Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond 9811681961, 9789811681967

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Hongchang Li

Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond

Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond

Hongchang Li

Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond

Hongchang Li Department of Economics School of Economics and Management Beijing Jiaotong University Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-16-8196-7 ISBN 978-981-16-8197-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

2 General Spatio-Temporal Transportation Theory Development . . . . . 2.1 Space–Time Economic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Thoughts on the Economical Concept of Time and the Analysis Framework of Economic Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Giddens and Bourdieu’s Achievements in Space– Time Economic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 PRN Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Deepening of the Concept of Complete Transport Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Deepening the Concept of Transportation Resources . . . . . . 2.2.3 Deepening the Concept of Network Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 FSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Comprehensive Transportation Development Practice and Three-Dimensional Comprehensive Transportation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 The Extension of Three-Dimensional Comprehensive Transportation Theory in Structural Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Analysis and Thoughts on the Development of China’s High-Speed Railway Transportation from the Structural Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 5

3 Key Transportation Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Space–Time Structure of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 General Travel Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Efficiency Concept and Railway Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Railway Efficiency Measurement Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 8 16 16 17 17 18

18 19

20 21 21 21 22 24 25 25 26 v

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Contents

3.2.3 Railway Efficiency in Major Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Supply and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Transportation Supply Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Urban Traffic Demand Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 The Relationship Between Urban Transportation Supply Strategy and Traffic Demand Management . . . . . . . . 3.4 Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Port Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Railway Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Information Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Supervision of Other Modes of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Network and Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Relevant Property Rights Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3 The Impact of Government Regulation on Railway Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 The Scale of the Infrastructure Network is at the Forefront of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Scale of Transportation Services is at the Global Leading Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Significantly Enhanced Accessibility of Transportation Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 The GDP Growth Rate Has Gradually Slowed Down, and China’s Transportation Production Index Has Performed Steadily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Status of Railway Transportation Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Development of China Railway Passenger Transport . . . . . . 4.5.2 Development of China Railway Freight Transport . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 Development Achievements of China Railway in Recent Years—High-Speed Railway Operation and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 The Role of High-Speed Rail in Promoting Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.5 Total Iron Debt Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Development Status of Urban Rail Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 Development History of Urban Rail Transit in China . . . . . . 4.6.2 Development of Urban Rail Transit—Taking Beijing as an Example (Analysis of the Market Operation of Beijing Urban Rail Transit Commercial Resources) . . . . . 4.7 Status of Road Transport Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Comparative Analysis of the Development of Sino-US Traffic . . . .

28 31 31 32 33 34 34 38 43 45 47 50 53 53 55 56 59 59 60 60

60 65 66 69

69 74 79 80 80

83 88 92

Contents

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5 Transportation Events and Viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Railway Speed Increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Railway Speed Increasing History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Adjusting Train Operation Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Typical Case Analysis: Beijing-Tianjin Intercity High-Speed Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Civil Aviation Price Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Civil Aviation Price Reforms History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Civil Aviation Price Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Relevant Views on Civil Aviation Price Reform . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Railway Corporation Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 China Railway Corporation Reform History . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Separation of Government and Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Relevant Viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 City Shared Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Net Car Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Online Car Rental Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Shared Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Shared Bicycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93 93 93 97

6 Transportation and Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Practical Transportation Developing Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Development of China’s Railway Transportation . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Structural Reform of the Supply Side of the Railway Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Big Data Transportation Development Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Traffic and Space Economy Theoretical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 The Development of Space–time Economic Theory . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Analysis of Traffic Economic Practice Under the Constraints of Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The History of the Transportation Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Railway Development History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Aviation Development History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Urban Rail Transit Development Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98 100 100 102 103 104 105 106 107 109 110 116 121 124 129 129 129 131 133 134 134 135 137 137 144 145

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Chapter 1

Introduction

Transportation economics is an important branch of applied economics. It is a subject that uses general theories and methods of economics to study and explore various issues related to transportation. Human beings are engaged in transportation to overcome the barriers of space distance. This is an omnipresent and ubiquitous task. Its connection and influence go far beyond the transportation industry itself and penetrate into all aspects of social and economic life. Therefore, transportation is one of the basic human activities. Compared with other industries and even some network industries, the transportation industry has the characteristics of network economy, natural monopoly and public welfare, which makes it more important and complex in terms of supply and demand, investment and construction, operation organization, and government role. Obviously, more targeted economic analysis and explanation are needed. The importance and complexity of transportation issues make the transportation industry an excellent field where almost all the basic theories and methods of economics can be applied, and it is also an excellent place for rigorously testing and perfecting these basic theories and methods. Transportation is a good economics research object, but in the transportation economics research, we deeply feel that the basic theories of general economics and the latest frontier results, such as transaction cost theory, property rights theory, game theory, system change theory, contract theories and industrial organization theories cannot be directly translated or applied, because every field has technical and institutional constraints that apply the general principles of economics, and the transportation industry is no exception. Although economics provides a good analysis method, the object of analysis here is the transportation industry based on the physical network. The demand is the spatial movement of passengers and goods, and the supply is provided by the manufacturer on the transportation network. Services and network characteristics make the economic analysis of the transportation industry very different from general industry and commerce. Even the already mature economic analysis methods must reconsider their pertinence and applicability in the specific coordinate system of network characteristics.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_1

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1 Introduction

Since the reform and opening up, the discipline system of transportation economics in China has undergone fundamental changes along with the development and reform of the transportation industry. In the domestic classification of disciplines, transportation economics belongs to the field of industrial economics. In recent years, the development of transportation economics in my country has followed the road of industrial economics research focusing on specific industry backgrounds. On the one hand, these specific transportation industries are precisely those typical areas with strong foundations, obvious natural monopoly characteristics, outstanding public welfare and public enterprise nature, rapid market structure changes, and industrial integration. On the other hand, the research focuses on defining academic issues from the perspective of phenomena and proposing corresponding explanatory frameworks, emphasizing on following the process of universal human understanding from special to general in economics research, and paying attention to the conditions of use of general economic principles in various specific fields. Disciplinary research focuses on the analysis of transportation prices, costs, planning, statistics, finance and other industry management issues in the industry from the early stage of reform and opening up in the 1980s, and gradually expanded to the 1990s to explore transportation from a macro and historical perspective. The issue of the relationship between industrial development and the national economy has developed to more consciously using the latest achievements of economics around 2000, studying various resources, organizations, contracts and property rights in transportation economic activities, and then consciously rebuilding disciplinary research paradigm now. In simple terms, the research focus of transportation economics has evolved from focusing solely on economic issues in transportation at first, to studying transportation issues in the economy, and then further developing to studying economic issues in transportation. The scope of subject research has also changed from focusing on individual transportation modes to studying integrated transportation systems, and has further expanded to logistics economy and other related transportation economic fields. Relevant subject teams focus on major topics in the development and system reform of the transportation industry, as well as major theoretical issues in the development of the discipline itself. They are engaged in the reconstruction of the transportation economic discipline system, comprehensive transportation system reform, transportation planning theory and methods, transportation and Significant progress has been made in the organization of logistics enterprises, the structure of the transportation market, and the investment and financing system of the transportation industry. Transportation economics is becoming an important research field that applies modern economic theories and methods to comprehensively and systematically explain various transportation activities in the market economy, and has formed a maturity subject that can carry out relevant policy research and make policy recommendations in time or even in advance. Judging from the historical process of the development of the discipline of international transportation economics, the strength of a nation cannot be separated from the strength of transportation, and it often begins with the strength of transportation. “Improvement is the most effective”. A prosperous country must have extraordinary transportation infrastructure and accessibility, highlighting speed, efficiency and

1 Introduction

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interconnectivity. Since modern times, the world’s science and technology, culture, politics, economy, and life have profoundly affected the evolution of transportation, and the rapid development of science and technology has enabled transportation to continue to achieve phased breakthroughs. Nowadays, the world is ushering in a new round of technological revolution and industrial transformation. The new development concepts of innovation, coordination, greenness, openness, and sharing are becoming more and more popular. Transportation is showing a development trend of becoming more “high-speed, green, integrated, and intelligent"’. This book will combine the development status of the transportation industry, along with parallel clues of theory and practice, and introduce the development of space–time transportation economics at home and abroad from the following aspects. The first chapter is the preface, focusing on summarizing the current development of world transportation economics and its development stage, introducing and reviewing the new frontiers of China and other countries. Chapter 2 will introduce the general concepts and theories of time, space, and hubs that form the basis of time and space transportation economics, so that readers can think creatively about transportation economics from the perspective of time and space dimensions. This chapter uses the main development process of the space– time theory as a clue to classify and introduce the results of the theory of space–time transportation economics. Although it may be a little difficult to read, it will be useful for understanding the economics from the perspective of space–time and reading other chapters of this book and act as foundational role in the whole book. The transportation industry involves time, space, hubs, supply and demand, cost, supervision, network and other factors. Chapter 3 will start from the perspective of these factors and explain the development frontiers of space–time transportation economics. The content of this chapter does not fully include all the elements of the transportation industry, but the key elements have been analyzed and introduced to the readers one by one, hoping to paint a clear application picture of time and space transportation economics for the readers. Chapter 4 starts with the subdivisions of the transportation industry, introduces different transportation formats including civil aviation, highways, railways, and urban transportation, and evaluates their development based on analysis methods such as big data. With the development of network communication technology and big data technology, many new traffic incidents have occurred in China, such as online ride-hailing services and shared bicycle economy. Chapter 5 will briefly introduce and comment on these latest traffic economic phenomena. The understanding and analysis of these new phenomena are necessary for the development of the theory of space–time economics. In Chap. 6, the author combines history and real time, and based on the analysis and summary of the previous chapters, correspondingly draws basic conclusions and prospects for future development, emphasizing the theoretical and practical significance of the temporal and spatial perspective of the development of transportation economics.

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1 Introduction

The development of theory requires we economists’ exploration and communication. This book provides professionals in the transportation industry with retrospective and innovative perspectives from the perspective of space–time economics, and follows the introduction logic from general theories to unique practices. It is hoped that this book can help readers discover and expand new research topics in their thinking and work.

Chapter 2

General Spatio-Temporal Transportation Theory Development

This chapter mainly introduces the general space–time transportation theory including time, space, center, etc., innovatively considers time and space dimensions, and forms the basis of space–time transportation economics.

2.1 Space–Time Economic Theory Time and space are the basic forms of economic and social activities. The degree of use of time and space by members and the construction level of economic time and space will greatly promote social development and economic efficiency. As China’s industrialization, urbanization and transportation become mature, transportation plays an important role in accelerating people’s life rhythm, changing people’s living space, urban space, industrial space and reshaping the regional economic structure. From the perspective of time and space economic analysis, we will study the optimization of the space–time allocation of economic resources by traffic. In the natural space distance, due to the use of high-speed rail, the time required for the displacement between points is greatly shortened, which greatly promotes the economic development of cities along the route. Professor Lin Xiaoyan and others tried to connect the economic space–time theory with the status quo of China’s high-speed rail, and achieved the figurative economic space–time theory, which laid a foundational contribution to China’s regional economic and social development.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_2

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2 General Spatio-Temporal Transportation Theory Development

2.1.1 Thoughts on the Economical Concept of Time and the Analysis Framework of Economic Time and Space Since the birth of mankind, time has been used by humans to perceive and understand the world, but time itself is also the object of understanding. In economics, time is not a purely natural category, but an economic category and social existence. With the development of human society and the advancement of science, people’s understanding of time is constantly changing. The economic ideology needs to be constructed with a certain economic time frame. Generally speaking, the economic time frame is used as the time background condition. The economic analysis principle needs to have the economic time frame as the skeleton support. A time background strictly defines the corresponding interpretation and analysis logic of economics. Therefore, although the time frame may not be emphasized in people’s economic analysis, or even not aware of their potential use of the time frame, any economic analysis is inseparable from the time frame, but it is often decisive. That is to say, once we replace the time frame used by the theory, the original logic process and the analysis results obtained may no longer hold. The concept of time is subordinate to the analytical framework. Economists cut off time, take one of them as logical time, and build their own time theory analysis on this time frame. I hope that relevant theories can play an explanatory role in this time period. In fact, any discipline needs to establish its own academic concept system and theoretical framework including time and time, and explain the world by this, and strive to achieve subjective and objective consistency. Therefore, it is undoubtedly one of the core requirements for economics to construct its logical system by selecting a suitable period of time to construct a suitable time frame. Each person’s concept of time is different, thus establishing different time frames. Each economist has his own time definition, and he needs to redefine the concept of time before conducting economic analysis. We know that from the perspective of classical economics, the concept of time used by economists is no longer a simple concept of natural time. Economists try to understand time more deeply, explore the economic meaning in time, and define time by themselves, such as defining labor time, so as to study labor value, such as labor time, circulation time and later shortterm long-term time definition. Classicalists analyze time from the perspective of economics, and think that time is also a resource. Neoclassical economics is based on the static time of mechanical mechanics. Professor Rong Chaohe, a professor at Beijing Jiaotong University, believes that economics should not only draw on the time and space concept of sociology, but also integrate the time theory of relativity, and integrate the construction of an emerging space–time analysis framework based on relative time. This emerging time frame is conducive to a more rational logical time model in economic analysis, while at the same time relaxing its assumptions about the economic man, and better achieving subjective and objective consistency.

2.1 Space–Time Economic Theory

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Marshall once lamented that "time factor is almost the central problem of every economic problem", and time issues plague every economist. Even so far, although statistics or metrology has brought new ideas to time research, time analysis has remained on the basis of static analysis. Today, economists believe that the issue of time is the biggest weakness in contemporary economics research. We have known that time and space are difficult to separate in reality. In philosophy, time is a measure of the sequence of events in the universe, space is the expression of motion, time and space are interdependent, and witness the evolutionary order of things. Time and space are not simple two-dimensional models, but dynamic, space is fixed, and time is fluid. At present, mainstream economics rarely talks about time analysis alone, and often uses the concept of space–time analysis to analyze time and space simultaneously. We borrowed the characterization of time and space in neoclassical economics. As shown in Fig. 2.1, the time scales were carefully divided. On the short-term and long-term basis, the definition of immediate and medium-term is added. When dividing the space, add the middle view and the field to the micro and macro concepts. These divisional frameworks combine the ideas of senior economists and provide a reliable time background for economic research, but the concept of “spot” in time needs to be improved. At present, the space–time background needs to be supplemented and improved, and there is still a long way to go in the construction of space–time framework.

Fig. 2.1 The application scale of each time paradigm in economic analysis

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2 General Spatio-Temporal Transportation Theory Development

2.1.2 Giddens and Bourdieu’s Achievements in Space–Time Economic Research 2.1.2.1

Analysis of the Space–time Structure of Giddens

In Giddens’ theory of space–time structure analysis, there are three dimensions in the time of human activity. First, individual behaviors or activities are immediate. We know that for any behavior, it is from the point of view with the starting point and the end point. If the behavior occurs between the starting point and the ending point, it is called the spot. Secondly, human individual life is limited, and each person’s life expectancy is limited. Finally, individual behavior as a part of social activities is routine, that is, activities are repetitive. From these three dimensions to analyze human activities, the time background of any economic activity can be expressed in these three dimensions. This is a comprehensive manifestation of the triple time, which not only reflects the immediate nature of individual actions, but also reflects the process of individual life and is part of the common time of society. In spatial analysis, Giddens used concepts such as location and location. The location that Giddens said can be simply understood as the geographical location, which is simply the material space. The occurrence of any activity is inseparable from the geographical location. Giddens borrowed the concept of a place when defining a place, which is a combination of the place of activity of a human being when it is economically active and its surroundings. Giddens also defined the concept of regionalization. Regionalization corresponds to the routineization of people’s daily life in the above three-dimensional time, that is to say, regionalization includes not only the specific range of people’s behavior in space, but also the time scale of routine behavior, that is, in different time and space divisions, various social behaviors are routinely and relatively fixedly differentiated. The so-called space–time framework is so important because any social practice and interaction to happening needs to be realized in a time-spaced framework. In this regard, Giddens believes that time and space are indispensable for the study of human activities, and human activities are limited by certain time frames and specific space constraints. In the past, we used time counting like a calendar and using maps to locate them. These scales are only related to nature. Nowadays, with the development of science and technology, especially the improvement of transportation and communication conditions, time and space are no longer pure natural concepts, and technology has brought people closer to each other. The distance here is no longer simply a geographical distance. The concept definition of time and space has been analyzed before, and time and space are interdependent and cannot be ignored. Giddens also believes that the study of human activities requires the integration of structural features of people’s behavior based on time and space analysis. Based on this idea, he proposed the concept of “presence of presence” to describe and analyze human economic activities across time and space. Because people cannot generate trust in completely different time

2.1 Space–Time Economic Theory

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and space, they need to meet the essential requirements of “common presence” to the minimum to achieve communication in specific situations. In the early days, when human beings were required to communicate, they needed time and space to overlap. They would strictly require the two sides to meet and communicate. Under this condition, mutual trust can be established to ensure communication and interaction. With the advancement of technology, human beings have diversified and complicated ways of communicating. In daily life, people often appear to be in the absence of time, or they will appear in the absence of space, and even more in the absence of time and space. However, a certain degree of absence does not fundamentally shake the foundation of people to establish contacts and interactions. The advancement of science and technology has brought about more and more diversified and complicated ways of human communication. The arrival of the information age has made people’s interactions no longer limited by time and space. That is to say, it is not necessary to have a common time and space place to be consistent, but the arrival of informationization has expanded the scale of time and space between people. The analysis and explanation given by Giddens is very similar to the time geography, as the communication between human beings from the common place to the present is virtual. Both Harvey and Macnab discuss the evolution of the human communication model, which is divided into four evolution modes (Table 2.1): human synchronous physical arrival, synchronous virtual arrival, asynchronous physical arrival, and asynchronous virtual arrival. According to the time is consistent, and the space is consistent, can be divided into four cases: A face-to-face direct communication, time and space are consistent; B only requires time to be consistent, space does not matter, so-called air exchange; C and D indirect communication, time is inconsistent and space may be inconsistent. Both transportation and communication have contributed to the time and space Table 2.1 Time and space requirements and limitations of human communication Project

Request and limit communication time

Space requirements and restrictions for communication Same place

Off-site

Synchronize

A. Synchronous physical presence: face-to-face conversation, meeting exchange

B. Synchronous virtual presence: phone, mobile, conference call

Asynchronous

C. Asynchronous physical D. Asynchronous virtual arrival: message board, presence: letters, prints, message phone telegraph Internet mail, SMS WeChat, off-site playback video

Note Organized according to Harvey and Macnab: Who’s up? Global Interpersonal Temporal Accessibility

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distance of human communication, but the instantaneous distance of communication technology to achieve real-time communication can achieve rapid information exchange. Time-consistent communication requires individual accessibility in time. The technical instant accessibility refers firstly to the accessibility at the time, and can be communicated at any time, followed by the communication interval, and there is time for us to handle the transaction. At the same time, Giddens also tried to extend the individual interaction of microsociology into the analysis of macro-mechanism, and proposed the concept of separating or reorganizing time and space. Giddens defines the separation of time and space, and believes that the separation of time and space means that due to the rapid development of information technology, especially the rapid development of remote communication, the requirements for the consistency of time and space in human activities are gradually relaxed, and gradually reach specific locations and events. The degree of phase separation. Communication and separation of traffic, people’s interaction and interaction no longer require the two sides to face each other to complete.

2.1.2.2

Bourdieu’s Field and Habit Theory

The field in sociological time and space analysis refers to the social space relative to geospatial space, and is the embodiment of various social relations in the spatial scope. Bourdieu believes that in a highly differentiated society, the world is composed of a large number of relatively small social worlds with relative autonomy. These small worlds are fields with their own logical and inevitable objective relationships. Each field has different operating rules, and there is an intersection or union between the fields. Bourdieu defines the field as a network and configuration consisting of objective relationships between locations, emphasizing space as a source of active and potential power. The field is a place full of struggles to maintain or change the power structure. It is an arena that competes for control over precious capital. In Bourdieu’s theory of social practice, capital is roughly equivalent to the energy in physics. Actors possess capital exclusively, and can occupy social energy embodied in materialized or activated forms. The position in the field is dominated and subordinated according to its capital type and total amount. The strategies of different actors depend on their position in the field, and the action strategies of different position occupants are also different. Later researchers concluded that there are several interrelated links in the analysis field: First, although each field has a certain degree of autonomy and follows its own logic and rules, completely independent and isolated fields do not exist. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the relationship and relative position between different fields. The strong field generally has a non-negligible influence and restriction on other related fields. Secondly, it is necessary to clarify the structure of the relationship between the positions occupied by the actors in the field, because the actors occupying

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different positions in the field have different quality and quantity of capital, so there are advantages and disadvantages in the process of power competition or game. Third, it is necessary to analyze the habitus of the actors, because different actors often act under the guidance of their habitus under certain social background and economic, political and cultural conditions. Finally, the field plays a crucial intermediary role, that is, external economic, political, cultural and other constraints generally do not directly affect the actors in a specific field, but rely on the specific intermediary role of the field to influence the actors. Habitus is also an important concept in Bourdieu’s social practice theory. He believes that habitus is the subjective adjustment of the objective position formed by the actors in the social position in the field, and is the result of the internalization of externality. Bourdieu believes that habituation is a historical practice, and habituation comes from the long-term social practice of individual actors and groups. The experience accumulated over a long period of time will be internalized into people’s consciousness to direct and mobilize the behavior of the actors. To become an important generation mechanism of the social behavior, survival mode, life mode, behavior strategy and other actions and spirit of the actor. Habitus is usually not valued, but it exerts a specific and lasting effect in human behavior, and it takes effect before the operation of human consciousness and language, and to a certain extent is beyond the control of will. Habitus ensures the effective presence of past experience, which is stored in everyone in the form of perception, thinking and behavior patterns, to ensure the consistency of the actors’ practical activities. Giddens and Bourdieu respectively used different concepts such as regionalization and field, routinization and habituation. From an economic perspective, the differences between these sociological concepts do not seem to be large. In fact, the sociological community has already actively integrate the field with Giddens’ structural theory. For example, Frank Dobin believes that the process of structuring includes a substantial increase in the interaction of individuals or organizations in a field, the emergence of ruling structures or alliances between individuals or organizations within the field, and the development of individual or organization in the field. The amount of information received has greatly increased, and individuals or organizations in the same field have developed a clear understanding of each other’s existence. We believe that the concepts used in sociology such as field can be better used in economic time–space analysis.

2.1.2.3

Economics in Need of Adding a New Paradigm of Time and Space

Although in economic research, all scholars know the importance of time frame, and from the perspective of time background frame, scholars have experienced historical analysis paradigm, resource analysis paradigm, equilibrium analysis paradigm, and evolution analysis paradigm. Stage, but at present there is no recognized unified space–time paradigm. In the course of economics, every time paradigm appears as an advancement in economics. For this, we need to continue to deepen our understanding

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of each time paradigm, so that each time paradigm can be used in the appropriate field. For example, in the theory of time resources, Becker believes that time is the most important input factor in the production of final consumer goods, and puts forward an analysis method for the substitution of time and currency when conducting research on family activities. In current economic research, the static equilibrium analysis paradigm of traditional mechanics is dominant. In traditional mechanics, time refers to absolute time and deterministic time. It can only be used within the limited scope of economic research. A new space–time analysis is urgently needed. Paradigm can not only focus on immediate relative time, but also closely integrate spatial factors in order to perfect the gaps in economics research, break through the currently dominant equilibrium analysis paradigm, and use the principle of subjective and objective consensus to select more appropriate logical time concepts. The theory of relativity attempts to study objects and systems simultaneously from the perspective of time and space, and to study the impact of motion on time and space at the same time. Its idea of redefining time is a great innovation and has important reference for economics research. Before using the theory of relativity for economic research and analysis, we must first establish the concept of spot. Unlike short-term and long-term, spot analysis is different from analysis at one point in time, especially not only for those equilibrium points in time. In the past, in economic analysis, people did not realize the value of immediate activity research, or people did not realize or did not know how to study it. This is why economic research has never cared about immediate issues. We know that in physics, if there is no movement of an object at a certain point in time or time period, we can ignore it. Similarly, time without change in economics is actually meaningless. What we want to study is the subject’s behavior, event process and results in a specific time period. The time period is only a research tool. If the research object does not exist, then this period of time will no longer have the value of research. In the relativity theory, the moment when an event occurs and is observed by the observer is called the instant, and other events that occur in the instant are called synchronization. In fact, Shackle has long proposed the immediate concept of economic analysis. He said that “now or present” cannot be regarded as a fleeting point in time. We know that at one point is not enough for anything to happen, “now or current” should be more regarded as a period of time, which is composed of a continuous tiny field, which manifests its existence through continuous movement and evolution. In the study of economics, the application of relative space–time analysis also needs to combine the study of time with the study of space. There is a close relationship between time and space in the theory of relativity. Economic activities are all mutual. Time, space and activities are inseparable. Economic time and space will also be deformed under certain conditions, so systematic cognition is required. Economics should study the theory of relativity by changing the view of time and space, and re-observe and analyze the thoughts and methods of the world. It needs to rethink the economic world by establishing a new time and space, and try to explain the world more reasonably with a new framework.

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Economics should also learn the structural methods of sociology and try to use the field as a unit of analysis. The structural theory of sociology is an analysis of the immediateness of individual behavior in time, the finiteness of life, and the routine analysis of social activities; the relationship between space and social activities is divided into purely material locations, including the human environment The types of places and regionalization formed due to conventional differentiation; modern society is increasingly separated in time and space, and social life exhibits various time–space compressions, time and space extensions, and time–space structural reorganization, which are available to the presence The view that sexual dependence changes; it involves the concept of field to embody the network and configuration of various social relations within the scope of time and space, and the viewpoints of various external constraints acting on the actors in it through a specific field, etc. Both can be applied to the economic analysis of space and time. An important idea is to introduce the economic concept of the space–time field, and use the space–time relationship and space–time structure as the basis for defining the research object of the spot period, and establish a ruler for spot economic analysis. We can expand the original conflicting field that emphasizes inequality to include various attributes and types of economic time and space fields, and emphasize the effects of the combination of different environmental fields and individual fields. Every object in the physical world has its own gravitational field, and under the action of the gravitational field of other objects and other properties, each subject also has its own corresponding field, and is also in the field of other related subjects. Especially under the action of high-level fields. The concept of time from a spatial perspective enables economics to not only be able to establish a basis for various equilibrium or disequilibrium analysis in the real world, but also in the real world. Based on the results of the analysis, truly effective economic research must be combined with time and space. The concept of immediate relative time should work in a wide range from the field to the macro level. It can also use intertemporal equilibrium, evolution or historical analysis in the space–time domain to jointly help economics establish a relationship based on the two important time–space scales of immediate and field. The analytical framework of Fig. 2.1 remedies the two types of fields that were seriously neglected in the original research paradigm. The scene refers to the place where the event or action occurred, and Baumgardner’s analysis of the local labor market in 1988 also observed a similar scale. Using the analysis of time–space relationship, we can also use the past as an exogenous market, and transform it into an endogenous research object through a relative time–space analysis.

2.1.2.4

Preliminary Construction of the Framework of Economic Time and Space Analysis

Above we have defined some basic concepts, including the economic space–time field, the classification and hierarchical relationship of the space–time field, the relationship between field and accessibility, immediate relative time and its role in field

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analysis, etc. These economic analysis frameworks and the basic concepts of analysis constitute a close logical relationship in field analysis. The field concept used here is a form of economic relationship with a certain temporal and spatial scale and structure. The field in physics is the concept of matter, energy exchange or influence between objects in a certain time and space. The economic space–time field is also a specific mode in which people exchange in kind, information, value, and trade or implement influence in a certain time and space. The field is closely related to the concept of accessibility. The complete concept of accessibility should include the connectivity and reliability of the transportation communication network, the accessibility of locations or locations, and the communicability and participation capabilities of actors. There is an inseparable relationship between the accessibility of these three meanings, which can extend to other fields such as enterprise operation, government power, ideological dissemination, and war capability. The economic space–time field corresponds to specific locations or regions on different scales of time and space, and corresponds to a variety of levels from history to recent times on time scales, but immediate relative time is very critical to the field’s spatio-temporal analysis of. The time and space of a specific location in a domain may be distorted in domains with different field strengths, so time and value are both nonhomogeneous. Therefore, the relationship between actors is a process of dominant alternation between a sequential state and a time-varying state (such as normal and unexpected road conditions, or normal performance and possible default). Field is a specific existence, limited by space and time conditions. The accessibility of the main body’s role or influence gradually decreases with distance, while the cost of behavior or influence gradually increases. The boundary of the field is located where the field effect stops, that is, the position where the effect of the extended field will be offset by the increase in cost. There are great differences in the space–time scale and space–time structure corresponding to different economic and social development stages in the economic space–time field. The accessibility level determined by transportation and communication technology includes the degree of social and economic information and the degree of dependence on physical presence. And so on, plays a key role in this. The space–time field of research is carried out under the influence of various external environments. In some cases, the large-scale spatio-temporal field, including natural resources and ecological environment, is itself an object to be studied, and the institutional environment should be paid more attention to. Sociologists have proposed that the state can be understood as a field composed of a series of policy fields, and the field characteristics and evolution history of specific industries must be studied. In the analysis of the system field, constitutive rules and regulatory rules, as well as configurable resources and authoritative resources are combined in different ways. A mature market economy system is more embodied in the government using authoritative resources to regulate the market, and the market plays a decisive role in resource allocation, while a non-market economic system is more embodied in

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the government directly interfering with the behavior of enterprises and individuals with power resources. Regarding the study of economic space–time field, we can learn from the research methods of other disciplines, and it is also possible to achieve remarkable results on the basis of interdisciplinary. For example, it has been proposed that the conductivity of the field strength in the economic space–time field has a great relationship with the attenuation rate and the conductivity of the corresponding medium. Under the action of the system, the region evolves into a developed area and the magnetic domain shows a very strong magnetization under the action of a strong magnetic field. Similar, others have proposed that the space and time cost functions are the establishment of the potential function of the economic field and the quantified accessibility relationship model, which can greatly improve the observability, interpretability and graspability of the field theory. However, if we can describe people’s interconnections in terms of field as a unit, and project them into time and space requirements such as transportation and communication, this may make the analysis objects in related fields clearer. In addition, in the current economics, only gradient theory has been applied to a certain extent, and it is also possible to consider using the divergence theory and curl theory of field theory in the economic space–time field to explain more economic phenomena.

2.1.2.5

Explaining Related Phenomenon From the Perspective of Economical Time and Space

Economic aggregate and industrial structure are the descriptions of the macro and meso space–time economic phenomena that high-speed railways affect. Economic aggregate is the macroscopic performance of economic space. We continue to use the time series analysis method, starting from the guiding role of highspeed railways in the flow of investment, labor and other factors of production in the regions passed by, combining economic statistical indicators in different periods with statistical analysis techniques, and expounding the impact of high-speed railways on the overall economy of the regions along the line. The trend effect brought by the volume. Industrial structure is a meso representation of economic space. Case studies of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway, Guangxi high-speed railway, and BeijingGuangzhou high-speed railway found that the construction of high-speed railways can not only promote regional economic growth, but also promote the upgrading of related industrial structures, and produce obvious industrial agglomeration effects. And to optimize the regional economic structure provides a wealth of elements or resources. The cases of Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway and Guangxi highspeed railway show that high-speed railway has a significant impact on the overall tertiary industry, including tourism, and promotes industrial upgrading. High-speed railway economic belt, high-speed railway and land development are the microscopic manifestations of economic time and space. The opportunities for regional economic cooperation along the high-speed railway have greatly increased, and the relatively backward areas are radiating a certain degree

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of economic vitality, promoting the rapid development of the local economy, and forming an economic growth axis with development vitality and strength. Through the analysis of Guangxi high-speed railway and typical foreign cases, the actual impact of the construction of high-speed railway economic belt on regional economic development is summarized. The unique technical and economic characteristics of high-speed railways, especially their function of reshaping time and space, have a profound impact on the nature of land use, land development intensity, and spatial form of regional land use. The arrival of high-speed railways has gradually optimized and improved regional land use patterns. Improved utilization efficiency can promote the high-density development of regional land and create higher land use value. The realization of economic time and space to seek advantages and avoid disadvantages is derived from the natural human time and space instinct.

2.2 PRN Theory PRN is the basic framework for analyzing the transportation economy, including concepts such as complete transportation products, transportation resources, and transportation network effects.

2.2.1 Deepening of the Concept of Complete Transport Goods To analyze the transportation product from the perspective of demand, and first emphasize its integrity. Complete transportation products refer to the services that realize the displacement of the products required by customers from the origin to the final destination. The transportation products should be complete in nature, because the passengers or goods are not delivered to the destination, the displacement of the service is not completed, and the transportation is not reached its original purpose. The transport product should be complete, as long as the final displacement is realized is the complete transport product. In this process, the transportation industry has undoubtedly surpassed the self-development stage of a single mode of transportation. Transportation, cooperation, compatibility, and win–win have become an important relationship between transportation companies and transportation companies. From this perspective, the development of the transportation industry is essentially the process of providing customers with more complete and higher-quality transportation services. A complete transportation product should have an operating standard, which can avoid the situation of “citing but not using”. The more detailed meaning of “integrity” should be the JIT standard. Simply put, a complete transportation product is a transportation product service in order to satisfy consumers at a set time and set location to obtain the quantity (quality) of the transportation product service. For example,

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a complete transportation product should be like the tap water connected to each household, when needed, and used where it is needed. The concept of complete transportation products will help analyze the economic meaning of JIT from the perspective of industrial economics. By incorporating JIT into the conceptual system of complete transportation products, transportation economics has constructed a time–space basis analysis framework for industrial economics.

2.2.2 Deepening the Concept of Transportation Resources Wang Jiugeng, Zhang Ning, and Rong Chaohe had a special debate on transportation resources based on the definition of transportation resources. Regardless of the transportation resources, everyone’s attention is a manifestation of scarcity. The doctoral dissertations of Cheng Nan and Yang Tao are quite enlightening. In their thesis, there are two new ideas about transportation resources research: One idea is to study the configuration and use of transportation infrastructure and transportation tools. The doctoral theses of Cheng Nan, Wang Weihua, Li Chenyang, and Wei Yu are all related to this content. The allocation of property rights and the definition of power determine the efficiency of resource use. Another idea is to study Yang Tao’s timetable. In the past, scholars believed that the specificity of assets and the definition of property rights could explain the transportation process well, but how should the allocation of transportation resources represented by the timetable be explained. The distribution of time cannot be described in the production function of economics. Bazel is world-renowned for his research on “queuing problems” and economic analysis of slavery. The problem with the timetable is that in the real world, the queuing problem is the actual configuration of waiting time. Wang Dingding believes that “queuing” is the most important allocation method among all non-market resource allocations. In the transportation process, there is a large amount of non-market resource allocation. The research of Yang Tao’s paper is also based on this.

