State Responsibility for Technological Damage in International Law [1 ed.] 9783428462384, 9783428062386

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Jan Willisch State Responsibility for T echnological Darnage in International Law

VERÖFFENTLICHUNGEN DES INSTITUTS FÜR INTERNATIONALES RECHT AN DER UNIVERSITXT KIEL

Herausgegeben von Jost Delbrück · Wilhelm A. Kewenig · Rüdiger Wolfrum 97

State Responsibility for Technological Darnage in International Law

By

Jan Willisch

DUNCKER d: HUMBLOT I BERLIN

CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek Willlsdl, Jan:

State responsibility for technical darnage in internationallaw I von Jan Willisch.Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1987. (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel; 97) ISBN 3-428-06238-8 NE: Institut für Internationales Recht : Veröffentlichungen des Instituts ...

Alle Rechte vorbehalten Humblot GmbH, Berlin -41 Satz: Günter Schubert, Berlin 12 Druck: Alb. Sayffarth - E. L. Krohn, Berlin 61 Peinted in Germany

© 1987 Duncker &

ISBN 3--428-06238-8

To the memory of

Inge Willisch (1919- 1969)

Preface It is a well-established custom that in the preface to a new book the author should make some excuse for adding to the Iiterature on the subject. My excuse is that I have been fascinated by International Law ever since my law-school days. As to the subject of state responsibility, it probably offers the freest scope of investigation to the academic lawyer and it Ieads him of necessity into most other departments of public international law. It has few detailed rules; it repels any tendency to dogmatism; it is. made up mainly by precident and practice rather than by the paralysing hand of the draftsman and it requires imagination not only in applying, but in finding the law. Moreover, a study on state responsibility relies to no small extent on the persuasiveness and coherence of an argument and is not restricted to the technical. application of rules. Above all, state responsibility may be seen as the touchstone whether the extension of the word "law" to public internationallaw is justified.

The Iimitation of my topic to incidents of transnational technological darnage could be mistaken as an inclination on my part towards trendiness. This impression, however, would only be correct insofar as my special interest for state responsibility for technological darnage stems to some extent from a nurober of recent academic publications on this topic, which in my view were in need of emphatic contradiction. It is just as foolish to underestimate in this sphere the services international law is affering as it is arrogant to ignore its need for improvement. It is impossible to admowledge adequately the debt one owes to others. I have benefited greatly from the detailed comments of the late Professor D. P. O'Connell and of Professor J. E. S. Fawcett, both of All Souls, who successively supervised my sturlies at Oxford. I have gladly accepted the suggestions made. I am grateful to Professor /an Brownlie, Q . C., of Oxford University and to Professor E. D. Brown of Cardiff University for reading my thesis and for affering their criticism during my oral examination. Of course, the text presented remains my responsibility alone. I am also indebted to the staff of the Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel for reading the proofs and saving me from many mistakes. Furthermore, I am grateful to its directors for publishing this book.

VIII

Preface

I am deeply indebted to the University of Oxford for conferring upon me the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and I am also most gratetu! to New College and to the Rhodes Trust for what will probably remain the three most unreal years of my life. It remains to acknowledge the debt which I owe to the staff of the Bodleian Law Library for their courtesy and help and to the Auswärtige Amt, Bonn, as weil as to the Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wissenschalt, Essen, for their most generous contributions towards the publi-

cation of this book. Finally, I wish to express my deep gratitude to Professor Wilhelm A. Kewenig, Senator of Berlin (formerly of Kiel University) and to Anne-Ruth Moltmann, as she then was, without whose moral support and constant encouragement I would have never brought this book to an end. I commenced research during Michaelmas term 1978 and I submitted the thesis on which most of this book is based during Trinity term 1982, but it has been possible to include the more important references and information up to 31 December 1985. J an Willisch

Tahle of Contents Table of Cases

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIV

International Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIV XVI

Municipal Cases

Table of Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIX Introduction Cbapter 1: Transnational Tecbnological Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

Examples of Technological Activities Causing Transnational Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

Section 1:

I. Pollution ...... . .............. . ......... . ..................... . . . 1. Trail Smelter ................................................. . 2. Icmesa Chemical Factory, Seveso ............................. . 3. River Rhine ................................................. . 4. Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz ........................ . . . .. . 5. Ixtoc One ..................... . ................ . ............ . 6. Eko Fisk ..................................................... .

4 5 5

11. Space Activities .....................•.......................... 1. Cosmos 954 .............. . ............. . ............. . ...... . 2. Sky-Lab . . ................................................... .

8

6 7 7

8 8 9

III. Nuclear Weapon Tests ....... . .......................... , ...... . 1. U.S.A ...................................................... . 2. France

10 10

IV. Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy ................................. .

11

V. Supersonic TransportaUon and the Ozone-Layer ................. .

12

........................... .

14

VII. Biological Experiments ..................................... . ... .

15

Features and Characteristics of Transnational Technological Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

VI. Modification of Weather and Climate

Section 2:

9

Table of Contents

X

Cbapter 2: Transnational Tedmological Damage in Private International Law ................... .... .................... . I. Problems Involved in the Private Law Approadl ...... .. .... . . .. . . 1. Sovereign Immunity ................... . ................... .. . 2. Classification 3. Jurisdiction and Choice of Law ......................... .... .. .

II. Conclusions

18 19 19

20 21

24

Cbapter 3: Publlc International Law and tbe General Principles of State Responsibillty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

Section 1:

Suitable Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

I. Preventive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

...................................... 2. Incentive Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Enforcement Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25 25 26 26

II. International Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1. A Two-Tiered Approac:h

Section 2:

General Principles of State Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .

28

I. International Law Commission Draft Article 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29 30 30

2. Liability for "Lawful Activities" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II. International Law Commission Draft Article 2

32

III. International Law Commission Draft Article 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. "Subjective'' and "Objective" Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32 32 33

IV. Infringement of a Right of Another State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

V. Conclusions

42

Cbapter 4: Territorial Sovereipty and Technological Activities . . . . . .

43

Section 1:

Territorial Sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

Section 2:

Territorial Integrity: Scope of Application and Competing Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

I. Art. 2 (4) UN Charter

II. Scope of Application 1. Intrusion by Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Intrusion by Unmanned Balloons .... .... ..... ... .. . ·~·...... .. 3. Intrusion by Space-Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46 46

47 52 54

Table of Contents

XI

4. Intrusion by Noxious Fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Intrusion by Hertzian Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Intrusion by Nuclear Fall-out and Nuclear Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Detrimental Effects through International Watercourses . . . . . . . . a) International Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b} Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c} Helsinki Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51 63

111. Conclusions

66 68 69 70 71 73

Cbapter 5: International Ecological Minimum Standards in Treatles

75

Section 1:

76

Ecological Standards in Treatles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. The Significance of Environmental Treaties for State Responsibility

for Environmental Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

Il. Ocean Pollution l. Global Conventions in Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a} 1958 Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . b) The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c} International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (1954} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d) Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e} Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the SeaBed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil thereof . . . . . . . . . . f) Other Global Conventions in Force Relating to the Prevention of Marine Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .. . . . 2. Regional Conventions in Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b} Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c} Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Landbased Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d} Convention on the Protection of the Environment of the Baltic Sea Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e} Other Regional Conventions in Force Relating to Marine Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

84 85 86 89 91 93 94 95 95 98 100 104 109 109

New Regimes lor the Protection ol the Marine Environment

111

I. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

111 111 116 120 122

Section 2:

1. 2. 3. 4.

The Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Annex I Annex II Annexes 111 and IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XII

Table of Contents

II. Convention on the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. General Provisions .. .. ........... ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Specific Obligations and International Ecological Standards Regarding Various Types of Marine Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Rights and Obligations to Establish National and International Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) Minimum and Maximum Contents of National Norms . . . . . . . . III. Conclusions

123 126 129 129 131 132 149

Cbapter 6: Abuse of Rigbta and Nelgbbourbood Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153

Section 1:

Doctrines of Abuse of Rights in International Law . . . . . . . . . .

154

I. Abuse of Rights in International Customary Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

157

Il. Abuse of Rights as a General Principle of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Abuse of Rights stricto sensu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Oppenheim's Doctrine of Abuse of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Abuse of Rights lato sensu . .'............................. ... ..

159 159 163 164

III. Sie utere tuo ut alienum non laedas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

167

IV. Abuse of Rights and Peaceful Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169

Neighbourhood Law in International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

170

I. Customary Rules of Neighbourhood Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

172 172 173

Section 2:

1. State Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Opinions of Publicists

........................................

II. General Principles of Neighbourhood Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Sur\rey of Municipal Neighbourhood Law on Emissions . . . . . . . . . . a) Romanistic Legal Systems .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. . .. b) Germanie Legal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e) Legal Systems of the Nordie Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d) Legal Systems of Sodalist Countries of Eastern Europe . . . . . . e) Common Law Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f) Mixed Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g) Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The Analogy Between Restrietions on the Use of Land in Private Law and on the Use of Territory in International Law . . . . . . . . . . a) Opposing Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Theories on the Relationship between Territory and Sovereignty 3. General Principles of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Applieation of General Principles of Law in a.n International Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

176 177 179 189 196 202 207 219 223 230 231 235 242 259

Table of Contents

XIII

Chapter 7: Problems of Attrlbution, Standard of Liability and the Socalled Liability for Lawful Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 ..................................

261

I. Attribution of the Conduct of Organs and Agents to the State . . . . . .

262

II. Jurisdiction of Territory as a Basis of Attribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

264 266 269

Section 1:

Problems ol Attribution

1. International Decisions and State Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Treaty Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Standard ol Liabilily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

273

I. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

275

11. A Spectrum of Standards of Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Extreme Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conciliatory Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The Individual Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

276 276 277 278

Section 2:

III. The International Standard of Due Diligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 1. A Nominate Tort of Negligence in International Law? . . . . . . . . . . 279 2. The Requisite Standard of Due Diligence in a Particular Situation 281 Section 3:

International Liabilily lor Lawlul Aclivities? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. Liability for Lawful Acts

................. .. .....................

282 283

II. International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising Out of Acts not Probibited by International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

289 Use of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Lex specialis and "Contracting out• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Draft Article 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 International Organizations ....... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Bibliorraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

297

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

323

Tahle of Cases Table of Internattonal Cases Administrative Tribunal of the I.L.O. Case, see: Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal ... Aerial Incident Case (Israel v. Bulgaria), (Preliminary Objections), ICJ Rep. (1959) 127. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Affaire des Biens Britanniques au Maroc Espagnol, UNRIAA II 615. . . . . . .

29

Alabama Claims Arbitration, Moore, Arbitrations I, 653, Briggs, 1026. 279, 281 Algera and others v. Assembly, E.C.R. (1957) 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

255

American Bible Society Case, Moore, VI 743. . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

262

Anglo-lranian Oil Company Case (Preliminary Objections), ICJ Rep. (1952) 89. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153

Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case, ICJ Rep. (1951) 116. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .

153

Asylum Case (1950), ICJ Rep. (1950) 266. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 172, 254 Barcelona Traction Company Case (Preliminary Objections), ICJ Rep. (1965) 5. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

165

Barcelona Traction Company Case (Second Phase), ICJ Rep. (1970) 4. 39, 40, 153, 156, 248-250 Belgian Linguistic Case (Merits), ECHR Ser. A Vol. 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36, 258

Bier v. Mines de Potasse d'Alsace (see also under municipal cases), ECR (1976) 1735. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18--19, 21 Claire Claim, UNRIAA V 516. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

274

Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia (Merits), PCIJ (1926) Ser. A No. 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

156

Chorzöw Factory Case (Jurisdiction), PCIJ (1927) Ser. A No. 9. . . . . . . . . . .

30

Chorzöw Factory Case (Merits), PCIJ (1927) Ser. A No. 17. • . . . . . . . . .

30, 279

Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations (Second Admissions Case), ICJ Rep. (1950) 4. . . . . . . . . 153 Conditions for Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations Case (First Admissions Case), ICJ Rep. (1947-48) 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49, 164 Corfu Channel Case (Merits), ICJ Rep. (1949) 1. 30, 43, 52, 153-154, 164, 246, 267-268, 274, 278, 291 Oe Wilde, Ooms and Versyp Cases, see: Vagrancy Cases ...

Table of Cases

XV

Diversion of the Water from the Meuse Case, PCIJ (1937) Ser. A/B No. 70. 69, 243 Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, see: U. N. Administrative Tribunal Case. Ermerins Case, UNRIAA IV 476. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (U.K. v. Iceland), ICJ Rep. (1973) 3. . . . . . . . . . .

89

Free Zones Case (Judgment on Merits), PCIJ (1932) Ser. A/B No. 46. . . . . . .

156

Fur Seal Arbitration, Moore, Arbitrations I 875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

157

Galvan Case, UNRIAA IV 273. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Goider Case, ECHR Ser. A Vol. 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

257

Home Missionary Case, UNRIAA VI 42. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania (Second Phase), ICJ Rep. (1950) 65. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

30

Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the I.L.O. upon Complaints Made against UNESCO-Case (Advisory Opinion), ICJ Rep. (1956) 77.

170

Kate A. Hoff (U.S. v. United Mexican States), UNRIAA XI 167. . . . . . . . . . .

51

Lac Lanoux Arbitration, 24ILR (1957) 101, UNRIAA XII285.

54, 69, 13, 154, 291

Lotus Case, PCIJ (1927) Ser. A No. 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43, 54

Lovett Case, Moore III, 2991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Meuse Case, see: Diversion of Water from the Meuse Case. Minquiers and Ecrehos Case, IJC Rep. (1953) 47. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

237

Morton Case, UNRIAA IV 428. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Namibia Case (Advisory Opinion), ICJ Rep. (1971) 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39, 269

Neer Case, UNRIAA IV 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, ICJ Rep. (1969) 3.

56, 137, 138, 142, 144

Norwegian Loans Case, ICJ Rep. (1957) 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nottebohm

Ca~e

263

(Second Phase), ICJ Rep. (1955) 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

166

247, 280

Noyes Claim, UNRIAA VI 308. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Nuclear Tests Cases (Australia v. France; New Zealand v. France), ICJ Rep. (1973) 99; id. 135. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . 67, 88 Oberlander and Messenger Case, US Foreign Relations (1897) 381. . . . . . . Palmas Island Arbitration, UNRIAA II 829. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

43, 54, 235

Phosphates in Morocco Case, PCIJ (1938) Ser. A/B No. 74. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

Pugh Case, UNRIAA 1II 1439. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

278

Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the UN-Case (Advisory Opinion), ICJ Rep. (1949) 174. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 30, 32, 233,

~43

Right of Passage Case (Preliminary Objections), ICJ Rep. (1957) 125. . . . . . .

