.3: 55.1: 1.1 48: 51: 1 59:5: 45:8: 23.3 46: 36: 18 4 Striking platform Total 169: 171: 60 General trend =
1. Whether both the surface of a splitted cobble was used as an implement is to be verified through the frequency distribution of contours of the main flake surface. Mid Ridge Mid ridge is generally found among the various types of points and occasionally in scrapers. Presence of a mid‐ridge in majority of the cases is functional in the sense of obtaining a bilaterally bevelled edge. MBS with its 53 units maintained a positive distance of 12 and 47 units respectively for SMR and BBG. Main Flake Surface Above 80% of implements in a proportion of 34: 31: 35 units of the respective assemblages exhibit a ʹmain flake surfaceʹ. The variation among the sites is only of 4 units. High frequency of this character put
42: 43: 15
the assemblages primarily under the category of Flake tool Industry. Positive Bulb of Percussion Sharp closeness in frequency distribution of positive bulb of percussion between SMR and MBS indicates a common tactics in detaching the main flake from its parentʹs body. Proportionate distribution of striking platform in relation to positive bulb of percussion clearly indicates the use of indirect percussion technique for the purpose. BBG maintained a conspicuous gap in this regard. It may be attributed to the employment of a different tactic in detaching the flake (splitting the cobbles). Presence of ‘point of impact’ and low frequency of ‘sticking platform’ may point towards direct percussion technique.
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The overall direction of the distribution of aforementioned characters indicates a close proximity between SMR and MBS with a gap of only 1 unit; while BBG maintained a negative distance of 27 and 28 units respectively from SMR and MBS. Gripping Facility Functional efficiency and gripping comfort are the two vital aspects of a hand operating tool, which was well perceived by the prehistoric people of Meghalaya. They had a definite aim of having a better grip for tools he made. Such intended flake scars or grip‐scars are quite common in the assemblages of SMR and MBS. Furthermore, a thick edge with a precise contour may also equally be effective for gripping as is seen in the cobble spall tools of BBG. This type of tools, of course needs support from either of palm or thumb pad and as such they are assessed accordingly.
Another category of artifacts indicates hafting in the form of suitably placed grooves, constriction, tang etc. These types of implements are also found at varied proportion in the lithic assemblages of Meghalaya. Size, shape and weight often contribute towards the gripping patterns. For instance, TPS frequent among the light duty tools where gripping pressure from the thumb is sufficient to manipulate the instrument. Similarly, a combination of both TPS and PPS are found in comparatively heavier and laterally worked tools; PPS generally associates with heavy tools where operational thrust is resisted by the palm‐pit. Besides, there are some other tools in the MBS assemblage, which require both hands. Interestingly such type of tools also provides grip‐scars and these are arranged in accordance with the mode of manipulation.
Table 4.8: Distribution of Grip Ccars (GS): (ratio in PC and unit)
1. TPS 66.7 %: 57.1%: 17.8 % 2. PPS 3.6 %: 8.3 %: 23.3 % 3. TPS + PPS 4.6 %: 9.2 %: 10.0 % 4. GS (Total) 74.9 % : 74.7%: 51.1% 5. None ‐‐ 25.1%: 25.3%: 48.95 High frequency of TPS in the SMR assemblage (66.7%) and overall increase in the unit distribution clearly indicates the dominance of light weight (duty) tools. These tools were definitely used against a comparatively softer medium, such as, peeling off skins of animals and other organic materials. From the point of view of TPS, the MBS people were also practicing the same economy up to a great extent but with a negative distance of 7 units from that of SMR. While BBG further
94
= = = = =
47: 40: 13 units. 10: 24: 16 units. 19: 39: 42 units 37: 37: 26 units. 25: 25: 50 units.
maintained a negative distance of 27 to 34 units from the other two sites. PPS are associated with heavy duty tools. In this category BBG exhibits the highest frequency with a positive distance of 56 and 42 units from SMR and MBS respectively. Mode of operation of PPS laden implements indicates downward cutting. The circumstantial evidences strongly suggest that these might have been used as hand adze for various purposes.
Hafting Facility Implements of this category represent 11.8%, 7.5 %1 and 7.8 % in the assemblage of SMR, MBS and BBG respectively and accordingly the ratio in unit is 43:28:29. This further affirms the varied cultural entity of sites. Truncation Truncation of tool is a common feature in the Hoabinhian lithic tradition. This feature with a ratio of 17:26:57 units further confirmed and maintained the same sequential order of the sites in respect of Hoabinhian traits. Contour In the present context contour dose not play any major role. Nevertheless its relevance is felt to understand the nature and utilization of a cobble flake that predominate the BBG assemblage. In BBG suitable cobbles were splitted longitudinally and many have been used as tools without bringing about further modification. Now, the question is whether both the halves of a cobble were utilized. Pattern of contouring of the main flake surface of the splitted cobbles (fig. 4.12) may come to provide some clues to the better understanding of the problem we are dealing with:
is not matched by corresponding proportion of concave surface as is expected to be. As such, it negates the possibility of instant using of both the halves. The ratio between convexity and concavity of mfs is 88:12 units. Cortex The ratio of cortexed tool in the assemblage is 17.9%:17.9%:94.4% i.e. 14:14:72 units. This includes both partial as well as totally cortexed tools. Further, it may be mentioned that other than BBG, the sites exhibit only general cortex: while BBG exclusively belongs to the pebble cortex category ‐‐ denoting a pebble (cobble) flake industry. In that context with 72 units in the unit‐ratio BBG alone can claim as an absolute Hoabinhian culture. The other two sites maintained equidistant from BBG in this regard. A trend consistent with various relevant characters segregates the basic economic practices of the localities under study. The tool kits from these sites definitely possess certain tradition bound tool types, i.e. ʹtype fossilʹ that by themselves demand a common chrono cultural platform but from this platform the sites deviated from one another in three directions. Saw Mer represents Hunting‐gathering while intensive food collection or gathering‐ hunting by Makbil Bisik. On the other hand, it is observed that among the three sites BBG alone maintained a significant distance in its technological pursuits. This discernible variation is quite indicative of adherence to a different kind of basic subsistence strategy, other than that based on hunting‐gathering economy.
