Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, 1905-63 0852550197, 9780852550199

Citation preview

3000000000000000C Squatters Roots

of

and Mau

the Mau

E A S T E R N AFRICAN STUDIES Swahili Origins: Swahili Culture & the Shungwaya Phenomenon, James de Vere Allen, John Middleton, editors Control & Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic ofDomination, Bruce J. Berman Unhappy Valley: Clan, Class & State in Colonial Kenya, Bruce J. Berman & John Lonsdale The Mau Mau War in Perspective, Frank Furedi Uganda Now: Between Decay & Development, Holger Bernt Hansen & Michael Twaddle, editors Changing Uganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change, Holger Bernt Hansen & Michael Twaddle Squatters & the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63, Tabitha Kanogo Penetration & Protest in Tanzania: The Impact of the World Economy on the Pare, Isaria N. Kimambo The Second Economy in Tanzania, T. L. Maliyamkono & Mboya S. D. Bagachwa Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar, Abdul Sheriff Zanzibar under Colonial Rule, Abdul Sheriff & Ed Ferguson, eds Being Maasai: Ethnicity & Identity in East Africa, Thomas Spear & Richard Waller, editors Economic & Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53, David W.Throup A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1974, Bahru Zewde Kakungulu & the Creation of Uganda, Michael Twaddle Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in East African History, David M. Anderson & Douglas H. Johnson, editors Religion & Politics in East Africa: The Period since Independence, Holger Bernt Hansen & Michael Twaddle, editors Education in the Development of Tanzania 1919-1990, Lene Buchert Decolonization & Independence in Kenya 1940-93, B. A. Ogot & William Ochieng* Ecology Control & Economic Development in East African History, Helge Kjekshus

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Lecturer in History Kenyatta University

James Currey LONDON Heinemann Kenya NAIROBI Ohio University ATHENS

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Electronic edition published in 2016 Ohio University Press www.ohioswallow.com James Currey Boydell & Brewer Ltd PO Box 9, Woodbridge Suffolk IP12 3DF (GB) www.jamescurrey.com Boydell & Brewer Inc. 668 Mt Hope Avenue Rochester, NY 14620-2731 (US) www.boydellandbrewer.com

©Tabitha Kanogo 1987 First Published 1987 All rights reserved BRITISH LIBRARY CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Kanogo, Tabitha Squatters and the roots of Mau Mau (East African Studies) 1. Kenya-Race Relations I. Title II. Series 305.8'9676'2 DT433.542 ISBN 0-85255-018-9 ISBN 0-85255-019-7 Pbk LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Kanogo, Tabitha M. Squatters and the roots of Mau Mau, 1905-63 Includes bibliographies and index 1. Migrant agricultural laborers-Kenya-History-20th century 2. Squatters-Kenya-History-20th century 3. Mau Mau-History 4. Kikuyu (African people)-History I. Tide HD1538.K4K36 1987 307.336 87-11202 ISBN 0-8214-0873-9 ISBN 0-8214-0874-7 (pbk.) ISBN 978-1-78204-778-0 (James Currey eISBN) ISBN 978-0-8214-4446-7 (Ohio University Press eISBN)

300D00000D000000C For my mother and in memory of my father

3000000000000000C Contents

Acknowledgements

x

List of Abbreviations

xii

Glossary of Kikuyu and Swahili Terms used in Text

xiv

Maps

xvi Introduction

1

One The Genesis of the Squatter Community, 1905-18 Land alienation among the Kikuyu The Kikuyu expansionist dynamic Factors behind Kikuyu migration Early labour recruitment The squatter system Kaffir farming Kikuyu migration to the Rift Valley Squatter settlement patterns Squatter accumulation: livestock The paradox of a labour shortage: squatter self-perception The other squatters Notes

8 9 10 11 14 15 15 17 19 21 26 27 29

Two Settlers and Squatters: Conflict of Interests 1918-37 The 1918 Resident Native Labourers Ordinance (RNLO) Additional labour legislation Settlers and squatter stock Settler differences over squatter stock 'Kifagio' Squatter resistance