2.2.3 Deepening the Concept of Network Structure Physical connection requires a physical entity to carry out information and material reorganization, and the most concentrated function in transportation is the hub function; logical connection refers to the scientific and reasonable way to deal with the material flow in the transportation process and the sequential processing after queuing; organization It is to achieve physical and logical connections by providing the institutional structure of production. Many literatures try to use a simpler model to summarize the characteristics of the network economy.

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The product-resource-network economic analysis framework is the basis for understanding the transportation economy. Through the above analysis, the analysis framework of “transportation product-hub organization-network structure” can be further refined. Complete transportation products and network structure are important foundations for transportation research. Transportation resources are difficult to deal with, mainly due to scarcity of resources and difficulty in observing profit maximization. Most of the network infrastructure operations are included in the same analysis framework. The main feature of “network structure” is “hubization”, which is not only a concept of technology, but also an important concept of “economic organization”. Economy-the meaning of saving and effective use; organization is the meaning of the optimal allocation of time and space. From the perspective of transportation economics research, the “hub” is the key node of the hub and spoke structure; human social behavior also has the performance of a “hub”. By knowing some people, you can always get to know others. The person who “communication” knows the most people is the “hub” between people. The senior leaders of the enterprise organization also use themselves as the axis to coordinate the relationship between different endpoints. Even if the space is assumed to be uniform, the transportation network structure of the hub-and-spoke structure will still evolve. According to fractal theory, the small hub-and-spoke structure will be embedded in the larger hub-and-spoke structure. This is an inevitable decision for human social organization behavior optimization.

2.3 FSO 2.3.1 Comprehensive Transportation Development Practice and Three-Dimensional Comprehensive Transportation Theory Transportation is the basic behavior that human society depends on for survival and development, and it is also one of the important manifestations of human science and technology and the evolution of social systems. In the 1950s, the concept of an integrated transportation system was first proposed by Soviet transportation economists. Soviet economists believed that in order to achieve the coordinated development of different transportation modes, the planned economy must be controlled to give full play to the various modes of transportation. Different advantages. As a result, it greatly promotes the research of transportation theory. In the 1980s, China’s comprehensive transportation theory began to sprout and gradually improved. Wang Qingyun summarized it into three subsystems: one is a modern comprehensive transportation network and transportation equipment system formed through planning, and the other is based on information and management technology. Safe and efficient operation and management system; the third is a high-quality and efficient service system that fully reflects the laws of the market

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economy. After that, many experts and scholars conducted extensive discussions around the concept and basic content of the integrated transportation system, and put forward many different views on the comprehensive understanding and expression of transportation problems. Ou Guoli first proposed a comprehensive transportation theory based on three dimensions in 2008. The theory believes that comprehensive transportation has multiple dimensions and needs to realize the specific meaning of different dimensions such as form dimension, function dimension and operation dimension. At the same time, the theory also puts forward the theory of integrated transportation development stages, that is, according to the different characteristics of different stages, the integrated transportation development is divided into three different stages: primary, intermediate, and advanced. In 2010, Ou Guoli further revised and improved the three-dimensional integrated transportation concept on the original basis, adjusted the original form dimension to the structural dimension, in order to more accurately reflect the structural characteristics of the integrated transportation system and the relationship between them. Ou Guoli believes that integrated transportation is a three-dimensional multifactor complex. From the perspective of serving regional economic development, national economic development, and international exchanges based on different transportation objects, it can be divided into urban transportation, intercity transportation, and urban–rural transportation. Transportation and international transportation, etc.; structural dimension refers to different modes of transportation and their composition; operational dimension refers to the operation and management of integrated transportation. This forms the three-dimensional (FSO) comprehensive transportation theory. Optimal allocation of transportation resources is the core issue of comprehensive transportation development. The comprehensive transportation development of a country (region) must first make full use of various transportation resources, maximize its benefits, and better provide the necessary transportation guarantee for the country (region) social and economic development. Three-dimensional comprehensive transportation theory is the core issue of resource allocation and a methodology consistent with the economic analysis framework. The functional dimension, structural dimension and operation dimension respectively correspond to the questions of “what to produce”, “what to use” and “how to produce” in economics.

2.3.2 The Extension of Three-Dimensional Comprehensive Transportation Theory in Structural Dimensions Based on the structural dimension, the basic task of comprehensive transportation is to determine the supply quantity and structural proportions of each transportation mode and different levels in a competitive landscape. Generally speaking, in most studies, comprehensive transportation needs to have a reasonable amount and

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proportion to eliminate the “waste” of transportation resources. For example, the “excess” phenomenon in the history of American railroads affects the thinking of researchers or decision makers to some extent, thinking about whether the number and proportion of China’s high-speed railway construction are rational, so as to avoid the phenomenon of resource waste similar to that of the United States in the past. This may be useful, but it may be useless, depending on the decision-making environment we are in. The choice that decision makers can make is to make different modes of transportation and business entities compete, and to introduce competition to optimize the allocation of resources. Although this may not be optimal in the long run, it is difficult to determine whether there is a better way to allocate resources than the market mechanism.

2.3.3 Analysis and Thoughts on the Development of China’s High-Speed Railway Transportation from the Structural Dimensions At present, China’s transportation planning is mostly based on a single transportation mode. Due to the lack of overall planning in the early stage, China’s transportation is fragmented and fragmented. This can easily lead to the unreasonable development of integrated transportation and restrict the further development of China’s economy. From now on, in order to realize the sound and rapid development of China, it is necessary to emphasize the construction of comprehensive transportation and transportation to realize the optimization of resource allocation. From the perspective of comprehensive transportation, various transportation planning methods should be considered comprehensively, the connection and collaboration of different transportation methods should be strengthened, and the overall efficiency of the integrated transportation system should be improved.

Chapter 3

Key Transportation Elements

3.1 Time and Space 3.1.1 Time and Space The condition that transportation provides spatial connection for economic activities is one of the main conditions for the formation and evolution of economic spatial structure. A far distance in the natural sense can be shortened by the improvement of dry traffic, the time or cost of transportation. There are many factors affecting the economic structure of time and space, but the primary factor that plays a decisive role from beginning to end is transportation. At the same time, time and space is also a key element in transportation. The first is time. Economic analysis involves multiple time processes. Time value refers to the opportunity income or loss of related entities due to time savings or delays, as well as the grasp or loss of opportunities. The significance of time value lies in the ability of people to change their time to control to a certain extent and not to cause excessive losses due to delays in time. It also has the ability to grasp the timing of making profits or avoiding risks on their own. Enterprises are economic entities that have the ability to resolve or control the uncertainty of time and space through internal and external means to meet the requirements of time–space relationship solidification. They are also economic organizations that have the ability to use opportunities to create market value and mitigate catastrophic losses. People’s behavior is always subject to time constraints, both in terms of time length and time constraints, as well as constraints at specific time points. The schedule is the planning and confirmation of the order in which an individual or organization performs the transaction in a specific time and space and other constraints in order to achieve a certain goal. Rong Chaohe (2011) pointed out that during the transportation process of passenger goods, the time will change the opportunity income and opportunity cost of related entities. By saving time or delay, it will affect the passenger and cargo transportation. If time can be turned into a controllable factor, by grasping the time and not delaying the time to avoid large losses, in addition, © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_3

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enterprises can control the relationship between time and space through internal and external governance means, thus affecting their economic activities. Zhao and Qi (2010) proposed to consider the time value into the travel cost, and select travel tools while considering travel time, price and preference. This choice will have an impact on the development of transportation mode. Then there is space. The economics that introduces the spatial dimension is closer to the real economy. It can solve the theoretical dilemma of neoclassical economics caused by not considering the spatial dimension. It can explain the specialized division of labor and trade phenomenon more deeply, and can explain more deeply. The relationship between transportation and economic development (Zhao 2009). The concept of time in the spatial perspective enables economics to be based not only on the historical level, but also on the real world to adapt to various types of equilibrium or non-equilibrium analysis. Therefore, a truly effective economic time study must be combined with spatial research. In transportation, railway is an important part of China’s comprehensive transportation network. Like civil aviation, highways, water transportation, etc., the transportation products provided by the railway industry are passenger-cargo displacement services from the beginning to the end. The most important feature of the railway transportation product as a derivative requirement is that it is used to solve the spatial difference between the production place and the consumption place of the product, and to overcome the space distance obstacle of social and economic activities with lower transportation costs. Li Hongchang mentioned that the ability to overcome the spatial distance is the basis of the core competitiveness of the railway, and it is also the basis for selecting the railway or other modes of transportation for the original demand. It is also the most fundamental problem to be solved by the railway leap-forward development strategy.

3.1.2 Space–Time Structure of Transportation Time–space relationship or space–time structure is an important part of socioeconomic research. Adam Smith’s view of the market scope that determines the level of division of labor includes a spatial perspective, and also emphasizes the important role of traffic improvement. Marx puts forward the necessary labor time of society to determine the value of goods. He believes that all savings are time savings, and correctly explain that people are using time to exchange space when interpreting traffic behavior. Marshall also believes that the time factor is the root of many great difficulties in economic research. From the perspective of time and space, personal preferences are not always stable and quantifiable, but related to specific time and space environments. Becker used time value as the starting point of socio-economic analysis and established human behavior. The new economic geography developed by Krugman et al. emphasizes industrial agglomeration and trade analysis from a spatial perspective. The concept of “accessibility” is very important in urban transport research. Accessibility refers to the number of opportunities that can be reached within a

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certain distance and time range, and mobility refers to the ability to move from one location to another. Accessibility-related research is more common in regional economy and transportation economy (Li and Lu 2004). Accessibility (or accessibility) is given a variety of definitions due to different research starting points, such as “the size of the opportunity for interaction of nodes in the transportation network”, “the ability of a certain area to be reached or reach other areas.“ Metrics” and so on. Geography emphasizes the spatial relative position of the transportation infrastructure involved in the concept of accessibility and the two key factors of the impedance represented by the distance. Among the two types of reachability analysis methods that have been summarized in geography, the first category is the reachability analysis in the topological sense, which is mainly related to the measurement indicators of the traffic network composed of nodes and paths (such as the number and capacity of connected lines). Related; the second category is called proximity accessibility analysis, which uses the time distance to measure the actual accessibility of a specific location. Accessibility planning has recently become a new hotspot in Western urban transport planning research, with Australia and the UK being pioneers in piloting community accessibility planning. Due to the fact that the distribution of activity sites at the community level and the associated details of the transportation system directly affect the daily life of the residents, the improvement of accessibility is an important part of the city’s maturity, fairness and vitality, but it is precisely the field of lack of responsible persons. Therefore, the United Kingdom has imposed administrative requirements on the accessibility of the community in the traffic planning in 2005 and beyond and required implementation. In China’s urban planning and transportation planning, the accessibility from theory, method to planning system has not been mentioned about the height of urban form and the quality of life of residents. This is inconsistent with the multi-dimensional and multi-scale of domestic urban form research. The comprehensive research and policy orientation of the perspective are basically the same. Accessibility research helps to better integrate the transportation system with urban land use and the distribution of resident activities on it, and helps to deepen people’s understanding of time and space on the basis of the improvement of the traffic system within the land use status. Sexual understanding, but if the understanding of accessibility can be more based on the active role of the behavioral subject, and more consideration of the significant impact of information technology advancement on the relationship between time and space, it will help to jump out of the position and Excessively limited by the lack of transportation networks. Urban rail transit has the characteristics of time and space structure. Specifically, there is a monopoly type of rail transit space. Urban rail transit will close the road right and other cities’ transportation systems are technically isolated, generating a certain space monopoly; time and space economies of scale, The larger the scale of time–space conversion, the lower the unit cost is; the space–time tunneling effect shortens the arrival time before the area through the appearance of high-speed rail vehicles, and shortens the space distance based on time. This spatio-temporal feature promotes the accumulation of resources along the orbital area, improves the efficiency of space–time transformation, promotes the flow of economic resources in a larger area, and optimizes the efficiency of urban resource allocation.

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3.1.3 General Travel Time and Space When discussing “traffic” and “travel” in general, the emphasis is on the effect of the spatial displacement achieved by the traveler, and the monetary cost and time cost are considered as constraints. In fact, “travel” is a special time and space structure (Jun 2012). It is the arrangement and execution of travel affairs by individuals or organizations to achieve travel goals under specific time and space constraints. It is to satisfy the subjective value tendency to the maximum extent. Time and space conversion. The contradiction between general travel time and space and specific travel time and space is long-term and ubiquitous. Therefore, the goal of the urban travel service system is to seek a demand–supply structure with two relatively balanced time and space. The transportation economy must pay attention to methodological individualism, that is, the research framework should pay attention to the analysis of individual travel time and space, on the basis of which the individual and system conflicts in the urban travel service system are considered. Individual travel time and space considers the transportation time and space in the shortest time with the least amount of money expenditure structure and personal needs as much as possible, pursuing individualization, precise controllability, high efficiency and convenience. Time is expressed in time to start in a set time, fast and on time, to minimize the redundant time of transfer and waiting; space is characterized by convenient access to traffic service coverage points, designing the best line as needed, Try to avoid the spatial redundancy caused by transfer and accommodating peers. Any product or service has its own specific time and space characteristics, and transportation services are especially noticeable. The general travel time and space comes from the common accumulation of specific travel time and space contained in a large number of individuals, and is a set of trips that cover most of the spatiotemporal features as much as possible. Generally, travel time and space pursue low-cost, large-scale completion of daily stylized travel time and space transfer. In urban traffic, the integration of fragmentation needs is combined as much as possible to reduce the pressure on urban transportation infrastructure resources; to avoid traffic congestion and other bottlenecks affecting overall efficiency; to cope with traffic demand and commuting characteristics, calendar effect Wait. As the main body of time and space, the government and bus companies pursue the minimization of costs, expand the audience and coverage, and realize the economies of scale and network economy are the most important goals. Generally speaking, the general space–time characteristics of basic public services, mass transit traffic, and general transportation are more obvious. The specific traffic time and space characteristics of non-public services, smalltraffic traffic, contract transportation, and self-use transportation are more obvious (Fig. 3.1). According to the difference in nature of different modes of transportation, the two dimensions of “unification of property rights and service objects” and “exclusiveness of resource use” can be crossed to form a map of the travel service system, in which

3.1 Time and Space

25

Fig. 3.1 Classification of the nature of urban travel service modes

the abscissa is from the traveler self-service to the social service. Gradual transition, the ordinate transitions from individual to high-intensity collective sharing. In the above figure, the closer to the lower left corner, the more obvious the characteristics of time and space, and the closer to the upper right corner, the more obvious the space– time feature. In the figure, four categories of private transportation, quasi-private transportation, public transportation and quasi-public transportation are summarized according to the characteristics of each traffic. In different classifications, the boundaries are not static, and the nature of the mode of transportation changes as technology and operating conditions change.

3.2 Efficiency 3.2.1 Efficiency Concept and Railway Efficiency Efficiency refers to the evaluation method that uses resources most efficiently to meet set desires and needs given conditions such as inputs and technologies. Traffic is a tool to achieve accessibility between regions and shorten the transit time of the region. The conditions for transportation to provide spatial links for economic activities are one of the main conditions for the formation and evolution of economic spatial structure. A far distance in the natural sense can be shortened by the improvement of dry traffic, the time or cost of transportation. There are many factors affecting the economic structure of time and space, but the primary factor that plays a decisive

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role from beginning to end is transportation. Human beings firstly link the time and space dimensions of social economy through transportation activities, and build the time and space structure of social economy based on transportation. Therefore, the efficiency of traffic operation is an important factor for governments, regions and scholars. In the case of railways, railway efficiency can be measured by higher asset investment utilization rates, higher output-output ratios, or higher productivity levels within the organization. The factors affecting railway efficiency are internal factors and external factors. External factors are irresistible factors affecting the efficiency of railways in a country or region, including war, population, history and geography. The consequences of war and war will affect railway infrastructure. Construction, population and population density will affect the construction and use of railways. Historical factors have shaped the railway’s organizational structure and physical network. The topographical factors may affect the location and extent of railway infrastructure construction. For example, Australia is a country with a low population density, and its track utilization rate will be lower than a smaller, denser country, such as the Netherlands. A mountainous region like Switzerland will also increase the cost of railways, as the increase in tunnels will increase the cost of renewal and maintenance. Internal factors include government regulation and policy regimes that can lead to differences in rail efficiency in national regions.

3.2.2 Railway Efficiency Measurement Indicators In the study of railway efficiency measures, Cantos et al. (1999) selected energy consumption, number of employees, number of locomotives, passenger car ownership, truck ownership, and operating mileage as input indicators for the railway operating system. The passenger turnover and cargo turnover are the output indicators of the railway operation system. Cowie and Asenova (1999) selected the number of locomotives, the number of locomotives, and the number of employees as the input indicators of the railway operation system, and the transportation turnover as the output indicator of the railway operation system. Jitsuzumi and Nakanura (2010) selected fixed assets, number of employees, and operating expenses as input indicators for the railway operating system. Passenger turnover and out-of-bounds effects on surrounding areas were used as output indicators for the railway operating system. Hongwei and Yanping (2006) selected the total number of transport personnel, energy consumption standard coal, total length of existing lines, depreciation rate of fixed assets as input indicators, passenger and freight turnover, and total transportation revenue as output indicators. Jun (2007) selected the equipment, funds, number of employees, warehouse area, and yard area as the input indicators of the railway freight yard, and selected the freight volume, service quality, and annual income as the output indicators of the railway freight yard. Min and Qiusheng (2008) selected the total number of vehicles, the total power of the locomotive, and the length of the line as input indicators, and the transportation turnover was the

3.2 Efficiency

27

output indicator. Yong et al. (2010) selected the total wages, operating mileage and number of locomotives of railway employees as the input indicators of the railway operation system, and the freight turnover as the output index of the railway operation system. Liubao (2008) in the analysis of China’s railway economic efficiency through the application of principal component analysis to determine the input indicators for fixed assets and operating mileage, determine the transportation income, cargo turnover, freight volume as the first principal component, profit, passenger traffic is The second principal component serves as an indicator of output. Summarizing scholars’ research can find that the input–output indicators are basically based on the input that can reflect the railway people’s property, and the main output of goods and passenger transportation. The indicators that measure railway efficiency are divided into economic efficiency indicators and technical efficiency indicators. Economic efficiency indicators can be measured from both cost and income perspectives. Costs include railway infrastructure construction, maintenance costs, train operating costs, and labor costs. Revenue includes passenger and freight revenue. Measurement efficiency indicators include operating expenses per kilometer. Kilometer passenger freight income, passenger and freight operator income and cost ratio, and infrastructure manager’s income and cost ratio. The operating cost per kilometer is a key indicator of railway efficiency. He said that the level of financial input required for each train operation shows the flow of funds when public funds and private funds are put into railway operation. The higher the operating cost per kilometer is. The more investment per kilometer of train, the less efficient the railway. The passenger and freight income per kilometer of train can be expressed as the fare income of passengers and the transportation income of goods. The higher the value, the more income generated by railway operation. If the unit income is fixed, it can increase the passenger load and load of the train. The volume is realized. The ratio of revenue to cost of passenger and freight operators can directly reflect the operating efficiency of the railway. This ratio represents the income generated by unit cost. The higher the value, the higher the operational efficiency. The income-to-cost ratio of infrastructure managers, the main costs incurred by railway infrastructure managers include the maintenance and renewal of rails and all related infrastructure, which can show how much of the cost of infrastructure is paid by income, which can be expressed Is there government funding? Technical efficiency indicators, including operating mileage, net fixed assets, passenger turnover, cargo turnover, railway passengers, truck ownership, train punctuality rate, train technology speed, track and train utilization, train punctuality rate, train technology speed, employee productivity, infrastructure cost per kilometer per train, infrastructure cost per kilometer per track, etc. The operating mileage, also known as the “business length”, is the length of the railway network for business transportation. It is an important basis for the calculation of road network density indicators. It is also an important basis for the calculation of passenger turnover, cargo turnover and workload of rolling stock, and also for railways. The basis of operations. The net value of fixed assets refers to the original value of the fixed assets of the railway bureaus or the reset full value minus the net amount of the depreciated depreciation. It can reflect the amount of assets owned by the railway

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and the newness of the fixed assets. Passenger turnover refers to the index of the number of passengers completed or transported by various railway departments within a certain period of time. It can provide a basis for the railway department to formulate transportation plans and assess transportation performance. Therefore, passenger turnover can be used as an important output indicator for railway efficiency analysis. The cargo turnover refers to the quantity of goods actually transported by various railway departments in a certain period of time, which provides a basis for the railway transportation department to plan and evaluate the transportation performance. Therefore, the cargo turnover can be used as an important output indicator for railway efficiency analysis. The punctuality rate of train operation refers to the proportion of trains arriving at the punctual point in a certain period (usually one day) to the total number of trains arriving. If there is a fault such as train or track, the punctuality of the operation will be reduced. Therefore, the punctuality of the operation can be used to measure the railway. Technological development. Rail and train utilization can measure the efficiency of rail and rail utilization, and the high utilization of rail assets will lead to more efficient rail efficiency. Because of the high maintenance and depreciation costs of these assets, use as many kilometers as possible. The track is crucial. On the basis of ensuring the same cost, increasing efficiency can increase revenue. Employee productivity refers to the efficiency of the work of railway enterprises in handling railway operations. Whether it can efficiently handle customer satisfaction, passenger reservations and other aspects of serving passengers. The high efficiency of employees can drive the overall efficiency of the railway.

3.2.3 Railway Efficiency in Major Countries 3.2.3.1

The United States

The US government has limited participation in railroad regulation and ownership. The major intercity passenger carrier, the American Railroad Corporation, was established in 1970 to handle intercity passenger services and receive subsidies from Washington. At present, the main department responsible for investment, maintenance and capacity improvement of long-distance railway infrastructure in the United States is the primary freight railway. These freight railroads account for approximately 69% of US freight mileage, 90% of employees and 94% of revenue (American Railroad Association, July 2012). The first-class freight railway is a large transcontinental railway that transports most of the country’s cargo, connecting major coastal ports and inland hubs, especially Chicago. Secondary and tertiary railways (traffic with lower operating income) usually operate on shorter routes and are often used as “spur” trains for large railways for cross-border transportation. These railway companies usually operate on tracks owned by the Tier 1 railway company (Fig. 3.2). The first-class freight railway company can operate its own operations to maximize revenue and create profits. By increasing the train length, they can increase the

3.2 Efficiency

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Fig. 3.2 2010 US STB organization chart

number of passengers and cargoes in the vehicle, create economies of scale and gain competitive advantage. In a study analyzing the efficiency growth of the North American freight rail market, Woodrooffe attributed the high efficiency gains of the first type of railway to improved management methods, improved technology for manpower and resource utilization, and improved technology. The efficiency of American Railroad is not as high as that of freight railroad companies. American Rail’s ticketing revenues are unable to pay for operating costs, and its operating, capital, and debt service costs are dependent on federal funds. The inefficiency over the years has prevented major passenger rail operators from paying their own costs. For US railroads, the introduction of high-speed rail may increase rail demand, as improved services can increase rail utilization.

3.2.3.2

China

The China Railway is managed and controlled by the Ministry of Railways. Although the separation of operations and infrastructure was discussed in 2012, no corresponding action has been taken. Currently, the Ministry of Railways operators have almost all passenger traffic and 94% of freight traffic in China. Transportation (Roland Berger), so China’s transportation structure is similar to that of the United States, but the difference is that the United States operates most of the railways by private companies, while China is managed by the central government. Therefore, in China, the owners are not only responsible for the foundation. The construction and operation of the facility will also involve the development of railway safety and cost-related policies (Fig. 3.3). The emergence of China’s high-speed railway is believed to be conducive to shortening regional distance and promoting economic development. Then, some railway experts said that the high-speed rail fare is not acceptable to citizens. The high-speed rail line cannot be used by traditional railways, which is not conducive

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Fig. 3.3 Organization chart of China national railway

to resource utilization. The improvement and high construction cost of high-speed rail will limit the improvement of operational efficiency. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the labor efficiency (passenger volume per unit of staff service) is 0.066% in 2016 and the labor efficiency in 2015 is 0.074%. The annual efficiency is 0.083%, and the labor efficiency is declining. Experts say that the key to effective railways is to consider effective planning for efficiency and costeffectiveness. Paying attention to labor efficiency indicators is also crucial for China’s railway and railway efficiency.

3.2.3.3

India

Like China, the Indian Railways Department plans to make major investments to upgrade and improve rail infrastructure and operational efficiency in the coming years. The Indian Railway, led by the Minister of Railways and the Minister of State, shows that India is also managed by the government. In 2010, the Indian Railways Organization had 1.39 million employees and managed both freight and passenger services, with cargo operations accounting for 65% of total revenue (see the Ministry of Railways of the Republic of India). There is a breakdown of the costs in each sector of the Indian Railways Organization. The main problem affecting the efficiency of the railway comes from the cost of personnel. Because the cost of the staff is determined by the central government, the Indian Railways Organization lacks flexibility in terms of personnel costs. In addition, the railway The high pensions received by the organization’s staff will affect efficiency. In 2014, India introduced laws to reduce the burden on railway organizations and reduce their costs. In India, freight traffic accounts for a large proportion, but freight trains still operate according to the schedule of passenger trains. By changing the time of freight trains, more goods can be transported on time and railways can be operated more efficiently.

3.3 Supply and Demand

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3.3 Supply and Demand Demand refers to the demand for goods under certain price conditions. Supply refers to the quantity of products that are willing and likely to be sold at a certain price. In the economic market, market value or production price determines the price, market value or production price is the price formation and The internal basis and entity of sports are the center of market price fluctuations. The price regulates the relationship between supply and demand in the market, and the relationship between market supply and demand is counterproductive to price, which is the basic factor that governs or influences the formation and movement of market prices. The transportation industry is no exception. In the different stages of development of the city, what strategies and methods are used to provide transportation infrastructure and transportation services, and where and how to deal with different demand characteristics, geography and climate, traditional culture and infrastructure conditions. Under the circumstances, what kind of traffic demand management measures to adjust the characteristics of traffic demand is an urgent problem to be answered and solved in the urban traffic field. Experience shows that the transportation supply strategy and traffic demand management countermeasures selected today will determine the future of urban transportation and determine the future urban life form and quality of life. Traffic supply strategy and traffic demand management are two aspects of a problem, and they are indispensable.

3.3.1 Transportation Supply Strategy The production and living activities of urban society are the root cause of transportation demand. As an important supporting system and artery of urban activities, the urban integrated transportation system must meet the total traffic, structure and space–time demand characteristics of urban traffic. The urban transportation supply strategy mainly studies the supply mode, the timing of supply, the basis of supply decision, the degree of satisfaction of supply to demand, and the impact and effect of different supply strategies. Therefore, we can think about and explore the transportation supply strategy from the following five dimensions. (1)

Supply time dimension. There are two ways to meet the traffic demand for traffic supply: demand-following and demand-guided. The advantage of demand-driven transportation is that the utilization efficiency of infrastructure is high and the investment efficiency is good. However, because the transportation supply lags behind the transportation demand, it will affect and block the development of urban society to varying degrees. On the contrary, demandoriented transportation supply It has a strong influence and guiding role on urban development, and can meet the traffic demand in time, but often the transportation facilities are not efficient due to insufficient initial demand. At the same time, the traffic supply has a pre-emptive effect.

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(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

3 Key Transportation Elements

Demand characteristics dimension. It is necessary to simultaneously meet the diversification of total traffic demand, traffic demand structure and traffic demand. Whether it is people’s travel needs or cargo transportation needs, they have their own level of demand and demand preferences. Mode attribute dimension. Using different modes of transportation to meet transportation needs will have a completely different impact on the resource environment, and the efficiency of transportation will be very different. Behavioral mode dimensions. It is necessary to promote the formation of vibrant, safe, convenient, efficient, healthy, people-oriented urban and urban transport through facility supply. Due to the difference in facilities supply, the city is essentially inviting and encouraging different choices for travellers, which will result in different urban transport modes. Urban development dimension. According to the urban structure, development stage, geographical climate, land use, demand characteristics, and the actual situation of the facilities level, the transportation supply strategy should be formulated in line with the actual situation of the city. The five-dimensional comprehensive analysis method is used to study and formulate appropriate transportation supply strategies. The above analysis results will result in a set of transportation supply strategies under given conditions, including the total amount of transportation facilities supply, mode structure, service level, supply timing and policy support.

In general, the formulation of China’s urban transportation supply strategy should consider the efficiency of supporting the sustained and rapid development of urban social economy, and also consider the direction of the future development trend of humanized ideal cities to achieve a win–win situation.

3.3.2 Urban Traffic Demand Management The so-called traffic demand management, in a broad sense, refers to the change of traffic choice behaviors of traffic participants through the guiding role of traffic policies, etc., in order to reduce the number of motor vehicle trips and reduce or eliminate traffic congestion; in a narrow sense, it means to reduce A comprehensive transportation policy adopted by a car for commuting traffic during the peak period. The content of traffic demand management mainly includes dispersing traffic demand in time by implementing countermeasures such as going to work at the wrong time; providing road traffic information and congestion and accident conditions to drivers to promote the spatial dispersion of traffic demand; The level promotes the use of large-capacity and high-efficiency public transportation; through the implementation of various comprehensive measures, it promotes the effective use of cars and adjusts the characteristics of traffic demand through urban planning and transportation planning to build cities with small traffic loads. It can be seen from

3.3 Supply and Demand

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Fig. 3.4 Content and mechanism of travel demand management

the mechanism of urban traffic demand that travel has certain elasticity and plasticity. The main starting point of the traffic demand management strategy is to take advantage of this characteristic of travel, adopt appropriate strategies at different stages of traffic demand and from different angles, comprehensively adjust the characteristics of traffic demand, improve the operational efficiency of transportation systems, reduce resource consumption and reduce environmental pollution. Traffic development goals. Its mechanism of action is shown in Fig. 3.4.

3.3.3 The Relationship Between Urban Transportation Supply Strategy and Traffic Demand Management Travel demand includes rigid demand and elastic demand, and traffic choice behavior has the characteristics of limited trade-off decision under given conditions. This attribute determines the need to take incentives and restrictions when promoting the construction of a green transportation system, in order to achieve the goal of moving towards an ideal traffic state. Traffic supply and traffic demand have the following interaction mechanisms: (1)

(2)

Increasing transportation supply will induce potential traffic demand. In particular, the improvement of road traffic conditions will attract and induce a large amount of traffic demand in a very short time, so that road traffic tends to be saturated, resulting in more traffic congestion and more traffic congestion. Similarly, reasonable road system layout and functional positioning will result in more reasonable road traffic demand characteristics and road traffic conditions. Providing different types of transportation supplies will generate different types of transportation needs. If the limited traffic space is preferentially allocated to green transportation modes such as walking, bicycles and public transportation, not only will the transportation space utilization efficiency be greatly improved,

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(3)

3 Key Transportation Elements

but also the number of pedestrians and cyclists will gradually increase, and more people will choose the public. Traffic travel. The change in the characteristics of the transportation mode requires an objective driving force. In particular, the use of car transportation changes requires the promotion of external forces. It is difficult for car users to give up the use of cars, not only because people have the inertia to continue certain behaviors, but also because cars have many unique advantages for individuals. Therefore, in order to encourage travelers to abandon cars and choose public transportation, on the one hand, it is necessary to improve the service level of public transportation. On the other hand, it is necessary to take certain measures to curb the use of cars and create opportunities to promote the transformation of transportation modes.

3.4 Supervision The supervision and management of traffic runs through all aspects of transportation. Of course, the management systems of different countries are different. The aspects and degrees of management by the government or the regulatory authorities are different. However, traffic operations are closely related to supervision, and the relevant legal system regulations must be followed. The key elements of transportation.

3.4.1 Port Supervision Taking the port as an example, the formation and development of the port management system are closely related to the history, economy, politics, and traditional culture of the country in which it is located. From a global perspective, the specific forms of port management are very different, as shown in different countries, different ports of the same country, and the same port at different times, and their port management systems are different.

3.4.1.1

Analysis of Port Management Mode

The mode of private enterprise management. There are not many ports in the world that are completely managed by private businesses. The more representative ones are Hong Kong ports. Hong Kong’s port facilities are all managed by private investment and private operations, and its container terminals are fully compliant with the Freeport policy. For example, the 19 container berths at Kwai Chung Ferry Pier are operated by four companies including Hutchison Whampoa, US Hailu, Hyundai and

3.4 Supervision

35

COSCO (with Hutchison Whampoa). The business operations of private companies in Hong Kong are rarely subject to administrative intervention and are fully self-priced. The characteristics of Hong Kong’s port operations are characterized by the commercial skills of the private sector being fully utilized to minimize the bureaucratic color. Therefore, Hong Kong has attracted a large number of shipping companies to cooperate with them for a long time with its high efficiency and reliability, and has become one of the busiest container ports in the world. It cannot be denied that the investment mode of private enterprises has restricted the longterm and large-scale strategic development of Hong Kong ports. The most important feature of a privately operated port is its market-oriented management and high efficiency. The formation of the private operation management port model has its special historical background and is inseparable from the developed private economy of the port. A model operated by government agencies and state-owned enterprises. The ports that are completely managed by government agencies and state-owned enterprises in the world are generally not in the majority, especially in countries with developed countries in Europe, America and Asia. The port management model in China’s planned economy period belongs to this model. The ports are owned by the state, and the operation of the port is carried out around the national planning tasks. Regardless of whether it is developed or developing countries, public funds in state-owned ports have problems such as investment waste, low service quality, and low efficiency. As a result, on the one hand, it increases the financial burden of the government; on the other hand, it also affects the competitiveness of the port. There are three drawbacks in the public sector: First, there is no competition for port infrastructure services, especially for non-competition between departments of the same service type within the port. Second, the port enterprises providing services lack independent management rights and property rights. On the one hand, they are forced to provide services at a price lower than the cost; on the other hand, the port enterprises are not responsible for their work well. Third, users of port facilities may require more facilities due to the state’s unpaid investment, resulting in waste of facility resources. Due to various shortcomings in the public existence of the port, many ports of this type of management have been or are undergoing reforms, and gradually shift to the mode of operation and management of private enterprises or joint-stock enterprises. The model of joint management of the three parties. The world’s most common mode of managing ports by government agencies or state-owned enterprises and private companies. In recent years, the port management model of quite a few countries is shifting from the mode of operation and management of government agencies and state-owned enterprises to the mode of joint management by government agencies or state-owned enterprises and private enterprises. This trend is called commercialization of ports or private enterprises. Chemical. The privatization is characterized by breaking the single port management mode operated by the state or the government and reducing the direct participation of the state in port management. Ports in Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan are part of this management model. Japan is jointly managed by the government and the private sector. Japan’s ports are managed by the government and the private sector. On the one hand, the Japanese government

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attaches great importance to the social welfare of the port, regards the port as the core of national and regional development, emphasizes the integration of port development and construction into the overall planning of national and regional economic development, and ensures the state’s ownership of the port. On the one hand, the Japanese government also emphasizes the independent management rights of enterprises. Port management institutions are prohibited from obstructing and interfering with the normal business activities of private enterprises, and are not allowed to operate businesses that compete with private enterprises. In 1997, Singapore began the reform of the port management system and began to implement port privatization. The Maritime and Port Authority (MPA) deals with regulatory and technical issues in ports and maritime transport; the Ports Group (PSA) is transformed from a statutory body into a commercial institution that undertakes port investment and operational functions. In 1997, Kaohsiung Port began its privatization transformation, in which ship operations were undertaken by private companies and formed a situation in which a number of private companies competed; measures such as the establishment of offshore shipping centers and competitive rate systems were implemented to make Kaohsiung Port Asia Pacific The objectives of the operations center laid the foundation. The reform of the management system of Kaohsiung Port has introduced an inter-enterprise competition mechanism, eliminating the drawbacks of public and public enterprises, improving the service level of the port and enhancing competitiveness (Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Port management agency of The Japanese Central Government

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37

In addition to a small number of private ports, there are generally two ways for government agencies and state-owned enterprises to participate in port management: centralized management and decentralized management. Centralized management means that the central government directly controls and manages the port, and many countries with only one port adopt this form of management. The main feature of centralized management of ports is that the development of the port concerned is important in decision-making, and the appointment of responsible personnel must be made by the central government. In such ports, important decisions regarding purchases, recruitment, tariffs, and investments must be authorized by the central government. There are many ways to decentralize the management of ports, the most important of which is to delegate management to local governments. Ports in many countries, such as Japan, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium, belong to this management method. Another way to decentralize the management of ports is to establish independent port management departments, such as the UK to establish independent port management departments in many ports. In short, the port is operated by the state or state-owned enterprises and private enterprises. Whether it is a joint-stock company or a private company, it is beneficial to effectively overcome the shortcomings of the public ownership of the port, help reduce the government’s financial burden, and facilitate effective fundraising. And use funds. Therefore, this port management model has been adopted by many countries.