232

Right of Passage Case (Merits), ICJ Rep. (1960) 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

254

XVI

Table of Cases

Russian Indemnity Case, UNRIAA XI 421. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

246, 247, 260, 277

Sevey Case, UNRIAA IV 474. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 South West Africa Case (1950), ICJ Rep. (1950) 128. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 South West Africa Cases (Second Phase) (1966), ICJ Rep. (1966) 6. 40, 155, 244, 254 Spanish Zone of Morocco Claims (Affaire des Biens Britanniques au Maroc Espagnol), UNRIAA II 615. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Syndicat General v. Commission, ECR (1974) 933. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

256

Tinoco Arbitration, UNRIAA I 369. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

262

Trail Smelter Arbitration, UNRIAA III 1905. 5, 57~2. 154, 174, 231, 267-269, 291 Territorial Jurisdiction. of the International Commission of the River Oder Case, PCIJ (1929) Ser. A No. 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 U. N. Administrative Tribunal Case, ICJ Rep. (1954) 47. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153

Union Syndicate v. Council, ECR (1974) 917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 U. S. Nationals in Morocco Case, ICJ Rep. (1952) 176. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 254 Vagrancy Cases, ECR (1970) Ser. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 257 Wal-Wal Incident Award, UNRIAA III 1657. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wimbledon Case, PCIJ (1923) Ser. A No. 1. . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

278

30, 239

Table of Munlclpal Cases Anderson v. Eric Anderson Radio and T.V. Ppty Ltd., [1965) 114 C.L.R. 20.

23

Atkinson v. Bernard Inc. [1960) 223 Ore. 624; 355 P. 2d. 229. . . . . . . . . . . . .

215

Bamford v. Turnly, [1862) 3 B. & S. 62. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

209, 211

Bellew v . Cement Co., [1948) Ir. R. 61. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

212

Bier v. Mines de Potasse d'Alsace (see also International Cases), 2 European Commercial Cases (1979) 206. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 21 Bloemfontein Town Council v. Ridlter, [1938) A.D. 195. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

222

Bloodworth v. Cormadt, [1949] N.Z.L.R. 1058. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211

Bone and another v. Searle, (1975) 1 W.L.R. 797. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Bonomi v. Badthouse, E. B. & E. 622. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

168

Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Co., (1970) 26 N.Y. 2d 219. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

217

Bottom v. Ontario Leaf Tobacco Co., (1935] 2 D.L.R. 699 (Ontario C.A.). 212 Brand v.

Hammersmit~

Ry., [1867] L.R. 2 Q.B. 223, . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 225

Brede V; Minnesota Crushed Stone Co., (1919) 143 Minn. 374, 173 N.W. 805. 216 Claude v. Weir, [1888) M.L.R. Q. B. 197. . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Crawford v . The Protestant Hospital, M.L.R. 5 S.C. 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187

XVII

Table of Cases Davis v. Pacific Corporation, (1968) 455 P. 2d. 481. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

215

Drysdale v. Dugas, [1895) 26 S.C.R. 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187

Dumas Transport v. Cliche, (1971) C.A. 160. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .

187

Du Toit v. Oe Bot, (1883) 2 S.C. 213. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

223

Eastern and South African Telegraph Co. Ltd. v. Cape Town Tramway Ltd., [1902) A.C. 381. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Fasano v. Ville de Pierrefonds, (1974] C.S. 460. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

187

Girard v. Saguenay Terminals Ltd., [1973) R.C. 264. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187

Haie v. Farmers Electric Membership Corporation, 99 P. 2d 454. . . . . . . . . . .

167

The Halley, [1868) L.R. 2 P.C. 193. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .

22

Hammersmith Ry. v. Brand, (1869) L.R. 4 H.L. 171. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213

Hennessey v. Carmony, (1892) 50 N.J. Eq. 616, 25A. 374. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

216

Holland v. Scott, (1882) 2 E.D.C. 307. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .

222

Hulbert v. California Portland Cement Co., (1911) 161 Cal. 239, 118 P. 928. 216 Ishikawa v. Tokyo, 15 Kamishu 1591 (Engl. transl. 35 LaLR (1975) 1050). 195 Jost v. Dairyland Power Cooperative, (1969) 45 Wis. 2d. 164'; 172 N.W. 2d. 647. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

216

Kelsen v. Imperial Tobacco Co. Ltd., (1957) 2 Q.B. 334. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

208

Lessard v . Caron et Cie., [1976] C.S. 966. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. ..

187

Madison v. Duddown Sulphur Copper and lron Co., (1904) 83 S.W. 658. 217 Manchester Corporation v. Farnworth, (1930) A.C. 171. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213

Martin v. Reynolds Metals Co., (1959] 242 P. 2d. 790. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

214

The 'May' v. R., [1931) 3 D.L.R. 15............. .... , . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .

51

M'Elroy v. M'Allister, [1949) S.C. 110. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . ..

23

Meriwether Sand and Gravel Co. v. State, [1930) 181 Ark. 216; 26 S.W. 2d. 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Miller v. Jadtson, [1977) Q.B. 966. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

168, 178, 212, 227

Milner v. Spencer, [1976] 239 E.G. 573. . .... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

209

Newman v. Conair Aviation Ltd., 33 D.L.R. (3d) 474. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211

O'Connor v. Wray, [1930) 2 D.L.R. 899. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. ..

23

Pelchat v. Carriere d'Acton Vale Ltee., [1970] C.A. 884. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Phillips v. Eyre, [1970) L.R. 6 Q.B. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. ..

23

Pickering v . Rudd, [1915) 4 Camp. 219. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ..

208

Prinsloo v. Shaw, [1938) A.D. 570. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . • .

223

Rapier v. London Tramway Company, [1893) 2 Ch. 588. . . . . . . . . . . • .

187, 208

Read v. Lyons (J) & Co. Ltd., [1947] A.C. 156. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . . . ..

207, 208

Redd v. Edna Cotton Mills, (1904) N.C. 342; 48 S.E. 374. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • .

216

Regal v. African Superslate (Pty.) Ltd., [1963) (I) S.A. 102 (A.D.). . . . . . . . .

223

XVIII

Table of Cases

Roberts v. C. F. Adams & Son, (1947) 184 P. 2d. 634. Rylands v. Fletcher, (1866) L.R. 1 Ex. 265. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118 284-285

Salvin v. North Brancepeth Coal Co., [1874] L.R. 9 Ch. App. 705. . . . . . . . .

211

Sedleigh-Denfield v. O'Callaghan, [1940) A.C. 880. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

209

Shelfer v. City of London Electric Lightning Co. Ltd., (1895) I Ch. 287. . . . .

212

Smeaton v. Ilford Corporation, (1954) Ch. 468. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211

Southport Corporation v. Esso Petroleum Co., (1954) 2 Q.B. 182. . . . . . . . . . .

208

St. Anne's Well Brewery v. Roberts, [1928) 140 L.T. 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

285

St. Helen's Smelting Co. v. Tipping, (1865) 11 H.L.C. 642. . . . . . . . . . . . .

209, 210

Sturges v. Bridgman, [1879) II Ch.D. 852. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .

209

Tancre de Morrisset v. St. Germain, (1917] C.P. 235. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187

Trendtex Trading Corporation Ltd. v. Central Bank of Nigeria, [1917) All E.R. 881. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

United States v. Curtis-Wright Export Corp. et al., Hackworth I 53. . . . . . .

43

Vaughan v. Taff Vale Ry;, (1860) 5 H. & N. 679. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213

The Wagon Mound (No. 2), (1961) 1 A.C. 617. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .

208

Walter v. Selfe, [1851) 4 De. G. & Sm. 315. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

210

Wente v. Commonwealth Fuel Co., (1908) 232 IU. 526, 83 N.E. 1049. . . . . . .

216

William Aldred's Case, [1611) E.R. 816. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

207

Zeche Schürbank und Charlottenburg v. Panitz, 56 Seufferts Archiv (1901) 181. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227

Table of Treaties 1865 Treaty of May 12, 1865 between Belgium and the Netherlands, PCIJ Ser. C. No. 81, 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

1919 (Paris) Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation, 11 LNTS 173. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

1920 Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, PCIJ Ser. D No. 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 1921

Treaty of 7th August, 1921 between France and Switzerland, (unpublished). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

1924 International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Seagoing Vessels, 120 LNTS 125. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

1926 Brussels International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Concerning the Immunity of State-owned Ships. 176 LNTS 199.