Table 4.9: Frequency Distribution of Contour of Main Flake surface in BBG Assemblage
Plain 42.2 % Convex 51.1% Concave 6.7 % More than 50% of the cobble spall tools exhibit a convex under surface. But it is interesting to note that the convex surface
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CHAPTER ‐V 5 FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTION TO THE LITHIC INDUSTRIES: A TECHNOMETRIC STUDY Various morphologically tested aspects of the lithic assemblages of the sites under study are crosschecked using some new parameters. This technometrically regulated evaluations of the artifacts may add some new dimensions to the understanding of the cultural relationship between man and the materials‐ intended to be used for various purposes. Here, emphasis has been given on the gripping and hafting part of an implement to determine the effective portion of the working edge. And accordingly, on the basis of correlation between the working edge and grip‐axis, the entire collection is grouped under six broad functional categories: (a) Cutting and scraping (b) Digging and dressing (c) Piercing and boring (d) Food processing (e) Tool making tool (TMT), and (f) Undefined Considering the mode of operation in relation to the working edge and use wear (use‐scars) each category displays some specific characters (tables 5.1–3), but these characters are not to be considered technically, as sub‐types. So, instead of discussing all of them, for mere statistical exercise, only the specific characters will be highlighted that prove relevant to this context. Now, within this given framework, the unit distribution of various categories may be taken as indicator for the proximity and distances among the sites and of the
96
modes of subsistence of the sites, under study. In this connection it may be mentioned that deduction of a process makes sense only when we realize the correlation between the economy and the set of implements needed to pursue it. When the quantitative and the qualitative aspect of the tools from the three sites are considered against the backdrop of ecology, it becomes easy to delineate the trend of economic patterns. Cultural patterns as assumed are a sequence to that process (Chapter I). Thus the segregation of various categories of tool type and their alliance with economic pattern are based on the following criteria: (1) Ecological consideration (2) Man‐land‐relationship (3) Typo‐technometric consideration (4) Recognized type (type fossil) (5) Frequency distribution of conventional types among the sites, and (6) Consideration of use‐scars and edge‐ angle. On the basis of above, the following categories of functional types may broadly be attached to the three basic Stone Age economies (Hunting, Gathering and Food producing) of the Khasi and Garo Hills of Meghalaya. Major functional types are shown against their respective assemblages to have an idea about the concentration and distribution of implements (table 5.4a). This in turn helps us in understanding the general trend in terms of proximity and distances among the assemblages (table 5.4b).
Unit distribution (table 5.4b) of the various functional types clearly indicates a sort of variation in the subsistence strategy among the cultural groups of the sites, under study. Before discussing the proximity and
distances in the distribution of various categories of tools among the assemblages, let functional categories against their plausible utilitarian prospective be decoded.
Table 5.1a: Frequency Distribution of Functional Types and sub types of SMR Assemblage
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Table 5.2a: Frequency Distribution of Functional Types and subtypes MBS Assemblage
98
Table 5.3a: Frequency Distribution of Functional Types and subtypes of BBG Assemblage
Tables 5.4: (a) Percentile and (b) Unit Distribution of the Frequencies of Major Functional Types
99
Plate 5.01: Grip‐Axis and Methods of Manipulation of Lithic Implements
100
Functinal Categories
(a) Cutting and Scraping It includes various types of scrapers, knife and skinning tools. These are consisted of both principal and auxilliary tools, and stands for pursuing of gathering economy. In this connection it may be mentioned that the pattern of dentations (use‐wear) clearly indicates common uses of these implements in an intensive manner in dressing bamboo or such other items (plates 5.02‐03). Under he circumstances, it may fairly be inferred that most of the lithic implements of this category played an auxilliary role as tool making tool (TMT), in producing some other tools of organic origin which acted as principal tools in pursuing the gathering economy.
Some of the implements of the latter category may also be used as auxilliary tool for supporting hunting and producing economy.
(b) Digging and Dressing It consists of primary tools for pursuing the food producing economy; and a few for gathering economy. This category includes various types of axes, hand adzes, chisels, pick‐axes and proto‐Celts. Interestingly, some of them are edge‐ground. This character is an important indicator of sedentary way of life. This inference further got impetus when it is associated with broad‐based hand adzes, and other hoe like implements.
(c) Piercing and Boring It consists mainly of principal tools for hunting economy and occasionally a few as auxilliary tools in support of gathering and hunting economy Viz‐ borer. The principal tool types include – arrowhead and spearhead.
(d) Food Processing Consists of auxiliary tools in support of producing economy it includes grinder, pounder, and muller (plate 5.01 b).
(e) Tool Making tool (TMT) Principal tool for making various implements mostly required for hunting and gathering economy in the given context. (f) Undefined This category includes artifacts of non‐ identifiable nature, i.e. without having any definite working or griping features. The economy of the SMR and MBS when considered, a close proximity between the two becomes obvious. Closeness does not mean total uniformity of the two; it may be inferred that MBS was mostly dependent on food gathering, while the SMR on hunting (table 5.4). Interestingly when the three sites are considered BBG distantly deviates from the two (SMR and MBS) sites by 14 to 17 units. It will be logical to say that BBG with a distinctive tool kit was on the path to rudimentary agriculture. With 76 units of digging and dressing category BBG represents a culture that might have developed an incipient food producing economic base, as a principal mode of subsistence. Other two sites, (SMR and MBS) in this regard maintained a distinct distance of 67 and 61 units respectively from BBG and thus, they probably restricted themselves only to the collecting of underground edibles to a limited scale. The frequency distribution of piercing and boring category of implements played an important role in the hunting economy of the Sawmerians. Such tools with 71 units in ratio give an indication of their intensive participation in hunting economy. In this regards, BBG maintained a distance of 61 units and MBS 52 units from SMR. With 72 units in frequency distribution of ‘food processing’ category, BBG leads us to draw this inference that has already been
101
mentioned, while SMR continued to exist with hunting‐gathering economy and MBS with gathering hunting economy, as they maintained a distance of 64 and 52 units respectively from BBG. So far the TMT category is concerned; it is equally distributed between the SMR and MBS. TMT is absent in BBG because of its simple technology based on pebble (cobble) flaked culture. Angular Placement of Working Edge (edge‐angle) Angular placement of working edge (WE) with relation to grip‐axis of an implement provides information about its operational
procedure. When the angular placement of WE with‐relation‐to (w.r.t.) G.A. is at obtuse angle, its corresponding angle i.e. the angular orientation of WE. w.r.t. GA (edge‐angle) becomes acute angle (physical measurement or calculated value). The values of either of angular placement of edge‐angle or WE may be used to understand the mode of operation of an implement. It is palpable that if the angular placement of WE is at an acute angle (vis‐à‐ vis the edge angle at obtuse angle) the implement tends to be used, either as backward or downward cutting tool. This phenomenon is just reverse in the opposite state.