3.4.1.2

Enlightenment From Foreign Port Management Mode to China

In November 2001, the State Council formally approved the reform of the port system of the Ministry of China, marking the beginning of a new round of port system reform in China. The core of reform is the separation of government and enterprise. The port administrative functions owned by the original port enterprises shall be transferred to the port administrative department of the local government for exercise. The enterprise group becomes a legal entity with complete self-governance and self-financing. Through the analysis and research of the world port management model, the following inspirations can be provided for the reform of China’s port management system. The reform of the port management system is imperative. At present, the competition among ports in the world is becoming increasingly fierce. China’s surrounding ports are constantly improving their operations and management to improve their competitiveness. Only by strengthening management, reforming the drawbacks in port management, improving port efficiency, and improving the management level of port enterprises, can China Take advantage of the competition. It is not contradictory to pay attention to the public welfare of the port and the separation of the actual administration and enterprise. Japan is a country that attaches great importance to the social benefits of the port. The port has a pivotal position in Japan. However, the Japanese government does not monopolize the port management rights, but instead lets the private port operate (in fact, it is also a way of

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separating government and enterprises). The government’s control over port rights has not diminished. The joint management of ports by the government or state-owned enterprises and the privatization of ports are conducive to effectively overcoming the shortcomings of the public ownership of the port; helping to reduce the government’s financial burden and improving port management efficiency; and facilitating the effective collection and use of funds. This model can combine the government’s participation in management, the social welfare of the port and the efficiency of the private or jointstock company’s operation in the market-oriented operation, which is conducive to the port’s public welfare and economic effectiveness. The role of the government in port development is irreplaceable. The marketization of port management is not to completely refrain from government participation, but to reduce the direct participation of the government in port management, the separation of actual administration and enterprise, and the marketization of operational business. The choice of reform methods can be selected in accordance with specific national conditions. Singapore’s shareholding system is another attempt to reduce the government’s direct participation in port management and management, and it is useful for China’s reform.

3.4.2 Railway Supervision The railway regulatory agency is the public sector that supervises and manages railway enterprises. Its supervisory duties are mainly to draft laws and regulations for railway supervision and management, and to supervise and manage the safe operation of railway enterprises and the market order of the railway industry according to the corresponding laws and regulations. When implementing regulatory duties, railway regulatory agencies usually use a combination of laws and regulations, administrative licensing, investigation and review, and information release to supervise a certain part of the railway operation or the entire railway industry to protect passengers and railway enterprises. Benefits, guarantee the safe operation of railway enterprises, and guarantee the sustainable development of railway enterprises.

3.4.2.1

Forms of Foreign Railway Regulatory Agencies

According to the affiliation relationship between the railway regulatory agencies of the foreign railway government and the competent authorities of the railway industry (such as the Ministry of Transport) and the independence in the performance of their supervisory duties, the form of setting up their supervisory bodies can be divided into three types, namely, the establishment of supervision outside the competent department. The independence of the institution, the independence of the regulatory body within and outside the competent authority, and the non-independent type of establishment of the regulatory body within the competent authority. Due to the

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39

current situation of China’s railway reform, the supervision responsibility of China’s railways is mainly borne by the National Railway Administration, and its regulatory duties have certain independence. Therefore, the US Railways, the British Railways and the German Railways, which are independent in the performance of the railway supervision function, are selected as an example to focus on the regulatory form of the railway supervision function. Independent establishment of a regulatory body outside the competent authority. The independent establishment of a regulatory body outside the competent authority means that the regulatory body is established outside the competent authority and is independent in exercising the railway regulatory function. A representative country adopting this form of setting is the United Kingdom. The British Railways are mainly supervised by the Railway Regulatory Office (ORR), but railway accidents are also regulated by the Railway Accident Investigation Service (RAIB) and the British Transportation Police (BTP), all of which are located outside the industry authorities. ORR is the UK’s railway safety and economic regulator, which monitors the performance and efficiency of the UK road network. It is a completely independent non-cabinet body and is only responsible to the Congress. The specific regulatory functions of the ORR include: supervising the entire railway network, setting goals that railway companies must achieve and regularly reporting their performance; supervising the health and safety standards and compliance of the entire railway industry; and monitoring the rights of competitors and consumers. RAIB and BTP will investigate the incident when a railway accident needs to be investigated and processed. RAIB is mainly responsible for investigating the cause of the accident and avoiding the recurrence of the accident; BTP has the responsibility of investigating the accident. Usually ORR will also send investigators to cooperate with the accident investigation. Independent and independent of the regulatory body both within and outside the competent authority. The independent establishment of a regulatory body both inside and outside the competent authority means that the regulatory body is established inside and outside the competent authority, but is independent in exercising the railway supervision function. Representative countries adopting this form of setting include the United States, Germany, and the like. US rail companies are primarily regulated by the Federal Railway Administration (FRA) and the Ground Transportation Committee (STB). The FRA mainly supervises the operation of various railway operating enterprises according to the national policy provisions or regulations; the regulations are revised according to the accidents in operation, and the safety regulations and regulations are set. STB is the institution that undertakes the transportation economic supervision function. It is directly under the leadership of the US Congress. It is now an independent economic regulatory agency with judicial judicial functions and regulatory functions of the US federal government, and enjoys economic control over the transportation industry. At the same time, STB has jurisdiction over railway rates, service issues, and railway restructuring transactions (mergers, line demolition). Similar to the US railroad regulator’s setup, Deutsche Bahn is regulated by the Federal Railway Administration (EBA) within the industry authorities and

40

3 Key Transportation Elements

the Federal Railway Accident Investigation Agency (EUB), as well as the Federal Network Department (BNetzA) outside the industry authorities. EBA is an independent, high-level federal agency subject to the supervision and legal control of the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI). EBA is mainly responsible for supervision, licensing and safety supervision of the German railway company. For example, program approval for federal rail facilities, authorization for rail vehicles and rail infrastructure, management of government-provided funds, and enforcement of passenger rights. The EUB is an organization established in the EBA, but it is managed by the BMVI. It is mainly responsible for railway accident investigations and is independent in terms of law, organization and functions. BNetzA is part of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology and is responsible for overseeing competition in the railway market. Non-independent type of regulatory agency established within the competent authority. The non-independent way of establishing a regulatory body within a competent authority means that the regulatory body is established within and under the jurisdiction of the competent authority. The representative country adopting this setting form is Japan. Under this form of supervision, whether it is the transportation enterprise market access, product access, infrastructure, transportation business, economic and safety supervision are completed by the railway bureau under the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.

3.4.2.2

Supervision Methods of Foreign Railway Regulatory Agencies

The supervision of foreign railways comprehensively uses a variety of regulatory tools, such as legal, regulatory and information-based regulatory tools. Among them, the legal supervision means and the regulatory supervision means are mainly to supervise and standardize the railway operation behavior to ensure the normal and orderly operation activities; the information supervision means mainly analyzes the railway industry data and accident data, and regularly announces to the public. Industry development trends, suggestions for improvement (Table 3.1). Legal supervision means mainly the regulation of railways through the revision of national legislation and bills. The representative country adopting such supervision means is the United States. The United States FRA regulates the operational safety of US rail freight and passenger transport through legislation and amendments to the bills based on operational accidents. Regulatory approach (1)

Industry regulations. The US FRA regulates operational safety by establishing policies and safety regulations and procedures for freight and passenger transportation, and sets safety regulations and regulations based on accidents. Germany EBA sets the principles of railway safety, environmental protection and fire protection to supervise the transportation safety field.

Evaluation

Licensing

Supervise

Industry regulations

Consumer law enforcement

Evaluate relevant civil penalties

FRA

ORR

Approval of rail operator access Railway service and operation authorization

ORR

Licence

EBA

(continued)

EBA

BNetzA

EBA

ORR

EBA

Employee welfare supervision

Plan approval

STB

FRA

FRA

FRA

FRA

Germany

Safety supervision

Price and expense monitoring

Jurisdiction of restructuring

Provide information and guidance

Enforce safety laws and regulations

Investment strategy

Enforce safety laws and regulations

Safety principles

Safety rules

Modify the bill

Modify the bill

Control

Legislation

Legislation

Law

England

Application of institutions Amarica

Fund

Security

Market

Application fields

Supervisory Measure

Category

Table 3.1 Legal supervision of foreign railways

3.4 Supervision 41

Information

Category

Data monitoring

Information communication

Investigation and review

Supervisory Measure

Table 3.1 (continued)

Carriage of dangerous goods

Analyzing environmental data

Publish accident inspection reports

Stakeholder communication

Accident investigation

Collect and analyze accident data

Publications

Investigating illegal companies

Evaluating operators

Evaluation track network

Review of funds

STB

STB

FRA

ORR

RAIB

ORR

ORR

England

Application of institutions Amarica

Fund

Security

Market

Application fields

EBA

EUB

EUB

EBA

EBA

Germany

42 3 Key Transportation Elements

3.4 Supervision

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

43

Supervision and guidance. The US FRA is not only responsible for working with stakeholders to develop investment strategies, but also to implement federal railway safety regulations and to supervise operational laws and regulations. The US STB contacts stakeholders, provides information and informal guidance on procedures, regulations, and actions, and governs rail restructuring transactions. The UK ORR oversees rail operator licenses and general consumer law to ensure consumer rights. German EBA and BNetzA monitor employee and social welfare, budget, and charging standards, supervise railway operating equipment, and monitor the use of railroad prices and fees. Licensing. The UK ORR is responsible for supervising, issuing rail operator licenses and approving rail access. The German EBA authorizes the railway service and approves the funding plan. Evaluation and evaluation. UK ORR assessment track network application; Germany EBA assessment, assessment of railway operators. The US FRA uses evaluation methods to assess civil penalties for violations of railway safety regulations. Investigation and review. The US FRA mainly investigates serious incidents, collects and analyzes railway-related accident data, and compiles statistical tables, charts, and reports. The UK ORR investigates companies that violate competition laws, and RAIB primarily investigates the cause of the accident. Germany EBA mainly reviews capital investment invoices and financing methods, and EUB mainly investigates railway accidents.

3.4.3 Information Supervision 3.4.3.1

Information Communication

The US STB is responsible for contacting parliamentarians, state and local governments, and providing information and informal guidance on regulations and actions. Germany EUB is responsible for clarifying the causes of dangerous accidents in railway operations, proposing safety recommendations, and publishing inspection reports. The UK ORR publishes information primarily in the form of notices, publications, etc.

3.4.3.2

Data Monitoring

The US STB is responsible for environmental review of relevant cases, conducting independent analysis of environmental data, and proposing environmental recommendations to the Board of Directors; the German EBA is responsible for monitoring transportation according to the Railway Dangerous Goods Transportation Act.

44

3 Key Transportation Elements

3.4.3.3

Enlightenment of Perfecting China’s Railway Regulatory Agencies

Market-oriented operation is the development trend of China’s railway enterprise reform. Strengthening the construction of China’s railway regulatory institutions, perfecting supervision duties, and innovation of supervision means will create a good system and market environment for the sustainable development of China’s railway industry. (1)

(2)

(3)

Strengthen the organization and construction of regulatory agencies. The organization of foreign railway regulatory agencies may exist inside and outside the competent department of the industry. In addition, foreign railway regulatory agencies have institutions that specifically investigate railway accidents and institutions that specifically regulate the railway transportation economy. China’s railway supervision can set up corresponding regulatory agencies according to specific regulatory areas. With the acceleration of the marketoriented operation of railway enterprises, China’s railway regulatory agencies should improve their organizational structure while strengthening their supervisory responsibilities. For example, a multi-disciplinary regulatory body is established inside and outside the current industry authorities to meet the needs of regulatory responsibilities. Strengthen the macroscopic supervision duties of the railway. The supervisory responsibilities of foreign railway regulatory agencies cover three major macro areas of security, market and capital, but their specific regulatory content varies slightly depending on national conditions. As a representative of the highly market-oriented economy, the US FRA does not regulate consumers and market access, but instead conforms to the laws of the market and gives the transportation market a free competitive environment. In view of this, China’s railway regulatory agencies should, based on the development status and evolution history of China’s railway enterprises, keep abreast of the macro-regulatory functions and responsibilities. For example, China’s railway regulatory agencies should strengthen macro-regulation of railway operation performance, economic benefits, and passenger rights in the future. Innovative regulatory tools. In the process of supervision, foreign railway regulatory agencies will use their own institutional responsibilities to adopt different main regulatory measures for different regulatory areas. For example, in the security field, the United States not only uses regulatory and informational means, but also uses legal means to regulate it. In the market field, the supervision of foreign railway regulatory agencies is mainly based on regulatory supervision methods. The main aspects of business management and accident analysis are data monitoring. The development trend of the railway industry is regularly announced to the public, and improvements are proposed based on accident data. Measures. In contrast, China’s railway regulatory agencies should be improved and innovative in terms of legal supervision and information supervision. For example, railway regulatory agencies can strengthen

3.4 Supervision

45

safety legislation and regulations for passenger behavior and railway enterprise behavior; strengthen supervision and guidance for railway enterprises and passengers to comply with safety laws and regulations; strengthen information supervision methods, and supervise various types of regulatory events and corresponding regulations Data is published on a regular or real-time basis.

3.4.4 Supervision of Other Modes of Transportation Since the birth of the civil aviation industry in China in the 1950s, the government has experienced a relatively long-term development of the civil aviation industry supervision model. With the deepening of civil aviation market reform and civil aviation system reform, the government’s regulatory system and regulatory policies for the civil aviation industry are also constantly adjusting. In the first stage, the civil aviation industry has a unified administrative and enterprise-level, highly centralized management stage, which spans two stages of high nationalization, integration of government and enterprise, non-profit management, and separation of government and enterprise. In the second stage, from 1987 to 1993, the civil aviation carried out institutional reforms with the separation of the Civil Aviation Administration, airlines and airports as the main content, and began to relax the access standards. There are also certain routes, flight arrangements and aircraft purchases. The degree of relaxation, price control is still strict. The third stage is the growth period of civil aviation industry development, re-controlling market access, exploring price supervision, clarifying the relationship between government managers and business operators, rationalizing the relationship between regulators and regulated persons, and comprehensively relaxing economic supervision.. In terms of market access, transportation price, investment license, etc., the supervision was relaxed, the competition mechanism was introduced, and a competitive market was established. The market structure of the oligopoly was initially formed, and higher requirements were imposed on market supervision. This stage is still generally Market regulation is the focus, but regulators are beginning to stand in the position of industry managers. At present, there are still some problems in the supervision of China’s air transport market. (1) Continuous supervision throughout the process needs to be improved and strengthened. The threshold for entry regulation is high and the level of regulatory documents is low. The conflicts between industry regulations and relevant departmental regulations on the financial strength of air transport enterprises’ market access only stipulate the amount of registered capital, and the required amount of registered capital is high, forming a high threshold. Enterprises are required to meet the operational start-up capital and technical basic conditions for a period of time, and they can enter. In addition, the industry-level documents on which current market access is based are industry sector regulations with lower levels. In addition, there are conflicts between the regulations on civil aviation business licenses and the regulations for business administrations to start businesses. (2) The public interest supervision concept needs to be strengthened, the supervision mechanism needs to be

46

3 Key Transportation Elements

innovated, and the supervision information communication is not comprehensive. The status quo of the civil aviation regulatory department is that the airlines of the former Civil Aviation Administration of China and the United States have no direct affiliation with the current Civil Aviation Administration. The civil aviation system is broken and the power is dispersed. In addition, the CAA’s institutional specifications have been reduced to the deputy ministerial level. At this time, the administrative command-based supervision mechanism based on the level and authority has been unable to adapt to the complicated and volatile industry conditions, and it is impossible to effectively supervise the airlines. In this context, the following three points of the civil aviation regulatory authorities are obviously out of date, and need to be researched and improved: First, the public interest supervision concept needs to be deepened; second, the regulatory mechanism needs to be innovated; third, the supervision information is not comprehensive. (3) The public interest supervision environment needs to be strengthened, and the civil aviation regulatory laws, regulations and rules need to be improved. Civil aviation supervision laws and regulations pay little attention to the supervision of public interest. Public interest supervision sometimes encounters a situation in which the upper-level law has gaps and cannot be supported. There is no law enforcement right and lack of punishment. There are also some regulations and normative documents. Not in line with the reality of the industry, and some regulations and normative documents are too scattered, lack of operability and other issues. In addition, civil aviation laws, regulations and rules still face the problems of fewer laws and regulations and too many regulations, which need to be integrated and streamlined. The above situation has caused the civil aviation regulatory authorities to face the existence of problems, lack of supervision basis and means, and is an aspect that needs to be improved to strengthen the public interest supervision environment construction. In recent years, with the rapid development of the national economy, although the overall level of highway construction has improved, there are still some problems and deficiencies in the operation management process, mainly in: (1) Unreasonable organization of organizations, relevant government orders Unable to implement unimpeded. The smooth implementation of the traffic decree largely determines the efficiency of highway operation management. However, in some listed companies, joint ventures and group companies, the awareness of traffic management is very indifferent. Not only do not actively implement industry regulations and technical standards, but also affect the sustainable development of the entire transportation system. (2) The functional allocation is not in place and the public interest is affected. In terms of economic nature, the expressway operation industry is in an incomplete competitive market environment, and the nature of natural monopoly is very obvious. Under this kind of market structure, the scarcity and bundling phenomenon manifested by the supply of the same direction It is very common, so it causes the highway operators to rely on their own monopoly advantages to cause damage to the public interest. Especially in the practice of highway operation and maintenance, the above phenomenon is more prominent. For example, some companies have short-term benefits that are based on long-term social benefits and cannot be provided in conjunction with actual road conditions. For the state-owned

3.4 Supervision

47

and controlled expressway companies, the government’s equity management and government administrative management issues are highlighted. The government and relevant departments have established a fee rate interval and charging period through a franchise agreement, which fails to fully reflect the service quality level and the maintenance and repair level. The improper enforcement of the traffic authorities has affected the public interest. (3) The operational mechanism needs to be improved and improved, and there is no effective means of industrial supervision. In the traditional sense, highway operation management is mainly operated in accordance with administrative orders. Under the current market economic system, a variety of management methods are needed in the highway operation management process, and the operational mechanisms of organic coordination, technology, and administrative law are the only way to ensure operational management efficiency. However, this is not the case in practice. Although the state has enacted and implemented road management laws and regulations, the road operation management work has initially embarked on an institutionalized and standardized road, but there is still a certain gap compared with developed countries. Take the highway operation management legislation as an example. Although the highway law was promulgated in China as early as 1997, and the highway construction and operation charges were stipulated in principle, there is no content, means and law enforcement subjects for highway operation management. The requirements are to be specified. From the current domestic practice, there is still no scientific and efficient and universally applicable highway operation management single-line method. The basis for reference in the specific management process is only the laws and regulations on ordinary road operation management, completeness and versatility. Far from enough. The government should actively explore appropriate supervision methods according to China’s national conditions and existing regulatory issues, continuously innovate and improve the operation and management mode, and effectively improve the operational management level, in order to achieve the sustainable development of China’s transportation construction.

3.5 Cost With the development of urban transportation, various transportation costs have increased greatly. These costs refer not only to financial costs such as fuel costs that can be reflected in market prices, but also to non-market price costs such as environmental pollution. In general, they can be divided into two categories: personal costs and social costs. Personal cost refers to the part of the transportation cost that the urban transportation user directly bears. The cost of actual market price, such as vehicle purchase, fuel, toll, vehicle maintenance cost, traffic accident cost (personal commitment part, mainly refers to vehicle maintenance and personnel casualty expenses), etc., non-market price cost has time cost, traffic Crowded cost (refers to traffic congestion inside the car). The social cost refers to the part of the transportation cost that urban traffic users do not need to directly bear the responsibility

48

3 Key Transportation Elements

of the society, and has environmental pollution costs, traffic accident costs, traffic congestion costs (roads), and urban development costs. Environmental pollution costs include noise pollution costs, air pollution costs (vehicle exhaust emissions), and weather change costs. The cost of weather change means that the exhaust emissions of vehicles will induce a greenhouse effect, warming the atmosphere, and losses will be caused by various industries. Traffic accident costs include health, production losses, and various administrative costs. Health losses mainly refer to personal injuries caused by accidents, including disability, death costs and mental injury costs. The loss of production refers to the loss of working hours caused by casualties and other personnel involved in the accident. Administrative expenses refer to the government’s expenses for maintaining traffic order, handling and preventing traffic accidents. Traffic congestion costs mainly refer to time costs and other costs incurred thereby. Traffic congestion has caused road resources to be occupied, resulting in losses caused by increased travel time, including people’s mental damage. Urban development costs include construction costs, occupation of urban space costs, and cost reduction of urban image. Construction cost refers to the cost of road maintenance, renovation and new construction for the city to solve traffic problems. The cost reduction of the city image refers to the reduction of foreign investment and other intangible losses caused by the decline of the overall image of the city due to traffic problems (Table 3.2). (1)

Cost comparison between public transportation and private transportation

Based on the above analysis of the composition of transportation costs, our cost of urban public transportation and private transportation is also analyzed from individual costs and social costs. In terms of personal cost, the personal cost of public transportation is mainly reflected in the bus fare at the market price, while the personal cost reflected in the market price in private transportation is relatively complicated; the transportation cost of public transportation and private transportation cannot be Part of the market price performance is time cost and traffic congestion cost. As shown in the table. Table 3.2 The cost category of traveling Project

Cost types

Cost structure

Private cost

Actual cost paid

Vehicle purchase expenses, fuel expenses, tolls, parking fees, vehicle maintenance depreciation fees, traffic accident fees

Intangible cost

Time cost, traffic congestion cost

Social costs

Cost of environmental pollution

Noise pollution cost, air pollution cost, weather change cost

Congestion cost

Time costs, other costs

Cost of traffic accident

Loss of health, loss of production, administrative costs

Urban development cost

Construction cost, occupying urban space cost, city image reduction cost

3.5 Cost

49

It can be seen from the table that in the personal cost reflected by the market price, the personal cost of public transportation is less than that of private transportation, and the personal cost that cannot be reflected by the market price is greater than that of private transportation. However, the purchase cost of vehicles in private transportation is a one-off fee. In actual calculations, people generally do not consider it, and even the depreciation of maintenance and repair of vehicles is rarely considered. People only consider fuel costs, tolls and parking. fee. After the reform and opening up, China’s comprehensive strength has been continuously enhanced, people’s living standards have also increased, and people’s requirements for quality of life have also increased. From this perspective, the cost of the individual cost in the market price is very small in the proportion of people’s lives. People are more concerned with the part that cannot be expressed at the market price, namely the time cost and the traffic congestion cost (In the car), the proportion of this part in personal costs is far greater than the part that can be expressed at market prices. Therefore, considering the comprehensive consideration, the cost of public transportation is greater than the personal cost of private transportation. The social cost structure of urban transportation has been analyzed in the past. At present, most of these costs have not been reflected in value. Many scholars have focused their research on quantifying the social cost of transportation activities. Research shows that the cost of this part is very huge. The social cost of public transport and private transport is consistent, but research shows that the social cost of public transport is much smaller than the social cost of private transport. Some countries in the European Union have studied the social costs of various modes of transportation in the urban passenger transportation system. The results are shown in Table 3.4. (2)

Impact of transportation costs on urban public transportation

Through the above-mentioned cost analysis of urban public transportation and private transportation, it can be found that considering the social cost of public transportation and private transportation, people’s private transportation and public transportation travel choices are obviously different, which is replaced by economics. The effect is determined. Suppose people’s transportation expenditures are constant, regardless of the social cost of transportation, and do not consider the social costs of public transportation and private transportation, and the part of the individual’s personal costs that cannot be reflected in market prices, public transportation and private transportation. The quantities are X and Y, respectively. At present, the living standards of urban residents in China are increasing, and people are pursuing the quality of life. Therefore, when choosing travel tools, people are more concerned with the costs that cannot be reflected in the market price, that is, the feelings of travel, such as crowding costs, Time cost, etc. When considering the part of personal cost that cannot be reflected in the market price, the attraction of public transportation is declining, people are more willing to choose private transportation, and the amount of public transportation and private transportation are reduced to X1 and rise to Y1, respectively. Public transportation is replaced by private transportation.

50

3 Key Transportation Elements

Similarly, assuming that people’s travel spending remains the same, public and private traffic are X and Y, respectively, when considering individual costs. When considering the social cost of transportation, residents’ travel expenses will change. From the above analysis, the social cost of private transportation is much greater than the social cost of public transportation. The attractiveness of public transportation will increase, private transportation will decline, and the volume of public transportation and private transportation will rise to X2 and fall to Y2, respectively. The reduced amount of private traffic is replaced by public transportation. Therefore, we can conclude that people are more willing to choose private transportation when they do not consider the social cost of traffic behavior; on the contrary, when considering the social cost of traffic behavior, people are more willing to choose public transportation.

3.6 Network and Hub Transportation is the carrier of material and energy exchange between modern cities, and it is the pioneering industry in the national economic structure. Transportation is first to establish a station. No matter what kind of transportation mode, it is transported between various stations. According to the difference between the starting station and the passing station, there will be multiple transportation lines, and these stations and transportation lines, that is, Hubs and networks form the basis of transportation and constitute a key element of transportation. As a new industry and transportation infrastructure industry in the twentieth century, the development of the air transport industry and its achievements in technology and services make it one of the most successful industries in the world, far exceeding the breadth, depth and speed of transportation. Other modes of transportation. Since the first scheduled flight from Tampa to St. Petersburg in the United States in 1914, the aircraft and the corresponding aero engines have been continuously improved and improved, improving the carrying capacity, range and speed, and the process of forming a worldwide aviation network. Air transportation is not only a means of transportation, but also a quality resource. The regional economy utilizes air transportation, which can transcend the boundaries of geography and space, directly participate in the international division of labor and the international economic cycle, and absorb and gather all kinds of energy and elements of productivity in the world. Therefore, it is of great practical significance to study the structure of aviation networks and optimize the network layout. The research of aviation network structure is very wide, involving a wide range of disciplines, including economics, transportation, operations and physics. The researchers have different aspects of the characteristics, design, advantages and disadvantages of the aviation network structure and the resulting economy. Social impacts were studied.

3.6 Network and Hub

(1)

51

Historical development of aviation network operation structure

The main body of the aviation network is the airline. As the basic network of air transportation, how to build a competitive domestic and international aviation operation network is a very important factor in whether the air transportation layout can achieve optimal resource allocation. The airline’s aviation network operating scheduled flights has two main operational structures: point-to-point structure and hub radiation structure, of which the aviation hub refers to a comprehensive air transport exchange center. The point-to-point (or city-to-peer) structure is a network form commonly used by airlines in the early days of air transport development, also known as a fully connected structure. It mainly refers to the direct flight between two airports (or two cities), and the passenger and cargo flow does not need to be transited through the third airport (ie the third city). This kind of aviation network structure predominates under the premise of ensuring a certain source of passengers at two airports at short distances, achieving direct navigation between cities, facilitating the arrangement of flights, and no operational pressure during peak hours. The formation of this structure is mainly affected by factors such as the flight speed, altitude, load and national control of the aircraft. At present, China and most developing countries mainly adopt this aviation network structure. However, many cities do not have enough traffic to support direct services for their origins and destinations. Due to economic considerations, the aircraft can be replenished at one or more times on the way from the origin to the destination, and the passengers and cargoes can be replenished at the midway airport to compensate for the shortage of passengers and cargo between the airports and the formation of beaded air. Network, this structure is called a linear jump structure, which is actually a derivative form of urban-style structure. The main advantage of this structure is to provide fast air transport services between stations along the line, improve the utilization of aircraft and units, and is generally suitable for smaller air transport markets. Although this kind of network structure has improved the passenger and cargo rate of the aircraft, the passenger and cargo flow is only added midway, and lack of stability, it is still difficult to form economies of scale. In China’s current aviation network, such routes are gradually increasing. However, due to the small scale of the route, low flight frequency and flight schedule, the linear jump structure has certain weaknesses in both cost and benefit. With the development of the airline and the flight capacity and passenger flow. Increase, the intermediate stop will continue to decrease, and the linear jump structure will be phased out. With the rapid development of the air transport industry and the intensified competition in the air transport market, airlines have been striving to expand the profitable passenger and cargo transportation market to increase the flight rate of flights, reduce costs and increase revenue. Therefore, the city with large population, developed transportation, and large passenger and cargo flow is selected as the center. By establishing navigation routes with other large and medium-sized cities, large and medium-sized cities and nearby small and medium-sized cities establish navigation lines to form an air transportation network with a hub radiation structure. The structure is based on the

52

3 Key Transportation Elements

most important hub airport and other non-hub aviation airports as radiation support points, forming a closely related space network communication system similar to “bicycle wheels”, and there is also a literature called concentrated star structure. It is the product of deregulation of air transport and the development of airlines to a certain scale and the pursuit of economies of scale. The principle is to concentrate a series of routes to a hub airport, so that all flights from a peak in a specific time, and get the most transfer service opportunities in the shortest flight connection time, so as to maximize the airlines. Market share. Since 1978, the United States has relaxed its regulation of the domestic civil aviation industry, which has had a major impact on the network operations structure of the US air transport industry and the travel arrangements of passengers. The network structure of the domestic civil aviation industry has changed from a direct flight network strictly controlled by the government to a highly structured and hierarchical hub radiation network. The European transport liberalization that began in the 1990s also promoted the formation of hub-and-radiation aviation networks. (2)

Topological structure and nature of aviation networks

Since 2000, physicists have begun to conduct an overall analysis of the topology of aviation networks. In the analysis, physicists often abstract the general network geometry from the phenomena of various actual networks, and study the microscopic properties and networks of the vertices and edges of the network from the perspective of statistical physics. The relationship between the geometric properties of nature, efficiency, and so on, and then the formation mechanism of the network itself. The basic idea is to express the differences between network nodes and the structural characteristics of the entire network by measuring the network feature distribution, the shortest path length, the degree correlation, the median distribution, and the cluster coefficients. Table 3.3 summarizes the main conclusions of the research on the topological characteristics of aviation networks in recent years. Common transportation networks mainly include road networks, subway networks, railway networks, and aviation networks. Road networks, subway networks and railway networks and aviation networks are two completely different types of transportation networks. In the first three types of networks, the edge is the actual physical connection; in the aeronautical network, the edge is conceptual and there is no actual physical connection. In fact, for the railway network, the cost of the distance has a significant impact on the nature of the network topology, and the degree distribution is not scale-free. Relatively speaking, although the number of nodes in each aeronautical network is as small as no more than 100, as many as several thousand, the operational structures of aviation networks in different countries are different, but these aeronautical networks exhibit similar topological features: these aviation networks They are all small world networks, and have a degree distribution that approximates a power law drop. Further, in order to clearly express the transportation of the aviation network, the aviation network can be regarded as a weighted network, wherein the weight of the route can be defined as the transportation capacity that the route can provide. At present, the results of correlation analysis of the weights and degrees of nodes in the aviation network show that the

3.6 Network and Hub

53

Table 3.3 Topological structure characteristics of aviation network Researchers

The research object Number of nodes and edges

Shortest path length/cluster coefficient

Distribution of degree

Guimerà et al.

World aviation network

3883/531,574

4.4/0.62

The power law is about 2

Barrat et al.

World aviation network

3880/18,810

4.37

The power law is about 2

Li et al.

China’s aviation network

128/1165

2.067/0.7333

Two-segment power law distribution

Liu et al.

China’s aviation network

121/1378

2.22/0.784

Two-segment power law distribution

Zhu et al.

China’s aviation network

130/1700

2.1

Two-segment power law distribution

Bagler

India’s aviation network

79/442

2.259/0.657

The power law is 2.2

Barrat et al.

North American aviation network

935

4

The power law is 1.9

weights and degrees of nodes are nonlinearly related, while the classical weighted network evolution model driven by traffic flow considers the weights of nodes. The degree is linearly related, which implies the limitations of the model and provides a reference for further modeling work. In general, most aviation networks have the following five characteristics: small world nature (also large) Cluster coefficient and short average distance), approximate power law degree distribution, degree negative correlation (node degree is negatively correlated with its neighbor average degree), cluster degree negative correlation (statistically large node cluster coefficient is small) and nonlinearity of degree.

3.7 Property Rights 3.7.1 Concept The so-called property rights relationship is the sum of the various relationships in the above powers around the allocation of property rights. Property rights analysis needs to study what factors determine the property rights characteristics in different fields and what kind of corresponding property rights institutional arrangements are needed. The specific property rights analysis should distinguish its value form and physical form, or the property rights include two dimensions of value and physicality.

