South Africa’s Water Predicament: Freshwater’s Unceasing Decline (Water Science and Technology Library, 101) 3031240189, 9783031240188

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Water Science and Technology Library

Anja du Plessis

South Africa’s Water Predicament Freshwater’s Unceasing Decline

Water Science and Technology Library Volume 101

Editor-in-Chief V. P. Singh, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Editorial Board R. Berndtsson, Lund University, Lund, Sweden L. N. Rodrigues, Embrapa Cerrados, Brasília, Brazil Arup Kumar Sarma, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India M. M. Sherif, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates B. Sivakumar, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Q. Zhang, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

The aim of the Water Science and Technology Library is to provide a forum for dissemination of the state-of-the-art of topics of current interest in the area of water science and technology. This is accomplished through publication of reference books and monographs, authored or edited. Occasionally also proceedings volumes are accepted for publication in the series. Water Science and Technology Library encompasses a wide range of topics dealing with science as well as socio-economic aspects of water, environment, and ecology. Both the water quantity and quality issues are relevant and are embraced by Water Science and Technology Library. The emphasis may be on either the scientific content, or techniques of solution, or both. There is increasing emphasis these days on processes and Water Science and Technology Library is committed to promoting this emphasis by publishing books emphasizing scientific discussions of physical, chemical, and/or biological aspects of water resources. Likewise, current or emerging solution techniques receive high priority. Interdisciplinary coverage is encouraged. Case studies contributing to our knowledge of water science and technology are also embraced by the series. Innovative ideas and novel techniques are of particular interest. Comments or suggestions for future volumes are welcomed. Vijay P. Singh, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil and Environment Engineering, Texas A&M University, USA Email: [email protected] All contributions to an edited volume should undergo standard peer review to ensure high scientific quality, while monographs should also be reviewed by at least two experts in the field. Manuscripts that have undergone successful review should then be prepared according to the Publisher’s guidelines manuscripts: https://www.springer.com/gp/ authors-editors/book-authors-editors/book-manuscript-guidelines

Anja du Plessis

South Africa’s Water Predicament Freshwater’s Unceasing Decline

Anja du Plessis Department of Geography School of Ecological and Human Sustainability College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences University of South Africa Johannesburg, South Africa

ISSN 0921-092X ISSN 1872-4663 (electronic) Water Science and Technology Library ISBN 978-3-031-24018-8 ISBN 978-3-031-24019-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Despite water being recognised as a vital resource for all aspects of human and environmental health and life, as well as a recognised human right on a global and national scale, it continues to be overused and degraded. Regardless of international and national goals being developed and set in place around achieving improved water access and sanitation services to try and achieve future sustainability, water resources are still continuously being misused and degraded at varying scales and magnitudes by all water use sectors around the world. Continued population growth, increased rural-urban migration, expansion of urban settlements and industrial activities, widespread water pollution as well as the achievement of continued socio-economic development and growth are the primary drivers of increased water stress on a global scale. The effects of increased climate variability, water scarcity and stress will place added pressure on already stressed water resources. The future sustainability of water resources should consequently be of prime importance due to the important role it plays as well as the major effects thereof on social, economic as well as environmental spheres. This book commences by first providing a discussion and evaluation of the world’s water resources from a global perspective. Focus is placed on current water availability, use and quality. A discussion of the predicted effects of increased climate variability, climate change and accompanied increased extreme weather events is provided to highlight the added pressure that increased floods as well as prolonged droughts will have on the world’s water resources in terms of water availability, use and quality. Global progress towards improving water, sanitation and hygiene access and services is also critically evaluated to determine overall progress made on a global scale. The future of water from a global perspective is also discussed by highlighting current regional trends. International real-world examples are used throughout the global part of this book to illustrate the overall scale of current and predicted water challenges and the current predicted trajectory of water resources towards 2050. Integrated water resource management is also evaluated from a global and South African perspective, highlighting the persistent challenges as well as achieved successes with the use of real-world examples. This is followed by a discussion of current water

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service provision and delivery challenges as well as progress made within the context of the globe and the Global South. Chapters 3–7 of the book focus on providing a critical evaluation of South Africa’s primary water challenges, which have been escalating at a rapid rate, consequently threatening water security and creating various water crises of varying magnitudes across the country. A discussion of the current state of South Africa’s water resources in terms of availability, withdrawals, use and supply, the primary drivers of predicted increased and unsustainable water demands, primary water quality issues and/or challenges, water governance structures and water management practices as well as water service provision and delivery is given. A critical evaluation of these mentioned water-related issues is provided to give a clear and accurate view of South Africa’s primary water issues contributing to the achievement of possible water crises if no suitable interventions and/or actions are taken. Chapters 4–6 are each dedicated to a specific major water challenge faced by the country. The country’s fragmented water governance, institutional problems and questionable decisions are critically evaluated with the use of case studies to highlight the magnitude of poor and/or inefficient water governance and questionable decisionmaking (Chapter 4). Real-world examples include the City of Cape Town narrowly avoiding “Day Zero”, Nelson Mandela Bay metropolitan municipality continued path to a possible “Day Zero” as well as the creation of a sewage crisis in the Vaal River due to questionable water management, non-maintenance of wastewater treatment works and overall unaccountability. All case studies made use of the most recent data available to provide a critical evaluation and discussion of how these real-world examples either narrowly avoiding or reaching a water crisis. This is followed by a detailed discussion on the continued decay of South Africa’s basic water and sanitation infrastructure and service delivery (Chapter 5). The progress or non-progress made in South Africa in terms of providing its citizens with access to water of an acceptable standard, reliable water supply as well as the delivery of water and sanitation services is critically evaluated by showing current trends with the use of most up-to-date data. Key issues are established, and some interventions are provided for the country to attempt to overcome current decay. Chapter 6 consequently places focus on the progressive deterioration of water quality within South Africa. The primary water quality challenges are discussed to provide a detailed view of the current status quo. Case studies are included to highlight the major real-world examples of water quality crises within the country. A detailed analysis of the Vaal River Barrage catchment, one of the most polluted catchments in the Vaal Water Management Area, is included. A total of seven water quality parameters were analysed and evaluated with the use of available Rand Water data for the period of the January–March 2017 to January–March 2022. A wide spectrum of physical, chemical and microbiological water quality parameters was selected and analysed for each sub-catchment to determine the current state of water quality within the Vaal River Barrage catchment. Additionally, an overall trend for each parameter was also calculated to establish water quality trends for the specific time period. Overall compliance to in-stream water quality guidelines were also determined and presented, highlighting the primary areas of concern or major risk

Preface

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areas where interventions are required to address the identified major water pollution problems. An acid mine drainage case study within the western, central and eastern basins of the Witwatersrand is provided as a real-world example illustrating the country’s major acidification water quality challenge. History of acidification of the province’s water resources are provided for context, followed by a discussion of current acid mine drainage issues. Chapter 6 concludes with a detailed case study focused on the immense water pollution problems currently being faced by the eThekwini metropolitan municipality, located within the country’s KwaZulu Natal Province. The municipality’s major water quality issues are discussed followed by a detailed discussion of recent and continued chemical spills as well as immense sewage pollution, affecting both freshwater resources as well as the ocean. The way this developing water crisis, consequent significant human health risks and overall environmental degradation has been managed by the municipality is also critically evaluated. The consequences of decayed infrastructure as well as questionable water management decisions are also highlighted with the use of this specific case study. The establishment of water quality challenges as well as the associated consequences and/or risks for South Africa is of importance as it attempts to create and contribute to informed knowledge and awareness for current and future water uses within different contexts. These established results can be used to improve current water management practices and decision-making processes. The book concludes with a chapter focused on critically evaluating South Africa’s overall impending water crises as well as providing possible interventions as well as a way forward to try and ensure future water security within the country. The primary facets contributing to increased pressure on the country’s water resources are identified and critically evaluated to show the scale and magnitude of the country’s impending water crisis. South Africa’s freshwater reality is, therefore, established with the inclusion of real-world examples, highlighting prominent issues which require urgent attention, immediate action and informed interventions on a short, medium- and long-term timescale. Measures are given which should be considered to try and ensure future water security in the country. As a conclusion to the book, possible solutions and measures which can be considered are also suggested and discussed, followed by a discussion of the way forward in an attempt for the country to avoid an overall water crisis and the achievement of water insecurity. South Africa’s water resources are not receiving the attention and status it deserves as wastage, pollution and degradation is widespread and, in some instances, increasing in both scale and magnitude. The overall sustainability of South Africa’s freshwater resources as well as its current degree of water security has reached a critical point. Real opportunities do, however, exist where South Africa can emerge as a leader in Africa by transitioning into water smart economies as well as improving overall water management practices. This can be achieved through investment into new cost-effective technologies as well as enterprise innovations, the establishment of private-public partnerships which should all aim at contributing to ensured water security. Informed and decisive steps are required to be taken as a matter of urgency

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as current water crises will have immense social, economic as well as environmental costs as well as threatening water security. The country can, therefore, not afford to wait any longer to implement decisive actions and interventions as its water security is currently under immense threat. The book, therefore, contributes to and emphasises the general international consensus that water issues in terms of availability, quality and supply on a global scale, and more specifically in South Africa, will have progressive and significant impacts on environmental and human health as well as socio-economic development. This book ultimately achieves its main purpose by providing a detailed critical evaluation of South Africa’s freshwater reality, with the extensive use of real-world examples as well as the evaluation of current case studies with the use of up-to-date data available within the public domain. The book finally calls for coordinated and decisive actions instead of promises, suitable levels of investment, the establishment of private-public partnerships as well as calling for political will to address the highlighted water challenges and crises which the country is currently facing. The book can, therefore, be of value to different levels of government, various water users, policymakers, legal sector, researchers as well as stakeholders and citizens. Importantly, the book shows that multiple opportunities do exist in the water sector; however, these opportunities will only be possible and actually materialise with improved water governance, water management practices as well as political will. In conclusion, this book emphasises the fact that water resources and the efficient management thereof need to be placed at the forefront of the global and the country’s agenda. Opportunities within the water sector will only materialise with actual political will. This book calls for improved water governance, management and actual political will to try and ensure future sustainability of the world’s water resources and South Africa striving for continued water security. For South Africa to avert the achievement of water crises and an ultimate water predicament, the current reactive business-as-usual approach cannot continue, and major informed interventions are required. Johannesburg, South Africa

Anja du Plessis

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Department of Water and Sanitation’s Resource Quality Information Services Department for water quality data for the selected physical, chemical and microbiological water quality parameters over the relevant time period as well as relevant GIS data. Rand Water is also acknowledged for the published water quality data, made available on The Reservoir site. The Department of Water and Sanitation as well as Statistics South Africa are also acknowledged for other open access data, published within the public domain, used throughout the various chapters of the book.

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Contents

1 Water Resources from a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Water Availability, Use and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Water Use and Withdrawals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Continued Water Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Climate Change and Increased Extreme Weather Events . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Climate Change and Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Climate Change and Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Extreme Weather Events and Water-Related Disasters . . . . . 1.3 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Water Scarcity and the Future of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Regional Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Primary Stressors and Implications of Water Scarcity . . . . . . 1.4.3 Current Trajectory to 2050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Integrated Water Resource Management, Water Service Provision and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Implementation, Challenges and Successes of Integrated Water Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Successes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 IWRM Within a South African Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Water Service Provision and Delivery from a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The Global South: Water Service Provision and Delivery . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 2 5 7 8 9 9 11 14 15 18 18 21 22 27 27 28 29 32 33 35 37 38

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3 South Africa’s Impending Freshwater Crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Current Freshwater Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Water Withdrawals and Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Current Drivers and Predicted Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Water Quality Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Inadequate Water Service Provision and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Legal Framework of Water Service Provision and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Overall Progress Made in Clean Drinking Water and Improved Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 South Africa’s Impending Water Crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Increased Water Scarcity and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Failing Infrastructure and Basic Water Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Fragmented Water Governance, Institutional Problems and Questionable Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Effective and Efficient Water Governance from a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Decentralised Water Governance in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 South Africa’s Fragmented and Inefficient Water Governance . . . . . 4.4 Narrowly Avoiding “Day Zero” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 The City of Cape Town: Narrowly Escaping “Day Zero” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Achieving “Day” Zero in the Eastern Cape Province . . . . . . 4.5 Creation of an Environmental Disaster: The Emfuleni Local Municipality and the Vaal River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Continued Decay of South Africa’s Basic Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 The Right to Water and Reaching Sustainable Development Goal 6 on a Global Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Progress Made on a Global Scale Since 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 South Africa’s Progress Since 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 South Africa’s Basic Water and Sanitation Reality and Overcoming Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Access to Safe and Affordable Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Adequate and Equitable Sanitation and Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Key Issues and Overcoming Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa . . . . 6.1 South Africa’s Escalating Water Quality Challenges and Crises . . . 6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Current State of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments’ Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Temporal Water Quality Trends of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments Since 2017 . . . . 6.2.3 Compliance Percentage of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments According to In-stream Water Quality Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The Continued Water “Scars” of Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 eThekwini Municipality’s Developing Water and Human Rights Crises: The Rivers and Ocean Used as a Dumping Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Chemical Spills by United Phosphorus Limited . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Collapsing Infrastructure and Declining Water Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 The Sewage Crisis Post April 2022 Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 South Africa’s Impending Water Crises: Transforming Water Crises into Opportunities and the Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Water Security from a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 South Africa’s Troubling Freshwater Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Naturally Limited Water Resources and Physical Water Scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Unsustainable Growing Water Requirements and/or Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Poor and Fragmented Water Governance and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Collapse of Aging, Non-maintained Infrastructure and Poor Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Continued and Widespread Water Quality Degradation . . . . 7.3 All Talk and No Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Possible Solutions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Conclusions and the Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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109 109 113 117 119

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131 133 135 136 137 139 143 144 147 148 150 152 154 156 158 161 165 168

Appendix A: Rand Water Quality Sampling Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Appendix B: In-Stream Water Quality Guidelines (Effective June 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

About the Author

Prof. Anja du Plessis is an Associate Professor and NRF Y2 rated researcher, specializing in water resource management. Her research is focused upon establishing and evaluating the current state of water resources in terms of availability and quality, identification of water risks and problems, water, sanitation and hygiene service delivery, viable opportunities as well as water governance and water resource management within different contexts. The fundamental part of her continued research is the analyses of water quality and availability, review of water governance and water management decisions and practices, establishment of risks and providing suitable recommendations and/or multidisciplinary strategies to improve and ensure informed decision-making. Lastly, her continued research ultimately aims to highlight the frequency and/or magnitude of growing water crises and contribute by suggesting possible interventions for growing water crises and predicaments, for these crises or predicaments to be transformed into solvable problems, ensuring future water security.

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Abbreviations

AMD CMAs COD DO DWS EC EDCs ERWAT FAO GDP GHGs HAB LHWP MAR NRW NWA NWRIA NWRS OECD RDP SAHRC SANDF SANS SDGs TDS UN UPL USA WASH WCI WMA

Acid Mine Drainage Catchment Management Agencies Chemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Department of Water and Sanitation Electrical Conductivity Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds Ekurhuleni Water Care Company Food and Agriculture Organization Gross Domestic Product Greenhouse Gasses Harmful Algae Bloom Lesotho Highlands Water Project Mean Annual Runoff Non-Revenue Water National Water Act National Water Resources Infrastructure Agency National Water Resources Strategy Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Reconstruction and Development Programme South African Human Rights Commission South African National Defence Force South African National Standards Sustainable Development Goals Total Dissolved Solids United Nations United Phosphorus Limited United States of America Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Water Crowd Index Water Management Area xvii

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WSA WSIs WUAs WWTWs

Abbreviations

Water Services Act Water Services Institutions Water User’s Associations Wastewater Treatment Works

Chapter 1

Water Resources from a Global Perspective

Less than 3% of the world’s water resources is freshwater and the availability thereof is declining at an exponential pace. Continued population growth, increased ruralurban migration, expansion of urban settlements and industrial activities as well as the achievement of continued socio-economic development and growth are the primary drivers of increased water stress. These primary drivers in combination with increased climate variability have placed the world’s freshwater resources under immense pressure. Decades of misuse, poor management, over-extraction of groundwater resources as well as the continued contamination of freshwater supplies have exacerbated water stress around the world and is in turn creating a fragile insecure future. Global water demands have increased at a steady pace over the past three decades with this trend set to continue. Water degradation has also worsened since the 1990s with the expectation of escalating even further and consequently leading to increased threats to human health, the environment and sustainability. The predicted hydrological changes prompted by climate change will also add extra pressure on the sustainable management of water resources, especially within regions that are already experiencing water pressures and/or stress. Numerous regions around the world, especially in South Africa, are already experiencing varying degrees of water stress and facing severe water shortages moving towards 2050. Water availability, demand and quality are all interconnected and should be considered as a whole when evaluating the current state and future of freshwater resources on a global, regional and local scale. Freshwater challenges can be transformed into net positives if all mentioned stakeholders open opportunities for discussing water policies and/or agreements, increasing monitoring networks and sharing data. Ultimately contributing and creating water diplomacy to promote cooperation rather than conflict.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_1

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1 Water Resources from a Global Perspective

1.1 Water Availability, Use and Quality The Earth’s surface is covered by an estimated 70% of water and this volume remains constant at an estimated 1,386,000,000 km3 of which 97.5% is seawater, unfit for human consumption. Less than 3% of the world water resources is freshwater and its availability is decreasing at a concerning pace. The continued increase of the world’s population as well as increasing temperatures have consequently placed the world’s available freshwater resources under severe pressure. Decades of misuse, poor management, over-extraction of groundwater resources as well as the continued contamination of freshwater supplies have exacerbated water stress around the world. These continued pressures combined with consistent rising water demands associated with rapid population growth, increased rural-urban migration as well as increasing water needs from various water sectors, primarily agriculture, industry and energy as well as by municipalities for domestic water supply. The availability of freshwater resources is changing rapidly around the world and, in some instances, have already created a fragile future, requiring major attention from various levels of government, scientists, policymakers, relevant stakeholders and/or agencies as well as the public i.e. civil society (Smedley 2017; Famiglietti 2019; UNICEF 2021a). Current global water withdrawals are estimated to be approximately 72% agricultural use, 12% by industries and 16% domestic water use. Water demand is currently mainly driven by agriculture in terms of irrigation practices. The increasing demand for clean freshwater is primarily driven by the growing worldwide population which places increased pressure on sectoral water uses such as irrigation, energy production, manufacturing, and domestic water provision (Biswas and Tortajada 2018). Increased climate variability has also contributed to increased water stress primarily through an increase in the frequency and intensity of hydroclimatic extremes such as more prolonged droughts and frequent floods. This in combination with the increased intensification of agriculture, industrialisation, urbanisation as well as water extractions and uses, worsen water quality degradation especially within developing countries around the world. These continued negative trends have been associated with various challenges especially in terms of committed countries attempting to achieve the set United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), more specifically SDG 6, specifically focussed upon clean accessible water for all (Macdonald et al. 2016; UNEP 2016; Sinha et al. 2017; van Vliet et al. 2021).

1.1.1 Water Use and Withdrawals Over the past century, global water use has increased by a factor of six, have continued to increase at a steady rate of 1% per year since the 1980s and is expected to continue with its current trend over the next two decades. The world’s population is expected to increase from 7.7 billion (2017) to an estimated 9.4–10.2 billion in 2050, with two

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thirds living in urban areas. The majority of this anticipated growth is expected to occur in Africa (+1.3 billion) and Asia (+0.75 billion). The global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is also expected to increase by a factor of 2.5 over the same period (2017–2050), with large differences among and within countries. Furthermore, the global demand for agriculture and energy production, both water-intensive water use sectors, is predicted to increase by 60% and 80% respectively by 2025 placing further strain on water resources (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; OECD 2012; UN 2021). Even though the rate of increased freshwater use has been slowing down in most of the Member States of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), where per capita water use rates are usually the world’s highest, it continues to grow in emerging economies as well as in middle- and low-income countries (Ritchie and Roser 2018). The majority of this growth is attributed to the combination of population growth, economic development as well as changing consumption patterns (UN 2021). It is also predicted that industrial and domestic demand for water will increase at a much faster rate than agricultural demand. The agricultural sector will however remain the largest overall water user with the vast majority of the growing water demand expected to occur in countries with developing and emerging economies (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018; UN 2021). Various studies have attempted to project the trends of future water use, yielding varying results. The 2030 Water Resources Group (2009) has estimated that the world will face a 40% global water deficit by 2030, under a business-as-usual scenario. The OECD (2012) project that global water demand will increase by 55% between 2000 and 2050. Burek et al. (2016) concluded that global water use will likely continue to grow at an annual rate of 1%, resulting in an estimated increase of 20% or 30% above the current water use by 2050. The exact extent of the increase in water demand remains undefined, however, most authors agree that the agricultural water use sector will face increasing competition. The primary growth in water use will be driven by the demands of industry and domestic uses primarily due to industrial development as well as increase in sanitation service coverage in developing countries and emerging economies (OECD 2012; Burek et al. 2016; IEA 2016). Current projected increases in global water use are primarily driven by agriculture. It is estimated that food production needs to grow by 69% by 2035 for the human population to be fed and to ensure food security. Irrigated food production is predicted to increase by more than 50% over the same period. Importantly, the necessary amounts of water for these continued developments are not available. The FAO have estimated that the amounts of water withdrawn by agriculture can only increase by 10%. There is some room for substantial improvements in water use efficiency in irrigated, particularly rainfed, systems as well as eradicating food waste and changing consumption towards less water demanding diets (FAO 2017, 2019). The implementation of these responses within the agricultural sector can consequently enable projected food demands to be met within sustainable limits and present the potential to reduce current withdrawals over the long-term, thereby reducing increased competition and possible conflicts with other water use sectors.