19

1929 Treaty of Bayonne of July 10, 1929, UNRIAA XII 285. . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

1944 (Chicago) Convention on International Civil Aviation, 15 UNTS 295. 41, 49, 51, 53, 55, 157 1945 Statute of the International Court of Justice, 15 UNCIO 355. 170---171, 117, 242, 244, 255 1945 United Nations Charter, 15 UNCIO 336. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46, 126, 172

1947 International Telecommunication Convention (Atlantic City) (as amended at Malaga-Tonemolinos 1973), BGBl. (1976 II) 1090. . . . . 64, 66 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Rome), 45 AJIL (1951) Supp. 24. . . . . . . 35, 36, 158, 257-258 1952 (Rome) Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface, 52 AJIL (1958) Supp. 593. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (IMCO), (London) 327 UNTS 3. 89-91, 92, 109, 112, 113, 119, 139, 146-148 1957 International Convention Relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Seagoing Ships, 57 AJIL (1963) 268; BGBl. (1972 II) 672. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

94

1957 Treaty of the European Economic Community (Rome), 298 UNTS 11; 51 AJIL (1957) Supp. 865. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 255 1958 (Geneva) Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, 516 UNTS 205. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . 87, 94, 115 1958 (Geneva) Convention on the High Seas, 450 UNTS 82. 85, 86, 133, 158, 292 1958 (Geneva) Convention on the Continental Shelf, 499 UNTS 311. . .

17, 143

XX

Table of Treaties

1959 The Antarctic Treaty, 402 UNTS 71. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107-108

1960 Treaty of 8th April 1960 between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands, BGBI. (1963 li) 458. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 1960 Agreement between France and Madagascar, 6 AFDI (1960) 862. . . . .

43

1960 (Paris) Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 55 AJIL (1961) 1082. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1962

(Brussels) Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 57 AJIL (1963) 268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 270

1963

(Brussels) Convention of 31st Jan. 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 28. 7. 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 3 ILM (1963) 685. . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (Moscow), 480 UNTS 43. 28, 35, 77, 78, 86-89, 128, 152, 271 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 1-2 ILM (1962) 727. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 270 1964 Convention Relating to a Uniform Law on the International Sale of Goods, 834 UNTS 107. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, (London/Moscow/Washington) BGBI. (1969 li) 1969; 10 UKTS (1968); 61 AJIL (1967) 644; 171 UNTS 387. . . . . 55, 56, 84, 85 1968 E.C. Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters, BGBI. (1972 li) 773. . . . . . . . . . . 21, 22 1969

(Vienna) Convention on the Law of Treaties, 8 ILM (1969) 679. 40, 115, 130, 136, 138, 293

1969 (Bonn) Agreement Conceming Pollution of the North Sea by Oil, 704 UNTS 3; BGBI. (1969 II) 2066; 9 ILM (1970) 359. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

108

1969 International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 9 ILM (1970) 25; BGBI. (1975 li) 139. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 64 AJIL (1970) 481. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 94 1971

The Agreement between Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden Concerning Co-operation in Taking Measures against Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 620 UNTS 235. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-109, 118

1971

Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, BGBI. (1975 li) 1026. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

1971

Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil thereof, TIAS 7337; BGBI. (1972 li) 325. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 93--94

1972 European Convention on State Immunity and the Additional Protocol, 11 ILM (1972) 470. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .

95

19

Table of Treaties 1972

XXI

(London) Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 11 ILM (1972) 1293: BGBI. (1977 II) 180. . . . . 61, 77, 79, 85, 91, 96, 99, 100, 106, 125, 139, 142-146

1972 Convention on International Liability for Darnage Caused by Space Objects, 66 AJIL (1972) 702. . . . . . . . . . . 27, 57, 75, 76, 78, 269, 273, 286 1972 Treaty of 29th Sept. 1972 between Argentina and Brazil on the Use of Natural Resources, (New York) (unpublished). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1972

173

(Oslo) Convention on the Control of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, 11 ILM (1972) 262: BGBI. (1977 II) 169. 36, 79, 95-97, 99, 100, 106, 127

1973 Agreement between Mexico and the United States of America on the Permanent and Definitive Solution to the International Problem of the Salinity of the Colorado River of Aug. 30, 1973, 12 ILM (1973) 1105. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

151

1973 Protocol Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollution by Substances Other than Oil, 13 ILM (1974) 605.

95

1973

(London) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (IMCO), 12 ILM (1973) 1319. 84, 85, 90, 105, 106, 111-123, 125, 138, 147

1974

(Paris) Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources, 13 ILM (1974) 352. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-104, 110, 126

1974

(Helsinki) Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 13 ILM (1974) 546 : BGBI. (1980 II) 1449. 61, 95, 99, 104-107, 116, 126, 127

1974 Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite, BGBI. (1979 II) 113. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974

56

(Nordic) Convention on the Protection of the Environment, 13 ILM (1974) 591. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 75, 201-202, 229-230

1974 Treaty between the USA and the USSR on the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Weapon Tests, 13 ILM (1974) 906. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

1975 US-Canada W eather Modification Agreement, 14 ILM (1975) 589.

82

1976 Treaty on Underground Nuclear Explosions for Peaceful Purposes, 15 ILM (1976) 891. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

1976

(Barcelona) Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, 15 ILM (1976) 285. . . . . . . . . 61, 98-100, 116, 126

1976

(Barcelona) Protocol for the Prev ention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, 15 ILM (1976) 300. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1976

98

(Barcelona) Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency, 15 ILM (1976) 306. . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 100

1976 Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, IMCO Doc. LEG/CONF. 5/10 of 19. 11.1976. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .

94

1976 Convention on the Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution, of Dec. 3, 1976, 16 ILM (1977) 242. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

151

XXII

Table of Treaties

1978 Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 17 ILM (1978) 546. • . . . . . 112-113 1978

(Kuwait) Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 17 ILM (1978) 511. . . . . . . 116, 141

1978

(Vienna) Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, UN Doc. A/Conf. 80/31 (1978) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 293

1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 18 ILM (1979) 1442. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

148

1980

(Barcelona) Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-based Sources (adopted at Athens), 19 ILM (1980) 870. .. . . .. . .. . . . . .. .. • . .. . .. .. .. • . . . . .. . . .. .. . 98, 101

1981

Memorandum between Canada and the United States Concerning Transboundary Air Pollution, 20 ILM (1981) 690. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 21 ILM (1982) 1261. ....... ,·, ............................ ·. . . . . 82, 83, 99, 123-148

Abbreviation& ABGB AcP AdV AFDI A.J. AJCL AJIL AllE. R. ALS AöR ASCL AUS BCL

==

BDGV Berner Kommentar BGB BGBI BGE BGH BGHZ BT-Drucks. BVerfGE BYIL CaliforniaLR

c.c.

CJTL CLJ CLP

C.L.R. CLYb. Cmnd.