54

3 Key Transportation Elements

The former focuses on the discussion of property rights from the aspects of investment relations, creditor’s rights and debts, corporate governance, etc. The research focuses on ownership and income rights in the bundle of rights, and partly on the rights of domination and disposal, usually with agents acting as assets and The parent company, the general branch and other legal person property structures correspond. The latter focuses on the discussion of property rights in terms of physical characteristics, technical connections, and use efficiency of related resources. The focus of research should be on the right to use and dominance in the bundle of rights, and in part on the rights of possession, income and disposition. It usually corresponds to the production and operation functions and organizational structure that are linked by business processes. The differences in asset patterns in different industries, the particularity of the production process, and the interrelationships between the various entities in production and management determine that an industry has characteristics different from those of other industries. Past research has paid more attention to the property rights relationship of value forms, and in-depth study of physical forms should be more conducive to a thorough understanding of the relationship between property rights in specific industries. Taking the railway as an example, the property rights relationship of the railway industry has its inherent particularity, including the realization of the overall efficiency of the road network, the sharing of facilities and equipment, the driving command and the open road rights, etc. It is the formation and change of the railway industry organization. Important influencing factors. The technical and economic characteristics such as network, public welfare and natural monopoly determine the particularity of the railway property rights relationship, and cross-affect the relationship between the railway government and enterprise, the relationship between enterprises and enterprises, and the construction of related industrial organizations. It is clarified that it is clear railway an important prerequisite for the relationship of property rights. The particularity of the railway property rights relationship can be divided into the internal property sharing problem arising from the contradiction between the integrity of the transportation product and the business operation boundary on the corresponding space–time scale, and the externality caused by the inseparability of government and enterprise and the system of government and capital. Improper control of the problem. Due to the intrinsic integrity of transportation requirements, but relatively dispersed in time and space distribution, and incomplete matching with transportation supply capacity and function, multiple entities use lines, stations and other facilities together and share the right to use and The right to income is very common in railway transportation organizations. The integrity requirements of transportation products from start to finish often exceed the boundary of railway enterprises in space distribution, resulting in passenger and cargo flow, traffic flow and trains crossing the border between enterprises, resulting in mutual borrowing or lending. The responsibility of the car. The sharing of railway property is often accompanied by the significant transportation density economy of the railway and the scope economy of multi-transport products. With the reorganization of railways, the number of enterprises and the form of enterprises in the industry increase, and the property rights caused by the sharing of facilities and equipment Relationships

3.7 Property Rights

55

are becoming more and more complicated. The need for railways to increase efficiency must strike a balance between the sharing of facilities and equipment and the appropriate property rights system.

3.7.2 Relevant Property Rights Theory Property rights theory holds that property rights do not simply refer to the relationship between people and things, but to the behavioral relationships between people due to the existence of objects and their use (Fruberton et al. 1991). Helping people form expectations that they can reasonably hold when dealing with others (Demsetz 1988, p. 129), whose functions include incentives, constraints, resource allocation, revenue distribution, externalization, and reduction Uncertainty functions, etc. (Cos et al. 2003, p. 98). Property rights are a bunch of rights and are a system of rights structures for various rights of property. Due to the diversity of property attributes and the differences in capabilities and objectives that people use when they are used, structural analysis of property rights can be based on the different needs of the research. Property rights economics believes that in a general sense, the main property rights of a property include the right to use, the right to income and the right to dispose. Here, the importance of ownership in the legal sense has given way to property rights in economics, because the key is who has the right to use the property, who gets the income, and who can dispose of it or transfer it. There is also a view in property rights theory that the power of residual power, that is, the power of random disposal, is actually the greatest power. The most essential content of ownership is that it is difficult to be clearly defined by the contract or rule, but it is necessary for all random results. The power to conduct random disposal (Ping, 2001, p. 378). Whoever gives this stochastic disposition (also known as residual control) to whoever has the most essential power in the property relationship? This view is actually based on the relationship between property rights and the completeness of the contract. Since most modern contracts are incomplete contracts, the analysis of residual control rights is of great significance. Economics has used this property analysis method quite successfully in enterprise theory. The property rights of many properties are decomposable and tradable. Therefore, the various powers of property rights can belong to different property rights entities, and can be transferred and transferred between different entities (Lu 2004, pp. 64– 74). Economists advocate that property rights should not only be clearly defined, but also should be reasonably configured. The design of rights structure is used to allocate the right to control the property rights of each property among the parties. The validity of property rights lies in whether it provides incentives for externalization of internalization of people under its control. One of the main criteria for the rationality of property rights allocation is to see its role as an investment premise to form actual property (Ping 2001, p. 395).

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3 Key Transportation Elements

The problem of shared property rights easily caused by network-based basic industries and the special rights of public enterprises are also the reasons that affect the complexity of railway property rights. Property rights theory needs to study what factors determine the property rights characteristics in different fields and what kind of corresponding property rights system arrangements are needed. In general, shared property rights are not efficient due to the inability to solve externalities and free riders (Huang 2003, pp. 10–14), so it is economically reasonable to have different properties of large facilities or equipment owned by different entities. At the time, the output of the asset does not have to be produced by a separate company (Bazer 1989, p. 66). However, due to the role of technical and economic characteristics, networkbased basic industries, including railways, require special analysis. For example, property rights in network-based industries can be divided into corporate rights and network rights. If corporate rights and network rights contradict each other, and corporate rights must obey the overall interests of the network, the result will be a technical breakdown of corporate property rights. As Barzel has pointed out, since the attributes of large facilities are particularly prone to common property problems, they are generally owned by a centralized organization (Bazer 1989, pp. 66–67). In addition, the services of network-based basic industries are often not completely provided by company-owned enterprises in the general sense. The public enterprises with special characteristics are strengthened in some aspects compared with the general corporate enterprises, while others Aspects are limited. From the perspective of countries, whether it is the traditional national railway system or the private system under control, the private property rights of railway enterprises are broken or weakened. All of these make it much more difficult to analyze the divisibility, tradability and even the definition of property rights on the railway network.

3.7.3 The Impact of Government Regulation on Railway Property Rights Due to natural monopoly and externalities, railways have traditionally been one of the areas where government intervention and regulation are the most common. For many countries, the railways have been nationalized by private railways and operated directly by the government. Later, state-owned railway companies were gradually separated from government functions, and later they were further implemented with different levels of privatization or privatization; others In the United States, the railway industry, which is dominated by private ownership, has undergone a process of strict regulation from the government to deregulation. Regardless of the type, the government has played a major role in the railway industry, but the general trend is that countries are changing in the direction of respecting and protecting the property rights and interests of railway enterprises. Under the non-commercial system of the full official camp, the railway operates as a government agency. Railway construction and operation are mixed in the

3.7 Property Rights

57

government’s finances. At that time, there was no property right of the enterprise. When the railway begins to separate from the government, it is becoming more and more important to recognize and protect the property rights and interests of railway construction and business entities. For example, the French government signed a plan contract with the National Railway Corporation in the 1980s and 1990s, which is a step taken by the government to respect and protect the rights of the national railway enterprise during the separation of government and enterprise. Many European countries have adopted the restructuring of the national railway system to allow passenger and cargo operators to obtain relatively complete operating rights in order to realize commercial operations as soon as possible, while leaving the investment and management functions of line facilities with more prominent public welfare characteristics to the government. The way. Japan adopted a separation of construction and transportation from the former National Railway, leaving the railway construction task to the government in the form of a public enterprise, and letting the integrated passenger railway company privatized. South Korea’s recent railway reform program also implements the separation of network transportation and creates conditions for the privatization of the upper operating companies. Internationally, public utilities, including railways, are now being used more in the form of government-civilian cooperation (PPP). Some of these countries adopt a franchise mode for railway passenger and cargo operations, and the basis for franchise bidding is that the rights of related property and interests are guaranteed. As one of the typical modes of cooperation between the government and the people, the BOT model requires a clearer and more complete property rights system. In order to ensure the interests of the Project Company and investors, in addition to the franchise rights within a limited period of time, the government will invest a certain percentage of funds, and make a clear commitment to all relevant issues. BOT projects often have long negotiation cycles. The form and content of contracts are very cumbersome, and even special legislation is needed to ensure the protection of property rights during the franchise period. Even so, the parties involved in the BOT project are still easily locked in. The Channel Tunnel Project and the Taiwan High Speed Rail Project have unfortunately become typical examples of private investors and officials being deeply stuck. As for the government regulation of railways, although economic regulation is used to solve the problem of monopoly on the surface, from the perspective of property rights, regulation is actually the government’s intervention in the integrity of corporate property rights. The US railroad industry, which has basically remained privately and privately, was once strictly controlled by the government. Railway companies under the control system could not independently determine the freight rate for a long period of time. The merger between railway companies was restricted, and they could not decide to discard them. Redundant line assets. Therefore, under the control system, railway enterprises are incomplete in their right to income and disposal of their property, although the operational command of the American Railway Company is controlled by itself, and the problem of over-travel transportation between companies is mainly negotiated by themselves. After the deregulation in the 1980s, the freight rate of railway freight allowed both parties to negotiate

58

3 Key Transportation Elements

and determine. A large number of mergers and acquisitions of the company were approved. Only when the interests of the customers were infringed due to lack of competition were prohibited by the regulatory agencies. The property rights relationship in the US rail industry has been largely restored. Before the deregulation, the US railway investment was seriously insufficient. However, since then, the railway enterprises have not only greatly improved their operational efficiency, but also significantly increased their investment. The enterprise scale boundary has achieved a new balance after great changes. The deeper reason is that the railway enterprises’ property rights are guaranteed. In short, the property rights relationship is one of the core contents of the railway economic problem. It is the rule that must be observed in the use of railway resources, and determines the expected way for all relevant entities to weigh the costs and benefits. It is a key element in the operation and development of the railway industry.

Chapter 4

Transportation Mode Development in Practices Transportation is a Basic, Leading and Strategic Industry in the National Economy

Transportation is a basic, leading and strategic industry in the national economy and an important service industry. After more than 40 years of reform and development, China’s multi-node, fully-covered integrated transportation network has taken initial shape. The “five vertical and five horizontal” comprehensive transportation channels have basically penetrated. A large number of integrated passenger and freight hub stations have been put into operation, and the development of transportation equipment has been continuously upgraded. The transportation service level has been significantly improved, technological innovation and application have achieved major breakthroughs, and the transportation market system, management system and regulatory system have been continuously improved.

4.1 The Scale of the Infrastructure Network is at the Forefront of the World By the end of 2017, China’s “five vertical and five horizontal” comprehensive transportation channels were basically completed, and an integrated transportation network was initially formed. The railway has a mileage of 127,000 km, and the high-speed railway has exceeded 25,000 km, accounting for about 65% of the world’s total high-speed rail, ranking first in the world. The total length of roads reached 4,773,500 km, and 99.99% of the townships and 99.94% of the country’s established villages have access to highways. The expressway mileage reached 135,500 km, ranking first in the world. The inland waterway has a navigation mileage of 127,100 km, and the number of 10,000-ton berths above the designated port is 2366, ranking first in the world. There are 229 civil aviation transportation airports and more than 300 general airports. The total length of the postal route (one-way) is 9.385 million km, and the number of postal express outlets is 217,000. The total number of postal homes and villages is open to the public. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_4

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60

4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

4.2 The Scale of Transportation Services is at the Global Leading Level In 2017, the total passenger and cargo transportation volume of the whole society reached 18.47 billion person-times and 47.24 billion tons respectively. China has become one of the busiest countries in the world. Railway passenger turnover and freight volume rank first in the world, and high-speed rail passenger turnover exceeds the sum of other countries and regions in the world. Highway passenger and cargo transportation volume and turnover volume rank first in the world, and the expressway bears more than 1/3 of the passenger traffic and 1/4 of the freight volume of the whole society. Shipping has undertaken more than 90% of China’s foreign trade cargo transportation, and port container throughput accounts for more than 1/3 of the world’s total, providing strong support for China to become the world’s largest cargo trading country. Civil aviation transport passengers and cargo and mail turnover are ranked second in the world. The volume of express delivery business has increased by more than 50% annually, ranking first in the world, and the support capacity of transportation services for economic and social development has continued to increase.

4.3 Significantly Enhanced Accessibility of Transportation Services The proportion of high-speed railways covering more than one million people is 65%. The proportion of townships and towns that opened passenger lines nationwide was 99.12%, and the proportion of established villages that opened passenger lines was 95.85%. The national urban public steam (electric) vehicle operating line exceeded 56,000, the urban rail transit operation line reached 149, and the total length of the operating line reached 4484.2 km. Waterway international transport routes and container liner routes to more than 1000 ports in more than 100 countries and regions. There are 4418 scheduled flights on civil aviation, with a mileage of more than 10.829 million km (calculated by repeating distance), 224 cities in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and 158 cities in 60 countries.

4.4 The GDP Growth Rate Has Gradually Slowed Down, and China’s Transportation Production Index Has Performed Steadily Transportation is highly correlated with macroeconomic development. Transportation demand is generally affected by various levels of social and economic development, household income level, household consumption level, and

4.4 The GDP Growth Rate Has Gradually Slowed Down …

61

transportation infrastructure construction. However, passenger transportation and cargo transportation included in transportation have different requirements for transportation services, such as passenger transportation. May pay more attention to the comfort of the journey, and cargo transportation may pay more attention to timeliness, etc., so that the factors affecting passenger transportation and cargo transportation are not necessarily the same. According to the research results of research institutions such as the World Bank, the passenger and freight volume, passenger and freight turnover and GDP, GDP, urbanization rate, per capita GDP, industrial structure and other factors are closely related, among which the regression relationship with GDP Most obvious. The development of the traditional transportation industry is at a mature stage, and the new transportation industry is in the period of entrepreneurship. The traditional transportation industry is generally in a mature stage, but presents structural differences. 1.

The railway transportation volume has increased by nearly 10%, and the passenger and freight transportation development process has significant differences.

The railway passenger transport service volume has grown steadily, and the average transport distance has been lowered. Benefiting from the rapid development of China’s high-speed rail, the passenger traffic volume of railways in 2013 was 3.37 billion, an increase of 9.28%; the passenger traffic volume was 1414.66 billion person-kilometers, an increase of 5.13; the average transportation distance was 419.8 km, a decrease of 3.8%. The volume of railway freight services has fluctuated and has increased significantly in the past two years. From the data of the past 10 years, the volume of railway freight services fluctuated greatly, reaching a staged bottom in 2016. In 2017–2018, affected by the adjustment of transportation structure (transferred iron), the freight volume of railways reached 4.03 billion tons, an increase of 9.25%; the freight turnover reached 284.21 billion tons, an increase of 6.89%; the average transportation distance was 715.16 km. 2.

Air cargo industry urgently needs strategic structural adjustment

In recent years, the trend of “strong customers and weak goods” has further intensified. As shown in Fig. 4.1, China’s air cargo has a volatility development trend, and its volatility is significantly higher than the passenger turnover and total turnover. Although the development of China’s passenger turnover in 2006–2014 has also shown a trend of volatility, it has maintained a positive growth trend. The scale of passenger turnover has been increasing. The volume of passenger turnover in 2014 has increased by 55.8% compared with 2010. The volume experienced negative growth in 2011 and 2012. In 2014, the volume of cargo and mail turnover increased by only 4.96% compared with 2010. The development of China’s air transport industry has long had a development contradiction of “customer and weak goods”. Since 2010, the ratio of air cargo postal turnover to total turnover has shown a downward trend. In 2014, the proportion of

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4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

Fig. 4.1 Overview of the development of China’s air transport industry turnover in 2006–2014. Source of data Civil aviation from statistics

air cargo postal turnover to total turnover decreased from 33.2% in 2010 to 25.1%. The development trend has further intensified in the past five years. The research results of various transportation modes and economic characteristics show that air cargo has a comparative advantage in the international freight market and high value-added product transportation. In 2013, among the total turnover of cargo and mail completed by ICAO member countries, international cargo cargo and mail turnover accounted for 86%, domestic flights accounted for only 14%, and global air cargo was clearly concentrated in the international air transport market. From the completion of China’s airline cargo and mail turnover, as shown in Fig. 4.2, in 2006–2014, the international and Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan routes cargo and mail turnover accounted for more than 60% of the total turnover, the highest proportion in 2010 reached 71.6%, China’s air cargo development also presents a development trend of gathering international markets, but compared with the 86% of international flights on a global scale, there is still a considerable gap. China’s air cargo overall international and domestic airline flight structure has further optimization space. Judging from the growth of domestic and international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan routes, the turnover of domestic routes has a small fluctuation, and has maintained positive growth for many years. In 2014, the cargo and mail turnover was 6.106 billion tons, compared with 2010. The annual growth rate was 20.4%; the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan routes fluctuated greatly. In 2010, the growth rate was as high as 56.9%. In 2011 and 2012, the performance was negative. In 2014, the cargo and mail turnover was 12.671 billion tons, which was still lower than the 12.871 billion tons in 2010. The volume of cargo and mail turnover. In the international air transport field with the most comparative advantages in air cargo transportation, China’s air cargo industry as a whole performs poorly. In the future, it is necessary to carefully consider how to carry out strategic structural adjustment.

4.4 The GDP Growth Rate Has Gradually Slowed Down …

63

Fig. 4.2 Development of China’s air cargo mail turnover in 2006–2014. Source of data Civil Aviation Transportation, General Aviation Production Statistics Annual Report

However, there are still some problems. The demand for China’s international air transport market is strong, but China’s airlines are less competitive internationally. In 2006–2014, the volume of transportation completed by China’s airlines in the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan markets showed a volatility trend. In 2011–2013, it showed negative growth for three consecutive years. In 2014, the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan traffic volume was 1.908 million tons, which is still lower than in 2010, the transportation volume level (2.143 million tons) was 11% points. In fact, the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan air transport markets related to China have maintained a growth trend. As shown in Fig. 4.3, the total international and Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan cargo and mail transportation in 2014 reached 5.494 million tons, compared with 2010. The volume of 43.15 million tons of transportation increased by 27.3%. Compared with the downward trend of China’s airlines since 2011, the volume of transportation completed by foreign airlines has maintained a steady growth since 2010, with an average annual growth rate of approximately 12.8%. It goes without saying that the international market share associated with China is constantly being eaten by foreign airlines. Further comparison of the performance of China’s airlines and foreign airlines in the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan markets related to China, as shown in Fig. 4.4, it can be clearly seen that the share of transportation volume completed by Chinese airlines has been declining, and only 34.7% of the market was occupied in 2014. Share. During the same period, US domestic airlines accounted for approximately 45.2% of the domestic international freight market, Singapore Airlines accounted for 64%, and Korean Air held 62%. China’s domestic airlines have apparently failed to leverage the size of China’s huge air transport market and its overall competitiveness is weak. In the future, China’s air cargo industry

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4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

Fig. 4.3 Completion of international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan market traffic related to China in 2006–2014. Source Airport throughput data, CAAC Statistics Office data

Fig. 4.4 China Airlines’ share of foreign airlines in the international, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan markets in 2006–2014. Source Airport throughput data, CAAC Statistics Office data

must continuously improve the competitiveness of local airlines in the international market. The distinctive features of fast, safe and wide range of space services have formed an important position for air cargo transportation in the national economic system. It is necessary for the whole industry to attach great importance to the problem of

4.4 The GDP Growth Rate Has Gradually Slowed Down …

65

lagging the development of air cargo, and moderately tilt the industry development strategy to promote aviation. Freight transportation has developed across the board and finally realized the strategic concept of a strong civil aviation country. From the perspective of development, with the implementation of the all-round reform and opening-up strategy of the “One Belt, One Road”, air cargo will not only usher in a new period of development opportunities, but also face new requirements and new challenges, and continuously improve the international competitiveness of China’s air cargo. It is the core strategic task for future development.

4.5 Status of Railway Transportation Development China has a vast territory, a large population, uneven distribution of resources, and a large difference in the level of development between cities. Today, with China’s rapid economic development and rapid urbanization, railways, as the lifeblood of the national economy, important national infrastructure and popular transportation vehicles, rely on their large volume, low freight rates, low pollution, low energy consumption, and high security. Advantages play an important role in population mobility, cargo transportation, urban construction and economic development between cities. The history of China’s railways can be traced back to the completion of China’s first railway, the Wusong Railway, 140 years ago. Over the past 100 years, along with the rapid development of China’s economy, the scale of China’s railway construction has gradually expanded. At the end of 1980, the railway operating mileage had reached 49,900 km, and the railway network skeleton was basically formed. At the turn of the century, the railway experienced five speed-ups. In 2007, the sixth largescale speed increase of China’s railways marked the official entry of China’s railways into the high-speed rail era. The data shows that during the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” period, China Railway completed a fixed asset investment of 3.58 trillion yuan and a new line of 3,500,000 km, which is the fifth year in history to complete the investment and commissioning of new lines. By the end of the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan”, the national railway operating mileage reached 121,000 km. During the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” period, a number of major projects such as Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway, Beijing-Guangzhou high-speed railway, Harbin high-speed railway and Lanxin highspeed railway were completed and opened to traffic, basically forming a high-speed railway network with “four vertical and four horizontal” as the main skeleton. The data shows that the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” China Railway completed 10.6 billion passengers, an increase of 49.4% over the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan”. Sheng Guangzu said that as the first year of the “13th Five-Year Plan”, this year China will continue to increase investment in railway construction on the basis of ensuring the stability and stability of railway transportation. It plans to complete 800 billion yuan of fixed assets investment throughout the year; passenger traffic The year-on-year growth was 10%, and the freight volume increased by 2% year-on-year (Fig. 4.5).

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4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

Fig. 4.5 China railway operating miles

4.5.1 Development of China Railway Passenger Transport With the continuous development of China’s economic society as well as industrialization, urbanization and transportization process (Rong Chaohe 2008), China’s railway market share has been increasing. During the 20 years from 1995 to 2015, the market share of China’s railway freight turnover decreased by 21.45%, while the market share of railway passenger traffic turnover has been relatively stable, increased by 0.04%, which indicates that the high-speed railway has improved the competitiveness of railway passenger transport market. When measured by total conversion volume, China’s railway market share is relatively reduced, but the market shares of roads and civil aviation are growing, as shown in Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.6. Railway is an important transport infrastructure for the development of our national economic development. Since the implementation of the “Mid- and Longterm Railway Network Plan” in 2004, the railway fixed asset investment increased from 90.14 billion yuan in 2004 to 80.15 billion yuan in 2016, and the size of the railway network has increased to 121,000 km in 2016, among which the high-speed railway is more than 22,000 km (Railway work conference 2017). At the same time, in June 2016, China Railway Corporation’s debt balance reached 4.21 trillion yuan, the asset-liability ratio is 64.73%, and the overall debt balance and asset-liability ratio keep climbing (China Railway Corporation Balance Sheet 2016), as shown in Fig. 4.7. The compilation of national railway statistics shows that in 2014, the total passenger traffic of the whole society was 22.090 billion person-times, of which 2.357 billion passengers were completed, accounting for 10.67%; in 2014, the passenger turnover of the whole society was 300.595 billion passengers, of which 1160 billion passengers were completed. The proportion of the whole society was

4.5 Status of Railway Transportation Development

67

Table 4.1 Railway market share change list from 1995 to 2015 Year

Market share Freight turnover market share (%)

Passenger traffic turnover market share (%)

Railway

Road

Water transport

Civil aviation

Railway

Road

Water transport

1995

36.95

13.29

49.70

0.06

39.39

51.13

1.91

7.57

1996

36.40

13.92

49.61

0.07

36.53

53.56

1.75

8.16

1997

35.10

13.94

50.88

0.08

35.65

55.11

1.55

7.69

1998

33.51

14.63

51.77

0.09

35.48

55.87

1.13

7.52

1999

32.32

14.33

53.24

0.11

36.60

54.86

0.95

7.59

2000

31.52

14.03

54.33

0.12

36.97

54.30

0.82

7.92

2001

31.23

13.45

55.23

0.09

36.24

54.79

0.68

8.30

2002

31.31

13.56

55.02

0.10

35.18

55.26

0.58

8.98

2003

32.47

13.37

54.06

0.11

34.67

55.72

0.46

9.15

2004

28.11

11.42

60.37

0.10

35.02

53.64

0.41

10.93

2005

26.18

10.98

62.74

0.10

34.71

53.20

0.39

11.71

2006

25.15

11.17

63.57

0.11

34.50

52.77

0.38

12.35

2007

23.90

11.41

64.57

0.12

33.42

53.29

0.36

12.93

2008

23.17

30.33

46.39

0.11

33.53

53.78

0.26

12.43

2009

21.01

30.96

47.92

0.11

31.73

54.40

0.28

13.59

2010

19.80

31.07

49.00

0.13

31.41

53.85

0.26

14.48

2011

18.84

32.84

48.21

0.11

31.02

54.09

0.24

14.64

2012

17.11

34.90

47.90

0.10

29.39

55.32

0.23

15.05

2013

17.73

33.88

48.28

0.10

38.43

40.81

0.25

20.52

2014

15.52

32.06

52.31

0.11

39.24

38.39

0.26

22.11

2015

13.68

33.37

52.84

0.12

39.79

35.74

0.24

24.23

Civil aviation

Notes According to the China Traffic Yearbook (1996–2016) and the website of National Bureau of Statistics Water transportation includes ocean transportation

38.56%; in 2014, the total freight volume of the whole society was 43.040 billion tons, of which 381 million tons were completed by railways, accounting for 8.86%; in 2014, the total freight turnover of the whole society was 129.92 billion tons, of which railways completed 275.3 billion tons. The proportion is 21.26%. Although the passenger and freight volume of the railway accounts for only about 10% of the total passenger and freight volume of the whole society, the proportion of passenger and freight turnover is relatively high. Among the various modes of transportation, the railway has enormous potential. It is predicted that the national railway passenger traffic will increase rapidly from 2.53 billion in 2015 to 4 billion in 2020, and will continue to grow to 6 billion in 2030. Per travellers travel about 4 times/year. In 2020, the proportion of railway passenger

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4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

Fig. 4.6 The total conversion volume of all transport means from 1995 to 2015 schematic diagram. Notes According to the statistics rules of railway, road, water transport and civil aviation, railway 1 person-km = 1 ton-km, road 1 person-km = 0.1 ton-km, water transport 1 person-km = 0.33 ton-km, civil aviation = 0.09 ton-km

Fig. 4.7 China Railway Corporation (previously Ministry of Railways) asset liability schematic diagram

traffic and passenger turnover in the various modes of transportation of the whole society will reach 13.6% and 41.8%, respectively, in 2030 (Fig. 4.8; Table 4.2).

4.5 Status of Railway Transportation Development

69

70

60

60 50

40

40 30 20 10

10.5

11.6

2000

2005

16.8

18.6

18.9

21.1

23.6

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

0 2020

2030

Fig. 4.8 Forecast of total railway passenger traffic

Table 4.2 Expected railway passenger transport market share table Index

2020

2030

Total passenger volume (Billion people)

29.4

40

Railway passenger traffic (Billion people)

4

6

Passenger traffic market share (%)

13.6

15.00

Total passenger turnover (Billion person-kilometers)

4548.7

6143.3

Railway passenger turnover (Billion person-kilometers)

1900

2700

Railway passenger turnover market share (%)

41.8

43.95

4.5.2 Development of China Railway Freight Transport In 2014, the annual cargo delivery volume was 3.068 billion tons, of which coal transportation exceeded 50% to 1.641 billion tons, followed by metal ore 367 million tons; cargo turnover was 2.5076 billion tons, of which coal was 105.96 billion tons, followed by steel and Nonferrous metals were 213.9 billion tons. The total freight volume and total freight turnover in 2008–2015 are shown in Table 4.3.

4.5.3 Development Achievements of China Railway in Recent Years—High-Speed Railway Operation and Development Since the second half of the twentieth century, high-speed railways have made breakthroughs in Japan and the European Union countries, and have had a profound impact on the transportation market and the development of the national economy. In 1964, the operation of the Tokaido Shinkansen in Japan injected new vitality into railway

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Table 4.3 Total freight volume, total freight turnover and year-on-year growth rate in 2008–2015 Year

Total freight (billion tons)

Year-on-year growth rate (%)

Total turnover of freight (Billion ton-kilometers)

Year-on-year growth rate (%)

2008

3.29

2009

3.32

0.91

2494.349

0.51

2010

3.629

9.31

2733.268

9.58

2011

3.933

8.38

2946.579

7.80

2012

3.904

−0.74

2918.709

−0.95

2013

3.967

1.61

2917.389

−0.05

2014

3.813

−3.88

2753.019

−5.63

2015

3.358

−11.93

2375.431

−13.72

2481.746

passenger transport, which led people to notice the huge impact of high-speed railways on the area along the line and the urban economy. In the 1980s and 1990s, the European Union’s France, Germany, Spain and Italy successively built and operated high-speed railways. In 2000, the first high-speed railway in the United States was also opened. The KTX high-speed train in South Korea was officially put into operation in 2004. In 2003, the Qinshen Passenger Dedicated Line with a speed target of 200 km/h and an infrastructure of 250 km/h was opened. On August 1, 2008, the first high-speed railway of Beijing-Tianjin inter-city high-speed railway with a speed of 350 km/h was built to meet the 2008 Olympic Games. China’s high-speed railway began to develop rapidly. According to the statistics of the International Railway Union and China Railway Corporation, as of the end of 2015, China’s highspeed railway mileage (according to the UIC standard of the International Railway Union) reached 19,000 km, accounting for more than 60% of the world’s high-speed railway mileage, ranking first in the world. [Source: 2011, 2015 Railway Statistics Bulletin]. According to the latest statistics of the International Railway Union, 1.6 billion people travel through the high-speed rail every year in the world. Among them, the number of passengers traveling through high-speed rail in China reaches 800 million, accounting for 50% of the total number of high-speed railways in the world. At present, China has become the world’s largest highway network with the largest number of high-speed railways, the largest number of mobile equipment for EMUs and the highest mileage for high-speed railway planning and construction. The Medium and Long-Term Railway Network Plan (Basic Development and Reform [2016] No. 1536) depicts the grand blueprint for the future development of China’s railways and is also a programmatic document guiding the development of China’s railways. The planning goal is clear. By 2020, a number of major landmark projects will be completed and put into operation. The scale of the railway network will reach 150,000 km, including 30,000 km of high-speed railways, covering more than 80% of large cities. By 2025, the scale of the railway network will reach about 175,000 km, of which about 38,000 km will be high-speed railways (Fig. 4.9).

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71

Fig. 4.9 The medium and long-term railway network plan

High-speed railways have many advantages in passenger transportation. First of all, high-speed railway transportation capacity is strong and fast, which can effectively shorten the time and space distance of China and improve the accessibility between cities. In the “Model Simulation of China’s High-speed Rail Economic Zone Based on Two-Dimensional Time–Space Map”, the Army conducted research on the five high-speed rail economic zones in the country. It was found that after the completion of the high-speed rail, the time saved by the five major economic zones in the country accounted for 34% of the original access time. In the 2 h economic circle, the access time of cities along the high-speed railway is as high as 50%; the ratio outside the 2 h economic circle is between 30 and 40%; the farther from the benchmark, the high-speed rail saves time and cost. The value is relatively low. Second, the safety and comfort of high-speed rail is higher than that of ordinary railways. Because the high-speed railway operating environment is fully enclosed and the safety guarantee system is complete, the probability of occurrence of safety failure is very small compared to other modes of transportation. At the same time, the high-speed rail has complete facilities, and the platform and train settings are also very reasonable. Third, the high-speed rail is less affected by climate change and has a high punctuality rate. Compared with ordinary railways, the high-speed rail transport organization level is high enough to guarantee the punctuality rate of passenger trains. The high-speed rail is different from the airplane and requires a strict weather environment to operate. Therefore, the high-speed rail is widely welcomed by passengers. Finally, from the perspective of environmental protection, high-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume non-renewable resources such

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as coal and oil, and pollution emissions are very small compared to other modes of transportation. Therefore, high-speed rail is one of the environmentally friendly modes of transportation. Since 2003, the construction of high-speed railways in China has shown regional characteristics, which are basically consistent with the economic development level of each region. Statistics show that as of the end of 2015, the longest railway line in East China has the longest cumulative mileage of 5675.1 km; followed by Central China, the cumulative length of high-speed railway lines reached 3590.8 km; then South China, the high-speed railway line accumulated 3157.48 km; Northeast, Northwest, North China The length of the line in the area is relatively close, which is 2363.6 km, 2188.2 km, and 1908.1 km respectively. Finally, it is the southwest area. At present, only the high-speed railway line of 1161.32 km is opened. From 2003 to December 2015, the cumulative total length of high-speed rail lines in the seven regions of China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan) is shown in Table 4.4. From Fig. 4.10, we can see the speed and trend of high-speed rail construction in seven major regions of China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan). Figure 4.10 shows that not only the length of the high-speed rail line in East China is far ahead, but also the growth rate is very fast; the increments in Central China and South China in 2014 and 2015 tend to be zero; the opening of the Lanxin Passenger Dedicated Line makes the Northwest Region in 2013–2014. Construction mileage has soared by more than 1700 km; growth in other regions has tended to be flat and stable. Table 4.4 The length of the high-speed railway line has been built in the seven regions of China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan) Year/Region

East China

South China

Central China

North China

2003

0

0

0

2008

550

0

0

144.4

0

0

379.6

2009

1287.4

336.1

891.5

376.4

0

0

379.6

2010

2147.4

644.1

1556

376.4

146.5

65

379.6

2011

3163.6

760.1

1556

678.2

146.5

65

490.6

2012

3337.6

760.1

2572.4

1182.8

146.5

65

1411.6

2013

3748.6

2019.3

2830.2

1469.8

313.5

330

1529.6

2014

4862.5

3157.48

3512.3

1908.1

2188.2

875.82

1647.6

2015

5675.1

3157.48

3590.8

1908.1

2188.2

1161.32

2363.6

24.4

Northwest China

Southwest China

0

0

Northeast China 379.6

Unit km Note East China (Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Shanghai); South China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan); Central China (Hubei, Hunan, Henan); North China (Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia); Northwest China (Ningxia, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Gansu); Southwest China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Tibet, Chongqing); Northeast China (Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang); excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan

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Fig. 4.10 The length chart of the completed high-speed railway line in the seven regions of China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan)

According to the province (autonomous region, municipality) domain analysis (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan), as of the end of 2015, there are 2 provinces with a high-speed rail construction mileage above 1301 km; 8 provinces with a range of 1001–1300 km; between 801 and 1000 km There are 3 provinces; 5 provinces between 501 and 800 km; 4 provinces between 301 and 500 km; 4 provinces between 1 and 300 km; and 5 provinces that have not yet opened highspeed rail. At the end of 2015, the length and density of high-speed rail lines in various provinces in China can be depicted by arcgis software as shown in Figs. 4.11 and 4.12, respectively. As can be seen from the above two figures, although Shanghai and Tianjin have less than 200 km of high-speed rail construction, since Shanghai is China’s international financial center, Tianjin is an important hub to the capital Beijing, and the land area of the two is small, so the high-speed rail line The density is very high, respectively, Tianjin is 215.31 km/10,000 km2 , Shanghai is 191.11 km/10,000 km2 . Secondly, the density of Beijing, Zhejiang, Liaoning, Hainan and Jiangsu is roughly between 80.42 and 98.82 km/m2 , which is the middle-high level among the high-speed railway lines in the provinces. The lengths of high-speed railway lines in Shandong, Henan, Guangdong, Anhui, Gansu, Guangxi, and Hubei are all over 1000 km, which is far ahead in the length of high-speed railway lines in various provinces. However, due to its large area, the density is relatively low. Especially in Gansu Province, the length of the domestic route can reach 1069 km, which can be evenly distributed on the land of 454,400 km2 , and the density is only 23.53 km per 10,000 km2 . In addition, there are five provinces in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Ningxia, Yunnan and Tibet that have not yet opened high-speed rail.