35 37 38 40 44 46 47

viii

Contents

Squatter production in the inter-war years The sanctity of the White Highlands versus squatter assertion: from squatters to wage labourers Squatter insecurity Squatters and litigation Notes

55 59 61 64 68

Three Social Organisation among Squatters Elders' councils (ciama) Official opposition to the kiama Circumcision The struggle for education KISA and Karinga schools Self help among squatters: the quest for education Kikuyu Private Schools Association The missions Notes

74 75 75 77 78 79 81 84 87 92

Four The Crisis: Decline in Squatter Welfare 1938-48 The 1937 Resident Native Labourers Ordinance: provisions and implications Olenguruone The Olenguruone scheme Resistance at Olenguruone The Olenguruone oath Notes

97 105 107 115 116 120

Five Politics of Protest: Mau Mau Post-war political mobilisation KCA and KAU mobilisation Militant politics among the squatters The social basis of Mau Mau in the White Highlands The rise of violence Mau Mau food supplies: the women's war Mau Mau and the control of the Rift Valley The return of Kikuyu squatters to the White Highlands Notes

125 125 128 129 129 136 143 149 152 155

96

Contents

ix

Six The Post Mau Mau Period: The Independence Bargain and the Plight of the Squatters, 1955-63 162 The Kenya Land Freedom Army 164 Liberal European politics 169 Land and politics 169 174 The peasantisation of the White Highlands Notes 176 Conclusion

179

List of Informants

182

Biographical Notes on Key Informants

184

Select Bibliography

188

Index

199

D O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

I am greatly indebted to the many people and institutions that have been helpful in the course of preparing this work. The study began as a Ph.D. dissertation for the University of Nairobi. I would like to thank my two supervisors, Prof. Godfrey Muriuki and Dr Atieno-Odhiambo for their constructive and stimulating criticism of the drafts. Prof. Ahmed I. Salim kindly joined hands with Prof. Muriuki during Dr Atieno-Odhiambo's absence on sabbatical leave and offered valuable help. The United States Agency for International Development funded the initial two-year grant while the University of Nairobi awarded me a one-year grant between December 1977 and November 1978. Both grants went a long way towards financing the research. The members of the Department of History, Kenyatta University College, deserve special thanks for sharing my teaching load while I completed the dissertation. I am especially grateful to them for shouldering my departmental duties while I took a Rhodes Fellowship at Somerville College, Oxford, between 1982 and 1985, during which time I completed the research necessary for the revision and restructuring of the thesis and its conversion into this book. I would also like to thank the Rhodes trustees for funding the fellowship that has enabled me to write this book. Somerville College was my home away from home and I am grateful for the support and welcome that its staff and Principal, Miss Daphne Park, extended to me. The staff of several libraries were very supportive during the various stages of this work. Librarians at the Kenya National Archives, the McMillan library and the University of Nairobi libraries in Kenya deserve many thanks. I spent long periods at Rhodes House library and at the Institute for Commonwealth Studies library. In both places the staff were most helpful. The Public Records Office library rendered good service. Dr John Lonsdale deserves special thanks. He read all the draft chapters of this book and offered invaluable advice and support. David

Acknowledgements

xi

Throup and David Anderson made useful suggestions on earlier drafts. Mrs Selina Cohen sub-edited and typed the whole manuscript. I am very grateful for her patience and good work. I wish to thank my various informants who willingly took time off for the interviews. The data thus gathered has been vital in the writing of this book. I am grateful to Lady Pamela Scott, Penina Nyawira and the late Selina Lyndall, who provided me with accommodation at different times of my fieldwork research. I would also like to thank Jane Nandwa, Gill Short, Tom Forrest, Niamh Hardiman and Tajudeen Abdul-Raheem for their encouragement. My family has patiently supported me, always. To them I say 'thank you'. However, the responsibility for any errors or distortions is entirely mine.