102
Figure 5.1: Techno Economic Pattern and Supporting Materials
Table 5.5. Number and Percentile Distributions of Edge Angle and the Placement of Working Edge
SMR
BBG
MBS
18
34
44
30
55
14
15
1 2 3 4 5 6
20
15
32
68
34 25
1 2 3 4 5 6
22
14 48
61 51
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 5.2: Unit Distributions on the Placement of WE at Lateral left (SMR: MBS: BBG) Based on 5.6 103
Table 5.6: Number and Percentile Distributions of Edge Angle and the Placement of Working Edge
**
Total of 5.5 + 5.6 MBS
SMR
BBG 0 0
52
0
0
48
56
20
24
30
35
0 28 63
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0 42
37
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 5.3: Unit Distribution on the Placement of WE at Lateral Right (SMR: MBS: BBG) (Based on 5.6)
Constituent of artifacts within the assemblage and the inter assemblage frequencies of occurrence of ‘edge‐angle’ among the three sites are shown above (tables 5.5‐6 and figs. 5.2‐3). Mode of Execution of an Implement Placement of working edge in relation to Grip axis indicates the Operational mode of an implement (table 5.7). The edge angle
further determines the operational thrust of the implement in the following manner: Table 5.7: Operational mood of the Lithic Implements 1. Backward cutting tools BCT ‐ 10 –840 2. Forward cutting tools FCT ‐ 960 –1790 TET ‐ 1800 BET ‐ 0 5. Parallel cutting tool PCT ‐ 850 –950 3. Top ended tool 4. Bottom ended tool
104
The following table (5.8a) based on the above principle gives an idea of the
composition of assemblages of the given sites:
Table: 5.8a.The placement of the Working Edge (frequency distribution of mode of manipulation).
Site BCT FCT PC PC SMR 25.6 MBS 37.5 BBG 21.5
TET PC 29.2 28.6 12.9
BET PC 6.7 7.1 4.3
PCT PC 10.8 11.6 58.1
Nil PC 12.8 2.7 2.1
Table 5.8b Unit Distribution of the Characters of 8a (SMR: MBS: BBG)
BCT FCT TET BET PCT Nil
– 30:44:26 – 41:41:18 – 37:39:24 – 13:15:72 – 73:15:12 – 52:44:04
Ratio (SMR: MBS: BBG) BCT, FCT, TET and BET when considered, their close proximity between SMR and MBS becomes apparent. This is because of their more or less common economic base. But the higher frequency of PCE (73 units) in a ratio of 73:15:12 at SMR may be attributed to greater inclinations towards hunting. This is reflected in the trend of occurrence of primary tools like arrow‐ head, spear‐head and other projectile points belonging to the ‘piercing and boring’ category and also auxillary tools like skinning tools (PCT) of ‘cutting and scraping ‘category. In both the cases Saw Mer possessed a large share in the ratio of 71:19:10 (piercing and boring) and 50:39:11 (Skinning tool). BBG again comes out distinctively in respect of BET with a ratio in unit distribution of 13: 15: 72. This results in the manifestation to higher frequency of ‘digging and dressing’ category of tools. The unit ratio of the three sites is 9:15: 76. This distinct deviation in proposition is
Total PC 14.9 12.5 1.1
100.0 100.0 100.0
discernible because the people at BBG developed an economy qualitatively distinct and different from that of SMR and MBS.
Figure 5.4: Directions of the Working Edge (WE) in Relation to Grip Axis (GA)
Direction (placement) of the working edge in an implement is determined through the position (alignment) of the grip‐axis (GA), runs between the TPS and PPS (plate 5.01). Lateral directions of the WE vary in accordance with the handedness of its user. Handedness Handedness is a genetically controlled trait, which is reflected, in the physical behaviour of an individual. Its frequency may vary among the different ethnic groups. Here we have made an attempt to comprehend how this trait was transmitted and how that was reflected in material form (plates 5.02‐03). Examining the pattern of grip scars i.e. the placement of TPS and PPS with relation to WE of an artifact, the frequency distribution of handedness in an assemblage can be worked out. Such approach suffers from
105
100
100
100
66.6 58.5
55.7
None PC LL PC TE PC LR PC BE PC
26.3 12.8
17.8
15.4 4.6
8.7
11.9
9.6
Total PC
5
4.2 0
1
2
2.2
3
Figure 5.5: Direction of Working Edge and its Frequency Distribution (1‐ SMR, 2‐ MBS, 3‐BBG).
Table 5.9: Percentile Distribution of Placement of WE in the Assemblages of SMR, MBS and BBG
Table 5.10: Unit Distribution: Pplacement of WE in the Assemblages of SMR: MBS: BBG.
some limitations, no doubt, but limitation does not mean lack of possibility; there is an attempt to move into the matter considering the limitations. These are as such – (i) one may segregate the left as well as right‐handed tools in an assemblage. But one never knows the actual number of persons using these implements (ii) we have examined 164 individuals (schedule H) at random, to get an idea of the frequency distribution of this trait among the present day Garo population of the region. The samples collected from
prehistoric context reflect only an isolated band: that too assumed to be of a small group of population. The samples on handedness collected from the contemporary level cover a numerically larger population. Hence, the comparison between the two populations (prehistoric and contemporary) separated by a gap of time, needs to be considered against their given time and space perspectives. Numerically, the prehistoric bands were less no doubt, but the elements of handedness had been there. This is reflected in the tool’s gripping pattern. With this connotation let us examine this problem. From archaeological point of view, handedness as reflected by the artifacts clearly indicates that in most of the cases the knapper prepared a tool for himself in accordance with his need.