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Fig. 4.11 Length chart of high-speed railway lines in various provinces in China at the end of 2015 (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan)

4.5.4 The Role of High-Speed Rail in Promoting Economic Growth Combining the practical experience of high-speed railway construction and operation in developed countries in the world, high-speed railway will have a profound impact on the region and urban economy along the line (Zhang 2018), and China will not be an exception. The large-scale investment, construction and operation of highspeed railways have brought China into the “high-speed rail era”, which has not only changed China’s traffic pattern, but also changed people’s values and choices of travel modes, and changed China’s regional economic structure. Therefore, under the background of the rapid development of China’s high-speed railways, the economic development and spatial form of the areas along the high-speed railways and cities will undergo major changes, and China’s overall economic development will also be greatly affected. However, some scholars (Crosas et al. 2015) believe that the advance development of China’s high-speed railways has led to an increase in people’s travel costs, which has inhibited rather than promoted economic growth. The National Bureau of Economic Research (Chaohe 2016; Antonakakis et al. 2018) studied the

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75

Fig. 4.12 Density map of high-speed railway lines in various provinces in China at the end of 2015 (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan of China)

impact of American railroads on the economy from 1850 to 1860. It believed that railways had little impact on urbanization and population density in the central and western regions, but the economic development of the United States was the cause of railway development. Corresponding scholars who emphasize the role of railway economy promotion (Chaohe 2011, 2014) empirical research show that high-speed railway as an important national economic transportation infrastructure can promote economic growth. An important area of economic geography and transport economics research is the relationship between transportation and the economy. There are complex multiple causal mechanisms between transportation and economic growth. Analysis of the relationship between railway infrastructure, railway transportation, water transportation, civil aviation and other transportation infrastructure and economic growth is a key area of scholars’ research (Chaohe 2016; Gao and Qian 2013). There is a two-way causal relationship (Newman and Kendworthy 1998). 1.

The decision mechanism of high-speed railway for economic growth. From the perspective of the effect of high-speed railway on economic growth, the logical analysis framework of this paper is that due to the high construction and operation cost of China’s high-speed railway, it adapts to the needs of developed regions in eastern China, and meets the Banister condition of high-speed railways, namely high-speed railway. The organic coupling between traffic conditions and economic conditions, social conditions and institutional conditions

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makes the immediate effects and rapid effects of high-speed railways positive, but high-speed railways may have negative immediate effects and rapid effects on the central and western regions of China. Considering the complexity of China’s economy and industrial structure, the interaction between high-speed railways and the economy is very complicated. Due to the limited construction and operation time of China’s high-speed railway, the slow effect will be further deepened with the accumulation of data and cases. Due to the high cost of highspeed railway construction in China and its certain advancement (Crosas et al. 2015), the overall impact of high-speed railway on economic growth may not be significant. High-speed railway is a convenient, fast and convenient transportation tool, which can greatly shorten the time and space distance, reduce the general travel cost, improve the accessibility level and economic potential indicators, effectively meet the travel demand of high time value groups, affect the population flow, Industrial layout and economic growth, which in turn affects the level of economic development. Ahlfeldt and Feddersen conducted an empirical analysis of the economic development along the high-speed rail between Cologne and Frankfurt, Germany, and found that the contribution rate of high-speed railway reached 8.5% in GDP growth. The construction and operation of China’s high-speed railway is a major improvement in the quality of transportation infrastructure and will greatly promote the economic growth along the region. This paper argues that the role of high-speed railways in economic growth is affected by the spatial and temporal dimensions: from the perspective of time, the longer the high-speed railway is put into operation, the time-effects and rapid effects of high-speed railways on economic growth will occur. Decay), the slow effect will dominate, and high-speed rail is only a necessary but not sufficient condition for economic growth. China’s high-speed railway will become the background condition for economic growth in the long run, and will have a negative impact on the economic growth rate of the high-speed railway network. This is mainly because the impact of high-speed railway on economic growth can be manifested in three aspects: economic factors, investment factors and policy factors. The degree of impact mainly depends on various factors such as high-speed railway line layout, construction cost and environmental cost. And the indirect economic benefits brought by high-speed rail are difficult to measure effectively (Gao and Qian 2013). Although some scholars believe that the impact of high-speed railways on economic growth cannot be determined at present, even if there are short-term effects, the high-speed railways in China have observable direct or indirect economic growth. The driving force has been greatly released, and the effect of high-speed railways on economic growth will become increasingly certain. From the perspective of space, the role of high-speed railways in China’s western and western regions is not the same. For the central and western regions, the advanced development of high-speed railways not only makes the immediate effects and rapid effects difficult to achieve, but also makes the slow effect become the dominant force in the long run. That is to say, the future of high-speed railway can only play a role in supporting the economic development of the central and western regions. This logically points to the basic

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77

judgment that high-speed railway is only the result of economic growth rather than the cause. 2.

The decision mechanism of economic growth for high-speed railways. There is a two-way causal relationship between infrastructure such as high-speed railways and national and regional economic growth. This paper argues that highspeed railways can play a significant economic role in the immediate and fast time frame, especially in the close range of high-speed railway stations. But as the time dimension continues to expand and the spatial dimension continues to expand, high-speed rail will ultimately be determined by economic development variables. There is also a two-way causal relationship between the railway as an important transportation infrastructure in China and the backbone transportation mode in the comprehensive transportation system, and economic growth. That is to say, the development of railways can affect the urbanization rate and population density, showing immediate effects and rapid effects. On the other hand, the urbanization rate and population density determine the supply of railways (Antonakakis et al. 2018), that is, high-speed railway is the derivative demand for economic growth. The economic logic of slow effect and the large space– time scale will lead to economic growth. The root cause of railway supply, the probability or triggering effect of economic growth on high-speed railways will become more important as the economy develops and grows. This is the basic hypothesis to be empirically demonstrated in this paper: from the time dimension and the spatial dimension of China’s eastern, central and western regions, high-speed railway will not significantly affect economic growth, not the cause of economic growth; economic growth is the original demand that triggers the construction and operation of high-speed railways. It is the reason for the supply of high-speed railway.

In order to visually observe the relationship between the supply of high-speed railway and economic growth, this paper selects the per capita GDP of each province in 2014 and the year when the provinces high-speed railways, and makes a composite map of the grade distribution of high-speed rail opening and the distribution of per capita GDP. As is shown in the following figure. As can be seen from Fig. 4.13, the provinces and regions where China’s high-speed railways were opened earlier, the corresponding per capita GDP is also generally higher; on the other hand, those provinces with higher per capita GDP, the corresponding high-speed railway opening year is usually Earlier. This relatively straightforward analysis confirms the basic hypothesis proposed in this paper that there is a specific type of causal relationship between high-speed railway and economic growth. Based on the above analysis, this paper proposes some policy recommendations as follows: First, from the instant effect, rapid effect and slow effect of high-speed railway, considering that high-speed railway is the derivative demand of economic society rather than the original demand in the medium and long-term time frame, the development planning and construction sequence of high-speed railway should be Adapt

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Fig. 4.13 Schematic diagram of the corresponding situation of the opening of high-speed railways in China and the per capita GDP distribution. Source High-speed rail data from the National Railways website; GDP data from the China Statistical Yearbook 2015

to the inherent laws of industrial upgrading, new urbanization and agglomeration economy, especially to determine the timing and trigger mechanism of high-speed railway construction according to the travel time value savings (VTTS) level, to avoid the waste of investment caused by excessive high-speed railway construction and operation. Economic side effects. Even taking into account the immediate effects and rapid effects of high-speed railways, on the one hand, it is necessary to make the national economic evaluation feasible, on the other hand, the high-speed railway ticket revenue can make up for all the variable costs and some fixed costs. Second, considering the benign interaction between the tertiary industry and the high-speed railway, improving the economic agglomeration level in the eastern region and increasing the urbanization rate and population density in the central and western regions are important means to better play the role of high-speed railway. Giving full play to the growth role of large and medium-sized cities and cultivating industry 4.0 and the new “Internet+” format can reduce the “threshold” of high-speed railway supply and increase the economic and social demand for high-speed railway accessibility. Third, considering the spatial imbalance of the role of high-speed railways in the east, central and western regions, the state can increase the subsidies for high-speed railway infrastructure in order to give full play to the role of “advanced” development of high-speed railways to promote the balanced development of the eastern, central and western regions. Moderately reduce the fare level of the central and western highspeed railways, improve the economic accessibility level of the central and western

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79

regions, and adapt to the basic realistic conditions of the mid-to-late industrialization, urbanization and transportation in the central and western regions of China. Fourth, considering the significant impact of highways on economic growth and the development of secondary and tertiary industries in the integrated transportation system, it shows that economic and social development has begun to pay attention to the timeliness, reliability, payment methods and “door to door” of transportation services. The quality of the products from the table to the table, which is also proved by the speed of the express delivery industry in China, which is more than 50%. Under the conditions of continuous expansion of road network, continuous improvement of transportation equipment technology, continuous optimization of transportation organization and continuous improvement of policy system, high-speed railway should also pay attention to the construction of high-speed railway integrated transportation hub and multimodal transport between different modes of transportation. The construction of a reasonable competition and cooperation relationship between high-speed railways and civil aviation will promote the development of e-commerce services and high-speed railway express delivery industry, so that high-speed railways will play a greater role in the process of upgrading industrial structure and consumption in China.

4.5.5 Total Iron Debt Problem China’s railway liabilities have the characteristics of rising debt ratio, increasing debt repayment pressure, unreasonable debt structure and unclear debt obligations. After the total liabilities of the railway exceeded 3 trillion yuan in 2013, the “China Railway Corporation’s 2016 First Quarter Audit Report” announced that at the end of March 2016, the total total liabilities of the railway was 4.14 trillion yuan, an increase of 1.2% from the end of the previous year. In the same period, 3.75 trillion yuan, an increase of 0.39 trillion yuan, an increase of 10.4%. According to the 2015 Financial Report of China Railway Corporation, the total after-tax profit of the company in 2015 was 681 million yuan, which is far from the interest paid by the bank to the bank of 779.16 billion yuan in 2015, not to mention the repayment of the principal portion.. Although the debt is high, the pace of iron investment construction has not slowed down. In 2016, the railway plan to complete the fixed asset investment of 800 billion yuan, the pressure of debt service and borrowing brought along, and its debt has an increasing trend.

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4.6 Development Status of Urban Rail Transit 4.6.1 Development History of Urban Rail Transit in China The development of urban rail transit in China has gone through three stages: 1.

The initial stage (from the 1950s to the mid-1980s)

From the 1950s, China began to prepare for subway construction and planned the Beijing subway network. From 1965 to 1984, the first and second phases of the Beijing Metro (about 43.5 km long) were built. At the same time, in 1974, Tianjin built a 7.4-km subway line, and Harbin built a civil air defense tunnel project. The preliminary research work of the subway construction. Due to the slow development of urbanization in China at this stage, the demand for rail transit for transportation purposes is insufficient. The subways built mainly focus on warfare and traffic functions. 2.

Beginning the development stage (late 1980s–late 1990s)

Since the 1980s, China’s urbanization has developed rapidly, and the number of motor vehicles has grown rapidly. Traffic in the central area of megacities has begun to become congested. It is difficult for public transportation to meet the daily travel of citizens. For this reason, since the late 1980s, China’s cities have Rail transit has gradually begun to plan and construct for the purpose of urban transportation. This stage is marked by the construction projects of Shanghai Metro Line 1, Beijing Metro Complex Eight Line and the first phase of the subway, and Guangzhou Metro Line 1. In the 1990s, with the construction of subway projects in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, a large number of cities including Shenyang, Tianjin, Nanjing, Chongqing, Wuhan, Shenzhen, Chengdu, Qingdao, etc. began to report to the country to build rail transit projects, but due to high project cost, Problems such as the introduction of a large number of equipment, the State Council issued a document requiring strict control of the development of rail transit, suspension of examination and approval of projects, and the development of rail transit development planning and localization planning. Therefore, in the last decade or so of the late 1990s, there were only three new rail transits in China, totaling about 54 km. 3.

Accelerating the development stage (from the late 1990s to the present)

Since the end of 1998, the state has studied the localization policy of urban rail transit equipment, and has successively approved the Shenzhen, Shanghai Pearl Line and Guangzhou Line 2 as localization projects, and the rail transit project has started. At the same time, with the rapid development of urbanization in China, the urban population continues to rise, the city scale continues to expand, and the number of motor vehicles is growing rapidly. Environmental problems such as traffic congestion and automobile exhaust in large cities are becoming more and more serious.

4.6 Development Status of Urban Rail Transit

81

For large-capacity, fast and environmentally friendly cities. The demand for rail transit is increasingly prominent. In 2003, the “Notice of the General Office of the State Council on Strengthening the Management of Urban Rapid Rail Transit Construction” (Guo Ban Fa [2003] No. 81) emphasized the strict conditions for the construction of urban rail transit projects, and emphasized the strengthening of the construction of urban rail transit construction plans. For the approval work, cities that require urban rail transit must first prepare a near-term construction plan. With the promulgation and implementation of Circular 81, rail transit began to experience rapid development after 2003. By the end of 2011, China, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing, Tianjin, Dalian, Wuhan, Changchun, Chongqing, Shenyang, The urban rail lines opened in 13 cities including Chengdu and Xi’an are about 1602.6 km long. The 28 cities that have approved the construction of urban rail transit are mainly provincial capital cities and some economically developed cities in the southeast coastal areas, namely Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen., Nanjing, Hangzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan, Chengdu, Tianjin, Xi’an, Suzhou, Harbin, Shenyang, Changchun, Ningbo, Wuxi, Zhengzhou, Changsha, Fuzhou, Dongguan, Kunming, Dalian, Nanchang, Qingdao, Nanning, Hefei, Guiyang, approved The total number of lines is about 93 (segment) lines, with a total mileage of about 2700 km and a total investment of more than 100 billion yuan. The total number of rail transit projects under construction is 76 (segments) with a total length of about 1600 km and a total investment of about 720 billion yuan. In Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Chongqing, Chengdu and other cities. Whether it is construction speed or construction scale, China’s rail transit development is experiencing an unprecedented period of vigorous development. China has become the world’s largest urban rail transit construction market. China’s urban rail transit system technology has been greatly developed, and the level of modernization and automation has been significantly improved. Modern control technology, communication technology, network technology and information technology have been applied in urban rail transit in China. The adoption of advanced technology has made China’s major cities. The rail transit system has entered the world’s advanced level. China’s urban rail transit system has formed a rail transit from the original single subway model to the subway A-type car, subway B-type car, light rail system (C-type car), linear motor system (LB type car), straddle monorail The development of various modes such as systems, modern tram systems, and suburban railways. At present, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Nanjing and other cities have completed the operation of subways. Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan and Chongqing have built elevated rail transit systems. Changchun has built ground light rails. Guangzhou and Beijing have built linear motor systems. Dalian City A suburban railway was built and a high-speed magnetic levitation system was built in Shanghai. In line with the requirements of China’s urban rail transit construction, China has formed a relatively strong rail transit design and construction force. In recent years, the design level and construction level of urban rail transit projects have been continuously improved. Advanced construction methods such as shields have been adopted. The construction quality and speed are basically adapted to the needs of rapid

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rail transit construction. Rail transit engineering design, construction, supervision and construction management teams, etc. Both have strong strength. In addition, China has formed a relatively strong rail transit design and construction force. In recent years, the design level and construction level of urban rail transit projects have been continuously improved. Advanced construction methods such as shields have been adopted. The construction quality and speed are basically adapted to the needs of rapid rail transit construction. Rail transit engineering design, construction, supervision and construction management teams, etc. Both have strong strength. China’s urban rail transit construction follows the principles of introduction, digestion, absorption and independent innovation. It actively learns and adopts the latest technological equipment from all countries. It has formed a manufacturing system with independent research and development, complete supporting equipment, advanced equipment and large-scale operation, and mastered aluminum alloy or stainless steel body. Manufacturing technology for variable voltage variable frequency AC drive vehicles, signal systems for automatic occlusion and automatic train control, and screen doors. At present, the enterprises that can produce complete vehicles in China include Changchun Railway Vehicle Co., Ltd. of Beiqi Group, Dalian Locomotive and Rolling Stock Co., Ltd., Tangshan Railway Co., Ltd., and Sifang Vehicle Co., Ltd. and Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Co., Ltd. of CSR Group. Nanjing Puzhen Vehicle Co., Ltd., etc. In addition, a number of companies have developed electric drive and control systems and other equipment. Multinational companies such as Siemens, Bombardier, Alstom, Westinghouse and Mitsubishi have entered China to jointly produce urban rail vehicles and related equipment with domestic enterprises. It is estimated that by 2020, the rapid development of rail transit will continue to promote the development of equipment manufacturing industry. China will also fully grasp the core technologies as soon as possible, continuously improve the technical level and independent innovation capabilities, and drive the development of related industries. In the large-scale development of rail transit, each city has also formed a unique rail transit operation and management model based on its own characteristics and network development stage. For example, the Beijing government is responsible for all construction and operation subsidies, and has designated three different enterprises, Beijing Infrastructure Investment Co., Ltd., Beijing Rail Transit Construction Management Co., Ltd. and Beijing Metro Operation Company, to complete the specific implementation of investment, construction and operation. The Shanghai government is responsible for all construction and operation subsidies, and designated Shanghai Shentong Group to be responsible for the specific implementation of investment, construction and operation. Nanjing Metro Railway Engineering Command, an organization of the Underground Railway Corporation, and two brands responsible for the investment, construction, operation and related resource development of rail transit. Chongqing Rail Transit Corporation is affiliated to the government financing platform—Chongqing Urban Transport Development and Investment Group. The investment, construction and management of rail transit are carried out by Kaitou Group.

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83

By exploring a diversified investment and financing system, the investment and financing system and operation mode of rail transit construction form a mutually beneficial and benign situation, which not only ensures the construction of a large amount of funds, but also gradually establishes the profit model of the subway. At present, the main sources of funding for rail transit project construction include government budgets, bank loans and other project financing models. For example, in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing and other cities, PPP, BOT, BT (there is a special article on BOT. I don’t know if it is necessary to add it) and other project financing models, but also used syndicated loans and listings. Financing, corporate bonds, short-term financing bills, medium-term notes, equity trusts, funds and other financing tools. Through the above-mentioned investment and financing tools and models, on the one hand, the problem of capital shortage in rail transit construction was better solved, and on the other hand, specialized management was introduced, and the market competition mechanism was gradually established, and the management and service level of rail transit was improved.

4.6.2 Development of Urban Rail Transit—Taking Beijing as an Example (Analysis of the Market Operation of Beijing Urban Rail Transit Commercial Resources) Since the opening of the first urban urban rail transit in London in January 1863, more than 300 urban rail transits with a total length of more than 6000 km have been opened in more than 70 cities around the world, and more than 350 urban light rail transit inputs have been launched. Operation. Urban rail transit (including subways and light rail) has become the preferred mode of transportation for public transportation in large cities. At present, the major cities in the world focus on the huge passenger flow and space resources, fully develop the comprehensive resources of urban rail transit, vigorously develop diversified operations, and form a relatively mature rail transit commercial resource management model, achieving the maximum utilization and benefits of rail transit resources. Chemical. The development concepts, business models and guarantee policies of urban rail transit commercial resources in the world are shown in Table 4.5. Urban rail transit is an important urban public transport facility. The development of urban rail transit is conducive to optimizing urban spatial layout, stimulating urban economic and social development, alleviating urban traffic congestion, and achieving coordinated development of resources and environment. “Beijing Urban Rail Transit Construction Planning and Adjustment Plan (2011–2015)” proposes the development plan of urban rail transit network of “three rings, four horizontals, five verticals, seven radiations”, and assumes 25% of urban transportation travel demand by 2015. Urban rail transit has built a skeleton of Beijing’s spatial structure and has become the bloodline for supporting, maintaining and alleviating Beijing’s traffic.

Development concept

Build a “one-stop” or “house-to-house” transportation hub network

Joint development of urban subway and real estate resources

City

Singapore

Tokyo

Public–private partnership companies conduct operations and management, but government intervention dominates

Commercialized listed company operation, the government only acts as a shareholder and does not directly participate in the operation

Operation Management Department The property adopts a comprehensive development model of the subway station body, and uses its own advantages in advertising to attract international brand advertising

Classified business model

Forming an urban commercial The mode of direct sub-center in the rail transit connection between the hub area commercial street and the subway station on the property, the mode of cooperation between subway commerce and urban commerce in retail, and the mode that makes it easy for passengers to find in the advertisement

Introducing market mechanism into the operation and management of urban rail transit

Business model

Table 4.5 Business model and guarantee policy of urban rail transit commercial resources (Crosas et al. 2015; Chaohe 2016)

(continued)

The central and local governments bear most of the investment in rail transit, and the government pays attention to rail transit legislation to make railway construction, operation and management proceed in an orderly manner

The government allocates excellent business talents to the enterprise, creates the necessary market environment, establishes corresponding policies and regulations to support and restrict, strengthen supervision and safety governance, and the enterprise’s survival and development decision-making issues are decided by the enterprise

Policy guarantee

84 4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

Operated by the Hong Kong MTR Corporation, the government is only a shareholder and not directly involved in the operation

Rail + Property

Comprehensive land use and regional joint development

Subway and along the real estate development combination

Hongkong

Shanghai

Guangzhou

Guangzhou Metro Corporation

Shanghai Shentong Metro Group Co., Ltd., Shanghai Shentong Metro Asset Management Co., Ltd

Operation Management Department

Development concept

City

Table 4.5 (continued) Classified business model

Ground property, station commercial street and station hall shop joint operation

Scale, branding and marketization

Property investment, combined with the overall investment model, retail business is based on chain operation mode, media resources adopt self-management mode

The combined development mode of rail transit and urban construction in property, the chain operation mode of retail business based on brand management, and the network and three-dimensional mode of media resources

Comprehensive development The model of “rent only, and operation of railways and not sale” is adopted in the properties property, the retail business positioning is clear, and the model of “innovation and creativity” is advocated in the media resources

Business model

(continued)

The government vigorously advocates diversified investment and financing modes of rail transit construction. Real estate development along rail transit and commercial operation of rail transit hub have become hot investment spots

The commercial planning of Shanghai puts forward that the construction and adjustment of the current commercial pattern, the continuous development of the business circle along the subway and the development of the commercial hub of the rail transit should be the top priority

“Positive non-interventionism” macroeconomic policy, “transit priority” transportation policy, “dual track” housing policy, “efficient use of land” land management policy, “low tax rate” fiscal policy, etc.

Policy guarantee

4.6 Development Status of Urban Rail Transit 85

Construction + operation + Shenzhen Metro Group, property and resource Hong Kong Metro Line 4 development “Trinity” model

Shenzhen

Operation Management Department

Development concept

City

Table 4.5 (continued)

Centralize all the subsidiary resources of the subway to the resource branch for unified operation and unified management

Business model Adopt resource capitalization and asset capitalization operations, and introduce social capital to participate in the development of property and related commercial resources

Classified business model

The Ministry of Land and Resources issued a special land policy, restructured the organization and management structure, centralized and unified management of commercial resources, and coordinated planning, design, investment, construction, and operation

Policy guarantee

86 4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

4.6 Development Status of Urban Rail Transit

87

Fig. 4.14 Four typical commercial resources of urban rail transit

In accordance with the new functions and positioning of the Beijing Metro by the municipal government, in order to meet the needs of passengers in the Beijing metro operation area, reasonable use of the space and equipment resources of the subway facilities to provide passengers with extended services such as public welfare, culture and convenience, according to the above non- The type of ticketing resources divides Beijing urban rail transit commercial resources into four categories: advertising resources, civil communications, property resources, and adjacent projects, as shown in Fig. 4.14. 1.

Autonomous business model. The self-employed business model is completely controlled or provided by the company itself. Applicable to businesses that lack outsourcing or outsourcing costs or risks. Non-ticket assets can not be outsourced in general management business or business management business. Non-ticket asset management business entities must provide convenient, safe, convenient and quality passenger travel service products to the market through their own efforts, establish a corporate image, build market competitive advantages, and build core competitiveness of enterprises. According to the existing construction and organization of rail transit commercial resources, the asset management company, the land division department and the multi-business division form a mutually independent and freely developed business resource business structure. Their future re-integration is completely dependent on market forces. There is no need for Beijing urban rail transit companies to do too much planning. This model is conducive to continuously adjust the business according to the actual situation of rail transit and land development and construction, and

88

2.

3.

4 Transportation Mode Development in Practices

is also conducive to the pilot work of Beijing urban rail transit enterprises, but it is not conducive to the re-integration of the overall business in the future, and is not conducive to the coordination of the internal urban rail transit enterprises in Beijing. The complex relationship of various stakeholders. Entrusted business model. Entrusted management is a management operation in which some non-core businesses or functions traditionally held by internal members of the company are transferred to a professional and efficient independent manufacturer or service provider in an entrusted manner to fully utilize the best professional resources outside the company. mode. Cooperative business model. Cooperative business model (joint operation) is not applicable to certain businesses of rail transit commercial resources, or the cost and risk of direct entrustment are too high, and the business is realized through the establishment of some form of joint venture company, cooperation base, joint production, and other joint ventures. The resource management business entity complements the advantages of other core resources to reduce transaction costs and production costs.

4.7 Status of Road Transport Development Overall situation of toll roads 1.

Mileage composition

At the end of 2017, the national toll road mileage was 163,700 km, accounting for 3.4% of the total road mileage of 4,773,500 km. Among them, the expressway is 132,600 km, the first-class highway is 20,700 km, the secondary road is 9500 km, and the independent bridges and tunnels are 883 km, accounting for 81.0%, 12.6%, 5.8% and 0.5% respectively. The mileage of national toll roads decreased by 7356 km from the end of the previous year. Among them, the highway increased by 8130 km, and the first-grade roads, secondary roads, independent bridges and tunnels were reduced by 2,846 km, 12,399 km and 240 km respectively. 2.

Main line toll station

At the end of 2017, there were 1338 main toll stations on the national toll roads, a net decrease of 237 from the end of the previous year. Among them, there are 759 expressways, 373 first-class highways, 143 secondary roads, and 63 independent bridges and tunnels, accounting for 56.7%, 27.9%, 10.7% and 4.7% respectively. 3.

Construction investment

At the end of 2017, the total construction investment of national toll roads was 82,344.39 billion yuan, a net increase of 648.64 billion yuan or 8.6% from the end of the previous year. Among them, the accumulated capital investment was

4.7 Status of Road Transport Development

89

256.42 billion yuan, the capital ratio was 31.1%; the accumulated debt fund investment was 5672.98 billion yuan, and the debt-to-equity ratio was 68.9%. 4.

Debt balance

At the end of 2017, the national toll road debt balance was 528.435 billion yuan, an increase of 428.88 billion yuan or 8.8% over the end of the previous year. Among them, the balance of bank loans at the end of the year was 4,567.42 billion yuan, and the balance of other debts at the end of the year was 716.93 billion yuan, accounting for 86.4% and 13.6% respectively. 5.

Income and expenses

In 2017, the toll revenue of national toll roads was 51.302 billion yuan, an increase of 58.17 billion yuan over the previous year, an increase of 12.8%; the total expenditure was 915.67 billion yuan, an increase of 46.50 billion yuan or 5.3% over the previous year; the toll revenue gap was 40.65 billion. Yuan, a decrease of 11.68 billion yuan from the previous year, down 2.8%. Among the total annual expenditures for 2017, the principal of repayment of debts was 495.28 billion yuan, the interest paid on debts was 249.57 billion yuan, the maintenance expenditure was 53.39 billion yuan, the expenditure on reconstruction and expansion of highways and ancillary facilities was 15.37 billion yuan, the operation and management expenditure was 62.76 billion yuan, and the tax expenses were 359.9. 100 million yuan, other expenditures of 3.29 billion yuan, accounting for 54.1, 27.3, 5.8, 1.7, 6.9, 3.9 and 0.4%. Second, the government repaid the road situation. At the end of 2017, the national government repaid highways with a mileage of 91,000 km, a total construction investment of 4,148.74 billion yuan, a debt balance of 2,827.98 billion yuan, an annual toll income of 200.44 billion yuan, and an annual total expenditure of 396.12 billion yuan, accounting for 55.6% of the national toll roads. 50.4, 53.5, 39.1 and 43.3%. 1.

Mileage composition

The total length of the government loan road is 91,000 km. Among them, the expressway is 69,700 km, the first-class highway is 16,100 km, the secondary road is 0.5 million km, and the independent bridges and tunnels are 156 km, accounting for 76.7%, 17.7%, 5.5% and 0.2% respectively. The government repaid highways accounted for 52.6% of the toll highway mileage. 2.

Construction investment

The total investment of the government’s repayment of highways was 4,148.74 billion yuan. Among them, the expressway is 3799.34 billion yuan, the first-class highway is 283.20 billion yuan, the secondary road is 27.25 billion yuan, and the independent bridges and tunnels are 38.95 billion yuan, accounting for 91.6%, 6.8%, 0.7% and 0.9% respectively.

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Among the total investment in the construction of government loan repayment roads, the accumulated capital investment was 1,209.12 billion yuan, the capital ratio was 29.1%; the accumulated debt fund was 2,939.62 billion yuan, and the debt-to-deposit ratio was 70.9%. 3.

Debt balance

At the end of 2017, the government repaid the road debt balance of 2,827.98 billion yuan. Among them, the expressway was 2646.25 billion yuan, the first-grade highway was 153.7 billion yuan, the secondary road was 6.36 billion yuan, and the independent bridge and tunnel was 21.66 billion yuan, accounting for 93.6%, 5.4%, 0.2% and 0.8% respectively. 4.

Income and expenses

In 2017, the government’s toll road toll revenue was 20.44 billion yuan. Among them, the expressway was 187.63 billion yuan, the first-class highway was 7.99 billion yuan, the secondary road was 1.51 billion yuan, and the independent bridge and tunnel was 3.32 billion yuan, accounting for 93.6%, 4.0%, 0.8% and 1.7% respectively. In 2017, the total amount of government loan repayment roads was 396.12 billion yuan. Among them, the principal of debt repayment was 192.39 billion yuan, the interest on debt repayment was 139.46 billion yuan, the maintenance expenditure was 27.86 billion yuan, the expenditure on reconstruction and expansion of highways and ancillary facilities was 2.71 billion yuan, the operation and management expenditure was 27.43 billion yuan, and the tax expenditure was 6.09 billion yuan. 180 million yuan, accounting for 48.6%, 35.2%, 7.0%, 0.7%, 6.9%, 1.5% and 0.1% respectively. In 2017, the government’s repayment of road tolls was 195.68 billion yuan. Among them, the highway gap is 179.18 billion yuan, the first-class highway gap is 16.19 billion yuan, the secondary road gap is 1.31 billion yuan, and the independent bridge and tunnel surplus is 1 billion yuan. Third, the operation of the road situation. At the end of 2017, the national operating highway mileage was 72,800 km, the total construction investment was 40,856.5 billion yuan, the debt balance was 2,456.37 billion yuan, the annual toll income was 312.58 billion yuan, and the annual total expenditure was 519.54 billion yuan, accounting for 44.4% of the national toll roads 49.6, 46.5, 60.9% and 56.7%. 1.

Mileage composition

The total mileage of operational roads is 72,800 km. Among them, the expressway is 62,900 km, the first-class highway is 0.46 million km, the secondary road is 0.46 million km, and the independent bridge and tunnel are 727 km, accounting for 86.4%, 6.3%, 6.3% and 1.0% of the operating road mileage respectively. Operating highways account for 47.4% of the toll highway mileage.

4.7 Status of Road Transport Development

2.

91

Construction investment

The total investment in the construction of operational highways was 40,856.5 billion yuan. Among them, the expressway was 3,834.24 billion yuan, the first-class highway was 87.15 billion yuan, the secondary road was 20.11 billion yuan, and the independent bridges and tunnels were 144.15 billion yuan, accounting for 93.8%, 2.1%, 0.5% and 3.5% respectively. Among the total investment in the cumulative construction of operational roads, the accumulated capital investment was 1,352.29 billion yuan, and the capital ratio was 33.1%; the accumulated debt fund was 2,733.36 billion yuan, and the debt-toequity ratio was 66.9%. 3.

Debt balance

The operating road debt balance was 2456.37 billion yuan. Among them, the expressway is 2340.48 billion yuan, the first-class highway is 40.91 billion yuan, the secondary road is 7.23 billion yuan, and the independent bridges and tunnels are 67.75 billion yuan, accounting for 95.3%, 1.7%, 0.3% and 2.8% respectively. 4.

Income and expenses

In 2017, the operating road toll revenue was 312.58 billion yuan. Among them, highways were 287.64 billion yuan, first-class highways were 4.5 billion yuan, secondary roads were 2.70 billion yuan, and independent bridges and tunnels were 17.73 billion yuan, accounting for 92.0%, 1.4%, 0.9% and 5.7% respectively. The total annual operating road expenditure for 2017 was 519.54 billion yuan. Among them, the principal of repayment of debt was 302.89 billion yuan, the interest of debt repayment was 110.11 billion yuan, the maintenance expenditure was 25.53 billion yuan, the expenditure on reconstruction and expansion of highways and ancillary facilities was 12.67 billion yuan, the operation and management expenditure was 35.33 billion yuan, and the tax expenditure was 29.90 billion yuan. 3.11 billion yuan, accounting for 58.3%, 21.2%, 4.9%, 2.4%, 6.8%, 5.8% and 0.6% respectively. In 2017, the operating road toll revenue gap was 206.97 billion yuan. Among them, the highway gap was 19,792 million yuan, the first-class road gap was 4.40 billion yuan, the secondary road gap was 480 million yuan, and the independent bridge and tunnel gap was 4.17 billion yuan. Fourth, the toll reduction. In 2017, the national toll roads reduced vehicle tolls by 82.17 billion yuan, an increase of 13.25 billion yuan or 19.2% over the previous year. Among them, the “Green Passage” (fresh agricultural products transport vehicles) reduced 33.98 billion yuan, and the free passage of small passenger cars on major holidays was 29.12 billion yuan, and other policy reductions were 19.07 billion yuan, accounting for 41.3%, 35.4% and 23.2% respectively.