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Water use by industries is currently estimated at 20% of global withdrawals and dominated by energy production. Burek et al. (2016) have projected that overall water demand within the industrial sector will increase across the globe apart from Northern America as well as Western and Southern Europe. Water withdrawals related to energy use (cooling of power stations) is expected to increase by 20% (UN 2021; UNICEF 2021a). Much of the predicted increase will take place in the African region, with an estimated increase of up to eight times the current water withdrawal percentage. This major increase is caused by industries currently accounting for a very small portion of water use. An increase in industrial water usage by up to two and a half times the current water withdrawal percentage is predicted for the Asia region (Burek et al. 2016). Additionally, the OECD (2012) has predicted that water demand related to manufacturing can increase by 400% over the period of 2000–2050. Domestic water use, which currently accounts for 10% of the global water withdrawals, is also predicted to increase significantly over the 2010–2050 period in nearly all of the world’s regions with the exception of Western Europe which is expected to remain constant. The greatest increase in the predicted domestic demand will most likely occur in African and Asian sub-regions where it is expected to triple and more than double in Central and Southern America (Burek et al. 2016). This anticipated growth is primarily attributed to the expected increase in water supply services within urban settlements (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). The world’s water demands will therefore continue to grow significantly over the next two decades. Industrial and domestic water demands will grow at a faster pace than agricultural demand although agriculture will remain the biggest overall user. The world’s freshwater resources are therefore threatened by numerous freshwater drains, draining both surface water and groundwater supplies faster than their replenishment rate. Approximately 21 out of 37 of the world’s major aquifers are already receding and the water table has been found to be decreasing, showing that there is not an infinite global water supply and current water consumption trends cannot continue if water security is to be guaranteed. The Ganges Basin in India is depleting by an estimated 6.31 cm per annum due to insatiable population and irrigation demands. Mexico City, built on ancient lake beds, is currently sinking, in some areas at a rate of 22.8 cm per annum (van Vliet et al. 2021). California, within the United States of America (USA), have also suffered increased and continued water woes. The state experienced its worst drought in 1200 years from 2011 to 2016, causing its major aquifers to recede at an estimated rate of 19.8 billion m3 per annum and approximately 1900 wells running dry. The first three months of 2017 saw an exponential increase of rainfall, 228% more than the normal level. Lake Oroville, located in the northern parts of the state, shifted from 41% of capacity to 101% in two months, causing dams to become overwhelmed and the evacuation of 188,000 residents. These extreme weather events have been attributed to increased climate variability (Smedley 2017). Climate change is predicted to increase seasonal variability, creating a more unpredictable and uncertain water supply. Current water supply issues or pressures will therefore be further exacerbated, especially in already water stressed areas, and can also create water

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stress and insecurity in regions where it has not yet been a recurring occurrence. At the same time, the global water cycle is also intensifying with wetter regions generally becoming wetter and drier regions becoming drier (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). The effects of increased climate variability as well as accompanied extreme weather events is focussed upon in Sect. 1.2 of this chapter.

1.1.2 Continued Water Degradation Water degradation has worsened since the 1990s in almost all rivers in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is expected that water degradation will escalate even further and will consequently increase threats to human health, the environment and sustainability. The most prevalent water quality problem on a global scale is considered to be nutrient loading, which, depending on the region, is most commonly associated with pathogen loading. Hundreds of chemicals as well as emerging contaminants also have widespread effects causing additional impacts on water quality (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Major water quality challenges and/or threats are largely correlated to population densities as well as areas of economic growth with future scenarios following the same trend. An estimated 80% of all industrial and domestic wastewater is currently released into the environment without any prior treatment, causing the deterioration of overall water quality with significant negative impacts on human and ecosystem health (UNWWAP 2017). It is expected that the greatest increases in the exposure to pollutants will occur in low- and lower-middle income countries, primarily due to high population, economic growth as well as the lack of appropriate wastewater management systems to name but a few (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Water degradation occurs either through point- or non-point/ diffuse pollution sources. The overall contribution of nutrients from these mentioned types of pollution sources, varies across regions. Even though the last couple of decades have shown an increase in regulation and investments to reduce point source pollution, numerous water quality challenges still endure due to under-regulated diffuse sources of pollution. The management of diffuse runoff of excess nutrients from agricultural activities, including into groundwater sources, has been regarded the most prevalent water quality related challenge on a global scale (UNEP 2016; OECD 2017). Agricultural activities have remained the predominant source of reactive nitrogen discharged into the surrounding environment and a significant source of phosphorous. Economic development cannot solve this problem on its own. Hundreds of chemicals, in addition to nutrients, also negatively affect water resources. The need for agricultural intensification has consequently increased chemical use on a global scale to an estimated two million tonnes per annum. Herbicides account for 47.5%, insecticides 29.5%, fungicides 17.5% and others the remaining 5.5% (De et al. 2014). Emerging contaminants are also continually changing and increasing in terms of concern and is often detected at concentrations higher than anticipated (Sauvé and Desrosiers 2014). Examples of these emerging contaminants include, but not limited

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to, pharmaceuticals, hormones, newly discovered industrial chemicals, personal care products, flame retardants, detergents, perfluorinated compounds, cyanotoxins, nanomaterials and anti-microbial cleaning agents and their transformation products. The exact impacts on human health and/or biodiversity is still largely undetermined and should therefore be of major concern (UNWWAP 2017). Low- and lower-middle income countries are once again at risk of the greatest increases in the exposure to pollutants, primarily due to higher population and economic growth, especially on the African continent (UNWWAP 2017). Regional cooperation will be of prime importance and absolutely critical in an attempt to address the current and projected water quality challenges due to the transboundary nature of most river basins and aquifers. Currently, global water quality data, especially within least developed countries, remain sparse, primarily due to the lack of monitoring and reporting capacity (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Some primary trends have however been determined and observed, namely: . The deterioration of water quality in nearly all major rivers in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The overall deterioration has been attributed to nutrient loading, the most prevalent source of pollution. . An estimated 80% of all industrial and domestic wastewater is released without any prior treatment directly into the environment with detrimental effects on the ecosystem and human health. Once again, this ratio is much higher in less developed countries, where sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities are either lacking, non-functional or over-capacity. . Excess nutrients from agricultural runoff are considered to be one of the most widespread water quality challenges across the globe. . Despite the major risk of emerging pollutants, including micropollutants, being acknowledged since the early 2000s, the possible effects thereof on human health is concerningly still largely underdetermined (UNEP 2016; OECD 2017; UNWWAP 2017). Increased climate variability will once again play a role in affecting the world’s water quality in various ways. The predicted changes in spatial and temporal patterns as well as variability in rainfall will affect surface water flows and consequently be accompanied with dilution effects. Predicted increases in temperature will be accompanied with higher evaporation rates from open surfaces and soils, increased transpiration by vegetation and consequently have the potential to reduce water quality (Hipsey and Arheimer 2013). Dissolved oxygen within the water column is also predicted to deplete at a faster rate due to higher water temperatures. Pollutants are consequently expected to increase in contents due to this and flow into water bodies following extreme rainfall events (IPCC 2014). Focus is consequently placed on climate change and increased extreme weather events due to the predicted negative consequences these variables will have on both water quantity and quality.

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1.2 Climate Change and Increased Extreme Weather Events As indicated in the previous section, climate change is predicted to have various effects on the world’s water resources, varying in frequency and intensity. Increased climate variability will have adverse effects on water availability, quality as well as quantity of water for basic human needs. It also poses a great threat for continued human rights to water and sanitation for potentially billions of the world’s human population at varying magnitudes. The predicted hydrological changes prompted by climate change is expected to add extra pressure on the sustainable management of water resources, especially within regions that are already experiencing water pressures and/or stress. All water dependent sectors such as food security, both urban and rural settlements, industrial development and energy production, economic growth as well as ecosystems and human health will be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Adaptations as well as mitigation strategies through water management is therefore critical for sustainable development, the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Paris Agreement on Climate Change as well as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). The consistent increase in global water use combined with more erratic and uncertain supply, currently creating water stressed regions around the globe, will be aggravated even further by increased climate variability while also creating water stress in regions where water resources are, for now, still abundant. Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events such as droughts, heatwaves, unparalleled rainfalls, thunderstorms and storm surge events to mention a few. The resulting higher water temperatures as well as reduced dissolved oxygen is expected to negatively affect water quality and reduce the self-purifying capacity of freshwater bodies by primarily reducing the water resources’ resilience and buffering capacity (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). Increase in flooding and/or higher pollutant concentrations during drought periods is also expected to increase the risks of water pollution and pathogenic contamination. Ecosystems will also be at risk and the degradation thereof will not only lead to biodiversity loss but also negatively influence the provision of water-related ecosystem services which include, but not limited to, water purification, carbon capture and storage, natural flood protection and the provision of water for primary water use sectors. Forests and wetlands are also particularly at risk. Uncertainties related to the effects of climate change on water availability and distribution do however still exist especially at a local and catchment scale. However, even with current uncertainties, little disagreement exists in terms of temperature increases, where current trends show heavier precipitation, heat as well as prolonged droughts (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). The terrestrial water cycle is also predicted to be negatively affected through different processes. The exact feedbacks and interactions between these processes are however not yet fully understood due to the quantification and prediction of

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consequences thereof being very difficult (UN 2019). Evaporation is also expected to increase due to the anticipated trend of rising air temperatures. This increase may be counterbalanced by an increase in rainfall, however, many regions, especially those where rainfall volumes are expected to decrease, are anticipated to experience a decrease in streamflow volumes as well as a decrease in water availability in different seasons (IPCC 2018). The combined effects of decreased rainfall and increased evaporation will determine future trends in groundwater with the potential consequences on frequency and severity of soil moisture during drought spells (van Loon et al. 2016). Climate change will consequently alter global food production patterns due to its influence on patterns of water availability and projections show that parts of Africa, the Americas and Europe will be drier, while the tropics and north will be wetter, presenting a great challenge for climate adaptation (Rojas et al. 2019). A brief discussion of the possible effects of increased climate variability on water quality, water demand as well as extreme weather events and water-related disasters now follows.

1.2.1 Climate Change and Water Quality As indicated in the previous section, the world’s freshwater resources are continuously polluted through various pollution sources, with pollution predicted to increase due to increased discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater, intensification of agriculture and the ultimate reduction in river dilution capacity primarily due to decreasing runoff and water extractions. Urban water supply will be particularly vulnerable due to the high population density and increased continued rural-urban migration. It is predicted that by 2050, the global urban population will face an additional decline in freshwater availability of at least 10% due to climate change, with severe societal impacts and consequences likely. Climate change will therefore exacerbate water scarcity and cost some regions up to 6% of their GDP while stimulating continued migration and possible conflict (FAO/World Bank Group 2018). Climate-induced harmful algae blooms (HABs) are currently increasing due to increased water temperatures. The management thereof is also severely affected by increased climate variability. Numerous water resources, which provide drinking water for millions of the world’s population and support ecosystem services, are already characterised by toxic, food web-altering, hypoxia-generating blooms of harmful cyanobacteria. More than 60% of lakes located in China already suffer from eutrophication and HABs (Shao et al. 2014; Havens and Paerl 2015). Water bodies and coastal wetlands are already badly affected by anthropogenic impacts which include, but are not limited to, altered flow regimes and degraded water quality. The accompanied effects of climate change are predicted to place further stress on the world’s wetland and aquatic ecosystems with negative implications on fisheries and aqua-culture to name a few. These changes will ultimately affect economic and social welfare as well as the overall sustainability of important environmental flows, ecosystems and biodiversity (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020).

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1.2.2 Climate Change and Water Demand As mentioned in the previous section, global water use has increased by a factor of six in the past century and is predicted to increase even further at an estimated rate of 1% per annum. This together with the continued increase in population, economic growth and changing consumption patterns will exacerbate current water stress and scarcity around the world. These increased competing demands leaves little room for increasing the amount of water used, especially for irrigation which accounts for the majority of freshwater withdrawals on a global scale. Various discrepancies with current projections do however exist due to the major challenge of projecting the growth of water demand on a global scale. However, “regardless of the magnitude of future global, and more importantly local, water deficits, water scarcity is likely to limit opportunities for economic growth and the creation of decent jobs in the coming decades” (UNWWAP 2016, p. 23). Global warming will exacerbate current water demand trends as it usually increases with an increase in temperature (Gato et al. 2007). This increase will in turn place significant increased pressure on water authorities, in their attempt to ensure reliable water supply for all sectors by attempting to preserve a sustainable balance between water demand and supply. It is therefore crucial to assess the possible impacts of climate change on water demand to try and guarantee reliable water supply under varied climatic conditions. The collective effects of increased populations, rising economic growth and varied consumption patterns together with expanding urban settlements are expected to increase water demand quite significantly. This in combination with a more erratic and uncertain water supply, will have adverse social and environmental effects and likely to cause water stress in regions which are currently experiencing abundant supply.

1.2.3 Extreme Weather Events and Water-Related Disasters The human influence on the climate system as well as the role of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in global warming has been widely recognised by scientists around the world (IPCC 2014, 2018). The current rate of GHG emissions is at its highest ever recorded level and even if emissions are brought in line with current political pledges, current scientific consensus is that the global average temperature will surpass pre-industrial levels by a minimum of 1.5 °C after 2030 (IPCC 2018; UNESCO/UN-Water 2020; UN 2021). Rainfall patterns are expected to increase in intensity and the frequency of flood and drought events in many regions across the globe is predicted to increase under climate change conditions and are anticipated to lead to secondary effects. The changes in water availability and quality are accompanied by the anticipated changes in flood and drought risks (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020; UN 2021).

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Floods, droughts and storms have significantly increased in frequency since 1992 and have affected 4.2 billion people, causing US$1.3 trillion in damage. The past 20 years have been dominated by two main water-related disasters and/or hazards i.e., floods and droughts, leading to more than 166,000 deaths, affected three billion people across the globe and have caused major economic damage of almost US$700 billion. Global floods and extreme rainfall events have increased by a total of 50% in the past decade and are occurring at a rate four times higher than in the 1980s. Other climatological events which include storms, droughts and heatwaves, have also increased by more than a third since 2010 and are recorded twice as frequently as in 1980 (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018; UNESCO/UN-Water 2020; UN 2021). The number of floods has increased from an annual average of 127 in 1995 to 171 in 2004. Floods have also accounted for approximately 47% of all water-related disasters since 1995. Of particular concern is the increasing flood risk in some traditionally water scarce areas such as Chile, China, India, the Middle East as well as North Africa. These areas are of concern primarily due to not having suitable developed local coping strategies currently in place for flood events. Economic losses associated with these water-related hazards have also increased quite significantly over the past few decades (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018; UN 2021). Droughts have been described as a chronic, long-term problem, compared to the short-term impacts of floods, and have been stated to be the greatest single threat from climate change. Droughts have accounted for 5% of natural disasters, affecting 1.1 billion of the world’s population, killing 22,000 and causing US$100 billion in damages for the period of 1995 to 2015. The current population affected by land degradation and/or desertification and drought is approximately 1.8 billion, making droughts the most significant category of natural disaster based on mortality as well as socio-economic impacts relative to GDP per capita. The predicted changes of rainfall patterns will influence the occurrence of droughts and consequently negatively affect soil moisture availability for vegetation. The impacts of droughts will be further aggravated by increasing water withdrawals in response to increasing water demands. The projected longer duration and severity of droughts can however be eased by increased water storage. This will require the intensification of infrastructure investments which can have substantial trade-offs for the population and the environment. Investment in green infrastructure has been highlighted as a suitable intervention and is recommended to form part of location specific solutions (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018; UN 2021). Climate change will therefore be accompanied by the intensification of water scarcity through changing rainfall patterns and increasing water demand by all major water use sectors. The accompanied extreme weather events also have the potential to damage vital water and sanitation infrastructure as well as services in homes, healthcare facilities and food supplies. Predicted rising sea levels can also lead to saltwater intrusions and the contamination of drinking water supplies. The combination of water scarcity and climate change are also considered to be drivers of conflict and migration due to the increase in competition for dwindling water resources. Some

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communities might be forced to look for reliable water supplies and livelihood opportunities, often migrating from rural areas to urban areas and towns. Increased ruralurban migration will place further pressure on already strained services and water supply, ultimately leading to increased water stress and scarcity (UNICEF 2021b). Climate change is also anticipated to be accompanied by water-related human health impacts which include food-, water- and vector-borne diseases, as well as injury and/or deaths associated with extreme weather events. The progress made in terms of access to safely managed water and sanitation is predicted to be slowed or undermined and can lead to the ineffective use of resources if current system designs and management thereof is not climate resilient (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). The world’s freshwater resources will therefore be affected by climate change in numerous ways, with complex spatio-temporal patterns, feedback effects as well as interactions between physical and human processes (Bates et al. 2008). These predicted effects have the potential to create additional challenges, especially in terms of sustainable management of water resources. Water resources are already under severe pressure in many regions across the globe and will be subject to high climate variability and increased extreme weather events. These predicted effects will notably affect water availability, quality and overall supply for basic human needs and in turn threaten the enjoyment of human rights to water and sanitation for potentially billions of people. Even though the effects of climate change are highly idiosyncratic on a local scale (IPCC 2019), the current identified trends and projections show major changes in climate and an increase of extreme weather events in many parts of the world (IPCC 2014). Water resource management will require increased consideration of the potential impacts of increased climate variability on various scales. Hydrological changes, induced by climate change, will entail major risks for society, directly or indirectly. Directly through alterations in hydrometeorological processes which govern the water cycle and indirectly through risks for energy production, food security, economic development as well as social inequalities (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). Climate change adaptation and mitigation through water management is therefore critical to current and/or future sustainability and necessary to achieve the set SDGs by 2030, the Paris Agreement as well as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

1.3 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Approximately 5.3 billion people (71% of the global population) had access to and used safely managed drinking water services, defined as one located on the premises, available when needed and free of contamination, in 2017. An estimated 3.4 billion (45% of the global population) used safely managed sanitation services which include an improved toilet or latrine, not shared and where excreta are safely disposed of in situ or treated off site (UN 2021). The world has therefore made positive progress

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since the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals which concluded in 2015. Access to both water and sanitation are recognised human rights. The development of SDG 6, specifically SDGs 6.1 and 6.2, has been accompanied with renewed determination and aspirations to the global development agenda with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) playing a major role. Despite the world making positive progress, over two billion people still rely on unsafe and/or untreated water and approximately 4.2 billion people still use sanitation facilities which allow excreta to leak into the surrounding environment, leading to major human health issues, environmental degradation as well as slowed socio-economic growth (WHO 2019). The WASH targets included under SDG 6, strives for universal access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene services, placing focus on the vulnerable and those who have been left behind. The explicit targets call for the elimination of open defecation, guaranteeing affordable WASH services and is the first time that indicators have been developed for hygiene on a global scale. Universal and safely managed services will require a global coordinated effort with governments taking the lead. Governments (national and local), development partners, civil society as well as users need to be central participants and can best contribute towards achieving universal coverage with clearly defined roles and responsibilities (WHO 2019). The WASH system focuses on governance (legislation, policies and regulatory frameworks), institutional arrangements, financing and financial systems, monitoring systems for reporting as well as a human resource base which should be supported by ongoing capacity development. WASH service delivery is therefore determined by the state of infrastructure as well as institutional-, governance- and financial management systems. The strengthening of these elements can improve political and legislative frameworks within countries, recognising the major role of social, political and economic factors together with infrastructure. A direct extension of access to WASH services improves educational opportunities, workforce productivity and ultimately contributes to a life of dignity and equality, indirectly adding value in the form of a healthier environment (WHO 2019; UN 2021). Furthermore, over three billion people and two out of five health care facilities lack adequate access to hand hygiene facilities. The cost to achieve universal access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 140 low- and middle-income countries by 2030 is estimated at US$1.7 trillion or US$114 billion per annum. The benefit-cost ratio of these investments has shown to provide significant positive returns, in most regions, and the returns of hygiene are even higher. These investments are therefore characterised by positive benefit-cost rations due to improving health outcomes with a decreased need for additional expensive infrastructure (WHO 2019; UN 2021). Due to access to WASH considered to be fundamental to human life and public health, it is often subsidised in low-, middle- and high-income countries around the globe. These water subsidies however do not always ensure that the poor and/or most vulnerable get access to basic services and can end up only benefiting those with existing water access, many of whom are not poor or vulnerable. It is therefore important to consider the affordability from the perspective of disadvantaged or poor

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groups based on their income, location as well as the socio-economic challenges which they face for the global positive progress trend to continue (UN 2021). Despite WASH being considered a human right, the implementation of national WASH policies and plans are constrained by both human and financial resources with less than 15% of countries reporting sufficient financial resources. Unfortunately, these policies and plans are rarely supported by the necessary financial and human resources and ultimately hinders the implementation and envisioned outcomes for WASH service delivery. In terms of national standards for drinking water and wastewater, most countries have this in place. Despite most countries having set standards in place, the institutions which are mandated and/or tasked with regulatory oversight do not have the necessary capacity and/or resources and are unable to perform required surveillance. Furthermore, even though most countries have financial plans for WASH, more than 50% of these plans are insufficiently used in decision-making. National financial systems should therefore be strengthened to support informed decision-making for governments to make the necessary adjustments (WHO 2019; UN 2021). It should be noted that the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the world’s most vulnerable populations, as most of them live in informal settlements and urban slums. In order to improve prevention and response to health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, governments need to shift their thinking of hygiene being more than just handwashing with soap and behaviour change. Appropriate investments are required to develop or maintain water infrastructure. The monitoring and reporting on hygiene also needs to be improved upon to ensure improved decision-making. Highquality data is also required for learning and planning. The “leave no one behind” target set by the UN SDGs is primarily echoed in SDG 6 as well in SDG 10 (focussed on reducing inequalities within and among countries) and SDG 5 (focussed on gender equality). For committed countries to make progress with these mentioned SDGs, focus needs to be placed on targeting and reaching populations living in vulnerable situations. The existing WASH service gaps also need to be identified to enable the expansion of water access and sanitation services, especially to the unserved or populations who experience greater difficulties in accessing these services (WHO 2019). For countries around the world to continue making progress and succeed, measures which focus on “leaving no one behind” will require precedence within WASH systems. Furthermore, adequate financial and human resources as well as sufficient monitoring systems which can enable governments identify current inequalities, monitor progress towards universal coverage and will ultimately enable governments to take informed corrective action. Systems also need to allow for public participation and community engagement to ensure that the needs of rural and/or vulnerable communities and those living in susceptible situations, are given the appropriate attention and investment.