=

Das Allgemeine Bürgerlidle Gesetzbudl Ardliv für die civilistisdle Praxis Ardliv des Völkerredlts Annuaire Franc;ais de Droit International Acta Juridica (South Africa) American Journal of Comparative Law American Journal of International Law All England Law Reports Annotated Legislation Service Ardliv des öffentlidlen Redlts Annual Survey of Commonwealth Law Annales Universitatis Saraviensis Bulletin of Czedloslovak Law Bulletin de Droit Tsdledloslovaque Beridlte der Deutsdlen Gesellsdlaft für Völkerredlt Kommentar zum Sdlweizerisdlen Zivilredlt (3rd ed. 1962 et seq.) Bürgerlimes Gesetzbudl (Federal Republic of Germany) Bundesgesetzblatt (Federal Republic of Germany) Entsdleidungen des Sdlweizerisdlen Bundesgetidlts (1875 et seq.) Bundesgeridltshof (Federal Republic of Germany) Bundesgeridltshof, Entsdleidungen in Zivilsamen Bundestagsdrucksadle Entsdleidungen des Bundesverfassungsgeridlts (1952 et seq.) (Federal Republic of Germany) The British Year Book of International Law California Law Review Code Civil, C6digo Civil, Codice Civile, etc. (meaning depends on the context) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law Cambtidge Law Journal Current Legal Problems Commonwealth Law Reports Comparative Law Yearbook Papers Presented to Parliament by Command of Her Majesty, 1956 et seq.

XXIV ColumbiaLR CWILJ CWRJIL

Abbreviations

=

CYIL

D.

Dalloz DI Digest

diss. op. DJILP D.L.R. D.S.

=

D.S.B. DVBI. EA EC ECHR ECR ELQ ELR EPL E.R.G. ETS EuR Fundstellennachweis B

=

GaJICL

=

=

GAOR GARes. GYIL Hague Colloquium Hague Recueil

=

HILJ HLR H.R. HuLR

=

Columbia Law Review California Western International Law Journal Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law Canadian Yearbook of International Law Digesta Iustiniani Augusti 2 Vols. (1870, Th. Mommsen, ed.) English Translation in: Scott, The Civil Law in Seven Volumes (1932) Encyclopedie Dalloz, Repertoire de Droit Civil (2nd ed. 1981) Diritto Internazionale Digest of United States Practice in International Law (1973 et seq.) (Department of State Publication) dissenting opinion Denver Journal of International Law and Policy Dominion Law Reports, 1912 (Canada) (followed by a reference to a year) Recueil Dalloz Sirey, Jurisprudence Generale (1845 et seq.) Department of State Bulletin (U.S.A.) Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt Europa Archiv European Community Publications of the European Court of Human Rights European Court Reports Ecology Law Quarterly European Law Review Environment Policy and Law Entscheidungen des Reichsgerichts (Austria) European Treaty Series, Council of Europe Europa Recht Völkerrechtliche Vereinbarungen und Verträge mit der DDR Bundesminister der Justiz (ed.) Georgia Journal of Internationaland Comparative Law General Assembly Official Records General Assembly Resolution German Yearbook of International Law Hague Academy of International Law 1971 et seq., since 1978: ..Workshop'' Academie de droit international, Recueil des Cours, 1923 et seq. Harvard International Law Journal Harvard Law Review Hoge Raad (The Netherlands Court of Appeal) Hungarian Law Review

Abbreviations ICAO ICJ ICJ Rep.

=

ICLQ id. IECL

=

=

IIL I. J . ILA ILC ILM ILO ILR IMCO

=

ind. op.

=

10

lowaLR IsLR IYIL JIR JMLC JOR JSL JWTL JZ

Ka.LR LA LaLR Law in E.E. Law of the Sea Laws of Cyprus LNTS LQR L.R. M.L.R. MPM München er Kommentar

N.

=

XXV

International Civil Aviation Organization International Court of Justice International Court of Justice, Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders International and Comparative Law Quarterly idem (the same); ibidem (in the same place) International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (Tübingen) (1971 et seq.) Institute of International Law (Institut de Droit International) International Journal (Canada) International Law Association International Law Commission International Legal Materials International Labour Organization International Law Reports Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization, now International Maritime Organization (IMO) individual opinion International Organizations lowa Law Review Israel Law Review Italian Yearbook of International Law Jahrbudl für Internationales Recht Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce Jahrbudl des Offentliehen Redlts Journal of Space Law Journal of World Trade Law Juristenzeitung Kansas Law Review Lawyer of the Americas Louisiana Law Review Law in Eastern Europe 1958 et seq., Szirmai, ed. until 1974, Vol. 18 II; Feldbrügge, ed. since 1975, Vol. 18 II1 New Directions in the Law of the Sea, Documents Compiled by Lay, Churdlill, Nordquist and Simmonds, 10 vols. 1973-1980 (to be continued) The Statute Laws of Cyprus 1910 et seq. League of Nations Treaty Series Law Quarterly Review Law Reports Modern Law Review Maritime Policy and Management Münchener Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch (5 Vols. and Ergänzungsband, 1978-1981) Number

XXVI N.C.L.R. NEJ NiemeyersZ.f.I.R. NILR NJ NJW NordTIR NRJ NRL NTIR NU NYIL NYLF OECD OJEC OJZ OregonLR OZORV PCIJ P.G. Quentin-Baxter, Preliminary Report

RabelsZ RBDI RDI RDS Rechtsvergl. Handwörterbuch Restatement of the Law (second) RevueDI Revue du Barreau RGDIP RGZ RIDC RIE Rivista RJE RutgersLR SAU

s.c.

Abbreviations North Carolina Law Review Nueva Enciclopedia Juridica Niemeyers Zeitsdlrift für Internationales Redlt Netherlands International Law Review Neue Justiz Neue Juristisdle Wochenschrift Nordisk Tidskrift for International Ret Natural Resources Journal National Resources Lawyer Nederlands Tijdsdlrift voor International Redlt Nordisk Utredningsserie Netherlands Yearbook of International Law New York Law Forum Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris Official Journal of the European Communities L: Legislation C: Information and Notices Osterreichische Juristen-Zeitung Oregon Law Review Osterreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht Permanent Court of International Justice Reports Palestine Gazette Preliminary Report on International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising out of Acts not Probibited by International Law. UN Doc. A/CN.4/334 (24. 06. 1980) 1-17; Add. 1 (27. 06. 1980) 1 Add. 2 (04. 07. 1980) Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht Revue belge de droit international Rivista di diritto internazianale Revue de droit suisse Rechtsvergleichendes Handwörterbuch für das Zivil- und Handelsrecht (7 Vols., 1929-1939) Torts 2nd, American Law Institute (Vol. 4, 1979) Revue de droit international La revue du barreau du Quebec Revue Generale de Droit International Public Entsdleidungen des Reimsgerichts in Zivilsachen Revue internationale de droit compare Rivista de lnstituciones Europeas Rivista di diritto internazianale Revue juridique de l'environnement Rutgers Law Review South African Law Journal Scottish Session Cases

Abbreviations SchweizBG S.F. SJIR SSL StanfordLR Sy.LR

sz

T. f. R. TGS TIAS TILJ TulaneLR UBCLR U.Colo.L.R. U.f.R. UKTS UNCIO UNCLOSOR UNEP UNGARes. UNLS UNRIAA UNTS US Foreign Relations USTS VJIL VJTL VN WGO WMO Wörterbuch WOLR Words and Phrases YBECHR YBILC

XXVII

Schweizerisches Bundesgericht Svensk författningssamling Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für internationales Recht = Annuaire suisse de droit international Scandinavian Studies in Law Stanford Law Review Syracuse Law Review Entscheidungen des Österreichischen Obersten Gerichtshofes in Zivil- und Justizverwaltungs• sachen Tidsskrift for Rettsvitenskap Transaction of the Grotius Society (Vol. 1-44, 191~1959) Treaties and Other International Acts Series (United States) Texas International Law Journal Tulane Law Review University of British Columbia Law Review University of Colorado Law Review Ugeskrift for Retsvaesen (The Danish Law Weekly) United Kingdom Treaty Series Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organizations (1945) Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records (Vol. 1 et seq., 1975 et seq.) United Nations Environmental Programme United Nations General Assembly Resolution United Nations Legislative Series (United Nations Publications) Reports of International Arbitral Awards (United Nations Publications) United Nations Treaty Series Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States United States Treaty Series Virginia Journal of International Law Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law Vereinte Nationen WGO - Monatshefte für osteuropäisches Recht World Meteorological Organization Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts (Strupp-Schlochauer, eds., 3 Vols., 1960-196l) Western Ontario Law Review Words and Phrases, Permanent Edition (46 vols., 1658 to date) Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights (1958 et seq.) Yearbook of the International Law Commission (United Nations Publication)