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4.8 Comparative Analysis of the Development of Sino-US Traffic 1.

Infrastructure: The transport capacity gap between China and the United States is gradually narrowing

According to statistics, China’s road and railway density index is still lower than that of the United States. In 2016, China’s highway density was 0.49 km/km2 , the United States was 0.73 km/km2 , and the Chinese railway density was 0.0129 km/km2 . At 0.0163, the gap between the two countries has gradually narrowed. China is already in the first place in the world in terms of total mileage of highways and high-speed railways. 2.

Passenger transportation service: China’s railway civil aviation gradually replaces road travel, and US highway passenger transport plays a leading role

China maintained a steady upward trend, and railway civil aviation gradually replaced road travel (Note: The statistical caliber was adjusted in 2013. According to the data of the calibre, the passenger traffic volume in China maintained a growing trend). The passenger traffic volume in the United States has a wavy trend, and highway passenger transport plays a leading role. 3.

Freight services: China’s freight turnover has risen rapidly, and US freight turnover has been inverted U-shaped

China’s freight turnover has risen rapidly, and waterways and highways account for a relatively large proportion. The US freight turnover is in an inverted U shape, and the railway roads play a leading role. 4.

Transportation structure: China’s freight volume structure accounts for the largest proportion of highways. The United States accounts for 40% of railways and highways. China’s freight volume structure accounts for the largest proportion of roads, nearly 50%. In the US freight turnover structure, railways and highways each account for about 40%.

Chapter 5

Transportation Events and Viewpoints

There have been many new traffic events in China, such as railway maps, civil aviation price reforms, and reform of the railway administration. The shared economic development of urban transportation is also very eye-catching, such as sharing cars and sharing bicycles.

5.1 Railway Speed Increasing The redeployment arrangements for railway maps have been ongoing. According to CCTV Financial Network, starting from 0:00 on April 10, 2019, the national railway will implement a new train operation map to optimize the high-speed train operation plan. The train running time of Beijing-to-Qingdao, Beijing-Lanzhou, Lanzhou-Chengdu and other CR trains will be shortening, maintaining the scale of the general-speed trains, and further improving the cargo transportation capacity. The person in charge of the relevant departments of the China Railway Corporation introduced that the optimization and adjustment of the train operation chart is a concrete action for the Railway Corporation to thoroughly implement the structural reform of the central supply side and the requirements of “adjusting the transportation structure and increasing the amount of railway freight”. The arrangements further optimized the transportation organization, creating conditions for scientific allocation of transportation resources and improving the quality of transportation supply.

5.1.1 Railway Speed Increasing History There have been six railway speed increases in the history of the country, each one bringing new changes.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_5

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The first speed increase was on April 1, 1997. There are 78 groups of fast trains and evening-to-morning train, 40 groups of express trains, and the top speed of BeijingGuangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Harbin, three main lines, reaches 140 km/h. The average speed of passenger train was 54.9 km/h from 48.1 km/h in 1993. The first large-scale map adjustment of China Railways was fully implemented, opening up a new situation in railway transportation construction. This speed increase has undoubtedly given a strong boost to the traditional railway transportation mode. It not only takes a new step in the speed of the train, but also increases the efficiency of the whole road linkage production. It has brought about an impact of the times for the transportation organization and operation of the railway. At 0:00 on October 1, 1998, the second speed increase, the speed of the Guangzhou-Shenzhen express train reached 200 km per hour, and the speed of the fast train was 140 km: the ordinary railway grade was upgraded. The average speed of the national railway was increased up to 57 km/h. On the basis of the first successful speed increase, this speed increase continued to speed up the three major lines of the first speed increase. At 0:00 on October 21, 2000, the third speed increase. The speed-up line was close to 10,000 km, and the average speed of passenger trains reached 60.3 km/h. The seven levels of the train are adjusted to three. This speed adjustment expanded the scope of medium and high-grade ordinary railways. On the basis of the previous two speed adjustments, the third successful speed increase made the Chinese railway initially form a “four vertical and two horizontal” speed-increasing cross network. Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Harbin and Beijing-Kowloon four major arteries running through the north and south, and the Longhai line and LanzhouXinjiang lines, and the Zhegan line, the two main lines that cross east and west form a network at the main intermediate stations. At 0:00 on October 21, 2001, the fourth speed increase. It is mainly for the southern section of Beijing-Guangzhou, Longhai, Beijing-Kowloon, Shanghai-Kunming, Lanxin and other lines increased by 3000 km, reaching a speed of 61.6 km/h. At 0:00 on April 18, 2004, the fifth speed-up adjustment of China Railway was implemented. This speed-up highlights the idea that the railway strives to expand reproduction, and demonstrates the business philosophy of people-oriented and serving the public. Through this speed increase, the train running speed of several major trunk speed-increasing sections reached 200 km/h, and the total speed of the speed-increasing network reached more than 16,500 km. The main trunk train density has further increased, heavy-duty transportation has accelerated, and the traffic flow path and cargo train formation plan has been further optimized, expanding the overall transportation capacity of the road network. At 0:00 on April 18, 2007, China Railways carried out the sixth large speed increase, and 52 pairs of trains with a speed of more than 200 km per hour appeared. The Chinese brand high-speed train CRH appeared, forming a group of fast passenger transport lanes and further development of the express railway (Table 5.1).

Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai and Beijing-Harbin Express Railway

54.9

1398

588

752

Main acceleration range

Average travel speed (km/h)

Mileage above 120 km/h (km)

Mileage above 140 km/h (km)

Mileage above 160 km/h (km)

Mileage above 200 km/h (km)

1997/4/1

Speed up time

First acceleration

Table 5.1 Railway speed up summary

1104

3522

6449

55.16

Focus on the three main lines of Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai and Beijing-Harbin

1998/10/1

Second acceleration

1104

6458

9581

60.3

(Focusing on the Western Railway) Longhai, Lanxin, Beijing Kowloon, Zhejiang Jiangxi

2000/10/21

2004/4/18

Fifth acceleration

1104

9779

13,166

61.92

1960

7700

16,000

65.7

Beijing Kowloon National Railway Railway, Wuchang Chengdu Railway, southern section of Beijing Guangzhou railway, Zhejiang Jiangxi railway, Shanghai Hangzhou railway and Harbin Dalian railway

2001/10/21

Third acceleration Fourth acceleration

6003

22,000

70.18

(continued)

Beijing-Harbin, Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Kowloon, Longhai, Zhejiang-Jiangxi, Lanxin, Guangzhou-Shenzhen, Jiaoji

2007/4/18

Sixth acceleration

5.1 Railway Speed Increasing 95

Data source Author finishing

138

157

181

92

406

121

119

79

Number of direct trains of bulk goods

71

40

15,340

“five scheduled” train (row)

13,500

16,656

13,298.5

12,674

337

Number of freight trains (pair)

305

257

237

Number of bullet trains (pair)

266

228

78

1172

Number of trains leaving at night and arriving at dawn (row)

1194.5

1312.5

1250

Sixth acceleration

1108

Fifth acceleration

Number of passenger trains (pair)

Third acceleration Fourth acceleration 846

Second acceleration

Mileage above 250 km/h (km)

First acceleration

Table 5.1 (continued)

96 5 Transportation Events and Viewpoints

5.1 Railway Speed Increasing

97

5.1.2 Adjusting Train Operation Map The railway adjustment map is an operation map for adjusting the train route and time by the China Railway Corporation and the railway bureaus. It will be carried out every year. In 2018, there are two maps. The most recent one is July 1, 2018. The train map and the railway department have adopted a number of service initiatives such as map adjustment, speed increase and capacity expansion. The specific contents are as follows: Two new lines were opened for operation: Kunming-Chuxiong-Dali line, Jiangmen-Zhanjiang line opened, compressing the travel time in the area, integrating the western high-speed rail network with Dali as the center. Guangzhou to Maoming and Zhanjiang line has achieved faster arrival. The history of three cities, Zhanjiang, Maoming, Yuexi which did not have the high-speed rail ended. It also increased the scope of the CR train. The number of CR trains increased by nearly 33%, reaching 23 municipalities, provincial capitals and autonomous regions. Between Beijing and Shanghai, 16 CR trains were put into the Beijing-Guangzhou high-speed railway and Shanghai-Kunming high-speed railway line. Dynamically optimize capacity arrangements. D-Series High-Speed Train are market-oriented, daily maps, weekend maps and peak maps are arranged. Weekend maps and peak maps are used to drive trains to achieve accurate matching of capacity and passenger demand, meeting daily, weekend, small holiday, spring summer and sudden Passenger demand; increase the number of long-distance passenger trains across the railway bureau group companies. Increase the delivery of D-Series High-Speed Trains. The national railway added 120 groups of D-Series High-Speed Trains into operation. D-Series High-Speed Trains will be added in the direction of Xuzhou-Lanzhou, Xi’an-Chengdu. China Railway Shenyang Bureau Group Co., Ltd. increased the Shenyang-Chengdu highspeed train to promote economic and trade exchanges between Northeast and Southwest China; China Railway Taiyuan Bureau Group Co., Ltd. increased the EMU trains from Taiyuan to Changsha and Hangzhou to realize the same day; China Railway Xi’an Bureau Group Co., Ltd. improved the passenger flow of high-speed rail lines such as Xicheng and Baolan, and added new trains to popular tourist cities such as Chengdu, Chongqing, Tianshui and Jiayuguan. Continue to improve transportation efficiency. Nanjing to Wuhan, Liuzhou to Nanning high-speed rail operation at a speed of 250 km per hour, two central cities in Guangxi to achieve one hour to arrive; Wuhan and Shanghai to arrange the operation of “big station express train”, the train running time is compressed to 3 h and 51 min; The special tourist train is opened. Each railway bureau group company launched a distinctive passenger train. China Railway Harbin Bureau Group Co., Ltd. facilitates southern tourists to go to the northeast to escape the heat, and open Harbin to Heihe, Yichun, Fuyuan, Hailar and other cities for tourism and sightseeing. China Railway Hohhot Bureau Group Co., Ltd. runs the “Prairie” tourist train and launches Hohhot to Xilinhot and other four lines; China Railway Lanzhou Bureau Group Co., Ltd. normalized the “Circle Western Train Tour” train; China Railway Qingzang Group

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Company added Xining to Shigatse “Tangyu Ancient Road” brand train to facilitate passengers entering Tibet; Increase internet ordering sites. Add 11 Internet ordering meal stations or special product reservation and distribution stations such as Shenyang Station, Tianjin Station, Nanjing Station, Qingdao Station and Urumqi Station; optimize the cargo class. Increase the capacity of China–Europe and the Yangtze River as needed to provide more capacity for the development of railway international logistics and multimodal transport; after the implementation of the new map, the railway passenger and cargo transportation capacity will be further enhanced; Increase the number of coal trains by 10,000 tons. Implementing the decisionmaking arrangements of the Party Central Committee on adjusting the transportation structure, the daily coal-based trains of the Tangshan-Hohhot Railway will be opened 25 times, and the coal transportation capacity will be more than doubled to ensure the coal supply demand in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei and East China. Realize the “blue sky defense war.”

5.1.3 Typical Case Analysis: Beijing-Tianjin Intercity High-Speed Rail The Beijing-Tianjin inter-city railway is the beginning of China’s high-speed railway. It is the world’s most advanced ballastless track technology. It is China’s first intercity high-speed railway with a speed of more than 300 km per hour. It is China’s first high-speed railway passenger line. Since the Beijing-Tianjin inter-city railway was opened on August 1, 2008, the number of passengers sent has increased year by year. In 2009, 14.56 million passengers were sent; in 2012, 22.78 million passengers were sent; in the first half of 2018, 1486.2 million passengers were sent. The average daily passenger transport is 82,000 passengers, far exceeding the average daily passenger transport of 49,000 passengers in 2008. In the past 10 years, Beijing-Tianjin intercity passenger traffic has grown rapidly (Fig. 5.1). On August 1, 2018, China’s first high-speed railway with a speed of 350 km per hour was upgraded to the CR trains. Beijing-Tianjin Intercity has been operating at a speed of 350 km per hour, and has entered the “350-km Renaissance Age”. The distance between Beijing and Tianjin is more than 120 km, which is closely linked by the “big artery” connecting the two cities. The development of high-speed rail has promoted the rapid development of social economy in Beijing and Tianjin. After the operation chart adjustment, the number of Beijing-Tianjin inter-city trains will increase from 108.5 pairs to 136 pairs. The train running time from Beijing South Railway Station to Tianjin Railway Station will be compressed from 35 to 30 min, and the fare will remain unchanged. This map optimizes the train operation plan, and arranges 6 running charts, such as peak day, Monday, Tuesday to Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday, etc., to achieve

5.1 Railway Speed Increasing

99

Fig. 5.1 Ballastless track. Picture comes from Internet

a reasonable match between the capacity delivery and the passenger flow demand, to meet daily, weekend, small Long-term vacations, spring summer vacations and other travel needs in different periods have produced tremendous time value and promoted regional economic and social development. As for the speeding up of the high-speed rail, the views of scholars are not consistent. Zhao Guangfa suggested that the high-speed rail should resume 350 km per hour. He believes that the planning, design and construction of China’s high-speed rail are basically based on this standard, and speed reduction is a man-made waste. Jia Limin thinks so too. Sun Zhang believes that whether the high-speed rail operates at the current design standards requires a comprehensive consideration of multiple aspects. In economically developed areas, passenger traffic is large, passengers have higher requirements for travel time, and it is reasonable to operate at 350 km/h. In some economically underdeveloped areas, although the route design and construction are designed according to the maximum speed of 350 km/h, the passenger flow is not enough. Passengers are not very sensitive to travel time and will choose to take the speed train. Professor Zhao Jian from Beijing Jiaotong University is from an economic point of view. He believes that the “Revival” is currently limited in number and has a speed of 350 km per hour and 300 km per hour. This will lead to a decline in the capacity of the line and a decrease in revenue. Therefore, whether it can be speeded up should be combined with economic technology. He Huawu believes that with the increase in the number of “Revival” and the increase in travel demand, the number of trains that will accelerate in the future will gradually increase, but the speed-up of the high-speed rail will require a process.

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Regarding the fare issue after speeding up, Sun Zhang believes that it is necessary to consider operating costs, sustainable development, passenger endurance, etc., and it is not very sensitive to fares. You can choose to raise prices, but in economically underdeveloped areas, it is not recommended. Increase the ticket price.

5.2 Civil Aviation Price Reforms Recently, China Civil Aviation Network reported that Air China will implement the latest domestic ticket tariff rules from March 31. The new passenger fare rules give specific deduction ratios for different time slots for different refunds, and offer preferential fares, changes and refunds for infants, children, revolutionary disabled soldiers and publicly disabled people’s police. The civil aviation price reform is also a reform that has been carried out continuously and adapted to the constant adjustment of the times.

5.2.1 Civil Aviation Price Reforms History Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the price management of our domestic aviation market has experienced different stages of development. From the initial government unified pricing, to the subsequent government regulation pricing, to the current government guidance pricing, the national policies at different stages of development are also significantly different. It is not uncommon in the history of national shipping price reform. From the founding of the country in 1949 to 1974, the government unified pricing of domestic air passenger air tickets. At this stage, the airlines operated well and remained profitable. There was almost no competition in the market, and the overall air passenger traffic and freight volume, they were relatively small. From 1974 to 1984, the government still unified pricing, but combined with income background and travel purposes, differentiated pricing for domestic and overseas passengers, two prices on domestic flights, slightly higher fares for overseas travelers, airlines the profitability is good. From 1984 to 1997, the government further adjusted the means of unified pricing, began to give discounted fares to Chinese citizens, and still announced the fare for overseas passengers, at this time the airlines continue to maintain profitability. From 1997 to 1999, the government regulated the ticket and set a fare for the specific route, but the airline could offer different discounts according to the needs of the operation. From now on, the country gradually relaxed the strict price of the ticket limited, after which some airlines began to face losses. From 1999 to 2003, the government continued to control the price of air tickets, but in order to curb the price wars and so on in the aviation market, new policies such

5.2 Civil Aviation Price Reforms

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as bans and airline alliances were introduced, and the airlines gradually resumed profits. From 2004 to 2013, the civil shipping price was changed by the regulatory situation. In 2004, the government stipulated the domestic civil aviation fare benchmark price and the upper and lower floating range; in 2010, the ticket price lower limit was abolished, the low-priced ticket became compliant, and the domestic route first class, Business class fares are released. From 2013 to now, civil aviation first opened the price limit of more than 30 domestic routes in November 2013, and the market-oriented reform of civil shipping prices began to accelerate. Since then, the number of routes with market-adjusted prices has gradually increased (Figs. 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5). Differenal pricing Unified pricing



 ᒪ

Relax restricons

Discount Fare





Benchmark price

Restrain price war





relax price control



12:

Fig. 5.2 Civil aviation price reforms history time line. Data source Author finishing

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2014 2015 2016 2017 Fig. 5.3 Civil aviation industry price (unit: yuan). Source of data Statistical bulletin on the development of civil aviation industry in each year (missing 2003)

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9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2014

2015

2016

2017

Fig. 5.4 Passenger transportation price of civil aviation (unit: yuan). Source of data Statistical bulletin on the development of civil aviation industry in each year (missing before 2006)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2010

2011

2012

2014

2015

2016

2017

Fig. 5.5 Civil aviation freight price (unit: yuan). Source of data Statistical bulletin on the development of civil aviation industry in each year (missing before 2010)

5.2.2 Civil Aviation Price Reforms The “Code of Conduct for Price of Domestic Air Transport in Civil Aviation” stipulates that: the first-class and business-class passenger freight rates shall be subject to market-adjusted prices, and the economy-class passenger freight rates shall be subject to market-adjusted prices and government-guided prices according to the competition conditions of different route markets; Transportation enterprises shall provide preferential treatment for the purchase of tickets for special consumer groups such as the elderly, teachers and students. The specific preferential measures shall be formulated by the air transport enterprises themselves; the air transport enterprises

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shall strictly implement the state’s infants who are under the age of two and are under the age of two. Second-year-old children, as well as revolutionary disabled soldiers and passengers who are disabled by the public, take advantage of the preferential tariffs for domestic flights. The Circular on Further Promoting the Relevant Issues Concerning the Reform of Civil Aviation Passenger Transport Price in Civil Aviation, pointed out that it is decided to further promote the market-oriented reform of civil aviation domestic passenger transport prices (hereinafter referred to as domestic passenger freight rates), and establish and improve a mechanism for determining prices mainly by the market: Opened more than 5 (including 5) air transport enterprises to participate in the operation of domestic routes, domestic passenger freight rates to implement market-adjusted prices, air transport enterprises independently formulated according to law; each air transport enterprise raised the market adjustment price per season In principle, the number of routes for the economy class passengers to announce the freight rate shall not exceed 15% of the total number of routes with market adjustment prices in the operation of the company during the last season (up to 10 routes may be adjusted for up to 10 routes); There is no discount to announce that the increase in the freight rate must not exceed 10%; the number of newly added market-adjusted routes is more than 300, and there are more than 1,000 routes with adjusted market prices, and the new routes have high gold content. The “Notice” essentially further increases the scope of the route list for the implementation of market adjustment prices, and is a concrete measure for the National Development and Reform Commission and the Civil Aviation Administration to implement “making the market play a decisive role in resource allocation.” This is another major move in the development of civil aviation transportation price control to market-oriented reforms, which fully reflects the guiding ideology of playing the role of “market hand”. The most prominent price changes were the Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shenzhen, Shanghai-Guangzhou, and Shanghai-Shenzhen routes all open, and the reforms were ahead of schedule.

5.2.3 Relevant Views on Civil Aviation Price Reform Prior to this price change, the freight rates and passenger fares of domestic civil aviation routes were managed by the Civil Aviation Administration and the National Development and Reform Commission, implementing government-guided prices, short-haul routes within the province, and some inter-provincial routes that compete with ground transportation. Passenger fares are subject to market regulation. Compared with the previous civil aviation fare reform measures, the long-haul routes involving some airlines, especially the Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai and other hubs, will be adjusted in price, and the number of passengers affected will be more. Zou Wei believes that there is no minimum price or differential pricing with lower minimum price will be more conducive to the development of China’s aviation

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industry; Li Yanhua believes that part of the price control is safe under the current transition system, precisely because of China’s civil aviation system reform While still groping, the airlines are not fully responsible for the consequences and risks of the operation and bear all risks. If the means of competition of air transport enterprises is limited to price wars, the last thing to pay is the state, which wastes state-owned assets damage to the welfare of the whole people. After the price change, the industry is also more concerned about civil aviation fares. Zhang Shiliang believes that the market-based pricing of civil aviation fares is affected by the relationship between supply and demand. The first is to follow the law of “low fare in off-season and high fare in peak season”. Overall, the fare of the off-season and short-haul routes is not affected much. In the peak season and the gold route, although the airline has room for price increases, it will introduce more levels of fares to meet the travel needs of different consumption levels. In the specific traffic season, high-speed rail tickets for Beijing-Guangzhou line, Beijing-Shanghai line and other lines are in short supply, and fares are rising, but they are still in a controllable range. Qi Qi analysis believes that the “Notice” only permits the promotion of the highest price, while the civil aviation ticket is mostly sold as a discount ticket, and the market price elasticity is strong. The transaction price is not the same as the maximum price. The airlines open the fare limit and the fare in the peak season rises. The ticket is still discounted and the fare does not change much.

5.3 Railway Corporation Reform On December 5, 2018, the official website of the State Administration for Industry and Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, in the name approval notice of the day, the name of a “China National Railway Group Co., Ltd.” quietly appeared in it. This name represents the progress of the reform of the China Railway Corporation, the largest boss of the Chinese railway. This is the final step in the reform of the corporate system of the China Railway Corporation. Prior to this, the 18 railway bureaus in the railway system completed the company system reform before the end of last year, and the industrial and commercial registration and listing were completed on schedule. According to the plan, the final step, the iron will also be a corporate restructuring. In accordance with the latest industrial and commercial change registration, the name after the name is “China National Railway Corporation”. According to the “Renmin Railway Report”, on the morning of November 30, 218, Lu Dongfu, party secretary and general manager of China Railway Corporation, said that in December this year, it was necessary to promote the reform and management of the company system in a solid manner in December this year; We will do a good job in the work related to the reform of the company-level company system at the parent company to ensure a smooth and orderly implementation of the restructuring.

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5.3.1 China Railway Corporation Reform History In 2011, in order to thoroughly implement the spirit of General Secretary Hu Jintao’s instructions on the development of railway science, the Ministry of Railways emphasized that the main theme of scientific development and the accelerated transformation of development methods should be integrated into the railway construction and operation, with the reform of the railway system mechanism as the leader. Construct a railway management system and mechanism that meets the requirements of the socialist market economy. In his previous speeches, Minister Sheng Guangzu emphasized that it is necessary to deepen railway reform, promote institutional innovation, effectively transform the government functions of the Ministry of Railways, and implement the market main position of railway transportation enterprises. Generally speaking, at present, the focus of China’s railway industry reform is still on the operational management mechanism, and it is trying to decentralize more management rights by optimizing institutional arrangements, improving dispatching and commanding rules, financial liquidation rules, updating and reforming rules, and building management rules. To railway transport enterprises, improve the railway incentive and restraint mechanism, and improve the efficiency of railway transportation resource allocation. Since the reforms were unveiled, the market-oriented reforms of China’s railways have generally undergone five major explorations, each of which is consistent with the orientation of the national economic system reform and the trend of the national economy as a whole from planning to market. For the first time, along with the implementation of the national financial system, the implementation of the “decentralization and transfer of profits” and the reform of the enterprise contract responsibility management system, China’s railways played a positive role from the central and local governments in the late 1980s to the early 1990s. The railway, the introduction of local funds, produced a large number of jointventure railway companies participating in the local government. By the end of the 1990s, the number of national joint-venture railways reached 25, and the attempt to introduce foreign capital produced the Zhejiang Jinwen Railway Company, while at the same time ridding the railway diversified operations. The second time was in the mid-1990s, the goal of the socialist market economic system reform since the 14th National Congress and the introduction of the corresponding policies. The railway accelerated the pace of going to the market, mainly in the competition between transportation modes and transportation services. Attention was paid to quality. At that time, each railway bureau (group company) set up a passenger and cargo marketing center. Railway freight transportation took the lead in the market and established a number of railway logistics companies and freight forwarding companies. The third time was in the late 1990s. The Ministry of Railways set up an overall reform office. It borrowed from foreign experience to systematically consider the reform of the railway management system, promote the separation of government and enterprises, and diversify the railway universities and industrial and auxiliary

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industries from the passenger transportation system. At the beginning of the implementation of the “network transport separation” reform and exploration, and strive to make passenger and freight directly from the market to obtain income, calculate the operating cost account, and build a market segment that is conducive to competition. The fourth time is after the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the railway proposed a leap-forward development strategy, implemented large-scale railway construction, focused on improving the scale, grade and technical equipment level of the road network, and promoted the modernization of railways represented by high-speed railways. “Become a key word since the 1970s, after the development of the railway industry relayed “relaxation regulation” and “privatization”. In order to solve the problem of construction funds at this stage, on the basis of further mobilizing local enthusiasm to participate in road construction, the railway vigorously implemented the reform of railway investment and financing system, promoted the listing of railway enterprise stocks, introduced multi-investment entities, and took the lead in accelerating marketization in the railway construction field. The fifth time was in 2013. According to the “Regulations on the Reform and Functional Transformation of the State Council” approved by the First Session of the 12th National People’s Congress, China’s railways officially launched the reform of “political and enterprise sharing.“ The responsibilities of the Ministry of Railways are divided into three. The administrative responsibilities for formulating railway development plans and policies are included in the Ministry of Transport. The Ministry of Transport plans to plan the development of railways, highways, waterways and civil aviation, and accelerate the construction of integrated transportation systems. The State Railway Administration, managed by the Ministry of Transport, assumes other administrative duties of the Ministry of Railways; establishes the China Railway Corporation and assumes the corporate responsibility of the Ministry of Railways. The practice of railway reform has been repeated and repeated during the period. However, in fact, to this end, the effect of the railway going to the market is not obvious. It is concentrated in the railway system or the market subject of the railway administration. The establishment of the introduction, the introduction of social capital is very small, and the freight rate has not yet been released. This seems to indicate that it is difficult for the railway to truly enter the market as a special industry, or that it can only partially and not go to the market as a whole, and there may be differences in the computability and market performance of the internal components.

5.3.2 Separation of Government and Enterprise The separation of government and enterprise is to vertically separate government functions and corporate functions. The government is mainly engaged in macroeconomic regulation and control, industrial regulation related to output, price, entry, exit, safety, environment, health, etc., while enterprises mainly follow market economic

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rules. Guided by the price mechanism, the products and services needed by the society are produced. According to the “Regulations on the Reform and Functional Transformation of the State Council” approved by the First Session of the 12th National People’s Congress, China’s railways officially launched the reform of “political and enterprise sharing.“ The responsibilities of the Ministry of Railways are divided into three. The administrative responsibilities for formulating railway development plans and policies are included in the Ministry of Transport. The Ministry of Transport plans to plan the development of railways, highways, waterways and civil aviation, and accelerate the construction of integrated transportation systems. The State Railway Administration, managed by the Ministry of Transport, assumes other administrative duties of the Ministry of Railways; establishes the China Railway Corporation and assumes the corporate responsibility of the Ministry of Railways. From the perspective of government and market theory, the government is a typical public organization. According to administrative and legal relations, resources are allocated by vertical command and obedience. The main function is the role of “night watchman” in economic activities, providing necessary operational rules for social economic transactions. To provide the necessary institutional arrangements for the market economy, property rights protection, transaction arbitration, etc., which fall within the scope of administrative relations. An enterprise is a typical economic organization. Under the framework of legal norms, it seeks the greatest economic benefits under the guidance of the price mechanism. Its main functions are production and trading activities, which are in the category of economic relations. Administrative relations and economic relations belong to two completely different theoretical fields. The internal laws of administrative relations and economic relations are completely different. Among them, administrative relations rely on administrative authority and position promotion to encourage officials. Economic relations rely on economic profits and personal income to stimulate staff. Separation of government and enterprise is an important part of China’s railway industry system reform. It is necessary to speed up the process of separation of government and enterprises in China’s railway industry, build an independent independent regulatory body, and shape a real market economy of “self-management, self-financing, self-restraint and self-development” body. Under the conditions of fair, open and fair railway supervision rules, it is possible to gradually introduce diversified business entities and introduce appropriate internal competition in the railway industry (Fig. 5.6).

5.3.3 Relevant Viewpoints From the perspective of historical development, experts and scholars at home and abroad have proposed the “network separation” scheme, the regional company scheme, and the “separation of government and enterprise” schemes for China’s railway industry system reform plan. We divided the above reform plan into an

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Fig. 5.6 Schematic diagram of “separation of government and enterprise”. Data source author finishing

industrial organization type plan and a government-enterprise relationship type plan, as shown in Table 5.2. At present, domestic government circles, academia and public opinion tend to favor large-scale programs and regional company programs that split the railway industry. However, since 2003, China’s railway industry has experienced rapid growth in investment scale, railway construction mileage and operating mileage have expanded rapidly, and the technical level of railway transportation equipment has been continuously improved. The balance of railway liabilities has approached 2 trillion yuan. Railway safety issues have received increasing attention. Staff treatment and incentive and restraint mechanisms need to be improved. In particular, how scarce resources, including land, in important transportation corridors can be rationally allocated between various modes of transportation, how to achieve comprehensive planning of various modes of transportation and organic linkages in integrated transportation hubs, and increasingly become traffic authorities, that is a topic which is hotly debated with the theoretical community.

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Table 5.2 List of China’s railway industry system reform plan Scheme category

Concrete proposal

Content of project

Representative personage

Government-enterprise relations

Plans to separate government administration from enterprise management

(1) Separation of government functions and enterprise functions (2) Establish an independent railway regulatory agency

Rong Chaohe, Li Hongchang, Zhao Jian, Ou Guoli, Thompson, et al.

Large ministry scheme

(1) Separation of Feng Fei, Rong government functions Chaohe, et al. and enterprise functions (2) The functions of the Ministry of Railways shall be merged into the Ministry of Transport

Network transport separation solution

(1) Longitudinal division of the railway industry (2) Can form different combination of customers, goods and network

Regional Company Plan

(1) The railway industry Yu jun etc. is divided horizontally (2) Different number of regional companies can be formed

hybrid scheme

“Separation of network and transportation” and the coexistence of regional companies and line companies

Industrial organization

Rong Chaohe, Li Hongchang, et al.

David Burns, Liu Shijin et al.

Data source Author finishing

5.4 City Shared Traffic In recent years, the sharing economy has blossomed everywhere in our country and has sprung up. Especially in the field of urban transportation, from the network to the sharing of bicycles, with the endless stream of innovative ideas and new platforms, the sharing economy is changing the life of people and the economic form of the city. On January 11–13, 2019, the China Electric Vehicle Hundred Peoples Forum (2019) was held at the Diaoyutai State Guesthouse in Beijing. Chen Qingtai, chairman of the China Electric Vehicle 100-member Association, delivered a keynote speech, arguing that shared travel is expected to reconstruct urban traffic; Everywhere, the goal and action of smart transportation development in 2019 was clarified. The

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field ushered in a cusp period, and many capitals fought over the trillion market. Among them, the iron is expected to involve the private enterprises in the field of high-speed rail + shared cars. The Ministry of Transport issued the “Smarter Transportation to Make Travel More Convenient Action Plan (2017–2020)”, which proposes to promote the intelligent transportation of enterprises as the main body around improving the intelligence level of intercity transportation and accelerating the intelligent development of urban transportation. The construction of travel information service system will promote the development of “Internet+” convenient transportation.

5.4.1 Net Car Industry 5.4.1.1

Development History of the Network Car Industry

Relying on the sharing economy, the network car has played a facilitating role in saving social resources, revitalizing idle vehicles, relieving traffic pressure, and facilitating citizens’ travel. Its development process in China can be divided into two stages, with the Interim Measures, including the preliminary exploration phase and the legal development stage of the network car. The network is about the early stage of exploration. 2010–2014 is the beginning of the development of the network car industry. In May 2010, the easy-to-use car was established in Beijing, becoming the first Internet business platform website in China to provide online taxi service. Since July 2012, various taxi software on the market has begun to emerge, such as fast taxis; After 2014, it was the barbaric period of the development of the network car industry. In February 2014, US company Uber entered the Chinese market; in July of the same year, Ditro opened a special car service, mainly providing commercial vehicles, in order to provide passengers with more comfortable passenger transportation services; in November 2014, Nanjing City considered Didi The operation was illegal, indicating that it could not provide passenger transportation services; in May 2015, DiExpress Express service was launched, and in the following months, services such as drip carpooling and drip-spinning were launched; in September 2015, Shanghai actively explored The first special car platform license was issued by the Traffic Commission; in October of the same year, the Ministry of Communications issued the “Guidance Opinion” and “Interim Measures” draft for comments, and the access conditions, regulatory measures, legal responsibilities, etc. of the network car were stipulated. At the same time, extensive public consultation is sought. The second stage when it is legal to develop the network car. The emergence and development of the network car has caused a certain impact on the traditional taxi industry, which involves a multi-faceted interest game, but it is undoubted that the network car brings convenience to citizens’ travel, to a considerable extent. It solves the social problem of difficulty in taxiing, and at the

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same time provides more high-end passenger transportation services to meet the needs of some users, and the social benefits it generates are very obvious. On July 28, 2016, the “legalization of special vehicles” was finally recognized. After the promulgation of the “Interim Measures”, the “Implementation Rules” were issued successively in various places. According to the Beijing Municipality, the registration of the vehicle for the vehicle is required to be Beijing. The driver of the network is the Beijing hukou, and the model of the vehicle is also hard provisions. Shanghai and Tianjin also strictly restrict the access conditions for vehicles and drivers of the network; Hangzhou’s household registration for drivers can be either the household registration of Hangzhou or the residence permit for more than six months. In the case of Shenzhen City, in terms of the access quota of the vehicle, the Shenzhen City will provide a two-year buffer period for the vehicles that meet certain conditions under the premise of the displacement of the vehicle and the wheelbase of the vehicle. After the acquisition of Uber by Didi in 2016, it opened up a dominant market structure (Table 5.3).