30000QQ0000Q0000C L i s t

AAD AIM AR CMS CN CNC CO CSM DAR DC DO EAISR EALB EAPH EAS EBU FH HAK KADU KANU KASU KAU KBU KCA KER KISA KLFA KNA KPSA Lab.

of

African African Annual Church Central

A b b r e v i a t i o n s

Affairs Department Inland Mission Report Missionary Society Nyanza - including the Kisumu Londiani

area Chief Native Commissioner Colonial Office documents held at Public Records Office, Kew Gardens, London Church of Scotland Mission District Annual Report District Commissioner District Officer East Africa Institute of Social Research East Africa Labour Bureau East African Publishing House East African Standard (newspaper) Embu Fort Hall Historical Association of Kenya Kenya African Democratic Union Kenya African National Union Kenya African Students Union Kenya African Union Kiambu Kikuyu Central Association Kericho Kikuyu Independent Schools Association Kenya Land Freedom Army Kenya National Archives Kikuyu Private Schools Association Labour

List of Abbreviations Leg. Co. M.A. MAA MLC NAD NDI NKU NSA NVA NYI NZA PC PRO RH RNLO RV RVP SP

Legislative Council Master of Arts Maasai Member of the Legislative Council Native Affairs Department Nandi Nakuru Njoro Settlers Association Naivasha Nyeri Nyanza Provincial Commissioner Public Records Office, London Rhodes House Library, Oxford Resident Native Labourers Ordinance Rift Valley Rift Valley Province Southern Province

xiii

30000000Q0000000E Glossary

of

S w a h i l i

ahoi aruithia baraza bibi boma ciama ciondo debe Gigikuyu Gikuyu na Mumbi githaka gituiku guciarwo gukaywo nyori gunias harambee iganda igweta irua ithaka jembe kamuirigo kanyanga karani kiama kifagio

T e r m s

K i k u y u used

a n d in

Text

landless people among the Kikuyu surgeons who performed circumcision ritual public meeting wife/woman cattle pen elders' councils Kikuyu baskets tin container the Kikuyu language mythical founders of the Kikuyu tribe system under which land was acquired/Land acquired under such a system handleless blade often given to surgeon as a circumcision fee adoption to pierce the upper ear lobes gunny-bags self-help temporary huts high social standing, fame circumcision plural of githaka (land) hoe killer trespass clerk singular of ciama broom - signifying period when the squatters lost their livestock, i.e. it was swept away, or officials involved in de-stocking

Glossary kihiu-mwiri Kikuyu karinga kipande kirore kuna Lumbwa madaraka maisha mashuka maskini mathace mbari migoma mubara muingi muruithia muramati mzungu ndarwa ndigithu Ndundu Ya Hitho nduriri ngoima njahi nyakiburi nyapara posho purko rutere saidia shamba siasa siri thenge thigari cia bururi thu totos uhuru ungumania utuuro Wamera wazungu weru

xv

the age-group circumcised between approximately 1914 and 1918 pure Kikuyu identification pass fingerprint in lieu of signature - used on contracts breaking up virgin land Kipsigis (in slang) affluence lifetime piece of cloth worn wrapped around the body poverty stricken, poor skimmed milk clan she-goats toy-wheel community self-help group singular of aruithia (surgeons) trustee of the land white man skins gourd Inner Secret Council of Mau Mau non-Kikuyu, especially from Western Kenya ram black peas form of sweet potato foreman/farm overseer ground maize flour Maasai frontier helpers plot of land politics secret he-goats soldiers or guards of the land enemy children independence hypocrisy dwelling place/permanent residence Kikuyu slang for Luo white men, plural of mzungu pasture-land

xvi

Maps

The Highlands Forest reserves Other alienated areas

Map 1

50 Miles 0

Location of the White Highlands

50 Kilometres

xvii

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