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1.4 Water Scarcity and the Future of Water Water scarcity is not a new concept and has been posing a continued global challenge to which numerous communities, especially those located in arid and regions, have had to adapt to. Continued exploitation of water resources, population growth, increased rural-urban migration, global crisis and conflict as well as increased competition for water resources due to escalating demands, have all been accompanied with exerting major and persistent pressure on dwindling freshwater resources. The consequent changes in water availability patterns in combination with declining groundwater levels, are expected to further limit access to safe drinking water and water for irrigation, creating additional as well as new socio-economic and political repercussions. It is predicted that by 2025 over half of the world’s population will reside in water stressed areas. It is currently estimated that 3.6 billion people i.e., nearly half of the global population, live in areas which are potentially water scarce one month per year and it is predicted that this total number will increase to approximately 4.8 to 5.7 billion in 2050. These numbers will most likely increase exponentially if population growth and climate change follow or exceed predicted trends (Famiglietti 2019; UNICEF 2021b). Water scarcity usually occurs within a region where the water demand exceeds supply and where water resources are close to or have exceeded sustainable limits. Water scarcity therefore does not only focus on water availability as a region does not have to be arid to be considered water scarce. Water scarcity can be physical or economic in nature. Physical water scarcity arises when water resources are overexploited and unable to meet the needs of the population. Water quality plays a role in this type of water scarcity as pollution and contamination of water resources have the same effect as unavailability of water for specific uses such as domestic water use. Seasonality may also play a role as it can increase the exposure to water-related risks where water access and/or service delivery may be impeded by flooding, seasonal declines in water levels or an increase of extreme and frequent droughts (WEF 2019). Economic water scarcity takes place in regions where adequate water resources are available but are not fully accessible. The main contributing factors for this type of water scarcity include poor governance, inadequate infrastructure or high costs of providing water services, as well as the inefficient use and mismanagement of water resources leading to losses, wastage and contamination with poverty and marginalisation being the primary attributing factors. Both physical and economic water scarcity can occur at the same location and is not mutually exclusive. No matter what type of water scarcity it is, the poor and marginalised populations suffer severe consequences. The direct effects of water scarcity include the deterioration of quality and quantity of domestic water services, resulting in populations having little choice but to pay for expensive alternative supplies with possible health risks. Indirect effects of the lack of water include negative effects on food security or access to energy if power generation is water dependent (WEF 2019). The drivers of water scarcity are numerous. Primary drivers include, but are not limited to, climate change, unsustainable water management as well as poor water

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governance, undervaluing water, increased urbanisation with deteriorating infrastructure, deteriorating water quality, challenges of transboundary water resources as well as functionality and physical dimensions. As discussed in Sect. 1.2, climate change is exacerbating all of these mentioned threats and trends. Additionally, rising global temperatures and increased rainfall variability have contributed to more extreme weather events, increasing the frequency of floods and extending periods of drought (UNICEF 2021b). Water scarcity is a major issue for most regions around the world. The significance of water scarcity is however not uniform due to the uneven distribution of water resources across the globe, irregularity of rainfall patterns, differing water scarcity drivers and different socio-economic conditions. A discussion of these regional trends now follows.

1.4.1 Regional Trends The occurrence and intensity of water scarcity varies across the globe due to differing unique contexts across major regions. Regions which are expected to be water stressed by 2050 include North as well as Sub-Saharan Africa, the northern parts of the Middle East, parts of North West China as well as North and East India. These regions have similar characteristics in terms of climates, growing populations, high dependence on agriculture and are all undergoing rapid economic development. Some are also more prone to poor water resource management, political instability as well as regional conflict (Crelin 2018). All of these primary driving forces in accompaniment with climate change will have adverse effects on populations as well as ecological health. Most of Sub-Saharan Africa is already experiencing both physical and economic water scarcity even though the region has vast groundwater reserves. These aquifers have shown that groundwater recharge is inadequate to meet current demands and large-scale borehole developments could deplete these resources quite significantly. Water availability is irregular across the region primarily due to contrasting spatial and temporal access. The region is also highly affected by increased climate variability and current predictions include an increase of average temperatures, increase in frequency of heat waves as well as intensity of rainfall. All are expected to have significant impacts on current and future water resource availability within the region (UNICEF 2021b). The arid north of the African continent has experienced most of the world’s freshwater losses even though precipitation levels were 7% above average levels between 2002 and 2016. The decline in freshwater availability is attributed to continued groundwater extraction and unsustainable water demands. In terms of the main water scarcity driving forces, continued population growth and rural-urban migration have acted as the primary drivers for economic development across the region and have been accompanied by increased water demand and use (especially irrigation). These driving forces have led to over-extraction of groundwater resources and an overall

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decline in freshwater availability. Continuation of industrialisation will be accompanied by the improvement of living standards, leading to further increases in water, food and energy demands. The predicted increase of temperatures will be accompanied with increased evaporation rates and a decrease in precipitation. The region will consequently experience prolonged droughts as well as the increase of flood events. Insufficient governance of water resources due to continued internal conflict and political instability will also play a major role in future, increasing water scarcity and stress within the region (Crelin 2018; UNICEF 2021b). The Middle East and North Africa region is also characterised by very high levels of unsustainable water use, while being labelled as the most water scarce region in the world with major competition between water use sectors. Above 60% of the region’s population is distributed in areas of high or very high surface water stress, compared to the global average of 35%. A total of 60% of the surface water resources in the region is generated outside the region with it having only three shared river systems. Continued conflict and displacement of populations are closely related to water scarcity (UNICEF 2021b). This region will likely experience significant water and food threats by 2050, especially the northern part, which includes Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Currently, groundwater resources are experiencing over-abstraction with more than half of water withdrawals exceeding natural water recharge rates. The continued and prolonged droughts have also led to the region’s reliance on groundwater resources as water from surface water bodies such as rivers have been diminished. Over the past three decades, Turkey has constructed over 22 dams located upstream on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The construction of these dams has led to a 40% decreased flow rate in Syria and Iraq, further increasing this part of the region’s reliance on groundwater for agricultural and domestic supply (Crelin 2018). Prolonged instability and conflict on freshwater supplies will further exacerbate water stress and water scarcity. Water has often been used as a tool or weapon to advance state agendas. For example, in Iraq, water has primarily been used to assure political and military objectives, contributing to further instability in the country. In Iran, rivers have been dammed across the country to divert water to key areas to obtain support from important parts of the country (Crelin 2018). Water resources have therefore become politicised, and the distribution thereof can lead to severe conflict. The Middle East and Northern African region therefore face major water stress and scarcity issues compounded by political instability and major competition between water users, exacerbated even further by continued unsustainable water use. The Latin American region has the most water resources of any region, but recurrent and prolonged droughts have been accompanied by major impacts. Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras have been labelled as the “dry corridor” of Central America due to this region experiencing the worst droughts of the last decade, leading to a humanitarian crisis whereby 3.5 million people requiring humanitarian assistance. Prolonged droughts together with a decrease in income and increase of unemployment has led to many people trying to migrate to the USA. Continued water shortages experienced in El Salvador have driven civil unrest and is contributing to the displacement of communities. Migration and displacement of communities are expected to continue and expected to intensify with increased climate variability.

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The increase in the mismanagement of freshwater resources is also a major driver of water scarcity within this region. Venezuela is a good example of how deteriorating political and economic conditions, accompanied with regular power outages, have led to the shutdown of water treatment plants leading to 75% of all wastewater discharged directly into surrounding water resources. Latin America is also experiencing groundwater challenges. Deforestation and eroded river basins have also limited water flow, causing inadequate recharge of aquifers (Crelin 2018; Boretti and Rosa 2019; UNICEF 2021b). In terms of East Asia and Pacific region, megacities are already experiencing radical water stress mainly due to the significant effect of continued urbanisation on the region’s water resources. Accelerated groundwater depletion in Jakarta has led to the city sinking at the fastest rate than any other city across the globe. The city is sinking at a rate of 1–28 cm per annum and half of the city is already below sea level. Water shortages occur more frequently and 29 out of 48 economies within the region have been found to be water insecure. Groundwater depletion has also been accompanied by saltwater intrusions into aquifers, further compounding water shortages in coastal areas. These issues together with the effects of drought have led to the extension of saltwater intrusion 90 km inland in some Vietnam coastal areas. Rising sea levels are also already having an impact on Pacific Islands and have led to absolute water scarcity. Due to climate change, some islands in the region are reliant on rainwater (UNICEF 2021b). South Asia is also affected by water scarcity, with cities such as Delhi, Dhaka, Karachi and Kabul already facing severe and frequent water shortages. Agricultural production is fuelling the over-extraction of groundwater resources with more than 20 million wells across the region, causing the region to account for nearly half of the world’s groundwater used for irrigation (Crelin 2018; Boretti and Rosa 2019). The North West as well as the greater Beijing regions located within China have also experienced major depletion of freshwater resources, primarily attributed to rapid levels of development and the agricultural sector’s heavy reliance on groundwater resources. The lack of water as well as obsolete irrigation systems have debilitated agricultural development in the region, causing the affected populations to miss out on the economic boom which most of China has experienced over the past three decades. Beijing is also experiencing human-induced water depletion due to population growth as well as rural-urban migration which has driven urban development and increased food demands. The increase in food demands have in turn led to the growth in agricultural irrigation, placing further stress on the region’s water resources (Crelin 2018).

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1.4.2 Primary Stressors and Implications of Water Scarcity Diminishing freshwater availability clearly has specific and significant implications of varying intensities across the globe. The primary stressors that are constant throughout all of the described regions include high population growth rates, overabstraction of groundwater resources, unsustainable water use and poor water resource management especially in terms of agricultural irrigation use. Other stressors shared across these regions include increased levels of industrialisation, increased rural-urban migration i.e., increased urbanisation rates and lastly, regional instability. Arid and semi-arid regions are most likely to be affected by climatic and hydrological changes. Declining freshwater supply will ultimately continually get worse over time due to these stressors especially within arid and semi-arid climates. These factors all contribute to reduced water security levels, increasing demand as well as the reliance on groundwater supplies to try and sustain increased agricultural, industrial and domestic water demands and use. The continued growth in the human population in combination with industrial and economic development as well as changes in consumption patterns consequently create higher water demands and in turn constant competition for suitable and reliable water supply. Insecure water supply will subsequently lead to countries experiencing increased economic, social and environmental challenges in combination with water insecurity (Crelin 2018; Boretti and Rosa 2019). Consequent implications of water scarcity for water services include increased concentration of harmful substances and/or contaminants in water resources, human health implications, decreased water levels, water shortages, increased costs of service delivery as well as damage and possible destruction to existing WASH infrastructure. The rapid increase of the urban population place additional pressure on water resources due to increased water consumption and increased wastewater production putting sanitation systems under immense pressure. Rapid rural-urban migration negatively affects groundwater recharge levels through the increase of impervious surfaces which also disrupts natural drainage systems and significantly increases an area’s flood risk. Jeopardising water security amplifies existing stresses on communities and local as well as international tensions (UNICEF 2021b).

1.4.3 Current Trajectory to 2050 Numerous regions around the world are already experiencing varying degrees of water stress and facing severe water shortages moving towards 2050. Global water demand has increased over 600% in the last century and will continue to grow quite significantly over the next two decades in all major water use sectors. The agricultural sector is expected to remain the largest water user however industrial and domestic water demand will grow at a faster pace. Global water demand is predicted to increase by 20–30% by 2050 with the global population growing

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at the same pace, estimated to increase to between 9.4 and 10.2 billion. Most of the population growth will occur in Africa (108% of the present value) and Asia (18% of the present value). Urbanisation will continue and is forecasted that two thirds of the global population will live in urban areas (Wada et al. 2016; UNDESA 2017; UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Increasing water demand will therefore increase dramatically, follow population growth, socio-economic development as well as changing consumption patterns and increase unequally across continents. Suitable and sustainable water supply requires that water demand does not exceed water availability. The current observed global trend unfortunately shows that water demand is increasing while water availability is decreasing primarily due to pollution. The availability of surface water resources is expected to remain constant on a continental level however, quality will deteriorate and the spatial as well as temporal distribution will change over time. Aquifers are also forecasted to shrink and salt intrusions to increase at coastal areas (Wada et al. 2016). Numerous countries around the world are already experiencing water scarcity conditions with many more countries predicted to face reduced water availability of surface water resources by 2050. An estimated 1.9 billion people (27% of the global population) currently live in potential severely water scarce areas with current predictions showing that this number will increase to between 42% and 95% (2.7–3.2 billion people). Approximately 50% of the global population currently live in potential water scarce areas for at least one month a year, with this number predicted to increase from 33% to 58% by 2050 (Wada et al. 2016; Veldkamp et al. 2017; UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Groundwater resources are also predicted to become depleted primarily due to unsustainable water withdrawals and over-abstraction across the globe. Global groundwater use amounted to 800 km3 in 2010 with India, the USA, China, Iran and Pakistan, accounting for 67% of all extractions. Irrigation is the primary driver of groundwater depletion, and the increment of groundwater extractions is predicted to be 1100 km3 per annum. Challenges are however more severe on a regional and local scale. Current global withdrawals are already nearing maximum sustainable levels with more than 30% of the world’s groundwater systems already experiencing severe pressure (Richey et al. 2015; Scanlon et al. 2016; Wada et al. 2016; Ferguson et al. 2018). Water scarcity will also influence future food security by possibly limiting food production. Food demand is estimated to increase by 60% by 2050 and will require more arable land as well as the intensification of production, leading to increased water use by the agricultural sector. Water demand for industries will also increase across the globe with possible exceptions of North America and Western Europe. Africa will experience the largest increase with an estimated 800% increase, followed by Asia with a projected increase of 250%. Domestic water demand is also expected to increase significantly by 2050 in most regions except Western Europe. Once again, the regions which will experience the largest increase in domestic water demand are Africa and Asia. An increase of 300% is expected in Africa and Asia, followed by Central and Southern America expecting an increase of 200% primarily due to continued rural-urban migration and expansion of urban settlements (IEA 2012; Leadly et al. 2014; UNWWAP 2014).

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Poor water quality also contributes to water scarcity as it reduces the amount of water available for different water users. The degradation of freshwater resources has been a continued global issue. The last two decades have seen the worsening of water pollution across the globe and correlate with increased population densities and socio-economic growth. Approximately 12% of the world’s population drink water from unimproved or unsafe sources with more than 30% living with no form of sanitation. The lack of sanitation in turn contributes to water pollution primarily through the discharge of untreated wastewater or sewage into water resources mostly in developing countries. Industrial effluent is also a major water quality issue due to an estimated 300–400 megatons of industrial effluent or wastewater being discharged into water resources on an annual basis. Other primary sources of water pollution in a global context include non-point sources of pollution from agriculture and urban areas as well as industrial point pollution contributing to the overall pollution load. The degradation of freshwater resources is also accompanied by biodiversity loss through the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. More than 30% of biodiversity has been lost due to the continued pollution of water resources and aquatic ecosystems (UNICEF 2015; WHO 2015; Connor et al. 2017). Water degradation is expected to intensify over the next few decades and become a major threat to the future sustainability of the globe’s water resources. Currently, 80% of industrial and municipal wastewater are released untreated into surrounding water resources. Continued rapid urbanisation and high cost of wastewater treatment is expected to cause a further increase in wastewater effluents. Nutrient loading is also projected to increase due to higher use of fertiliser by the agricultural sector to meet increased food demands. Current levels of nitrogen and phosphorous pollution from agriculture may already be exceeding globally sustainable limits. Global fertiliser use is expected to increase from 90 million tonnes in 2000 to more than 150 million tonnes by 2050. By 2050, nitrogen and phosphorous effluents will increase by 180% and 150% respectively. The list of contaminants of concern is increasing at a dramatic rate with novel or varied contaminants suddenly being detected at concentrations much higher than anticipated. Low- and lower-middle income countries will experience a higher exposure to pollutants with higher population and economic growth as well as the lack of wastewater treatment acting as the primary driving forces of pollution (Kray 2012; OECD 2012; Sauvé and Desrosiers 2014). Water scarcity is a complex problem accompanied with cross-sectoral risks. The availability of water resources across the globe will decrease, the demand for water will increase exponentially and the degradation of water resources will reduce the amount of clean freshwater even further. Moving towards 2050, numerous regions and countries will be facing increased water stress, experience water scarcity and in some cases, experience water insecurity.

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1.5 Conclusion Water availability, demand and quality are all interconnected and should be considered as a whole when evaluating the current state and future of freshwater resources on a global, regional and local scale. The availability of freshwater resources in terms of both quantity as well as quality are threatened by various factors. The quantity and quality of water resources therefore need to receive attention as both relate to wider concerns of reliable access to freshwater of an acceptable quality. Each threat or risk must be viewed in the context of all the other risks. Addressing water scarcity will require the necessary understanding of the potential drivers of it within a specific context as well as the consideration how these might or will change over time (Boretti and Rosa 2019; UNICEF 2021a). The primary actions which can be considered to try and mitigate the stresses and accompanied implications on the depletion of freshwater availability can include improved policies to encourage the adoption of water efficient crops, sustainable agricultural infrastructure, recycling of wastewater as well as co-operative management of transboundary water resources and water sharing agreements. Due to agriculture being the biggest global water user and the accompanied rise in water pollution from this sector, a change in this water use sector will contribute greatly to water conservation. Conservation agriculture therefore needs to be adopted to reduce the overall impact of this sector and will require increased use of rainwater and rainwater harvesting for irrigation, suitable crop rotation, crop diversification as well as adopting measures which reduce evaporation and runoff (Crelin 2018; UNICEF 2021b). The high risk of water shortages around the world can in severe cases often result in social unrest and political instability as is the case in some countries within the Middle East and Northern African region. Governments must take initiative and develop policies which incentivise water conservation, encourage the use of water saving technologies and the overall improvement of irrigation and water management practices. In an attempt to balance increased competition for water resources and defuse possible conflicts, stakeholders at all levels of government and civil society need to consider water management practices and multi-lateral cooperative management practices to balance these risks. Some of these practices can include the development and implementation of transboundary water sharing agreements such as the Indus Water Treaty, developed between India and Pakistan. To comply with this treaty, both parties need to negotiate any planned changes to the flow of the Indus River and may not act unilaterally. These types of agreements will become necessary especially within the northern Middle East. Another possible measure which is receiving more and more attention is the improved utilisation of green infrastructure. These ventures can be financed by green bonds and increased payments to ecosystem services such as conservation initiatives. The recycling of wastewater is a major prospect to meet increased water demand due to 82% of the world’s wastewater not being recycled (Crelin 2018; Boretti and Rosa 2019).

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The world has continually faced challenges of trying to ensure water security. Several regions will be greatly threatened by increased water stress and will require increased levels of management from a local to global level to try and reduce or mitigate this threat. Technological innovations alone will not be able to meet future global water challenges. Surface and groundwater need to be managed jointly as they are interconnected in the supply of water. Poor monitoring and management of groundwater has led to the rapid disappearance of some aquifers around the world and consequently requires its inclusion in international and national transboundary water discussions and policies (Crelin 2018; Famiglietti 2019; UNICEF 2021b). Sound water management, stakeholders on all levels, policymakers, water service providers, civil society as well as major water users all play a role in the safeguarding of freshwater resources against growing risks. Freshwater challenges can be transformed into net positives if all mentioned stakeholders open opportunities for discussing water policies and/or agreements, increasing and/or expanding monitoring networks, sharing of data as well as creating water diplomacy to promote cooperation rather than conflict.

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Chapter 2

Integrated Water Resource Management, Water Service Provision and Delivery

2.1 Implementation, Challenges and Successes of Integrated Water Resource Management The world’s resources are under increasing immense pressure, threatening severe water shortages. Water allocation has become an increasingly bigger challenge for water managers and/or decision-makers due to dwindling water supplies and continued increase in water demands. Traditional fragmented approaches have deemed to be no longer viable and a more holistic approach to water management was called for. In order to try and address and/or minimise the highlighted pressures and threats as well as an attempt for more holistic water management, Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) has been recommended. IWRM has consequently been accepted internationally as the way forward for efficient, equitable and sustainable development and management of limited water resources to deal with conflicting demands (Thomas and Durham 2003; Rahaman and Varis 2005). IWRM was placed on the international water agenda at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 and was further elaborated on at the Rio Conference in 1992 (UNEP 1992). The approach is defined by the Technical Committee of the Global Water Partnership (GWP) as “a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems” (Rahaman and Varis 2005: 1). The IWRM framework is designed to improve the management of water based on four key principles adopted at the Dublin Conference on Water and the Rio Summit in 1992. These four principles have been labelled as the Dublin-Rio Principles and include:

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1. The recognition that freshwater resources are finite, vulnerable, and essential to sustain life, development and the environment (Ecological Principle). 2. The recommendation of a participatory approach which calls for the participatory involvement in the development and management of water resources. The approach therefore must involve all levels of stakeholders i.e., policymakers, planners and users (Institutional Principle). 3. The recognition that women play a central role in water provision/supply, management, and safeguarding (Gender Principle). 4. The suggestion that water should be considered to be an economic good as it has an economic value in all its competing uses (Economic Principle) (Rahaman and Varis 2005; Thomas and Durham 2003; Vieira et al. 2019). A single blueprint for IWRM does not exist as the approach does not provide a prescriptive description of how water should be managed. The provided broad framework enable decision-makers to collaboratively develop goals for water management and coordinate the use of different tools to achieve these. IWRM consequently vary across countries and different stresses are placed on the importance of economic, social, and environmental impacts (White 2013). IWRM therefore primarily emphasises that water should be managed in a basin-wide context together with the principles of social equity, economic efficiency, and ecological sustainability. Due to the high degree of complexity and specificity of water management within each country, there is no specific model for the adaptation of IWRM. The GWP consequently developed a IWRM ToolBox to support the development and application thereof in different contexts. The overarching pillars within this ToolBox include an enabling environment, institutional roles as well as management instruments (GWP 2017). The effectiveness of IWRM is consequently evaluated by providing a brief discussion focussed on the primary challenges and successes of IWRM.