106
Table 5.11: Percentile Distribution of Handedness (prehistoric)
Table 5.12: Handedness among Contemporary Population (the Garos)
the
This trial test reveals that there is a close proximity in the distribution of handedness between the present day Garos and the prehistoric cultural group of Bibra Gre. A variation of only .2% in the left‐handedness is discerned. In this connection it may be mentioned that BBG as a core Hoabinhian site enjoyed sedentary way of life more bias towards the food producing economy. The same trend seems to have continued among the shifting cultivators of Neolithic culture. Edge‐grip Distance The shortest distance between the working edge and the grip‐axis is worked out to understand the nature and composition of artifacts in the respective assemblages. The edge‐grip distance when taken into account, all the lithic implements, except the non‐retuning arrow tips and other hafted tools may broadly be divided into two categories, viz‐ (i) Contact Cutting tools, and (ii) Jerk‐cutting tools.
Contact Cutting Tools There is a constant contact between the implement and the medium when operated. Such types of implements are generally hand/wrist driven, and the operative range between the edge and grip is approximately 1‐ 4 cm. Jerk‐cutting tools It includes implements having an edge‐grip distance of more than 4cms. These are heavy. The orientation thrust is exerted by forearm, which acts as a lever. Two criteria have been taken in measuring the edge grip distance: (a) The distance between the TPS and working edge in case of thumb operated tools, and (b) The distance between the point of equilibrium (torque) of the TPS, PPS axis (GA) and the working edge in case of arm driven tools. There may be some variations in the above observation; nevertheless, it gives a general trend as regards, the composition of tools in the assemblages. A sidewise frequency of percentile and unit distribution of the edge‐grip distance is shown in table 5.13.
107
Table 5.13: Percentile and Unit Distribution of Edge‐Grip Distance
Figure 5.6: Vertical Column Showing the Edge Grip Distances and their Distribution among the Sites (SMR: MBS: BBG).
The table 5.13 and fig. 5.6 are self‐ explanatory. It does not call for further explanation. Traditionally, thumb or wrist operated tools are dominated in SMR. This is followed by MBS, and least in BBG. The ratio of edge‐grip distance up to 4 cm is 43:37:20 while the second category is dominant in BBG; followed by MBS and least in SMR. The ratio is 9:29:62. Edge Angle and Use Wear (Wear and tear) Edge angle in relation to mode of operation of an implement regulates the wearing pattern of an implement. Whatsoever the raw material of implement attrition is a natural process depending on the use intensity. This phenomenon, if carefully evaluated, may help in understanding the
field of operation and also the importance of an individual tool. It is found that most of the tools from the sites under study were made on ‘use and throw’ principle. This is due to opulence in raw material and their mastery over the technology. Abrasion free implements were probably used for a shorter duration; while those having the sign of attrition stood for prolonged duration and such tools reflected their utilitarian effectiveness. The quantitive difference between two (non abraded and abraded) tools is indicative of their economic pattern. The former stands for nomadic and latter for semi‐nomadic or sedentary way of life. Attrition is an outcome of friction between the tool and the grip (grip‐wear) or between a tool and the medium over which it had been put to use or operated. (Edge‐ wear/use wears). Thus, we may find attrition on butt as well as on cutting edge. These two very often co‐existed together. While examining the nature of attrition, we have taken only the cutting edge into account. Two types of attrition are easily discernible, viz.
108
(1) Dented state, and (2) Abrading state. Dented State Dentition may occur singly (uni‐dented) or plurally (multi‐dented) at the working
edge(s). These are unibevel and crescent‐ shaped. Its diameter, when carefully examined, corresponds to circumference of the object whereon it was used. As is seen in the table below, it is mostly confined to the Makbil Bisik.
Table 5.14: Percentile and Unit Distribution on Dentations among the Sites
(II) Abrasion State (edge‐ground) Edge ground tools (5.4%) are found only at Bibra Gre. It confined to ‘digging’ and dressing category’ of tools represented by proto‐Celt, and hand adzes: Here only the working portion gets ground or smoothened. This phenomenon is often taken for intended edge‐ground tool. These
pseudo ground edged tools are conspicuous in Bibra Gre assemblage where it is an unintended product of friction against the soil. When the aforesaid characters of the tools are taken into account, it strongly suggests of intensive preparation of the river basin for cultivation of plant.
109
MORPHOMETRY AND TECHNOMETRY OF SOME OF THE LITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM SAW MER (SMR), MAKBIL BISIK (MBS) and BIBRA GRE (BBG) (For details refer the numbers to Chapter VI) Fig. 1
110
Fig.2
111
Fig.3
112
Fig.4
113
Fig. 5
114
Fig. 6
115
CHAPTER ‐VI 6
KEY TO THE ARTIFACTS FROM RESPECTIVE SITES
(MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES AND THEIR TECHNOMETRIC ASPECTS) Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
2
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
Functio nal type (based on GA)
Hande dness
Edg e grip dist ance
5 Side scraper Spear head
6 Right
Dire ction of WE in relati on to GA.