XXVIII

Abbreviations

YBWA YbiiL ZaöRV

zmv

Z.f.V. ZGB ZLR/ZLW ZOR ZverglR ZVR

::::

Yearbook of World Affairs Yearbook, Institute of International Law Zeitsc:hrift für ausländisc:hes öffentlic:hes Rec:ht und Völkerrec:ht Zeitsc:hrift für Rec:htsvergleic:hung Zeitsc:hrift für Völkerrec:ht (Sc:hweizerisc:hes) Zivilgesetzbuc:h Zeitsc:hrift für Luftrec:ht since 1960: Zeitsc:hrift für Luftrec:ht und Weltraumrec:htsfragen since 1975: Zeitsduift für Luft· und Weltraumrecht Zeitsc:hrift für Offentlic:hes Rec:ht Zeitsc:hrift für vergleic:hende Rec:htswissensc:haft Zeitsc:hrift für Völkerrec:ht und Bundesstaatenrec:ht

Introduction Negative by-products and undesired side-effects of modern tedmology and industrialization have not stopped short at national frontiers. To the extent to which they affect other states they rernain no Ionger the sole concern of dornestic law but attract the attention of international law. The problern has not been ignored by international lawyers, who on occasions have been quick to point to the underdeveloped state of public international law in this field. This, in turn has led sorne to argue in favour of novel conceptions of state liability based on the notions of 'risk' and 'extra-hazardous activities'. Owing to a use of terrninology which is both confusing and confused, it is not always easy to rnake out what type of liability exactly is intended to be introduced in public international law. However, so rnuch is clear: State liability in cases of tedmological darnage is said to be no Ionger based exclusively on an internationally wrongful act, but rnay be engaged by causation of darnage alone. Others have voiced their doubts as to the prospects of such a concept of liability in ·public international law and have sought the solution of this problern in private law, including private international law. The nurnerous problerns with this private law approach are outlined in Chapter 3: Disrnissing public internationallaw in this field and focusing entirely on private law solutions rnight mean to go frorn bad to worse. But any suggestions de lege ferenda can be persuasive only, once the lex lata has been ascertained and found wanting. Accordingly, this book has two rnain objectives. The first is to state the law of state responsibility for technological darnage as it stands today. It will ernerge that the present law on this subject is not quite as underdeveloped and not quite as inadequate as frequently suggested. Since orthodox state responsibility is based on an internationally wrongful act of a state, roughly half of this book is concerned with international Obligations, both custorn and treaty, regarding physical interference with or on foreign territory by means of technological activities. There exists a considerable body of international customary law which deterrnines the rights and Obligations of states with respect to activities whidl are carried out on a state's territory or under its 1 Wllllsch

2

Introduction

jurisdiction, but which produce physical effects elsewhere. Broadly speaking, any trespass on foreign territory, including foreign airspace, is internationally illegal unless prior consent has been obtained or certain exceptional circurnstances are present. International law is not quite as straigthforward where transboundary interference by emissions is concerned. On the one band, there is strong evidence that not all interference by ernissions is illegal, even if it Ieads to some darnage or injury on or to foreign territory. On the other hand, there is irrefutable evidence that above and beyond a certain degree of physical interference by ernissions the victirn state which suffered darnage as a result is entitled both to cornpensation and to have the interfering ernissions enjoined. Thus, the illegality of interference by ernissions is a problern of the relevant threshold. With regard to the question, where exactly this dernarcation line of illegality is to be drawn, both treaty law and international custom are, indeed, not very weil developed. Even the law concerning the protection of the oceans, which at present is the rnost developed field of international environmental law, provides but few ecological standards the Violation of which could serve as a basis for state responsibility. This situation will not even rapidly improve with the advent of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea. The second main objective of this book is, therefore, to show that certain legal principles and rules can be extrapolated from rnunicipal law of neighbourhood and private nuisance for purposes of establishing the threshold of illegal interference in international law. Accordingly, rnuch of the second half of this book is occupied with a cornparative study of rnunicipal law of neighbourhood and private nuisance. The pains of unearthing the municipal neighbourhood law of a considerable number of states were rewarded by the discovery of surprisingly sirnilar rules and principles in rnost of them. By virtue of Art. 38 I c ICJ Statute, these rules and principles can be carried over into international law in order to lend rnore precision to the threshold of illegal interference by transboundary ernissions. Moreover, Chapter 6 includes an investigation into regional General Principles of Law. This is virgin soil in the law of transnational ernissions. The objective of the last chapter is to identify sorne of the sources of the uncertainties and confusions which continue to surround questions of attribution, fault and the so-called liability for lawful activities in internationallaw. Specific problerns concerning causation, darnage and the calculation of darnages or cornpensation have been excluded partly because they are problems of a rnore general nature, common to other fields of law as weil, and partly because their treatrnent would have transgressed

Introduction

3

the scope of this book. No apology is made for not dealing with the local remedies rule. Where darnage or injury is caused outside the territory and jurisdiction of the state of origin, it instantly incurs responsibility and may not require exhaustion of remedies before its own courts. 1

1

Cf. O'Connell, at 950-955.

CHAPTER 1

Transnational Technological Darnage Before proceeding with a legal analysis of state responsibility for technological darnage it is useful to study a few typical exarnples of such darnage as they occur in day-to-day relations between states (sect. 1). Since sirnilarities in actual circumstances frequently lead to cornrnon legal solutions, such similarities and cornmon features of the activities as well as of the darnage will then be described (sect. 2).

Section 1: Examples of Technological Activities Causing Transnational Effects Darnage inflicted upon the territory of one state as a result of technological activities carried out in another state has in recent years manifested itself in a number of different forms as well as in an increasing frequency of occurrence. The term 'technological activity' is understood to have a very broad meaning, connoting all operations of an industrial or technological nature which result or are likely to result in physical effects, injury or darnage beyond the jurisdictional or territorial Iimits of the state on whose territory or under whose control and jurisdiction the activity is conducted. Thus not only those operations are included, which are carried out by the state through its agents, but the term also includes activities conducted by private persans or private entities. I. Pollution

To begin with there are those transnational technological effects which come under the general category of pollution. They are norrnally classified according to the different objects of pollution (e. g. river, ocean, air) or the sources of pollution (e. g. vessel, industrial) or in respect of the polluting substance (e. g. oil, nuclear). The following international incidents provide examples of the different categories.