2.1.1 Challenges IWRM has become one of the typical initiatives discussed by governments since 1992 however it has come under increased criticism. The continued major challenge is effective implementation in reality and/or practical settings with some authors calling for the abandonment of the approach altogether (Biswas 2004; Merrey 2008). The major impediment of the IWRM approach is the practical implementation of the theoretically agreed upon IWRM policies (Biswas 2005; Lahtela 2001). Primary challenges include integration as well as the extent of the integration that can be achieved when trying to practically apply the approach mainly due to the numerous sectors and institutions which are engaged in water management. Coordination is therefore an important factor for the practical application of the approach however, this needs funding as well as human capacity. Institutional barriers can set operational limits and determine the extent of the possible integration (Biswas 2008; Hassing et al. 2009).

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Decision-makers and/or managers decide on the priorities and which aspects are important to be included in an assessment, management plan or water resources development process. Consequently, not all water management decisions, made on a basin level, are dictated by IWRM principles. In terms of cooperation, the water sector needs to consider the requirements and priorities of other sectors as well such as the national economy. Many interested parties of varying objectives and long histories are also involved in water resource management and therefore influence the development and implementation of IWRM. The primary challenges of the approach are firstly related to the varying prioritisation and relativity of water in terms of development and societies from one place to another as well as the need to see water as one factor in a wider context (Hassing et al. 2009; Rahaman and Varis 2005; Varis 2005; Vieira et al. 2019). IWRM could take several decades before it achieves the goal of being implemented according to the most important principles. Developing countries have experienced slow progress towards IWRM primarily due to weak institutional capacity for change. Other factors limiting the speed of the process include the predominantly informal water institutions (especially in rural areas), minimal or low regulatory influence and the failure of legislation, pricing and policies to function. On the other hand, water sectors in developed countries are more formalised and the behaviour of the sector is under direct regulatory influence (mostly). The success of IWRM therefore largely depends on the development and national governance structures as well as a more formal water sector. The implementation of the approach also requires difficult trade-offs between conflicting objectives (Hassing et al. 2009). For example, a large water user, such as agriculture, is influential but can represent an inefficient use of water due to old technologies. The implementation of IWRM will consequently require delicate, time-consuming and difficult negotiations and trade-offs as well as a change in the mindset of people involved in the agricultural sector. The involvement of water users and interested parties is therefore important for the commitment to and the outcome of IWRM.

2.1.2 Successes Even though the challenge exists of defining IWRM due to the varied implementation across countries, it can however be characterised by three key trends since its development. Countries have started to move away from command-and-control instruments, primarily focussed upon supply-side water management, and towards the incorporation of demand side management through the use of economic instruments. This has consequently created a more flexible approach to water management and the development of a variety of innovative instruments aimed at resolving local water security problems. IWRM has also led to increased awareness of the overall importance of sustainable development and the incorporation of social and environmental factors into water management. IWRM has also caused countries to move away from top-down, centralised approaches to more flexible, decentralised

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approaches which involves decentralised governance structures at a local, national, and transboundary level. Lastly, the IWRM framework has also placed an increased focus on community involvement and stakeholder collaborations in the decisionmaking process. The benefits of wider collaboration include the incorporation of specialised knowledge, encouragement of more innovative solutions to problems due to varied viewpoints, encouragement of cooperation as well as reducing possible risks of conflicts and lastly, development of solutions which are more inclusive, open and democratic, generating wider support and hopefully leading to sustainable outcomes (Dungumaro and Madulu 2003; Loux 2011; White 2013). Despite the mentioned challenges and/or criticisms, the overall flexibility of IWRM is still one of its primary advantages as it allows for policies to be developed within and/or for a specific local context or challenge. Clearly defined policy frameworks and prescriptive solutions are not always able to address issues across variable situations due to the complexity of water issues within and between countries (Lenton and Muller 2009; Pahl-Wostl and Sendzimir 2011). Even though the implementation of IWRM has been criticised to be uneven, the positive or successful implementation thereof have been highlighted by some authors (Jeffrey and Gearey 2006; Jonker 2007; Koudstaal et al. 1992; Swatuk 2005; van der Zaag 2007). There is also growing evidence that the implementation of IWRM can have considerable, long-term benefits to water security and overall water management within various contexts (Lenton and Muller 2009; Pahl-Wostl and Sendzimir 2011). IWRM appeared to be generally accepted and become the preferred approach of water resource management by various stakeholders in the water sector on an international scale by the year 2000. Concern related to the utility of IWRM as an approach have however been raised in reports on service delivery protests and continued water pollution and some authors, such as Merrey (2008), have called for the abandonment of the approach as a guide for implementation. However, other authors (Biswas 2004; White 1998) have indicated that before the approach can be abandoned, incisive and comprehensive post-audits of completed water management efforts need to be completed. An assessment of IWRM’s applicability is therefore required before a final decision can be made. The two primary questions which need to be asked are: 1. Is the IWRM approach not being implemented due to it being inherently impossible to implement? 2. Can the failure for implementation of the approach be attributed to other reasons such as lack of funding and inadequate human capacity? (Jonker 2014) The success of IWRM should therefore be measured against its usefulness. Various examples do exist where IWRM demonstrated benefits growing on the ground when decisions are guided by IWRM thinking and principles. Some of these success case studies include the following. The implementation of local level IWRM actions in Kelana Jaya Municipal Park, Malaysia, assisted in integrating two conflicting sectors. The needs of the urban wastewater sector and the surrounding environment were in conflict. The local authorities brought the two sectors together and identified remedial IWRM actions to

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address the losing opportunities from stakeholders as well as health risks. The agreed upon IWRM actions consequently led to improvements in water quality, fisheries, and human health. The integrated nature of IWRM assisted in resolving the conflicts between lakeside communities and the environment, consequently benefitting both parties (Hassing et al. 2009). In the case of New York, United States of America (USA), conflicts existed between polluting activities of a watershed and urban water supply. Continued pollution in the source watershed led to the deterioration of water quality. The city was faced with either investing US$6 billion in new filtration and treatment facilities or a US$1.6 billion clean-up of the causes for the pollution. The city chose to form a partnership at state level. The water supply company assisted upstream farmers in implementing good farming practices, bought and set aside land for protection and rehabilitated existing wastewater treatment plants. Water quality consequently improved and the city avoided costly filtration methods. Addressing the conflict between pollution sources and the water supply of the city through developing partnerships resulted in major economic benefits as well as the improvement of the environment (Hassing et al. 2009). The implementation of the IWRM process at provincial level in Liaoning Province, China, showed that these actions can substantially improve the aquatic environment together with the increase in water use efficiency in an area of over 40 million people. The streams within the province were polluted by untreated industrial and urban wastewater, consequently leading to the destruction of ecological processes. A water resource planning division was created and were tasked with developing and implementing a IWRM plan. Pollution loads were reduced by 60%, water quality improved considerably, deforestation practices were discontinued, drinking water within the basin was protected and, as a result, led to the restoration of ecosystems along several rivers (Hassing et al. 2009). National level irrigation reforms in Mexico were taken following IWRM principles and were primarily driven by external governance factors. These reforms coincided with a period of rapid economic and social change as well as political turmoil in the traditional governing party. Decision-making responsibilities of water use organisations were decentralised and led to increased efficiency especially in terms of water distribution. Water distribution efficiencies rose from 8% to 65% with a general reduction in operations and maintenance costs due to the improved use of equipment and overall reduction of more than 50% of personnel (Hassing et al. 2009). Chile has become a prime example on how to successfully incorporate water issues into strategies for sustainable growth over the past two decades. Water has been a key ingredient in driving exports and economic growth. The country’s decisionmakers also ensured to make provisions that protect the environment and provide affordable water for the poor. The successful implementation of IWRM principles led to the successful application of water as a strategic input to Chile’s economy. Chile therefore provides a good example of the progress towards the primary principles of IWRM which include economic efficiency, social equity as well as environmental sustainability (Hassing et al. 2009).

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These briefly described case studies highlight the potential of IWRM leading to more economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable solutions to complex water issues. IWRM schemes can however also be unsuccessful, requiring critical evaluation of successes and failures to create an understanding of how water resource management can be improved upon. Countries who have decided to commit to the development and implementation of IWRM within their respective contexts are at different stages of their water development. For management and institutional as well as policy changes to be successful, substantial capacity building and time is necessary. Timelines therefore vary substantially across countries due to varied existing plans and points of departure. Lastly, the particulars in planning and implementation must also reflect local water issues and management conditions further influencing specific objectives of IWRM plans. Water issues are complex in nature and therefore require complex solutions. The flexibility of IWRM has the ability to embrace and account for these challenges of complexity instead of trying to implement a set of prescriptive solutions.

2.2 IWRM Within a South African Context IWRM was introduced on a national level in South Africa through the water law review process initiated in 1995. Water law principles were published in 1996, the Water Policy released in 1996 and the National Water Act promulgated in 1998 (de Coning 2006). The country was consequently divided into 19 Water Management Areas (WMAs) in 1999 together with a proposal of establishing Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) with the Inkomati-Usuthu CMA proposed first (Jonker et al. 2010). The implementation of the water policy however slowed down and decreased to nine CMAs which were established in 2010 with only two being operational to this day i.e. 2022 (Jonker 2014). The country’s highly praised National Water Act (NWA) (Act 36 of 1998) provided a foundation for a new and fundamentally different way of managing the country’s limited water resources. The NWA in combination with the White Paper for National Water Policy, which sets out 28 principles, challenged past policies and values by framing water resource management within the context of two principles namely equity and sustainability (RSA 1998). These two principles are transformatory and seek to move towards integration, redistribution as well as equity in allocation, sustainable water use, protection of resources, participation and the recognition of international needs connected to transboundary water resources. The Water Services Act (Act 108 of 1997) have also received widespread respect and provides for the rights to basic water supply and sanitation. The Act also recognises that although the provision of water and sanitation services is an activity distinct from overall management of water resources, it should also be carried out in a manner consistent with the wider goals of water resource management provided in the NWA (RSA 1997). IWRM is central to the re-orientation exemplified by the NWA. The need for integrated management of all aspects of water resources is clearly recognised

2.3 Water Service Provision and Delivery from a Global Perspective

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in the NWA and the country’s Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) defines IWRM as a philosophy, a process and a management strategy to achieve sustainable use of resources by all stakeholders at catchment, regional, national and international levels, while maintaining the characteristics and integrity of water resources at the catchment scale within agreed limits (RSA 1997). IWRM therefore aims to achieve a balance between the use of water resources for livelihoods and the protection thereof for future generations whilst advocating social equity, environmental sustainability, and economic efficiency (DWAF 2004). It also considers a rights discourse, and the development of the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS) which provides the framework within which water resources should be managed at a regional or catchment level (Pollard and du Toit 2008). The developed catchment management strategies, a legislative requirement, offers the opportunity to plan for the complexity of water issues and for the management of this through a strategic and adaptive process embracing learning transformed by practice (DWAF 2004). The NWA and other mentioned policy related documents have provided an enabling environment for planning and managing water resources within complex environments. CMA strategies can demonstrate how strategic plans can be designed to achieve equity and sustainability if these strategies have collaboratively, judiciously and considerately been developed. Due to the unpredictable nature of outcomes, delays can be expected, hence, requiring the review of strategies every five years to build on new information, experience and learning. To ensure a collective understanding and promote resilience in the system, self-organisation and the identity of stakeholders are essential. Collaboration with other plans and processes are important to ensure co-operative governance and participation which are both important factors contributing to building resilience within catchment systems.

2.3 Water Service Provision and Delivery from a Global Perspective Water is a recognised human right and everyone is therefore entitled to it (Karimi 2016). In general, the water and sanitation sector comprise of water supply and sanitation. The water supply process includes the abstraction, treatment and distribution process for treating raw water and delivering water of an acceptable quality to the customer while sanitation includes the collection and treatment of wastewater for it to be safely discharged into the environment or re-used (Butler et al. 2020). The SDGs therefore included a commitment to achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 in an attempt to close the urban–rural and equity gap while aiming to deliver higher level of quality, accessible and reliable services. Governments who have adopted the SDGs therefore have three main challenges namely, to reach the unserved (predominantly rural population groups), to increase service levels and to sustain existing and future services (World Bank Group 2017).

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The five primary trends impacting upon the global water sector, pre-COVID-19, include the following. 1. Increased climate variability which has been accompanied by increased extreme floods and prolonged droughts, placing increased pressure on the resilience of water and sanitation systems. 2. Continued growth of the global population, especially in areas facing water stress, consequently increasing water supply vulnerabilities. 3. Continued global rural–urban migration and associated rapid urbanisation trends have placed strain on existing water resources and ecosystems. 4. The development of megacities has added a further challenge of extending water and sanitation services to a billion people living in informal settlements, not served by water infrastructure. 5. Outdated and aging infrastructure has increased pressure on trying to accelerate investments, especially in advanced markets following decades of underinvestment or no investment at all (Butler et al. 2020). The significance of water for socio-economic development have been increasingly recognised the past decade. Increased recognition of water as an economic enabler is primarily due to the continued growth in the world’s population (an estimated 9 billion by 2050), in combination with increased urbanisation, escalating water demands from various water use sectors, lack of investment in infrastructure, deteriorating water quality and the expected effects of climate change (Creamer Media 2012). A large number of the world’s population however still do not have access to water of an acceptable quality. The baseline for the SDGs indicated that in 2015, 844 million people remained without access to basic water services and 2.1 billion without safely managed drinking water with the majority of the affected populations living in rural areas (World Bank Group 2017). The world has made positive progress since the adoption of the SDGs by governments. The proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water services, increased from 70.2% to 74.3% between 2015 and 2020 (Fig. 2.1), with the largest proportion gaining access in Central and Southern Asia. Despite this progress, in 2020, two billion people still lacked safely managed drinking water, including 771 million who were without even basic drinking water. The Sub-Saharan African region contain the largest numbers with 387 million people lacking basic drinking water services. Progress has also been made in terms of increasing access to safely managed sanitation services. Between 2015 and 2020, access increased from 47.1% to 54% (Fig. 2.1). A total of 3.6 billion people however still lack safely managed sanitation in 2020, including 1.7 billion still living without basic sanitation. Of the 1.7 billion people, 494 million (739 million in 2015) still practice open defecation. Even though the world is on track to eliminate open defecation by 2030, the achievement of safely managed sanitation will require a fourfold increase of current rates of progress (UN 2021). In terms of the proportion of the global population with basic hygiene, progress has been made from 67.3% in 2015 to 70.7% in 2020. Approximately 2.3 billion people (one in three) therefore did not have basic handwashing facilities with soap

2.4 The Global South: Water Service Provision and Delivery 80 70.2

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74.3 67.3

Global Coverage (%)

70 60

70.74

53.95 47.1

50 40 30 20 10 0 Basic drinking water

Safely managed sanitation

Basic hygiene services

Water Services 2015

2020

Fig. 2.1 Global coverage of drinking water, sanitation and hygiene services between 2015 and 2020 (UN 2021)

and water at their home and 670 million had no handwashing facility at all at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (UN 2021). The given statistics in terms of global progress made since 2015 do, however, mask the troubling fact that the drinking water from these improved sources is not a guarantee of good or acceptable quality and that some regions have lacked continued progress. The Sub-Saharan Africa region has a total coverage of 30%. Of most concern is that the total number of people practicing open defecation has increased by 33 million over the last three decades. The region has the highest proportion of people using unimproved sanitation and this number has continued to grow. Suggesting that sanitation is on the rise in this region, however, not without a cost (Creamer Media 2012).

2.4 The Global South: Water Service Provision and Delivery Approximately 22% of least-developed countries’ healthcare facilities lack access to improved water and sanitation services, with these deficits having potentially significant human health impacts through water-related diseases in addition to productivity and environmental impacts (Butler et al. 2020). Rural water supplies were found to have low functionality rates of between 60% and 70%, showing that access gains around the world remain fragile and at risk. The world’s rural communities are at a clear disadvantage to urban dwellers from an access to basic water and sanitation service perspective. More than 75% of the world’s urban population use improved

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sanitation facilities compared to 47% of the rural population. In terms of access to safe drinking water, 96% of the world’s urban population make use of improved water sources compared to 81% of rural population in 2010 (World Bank Group 2017). Corruption and the inefficiency of the public sector have been highlighted as major factors preventing efficient service delivery, especially in “weak” states. The general consensus of these public sectors is that they are overstaffed, manipulated by politicians to serve short-term political goals (especially in low-income countries), motivated to provide subsidised services to urban middle-class, leaving the urban and rural poor underserviced. Hence, the primary water problem within the Global South refers to the fact that water and sanitation networks have nearly unanimously failed to reach the poor. Poor public sector management practices in combination with high urbanisation rates and limited to no investment have led to low rates of cost-recovery, low productivity and low service quality and coverage (Bakker 2003; Komives 2001). Even though substantial aid and loans have been given from international financial institutions, most public water and sanitation have failed to achieve universal coverage, even in urban settings. Despite the general trend showing that there is a rise in water access, there is also a rise in the level of service provided to rural populations. The primary drivers of changes in rural water include the following. Firstly, urbanisation plays a major role especially in Asia and Africa. The urban population is growing at a rapid pace linked to urban growth, consequently impacting rural areas as rapid growth also occurs in smaller towns. Former “rural” areas with dispersed settlement patterns become a mix of small towns, rural growth points and homesteads. The second driver is economic growth and poverty reduction. Poverty has been declining since 1999 in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin America (World Bank 2013) primarily due to economic growth and have led to the rapid development of the middle-class. The combination of urbanisation and the rise in lifestyle and expectations, reflect in the rural water sector where both water users and government focus on obtaining higher levels of service, making the decision to have piped supplies with higher service (Moriarty et al. 2013). This clearly supports current statistics which show an increase in open defecation and a decrease in water and sanitation services, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the sharp increase in lifestyles, high expectation of better services and the overall increased need for sanitation services due to the aim of continued socio-economic growth. Rural water projects however face a high degree of operational failure (Harvey and Reed 2006). The challenging reality is therefore that many rural water supplies fail with an estimated 30% and 40% of rural water supply systems in developing countries not working (Moriarty et al. 2013). There are however very few exceptions of rural water systems performing well and are dependent on perceptions. For a rural water system to be successful, one needs to go beyond simple measures of access to a technology and define a level of service in terms of quality and quantity, accessibility and reliability of supplies. There are therefore large gaps between figures on coverage, non-functionality of water systems and measures of service delivery,

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which consequently opens up a range of interpretations of success of rural water supply. An adjustment in focus is therefore required to move away from the construction of water supply systems to actual service delivery to try and ensure that facilities continue to deliver basic levels of service for all people (Gol 2011; GoG 2012). For these services to endure over time, it will require the provisioning of adequate budgets, post construction support, repairs and maintenance which is currently lacking from most rural water supply projects in developing nations. The aim should therefore be to move away from simply providing hardware for first time access and move towards actual service delivery. The constant pressure to expand coverage have created the focus on building new systems, often ignoring a genuine demandresponsive approach. Proper focus can therefore not be placed on sustainability and the level of service being delivered due to the consistent high absolute need for first time access or due to the primary challenge being framed as being a lack of access to hardware.

2.5 Conclusion IWRM has become a popular concept since its development in the early 1990s however its history in terms of application to more efficiently manage macro- and meso-scale water policies, programmes and projects have been bleak. The use of multi-value approaches to water governance requires the acknowledgement of the role of values which drive water management decisions as well as call for stakeholder involvement and participation. Consequently, the implementation record of IWRM has also been dismal for a concept that has been around for more than two decades. The transition to this system of water governance which recognises multiple values and active participation of various stakeholders has been accompanied with three primary challenges. Firstly, there must be an acknowledgement that water governance is driven by implicit or explicit values. The second challenge relates to the value of using water in different ways which is filled with measurement issues of what can be measured, what should be measured and by whom. The third challenge is connected to the disconnect between public decision-making processes and actions which include the risk of agendas controlled by vested interests. The primary question related to IWRM is whether the implementation thereof has resulted in any positive changes in water management practices. An objective and impartial assessment of the applicability of IWRM is required. Evidence has predominantly showed that the impact of IWRM in improving water resource management has been marginal. Some evidence does show that the concept is working on microscale projects however little evidence suggests that the concept is working on a macro- or meso-scale policies, programmes, and projects on a long-term basis. In terms of IWRM in South Africa, even though the country has developed acclaimed water legislation and policies, numerous reports have been published about

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the deterioration of the country’s water resources as well as increasing civil unrest caused by a lack of service delivery. This consequently indicates that the responsible stakeholders (government, national departments, and local governments) which are required to oversee the country’s water resources and tasked with the informed management thereof has failed in terms of IWRM, the provision of clean drinking water and improved sanitation services. Lastly, despite access to water and sanitation services being a recognised human right on a global and national scale, many the world’s populations however still do not have access to water of an acceptable quality or suitable sanitation facilities and/or services. A large number of the world’s population still remain without access to basic water services and without safely managed drinking water with the majority of these affected populations living in peri-urban and/or rural areas. Proper focus should be placed on sustainability and the level of service being delivered and move away from the consistent high absolute need for first time access. The primary challenge being framed as a lack of access to hardware should be expanded upon to include the major challenge of providing reliable service delivery of water supply and sanitation.