5.4.1.2

Case Study

Didi Travel as a rapidly growing technology company, from 2012 to the present six years, Didi has occupied 99% of the domestic taxi racing software market (Table 5.4). The emergence of a new situation in the network of cars, compared to the traditional taxi market has obvious advantages. (1)

Increase supply and reduce costs

The emergence of network car software originated from the current market demand for “difficulty in taxis”. When the taxi supply is rigid, the network car can improve efficiency and improve taxi utilization, which is equivalent to increasing the supply, which can be increased by its use. Trading opportunities to meet market demand. Drip greatly optimizes the driver’s experience of finding passengers, allowing drivers to selectively “grab the order” according to the passenger’s destination, saving the driver’s time to find passengers and reducing the taxi vacancy rate. At the same time, the passengers’ demand for the ride is also required. It can be known by the driver, saving the time cost for the passenger to find the taxi, and maximizing the saving of the driver’s resources and the time cost of the passenger. Drips connect passengers’ demand with the driver’s driving needs, and match demand and supply in the free market, which not only avoids oversupply, that is, the driver can’t find passengers on empty driving; it also solves the problem of short supply, i.e. peak The number of taxis is insufficient, and the number of supply vehicles is supplemented by the express train.

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Table 5.3 Network car development stage (1) The beginning of the industry

2010

Yidao Yongche was established to provide an online car-hailing service in Beijing

2011

The first mobile taxi software in China—rocking car recruitment online

2012

In August, a quick taxi was launched in Hangzhou

2013

In March, bumblebee took a taxi and went online

In September, Didi taxi went online in Beijing

In June, AA car rental went online In August, Uber was put into trial operation in Shanghai 2014

In February, Uber launched people’s Uber, focusing on online car Hailing business In July, express’s No. 1 special car went online In August, Didi special car went online

(2) Barbaric development

2015

In January, Shenzhou special bus went online In February, Didi express merged In April, the No. 1 express went online In May, Didi express went online In September, the first automobile appointment went online

2016

In April, Didi travel and LYFT completed cross-border connection of products and officially launched overseas business In August, Didi travel acquired all assets of Uber China

Data source Author finishing

(2)

Real-name registration, increasing security

In the traditional way of riding, many passengers do not have the habit of asking for invoices. Once they have lost personal belongings in the car, it is difficult to retrieve them. In the operation of Didi, passengers can grasp the basic information such as the taxi driver’s name, qualification certificate, company name, license plate number, etc., and the passengers’ loss of personal belongings will be resolved. Even if the leftovers have forgotten their luggage, the car can quickly find the car and retrieve the lost items. Besides that, the driver’s taxi which the passenger knows, will be more secure.

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Table 5.4 History of Didi Exploration accumulation period

2012

On July 10, Beijing Xiaoju Technology Co., Ltd. was established to promote didi travel logo, which was launched in Beijing on September 9 In December, Didi obtained a round a financing of US $3 million from Jinsha River venture capital

2013

In April, round B financing was completed: Tencent Group invested US $15 million In October, Didi’s taxi market share was 59.4%, exceeding the market share of other taxi software combined

Accelerated growth period

2014

In January, the company completed round C financing of USD 100 million In March, the number of users exceeded 100 million, the number of drivers exceeded 1 million, and the daily average order reached 5.2183 million, becoming the largest daily average order trading platform of mobile Internet In August, Didi launched a private car, entering the field of commercial vehicles In December, the D round of financing was completed with USD 700 million

2015

In September, Didi Dache changed its name to Didi Chuxing and launched a new Logo – a reversed orange capital D In October, the Shanghai Municipal Transportation Commission officially announced that it had granted didi Kuaidi a license to operate as an online car-booking platform

Development and stability period

2016

In August, Didi Chuxing acquired Uber In September, Didi Chuxing announced a strategic investment of tens of millions of dollars in bike-sharing platform OFO

2017

In April, OFO, the originator and leader of bike-sharing, officially joined Didi Chuxing’s platform In May, Didi travel obtained the online booking taxi operation license

2018

In April, Didi landed in Mexico Passengers were killed in May and August respectively, and the free ride business went offline

Data source Author finishing

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(3)

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Establish a reputation evaluation mechanism to improve service levels

After the order is completed, the driver and passengers will be scored in both directions. Drivers and passengers who have been scored multiple times may be pulled into the “blacklist” by the software. The “blacklist” mechanism reduces the priority of poor users’ access to services, giving drivers and passengers more freedom to choose and more ways and means of monitoring their behavior. This mechanism not only urges drivers to try to provide quality services to passengers, but also allows passengers to have greater autonomy in their travels and to actively restrain their behavior. (4)

Online electronic payment, saving transaction costs

The traditional cash transaction method increases the driver’s trading risk, or encounters counterfeit currency troubles, or changes in zeroing, and carries a large amount of cash due to operating income, which provides conditions for some criminals to take risks. When the driver is robbed, the media is common. Third-party electronic transactions can avoid these problems and effectively avoid the transaction risks of passengers and taxi drivers, thus reducing transaction costs. However, the rapidly developing online car market still inevitably pays a price of grief. Recently, Didi has caused an uproar due to the killing of two windmill drivers, which also exposed the major hidden dangers of Didi in the development process. (1)

Software development needs to be improved

The security protection mechanism still needs improvement. Although Didi has already established a self-protection mechanism for passengers, it is far from enough. It lacks the binding force on drivers, and the protection of passengers is far less than that of Uber. The most important thing in the transportation industry is the safety issue. If the safety problem cannot be guaranteed, it will deviate from the development route. The taxi software interferes with the driver’s driving and has potential safety hazards. The implementation regulations of the Road Traffic Safety Law of China clearly stipulate that drivers are prohibited from picking up mobile phones during the driving process. When the driver drives the car, the network car software will distract, unable to concentrate, reduce the emergency handling capacity of sudden accidents, greatly increase the traffic accident rate, there are serious safety hazards, and may cause a series of social problems, causing disadvantages. influences. Order voices attributed to real-time broadcasts require the driver to listen carefully to pick a favorite order. The driver must grasp the screen of the mobile phone with the finger during the process of grabbing the bill. This process greatly distracts the driver’s attention during the driving process, reduces the driver’s ability to respond to external traffic conditions, and brings great security. Hidden dangers, in the event of a traffic accident, the driver will not be able to perceive for the first time, resulting in serious social losses.

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Network car is easy to leak user information, affecting social stability. During the course of use, the taxi driver can know the real name and contact information of the passenger, which has an adverse effect on the protection of personal privacy. At the same time, the network car company collects a large number of passengers, drivers and vehicle information during the use of the software, including some privacy. Once this privacy is leaked and used by criminals, it may cause very unfavorable social influence and affect the rights of individuals and social order. The operating procedures are complex and affect the use of some groups. The complex software of the network car is very easy for young people to get started, and generally reflects the convenience of using the network, but ignores the elderly consumers, because they will not operate their complicated procedures and become a vulnerable group. The advent of network-based cars has made it faster for people who use smartphones to get to the car, and those who need to take a taxi without using the software are more difficult to get into the car. (2)

The regulatory system needs to be improved

There is no effective means of supervision in the operation of the network car. In the event of a dispute, the rights of passengers and drivers cannot be guaranteed. The law expressly prohibits the use of private cars to provide passenger transport services. These vehicles are considered to be black cars. Therefore, the economic dispute between passengers and black car drivers is not within the supervision of the competent authorities. Due to the lack of third-party supervision, consumption often occurs. The complaint is nowhere. In addition, the lack of certification mechanism for the network car, the threshold is too low, so that people can easily register passengers with a car, so that “black car” is more and more. These “black cars” have no passenger transportation qualifications, and it is difficult for the government to carry out effective supervision. The network car companies can’t effectively supervise them, causing the drivers to be mixed, which will disrupt the normal taxi market order and even lead to the lives and property of passengers. Security is compromised. In general, there are still many imperfections in the network car industry as an emerging product, which requires us to continuously improve and develop. The development model suitable for China’s specific situation is still being explored. The network car industry is currently in a period of standardization. The problem is that the problems in development will be solved in development. As long as we deal with existing problems, continue to innovate, and make full use of the emerging concepts of mobile Internet, cloud computing, big data, and Internet of Things in the era of “Internet+”, the development prospects of network car software are very broad.

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5.4.2 Online Car Rental Platform 5.4.2.1

History of Online Car Rental Platforms

China’s car rental industry began to sprout in 1989 and has gradually passed through four stages of development. The object of leasing has gradually evolved from the beginning of the government and enterprises to the general mass consumer group. The leasing business method also starts from the traditional purchasing mode to “offline booking, offline picking” to the current “online”, the next “combination form (Fig. 5.7). China’s earliest car rental companies are mainly large state-owned enterprises, mainly to meet the needs of the government and large-scale event vehicles. In preparation for the 1990 Beijing Asian Games, the first car rental company in China, the

Mulvariate Online

Time sharing

Time sharing

short-term

short-term

financing

OHDVH

Long term lease

Tradional offline

Long term lease

Low concentraon

High concentraon

Fig. 5.7 China Car Rental Industry Development Trend Matrix. Data source Author finishing

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Fig. 5.8 Main participants of the shared car. Data source From network

Beijing Taxi Company Leasing Branch, appeared, and the companies such as SAIC Car Rental, Yinjian and Beiqi were established. In 2002, foreign large-scale car rental companies entered the Chinese market to explore and develop opportunities in the Chinese car rental market. Hertz cooperated with China Auto Anhua, marking the world’s largest car rental company entering the Chinese market. The mature foreign operation mode and enterprise experience are not successful in exploring the Chinese market. Hertz cooperation ended in failure. Since 2007, the first e-commerce management leasing companies in China have emerged, and car rental services in line with the Chinese consumer market have been launched. A large-scale e-commerce management car rental company represented by China Car Rental and a rental car was established. With the rapid development of the Internet and the tourism market, online car rental platforms have become an important way for ordinary consumers to rent cars. In 2014, large-scale traditional leasing companies actively transformed, timesharing, financing, and actively expanded overseas leasing business. Represented by the first car rental car, large traditional enterprises actively expand online platform services, and lay out time-based leasing, financial leasing, and overseas business. After 2015, the car time-sharing project has developed rapidly, and local enterprises have accelerated their pace of development. As of the beginning of 2017, according to incomplete statistics, there are more than 100 enterprises involved in time-share leasing of automobiles, and more than 30 platform operators with scale. 90% of the timeshare cars are operated by local companies. Universal Car and its shared car brand EVCARD is the largest time-sharing platform in China and has entered 23 cities (Fig. 5.8). The following table summarizes the representative automobile timeshare projects in China (Table 5.5):

5.4.2.2

Case Study: EVCARD

Compared with the traditional car rental platform, China’s electric car timeshare leasing industry has entered a new stage of development. The typical representative is the EVCARD model in Shanghai. The EVCARD brand is a time-sharing project for electric vehicles developed by Shanghai International Automobile City New Energy Vehicle Operation and

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Table 5.5 Representative car rental projects in China Company

Operation time

Cover city

Scale

Nature

Background

Fun car sharing

2011.8

Hangzhou, Beijing, Changzhou, Qingdao, Ningbo

Dot 230+, vehicle 200+

Automobile timeshare rental platform enterprise

Mainland

EVcard

2013.9

23 cities in the country

Dot 3400+, Car rental company Vehicle transformation/segment 8400+ business

Mainland

The micro bus

2013.10

Shanghai, Hangzhou

Site 160+, Vehicle 20,000+

Automobile timeshare rental platform enterprise

Mainland

Green dog rent car

2014 0.6

Beijing, Changzhou

Site 100+, Vehicle 3000+

Time-sharing leasing business department of car company

Mainland

TOGO way 2015.1 song

Beijing, Shenzhen, Shanghai

Site 160+, Vehicle 700+

Automobile timeshare rental platform enterprise

Mainland

Once in car 2015.4

11 cities nationwide

Network 1000+ Vehicle 2000+

Automobile timeshare rental platform enterprise

Mainland

Panda Auto 2015.11

Chongqing, Hangzhou, Chengdu, Jiyuan, Mianyang, Zhengzhou

Site 280+, Vehicle 4000+

Automobile timeshare rental platform enterprise

Mainland

Gofun

2016 0.2

19 cities nationwide

Network 1000+ Vehicle 10,000+

Time-sharing leasing business department of car company

Mainland

Car2go

2016 0.4

Chongqing

600+ vehicles, covering an area of about 60 km2

Time-sharing leasing business department of car company

Foreign capital

Data source Author finishing

Service Co., Ltd. EVCARD electric vehicle time-sharing leasing is a new type of car time-sharing leasing service mode realized by means of Internet of Things technology, which realizes the user’s self-reservation at any time and the self-returning car demand of any network.

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Table 5.6 Construction mode and development stage of time-based leasing of electric vehicles in Shanghai Phase in installment

Initial phase

Intermediate construction stage

Operation stage

State of development

Choose operators and strive for financial support

Build network and improve infrastructure

Improve technology, service and operation management

Data source Author finishing

The construction mode and development stage of Shanghai EVCARD electric vehicle time-sharing lease are shown in Table 5.6. In the initial construction stage, an operator with strategic investment strength needs to be selected to coordinate and take responsibility. The government gives necessary support and allocates a small amount. The parking space is then designated by the operator to share the electric vehicle, and then the Shanghai International Automobile City coordinates the parties to determine the dedicated parking space. The Auto City Group contacted the power company to improve the infrastructure of the outlets and build charging piles. Operators need to provide the necessary technical support for the shared leasing business and be responsible for day-to-day operational management. The Auto City Group helps operators develop fixed customers near the network. At present, EVCARD has become the largest shared car platform in China and the world (Fig. 5.9). As of the beginning of 2017, the promotion effect of the Shanghai EVCARD electric vehicle time-sharing model has begun to appear. In terms of technological innovation, the company has continuously improved the construction technology of charging piles and enhanced the overall innovation capability of the company. The time-shared models have also become more diverse. Not only are there more common local-produced pure electric vehicles in Shanghai, but also other brands of electric vehicles. In terms of infrastructure, it will continue to build outlets and charging piles in large urban public land areas. In terms of product marketing, Shanghai will develop a composite product service of “time-sharing lease + long-term rent + electric bus” in the future. The operation mode of EVCARD is more and more diversified, and the coverage area is more and more. The “EVCARD” project has already moved toward a multi-distribution road in Shanghai, forming a large-scale economic scale, and is expected to be promoted in other regions in the future. However, the development of new energy electric vehicles in the time-sharing lease is still a problem. There are fewer operating outlets, and there are insufficient resources for supporting facilities such as charging stations and parking spaces. In the specific market operation process, the problem of too few parking spaces and insufficient charging piles has become the limiting factor for the development of the electric vehicle time-sharing leasing industry. Many car rental outlets have fewer charging piles. It is necessary to use manual dispatching methods to send some vehicles parked in the area to the outlets with charging piles to make up the electricity to ensure the normal operation of the electric vehicles. The construction and improvement of the supporting facilities is imminent. However, the construction

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Fig. 5.9 Schematic diagram of the distribution and operation of the EVCARD leased terminal network in Shanghai. Data source Author finishing

cost of charging piles is very high, and the capital requirements for operation and maintenance after completion are relatively large, and it is still largely dependent on government subsidies and financial inputs. Due to the certain lag of the government’s budget, infrastructure construction is difficult to meet the increasing market demand. There are lags and limitations in the travel services provided by enterprises. The operation and driving of electric vehicles is a technical task, and often there are some problems in the driving process. In this case, the user can neither throw the car on the way nor have good conditions for maintenance. The customer service can only be called by telephone, and the customer service generally cannot solve the problem immediately, and needs to call the technical staff to help the customer. When the vehicle fails during driving, the company needs to entrust a rescuer to provide onsite repair services to the user. However, existing service projects are very limited.

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Leading to the lag and limitations of travel services, some sudden problems can not be handled well, causing a lot of inconvenience to consumers. The government supervision system is not perfect and the supervision of enterprises is weak. At present, for the time-sharing of electric vehicles, the supervision system of the government and enterprises is not perfect. First of all, due to the lack of post-supervised mechanisms, some fiscal and tax incentives for electric vehicles that the state has introduced do not work well. Some enterprises have maliciously defrauded government subsidies under the banner of the “electric car time-sharing” project, and waited until the government allocated funds. Companies will no longer continue to produce charging piles or improve technology. Secondly, the new energy electric vehicle rental is an emerging market area. The quality of electric vehicle users also needs to be improved. Many users do not follow the relevant rules and regulations during the operation, and sometimes even the phenomenon of users stealing or deliberately destroying vehicles. The time-sharing of new energy vehicles is a product of the development of the market economy and also the future sunrise industry of China. The development of the electric vehicle time-sharing leasing industry requires various conditions, the most important being the sharing management, service and operation of various key elements and infrastructure core resources. Insufficient infrastructure often limits the car sharing business, and the way users use and the quality of the public is also a bottleneck restricting the development of the electric vehicle time-sharing industry. It takes a multi-pronged approach to solve real-world problems in all aspects.

5.4.3 Shared Freight 5.4.3.1

Shared Freight Development History

Freight in the shared economy The O2O market began to heat up in the second half of 2014 and ushered in an outbreak in 2015. According to incomplete statistics, as of the end of 2015, there were more than 200 kinds of APP-matched APP platforms open to individual car owners and individual cargo owners, and many of them received a lot of financing. At present, many freight O2O platforms have a relatively stable position in the market. For example, cargo pullers announced the completion of the third round of financing in mid-2016 and decided not to expand their market share in a subsidized manner as in the early days of development. Other well-developed freight O2O platforms include No. 1 goods, blue rhinoceros, trucks, and full (Fig. 5.10).

5.4.3.2

Case Study: Cargo Lala (Pulls)

Lala was established in Hong Kong in 2013. In 2014, it entered the Chinese mainland and Southeast Asian markets. From the “Hundred Regiments” to “Duo Xiu Yulin”, the cargo puller took less than three years. After completing a huge $100 million

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Fig. 5.10 Freight O2O mode in shared economy mode. Data source Author finishing

financing in October last year, it is still attacking the city at an alarming pace. In April 2017, the number of goods opened in mainland China was 68. As of the end of March 2018, the number of open cities was 114, and the number of registered drivers on the platform reached more than 3 million, with more than 20 million users. However, there are still some problems with this freight O2O platform. There was also a case in which the driver was suspected of sexually harassing the customer. The cargo driver’s alleged sexual harassment, including cases of disputes arising from various online transactions, exposed a problem that the responsibility and determination of online transactions still need to be strengthened. As a matching intermediary platform for both parties to the transaction, whether it is a dip or a cargo pull, the qualification review of the driver is far from enough, and there is no absolute guarantee that the driver information is authentic. The ability to integrate resources is low. The difference between the freight O2O model in the shared economy and the ordinary freight O2O model is that the former not only needs to integrate professional transportation resources (such as logistics companies) and large-scale supply, but also integrates non-professional transportation resources (such as private trucks) and small The scale of supply (such as moving), therefore, the integration of resources in the freight O2O model under the shared economy is more difficult. However, the current cargo pull-up platform platform resource integration ability is low, the specific performance is that the platform resource information is less, the update is not timely, the information authenticity is not guaranteed, the information sorting is more chaotic, etc., the user cannot quickly, conveniently and effectively Get the information you need in the platform.

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There is no guarantee of the transaction. The freight O2O model in the shared economy has a lower trading threshold and a more complex transaction status than the normal freight O2O model. This means that the freight O2O model in the shared economy has higher requirements for transaction security. However, the current cargo pull platform has not met the requirements, the specific performance is that the user credit is not guaranteed, the shipper or the carrier has a high rate of satisfaction; the cargo and the payment security are not guaranteed; the pricing is chaotic, there is no reference standard. User loyalty is not high. The loyalty of the platform is not reflected in two aspects: First, the user will not look for a platform for trading, but will compare in multiple platforms, choose a more satisfactory platform for trading; Second, the owner and the owner through the platform trading After a few times, you may be able to discuss the private trading of the platform. There are two reasons for low user loyalty: First, the platform user experience is not good, and second, the platform use value is low. There are many factors that cause the user experience to be bad. The low platform integration capability mentioned above and the lack of protection of the transaction will result in poor user experience. One of the important reasons for the low use value of the platform is that the company has less value-added services. At present, the cargo pull platform simply transfers the physical freight intermediaries to the online line. They continue the work of physical freight intermediaries and rarely develop value-added service projects. Even if some platforms develop value-added services, they are mostly simple value-added services such as cargo packaging and vehicle maintenance. The development prospects are not great. In this case, the difference between the freight platform enterprises is low, and the special value of the enterprise cannot be reflected. It is easy for users to find an alternative platform, and the loyalty is naturally not high. The platform profit model is not clear. The freight O2O model in the shared economy adds a lot of individual users compared to the normal freight O2O model. It is difficult for individual users to pay high intermediary fees like enterprise users. Therefore, the freight O2O model in the sharing economy is difficult to rely on intermediary fees. The facts also show this: the cargo pull platform is free for users to use, and the company’s early operations are basically financed. The discovery of new, sustainable profit points is a common problem with many of the current freight O2O platforms, including cargo trucks. In short, we can now enjoy a variety of Internet services very conveniently. This is the result of technological progress, but because this happens too quickly, not only the business model is still vulnerable, but laws and regulations and supervision cannot be followed up in time, resulting in some happening problems and tragedies that should not happen. This needs to be curbed and mitigated through technological upgrading and strengthening the binding force of reality.

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5.4.4 Shared Bicycle 5.4.4.1

Shared Bicycle Development History

The shared bicycle first appeared on the university campus. In April 2004, in order to solve the problem of traveling on the university campus, several students of Peking University initiated the OFO. The vehicles were from abandoned bicycles in campus, bicycles donated by teachers and students, and then shared bicycles on campus service. In May 2015, the number of shared bicycles at this time has reached 2000. The continuous increase in the number of shared bicycles has triggered a series of new phenomena. The problem of losing new cars on campus has been effectively solved, and the proportion of new cars lost has fallen sharply. At the same time, problems such as inconvenient parking and recycling of used bicycles have been solved. As the number of bicycles continues to increase and the scale continues to expand, the platform has purchased a number of new bicycles and put them into market operations. In September 2016, the platform officially walked out of the campus and began to develop in society. The Internet+ sharing economy model has developed rapidly, and the demand for shared bicycles has been increasing, ushered in a period of rapid development. Broadly speaking, China’s shared bicycle market has experienced three stages of development. From 2007 to 2010, it was the first stage. The public bicycle model that started from abroad began to be introduced into the country. The government led the city management, mostly pile cars. From 2010 to 2014, the second phase, enterprises specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by pile bicycles. The third phase from 2014 to 2018, with the rapid development of the mobile Internet, the Internet-sharing bicycles led by Mobai came into being, and the more convenient pile-free bicycles began to replace the pile bicycles (Table 5.7). At present, the total demand for shared bicycles in China is about 10 million, which has a market value of 28.1 billion. From the perspective of the entire industry, the value of the bicycle chain and the lock manufacturing and downstream big data, Table 5.7 Domestic shared bicycle development stage table First phase

From July 2016 to November 2016, moBay, OFO and Yong’an bank occupied a large market share. Among them, moBay was the strongest, and the user active penetration rate remained above 70%, even as high as 84%; At the same time, OFO is also developing rapidly, and the user activity rate has increased from less than 10–25%

Second stage From December 2016 to April 2017, a large number of competitors poured into the market, with more than 30 bike sharing brands. Moby’s penetration rate has been declining, but it still maintains an advantageous position; OFO achieved leapfrog growth, with user activity reaching 46%, only 8% points behind moBay Third stage

After May 2017, the scale of OFO users surpassed that of moBay

Data source Author finishing

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Fig. 5.11 Shared bicycle main participants. Data source From network

diversion and other value-added services, the value of the bicycle industry chain is nearly 100 billion. At the same time as the government encourages, the primary market investment in the shared bicycle sector is also highly competitive and quite hot. Under the rapid accumulation of capital, by 2016, there are already 17 companies sharing bicycles in the market, represented by the two giants OFO and Mobai. The competition is fierce and the war of money is always going on. There is an urgent need for a perfection model to regulate the cycling market (Fig. 5.11).

5.4.4.2

Case Study: OFO

The OFO shared bicycle was established in Beijing in the second half of 2014. It is also the first unshared bicycle in China. The founder is Dai Wei, a young entrepreneur of Peking University Guanghua School of Management. He started to serve teachers and students on campus. The group provides short trips between campus hotspots. Later, it gradually began to expand. Since the large-scale expansion began in 2015, OFO has now entered more than 150 domestic cities. On December 23, 2016, OFO first released its overseas strategy, and launched trial operations in San Francisco and London, England. At the stage, and then very smoothly into Singapore, Japan, Israel, Kazakhstan, Malaysia and other countries, the overseas market gradually opened. So far, OFO has invested more than 100,000 shared bicycles in more than 50 cities overseas, and has provided more than 10 million rides. OFO is currently the world’s largest shared cycling platform, with orders from overseas local users accounting for more than 99%, marking OFO has entered the world (Table 5.8). OFO bicycle service has become the mainstream service for citizens, providing the most efficient and convenient travel service for our citizens. OFO shares the bicycle low-carbon travel mode, which reduces the CO2 emissions of cars and black motorcycles, enables idle resources to be shared, saves energy and reduces emissions, promotes national fitness, and achieves the highest travel efficiency. Drive low carbon and environmental protection. OFO shared bicycles met the citizens’ “last mile” travel demand, promoted energy conservation and environmental protection, and promoted green and low-carbon travel, in line with the “13th Five-Year” shared economy. The public transportation + bicycle-style travel mode is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. Alipay, WeChat and other APPs are “sweeped”, automatically unlocked, convenient and intelligent.

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Table 5.8 OFO financing information sheet Time

Financing section

Amount of money

Financier

2015.3.17

Angel wheel

Millions of RMB

Hunting capital

2015.12.22

Pre-A wheel

RMB 9 million

Dongfang Hongdao and Weilie capital

2016.2.1

A

RMB 15 million

Jinjiangsha venture capital, Dongfang Hongdao

2016.8.2

A+

RMB 15 million

Zhenge fund, Wang Gang

2016.9.2

B

Tens of millions of dollars

Jingwei China, Jinshajiang venture capital, Weilie capital

2016.9.26

B+

Tens of millions of dollars

Didi travel

2016.10.10

C

$130 million

Didi travel, coat management, Xiaomi technology, Shunwei fund, CITIC industry fund, Yuanjing capital, Jingwei China Jinshajiang venture capital, Yuri Milner

2017.3.1

D

$450 million

DST, Didi, CITIC Industrial Fund, Jingwei China, coatue, atomico, Xinhualian group

2017.7.6

E

$700 million

Alibaba, Hony capital and CITIC industrial fund jointly lead the investment, and didi travel and DST follow the investment

2018.3.4

chattel mortgage

Rmb1.77 billion

Alibaba

2018.3.13

E2-1

$866 million

Alibaba led the investment, and Haofeng group, Trina Solar capital, ant financial services and Junli capital jointly followed the investment

Data source Author finishing

China’s shared bicycles are gradually moving toward the overseas market in the future. The penetration rate of China’s shared bicycles in the overall transportation tools is increasing. The coverage of overseas users has risen remarkably. The user’s use time is considerable. The spurt-developed Chinese shared bicycles become traffic. The “first echelon” of the tool, the development of China’s shared bicycles is just around the corner. Innovative “Internet+”. Big data + cloud platform + IoT technology to create a Chinese shared bicycle to create a digital intelligent riding service. China’s shared bicycle system has been gradually optimized, and its performance has become more and more solid. The shared bicycle-style travel service has become the mainstream service for citizens to travel. “Black-Motor” “Tricycle” has gradually faded out of

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the market, and has invested in China to share the bicycle production industry, maintain the warranty industry, and lock the smart lock. The manufacturing, technology upgrading, and logistics distribution industries create new services and realize the innovative entrepreneurship spirit of “achieving at the foot of entrepreneurship”. China’s shared bicycles are hit hard, and at the same time as the society is highly efficient, there are also related problems in its development, such as the increasing number of shared bicycles, fierce competition, oversaturated markets and poor management. Shared bicycles are parked everywhere. The rapid development of China’s shared bicycle industry has brought many problems to urban management. The traditional public bicycle has a pile model as a pile-free mode. The phenomenon of no piles causes users to park and cause some bicycle systems to malfunction. Users often ignore sharing with China. Bicycle maintenance, cherish and other issues; “cycling around the city”, “cycling in the road” and “single car has a unique style”, bringing inconvenience to more people, urban tourism tends to develop viciously; the vehicle parking area is in short supply, the management system lags behind, the city The manager’s responsibilities are unclear, and the user’s disorderly parking and sharing of bicycles cannot be dissipated. Shared bicycles are unevenly distributed. With the increase of China’s shared bicycle companies, the diversified Chinese sharing bicycles are needed by more users. The rapid development of China’s shared bicycle industry has caused a large number of bicycles to over-saturate the market. The sharing of bicycles is highly concentrated in the first-line and some developed second-tier cities. In the major universities, large enterprises, community residential buildings, subway stations, and bus stations, the demand for users in first- and second-tier cities is strong, and the market is fiercely competitive, but its capacity is limited and the market is oversaturated. Third- and fourth-tier cities and overseas users have significant market demand and sufficient capacity, but they lack the amount of shared bicycles in China. As a new industry, shared bicycles should cooperate with the government’s management, pay attention to the city’s capacity, strengthen its own services and promote technology renewal, and win the trust of users with high quality and high service. The development of enterprises is inseparable from the support of consumers. Nowadays, there are more and more complaints from users in major media, which should attract the attention of enterprises and improve the defects. When sharing bicycles as public goods, enterprises should assume the responsibility of maintaining social security and improve the supervision and management system.

Chapter 6

Transportation and Economy

6.1 Practical Transportation Developing Trend 6.1.1 Development of China’s Railway Transportation Since the reform and opening up, China’s industrial economy has developed rapidly and has been among the world’s forefront in many fields. Among them, it has achieved very good results in the field of transportation. Transportation is a basic, leading and strategic industry, and it is an important support and strong guarantee for economic and social development. From the beginning of reform and opening up to the present, China’s transportation history has created many world-famous “China speed” and “China model”. Looking back at the initial stage of reform and opening up, the domestic transportation industry is in its infancy, and construction in the fields of railways, highways, aviation, and rail transit is waiting to be developed. We take the railway as an example to study the development of China’s transportation industry. Since the reform and opening up, China’s railway development process can be divided into reform start (1978–1985), active change (1986–1991), market (1992– 2003), comprehensive advancement (2004–2012), post-Ministry of the Ministry of Railways In the five stages (from 2013 to the present), the railway reform at each stage is closely related to the overall social and economic reforms. It has its own development path and reflects different characteristics of the times. It also has many factors since the birth of China Railway. In the 40 years of shaping the face of China’s railways. (1)

The initial stage of reform (1978–1985)

The Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party held at the end of 1978 achieved the shift of the focus of the work of the entire party. At the working meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held in April of the following year, the central government formally proposed the eightcharacter policy of “adjusting, reforming, rectifying and improving” the national © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 H. Li, Spatiotemporal Transportation Economics Development: Theories and Practices in China and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8197-4_6

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economy. However, the railway transportation capacity at that time was weak and still could not meet the needs of national economic development. To this end, according to the requirements of the entire national economy for railway transportation, and for the contradictions and problems in the railway work, the first is to deal with the relationship between the old line transformation and the new line construction. The first task of the basic construction in the near future is to grasp the existing The technical transformation of the railway; the second is to resolutely carry out the traction power; the third is to resolutely put the quality of equipment up; the fourth is to grasp the training of personnel and improve the level of science and technology and management. However, the practical effect is not ideal. (2)

Active change stage (1986–1991)

At the beginning of 1986, the party group of the Ministry of Railways proposed eight reforms involving railway operations, financing, technological transformation, and scientific management. In 1988, with the period of reform and opening up entering the process of rectification and deepening reform, the railway also entered the stage of rectification and deepening reform. During this period, the reform led to the transformation of railway economic management from production to production and operation. The business structure entered a new pattern of transportation and transportation, changing the traditional transportation organization and management methods, and adapting to the market economy. (3)

Deepening the reform stage (1992–2003)

During this period, the market-oriented railway reform was carried out in depth. In the process, the reform of the railway management system, the transformation of the operating mechanism, the establishment of a modern enterprise system, the reform of the railway investment system, and the development of railway diversification were gradually advanced. It has effectively promoted the construction and development of China’s railways. (4)

Comprehensive promotion stage (2004–2012)

In 2004, the first railway industry plan in the history of New China Railways— the “medium and long-term railway network planning” was implemented, from “implementing passenger and cargo distribution lines to improve the quality of road networks; strengthening the construction of connecting channels and improving the layout of road networks; The four aspects of the existing capacity, highlighting coordinated development, promoting technological innovation, and improving the level of equipment localization have been carried out to carry out systematic and large-scale railway construction. (5)

Post-Ministry of Railways (2013-present)

In 2013, according to the State Council’s institutional adjustment and functional transformation plan, the Ministry of Railways separated the administrative enterprises and established the China Railway Corporation and the National Railway

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Bureau. The focus of railway reform has gradually shifted to “deepening the structural reform of the supply side of transportation and improving the service guarantee capability of railways for economic and social development”. Secondly, in terms of railway passenger transport, at the end of 2011, all trains across the road achieved Internet ticket sales. Internet ticketing greatly facilitates passengers to purchase tickets and effectively improves the overall level of ticketing services. Finally, promote the reform of the railway investment and financing system.

6.1.2 Structural Reform of the Supply Side of the Railway Industry Deepening the structural reform of the supply side of railway transportation is an urgent need for the development of the economic situation and the decision-making arrangements of the Party Central Committee. It was learned from the China Railway Corporation that starting from 0:00 on April 10, 2019, the national railway will implement a new train operation map. Beijing to Qingdao North will arrive within 3 h for the first time, and 49 min before compression. The map serves the construction of Xiong’an New District. On the basis of the current 39 trains stopped at Baiyangdian Station, 10 new Baiyangdian Station stop trains will be added. For the general speed passenger trains, the national railway will continue to maintain the scale of the general speed trains. The number of trains is 1203, which is 29.5 pairs before the adjustment. Continue to operate 81 pairs of public welfare slow trains to meet the diverse needs of passengers. The optimization of the transportation structure is only the tip of the iceberg of the railway transportation industry to deepen the structural reform of the supply side. (1)

Railway transportation supply

Railway transportation supply refers to the quantity of various transportation products that the railway is willing and capable of providing at a certain price level during a certain period of time. An effective transport supply must meet two conditions, namely the transport producer’s willingness to sell the transport service and the ability to produce transport services. Railway transportation supplies mainly include: Transportation supply: The transportation supply is usually the number and scale of passengers that can be carried by the railway. It consists of two parts: transportation infrastructure and motor vehicles, which reflects the transportation capacity of the railway. In the current management system, the management of transportation infrastructure and transportation vehicles may be separated, but in the formation of transportation production capacity, the two are indispensable; transportation layout: transportation layout refers to the distribution and activities of railway infrastructure in space. Reasonable equipment and development of equipment; transportation management system: transportation management system is the system supply of railway transportation, guiding the establishment of the enterprise system, resource allocation mode and corresponding macro adjustment institutions, policies and regulations, etc.