Sect. 1: Activities Causing Transnational Effects

5

1. Trail Smelter

The weil known Trail Smelter Case1 concerns transnational air· pollution: The Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada Limited operated a smelter at Trail in the valley of the Columbia river. The direct distance from Trail to the U.S.-borderline was approximately seven miles.1 The ores (copper, Iead, zinc) smelted there had a high sulphur content. Sulphur dioxide gas was released into the air as a by-product of the smelting process. Favoured by certain prevailing weather conditions toxic cloud formations were drifting down the valley and eventually were crossing the U.S.-border. The amount of sulphur emitted rose from 30 tons per day during the First World War3 to approximately 300 to 350 tons per day in 1930.' As a result damage to land, trees, crops and other property in the State of Washington was estimated at a minimum cost of U. S. $ 78,000 during the 1930's (Jan. 1932-0ct. 1937).5 2. lcmesa Chemical Factory, Seveso On July 10, 1976 a poisonous cloud of TCDD (tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin) escaped through a safety valve from the Icmesa chemical factory near Seveso, Italy.8 It was not until some 80,000 domestic fowl and almost half the pigs in the area had died within days that the authorities were informed of the accident. The owner of the factory admitted that highly toxic material . had been given off. Subsequently numerous patients were admitted to hospital with a skin disease called chloracne. 187 cases of chloracne had been registered in the area and in 1977 the number of deformed babies rose to 38 compared with 4 in 1976. The damage involved was astronomical: The cost of direct aid, decontamination of the area, repairs to houses and compensation amounted to U. S. $ 32 millions. The full cost of rehabilitating the area was estimated at Iira 121,000 millions. 1 UNRIAA III 1911 et seq.; for a complete documentation of the case see: Trail Smelter Question, Ottawa 1936/41, 15 vol. 1 UNRIAA 1111913. s Id. at 1915. ' One ton of sulphur is substantially the equivalent of two tons of sulphur dioxide (S02). 5 UNRIAA III1931 and 1933. e Keesing's Ardlives (1979) 29688; Hay, 262 Science (1976) 639; di Giovine, 5 EPL (1979) 38 et seq.; The Times (13. 07. 1981) 3.

6

Chapt. 1: Transnational Technological Darnage

Though there was no transnational darnage involved in this case, disastraus effects on foreign territory could realistically be imagined, had the factory been situated closer to an international border. 3. R i v e r R h i n e The condition of the Rhine furnishes a sad example of international river pollution.7 The Rhine has become Europe's largest sewer as a result of its upstream riparian states using it as a convenient disposal artery for all kinds of industrial and municipal wastes. Approximately 24 million tons of waste, garbage and toxic substances pass the nutehGerman border at Emmerich each year, including 250 tons of arsenic and 20 tons of mercury. The average daily passage of chlorine-ions exceeds 30,000 tons. More than 16,000 tons of sulphates, 2,200 tons of nitrates and more than 100 tons of phosphates are carried daily through the Netherlands by the Rhine.8 In addition to these inorganic substances some 2,700 tons of organic substances such as oil-products and detergents flow into the Netherlands each day. The chlorine discharge originales largely from the potassium mines in the Alsace, other industrial waste comes from the mines and industry in the Ruhr district. Additional pollution sources include industrial waste waters and domestic sewage along the entire river basin. A total of more than six thousand toxic substances have been identified in the water of the Rhine. Unquestionably the effects and the darnage suffered by the riparian states as a result of the Rhine polIution are severe, given that a !arge proportion of their drinking water supply as weil as the water for irrigation originales in the Rhine. 8 The Netherlands' average annual extra cost since 1950 for purifying drinking water which became necessary owing to the decline in quality of the Rhine water has been estimated at 15 million Dutch guilder. 10

7 Hueting, passim; Umweltprobleme des Rheins, Sondergutachten des Rates von Sachverständigen für Umweltfragen, BT-Drudt.s. 7/5014. 8 Hueting at 35 et seq.; Klein at 44. 8 Wassermann, 7 JWTI (1973) 601; nearly 50 o/o of the total population living in the Rhine's catchment area depend wholly or in part on this river as a source of drinking water. 10 Hueting at 14; for a calculation of the financial darnage inflicted upon agriculture by the poor quality of the Rhine water see: id. at 13 et seq.

Sect. 1: Activities Causing Transnational Effects

7

4. Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz Ever since the Torrey Canyon11 ran aground on March 18, 1961 on the Seven Stones Reef between the Isles of Scilly and Land's End, vessel-source oil pollution has come to be known as a source of major darnage to the maritime environment as weil as to the affected coastal states, their fishing industry, their tourism and recreation business and to wild-life.11 lronically enough the pollution danger posed by tankers was most sadly underscored on the eve of the World Maritime Day when on March 16, 1918 in the worst oil-pollution disaster ever recorded until then, the heavily laden super tanker Amoco Cadiz poured most of its Ioad of 230,000 tons of crude oil into the sea.13 The tanker was forced onto rock.s off the north-western coast of France, after its steering mechanism had failed. The oil pollution that followed brought to a halt most of the fishing, including oyster and Iobster farming along the coast of Brittany. As in the Torrey Canyon disaster a decade earlier, marine life was devastated and thousands of birds were killed. The tourist industry suffered severe darnage once again.14 Approximately 4,400 troops and 2,500 civilians participated in cleaning up the French beaches. The costs of the Amoco Cadiz disaster incurred by France, including compensation paid to local fishermen amounted to 370 million francs.11 5. I x t o c 0 ne

The deplorable record in oil pollution set by the Amoco Cadiz was surpassed only a year later when on June 3, 1979 Ixtoc One,18 a drilling platform in the bay of Campeehe (Gulf of Mexico), occasioned the most disastrous blow-out ever. With more than 30,000 barreis (about 4,000 tons) of oil gushing into the Gulf every twenty-four hours, the record of the Amoco Cadiz was exceeded by the end of July, and on January 18, 1980 it was confirmed that lxtoc One continued to pour between 11 Keesing's Archives (1967) 22002 A; 71 RGDIP (1967) 1092-1099; Cowan, The Torrey Canyon Disaster (1968). Cf. also Report, 6 ILM (1967) 480-487; Brown, 21 CLP (1968) 113-136. 11 British authorities spent i 3 million alone on cleaning up the coast, 71 RGDIP (1967) 1093. 13 82 RGDIP (1978) 1125-1151; Keesing's Archives (1978) 29216, 29730 A. " See analysis in: 82 RGDIP (1978) 1130, figuring that the tourist industry suffered darnage in the neighbourhood of 800 million French Francs between July 14th and Sept. 30th 1978. 15 Not including Iosses suffered by the tourist industry of Brittany. 18 Die Zeit Nr. 30 (20. 07. 1979) 39; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Nr. 167 (21. 07. 1979) 5; id. at Nr. 184 (10. 09. 1979) 7; Keesing's Archives (1980) 30054 A; and id. at (1979) 29549 A.

Chapt. 1: Transnational Tedmological Darnage

8

2,000 and 2,500 barreis of oil into the sea.17 Only on March 23, 1980 was it possible to finally shut the well.18

Though the Gulf of Mexico is notorious for its blow-outs, none of the former ones had led to a comparable amount of damage. The darnage was not restricted to Mexico's coast and waters, but extended to the waters, coast, fishing industry and tourism of the United States. If the oil had reached the straits of Florida and if subsequently the Gulf Stream had caught hold of it, then the catastrophe might have reached global dimensions. That it might have caused darnage in places as remote as Europe would not have seemed tobe altogether impossible.n 6. Ek o Fis k

But even without such gloomy expectations Europe already had to face the consequences of a drilling accident when on April 22, 1917 a well blew out on platform Bravo in the North Sea oil field known as Eko Fisk and situated on the continental shelf of Norway.10 By the time the weH was once again under control on April 30 after seven previous, unsuccessful attempts to shut it, 22,500 tons of oil had spread over an area of 400 km1• D. Space Acüvltles Technological darnage is not restricted to pollution of the environment. Prospects of suffering unpredictable darnage caused by space activities have generated public concern, when a nuclear powered Russian satellite and the U. S. Sky-Lab returned to earth in a rather uncontrolled manner. 1. Cosmos 954

Not only the celebrated 'Cow from Cuba'11 has been reported to have suffered a fatal hit from some returning remains of a space object. On June 5, 1969 a small Japanese freighter cruising near the coast of Siberia was also severely damaged by a wredtage of a Soviet space craft.zz Five members of its crew were injured. n 84 RGDIP (1980) 405 (408). at 1146.