7 2.8
Edge angle or, angular orientat ion of W.E w.r.t Grip axis 8 830
Hafted
2.6
‐
TE
‐TE
1 1
1
3 SMR/18 2000
4 Side scraper
2
2
6/2000
Point
4
4
30a/2000
Point
Arrowh ead TE
Hafted
3.7
‐
TE
‐ (TE)
5
5
23/2000
Point
Right
2.7
104°
LL
6
6
10/2000
Sumatra lith
Skinnin g tool Side scraper
Left
9.0
27°
LR
14° BCE 10° FCE
9
9
16/2000
Skinnin g tool
Left
1.8
100°
LR
10° BCE
10
10
21/2000
Point cum knife Point
Right
2.2
180°
TE
0° TE
11
11
3a/2000
Abrader
Arrowh ead Pestle
‐
‐
‐
BE
‐
12
12
4/2000
2.1
174°
LL
13
SMR/8/ 2000
‐
‐
90°
BE
84°BC BE 180°P CE
14
14
2/2000
Chippe d axe Double edged axe Chisel
Right
13
Side scraper Chippe d axe
Right
2.4
34°
TE
15
15
19/2000
Waisted axe
‐
‐
90°
BE
16
16
12/2000
Spear head
‐
‐
180°
TE
Fabricat or Waisted axe Point
116
9 LL
Angu lar place ment of WE with relati on to GA 10 1730 FCE
124° TE 180° PCE 0° TE
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
11 20gm/5.5x 4.4x0.9 70gm hafted/ 9.1x5.2x1.4 Hafted 25gm /5.5x3.5x1. 3 15gm/ 4.9x3.8x0.8 145gm / 11.6x5.3x2. 2 70gm/ 11.4x4.1x1. 5 25gm/6.3x 4.2x1.1 290gm/ 14.4x4.5x3. 4 125gm/1.8 x4.8x3.2 Hafted 230gm/10. 0x6.2x3.5 85gm/8.5x 2.7x2.4 Hafted 80gm/8.8x 5.6x1.6 Hafted 70 gm/10.2x4. 3x1.4
17
17
5/2000
Pick axe
Pick axe
‐
4.6
176°
BE
86° BE
18
18
24/2000
Round scraper
Side scraper
Right
1.4
95°
LL
5°BC E
19
19
022/2000
Side scraper
Do
2.2
113°
LL
23° BCE
20
20
15/2000
Side cum end scraper Tang‐ point
‐
1.6
180°
LL
0° TE
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
Functio nal type (based on GA)
Hande d‐ness
Edg e grip dist ance
Dire ction of WE in relati on to GA.
1 21
2 21
3 9/2000
5 Side scraper
6 Do
7 2.3
Angu lar place ment of WE with relati on to GA 10 176° FCE
22
22
25/2000
3.1
90°
LL
25
SMR/20/ 2000
Side scraper Arrow head
Do
25
4 Point cum scraper Nail scraper Point
Edge angle or, angular orientat ion of W.E w.r.t Grip axis 8 86°
‐
‐
180°
TE
0° PCE 00 TE
26
26
27/2000
Point
Arrow head
‐
‐
104°/18 0°
TE
14°TE
27
27
12b/2000
Borer
Borer
Right
5.6
90°/0°
BE
28
28
22/2000
Point
Arrow head
‐
‐
180°
TE
180° BE 0° TE
29
29
14/2000
End scraper
Right
5.2
118°
LL
28° BCE
32
32
35/2000
Point cum end scraper Knife
Knife
Left
3.0
96°
LR
33
33
26/2000
Point
Arrow head
‐
‐
180°
TE
6° BCE 0° TE
34
34
28/2000
Burin
‐
3.3
180°
TE
0° TE
35
35
29/2000
Blade let
Arrow head Arrow head
‐
3.6
180°
TE
0° TE
46
46
51/2000
Nail
Side
Do
2.6
51°
LL
141°F
Spear head
117
9 LL
‐do‐ 285gm)12. 0x6.5x3.8 20gm/ 5.0x4.9x0.7 70gm/7.0x 5.0x1.6
40gm/ 8.0x4.3x1.3 Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
11 35gm/ 7.4x5.3x1.1 20gm/3.7x 1.1x0.4 Hafted (35gm)6.9 x4.2x1.1 Hafted (20 gm)5.8x3.0 x1.0 (40gm)7.4 x6.6x1.2 Hafted 20gm/5.5x 3.3x1.1 (30 gm) 6.4x4.5x0.9
25gm/ 6.7x3.1x1.0 Hafted (10 gm)5.3x3.6 x0.8 ‐do‐ (5gm) 4.5x1.9x0.5 ‐do‐ (15 gm)5.1x1.1 x0.8 10gm/
scraper Lanceol ate tip
scraper Side scraper
SMR/129 2000
Side cum notch scraper
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
1 51
2 51
52
48
48
74/2000
49
49
Sl. No.
CE 8° BCE
4.4x3.9x0.7 75gm/ 7.4x5.8x2.1
LL
180° PCE
25 gm/7.3x3.7 x1.3
Dire ction of WE in relati on to GA.
Angu lar place ment of WE with relati on to GA 10 10° BCE
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
7 2.5
Edge angle or, angular orientat ion of W.E w.r.t Grip axis 8 100°
Do
1.6
60°
LL
Do
1.7
66°
LL
Do
1.3
94°
LL
4°BC E
Do
Do
1.4
65°
LL
Do
Do
0.9
90°/ 0°
LL
Side scraper Spear head
Do
3.9
106°
LL
‐
5.8
180°
TE
155° FCE 180° PCE 16° TE 0° TE
Pick axe
Pick axe
Do
7.8
130°/ 0°
BE
40° / 180°B CE
Borer
Side scraper
Left
2.4
117°
LR
27° BCE
Do
1.4
98°
LL
Notch scraper
Right
1.5
90°
Morpho logical type
Functio nal type (based on GA)
Hande dness
Edg e grip dist ance
3 56/2000
4 Convex scraper
5 Side scraper
6 Do
52
130/2000
54
54
58/2000
56
56
11/2000
Lanceol ate tip Compos ite scraper Compos ite scraper
Side scraper Compos ite scraper Notch scrappe r
62
62
99/2000
63
63
68/2000
69
69
103/2000
70
70
102/2000
Nail scraper Broken tool End scraper Tang‐ point
72
72
95/2000
75
75
146/2000
118
9 LL
150° FCE 156° FCE
11 61 gm/6.7x4.9 x1.9 62gm/ 7.3x5.1x2.0 25gm/ 7.7x4.4x0.6 Notched cutting edge (45 gm)7.0x5.0 x1.4 8gm/ 4.3x2.5x0.7 20gm/5.8x 3.1x1.4 55gm/ 7.7x4.9x1.2 Hafted (40gm) 9.1x3.6x1.1 Double ended (150gm) 12.4x5.7x1. 9 35gm/ 5.7x5.8x1.1
76
76
110/2000
Round scraper
Do
Right
2.1
129°
LL
39° BCE
40gm/ 8.9x5.4x0.9
77
77
03/2000
Point
Spear head
Do
3.5
110°
TE
20° TE
25gm/ 6.0x4.5x1.0
78
78
115/2000
Butted scraper
Side scraper
Do
2.6
114°
LL
24° BCE
75gm/7.6x 4.7x2.5
79
79
55/2000
Convex scraper
Side scraper
Do
3.3
107°
LL
17° BCE
35gm/ 5.2x3.8x1.7
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
Functio nal type (based on GA)
Hande dness
Edg e grip dist ance
Dire ction of WE in relati on to GA.