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Chapter 3

South Africa’s Impending Freshwater Crises

Freshwater availability across South Africa varies on a spatial and temporal scale, creating various water-related challenges. The country is consequently ranked as the 40th driest country in the world and considered to be water stressed. More than half of its Water Management Areas (WMAs) are experiencing a water deficit. Water withdrawals from water users exceed the sustainable level of water supply and many parts of the country are approaching or have achieved the point where all accessible freshwater resources have been fully utilised. Demand is predicted to outstrip supply by 2025 however some completed research have suggested that this point was already achieved in 2017. The primary freshwater challenges within South Africa are highlighted throughout this chapter. Some of these include, but are not limited to, current available amount of freshwater, unequal distribution and access to clean water and sanitation services, overall quality and state of water infrastructure, continued and periodic droughts which cause urban areas to run dry, as well as entrenched alleged corruption affecting the functioning of local municipalities as well as municipal treatment plants, resulting in widespread sewage pollution. Even though the country is not yet confronting an absolute water shortage, there is a concerning level of overall ignorance and lack of political will related to the current state of South Africa’s water resources and what is required to ensure adequate and reliable water supply and actual service delivery. This chapter focusses on the impending water crises of South Africa by firstly providing an evaluation of the current state of freshwater resources in terms of availability. This is followed by a discussion related to current water withdrawals and supply as well as the primary drivers of predicted increased and unsustainable water demand. The primary water quality issues and/or challenges are also briefly described. Current water service provision and delivery within the country is also discussed. As a conclusion, the chapter focusses on the developing water crises within South Africa with specific focus on water scarcity, water stress as well as failing infrastructure and water service delivery.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_3

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3.1 Current Freshwater Resources The availability of freshwater resources within South Africa is not consistent across the country’s landscape, varies considerably across WMAs and catchments and is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors in varying degrees. South Africa’s climate is classified as arid to semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of approximately 465 mm compared to the global average of 860 mm. The total mean annual runoff (MAR) is an estimated 50 × 109 m3 which is a mere 50% of the mean flow of the Zambezi River and 3% of the Congo River. The current reliable yield of surface water at an acceptable assurance of supply at a national level is estimated to be 10 200 million m3 per annum and 70% of this value is stored in the country’s 252 largest dams. The total national accessible groundwater potential is estimated to be 4500 million m3 per annum of which 2000 to 3000 million m3 per annum is currently being utilised. South Africa has invested large amounts into water storage. The country has 5000 registered dams of which the majority thereof (3 832) are small dams, mostly serving agricultural and domestic water use sectors and playing a major role in local water security and climate resilience (Pitman 2011; DWS 2018). South Africa has been ranked amongst the 40th driest countries in the world and considered to be water stressed. Consequently, the overall water crisis is ranked as the second highest risk, after the unemployment crisis, for doing business in the country (WEF 2019). The country depends on surface water which accounts for 77% of total water supply, with the remaining portion supplied from groundwater (9%) and return flows (15%) (DWA 2013a). A significant portion of the country’s surface water resources is also imported from Lesotho (neighbouring country), which supports the economic heart of the country, the Gauteng Province (Matumba 2019). The major river basins of South Africa include the Nkomati, Limpopo, Maputo, Orange-Senqu, Thukela and Umbeluzi, all shared with neighbouring countries Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia (Ashton et al. 2008). The country’s four major transboundary basins contain 40% of the available water resource supply and include the Limpopo- (South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique), the Komati- (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique), the Maputo/Usuthu- (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique), and lastly the Orange basin (Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia). Large-scale interbasin water transfers have also been developed between catchments in an attempt to supplement water supply to metropolitan areas such as Johannesburg which is not located close to a major water course. Seven of the nine provinces of South Africa rely on inter-basin transfers which provide more than half of their water requirements (van der Merwe-Botha 2009; DEAT 2012). The total available renewable groundwater resources within the country are estimated at 10 343 million m3 per annum, or 7 500 million m3 per annum under drought conditions (DWA 2010a). The utilisable groundwater exploitable potential also varies greatly across WMAs and catchments. Over the past six to seven decades, the use of groundwater resources has increased

3.2 Water Withdrawals and Supply

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from an estimated 700 million m3 in 1950, to 1 770 million m3 in 2004 (DWA 2010a; StatsSA 2010). After the allocation of water for environmental flow requirements, more than half of South Africa’s WMAs are in a water deficit, meaning water requirements are exceeding supply (DWA 2010b). The country is therefore overexploiting its water resources at a national level despite the country being classified as water stress and significant water transfers to the country from other systems. Any significant changes in precipitation and/or water availability, especially due to increased climate variability, will have a severe negative impact on available water resources and will require suitable adaptation and mitigation strategies.

3.2 Water Withdrawals and Supply Similar to the uneven distribution of water resources across the country, the demands for water also vary across sectors and water users. Water demand in South Africa was estimated to have reached 15 × 109 m3 per annum in 2015 and is projected to rise to 17 × 109 m3 per annum in 2025. High and increased levels of development, anthropogenic activities as well as land transformation threaten more than half of the country’s ecosystem types and two-thirds of wetland ecosystem types (Nel et al. 2011). Furthermore, on a national level, water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors exceed levels of sustainable supply. Based on best estimates for current water withdrawals and supply, many parts of the country are fast approaching the point of where all easily accessible freshwater resources are fully utilised. The limits to the development of surface water resources have therefore almost been reached (DWA 2010a; Hedden 2016; Matumba 2019). The agricultural sector is the largest water use sector (62%), followed by municipal (27%) which includes industrial and commercial users provided from municipal systems. The remaining 11% of water use includes power generation, mining, bulk industrial use, livestock, afforestation as well as conservation (DWS 2018, 2022; GreenCape 2020). These water use proportions of municipal and agricultural use differs between provinces and municipalities, depending on the local economy and settlement patterns. Water use within the agricultural sector is mostly unmetered, causing unauthorised abstraction and water wastage to be a major concern. Agricultural users also pay a lower tariff than other users of untreated water, leading to the adoption of water efficient irrigation practices to be slow due to relatively cheap water not incentivising improved water use and efficiency. The agricultural sector plays a big role in terms of employment and its contribution to the country’s GDP with the estimated value of primary agricultural production in 2016 reaching R263 billion (DWS 2018). South Africa’s population has grown from 54 million in 2011 to 60.04 million in 2021, with 60% of its people living in urban environments and the remaining 40% in rural settlements. Currently the total population is 60.6 million (2022). It is estimated that over 80% of the country’s population will live in urban areas by 2035.

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Incomes have increased and many more people have been connected to piped water. Despite being a water scarce country, the average domestic water use is approximately 237 L per person per day, 64 L higher than the international benchmark of 173 L per person per day. High water use is partly attributed to municipal non-revenue water (NRW) which is currently at an unacceptable level of 41% while the global best practice is in the order of 15%. NRW include real or physical losses which occur due to leakage owing to poor operation and maintenance of existing water infrastructure, commercial losses caused by meter manipulation or other forms of water theft and lastly, unbilled authorised consumption which includes water use by utilities for emergency purposes for example, firefighting. Water losses vary across municipalities and service providers and the calculated average of physical losses in municipal systems are estimated to be around 35%, with 70% of these losses classified as physical losses and 17% from commercial losses (Hedden 2016; DWS 2018; GreenCape 2020). The country’s NRW is significantly higher than other water stressed countries and is one of the country’s primary water challenges requiring urgent attention and intervention. South Africa’s population’s dependence on water also varies greatly across the country. The lack of water infrastructure in rural settlements have led to 74% of all rural people being dependent on groundwater sources which include local wells and pumps. Urban areas with universal water distribution systems obtain most of their water from surface sources such as the Limpopo, Vaal and Komati Rivers. Continued immigration, population growth in both rural and urban settings as well as increased rural–urban migration have placed increased pressure on South Africa’s already strained water supply which is classified as being stressed. While rural citizens suffer the most in terms of not having access to safe and reliable water supply and/or basic sanitation services, over 26% of schools (both urban and rural) and 45% of hospitals/clinics have no access to water either (UN-Water 2006). In spite of the country’s apparent lack of water, a large portion of its GDP is directly dependent on water. South Africa’s industrial sector contributes approximately 29% to the national GDP and uses almost 11% of the country’s water resources. Due to a large proportion of the industrial sector being mining, this sector’s impact on water exceeds 11% per annum due to continued pollution from mine runoff and the deposition of untreated industrial effluents into surrounding water bodies, severely contaminating already stressed water supplies (UNWWAP/UN-Water 2018). Current water supply is predominantly derived from surface water sources, however not all are available for withdrawal. Some surface water needs to be retained in dams and rivers to maintain ecological health of a water system or due to downstream requirements. The level of water available also varies throughout the year and from one year to the next. Exploitable regular renewable water in South Africa is estimated to be 10.93 km3 per annum. The second largest source of renewable water in the country is treated municipal wastewater which is either directly reused or released back into the system for downstream use. Desalination of seawater is the final source of renewable water and constitutes a small portion of the total (Hedden 2016).

3.3 Current Drivers and Predicted Water Demand

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Taking all of the mentioned statistics into account, it can be concluded that the country does not have sufficient supply to meet current increased water demand. Predictions show that estimated demand will outstrip supply by 2025 however, some research suggests that water demand has exceeded available yield in 2017 already (WWF 2016; Matumba 2019). It is however clear that the country has very limited water resources to accommodate consistent growing demand and needs to ensure that the management of water resources is done wisely and optimally which is currently, unfortunately, not the case.

3.3 Current Drivers and Predicted Water Demand South Africa’s persistently high water demand and impending water crises has been driven by insistently poor water usage behaviours, physical and commercial water losses as well as ecological degradation, such as the continued loss of wetlands. The continued growth in the population also plays a significant role as it leads to increased water requirements for all water use sectors. Water demand is expected to increase over the next two decades while the supply is also expected to decline. Current predictions indicate that water demand will exceed supply by 17% in 2030 and will primarily be driven by increased water demand in all primary water use sectors with the municipal sector expected to experience the greatest increase (McKinsey & Company 2010; Donnenfeld et al. 2018). The country will therefore need to balance water requirements and supply. Tradeoffs will have to be made between agriculture, industrial activities as well as large and growing urban centres. To achieve a sustainable balance, South Africa will be required to reduce water demand and increase supply for its growing population, continued unsustainable water demands and for socio-economic growth. The projected 17% gap is driven by over-consumption, inefficient use, continued pollution, wastage and leakages, low tariffs, inadequate cost recovery, inappropriate infrastructure choices, inadequate planning, and implementation as well as continued population, urbanisation and socio-economic growth. Water availability as well as raw water quality will experience a further decline with the continuation of the degradation of aquatic ecosystems, poor land use practices as well as high levels of water pollution. Many parts of South Africa are expected to be vulnerable to water supply risks by 2050. Approximately 40% of the country’s wastewater is already left untreated and of the 824 wastewater treatment works (WWTWs), 30% are in a critical state and 20% are in a poor state (Donnenfeld et al. 2018; Toxopeüs 2019). The consequent raw water pollution is a major environmental challenge and poses a great risk to human health and socio-economic growth especially in poor and/or vulnerable communities which access water directly from rivers due to non-functioning or lack of water supply infrastructure and services. Increased climate variability will also place increased and additional pressure on the country’s already stressed water resources. The projected increase in rainfall variability as well as reduction of average rainfall, specifically in the western part of the

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country, increase in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts will place increased pressure on water resources. Additionally, climate change is also predicted to increase agricultural water demand due to higher temperatures and reduced reliability of rain-fed agriculture. The country’s total water requirements will increase further due to continued population- and associated economic growth. Individual water requirements can however be reduced, especially within the municipal and agricultural water use sectors, by improving efficiency, adopting new technologies, reducing water losses, improving water awareness, actual enforcement of existing legislation and policies, cost recovery as well as incentives. As a starting point, average domestic consumption should be reduced closer to the global average of 175 L per person per day by 2025. Other actions which can be considered to reduce demand can include increased focus on water efficiency, improve the quality of water and sanitation fittings as well as the consideration of rainwater harvesting in viable low-income areas. The country’s National Development Plan targets the average reduction in water demand of 15% below baseline levels (levels in 2012) in urban areas by 2030 (DWS 2018). In order to reduce the continued reduction in raw water quality, an estimated R90 billion per year of investment is required in the water and sanitation infrastructure sector over the next decade to try and ensure reliable water supply and wastewater treatment (DWS 2017, 2018). Improvements include the refurbishing and upgrading of existing aged, and in some cases, collapsing infrastructure as well as new infrastructure to support continued population and economic growth. Concerningly, the country has only budgeted for R50 billion in 2018/2019, falling well short of the estimated R90 billion (GreenCape 2020). Lack of investment is therefore also an additional challenge. In terms of addressing water supply issues, the country will have to attempt to optimise the current “water mix”. Additional water supply can be added to the country’s future water balance and the projected gap between water supply and demand can be lessened by 2035 if realistic water efficiency is achieved (Donnenfeld et al. 2018). Currently, water supply is primarily derived from surface water resources with some groundwater and return flows. The “water mix” will require an adjustment to increased groundwater use (within sustainable recharge levels), re-use of effluent from wastewater treatment plants, water reclamation as well as desalinisation and the treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD). South Africa’s dependence on surface water will equitably decrease over the coming decades primarily due to the predicted effects of climate change and groundwater will become increasingly important due to it not being adversely affected by projected increase in evaporation levels (DWS 2018, 2022). Informed actions focussed on maximising water supply, efficiency, and conservation as well as minimising water demand and continued major water losses are therefore essential. Large-scale projects of building additional large dams can perhaps address current problems by increasing overall water supply, however, these developments are unlikely to address underlying sources of water supply/demand gaps. Due to the immense scale of this gap, it is also debatable whether capital intensive projects, such as the construction of dams, can be financed and/or developed.

3.4 Water Quality Degradation

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Solutions which embed water stewardship, public–private partnerships and climate consciousness will be most beneficial.

3.4 Water Quality Degradation Water quality can be described as the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in terms of its suitability for its intended use (DWA 2011). The country’s National Water Act (NWA) defines water quality as it relating to all aspects of the water source, which include in-stream flow, natural water quality, in-stream and riparian habitat and lastly aquatic biota. The water quality and overall river health within the country is becoming increasingly poor due to increased pollution, causing numerous water sources to become unfit for use or making the treatment thereof more difficult and costly (Matumba 2019). South Africa’s water sources are facing numerous water quality challenges, mainly attributed to human activities. Primary pollution challenges include large volumes of un- or sub-treated wastewater discharged from dysfunctional and/or collapsed WWTWs introducing excessive nutrients, phosphates and coliforms, discharge of untreated or partially treated industrial effluents directly into rivers, discharge of mining waste consequently introducing heavy metals into water sources and lastly, agriculture which uses pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers introducing salts, chemicals and other toxic substances into receiving water sources through runoff (van der Merwe-Botha 2009). Long-term data trends show that South Africa’s rivers and dams have significantly deteriorated over the past two to three decades, in some instances, posing serious human health risks and degradation of the environment. The growing population, increased urbanisation, inadequate maintenance of WWTWs as well as longterm consequences of AMD have all attributed to the worsening situation. The most prevalent contamination sources, affecting water quality through point and/or diffuse pollution sources include the following: . . . .

Poorly or untreated sewage effluent from failing and unmaintained WWTWs. Poor or no access to sanitation services in informal settlements and/or rural areas. Mining and ore processing activities which have led to AMD. Industrial effluents which can contain pharmaceutical endocrine-disrupting chemicals. . Agricultural runoff containing pesticides, fertiliser and sediment. (WWF 2016) The effects of agriculture, industrial developments, mining as well as urban development have compounded into large effects on the country’s quality of water and negatively affects the fitness for use. The mentioned primary pollution problems and contamination sources have led to the overall deterioration of South Africa’s water sources and created five major water quality challenges which include eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation, acidification, and microbiological pollution. A short description of each of these primary water quality challenges now follows.

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Eutrophication refers to the enrichment of water bodies through nutrients, primarily nitrates and phosphates. The causes thereof can be both natural and anthropogenic, however, in the case of South Africa, anthropogenic factors play a major role. The influx of nutrients from anthropogenic sources such as agricultural runoff or untreated sewage, encourages the growth of microscopic green plants and algae which can consequently lead to the growth of cyanobacteria, presenting a toxic threat to both aquatic fauna and human users of the affected water source. Eutrophication leads to the depletion of oxygen within the water resource which can contribute to mass mortalities of biota. The primary anthropogenic sources which contribute to the major eutrophication challenge within South Africa include nutrients from domestic wastewater, fertilisers, and pesticides as well as industrial and mining processes (DEAT 2006, 2012). There are unfortunately, numerous examples of eutrophication across the country, with cases consistently worsening and increasing in numbers. Salinisation is a persistent water quality challenge throughout South Africa. Total dissolved solids (TDS) are used as the main measurement of determining the state of water. It is the main indicator of the total amount of various inorganic salts dissolved in water. Salinity can be described as the quantity of total dissolved inorganic solids or salts present in water. These dissolved salts are primarily derived from agricultural return flows as well as urban and industrial runoff. The main consequences of increased salinity in water sources include the reduction of crop yields, formation of scale and the corrosion of water pipes as well as an overall limiting factor in the fitness of use. In some cases, rivers are naturally saline due to underlying geological conditions, and, in some cases, aquatic ecosystems have naturally adapted to high salinity levels (Ashton 2009; DEAT 2012). South Africa’s water quality has however continuously deteriorated over the past couple of decades. The Vaal, Crocodile and Olifants River systems are significantly affected by salinity, primarily attributed to mining activities. Some coastal areas have also experienced increased salinity due to seawater intrusions. Sedimentation of water bodies and rivers are primarily attributed to the constant deposition of sediment by continued runoff from land-based activities such as agriculture or poorly designed developments. This consequently leads to increased sediment load, ultimately decreasing the lifespan of dams due to a loss in storage capacity. The lifespan of pumps and pipes can also be reduced, and the overall integrity of rivers compromised due to high levels of sedimentation. Sedimentation of water sources is primarily accompanied by substantial economic implications due to the overall increase in the cost of maintaining infrastructure as well as increased costs to manage the affected water source (DEAT 2012). In some cases, dams can become fully silted up and must be abandoned. Furthermore, the loss of storage due to sediment directly impacts the country’s overall water security as well as the ecology of river systems due to the disruption in sediment movement. Sedimentation of dams also have an economic cost in the form of the rehabilitation of dams or the construction of new ones to replace the loss in storage. Other costs of sediment removal such as dredging, or sediment flushing is also very high (WRC 2022). Acid Mine Drainage is a major challenge within South Africa, specifically in the Eastern, Central and Western basins of the Witwatersrand, in the Gauteng Province.