1s Id.

19 Though other experts suggest that the oil would eventually sink to the bottom of the Atlantic or be dissolved by microbes before reaching Europe via the Gulf Stream. See: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Nr. 184 (10. 09. 1979) 8.

zo 81 RGDIP (1977)

1137~1139.

at 339. N. Y. Times (05. 07. 1969) 28; P. M. Dupuy at 46.

u Bueckling, 17 NJW (1964) 527; Matte 22

Sect. 1: Activities Causing Transnational Effects

9

Since tbe first satellite Sputnik I was laundled on October 4, 1957, 6870 space objects or pieces tbereof bave re-entered tbe world's atmospbere by July 197928, altbougb nobody knows bow many of tbem bave actually readled tbe surface of tbe eartb. Yet, it was not until January 24, 1978, that tbe general public became aware of tbe potential bazards posed by space activities. On tbat day Cosmos 95424, a nuclear powered Russian satellite put several countries into jeopardy, including Brazil, Denmark and West Germany, before it finally broke up and was scattered over a sparsely-populated area in tbe Nortb-West Territories of Canada. Cosmos 954 carried 50 kg of uranium 235 in its reactor, wbidl provided tbe satellite's surveillance devices witb tbe necessary power. Hence, tbe accident could bave caused widespread radioactive contamination in tbe affected area. Large-scale seardl and recovery ventures were necessary since tbe debris was scattered over an area of 50,000 km!. Tbe Canadian government was reported to bave spent some 14 million dollars on tbe seardl by October 15, 1978. Tbe seardl was discontinued on October 18, 1978. Tbougb many pieces of debris bad been found, tbe residue of tbe nuclear core was still missing. It was boped tbat tbe reactor bad been destroyed wben re-entering tbe atmospbere, distributing its radioactivity over a sufficiently wide area as to be undetectable. 2. Sky-Lab Tbe statistical probabilities of suffering darnage or personal injury from a returning space object are very low. What alarmed many people living in places between latitudes 50° Nortb and 50° Soutb, wben SkyLab witb a total weigbt of some 80 tons returned to eartb, was tbe unpredictability of the space object's uncontrolled fall. Some of its debris was found in Australia but most of it bad disappeared in tbe Pacific Ocean. 111. Nuclear Weapon Tests

Nuclear weapon tests, both by tbe U. S. in tbe 1950's and by France in tbe late 60's and early 70's bave led to actual or alleged darnage on an international scale. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Nr. 194 (22. 08. 1979) 1. Keesing's Archives. (1978) 28984; 82 RGDIP (1978) 1091-1094. Cf. also 18 ILM (1979) 899 et seq. (Canadian Claim against the U.S.S.R.). CJ. also the reentry into the atmosphere of Cosmos 434 over Australia on August 16, 1981, The Times (27. 08. 1981) 6. Cf. also Blackie, The Observer (30. 08. 1981) 5 and Fawcett, Outer Space II, 26 et seq. 23

24

10

Chapt. 1: Transnational Technological Darnage

1.

u. s. A.

After the U. S. had conducted an atmospheric nuclear test on March 1, 1954 on the Bikini Atoll in the South Pacific, tuna fish with strong radioactivity began to appear in the waters surrounding Japan. Inspections of the catches were subsequently carried out. A total of 1,080,000 lbs of tuna fish worth about $ 110,000 proved unfit for consumption and had to be disposed of. Further catches had to be delayed and to make matters worse, the price for untained tuna fish dropped drastically in Japan and for several months remained at almost half the previous Ievel as a consequence of the well-publicized event. From midMarch to mid-June 1954, the total earnings of the tuna fish industry in Japan dropped to roughly 43 Ofo of the comparable figure of the previous year. In connection with this incident the Tuna Fishery Association of Japan claimed damages from its government of a total of U. S.-$ 5,100,000.26 The same nuclear test caused injuries from radioactive fall-out to 23 members of the crew of a Japanese fishing vessel, the Diago Fukuryu Maru (Lucky Dragon No. 5) which at the time of the explosion was outside the danger zone previously announced by the United States. All of the crew members were hospitalized and one of them died on September 23, 1954 as a consequence of his being exposed to radiation. 2' 2. Franc e Between July 1966 and June 1914 the French government conducted a total of eight series of atmospheric nuclear tests on several islands in the Mururoa Atoll in the South Pacific.17 Sophisticated monitaring programmes were carried out in Australia, New Zealand and on several islands in the South Pacific. In Australia and New Zealand neither the fusion products in the air or in the rain, nor the gamma radiation nor the iodine 131 Ievel in miJk were significantly different from pre-nuclear test levels.18 The samewas true for migrating fishin the affected area. On several pacific islands, however, the ftision products both in air and in rain were considerably higher after tests had been conducted.n Oda, 53 Friedenswarte (1956) 126-135. Whiteman IV 565. 27 On these nuclear tests see: 70 RGDIP (1966) 1032-1040; 72 RGDIP (1968) 212-213; 73 RGDIP (1969) 462 ; 74 RGDIP (1970) 726-728; 76 RGDIP (1972) 869-875; 77 RGDIP (1973) 840--845; 78 RGDIP (1974) 793--822; 79 RGDIP (1975) 206-211. zs Cf. I.C.J. Rep. Pleadings (1978) vol. II, 307-309. 29 Id. 15 2'

Sect. 1: Activities Causing Transnational Effects

11

Quite apart from causing nuclear fall-out in foreign countries, major nuclear atmospheric explosions may also blow temporary holes in the ozone layer, which is vital for the protection from ultra-violet rays. 30 IV. Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy Little is known about the harrnful effects which may result from peaceful use of nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants discharge radioactive substances even during their normal day-to-day operation. Experts agree that there does not exist an entirely harmless dose of radiation. Views only differ on the extent of detrimental genetic and carcinogenic effects caused by lowlevel ionizing radiation. 81 Even if the normal operation of nuclear power plants does not Iead to harmful transnational radiation it might still cause other kinds of darnage to foreign states: The discharge of cooling water by nuclear power plants raises the temperature of river water.11 This might for instance give rise to growth of blue algae, which in turn secretes toxic substances into the water.18 Co-riparian states are likely to suffer darnage as a result. Sum negative side-effects, however, of a nuclear power plant in normal operation seem relatively insignificant when compared to the darnage resulting from accidents, sabotage and technical failure. The Three-Mile-Island accident was but another specific incident which evidenced the potentially trernendous hazards of the rnalfunctioning of a nuclear plant on March 28, 1979. According to U. S. safety authorities there had been six independent failures at the Three-Mile-Island plant, only two of whim were due to human error. 34 At the same time cracks on the steam generators' tubular plates had been reported to exist in several nuclear power plants in France. The French safety authorities decided to continue operation of these plants despite serious warnings from experts35 and without having found a way ao Cf. Tideeil at 30, and infra at Chap. 1, sect. 1 V.

Randelzhofer and Simma, in: Berber-Festschrift (1973) at 389 et seq. (391); Rometsch, VN (1978) 44-47; see also the discussion of experts on nuclear effects to the environment in: 16 CJTL (1977) 386----470 (esp. 416 et seq.). 12 Randelzhofer and Simma at 391 . aa Hueting at 37 et seq. 34 Shoja Etemad, Guardian (25. 10. 1979) 20. 31

36

Jd. at 1 and 20.

12

Chapt. 1: Transnational Technological Darnage

of repairing the cra