80
80
147/2000
Do
Do
3.1
LL
180° PCE
16gm/ 5.8x4.2x0.8
82
82
107/2000
Compos ite scraper
Right
2.6
106°
LL
16°BC E
8gm/ 5.6x2.6x0.9
84
84
54/2000
Side scraper
Right
2.8
113°
LL
23° BCE
15gm/ 5.0x3.7x1.0
85
85
SMR/72/ 2000
Sickle
Right
1.8
83°
LL
173° FCE
27gm/ 7.4x3.8x0.7
93
93
198/2000
Point
Simple flake as scraper Sickle: (concav e scraper) Simple flake as scraper Concav e scraper Arrow‐ head
Edge angle or, angular orientat ion of W.E w.r.t Grip axis 90°
‐
1.0
180°
TE
0° TE
94
94
213/2000
Right
1.4
83°
LL
96
96
105/2000
Nail scraper Nail scraper
Do
3.2
130°
LL
173° FCE 40° BCE
Hafted 10gm/ 4.4x3.5x0.8 10gm/ 4.5x2.5x0.9 20gm/ 5.2x3.7x1.3
97
97
‐
1.9
103°
TE
98
98
SMR/108 / 2000 100/2000
Right
3.1
117°
BE
99
99
106/2000
Do
2.8
79°
LL
102
102
104/2000
Do
3.2
115°
BE
Round scraper Chisel (adze) Side scraper Chisel
Skinnin g tool Convex scraper WE: Arrowh ead Adze hard Side scraper Chisel
119
Angu Remarks/ lar Weight & place LxBxT. ment of WE with relati on to GA
13° BCE 27° BCE 169° FCE 125° BCE
30gm/ 5.8x4.3x0.9 115gm/ 6.0x5.9x2.5 22gm/ 6.7x4.0x1.1 129gm/ 9.0x7.5x1.6
103
103
43A/2000
Tranche t
Proto celt
Do
5.7
99°
BE
71° BCE
85gm/ 8.2x5.7x1.8
104
104
101/2000
Chisel
Chisel
Do
7.5
161°
BE
71°BC E
135gm/ 9.0x6.8x1.9
106
106
69/2000
Nail scraper
End cum side scraper
Do
1.9
119°
LL
29° BCE
17gm/ 4.4x3.3x0.9
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
Function al type (based on GA)
Edge angle or, angular orientati on of W.E w.r.t Grip axis
Dire ctio n of WE in relat ion to GA.
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
110
110
116
116
1106/200 0 83/2000
End scraper Borer
126
126
97/2000
End scraper Nail scraper Convex scraper
Angu lar place ment of WE with relati on to GA 29° BCE 159° FCE 22° BCE
137
137
75/2000
153
153
161
Hand Edg edness e grip dist anc e
Do
2.7
119°
TE
Do
1.1
69°
LL
Dented scraper
Do
5.0
112°
LL
Knife
Knife
Do
‐
90°
TE
End scraper Point
Borer
Do
‐
180°
TE
161
1134/200 0 151/2000
Spear head
‐
7.3
180°
TE
180° TE 0° TE 0° TE
173
173
134/2000
‐
‐
‐
‐
1
Right
8.4
81°
BE
171° BCE
217
11
MBS/(x)‐ (1) 239/1996 41/1996
Undefin ed Pick axe
‐
207
Nail scraper Pick
Notch scraper
Concave side scraper
Right
4.0
40°
LL
130° FCE
223
17
266
Lanceol ate
Undefin ed
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
226
20
259
End scraper
Do
5.4
140°
BE
50° BCE
237
31
233
TMT
Concave end scraper Do
Do
4.2
112°
LL
22° BCE
238
32
223
End scraper
Do
Do
2.7
104°
LL
14° BCE
239
33
211
Compos
Composi
Do
2.2
98°
LL
80°
120
22gm/ 5.4x3.8x0.9 10gm/ 4.5x2.0x0.7 85gm/ 7.4x6.3x1.5 35gm/ 5.8x4.1x1.3 25gm/ 5.4x4.9x1.3 Hafted (46 gm)7.8x4.7 x1.3 5gm/ 4.3x2.6x0.7 282gm/107 x7.2x3.4 High class (297gm)9. 4x8.7x2.5 176gm/13. 5x5.4x2.1 165gm/9.7 x6.4x2.7 185gm/9.5 x5.0x2.5 120gm/9.5 x7.7x1.9 85gm/7.1x
ite scraper
te scraper
BCE
5.7x1.5
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
Function al type (based on GA)
00
Dire ctio n of WE in relat ion to GA. LL
Angul ar place ment of WE with relatio n to GA 180° TE
243
37
Point
Spearhea d
‐
10.4
245
39
MBS/(x)‐ (1) 268/1996 283
Knife
Knife
Do
0.9
32°
LL
122° FCE
246
40
285
Knife
Skinning tool
Do
3.5
15°
LL
105° FCE
251
45
249
Blade flake
End cum side scraper Convex side scraper End scraper
Do
2.0
100°
LL
10° BCE
263
57
222
Convex scraper
Do
2.0
111°
LL
210 BCE
265
59
207
Keel scraper
Do
3.7
189°
BE
179°B E
276
70
287
Do
End scraper
Right
2.7
124°
BE
340 BCE
289
83
307
Borer cum knife Borer
Borer
Right
4.3
43°
TE
1330F CE
291
85
293
87
MBS/(x)‐ (1) 304/1996 274
Arrowhe ad
‐
6.0
180°
TE
0° TE