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AMD refers to highly acidic waters due to high concentration of metals, salts, and sulphides, resulting from open pits and mine waste dumps, tailings and ore stockpiles (CSIR 2009). It is also described as a legacy issue, is fundamentally ownerless and litigation attempts related to liabilities have mostly been unsuccessful. The threat of mine water pollution is long-term as AMD production can continue for years after mines have closed and tailings dams have been decommissioned (Oelofse 2008). This challenge is however not specific to the Witwatersrand area but all extensively mined areas of South Africa, including platinum and coal belts. For example, acid mine water is discharged into the Olifants River catchment where an estimated 62 Ml discharged on a daily basis into surrounding water resource due to the post-closure decant from defunct coal mines (Maree et al. 2004). Low pH mine water, containing high concentrations of heavy metals and radionuclides, is currently decanting uncontrollably in the Western, Central and Eastern basins’ surface water systems within the Witwatersrand, and is a prime example of the ownerless nature of AMD. The decanting of AMD through groundwater basins on the Witwatersrand started to receive widespread attention in 2002 in boreholes and later in open and abandoned mineshafts (McCarthy 2011). AMD ultimately leads to heavily contaminated water surfaces, where surface water resources are continuously heavily polluted, devastating ecological systems and creating major human health risks and/ or hazards. Microbiological pollution is characterised by bacteria which act as a medium for the spread of disease such as cholera, dysentery, skin infections and typhoid. Most of these diseases are attributed to poor sanitation practices due to poorly maintained or the total lack of adequate and functioning sanitation infrastructure. This is a widespread problem across South Africa, especially in informal settlements and rural areas (DWAF 2004a; DEAT 2006). The continued poor performance of WWTWs observed across the country is a major increased threat to South Africa’s water quality and ultimately water security due to it contributing to widespread microbiological pollution. In the Gauteng Province, 74% of WWTWs have failed to comply with at least two key effluent discharge parameters and in the Limpopo Province, WWTWs seldom even treat effluent to acceptable standards (Ogola et al. 2009; van der Merwe-Botha 2009). It is important to note that in addition to these continued water quality challenges, the country is also experiencing an increase in emerging contaminants, associated with micro-pollutants. Some serious incidents of health impacts to both people and animals have occurred via uncontrolled exposure and has resulted in increased attention on pollution through metals, carcinogens, synthetic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, veterinary and/or illicit drugs (Ashton 2009; Olujimi et al. 2010). This type of pollution is highly localised and associated with specific industries and activities. In some cases, ingredients in cosmetics, personal care products and food supplements can concentrate endocrine disrupting chemicals in the environment, entering water through accidental spills as well as via stormwater runoff. Consequently, aquatic biota is of high risk of micro-pollutants and endocrine disrupting chemicals as the aquatic environment provides the main sink for hormonally active chemicals. These can include industrial chemicals, pesticides, organochlorides, pharmaceuticals, natural

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and synthetic oestrogens, or phytoestrogens (van der Merwe-Botha 2009; Olujimi et al. 2010). The country is also experiencing significant groundwater pollution as well as overabstraction. Poor and deteriorating groundwater quality is a major issue across the country and is primarily attributed to diverse pollution sources in sectors. Some pollution sources include, but are not limited to, effluent from dysfunctional municipal WWTWs, storm water runoff from both urban and rural areas especially settlements where adequate sanitation facilities are often lacking, return flows from irrigated areas as well as effluent discharge from industries (DWA 2010a). Some groundwater resources have also been poorly managed due to lack of structured management approaches as well as the overall lack of knowledge and information leading to over-abstraction, ultimately affecting the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources within the country. Poor raw water quality has various widespread effects, reducing water resource availability, increases the treatment costs for domestic and industrial use, negatively affects agricultural production and have significant impacts on the ecology of aquatic ecosystems (DWA 2013a; DWS 2018, 2022). The country’s water resources are already experiencing significant impacts from mining, industry, agriculture, settlements as well as poorly operated and maintained municipal WWTWs, which are in many cases operated beyond design capacity (DWA 2013a). The Green Drop Report of 2013 revealed that most WWTWs discharge effluent which fail to meet regulatory requirements into rivers with less than 50% being compliant. The next Green Drop Report was only released in 2022, showing “a dismal state of wastewater management” (DPW 2022: 2). No wastewater systems scored a minimum of 90% compliance in terms of Green Drop standards in 2013 or 2022. A total of 102 of 115 systems were identified to be in a critical state in 2022, compared to 104 of 121 systems in 2013, highlighting a concerning trend of non-compliance, non-improvement and ultimately unaccountability. The primary risks continue to occur in terms of treatment level where WWTWs exceed their design capacity. Other primary risks include dysfunctional treatment processes and equipment (specifically disinfection) as well as effluent and sludge noncompliance (DPW 2022). The continued challenge of microbiological pollution by WWTWs has been largely influenced by inadequate investment, shortage of skilled and experienced labour, poor or the complete lack of planning as well as entrenched alleged corruption and/or misappropriation of funds (Edokpayi et al. 2017). Water pollution levels are predicted to reach catastrophic levels in the near future and is corroborated by various research showing through the assessment of long-term data that the quality of rivers and dams have consistently and significantly deteriorated (WWF 2016, 2017). This consequently poses a huge threat to the country’s water security due to the remediation of polluted water resources being difficult and costly. The continuously expanding populations, growing economies as well as predicted climate change effects will incessantly exert additional pressure on the quality of water resources and have negative knock-on effects such as reducing crop yields, compromising food security as well as societal health risks. The continued lack of effective regulation in combination with current challenges will lead to an accelerated

3.5 Inadequate Water Service Provision and Delivery

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water quality crisis putting human and ecosystem health at risk and significant costs to the country’s economy.

3.5 Inadequate Water Service Provision and Delivery Access to clean water is a recognised human right within South Africa. Having access to clean water is described to be the first step in reducing poverty and improving the standards of living especially within poor communities and/or rural settlements (DWAF 2004b). The extension of water services to areas which have none as well as improving levels of service has been the primary two actions taken to try and address the backlog (CALS 2008). The major role players are namely the DWS, the overall policy designer and regulator for overseeing activities of all water sector institutions, national/ international resource planning and allocation, as well as local government institutions structured as local or district municipalities, tasked with facilitating the provision of water to communities. Local municipalities have the responsibility to provide the first 6,000 L of water per household per month free of charge according to the DWS and existing legislation. This in turn ensures that even those who are not able to pay (rural poor), have access to basic level of water services required for basic needs (Nkuna & Ngorima 2011). The country has made some improvements in basic service delivery in accordance with the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) commitment made in 1994. The stated target for the water and sanitation sector was to provide all households with a clean and safe supply of 25 L of water per person per day, within 200 m of the household, as well as improved sanitation facilities. Separately from the RDP targets, other development commitments focussed on service delivery targets primarily related to household services provision, education, healthcare as well as security (Mbeki 2004). Despite government efforts, the country is still facing immense challenges of inefficient and unsustainable service delivery. In 2001, it was estimated that 11% (5 million) of the country’s population had no access to safe water supply and a further 15% (6.5 million) did not have access to defined basic service levels (StatsSA 2001). In 2008, an estimated five million people still did not have adequate supplies of water while 15 million lacked basic sanitation (Smith 2009). The majority of the affected population are the rural communities located in South Africa’s poorest provinces which include the Eastern Cape- KwaZulu Natal-, Limpopo-, North Westand Mpumalanga provinces. Violent protests against poor service delivery have become systematic and frequent over the past decade with South Africa being reported as having one of the highest rates of public demonstrations protest in the world (ISS 2011). These protests are often violent and driven by extreme poverty and inequality. A dramatic increase in local government protests has occurred since 2004. Inadequate service delivery has primarily been caused by poor governance, individual political struggles

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or conflicts within local government, poor communication, ineffective client interface, inept management, affordability issues and unfunded mandates (Nkuna and Ngorima 2011). Municipalities’ incapacity to deliver, non-maintenance of existing infrastructure as well as institutional problems of alleged corruption and mismanagement are all important factors affecting basic service provision in South Africa. Service delivery protests are predominantly related to the failure of municipalities to carry out basic maintenance of existing infrastructure. The primary challenges faced by local governments include acute problems of institutional capacity, mismanagement of funds, high levels of alleged corruption as well as lack of public anticipation (Makhari 2016). The country averaged around four to five violent anti-government protests a day in 2014. South Africa has experienced a sharp increase in protest action since 2010, consequently witnessing the development of a protest movement of poor communities, expressing their frustration and anger at the dismal performance of the government (Tapela 2013; Cronje 2014). Water service delivery issues are amongst the primary reasons of protests within the country, highlighting the prevalence of continued water service delivery issues especially in poor and/or rural communities. Most service delivery protests related to poor water service delivery occur in working-class urban and peri-urban localities, characterised by high levels of poverty, unemployment, inequality as well as relative deprivation, marginalisation and disconnections between water service development planning and municipal and national levels (Tapela 2013). These major issues occur irrespective of political affiliation of the local government. The major continued challenges of poor water and sanitation services are intricately linked to problems of poverty, inequality, the environment and overall socioeconomic development. Rather than connecting poor infrastructure with the inability of poor communities to pay for upgrades, poverty should rather be connected as a partial consequence of poor infrastructure (Zawdie & Langford 2002). Poor infrastructure and services therefore have economic costs which extend beyond the affected population to the larger community and urban region. Some of these costs include, but are not limited to, environmental costs borne by the whole region or long-term systematic costs to the region or country (Ferguson 1996; Keraita et al. 2003). There is therefore a continuing nexus between poor infrastructure, poor management and poor revenue streams, creating a vicious cycle of inadequate water and sanitation services (Graham 2005). A description of the country’s legal framework of water service provision and delivery followed by the overall progress made in terms of clean drinking water and improved sanitation in South Africa now follows.

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3.5.1 Legal Framework of Water Service Provision and Delivery The South African government have undertaken the responsibility to assure that all South Africans have access to adequate clean drinking water and improved sanitation services (DWAF 2014: 32). The importance of access to these services on an equitable basis has received primary focus in political debates since the development of the Freedom Charter in 1956. The Constitution of South Africa also contain sections on water and sanitation as well as the Bill of Rights which need to be considered during the promulgation and implementation of every policy and strategy developments (Mosili 2011). The following legislation have been developed and form the legal framework for the provision of water service delivery within South Africa: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act No. 108 of 1996) contains several clauses which deal with the rights people have in relation to water and basic sanitation. The primary clauses include the following: i. ii. iii.

iv. v.

Sect. 9(2)—prohibits the state from unfairly discriminating and calls for the equal distribution of resources which include water to all citizens of the country. Sect. 10—provides that everyone has inherent dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and protected. Sect. 24(a)—everyone has a right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation. Sect. 27(1)(b)—everyone has the right to have access to sufficient clean water. Sect. 152—the local government is responsible for ensuring the provision of services in a sustainable manner. (RSA 1996)

The Water Services Act (No. 108 of 1997) (WSA) stipulates the legislative duties of local governments as water service authorities to supply sufficient water and an environment which is not harmful to human health. Section 4(3)(c) of the Act states that “a water service authority may not deny a person access to basic water services for non-payment, where that person proves, to the satisfaction of the relevant water services authority, that he or she is unable to pay for basic services”. The Act therefore clarifies the institutional arrangements for water service provision with local governments at the centre. It also proposes that water and sanitation planning, implementation and monitoring are coordinated on national, provincial, and local levels, through dedicated and co-ordinated forums to ensure that sanitation reaches all households in an effective manner (RSA 1997). The National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) (NWA) is the principle legal instrument relating to water resources management within the country. The Act contains comprehensive requirements focussed on ensuring that the country’s water resources are protected, used, developed, conserved, managed, and controlled in a sustainable and equitable manner for the benefit of all its citizens (RSA 1998).

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The Municipal Systems Act (No. 32 of 2000) aims to provide core principles, mechanisms and processes which are necessary to enable municipalities to move towards social and economic upliftment of local communities and to ensure universal access to essential services which are affordable for all (RSA 2000). Section 74 of the Act states that “a municipal council must adopt and implement a tariff policy on levying of fees for municipal services provided by the municipality itself or by way of service delivery agreements, and which complies with any other applicable legislation”. Each municipality is therefore required to adopt an inclusive and strategic plan called the Integrated Development Plan which needs to be aligned with the resources and the capacity of the municipality for them to achieve the primary aim of providing clean drinking water and improved sanitation services. The Municipal Finance Management Act (No. 56 of 2003) is focussed on modernising the budget and financial management practices. It consequently places the finances of local governments on a sustainable footing to maximise the capacity of municipalities to deliver services to all its residents, customers, users, and investors (DWA 2013b). Lastly, the Strategic Framework for Water Services (2003) provides the national umbrella framework for the water service sector and acknowledges that water is life, sanitation, and dignity (RSA 2013). The framework contains guidelines for the provision of water services, including drinking water quality, and the role of the DWS as a sector regulator. It also provides a comprehensive review of policies, legislation and strategies related to the provision of water services within the country. Lastly, the framework ultimately aims to provide the vision for water and sanitation services provision and outlines the framework which will enable this vision to be achieved (DWA 2013b). The WSA and NWA in combination with national strategic objectives, governance and regulatory frameworks oversee the country’s current water use and management of water resources. The Free Basic Water policy, effected in 2000, was developed due to water being a constitutional right and is to be implemented by local government. The policy also gives the key institutions in water service provision as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. The implementation of the WSA is however facing major challenges in providing its functions and fulfilling its constitutional mandate. Some of these challenges, especially relevant to poor and/or rural communities, include insufficient financial resources and/or investment, lack of capacity and necessary skills, lack of bulk water resources as well as poverty.

3.5.2 Overall Progress Made in Clean Drinking Water and Improved Sanitation Prior to 1994, government policies were focussed on the advancement of a select few and the development of the country’s water resources were less focused on

3.5 Inadequate Water Service Provision and Delivery

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Department of Water and Sanitation Sector leader, National regulator and Policy maker

Water Service Authority (District/ Local Municipality) Constitutional responsibility for water service provision AND Local regulation of water services

Water Service Provider (District/ Local Municipality/ Non-Government Organisation) - Operational responsibility

Consumer (Communities) Receiving Services

Fig. 3.1 Institutions for water service delivery in South Africa. Adapted from DWAF (2004b)

alleviating the position of the poor (DWAF 1994). Basic water and sanitation services were provided to municipalities and towns which could afford it along racial lines (Goldin 2005). The country used its well-developed social resources to engineer some degree of water security and was involved in large scale water transfer schemes. Water service provision was inferior in black populated areas as well as considered inefficient even in white local authorities (Carmichael and Midwinter 2003; MacKay 2003). Concerningly, even though the country has developed legislation, policies and strategies which are highly regarded, the country has overall not made significant positive progress in terms of supplying basic and reliable water supply and sanitation services. In 2001, it was estimated that five million of the country’s population had no access to safe water supply. In 2008, it was once again estimated at five million people still not having access to adequate water supply showing little to no progress (StatsSA 2001; Smith 2009). Concerningly, Tapela (2013) and DWA (2014) state that 15.2 million people are without access to clean drinking water while 12 million are from rural areas. Furthermore, in 2008 it was estimated that 15 million people lacked basic sanitation (Smith 2009), while DWA (2014) further asserted that 21 million people were still without access to improved sanitation facilities in 2014. Approximately 31% of these people live in urban areas with two million still relying on the bucket system. An estimated 14.1 million of the country’s population have never had access to proper sanitation. From the statistics provided, South Africa has not made progress and water service delivery has instead decreased whereas internationally the overall trend is

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the opposite. A detailed evaluations of South Africa’s deteriorating water supply and sanitation infrastructure and services are provided in Chap. 5. From the given statistics, it is not shocking then that service delivery protests have continued even though some reports show some progress being made towards the delivery of clean drinking water and improved sanitation services. Continued protests, most of which go unnoticed or underreported especially in the case of smaller municipalities, have cast major doubt on the real progress to transform people’s lives for the better. The high frequency of service delivery protests highlights the poor implementation of policy guidelines by those tasked to do so, overall lack of coordination between different departments as well as the lack of communication between service development planning at national, local government or municipal level, as well as water use at a local household level. The majority of service delivery protests in the country is associated with intermittent or the complete lack of water and sanitation infrastructure and/or services, especially in the working class and peri-urban populations characterised by high levels of unemployment, poverty, rapid population growth, inequality, deprivation, injustice as well as indignity (Tapela 2013). These factors coupled with the predominant perception that there does not seem to be effective measures or downward accountability when trying to deal with municipal councillors or officials who are perceived to be corrupt, inept and negligent, are fuelling reactions into anger, violent protest action and in some instances, destruction of existing dilapidated infrastructure. The continued lack of quality drinking water as well as proper sewage treatment and/or disposal are associated with significant impacts on human health and widespread environmental degradation. However, the overall costs of poor water and sanitation services as well as the benefits of improving these services, extend far beyond only human health indicators. The rapid rate of growth in urban areas and continued rural–urban migration, will be accompanied by increased fiscal stress on already strained governments, causing the provision of water and sanitation services to become more and more challenging.

3.6 South Africa’s Impending Water Crises The primary freshwater challenges within South Africa, as highlighted throughout this chapter, include, but are not limited to, current available amount of freshwater, poor water usage, unequal distribution and access to clean water and sanitation services, dilapidated state of water infrastructure, continued and periodic droughts which cause towns to run dry, immense floods as well as entrenched misappropriation of funds, lack of skills and/ or experience, incapacity affecting all levels of government, non-functioning and/or ill maintained municipal treatment plants as well as lack of political will, resulting in widespread and immense pollution and ecological degradation. Other primary driving forces placing the country’s already scarce water resources under increased pressure include overall poor water governance, continued

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widespread pollution of water resources, the overall lack of implementation and/or enforcement of existing legislation and policies as well as the lack of informed decision-making due to the lack of water monitoring networks, capacity constraints, lack of necessary skills as well as the lack of political will. The country is therefore facing numerous major water challenges, increasing in numbers and magnitude, with the impacts affecting all major sectors as well as both urban and rural communities, ultimately affecting the country’s overall water security. A discussion focused on increased water scarcity and stress as well as failing infrastructure and basic water service delivery now follows to frame the country’s impending water crises.

3.6.1 Increased Water Scarcity and Stress As highlighted throughout this chapter, South Africa is a naturally water scarce country, principally based on physical descriptors like climatic conditions and escalating water demands. Physical water scarcity within the country is primarily driven by climatic conditions, increased unsustainable water demands, increased population and rapidly growing urban areas as well as continued pollution of its already strained water resources. The Gauteng and Western Cape Provinces are prime examples of increased physical water scarcity primarily attributed to immigration (international and domestic). The Gauteng Province, as the leading economic hub of the country, experiences immigration by both international and domestic migrants mainly from the Limpopo, KwaZulu Natal and Eastern Cape provinces. The Western Cape Province, the second largest immigration centre of the country, experienced a growth in its population by 79% between 1995 and 2018 and resulted in a major increase of water demand at a residential level. South Africa as a whole is experiencing widespread increased pressure on its water resources with predictions indicating that water demand within the country will outstrip supply by 2030 (Falkenmark et al. 2007; Roodbol 2020). Climate driven water scarcity within South Africa is primarily due to below average mean annual rainfall, exacerbated by increased climate variability as well as recurrent and prolonged droughts. The amount of rainfall received together with the spatio-temporal variability of rainfall across the country are issues of concern, with temporal rainfall variability becoming a critical dimension. In addition to recurrent droughts, the rainfall concentration has been highly irregular contributing to further water stress (Schulze et al. 2007; Mnisi 2007). The effects of increased climate variability are primarily focussed on the hydrological cycle, altering the quantity and timing of rainfall and subsequently, river flows as well as coping or buffering capacities of water infrastructure and management systems (Zhu and Ringler 2012). Climate change has been deemed to be a significant threat to national water security as it is predicted that it will have an impact on rainfall patterns as well as river flows and levels (IPCC 2008). The projected impacts are expected to exacerbate existing challenges as well as creating additional ones. The primary identified effects of climate change within South Africa include increase

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in flooding and/or drought, increase in temperature with associated increase in evaporation as well as changes to overall rainfall across the country (Matumba 2019). Both low and high rainfall events will compromise water security and appropriate proactive management measures will be required to try and minimise or mitigate effects and impacts. In terms of pollution driven water scarcity, water resources become degraded to the point where they become unusable. Water scarcity is therefore not just a quantity (volumetric) issue but equally a quality issue. The increase in pollution fluxes into catchments across the country is primarily attributed to urbanisation, deforestation, destruction of wetlands, agriculture, industries, mining and energy use, accidental pollution or spillages as well as poor or no wastewater treatment leading to the significant reduction of available water resources (Mnisi 2007; Adam 2021). The municipal sewage system is described to be mostly non-functional with more than 90% of the total 824 treatment plants releasing raw or partially treated sewage into water resources. The Vaal River has been reported to be “polluted beyond acceptable levels” by the South African Human Rights Commission, significantly affecting the environment and endangering people’s health (Mnisi 2007; Adam 2021). The lack of maintenance of basic infrastructure due to alledged corruption at local government level has been identified to be the main contributing factor for the environmental disaster. The Vaal River’s continued decay due to sewage pollution is presented as a case study in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.5. The ongoing AMD within the Western, Eastern and Central basins of the Witwatersrand located in Johannesburg is also expanded upon and presented as a real-world example in Chap. 6, Sect. 6.3. Water scarcity within the country is not exclusively attributed to physical drivers but also economic causes. Economic or social water scarcity, also known as secondorder water scarcity, is primarily caused by lack of investment in water or a lack of human capacity and/or skills to gratify the demand for water even in regions where water is abundant. Political power, policies and/or socio-economic relations influence this type of water scarcity, and the primary symptom thereof is inadequate infrastructure development and maintenance. Unbalanced power relations, poverty as well as inequality are some of the primary drivers and consequently positions water scarcity as an issue of poverty (UNDP 2006; Schulte 2014).