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Railway transportation demand

Transportation demand refers to the demand derived from social and economic life under a certain period of time and price level, that is, the demand for payment capacity of goods and passengers in terms of spatial displacement, and must have the willingness to achieve displacement and the ability to pay. In order to constitute an effective transportation demand. Some need to be considered public, can be met through a public budget. Because transportation is seen as a factor that has a major impact on people’s quality of life, people have the right to enjoy this most basic service, and the transportation department should guarantee a certain level of supply. Railway transportation demand refers to the requirements of railway production for social production and people’s life. The railway transportation demand consists of five elements, namely flow, flow, flow rate, flow, and flow time. Transportation demand has produced transportation supply, transportation supply and transportation demand, and the mutual movement between the two has promoted the development of the transportation industry and promoted social and economic progress. The field of potential human needs can be said to be infinite, and the transportation supply is limited by related factors such as social economy and productivity development level. The contradiction between transportation supply and transportation demand is concentrated on the excess and deficiency between transportation supply capacity and demand. Excessive transportation supply capacity will cause waste of transportation resources. Insufficient transportation supply capacity will affect the reasonable flow of passengers and goods, and inhibit The generation of demand. Therefore, only by achieving the balance and coordination of transportation supply and demand can we provide an effective supply that meets the characteristics of transportation demand. Therefore, under the situation that the market economy is maturing, the process of national industrialization is accelerating, and the industrial structure and consumption structure are becoming more and more reasonable, the coordination mechanism of comprehensive transportation supply and demand is explored in theory, and a quantitative analysis model for the coordinated development of comprehensive transportation supply and demand is established. It can prepare preliminary theories and methods for the comparative study of coordinated transportation development across the country or region. Through the quantitative analysis and evaluation of the coordinated development of comprehensive transportation supply and demand, it provides countermeasures for the coordinated development model of integrated transportation supply–demand implementation, and builds a bridge between the theory and practice of comprehensive transportation supply and demand coordination development. At the same time, this has a positive effect on adjusting the transportation structure and layout, and thus coordinating the relationship between the transportation industry and the national economy. As the main artery of the national economy, the railway is an important area and key industry related to national security and stability. Its product attributes determine that it must deepen the supply-side structural reform, improve the quality and efficiency of transportation, and innovate convenience and benefit measures in order to serve the economy. Play a greater role in the overall situation of social development,

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provide more adequate protection, and meet the people’s growing needs for a better life. In short, it is to improve the transportation structure and increase the effective supply from the realistic needs of meeting the needs of the people and economic and social development, so as to reduce costs and improve efficiency, and to enhance the railway transportation industry while invigorating economic development. The quality and benefits of its own development. The report of the 19th National Congress pointed out that we must adhere to quality first and efficiency first, and take supply-side structural reform as the main line to promote economic development quality change, efficiency change, and power change. Railway transportation is closely related to the people. To deepen the structural reform of the railway transportation supply side, we must guide the market demand and release the vitality and vitality of railway transportation. We must proceed from the fundamental interests of the people, firmly grasp the essence of satisfying the needs of the people, and effectively strengthen the people. The sense of gain of the masses. At present, China is in the midst of a period of reform and opening up and a deep-water area. We must strengthen our confidence and unswervingly carry out the reform to the end. While steadfast courage and determination, it is equally important to stick to the right direction. Guided by market demand, promoting the supply-side structural reform of the railway industry is the only way to achieve high-quality development and realize the “acceleration of the railway”. It is the fundamental guarantee for the stability of the railway.

6.1.3 Big Data Transportation Development Plan “This is a revolution,” says Gary King, a sociology professor at Harvard University, when talking about big data. “Big data allows us to begin to quantify things in all areas, and all areas will be inseparable from big data. “Big data has not only developed rapidly in the business world, but various mobile app icons have marked the successful entry of big data into the business world. Similarly, academic research on big data is in full swing. As of March 2019, in the HowNet search, the number of articles using the “Big Data” title search has reached 56,306. Most of them are research backgrounds for big data development, and challenges in the era of big data. For example, there are as many as 16,338 related journals in the “big data era” and 2174 journals related to “big data environment”. These data indicate that big data has become various scientists study the focus. Foreign big data is in a period of rapid development. In recent years, China’s big data has maintained a good momentum of development, and the research on the use of big data by the academic community is also becoming more and more fierce. Professor Lin Xiaoyan and others tried to study the spatio-temporal analysis of traffic big data and wanted to connect with the status quo of China’s high-speed rail, and achieved the theory of figurative economic space–time, which laid a foundational contribution to China’s regional economic and social development.

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Traffic big data plays an important role in promoting the optimization of transportation structure, promoting the structural reform of transportation supply side, innovating passenger and freight transportation and new business models of logistics, and effectively improving the efficiency and efficiency of transportation and logistics. Traffic time and space data refers to the data used in the traffic system to describe the real-time status of various traffic, such as traffic flow information of road sections, congestion status information of road sections, and traffic hotspot event information. These data are complex due to their variable spatiotemporal properties and exhibit strong spatio-temporal correlation, which is quite challenging when performing related data analysis. Therefore, we need to analyze both time and space when analyzing traffic big data.

6.2 Traffic and Space Economy Theoretical Overview 6.2.1 The Development of Space–time Economic Theory The space–time economy is economics based on time and space. The movement of space–time economy contains contradictions. The development of space–time economy through contradiction, time–space relationship or space–time structure is an important part of social and economic research. Rong Chaohe (2014) proposes that time-value analysis can help people understand the world of time series. And timevarying the world, to avoid losses caused by time delays, Rong Chao and Professor pointed out in 2011 that the passenger goods in the transportation process, the time will change the opportunity income and opportunity cost of the relevant entities, by saving time or delay will produce passenger and cargo transportation Impact, if time can be turned into a controllable factor, by grasping the time, without delaying time to avoid large losses, in addition, enterprises can control the relationship between time and space through internal and external governance means, thereby affecting their economic activities. Later, Rongchao and Professor added in 2014 that people can not only control the losses caused by time delays, but also grasp the time to make their own profits or hedges, and propose that the time-varying world is more in line with the current situation of the enterprise than the description of the time world. Time and space analysis methods play an important role in economic research (Rong Chaohe 2014).Using time-value analysis methods can help to discover the laws of the world that change over time, reduce the delay losses caused by time consumption, and also urge the attention to changes in time to cope with disasters. Introducing spatio-temporal analysis into the study of economics, it is very important to analyze problems from the perspective of time and space. The analysis of economic phenomena should be combined from multiple angles. Time and space factors should be taken into account in the study of problems. Considering the time background of economics and combining the analysis methods of time

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and space, we can relax the overly strict assumptions of rational economic people, and The study of economics can be transformed from a specific point in time into the real process of the real economy, and the research direction can be placed in the real economic problems (Rong Chaohe 2016).Time and space, as the basic characteristics of social economy, can promote social development and improve economic efficiency, but it also depends on the level of time and space construction and the use of time and space by members of society. Gao and Qian (2013) believe that the urban structure and transportation mode make mutual influence. The structure of a city affects the transportation situation and transportation mode of the city, and the reform of transportation mode will provide the basic conditions for urban development. In addition, the changes of population of the city in status and spatial structure also have an impact on the existing modes of transportation in the city. Wilson (1971) introduced spatial interaction and optimization concepts into the Laurie model, and constructed the entropy maximum strategy model with the concept of information entropy. Newman and Kenworthy (1989) analyzed the relationship between urban spatial structure and travel distance by statistical analysis of data from 32 cities around the world. The conclusion is that there is a correlation between the spatial distribution of population and the energy consumption of the city. Establish a highdensity land use model around the rail transit network to reduce energy consumption and increase space availability.

6.2.2 Analysis of Traffic Economic Practice Under the Constraints of Time and Space 6.2.2.1

Transportation Economy

Transportation economy refers to the combination of transportation and economy to study problems, using economic ideas and research methods to analyze transportation related issues, to solve traffic problems through urban transportation planning and to use economic theory to study traffic demand and supply. The combination of transportation and economic analysis can help solve transportation planning problems and facilitate application to the real world, while promoting economic development. Traffic can achieve accessibility between cities and regions. The development of vehicles and the improvement of orbits will reduce the access time. The accessibility between regions will affect economic development. The first accessibility indicates the shortening of spatial distance. It will reduce the price difference between regions, and the second accessibility will make the population flow more convenient, causing the population to flow like a region with a higher level of economic development, and at the same time drive the economic development of a region with a higher level of development, while traffic can also drive the periphery of the track. Economic development, on the other hand, the development of transportation makes the boundaries of cities or regions larger, expands the size of the region, affects the location of enterprises and individuals, and affects the regional economic level.

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Traffic Economy Under the Constraints of Time and Space

The transportation industry is a basic industry and service industry for national economic and social development. The development of an integrated transportation system is a new trend and new direction for the development of the contemporary transportation industry. In the development of the contemporary transportation industry, two major trends have emerged: with the development of the world’s new technological revolution, the widespread use of new technologies in transportation, the modernization and intelligentization of infrastructure and transportation equipment, and the diversification of transportation methods. The transportation process is unified, and various modes of transportation are developing in the direction of division of labor, coordination, coordination, and establishment of an integrated transportation system. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the total amount of transportation infrastructure has reached a certain scale, and its capabilities have been greatly improved. The relationship between supply and demand in the transportation market has undergone major changes, and the form of transportation has undergone major changes. From the “mainstream of water transport” and “mainly railway” to the system integration form of the comprehensive transportation system consisting of five modes of transportation: modern railway, highway, water transport, civil aviation and pipeline. Despite this, due to the slow process of constructing an integrated transportation system and the lack of effective connection and coordination of various modes of transportation, the total supply of transportation facilities and transportation capacity are insufficiently supplied, the overall service efficiency is not high, and the elasticity of the system’s demand fluctuations is still relatively high. Small, the situation of tight transportation supply capacity has not been effectively alleviated, especially during the period of large fluctuations in transportation demand such as Spring Festival, summer transportation, and “Golden Week”, the transportation supply capacity is obviously insufficient, and the quality of transportation services is becoming increasingly prominent. Aiming at the problems existing in the development of China’s comprehensive transportation industry, how to effectively allocate transportation resources and produce the best economic benefits is a problem to be solved. The best transportation economic benefits need to maximize the traffic efficiency under the constraints of government regulation and under the constraints of scarce resources such as time and space. The time and space of economic activities are often unique and scarce. The purpose of resource allocation is to effectively allocate limited transportation resources to different regions, different routes, different times and different links, to meet the needs of society for transportation at the most level, and to achieve the coordination of comprehensive transportation supply and demand. Develop, improve transportation productivity and vehicle utilization, reduce transportation costs, improve transportation economic efficiency, and form a rationalized and efficient integrated transportation supply capacity. Government regulation refers to the act of restricting the activities of individuals who constitute a particular society and the activities of active subjects that constitute a

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particular economy, in accordance with certain rules, on behalf of the public interest. From the perspective of supervision, the existing regulatory system has seriously restricted the development of the railway industry. With the continuous development of the economy, the regulatory mechanisms, systems and systems need to be constantly adjusted. For China, the government’s regulation in the transportation sector is a reform and deepening of the development of the traditional transportation industry. It is a major step in the establishment and improvement of the socialist economic system. It is conducive to the redistribution of social resources, the close exchange of economic entities, the saving of social costs, and the smooth progress of economic system reform. Maximize efficiency. Taking the railway as an example, it is also important to analyze the railway transportation efficiency and explore the improvement mechanism of railway transportation efficiency under the background of the implementation of the railway speed-up strategy in China. Studying the efficiency of railways in different countries, comparing and analyzing the efficiency of China’s railways, can solve the problem of strong transportation demand in China, and contribute to the sustainable development of economy. Due to the uneven distribution of resources in different regions of China, the location conditions are different, and the economic development level and industrial structure of each region have The big difference is that there is a strong demand for product exchange between regions. From the perspective of comprehensive factors such as transportation volume and transportation distance, safety and comfort, speed and price, the railway will be the most important transportation mode for passenger and cargo transportation. Compared with other modes of transportation, its role is difficult to replace. Highway pollution, high air transportation costs, and low pipeline technology limits their use in medium and long distance bulk cargo transportation. Moreover, while China is entering a period of rapid industrialization, sustainable economic development is very important to China. Railways have obvious advantages in terms of energy consumption, pollution discharge, and land occupation. Therefore, from the perspective of sustainable development, the railway is improved. Transportation efficiency is imperative.

6.3 The History of the Transportation Development 6.3.1 Railway Development History 6.3.1.1

EU Railway

At the end of the last century, with the rapid rise of convenient transportation such as highways and high-speed aviation, the share of railways in the EU countries in the transportation market has shrunk sharply, and there has been a serious loss. It depends on the country’s high financial subsidies to maintain normal conditions. Operation. The rigid management system has brought the development of the railway

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transportation industry into a dead end. Therefore, reforming the railway to revitalize the railway has become an inevitable choice for the railway departments of the European Union. Since the 1980s, EU member states have begun to implement the “separation of network transportation” reforms for railways, and have accelerated the pace of railway reform. They have been carried out under the overall design concept of “separation of network transportation”, and countries have implemented “network separation”. The way and extent are different. The Swedish railway was the first to successfully implement the “network separation” business model. The original state-owned railway was split into two entities: the State-owned Railway Company (SJ) and the National Railway Administration (BV). SJ aims to improve its own profitability and shareholder income, and is responsible for its own profit and loss, independent accounting, mainly responsible for passenger and cargo transportation, transportation control, marshaling station operations, purchase and maintenance of rolling stock, and the sale and development of real estate. SJ and other transportation operators on the road network pay the country the railway line infrastructure usage fee, which is directly paid to the state treasury. The assets of the National Railway Administration are mainly: railway lines, communication signal facilities, power contact networks, and fixed equipment for marshaling stations. The main task is to be responsible for the maintenance and renovation of the railway infrastructure, and the funds are mainly from the line usage fees collected by the state to the railway transportation company and the state’s financial allocation. In the German railway reform, the national railway was formed into a new enterprise “German Railways Joint Stock Company (DBAG)”. Since 1998, DBAG has reorganized its operations departments such as infrastructure, freight, longdistance passenger transport, and short-distance passenger transport, and formed them as infrastructure companies, freight companies, long-distance passenger transport companies, and short-haul passenger transport companies. There is independent accounting between companies, thus achieving the separation of road network infrastructure and professional transportation companies. The newly formed road network company is responsible for the operation, management and maintenance of the railway infrastructure, and collects the usage fee for the equipment from various professional transportation companies in the form of selling train running lines. Each professional transportation company leases station equipment from the road network company, decompiles, repairs, maintains and uses the train, purchases locomotive vehicles, conducts market investigation, and organizes passenger and cargo transportation. The long-term goal of the German railway company reform is to separately issue shares of the railway company’s subsidiaries, making them a fully independent joint-stock company. By issuing stocks to absorb social capital, the company can be transformed from a single country investment entity to a social multi-investment entity, thus completely achieving the purpose of separating infrastructure companies from the main passenger and cargo operations and equal competition among railway transportation enterprises. In 1997, France implemented a major reform of the “separation of network and operation” of the railway management system. The most important part of the reform is to separate the construction investment management function of the national

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railway network from the corresponding assets and liabilities from the French railway company and hand it over to the newly established French railway network company, which is owned by the national railway network. They are responsible for the owner’s functions in their investment activities. The road network company is a state-owned limited liability company. It collects the usage fee of the national railway network from the transportation company. The reformed France Railway Company mainly operates the railway transportation business, and is entrusted by the road network company to undertake the maintenance and repair management of the national railway infrastructure, and collects the commissioned maintenance fee from the road network company. Some other member states of the European Union, such as the United Kingdom, Austria, Italy, and Spain, have gradually implemented a management system that separates railway infrastructure from transportation operations. The road network is open to third parties and liberalizes rail transport within the EU.

6.3.1.2

Japan Railway

Due to special geographical reasons, the railway plays a very important role in Japan’s transportation and economic development. However, there are many similar problems in the development of railways in Japan and the development of railways in other countries. Only through reform can we renew our vitality. The reforms implemented by the Japanese Railways in 1987 were carried out in accordance with the method of privatization of railways after the first reorganization, that is, the state-owned railways were divided into special zones, with six railway passenger transportation companies and one railway freight transportation company with privilege in the national market were established. After the regional railway company is decomposed from the state-owned railway, it sells shares to the public. 1.

Reform plan design

The Japanese State-owned Railway Reform and Supervision Committee submitted the “Japan State-owned Railway Restructuring Opinion” in July 1985. It was implemented after passing the Congressional review in November 1986. According to the reorganization opinion, the Japanese state-owned railway reform finally adopted a “top-down” restructuring method, which is to reorganize the public sector that owns and controls the railway assets. 2.

Formulate corresponding laws and regulations

In order to smoothly carry out the shareholding reform of the state-owned railways, the government and the Congress first formulated and passed the “Japan National Railway Reform Law” and related laws and regulations, which detailed the restructuring process. According to the above-mentioned program design and laws and regulations, the state-owned railway company will be transformed into a joint-stock system in a step-by-step manner.

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Transformation of government management functions

Before the privatization of the Japanese railway, it was a state-funded public enterprise legal person, and all matters must be considered by the National Assembly. After the privatization, the government’s management of the railway has undergone great changes. The railway business of the former state-owned railways was all handed over to the JR Group. The government also greatly relaxed restrictions, revised some laws, and strengthened the construction of security and other aspects. The construction funds of the new line are financed by the state or subsidized, but most rely on loans, and the state no longer interferes with the construction of the new line. For the formulation of the railway freight rate, the freight rate ceiling approval system shall be implemented. The appropriate scope of the freight rate shall be recognized by the Minister of Transport. The price adjustment within the upper limit shall be submitted only in advance. For express fares, sleepers, seats and various fare discounts on existing routes, only the declaration can be made, and there are no restrictions on station fares and refund fees. 4.

Play the important role of the supervisory committee

The Supervisory Committee played an important role in the Japanese railway reform: First, its role in allocating resources. As the supervisory committee, the Shinkansen railway jointly owned by the railway companies is redistributed to each passenger transport company and required to pay the rent of the Shinkansen facilities. The size of the rent is determined by the internal revenue of the transport enterprises in each region; the second is to rationally allocate the lines. The Supervisory Committee evaluates various road network layout schemes from transportation and finance, and recommends route allocation schemes that are most suitable for natural market boundaries. Third, it deals with surplus property and debt. When the railway liability exceeds its assets, the supervisory committee is responsible for resolving disputes between shareholders, obtaining ownership of unimportant assets and liquidating the assets, rearranging and selling at a discount to pay off the remaining debts; fourth, coordinating labor conflicts and helping Laid-off workers re-employed. The reform of the railway company was an extremely important reform for Japan and achieved remarkable results. First, the economic benefits have increased substantially. The net profit in both 1997 and 1998 was above 50 billion yen; the second was a significant increase in efficiency. After the reform, the passenger turnover has increased by an average of 3.4% in 7 years. The gap between the railway companies in terms of labor productivity and the large private railways is also shrinking. Today, the utilization rate of railway transportation in Japan is also the highest in the world. The third development is to promote macroeconomics.

6.3.1.3

China Railway

Since the reform and opening up, China’s railway development process can be divided into reform start (1978–1985), active change (1986–1991), market (1992–2003),

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comprehensive advancement (2004–2012), and post-Ministry of the Ministry of Railways. (2013–) In five stages, the railway reform at each stage is closely related to the overall social and economic reforms. It has its own development path and reflects different characteristics of the times. It also has many factors since the birth of China Railway. In the 40 years of shaping the face of China’s railways.1 (1)

The initial stage of reform (1978–1985)

The Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party held at the end of 1978 achieved the shift of the focus of the work of the entire party. At the working meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held in April of the following year, the central government formally proposed the eightcharacter policy of “adjusting, reforming, rectifying and improving” the national economy. However, the railway transportation capacity at that time was weak and still could not meet the needs of national economic development. To this end, according to the requirements of the entire national economy for railway transportation, and for the contradictions and problems in the railway work, the first is to deal with the relationship between the old line transformation and the new line construction. The first task of infrastructure construction in the near future is to grasp the existing The technical transformation of the railway; the second is to resolutely carry out the traction power; the third is to resolutely put the quality of equipment up; the fourth is to grasp the training of personnel and improve the level of science and technology and management. However, the practical effect is not ideal. (2)

Active change stage (1986–1991)

At the beginning of 1986, the party group of the Ministry of Railways proposed eight reforms involving railway operations, financing, technological transformation, and scientific management. In 1988, with the period of reform and opening up entering the process of rectification and deepening reform, the railway also entered the stage of rectification and deepening reform. During this period, the reform led to the transformation of railway economic management from production to production and operation. The business structure entered a new pattern of transportation and transportation, changing the traditional transportation organization and management methods, and adapting to the market economy. (3)

Deepening the reform phase (1992–2003)

During this period, the market-oriented railway reform was carried out in depth. In the process, the reform of the railway management system, the transformation of the operating mechanism, the establishment of a modern enterprise system, the reform of the railway investment system, and the development of railway diversification were gradually advanced. It has effectively promoted the construction and development of China’s railways.

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Comprehensive promotion stage (2004–2012)

In 2004, the first railway industry plan in the history of New China Railways— “Medium and Long-term Railway Network Planning” was implemented, from “implementing passenger and cargo distribution lines to improve road network quality; strengthening connection channel construction and improving road network layout; Systematic and large-scale railway construction will be carried out in four aspects: the ability to expand the line, highlight the coordinated development, promote technological innovation, and improve the level of localization of equipment. (5)

Post-Ministry of the Ministry of Railways (2013–)

In 2013, according to the State Council’s institutional adjustment and functional transformation plan, the Ministry of Railways separated the administrative enterprises and established the China Railway Corporation and the National Railway Bureau. The focus of railway reform has gradually shifted to “deepening the structural reform of the supply side of transportation and improving the service guarantee capability of railways for economic and social development”. Secondly, in terms of railway passenger transport, at the end of 2011, all trains across the road achieved Internet ticket sales. Internet ticketing greatly facilitates passengers to purchase tickets and effectively improves the overall level of ticketing services. Finally, promote the reform of the railway investment and financing system.

6.3.1.4 (1)

China Railway Development Enlightenment

Separation of government and enterprise is the key to the success of railway reform

Before the privatization of the Japanese railway, the dual leadership of the national railway led to unclear operational responsibilities. After privatization, the business responsibilities of the JR Group companies as enterprises are clearly separated from the administrative functions of the state. The relationship between the railway enterprises and the government is clarified according to the Railway Business Law, and a system in which the government is not allowed to interfere with the independent decision-making of enterprises is established.. The separation of government and enterprise has enabled the railway to gain a broader space for survival and development, which is very beneficial to both railway users and taxpayers. Correctly define and divide the functions, responsibilities and powers of the government and enterprises, and rationally adjust the division of labor in railway infrastructure planning, construction, financing, management, operation and public services between governments at all levels, so that transport enterprises become independent The economic entity that is capable and operated according to the principle of commercialization is a common practice of railway reform in all countries of the world, and it should also be a prerequisite for China’s railway reform.

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(2)

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The corporate structure of the railway should be determined by the market

In the original national railway division in Japan, the division of the six passenger transport companies was not solely based on geographical factors, but mainly based on the transportation market and operating base. First of all, it must conform to the characteristics of passenger flow, and it cannot cause inconvenience to passengers. Therefore, it is not possible to demarcate the location where passengers pass through a large amount. After the division of the national railway, passenger transportation within each company accounted for 95%, and only a small number of trains operated across the company. Secondly, we must ensure that the relative income of each company is complete. The combined operation of the existing line and the Shinkansen must achieve financial balance and appropriate internal crosssubsidization. For example, the Tokaido Shinkansen crosses three companies in the east, middle and west, but is in the middle. The railway company was unable to maintain normal operations on its own, and the entire line of Tokaido was owned. At present, the transportation revenue of the Tokaido Shinkansen accounts for 83% of the total revenue. (3)

The choice of reform mode must be in line with national conditions

The Japanese railway reform did not adopt the “separation of network transportation” model like the European railway, but adopted the model of “regional companies as the mainstay and separation of network transportation”, which is consistent with Japan’s national conditions. Because Japan’s population density is very large, the load is much heavier than that of the European railway in terms of the amount of transportation undertaken. It is very difficult to separate the line infrastructure from the operation, and It is impossible to achieve optimal use of the line and to improve efficiency. Therefore, in the reform, the passenger transport company is a combination of network and transport, and the freight company adopts the separation of network transport due to the characteristics of the national flow of goods and the balance of revenue and expenditure. At the same time, the newly built Shinkansen is separated by network transportation, and the construction is funded by the state. After the completion, it will be paid for by the passenger transportation company. At present, China’s railway main line passes 75% more trains per kilometer per day than the British Railways, almost the same as Japan’s Shinkansen. Therefore, this feature must be fully considered when designing the railway reform model in China. In short, the railway reform must fully consider the characteristics of the industry, conform to the trend of world railway reform, and adopt a reasonable model for the characteristics of the country, plan and carry out steps, and correctly handle the relationship between introducing competition and improving government regulation.

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6.3.2 Aviation Development History 6.3.2.1

History of China Aviation Development

China’s civil aviation passenger transport can be roughly divided into four stages from 1949 to the present: In the first stage, from 1949 to 1978, the annual transportation of civil aviation passengers changed from the initial 10,000 to 2.31 million in 1978. In the second stage, there were 140 passenger aircraft from 1978 to 1987. The length of the establishment was 3.43 million; the third stage, from 1987 to 2002, China International Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, China Southern Airlines, China Northern Airlines, Southwest Airlines and China Northwest Airlines were established. Beijing Capital Airport, Shanghai Hongqiao Airport, Guangshuo Baiyun Airport, Chengdu Shuangliu Airport, Xi’an Xiguan Airport (now Xi’an Xianyang Airport) and Shenyang Taoxian Airport have been built one after another. The transportation volume of civil aviation travel has reached 85.94 million. The fourth stage, 2002 So far, six major group companies have been established: Eastern Airlines Group Corporation, China Aviation Group Corporation, China Southern Airlines Group Corporation, China Aviation Oil Group Corporation, China Civil Aviation Information Collection Corporation and China Aviation Equipment Access Corporation, as of 2014, civil aviation guest residence The turnover was 633.33 billion person-km. By the end of 2020, the total number of national airports will reach 244. Among them, the northern airport group: 54 layout planning airports, 24 new: East China Airport Group: 49 layout planning airports, 12 new; Central South Airport Group: 39 layout planning airports, 14 new: Southwest Airport Group: The total number of layout planning airports is 52, with 21 new ones; Northwest Airport Group: the total number of layout planning airports is 50, with 26 new ones. The passenger traffic of civil aviation will reach 710 million passengers.2

6.3.2.2

American Aviation History

The American aviation industry started in the 1920s. In 1938, marked by the Civil Aviation Law, the US aviation industry entered a period of strict control. Until 1978, the US government promulgated the “Airline Release Control Act.“ Deregulation has led to an increase in the number of American airlines, a decline in fares, and a better protection of service quality and safety, but good results have not been maintained for a long time. With the relaxation of regulation, a large number of new airlines entered the market, and most airlines went bankrupt or were merged and reorganized in the fierce market competition. In 2016, the four major US airlines accounted for 66% of the market. At the same time, the shareholders behind the four major airlines also have a high degree of overlap, with four institutions holding a total of more than 20% of the four major US airlines. The high degree of overlap among shareholders has

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led to a de facto monopoly between the four major airlines. Airlines no longer need to increase market share by lowering fares, but to maximize fares and achieve the highest level of return on the premise of ensuring passenger load. In summary, the US aviation industry achieves a substantial monopoly through cross-shareholding between companies under weak supervision. China’s air transport industry has developed rapidly in recent years, and the total amount of air transport has ranked second in the world. At present, Air China, Eastern Airlines and China Southern Airlines are the dominant players in the market. From the perspective of the total turnover of civil aviation transportation, these three major airlines accounted for more than 70%. Different from the comprehensive liberalization control policy of the United States, the Chinese government controls the development speed of the industry from the total amount through market access and airline licenses, regulates the competitive intensity of the industry, and guarantees the profits of aviation enterprises. China’s aviation industry actually achieves a monopoly effect through government policies. From the history of airlines, it can be found that whether it is through the crossshareholding between airlines or the government’s policy supervision, it must form a certain degree of monopoly position, in order to have pricing power, master the pricing power to grasp the profit.

6.3.3 Urban Rail Transit Development Patterns Urban rail transit is an important urban public transport facility. The development of urban rail transit is conducive to optimizing urban spatial layout, stimulating urban economic and social development, alleviating urban traffic congestion, and achieving coordinated development of resources and environment.

6.3.3.1

The Development Stage of Urban Rail

The development of urban rail transit in China has gone through three stages: (1)

The initial stage (from the 1950s to the mid-1980s)

From the 1950s, China began to prepare for subway construction and planned the Beijing subway network. From 1965 to 1984, the first and second phases of the Beijing Metro (about 43.5 km long) were built. At the same time, in 1974, Tianjin built a 7.4-km subway line, and Harbin built a civil air defense tunnel project, and Shanghai did the preliminary research work of the subway construction. Due to the slow development of urbanization in China at this stage and the lack of demand for rail transit for transportation purposes, the construction of the subway mainly focuses on warfare and traffic functions.

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Beginning the development stage (late 1980s–late 1990s)

Since the 1980s, China’s urbanization has developed rapidly, and the number of motor vehicles has grown rapidly. Traffic in the central area has begun to become congested. It is difficult for public transportation to meet the daily travel of citizens. For this reason, since the late 1980s, China’s cities have Rail transit has gradually begun to plan and construct for the purpose of urban transportation. This stage is marked by the construction projects of Shanghai Metro Line 1, Beijing Metro Complex Eight Line and the first phase of the subway, and Guangzhou Metro Line 1. In the 1990s, with the construction of subway projects in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, a large number of cities including Shenyang, Tianjin, Nanjing, Chongqing, Wuhan, Shenzhen, Chengdu, Qingdao, etc. began to report to the country to build rail transit projects, but due to high project cost, Problems such as the introduction of a large number of equipment, the State Council issued a document requiring strict control of the development of rail transit, suspension of examination and approval of projects, and the development of rail transit development planning and localization planning. Therefore, in the last decade or so of the late 1990s, there were only three new rail transits in China, totaling about 54 km. (3)

Accelerating the development stage (from the late 1990s to the present)

Since the end of 1998, the state has studied the localization policy of urban rail transit equipment, and has successively approved the Shenzhen, Shanghai Pearl Line and Guangzhou Line 2 as localization projects, and the rail transit project has started. At the same time, with the rapid development of urbanization in China, the urban population continues to rise, the city scale continues to expand, and the number of motor vehicles is growing rapidly. Environmental problems such as traffic congestion and automobile exhaust in large cities are becoming more and more serious. The demand for large-capacity, fast and environmentally rail transit is increasingly prominent. In 2003, the “Notice of the General Office of the State Council on Strengthening the Management of Urban Rapid Rail Transit Construction” emphasized the strict conditions for the construction of urban rail transit projects, and emphasized the strengthening of the construction of urban rail transit construction plans. For the approval work, cities that require urban rail transit must first prepare a near-term construction plan. With the promulgation and implementation of Circular 81, rail transit began to experience rapid development after 2003. By the end of 2011, China, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing, Tianjin, Dalian, Wuhan, Changchun, Chongqing, Shenyang, The urban rail lines opened in 13 cities including Chengdu and Xi’an are about 1602.6 km long. The 28 cities that have approved the construction of urban rail transit are mainly provincial capital cities and some economically developed cities in the southeast coastal areas, namely Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen., Nanjing, Hangzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan, Chengdu, Tianjin, Xi’an, Suzhou, Harbin, Shenyang, Changchun, Ningbo, Wuxi, Zhengzhou, Changsha, Fuzhou, Dongguan, Kunming, Dalian, Nanchang, Qingdao, Nanning, Hefei, Guiyang, approved The total number of lines is about 93 (segment) lines, with

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a total mileage of about 2700 km and a total investment of more than 100 billion yuan. The total number of rail transit projects under construction is 76 (segments) with a total length of about 1600 km and a total investment of about 720 billion yuan, focusing on Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Chongqing, Chengdu and other cities.

6.3.3.2

The Development Patterns of Urban Rail

Whether it is construction speed or construction scale, China’s rail transcriod of vigorous development. China has become the world’s largest urban rail transit construction market. (1)

(2)

(3)

Autonomous business model. The self-employed business model is completely controlled or provided by the company itself. It is applicable for businesses that lack outsourcing or outsource costs too much or risks too high. Non-ticket assets generally cannot be outsourced when they are managed or managed. Non-ticket asset management business entities must provide convenient, safe, convenient and quality passenger travel service products to the market through their own efforts, establish a corporate image, build market competitive advantages, and build core competitiveness of enterprises. According to the existing construction and organization of rail transit commercial resources, the asset management company, the land division department and the multi-business division form a mutually independent and freely developed business resource business structure. Their future re-integration is completely dependent on market forces. There is no need for Beijing urban rail transit companies to do too much planning. This model is conducive to continuously adjust the business according to the actual situation of rail transit and land development and construction, and is also conducive to the pilot work of Beijing urban rail transit enterprises, but it is not conducive to the re-integration of the overall business in the future, and is not conducive to the coordination of the internal urban rail transit enterprises in Beijing complex relationship of various stakeholders. Entrusted business model. Entrusted management is a management mode in which some non-core businesses or functions traditionally held by internal members of the company are transferred to a professional and efficient independent manufacturer or service provider in an entrusted manner to fully utilize the best professional resources outside the company. Cooperative business model. Cooperative business model (joint operation) is not applicable to certain businesses of rail transit commercial resources, or the cost and risk of direct entrustment are too high, and the business is realized through the establishment of some form of joint venture, cooperation base, joint production, and other joint ventures. The resource management business entity complements the advantages of other core resources to reduce transaction costs and production costs.

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Notes 1. 2.

Zhang (2018). China Industry Research Network.

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