Undefin ed
Do
‐
‐
‐
‐
294
88
297
Side scraper End cum side scraper
Do
1.6
85°
LL
Do
3.4
112°
BE
175°F CE 22° BCE
297
91
275
308
102
293
Dented side scraper Chisel (gouged)
Do
2.8
57°
LL
147°F CE
309
103
313
Knife
Do
3.8
143°
TE
53°BC E
310
104
269
Round
Convex
Do
1.6
87°
LL
177°
Compos ite scraper Side scraper End cum side scraper Round scraper
Hand Edg edness e grip dist anc e
121
Edge angle or, angular orientati on of W.E w.r.t Grip axis
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
Hafted (50gm)10. 1x4.4x1.0 43gm/6.5 x3.6x1.9 23gm/ 6.3x3.3x1. 1 65gm/7.5 x5.5x1.5 105gm/8. 5x6.0x2.2 37gm/10. 2x5.5x2.1 38gm/6.2 x4.8x1.8 7gm/5.0x 2.4x0.9 Hafted (10gm)6.0 x2.0x0.9 17gm/6.5 x3.2x1.8 22gm/5.8 x3.6x1.1 21gm/6.5 x2.7x0.9 16gm/4.5 x4.4x0.7 25gm/6.6 x2.9x1.2 22gm/4.9
scraper
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
Acc. No. Site & year of collection
Morpho logical type
311
105
319
Convex scraper
314
108
291
316
110
295
323
117
324
side scraper edge Function al type (based on GA)
FCE
Hand Edg edness e grip dist anc e
Do
2.2
54°
Do
1.2
37°
TE
Do
2.4
5°
TE
261
Side scraper Round scraper Do
Multiple dented side scraper Side scraper End scraper Do
Dire ctio n of WE in relat ion to GA. LL
Do
13.7
153°
BE
118
244
Pick
Pick
Using both hands
4.4
40°
BE
13°°F CE
328
122
234
Choppi ng tool
Do
Do
7.1
143°
BE
53°BC E
334
128
46
Knife
Knife
Right
2.9
102°
LL
120BC E
340
134
Knife
Knife
Left
1.9
93°
LR
3°BCE
343
3
96/1996/1 0a 45
7.9
96°
BE
6°BCE
4
47
Do
5.4
34°
LL
124°F CE
345
5
36
Wedge
Waisted hoe Convex side scraper Knife
Do
344
Waisted axe/hoe Round scraper
Do
3.5
100°
LL
10°BC E
346
6
59
Point
Do
5.0
111°
LL
21° BCE
348 349
8
62
Do
‐
‐
‐
‐
9
54
Short axe Fabricat or
Concave side scraper Undefin ed fabricato r
Do
6.7
175°
TE
85°BC E
352
12
57
Choppe r
Dented notch
Do
5.4
113°
LL
23°BC E
122
Edge angle or, angular orientati on of W.E w.r.t Grip axis
x3.9x1.4
Angul ar place ment of WE with relatio n to GA 144° FCE
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
127° FCE 95°FC E 63°BC E
15gm/5.3 x3.0x0.9 15gm/4.1 x4.0x0.8 Heavy duty 1650gm/1 5.8x12.9x 6.4 1950gm/1 9.6x14.5x 7.5 410gm/8. 1x10.8x4. 2 125gm/11 .7x4.7x2.3 138gm/9. 7x6.3x1.8 280gm/12 .3x5.9x3.0 120gm/7. 5x6.3x2.0
20gm/4.9 x3.6x1.1
110gm/9. 3x5.4x2.5 130gm/10 .6x7.7x1.6 125gm/6. 9x6.4x2.0 275gm/11 .8x5.5x3.5 515gm/16 .5x8.6x3.5
353
13
52
Sl. No.
Sl. No. (site wise)
358
18
55
366
26
367
Chunk
scraper Side scraper
Do
4.5
105°
LL
15°BC E
Function al type (based on GA)
Hande dness
Edg e grip dist anc e
Edge angle or, angular orientati on of W.E w.r.t Grip axis
Fluted core
Grinder
Do
7.1
180°
Dire ctio n of WE in relat ion to GA. BE
Angul ar place ment of WE with relatio n to GA 90°BE
63
Lanceol ate tip
Knife
Do
3.5
115°
LL
25°BC E
27
43
End cum side scraper
Do
6.7
107°
LL
17°BC E
371
31
19
End cum side scraper Blade flake
Do
2.5
61°
LL
151°F CE
372
32
33
Do
Dented scraper side Side scraper
Do
2.7
112°
LL
22°BC E
374
34
Side scraper Side scraper
1.6
72°
LL
40
Side scraper Side scraper
Right
380
MBS/(x)‐ (2) 2/1996 21
Do
2.8
100°
LL
162°F CE 10°BC E
381
41
34
Dented scraper
Do
3.0
103°
LL
13°BC E
383
43
15
Knife (backed ) Convex scraper
Side scraper
Do
5.2
108°
LL
18°BC E
384
44
8
Point
Do
2.4
88°
LL
178°F CE
394
54
20
Round scraper
Convex side scraper Side scraper
Do
1.9
89°
LL
179°F CE
406
1
MBS (X)‐ (3) 116/1996
Convex scraper
Concave side scraper
Right
4.5
117°
LL
27°BC E
500gm/13 .8x7.6x3.4
Acc. No. Morph Site & ological year of type collection
123
Remarks/ Weight & LxBxT.