3.6.2 Failing Infrastructure and Basic Water Service Delivery The history of apartheid geospatial planning resulted in numerous rural areas not having access to basic water supply and sanitation services and consequently numerous programmes have been initiated since 1994 to address and eradicate the historical geospatial inequalities and socio-economic disparities (Masindi and Duncker 2016). Explicit inequalities in water infrastructure delivery, however, still exist especially within predominantly rural provinces (Limpopo-, KwaZulu Natal-

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and Eastern Cape provinces) and small towns, characterised by a high water infrastructure backlog and poor to no water service delivery and reliability. Infrastructure development and management within the country is closely linked to socio-economic growth and the state of water infrastructure a major influence on the overall effectiveness of water resource management and stewardship. The general rating given by South African Institute of Civil Engineers (SAICE) in 2017 of South Africa’s infrastructure is low, emphasising the poor state and quality thereof and is accompanied by several implications on the country’s overall water security. The unchanged low-grade rating reflects the continued deterioration of ageing bulk infrastructure due to continued insufficient maintenance and neglect of renewal. Furthermore, SAICE also reports that of the 278 municipalities within the country, 202 of these do not have a civil engineer, increasing from 126 in 2005. Ageing and poor infrastructure lead to inefficiencies by increasing water losses. Poorly maintained and ageing water systems result in high incidences of leakages, bursting pipes and overall, unacceptably high NRW. These issues are in turn intensified by illegal connections especially in informal and rural settlements (SAICE 2017; Matumba 2019; Kings 2020). Consequently, South Africa’s NRW has increased from 37% to 41%, signifying the continued deterioration of the country’s water infrastructure network, further exacerbating threats to the assurance of reliable water supply and national water security (DWS 2018). High NRW coupled with current overexploitation and pollution of freshwater resources as well as high average per capita water consumption is further exacerbating the country’s risk and is leading to a clear water crisis. In addition to poor infrastructure maintenance, the country is also experiencing major challenges in the investment into new infrastructure in both water and sanitation sectors. Currently the estimated funding shortfall is R27 billion annually and is further exacerbated by historical backlogs (Matumba 2019). Consequently, a significant number of the South African population still do not have access to clean and safe water or proper sanitation services. More than an estimated 21 million of the 60 million people in the country do not have access to clean water or have a water source that could make them ill. A further 14 million of its population also do not have access to safe sanitation (Kings 2020). Since 1994, the South African government’s master plan was focussed upon providing new water services to 95% of its population. Despite R1.3 trillion spent on delivering new water infrastructure, the state has been left with a bill of R898 billion in the past decade alone. The primary focus of only providing new water services has consequently led to the operational reality of existing infrastructure being stretched to the maximum or towards total collapse due to underinvestment in infrastructure maintenance and consistent delays in renewing aged infrastructure. Mismanagement, widespread alleged corruption and an overall capacity and skills shortage has led to a third of the country’s infrastructure not being functional at all. Provided statistics should however be viewed as a whole to obtain the real picture of South Africa’s water situation. Since 1994, the country’s water situation has become worse and not better. The master plan has also reported that the reliability of water services and infrastructure has declined, and the negative trend is continuing

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at a rapid rate. It has become evident that a lower percentage of households have reliable water than before 1994. Even though more households have water infrastructure, but as a percentage of all households, fewer have water now than in 1994. The expression of “having access” as stated in Sect. 27 of the Constitution, is used by the DWS to show continued progress, however, this has proved to be misleading as it does not reflect people’s real experiences of having long and unaccounted for water interruptions or having broken systems or no systems at all (Kings 2020; Adam 2021). The government is currently lacking R333 billion of the R898 billion required to be spent this decade to address the country’s failing infrastructure. This amount of lack in funding is predicted to increase based on the history of water projects being characterised by poor planning, unsolicited bidding, continued delays in construction, vandalism and theft of infrastructure, poor contract, and financial management as well as unrealistic expectations of users. South Africa’s infrastructure has been valued at R1.3 trillion, of this, a total of R332 billion needs to be fixed or rebuilt and a total of 10% requires critical renewal. Furthermore, municipalities owe the DWS a total of R10.5 billion and 43% of the population do not pay for water, costing the country’s economy R26 billion per annum (Kings 2020). Therefore, even though the delivery of infrastructure and services have increased on paper, in reality, the reliability of these services have decreased with some water supply schemes becoming dysfunctional. The overall lack of service delivery, unreliability of water supply as well as blocked and/or overflowing sewage systems have consequently led to widespread vandalism and continued protests. The country’s WWTWs are overall in a poor or critical condition, requiring urgent rehabilitation as it has significant implications for public health and the survival of aquatic ecosystems. A detailed discussion regarding the country’s lack of progress in terms of providing reliable water supply and sanitation services is given in Chap. 5.

3.7 Conclusion Water is a recognised human right and access to clean water and sanitation is also a recognised human right within South Africa. Despite the recognised importance of freshwater resources for human health, ecosystem functioning as well as socioeconomic growth, the country’s freshwater resources are stressed on all fronts by unsustainable water consumption patterns, increasing water demands, failing water infrastructure, unreliable or non-existent water and sanitation services and continued degradation. The added effects of climate change with changing rainfall patterns will add significant additional stress, questioning the country’s current and future water security. In an attempt to decrease these stressors and address the country’s main water challenges effectively, water resource protection linked to water usage, development, conservation and management is required and will have to be aligned to water policies.

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Alleged corruption and the inefficiency of the public sector have been highlighted as major factors preventing efficient service delivery, especially in “weak” states, countries located in the Global South, including South Africa. South Africa has made some improvements in basic service delivery in accordance with the RDP commitment made in 1994, however, despite its efforts, the country is still facing immense challenges of inefficient and unsustainable service delivery. From the statistics provided, South Africa has not made progress and water service delivery has instead deteriorated and declined, whereas internationally, the overall trend is the complete opposite. Water service delivery issues are amongst the primary reasons of protests within the country. Poor and/or rural communities still experience prevalent continued water service delivery issues on a daily basis. Consequently, violent protests against poor service delivery have become systematic and frequent over the past decade with South Africa being reported as having one of the highest rates of public demonstrations protest in the world. The majority of service delivery protests in the country is associated with intermittent or the complete lack of water and sanitation service delivery especially in communities characterised by high levels of unemployment, poverty, rapid population growth, inequality, deprivation, injustice as well as indignity. Most of the municipalities within the country are not performing and rely heavily on government grants. Consequently, failing municipalities do not budget adequately for costs related to maintenance and the expansion of their service infrastructure. Infrastructure is installed but not maintained causing major disruptions and/or lack of water service delivery. The overall lack of capacity and necessary skills also contributes to further delivery problems by contributing to the lack of proper regulation as well as the lack of ability of the was to manage public funds and keep proper accounting procedures. Mismanagement, alleged corruption, inadequate capacity of skilled labour as well as the lack of water infrastructure have resulted in increased economic water scarcity. Over a third of the country’s water supply is currently being lost due to aging, leaking infrastructure before it even reaches the water user. Public infrastructure is continuously deteriorating and placing further pressure on the country’s already stressed water supply. Major remedial actions are required as well as the investigation and implementation of policy shifts in order to address the unsustainable levels of water demand, immense water losses as well as the overall lack of water conservation. These major issues and challenges can be addressed and be improved upon through proper investments into water infrastructure and institutions. South Africa is facing increased water scarcity in various regions across the country at varying intensities however, the underlying problems contributing to increased water stress often differ. There is therefore no single one-fits-all approach which can be prescribed. Each location’s context must be taken into account to better understand the underlying issues and address the location’s own particular circumstances. Even though the country is not yet confronting an absolute water shortage, there is a concerning level of overall ignorance and lack of political will related to the current troubling state of South Africa’s water resources and what is required to ensure adequate and reliable water supply and sanitation services. Going forward,

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the key for water security within the country will be for both the government and its population to become more knowledgeable and improve on the overall management of its water resources, deteriorating infrastructure, poor water and sanitation service delivery as well as continued pollution of already stressed water resources.

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Chapter 4

Fragmented Water Governance, Institutional Problems and Questionable Decisions

Despite natural limitations of water supply, lack of financing and institutional problems all being important factors, poor governance is often the primary cause of water crises on a global scale. Water governance has emerged as one of the most important topics of the international water community within the twenty-first century primarily due to increased water stress and rising water awareness across the globe. Even though South Africa has world class water resource management legislation and policies, its overall water governance and management practices have been heavily criticised and found wanting. Cooperation is a major requirement however, the lack of coordination and communication is quite evident in the country’s water governance structures and departments. The overall understanding of the interrelatedness of water services and resource management has been found to be either lacking or poor, not only within local government but within the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), the country’s main custodian of its water resources, as well. The continued inaction or delayed response of government departments at various levels, unaccountability as well as no consequences and no political will has led to overall poor governance of South Africa’s already scarce and stressed water resources. This chapter consequently focusses on firstly providing a brief background of effective and efficient water governance from a global perspective, followed by a description of South Africa’s current water governance structures and institutional problems. The country’s water governance is therefore evaluated, and the fragmented and inefficient nature thereof is shown with the use of real-world examples. The achievement of “Day Zero” within the Eastern Cape Province case study illustrates the consequence of fragmented water governance and delayed informed actions. The narrow avoidance of “Day Zero” in the City of Cape Town, a positive case study, shows how the implementation of effective water governance can lead to the avoidance of a water crisis. The chapter concludes with the real-world case study focussed on the large-scale environmental and human health disaster caused by a decade of continued sewage wastewater deposition into the Vaal River, created by continued mismanagement and inaction by the Emfuleni Local Municipality. This case study acts as an example of how continued inaction, unaccountability and lack of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_4

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enforcement have caused an environmental and human health disaster, emphasising the culture of poor water governance and no political will within the country at various levels of government.

4.1 Effective and Efficient Water Governance from a Global Perspective Williamson (1996) define water governance as how order is accomplished between different stakeholders in the water sector to avoid potential conflicts and understand mutual gains within the context of Integrated Water Resource Strategies. The UNDP (2004) stated that water crises have developed from overwhelming failures of water governance and not primarily caused by natural limitations of water supply or lack of financing and appropriate technologies. UNESCO (2006) also attributed the developing water crises primarily to the failure of water governance and not by the lack of water supply or technology. Therefore, even though natural limitations of water supply, lack of financing and technologies are all important factors, poor governance is often the primary cause of water crises. The world consequently proposed and strongly promoted Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) as the most efficient and effective measure encouraging the consideration of a wide array of social and environmental interconnections (Hooper 2003). Water governance has emerged as one of the most important topics of the international water community within the twenty-first century primarily due to increased water stress and rising water awareness across the globe. This focus has led to policy discourse and innumerable development projects placing focus on trying to achieve good water governance (Rogers and Hall 2003; UNDP 2004; Huppert 2007). Water governance consists of a range of political, social, economic and administrative systems which are put in place to develop and manage water resources and the delivery of water services to different water users and levels of society (UNDP 2004). The Dublin Water Principles place water resources under the state’s function (GWP 2002). Principles of effective water governance include participatory management, openness and transparency, inclusivity and communicativeness, coherence, and integration as well as equity and ethics (Rogers and Hall 2003). Water governance therefore primarily includes the effective and efficient interaction between governments, large businesses, political parties, civil and other organisations which represent sector interests, international agencies as well as other agents connected to the process of global governance, non-governmental organisations, and other power holders. All of these mentioned institutions and agents are involved in continuing debates as well as in socio-political confrontation related to how water and essential services should be governed, by whom and for whom. Developing water governance and water management practices should therefore be grounded in the principles of sustainability and social justice should be considered as an important factor as it

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has become one of the most urgent challenges facing water governance within the twenty-first century (Castro 2007). The primary challenge of effective and efficient water governance is to reconcile often conflicting water-related interests as well as demands made by different water use sectors. Additionally, it is also met with challenges related to trying to provide the means by which order is achieved in relations between various stakeholders in an attempt to avoid potential conflicts and realise gains (Huppert 2007). Politics is consequently a significant element in water governance causing its systems to usually reflect political realities at international, national, provincial, and local levels. Water governance is therefore more than just the manner in which decisions are made than the actual decisions themselves (Moench et al. 2003). An effective water governance process is required to determine which doctrines of IWRM, if any, are suitable for a specific location or water-related issue. The disregard of local conditions, preferences, and values to apply IWRM principles in a uniform manner, everywhere, clearly reflects poor water governance (Rogers and Hall 2003; Lautze et al. 2011). Water governance should be used as a tool or prescription to achieve outcomes associated with IWRM and be characterised by the following main identified principles for effective water governance: 1. Open and Transparent—Water institutions need to work in an open and transparent manner by making use of language which is understandable to the general public or civil society. Water policy decisions should also be transparent especially in terms of financial transactions as well as consultation. 2. Inclusive and Communicative—Wide participation should be ensured throughout the water policy chain. From conception to implementation and evaluation. Government institutions should also communicate among all water stakeholders, both horizontally at the same levels, and vertically between various levels. 3. Coherent and Integrative—Water policies and actions need to be coherent with political leadership and responsibility taken by institutions at different levels. Water institutions need to consider all potential water users and sectors as well as their linkages with and impacts on the traditional water sector. 4. Equitable and Ethical—Equity is required between and amongst various water interest groups and stakeholders. Consumers should be carefully monitored throughout the whole policy development and implementation process. Penalties need to be given equitably for corrupt behaviour or practices. Water governance should be based on ethical principles of the society in which it functions and ultimately the rule of law. 5. Accountable—Rules as well as legislative roles and executive processes need to be clear, with each water-related institution able to explain and take responsibility for its actions. Penalties for violating the set rules and arbitration-enforcing mechanisms need to exist to ensure that satisfactory solutions can be reached for water-related issues.

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6. Efficient—Political, social, and environmental efficiency concepts related to water resources should be balanced against simple economic efficiency. Governmental systems should not hamper needed actions. 7. Responsive and Sustainable—Water demands, evaluation of future water impacts as well as past experiences should form the basis for water policy. Policies should be implemented, and decisions should be made at the most appropriate level. Water policies need to be incentive-based to ensure clear social and economic gain if the policy is followed. Lastly, long-term sustainability of water resources needs to be the primary guiding principle. (Rogers and Hall 2003) Effective and efficient water governance therefore consists of a range of principles as well as different political, socio-economic, and administrative systems put in place with the primary goal to develop and manage water resources and the delivery of water services to different water users and levels of society.

4.2 Decentralised Water Governance in South Africa Water governance within South Africa is primarily driven by the Constitution as well as the country’s main water-related legislation namely the National Water Act (36 of 1998) (NWA) and the Water Services Act (108 of 1997) (WSA) (RSA 1997, 1998). The NWA instigated large-scale reform of the country’s institutional water structure to align with its constitutional values. A shift was consequently made away from the centralised governance framework established by the Water Act of 1956 by directing the establishment of water institutions aimed at decentralising water resource governance. When properly constituted and functional, these institutions are able to promote sustainable use of water for the benefit of all users and encourage community participation. The main water institutions defined by the NWA include the following: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), Water User’s Associations (WUAs), A body responsible for international water management, or Any person who fulfils the functions of a water management institution in terms of the NWA. (RSA 1998)

The structure of South Africa’s water management institutions is shown in Fig. 4.1. The DWS is responsible for bulk water supply, monitoring and control (rights and licensing), while the Water Services Institutions (WSIs) are responsible for end-user water supply (installations, metering, and billing) (Makaya et al. 2020). As illustrated, the DWS is at the core of the country’s water resource management, with its main legislative mandate to ensure that the country’s water resources are protected, managed, used, developed, conserved, and controlled. The department acts through the Minister of Water and Sanitation and is ultimately mandated to develop a knowledge base and implement effective policies, procedures, and integrated planning strategies for water resources as well as services (GCIS 2018). It

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Fig. 4.1 South Africa’s Water Management Institutions, accompanied institutional relationships as well as primary legislation, policies, and strategies (DWAF 2004; Kranz et al. 2005)

is also responsible for the management of dams and proper maintenance of infrastructure such as boreholes and storage reservoirs for all settlements. The DWS being the main custodian, is therefore, ultimately responsible for providing water of a suitable standard to various water sectors within the catchment and the country as a whole. In achieving its set mandate, the appointed Minister is responsible for developing the National Water Resources Strategy (NWRS), national monitoring and information systems as well as setting national norms, standards, and pricing targets (Herrfahrdt-Pähle 2010; Toxopeüs 2019; Makaya et al. 2020). The primary function of the Water Service Authorities is to govern domestic water supply services and the delegation of responsibilities for such services to Water Service Authorities which include local government and municipalities, water utilities and private firms. The local municipality is responsible for the proper management of the distribution network and the use of water (Makaya et al. 2020). In accordance with the overarching goal of decentralising the country’s water resource management, the DWS is mandated to establish CMAs and WUAs. These water management institutions form the primary means of delegating water resource management to regional or catchment level as well as ensuring the active participation of local communities in water resource management. The DWS needs to ensure that CMAs comply with national policy and the NWRS. In the event of a CMA being non-functional, the Minister must fulfil the functions of the CMA in the affected Water Management Area (WMA). The CMA constitutes of catchment management committees as well as catchment management forums who promote community participation within a WMA. The country currently has nine WMAs, each with a CMA which manages the relevant water resources according to its catchment

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management strategy. The DWS has however reviewed these WMAs from nine to six CMAs nationally in the third edition of the NWRS, published in 2022. It should be noted that these WMAs are not aligned with provincial boundaries and only two of the (previously) nine are fully functional since the enactment of the NWA two decades ago. Even though other CMAs have been established over two decades ago, these are still not functional (Mwenge-Kahinda et al. 2016; Toxopeüs 2019; DWS 2022a). WUAs are defined as water management institutions established by the Minister which operate at a local level. Water users who would like to work together are grouped according to common interest and enables individual water users to form corporate associations (Swatuk 2010; Toxopeüs 2019). While WUAs are defined as water management institutions, their primary role is not water management but rather to provide the necessary institutional structure for individual water users and their functions depend on its constitution as provided in the NWA. An example of the creation of WUAs is irrigation boards. In the past two decades, only 99 irrigation boards have been transformed into WUAs with 100 boards still waiting to undergo the process, clearly showing very slow transformation since the enactment of the NWA. Slow progress has been attributed to the slow transformation of access to land, lack of human capacity and skills and the delay in allocation of services (Toxopeüs 2019). In terms of International Water Management Organisations, the NWA gives the Minister the authority to establish these bodies or institutions for the purpose of implementing international agreements dealing with the management and development of shared water resources. These institutions can perform functions outside of South Africa and perform additional functions such as the provision of water management institutions with management, financial and training services. These institutions are also compelled to report on the performance of its functions on an annual basis to the Minister (RSA 1998). Lastly, a Water Tribunal is also established through the NWA with its primary function hearing appeals against certain decisions related to water resources. This institution is an independent body and any decision taken by the Tribunal may be taken on appeal to the High Court. Members are appointed by the Minister upon recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission and the Water Research Commission. It is important to note that the Water Tribunal has been non-functional since 2012 due to the DWS suspending its operations pending the amendment of the NWA. The Minister has refused to appoint a new chairperson and additional members after their terms expired and, in its place, directed all pending appeals to be subject to a mediation process as established in the NWA. This questionable decision was reviewed by the High Court which held that the Minister’s failure to appoint members to the Tribunal was constitutionally invalid as it infringed on the right to access an impartial tribunal in terms of Section 34 of the Constitution and was obliged to make the necessary appointments (RSA 1996, 1998; Herrfahrdt-Pähle 2010; Toxopeüs 2019; Makaya et al. 2020). Water governance within South Africa is based, in theory, on effective IWRM and proper integration and enforcement of its internationally praised legislation.

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However, in practice, the governance structure of its main water management institutions has proved to be too fragmented and, in some instances, flawed due to continued poor water governance within the country. South Africa’s water value chain is complex and broken at some points, consequently exacerbating already developed water crises and/or contributing to the development of additional water challenges.

4.3 South Africa’s Fragmented and Inefficient Water Governance Even though South Africa has world class water resource management legislation and policies, its overall water governance and management practices have been heavily criticised and found wanting. The primary issue which has been identified include the lack of integration between the national government institutions and the non-formal institutional provision in the country (Kapfudzaruwa and Sowman 2009; Hornby et al. 2016). Faysse (2005) highlights that the need for people-orientated management of water resources can provide the opportunity for water management institutions to share ideas with the local community. The attempt to engage communities in decisionmaking has however regularly led to allegations and counter-allegations between the DWS and municipalities on the management of water resources at a community level (Kapfudzaruwa and Sowman 2009). The DWS claims that municipalities are not planning properly in terms of water supply and are inherently inefficient. On the other hand, municipalities claim that they have requested changes and are willing to reallocate water for multiple uses and not only domestic uses. The DWS however seems less interested in decentralising its mandate to other institutions as it wants water allocation to remain in its own hands (Weaver et al. 2017). Sithole and Mathonsi (2015) also argue that the primary belief within municipalities is that there is a huge difference between political promises and concrete service delivery issues where water service delivery falls within the municipalities’ mandate. The Constitution grants the right of access to sufficient water for domestic uses and not a right to adequate water. It therefore excludes water for other uses besides domestic uses which consequently means that users unable to compel government to provide them with adequate water for other water needs other than domestic needs especially during periods of drought. Consequently, communal farmers are also negatively affected as they are forced to procure water from private water suppliers at their own costs as well as during periods of drought, at a cost usually beyond the means of many. Therefore, even though the country’s Constitution’s intentions are noble, the execution thereof has been less successful (Makaya et al. 2020). Problems of spatial fit and interplay have also been highlighted as a major issue. Due to the designation of WMAs usually being based on hydrological boundaries, CMAs often cut across district and provincial boundaries, making it difficult to use

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the three-tiered administrative system in establishing and supporting CMAs (James 2003). The Orange WMA is a good example of this problem as the WMA covers parts of three provinces namely the Free State-, Northern Cape- and Eastern Cape provinces. This overlap issue also impedes cooperation between water management and other sectors and departments due to these departments usually focussing on other factors such as infrastructure requirements (water service provision) or on administrative boundaries. The creation of CMAs has been accompanied with increased confusion over responsibilities and roles in the process (Movik 2012). It has also created a complex picture of competencies of organisations at various levels such as provincial, municipal and catchment levels as well as in different sectors such as water services and water resource management. Water supply in district municipalities that overlap catchment boundaries and consequently belong to more than one catchment is another example of spatial mismatches and costs associated with the introduction of hydrological boundaries. Municipalities which belong to two different CMAs can draw water allocation from both. For example, the Bushbuckridge district municipality in the Sand River catchment belongs to two CMAs responsible for providing its water. In theory, the municipality is required to disaggregate water use data according to not only the amount of people living in each catchment but also the amount of water used by each which entails major administrative transaction costs (Pollard and du Toit 2005). The complexity of water management is therefore evident due to the coexistence between hydrological boundaries for water resource management, administrative boundaries for water service provision as well as the attendant infrastructure requirements. Yet, the spatial fit of CMAs and municipalities are appropriate as it meets the requirements of their respective primary tasks—the management of water resources following hydrological boundaries in a CMA and the supplying of water to municipalities following administrative boundaries. There is therefore a major resulting need for coordinated action and cooperation if water resource management is to be effective and resilient. Despite cooperation being a major requirement, a lack of coordination and communication is quite evident within the DWS (between divisions responsible for water services and water resource management) as well as among the DWS, CMAs and local government or municipalities (Funke et al. 2007). It should be noted that specified procedures and rules which have been developed to guide cooperation between the DWS, CMAs and local government are not being implemented. Cooperation depends on capacity and levels of understanding of legislation by individuals. The understanding of the interrelatedness of water services and resource management has been found to be either lacking or poor, not only within local government but within the DWS as well (Mazibuko and Pegram 2006). The DWS is failing to fulfil most of its obligations imposed on it by the NWA. CMAs which are intended to manage water resources at a regional level have not yet been properly established or even operational after more than two decades. Over 100 irrigation boards still have to be transformed to WUAs and no further action has been taken by the DWS to establish national water resource infrastructure agency in spite of it brought forward more than a decade ago. The NWRS which directs

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the strategic vision of water management for the country is also not reviewed on a regular basis even though the DWS is obligated to do so every five years. The DWS has also been struggling to deal with its bleak financial position with the department having an overdraft of R119 million and accruals and payables to the value of over R2 billion during the 2017/2018 financial year (Toxopeüs 2019). Lastly, the NWA acknowledges the need to delegate management functions to a regional level for communities to actively participate in the management of water resources within their specific area (Toxopeüs 2019). It is however very difficult to grasp how other institutions which are mandated to manage water resources are able to perform their duties and functions effectively when the DWS is unable to fulfil its obligation as the public trustee of the country’s water resources. While the DWS has been continuously been scrutinised by Parliament and other organisations, no meaningful action has been taken to ensure that the DWS is held accountable for failing to fulfil most of its obligations. The continued heavy criticism of the country’s overall water governance and management practices should therefore receive priority as it is indeed found wanting on various levels. The lack of integration between the national government institutions and the non-formal institutional provision in the country have created various water-related problems. Despite the noble intentions of the country’s Constitution and other legislation, policies and strategies, the execution and enforcement of developed standards has been less successful. The immense lack of coordination and communication is quite evident within the DWS as well as other government departments, attributing to reactive and delayed water management, continued unaccountability and the non-enforcement or proper implementation of current legislation, policies and strategies. Relevant real-world case studies have been selected to clearly illustrate how poor, inefficient and/or complete failure of informed water governance and/or management within South Africa have led to major water crises which could have been avoided or have been addressed. An evaluation of each selected real-world example now follows.