385gm/7. 5x6.7x5.2 205gm/9. 1x6.1x3.8 185gm/10 .2x6.4x2.6 60gm/9.4 x5.1x1.4 55gm/7.8 x4.7x1.3 36gm/6.1 x5.9x1.8 65gm/7.7 x5.6x1.4 97gm 8.8x5.8x1. 8 55gm/7.3 x5.5x1.6 50gm 6.6x4.3x1. 4 35gm/5.5 x4.6x1.1 127gm/8. 3x6.7x1.6
CHAPTER ‐ VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Intrinsic socio‐cultural behaviour interfused in material culture often tends to diffuse over the passage of time. This is an acquired taste process, which arises out of culture contact and adaptive mechanism impulsive to eco‐techno‐cultural factors. Taping of cultural continuity and variation of a given tradition is a conjoined approach needs anthropological as well as archaeological treatment. This approach, as it was felt, is essential to have a cognigence into the process of cultural development in Meghalaya. As such, it was brought under the purview of present study. Data on past socio‐cultural system are often preserved in the archaeological record (Binford 1968: 22). These records in the form of lithic artifacts from three representative sites of Meghalaya are brought under this study. A lithic assemblage is nothing but an archaeological ‘Black‐box’ that codified the activities of people we are concerned with. In Meghalaya the process of codification in systematic and in divergent directions started taking place towards the end of Pleistocene. As a result, we witness the emergence of identifiable variation in the cultural patterns within a more or less common time plane. Decoding proceeds with a number of micro analytical set up based on conventional as well as non‐conventional approaches, and it has resulted in the formation of a few sets of analytical tools proved to be more useful in certain fields. Both man and materials are part of nature, and human culture is a product of interaction between these two. Hence,
7
while studying any one of the components for archaeological purposes, none can be isolated from one another. Understanding culture as man’s extra somatic means of adaptation (White 1959: 8, Binford 1972: 158) we feel it necessary to put emphasis on ecological setting of the given socio‐ cultural system. It is the prime causative situation that activates the formation and change of a culture. The location of the sites under study has their own distinctiveness that led us to think of at least three prehistoric habitation preferences. Topographically, the people who occupied these sites can be defined as: 1. Ridge dwellers 1 2. Galley dwellers, and 3. Confluence dwellers. Perhaps, this was the set pattern that prevailed among the cultural groups1 under study. In this connection it may be mentioned that this is not an isolated phenomenon, rather a general practice shared by other homogenous groups (homogeneity in material culture) distributed in and out of Meghalaya. Group I: Ridge dweller: Saw Mer (studied site) and Barapani (about 26 km South of Saw Mer in East Khasi Hills). Group II: Galley dwellers: Makbil Bisik (studied site) and Thebrong Gre, Miching Grenchep, Waksambu (within 20 km radius in West and Central Garo Hills). Group III: Confluence dwellers: Bibra Gre (studied site) and Nangl Bibra (East Garo Hills) and Parsi Parlo (Kume valley, Arunachal Pradesh).
124
Selection of habitat is a traditionally controlled phenomenon originated in the mode of economic practices, availability of natural resources and easy access to the field of subsistence operation. An identifiable traditional habitat reflects the mode of livelihood of primitive groups. Source variation of a common raw material among the contemporary groups living in a homogenous geographical unit is a culture related phenomenon. This becomes a habit as are seen in the case of Makbil Bisik and Bibra Gre, which varies in accordance with the groups’ traditional mechanism of subsistence strategy. Understanding of traditions of prehistoric people lies in the identification of cultural items that constitute the core element 1 (fig. 1.02) in the given material culture. Identification of such elements is important as they regulate the nature of culture formations, under study. They are susceptible to changing situations‐ biological and cultural environments. Hence, it is often subject to isolation, absorption, alteration and extinction. These consequences can better be understood if one assesses the degree of quantum of core elements preserved in the given sites. For better understanding of variation and continuity of traditions, other related traits 2 and factors 3 are also considered. The study is based on both qualitative and quantitive analysis. Quantitative analysis consisted of the identification of the
. Core element in this context is used as relative term, which represents the classical Hoabinhian types. 2. Culture traits in this context imply the offshoot of Hoabinhian tradition influenced artifacts. 3. Factor includes technological formation and mode of subsistence. 1
constituents of a material and the qualitative analysis, is the determination of the amounts in which the various constituents of a material are present. The qualitative aspect is morphological and takes the form of the setting up of categories of countable units without which there cannot be any quantitative analysis (Ragir 1972: 178). With this background, let us view the work in gist: Eight major types are identified. Of which seven are typologically attributed to functional types; while the remaining ones as cultural type attributed to type fossil viz. tools of Hoabinhian traditions (includes sumatraliths, short axe and other flaked tools). The frequency distribution of various characters of the given sites is shown in terms of unit distribution in the ratio of SMR: MBS: BBG. It is deemed that this will give more clarity in respect of proximity and distances between the sites under study. It is standardized in terms of 100 units in each case. The site wise variations of characters are shown as follows. Preservation of core elements in most conservative state in the material content of BBG has proclaimed it as one of the best‐ known Hoabinhian sites of the region. Its classicism stands on the cobble flake tradition in most archaic form. Blade flake from the blocks of stone dominates the MBS lithic industry and its content clearly exhibits a high degree of core elements of Hoabinhian traditions. On the other hand, SMR has displayed almost a different mode of tradition with highly diffused Hoabinhain traits in it. Proximity and distances in respect of character distribution among the sites in the ratio of 27:31:42 clearly indicate the distinctiveness of BBG and SMR in both
125
technological and cultural spheres. On the 8:28:64 of core elements of Hoabinhian other hand, MBS has maintained a close traditions, MBS comes more closer to BBG proximity with SMR in the technological than SMR. sphere. But at the same time, in the ratio of Characters Unit distribution Proximity of Distances 1. General Types (a) scraper 43:39: 17 (b) points 46:39:15 30:46:24 (c) cutting tools 32:36:32 (d) digging tools 0:69: 39 2. Tools of Hoabinhian Traditions (a) broad axe 0:29:71 (b) chipped axe 8:0:92 (c) chopping axes 0:2:98 (d) chopping tools 0:33:67 (e) lancelets 0:17:83 (f) lanceolate butt 0:100:0 8:28:64 (g) lanceolate tip 50:50:0 (h) pounder 0:0:100 (i) pestle 0:0:100 (j) short axe 0:35:65 (k) sumatralith 4:0:96 (l) waisted tools 29:71:0 3. Patterns of flake scars 29:25:46 4. Patterns of inter factory ridges 30:30:40 5. Mid‐ridge, mfs, positive bulb of percussion and striking platform 42:43:15 6. Gripping facility: (a) TPS 47:40:13 (b) PPS 10:24:16 (c) TPS+PPS 19:39:42 32:40:28 (d) GS (Total) 37:37:26 7. Hafting facility 43:28:29 8. Truncation 17:26:57 9. Cortexed (Partial/complete) 14:14: 72 10. Weight (a)