4.4 Narrowly Avoiding “Day Zero” South Africa is characterised by periodic droughts and has consequently developed one Act and several policies as well as strategies on a national level in an attempt to deal with drought conditions. These include the following. The Disaster Management Act (No. 57 of 2002), the National Disaster Risk Management Framework of 2005, and the Drought Management Plan of 2005. The government has also established the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC), which acts under the auspices of the Department of Provincial and Local Government, with the Department of Agriculture chairing the Inter-departmental Working Group on Drought (DMP 2005). Drought management within South Africa is therefore coordinated at a national government

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level and executed through government departments and/or structures at a provincial or local municipality level. South African provincial municipalities also have their own drought management plans for the operationalisation of the Act, policies and strategies and a Joint Operation Committee as the primary collaboration platform (Luker and Rodina 2017). These approaches require suitable financial support, human capital as well as proper institutional architecture for successful roll out. The narrow forms of governance which include inflexible state and regional responses, rooted in historic reactive drought responses and interventions, can however be unfavourable to building local drought resilience (Vogel et al. 2010). Droughts should be responded to diligently by all responsible national government institutions to restore drought impacts. The Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) houses the Disaster Management Unit responsible for implementing the disaster management plan. DARD distributes information of an impending drought to various stakeholders while the DWS is responsible for monitoring and controlling dam releases. Even though these governance arrangements have been made to limit reactive drought responses, responses to drought still remains reactive, limiting the capacity of communities to sufficiently prepare for drought (Vogel et al. 2010; Baudoin et al. 2017). The multiple vertical and horizontal flows of information among institutions have contributed to the creation of a very complex system which is activated with the implementation of the Disaster Management Act. These back-and-forth reporting processes have consequently led to delays in the implementation of any concrete and timely drought responses on the ground (Baudoin et al. 2017). As a result, these inefficiencies, delays, and prolonged droughts, led to the City of Cape Town narrowly avoiding “Day Zero” between 2015 to 2019 and some areas within the Eastern Cape Province, specifically Nelson Mandela Bay municipality, moving closer to achieving absolute “Day Zero” since 2020.

4.4.1 The City of Cape Town: Narrowly Escaping “Day Zero” To avoid a water crisis, specifically the achievement of “Day Zero”, technical matters which include factors such as rainfall, river flow as well as infrastructure, should be considered together with human factors which may include behaviour of water managers and users. The root of these problems is poor management as well as the absence or poor maintenance of aged water infrastructure contributing to major nonrevenue water (NRW) (Muller 2021). The “Day Zero” crisis which was experienced by the City of Cape Town between 2015 and 2019 was South Africa’s first major experience of a major city facing absolute water scarcity and stress. The water crisis within the City of Cape Town was primarily attributed to the complacency of water managers as well as high water demand and inadequate water supply. The strategy of avoiding the building of new infrastructure to supply the growing population by encouraging the use of less water together with a major drought proved to be a major error (Muller 2019). This water crisis was declared a

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major national emergency in 2018 and led to the city almost becoming the first major city in the world to run out of drinkable water. The decline in rainfall between 2015 and 2018 resulted in one of the region’s worst droughts on record and almost led to municipal water supply being shut off. “Day Zero” was narrowly avoided due to a significant increase in dam levels, especially the Theewaterskloof Dam which increased from 11% in March 2018 to 100% in October 2020. “Day Zero” was avoided due to rainfall as well as commendable water management strategies which were eventually developed and implemented as well as a huge effort by the public to save and conserve water. Some of these improvements included the re-use of water as well as enforcing a limit on activities which required large amounts of water (Mlaba 2020). The water crisis experienced in the City of Cape Town should therefore serve as a warning for the whole country. Its “Day Zero” campaign highlighted and taught everyone the significance of preparation as well as long-term investment into water infrastructure. The country’s reliance on unpredictable rainwater, uneven distribution thereof as well as the decreasing water availability trend as a result of climate change, together with poor water governance and management can lead to more regions and cities or towns across the country facing “Day Zero” sooner rather than later. This has proved to be true with some regions in the Eastern Cape Province achieving “Day Zero” due to the prolonged drought since 2015.

4.4.2 Achieving “Day” Zero in the Eastern Cape Province Nelson Mandela Bay metropolitan municipality, located within the Eastern Cape Province, is currently a prime example of how continued complacency, poor water governance and management, high water losses due to dilapidated non-maintained water infrastructure as well as unsustainable water use have led to a major water crisis, in this case, “Day Zero”. Despite being advised and warned for more than a decade of inadequate water availability for growing demands and ill maintained water supply infrastructure, the municipality took no action and has consequently led to dams becoming almost empty. The debilitating drought in combination with inadequate contingency plans as well as continued infrastructure failures have left numerous areas and thousands of people without water. The town of Adelaide has been experiencing critical water supply failures with its major dam decreasing to 1% of capacity. Even then, municipalities did not take action with the lack of funds used as the primary excuse. The continued lack of rain has led to five municipalities declaring drought disasters, calling for national disaster status. Unfortunately, Adelaide is not the only example within the country as the number of towns and villages experiencing water crises are increasing (Muller 2019). Instead of ensuring that there is sufficient water supply in place or developing measures to control excessive water use, municipalities rather strive for the expansion of water distribution instead of maintaining aged infrastructure.

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Table 4.1 Dam levels of the five dams supplying the Nelson Mandela Bay area since 2020 (DWS 2022b) Dam

Full storage capacity (million cubic meters)

Kouga Dam

June 2020 (%)

June 2021 (%)

September 2022 (%)

October 2022 (%)1

126.0

8.0

4.1

18

22

Impofu Dam 105.8

17.2

14.6

10.1

9.4

Krom River Dam

35.8

59.1

19.5

24.1

35.2

Groendal Dam

11.7

30.1

25.2

20.1

18.5

3.1

50.9

35.8

58.1

58.6

Loerie Dam

The Nelson Mandela Bay municipality has been facing disastrous water shortages, struggling to provide water to residents and businesses intermittently since 2020 due to the prolonged drought. Residents within this municipality are experiencing “Day Zero” with water tanks delivering water on a daily basis. Western areas such as Uitenhage are the hardest hit areas with residents blaming the municipality for managing the situation very poorly (Sizani and Stent 2020). This water crisis is also being exacerbated by the constant need to repair dwindling infrastructure, slow response time to fix leaks and residents drawing water frantically from water tanks. St Albans, an informal settlement with an estimated total population of 1000, share a total of only five water tankers with a capacity of 5000 L each. Taps ran dry in September 2020 and were replaced with tankers. The achievement of “Day Zero” has once again been primarily attributed to poor management. Despite the area experiencing a continued drought, municipalities still do not have the necessary capacity and/or skills to manage the little water that is left. Water consumption is also unsustainable and excessively high, estimated at 290−300 megalitres per day, however, it should be noted that NRW is included in this statistic, hence, all blame cannot be placed only on the consumer. High NRW is a major contributing factor with water leaks not being addressed due to shortage of staff (Jacobs 2020). Current levels of the five major dams supplying the Nelson Mandela Bay area are at drastically low levels except Loerie Dam which is above 50%. As shown in Table 4.1, even though the water crisis has been recognised and “Day Zero” being achieved in various towns and areas, dam levels are still continuously declining to alarming levels. The water crisis being experienced within the Nelson Mandela Bay is threefold and include the following primary contributors: 1

Dam levels recorded on 24 October 2022: https://www.dws.gov.za/Hydrology/Weekly/ProvinceW eek.aspx?region=EC.

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. Most of the affected areas are in a dry area which is naturally prone to periodic droughts. . Conflict, misappropriation of funds, and lack of necessary skills, especially in terms of the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality, led to infrastructure not being maintained, upgraded, or replaced—causing high NRW. . The municipality has failed to implement demand-side water management. Citizens are still using “too much” water with a population of 1.1 million people using approximately 300 megalitres per day. NRW is included in this actual daily usage, meaning that actual usage of the population can be lower than reported as only 59% of this total reaches the consumer, after losing 41% via pipe bursts and leakages. The municipality has a repair backlog of over 900 leaks, clearly illustrating overall incompetence in addressing high water losses. (Ngam 2021) The municipality did attempt to delay and/or avoid “Day Zero” by implementing water rationing since August 2018 and attempting to limit water usage to 50 L per person per day. Further action is however needed within the Eastern Cape Province to try and address the current water crisis. The following actions could be considered. Firstly, the Minister of the DWS needs to play a more significant role in managing the current water crisis within the province. The current strategy needs to be revised to ensure that the province receives more water on a long-term basis. Secondly, the development of clear investment plans is required to show how water infrastructure will be overhauled in the short-, medium- and long-term. Preliminary estimates for the overhaul of the province’s poorly maintained infrastructure and fixing of leaks over the short term is R500 million. In the medium-term, an estimated R120 billion is required to be invested in the province alone. Measures need to be put into place to ensure that money does not vanish into private pockets, for example, through personal protective equipment tenders. Projections also show that investments of more than R1 trillion over a 10-year period is required on a national level to address decaying and already collapsing water infrastructure (Ngam 2021). Water utilities also need to assist municipalities within the Eastern Cape Province where they are able to. Rand Water, a water utility supplying potable water to the Gauteng Province, have been aiding in Gqeberha (previously Port Elizabeth) and have shown how an increase in solidarity, sharing of resources, and assisting young experts in gaining necessary knowledge in managing water infrastructure can be beneficial in addressing the continued water crisis. Lastly, communication of the country’s ongoing water scarcity needs to be improved upon. A national water management plan must be developed on a national level with clear alert levels which can be communicated to the public and major water users (Ngam 2021). Water problems are occurring nationwide and is not confined to the Cape provinces and should be communicated as such to create greater water awareness and stewardship. The Nelson Mandela Bay municipality council have recently been identifying suitable actions to try and address the continued water crisis. The construction of a seawater desalination plant has been approved which will provide 15 million litres of desalinated water per day (Ellis and Ferreira 2021). This action has been taken in

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an attempt to show the municipality’s commitment in investing in infrastructure to try and secure major investments and improve the city’s economy. The municipality has also developed water pressure management measures. Phase one of this roll-out included the installation of water flow restrictor discs on the premises of the top 100 water users. Phase two of the project commenced in 2021 focussed on the installation of these discs at all metro consumers which consume between 10 and 15 kl per month. These water flow restrictor discs are small discs installed on the consumer side of the water meter, restricting excessive flow, and reducing pressure to the property. The device therefore does not cut off water supply to a property and consumers. Flow-limiting devices to be fitted to water meters of consumers who continue with excessive water usage despite warnings were also put forward as a possible measure. These devices are able to control the volume of water passing through the water meter on a daily basis, monitors the volume of water used per day and can be used to shut off water supply to a property upon the property reaching 500 L per day. These devices will only be installed at properties which water usage remains above 15 kl per month despite notices and the installation of the flow restrictor disc (Ellis 2021). These devices have primarily been developed to improve currently lacking demand-side management. Increased water stress is a priority problem across South Africa and does not have a single cause or solution. Water-related issues are experienced at varying degrees by continued excessive water use, insatiable demand, pollution, theft, alien invasive plant species, inadequate and/or poor infrastructure, poor practices, alleged corruption and overall inaction. These major issues cannot be addressed by financial investments alone and requires an overall change in attitude and water use behaviours of all stakeholders involved as well as improvement of water governance and management. The country is unable to support current water lifestyles of its population which water consumption is already 35% above the global average. A fundamental mind shift is required as well as massive investments of approximately R889 billion for the country to avoid running out of water by 2030 or even sooner in the near future. As highlighted in previous chapters, increased water scarcity and stress are not attributed solely in terms of a decrease in the quantity of water resources but also through a decrease in water quality due to continued pollution and the lack of enforcement of water quality standards. The continued sewage pollution crisis of the Vaal River is a prime example of how incompetent management practices, continued unaccountability, non-maintenance of infrastructure as well as overall inaction have led to water becoming of an unacceptable standard for use. This case has also been recognised as an environmental disaster, inflicting on the affected population’s human right to water of an acceptable standard, increased risk of human health issues as well as widespread ecological degradation. A discussion of this real-world example now follows.

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4.5 Creation of an Environmental Disaster: The Emfuleni Local Municipality and the Vaal River The dominating and most concerning water quality challenge within the Upper Vaal catchment, located within the Vaal WMA, has been the continued deposition of sewage into the Vaal River, a source of water for about 19 million South Africans as well as a major enabler of socio-economic growth. The constant increase of sewage contamination, the overall failure of the wastewater treatment facilities and infrastructure of the Emfuleni local municipality as well as unaccountability and poor water governance has created an environmental and human health disaster. The sewage crisis has been ongoing over the past two decades and reached its peak in 2017 when the Emfuleni waste treatment system collapsed. The municipality has been taken to court several times regarding the waning capacity of its infrastructure as well as alleged inaction since this crisis began in 2008. Approximately 2000 km of pipes as well as 44 pump stations and three wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) has collapsed due to overall poor maintenance, vandalism, aging infrastructure, and alleged corruption. The combination of these factors has formed a perfect storm leading to the total collapse of the municipality’s sewerage infrastructure system, the breakdown of its pump stations in 2017, resulting in continued deposition of raw sewage into the affected areas (Hlatshaneni 2018). Raw sewage has been running in the streets of various towns in the area which include Sebokeng, Boipatong, Sharpeville, Everton and Vereeniging (located downstream of the Vaal Dam). The consistent and continued flow of raw sewage into the Vaal River has had major ecological impacts and has created ongoing human health risks resulting from dangerously high and unacceptable Faecal/E. coliform levels. The continued inaction of the Emfuleni local municipality and the DWS, has created a human health and environmental disaster due to the continued deposition of raw sewage on a large-scale. The immense escalation of sewage pollution consequently led to the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC) launching an investigation to establish who is to blame (Hlatshaneni 2018; Mabuza 2019). An environmental organisation, “Save the Vaal Environment”, was formed in 2017 due to no or very limited action by relevant authorities, specifically the relevant local municipalities and government departments, to obtain public support and increase awareness of the ongoing crisis. To date neither the Emfuleni local municipality, nor the City of Johannesburg, has taken responsibility for the breakdown of infrastructure causing continuous large-scale sewage spills (Hlatshaneni 2018; Mabuza 2019). The SAHRC investigated the Vaal River following allegations of approximately 150 Ml of raw sewage being spilled into the river on a daily basis. A prima facie violation was announced in September 2018 in terms of the rights to access to clean water as well as the right to a clean environment and human dignity (Hlatshaneni 2018; Pijoos 2018). The Emfuleni local municipality was also placed under provincial administration in June 2018 and the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) was deployed into the district to intervene. Their technical teams were deployed to assist in the

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restoration of infrastructure as well as to protect relevant equipment from being stolen or vandalised even further. Approximately R800 million was said to be made available for this project to stop the pollution of the Vaal River, however this intervention did not mention any dates for the completion of repairs (Pijoos 2018; Mabuza 2019). Varying amounts of money were said to be allocated to the project by the DWS. The SAHRC indicated that R240 million was required to address the issue. The DWS initially indicated that R20 million was allocated however, two months later, it announced that R341 million has been set aside. It remains unclear how much money was invested in the rehabilitation of some of the treatment plants (Mthethwa 2020). The sewage crisis has remained, worsened and there has been very little to no improvement in terms of water quality. The SAHRC raised its concern regarding the slow progress of addressing the sewage crisis facing the Vaal District in 2021 and commissioned an inspection of the Sebokeng and Rietspruit WWTWs. The SANDF indicated that it has been struggling with financial problems as they have not received a budget from the DWS and have only been able to commission R1 million from their own budget, leading to minimal change (Kubheka 2019). The SAHRC most recent report has indicated that the Vaal River is now polluted “beyond acceptable levels”, impacting on natural ecosystems and endangering the public’s health. Megalitres of untreated sewage are continuously flowing into the Vaal River due to dilapidated WWTWs, unable to process raw sewage. This has consequently led to the pollution impacting natural ecosystems directly dependent on the water in and from the Vaal River. Some examples of major ecological impacts include, but are not limited to, the yellowfish population coming under threat of extinction as well as the death of livestock drinking from the water source. Raw sewage flowing into living areas has also become a major human health hazard and has negatively affected tourism as well as socio-economic growth within the area (SAHRC 2021). The continued flow of raw sewage into the Vaal River, for at least the past decade, are in violation of several constitutional rights, more specifically, the constitutional right to human dignity and an environment which is not harmful to one’s health or wellbeing. The Emfuleni local municipality was found to be responsible for this disaster as it is their responsibility to ensure that public funds were appropriately spent and that qualified experts were available to address the various water-related problems. This is however not a localised problem. Of the 144 municipalities within the country, delegated as water service authorities, of which the Emfuleni local municipality is one, 57 of these have been classified as vulnerable or dysfunctional, while 72% do not have staff with the required set of skills to carry out their functions (SAHRC 2021). Furthermore, despite the Emfuleni local municipality been taken to court several times to get the authority to obey the law, the local municipality has not complied with any of the given court orders (SAHRC 2021). This once again emphasises the overall lack of enforcement of legislation as well as overall lack of accountability and actual consequence. The municipal managers of the Emfuleni local municipality, have consistently blamed funding issues and other stakeholders for the disaster, still not acknowledging

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any responsibility for its role in the development of the sewage crisis. The DWS have also denied any responsibility by stating that it is not their role to operate municipalities, once again shifting blame. Even though the DWS have issued directives against the Emfuleni local municipality for pollution in the Vaal River, these have still not been enforced, creating a culture of unaccountability and no consequence (Bega 2021). The continued inaction and unaccountability have led to the expansion of the country’s sewage crisis to other municipalities outside of the Gauteng Province across the whole country. Currently, the Ekurhuleni Water Care Company (ERWAT) alongside Rand Water are now managing the project. Rand Water has been tasked with repairing three WWTWs and ERWAT will take over the network and ensure that waste waterworks and pumping stations are functional. ERWAT has indicated that currently, no monitoring of required maintenance has taken place and despite the intervention of the military since 2018, there is no sign of positive change (Dambuza 2021). The DWS have recently decided to intervene due to the escalation of the sewage problem within the Emfuleni local municipality by implementing Section 63(2) of the WSA of 1997, indicating that the Minister will assume the municipal responsibilities for a specific duration, to fix the sanitation challenges as experienced by the people of Emfuleni local municipality. An amount of R7.6 billion will also be given over the long-term to be invested in the provision of water and sanitation infrastructure work and services within Emfuleni local municipality. Rand Water were also assigned to implement operations and maintenance interventions while the DWS will focus on the implementation of interventions focussed specifically on the refurbishment and upgrade of infrastructure. The DWS is also responsible for the restructuring of the Emfuleni local municipality as well as the procurement of tools of trade (DWS 2021). The continued major sewage disaster in the Vaal River is therefore a perfect example of the DWS’ overall lack of proactive, clear, and decisive actions as well as overall lack of integrative water resource management, accountability, and consequence. The near total lack of appropriate structures, proper monitoring and enforcement of set legislation, human resources, and skills as well as planning, required to proactively address water quality issues, has affected overall water availability through increasing water stress by making water resources unacceptable for use. Sound judgement or intelligent reasoning would dictate that prevention of pollution of already stressed and scarce water resources is better than having to treat or a delayed response to resultant consequences. However, continued inaction, lack of any responsibility or accountability, total lack of enforcement of legislation as well as continued questionable reactive decisions or no actions at all, have led to a still expanding environmental and human health disaster with no sign of improvement in the near future.

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4.6 Conclusion Institutional problems plague water services before financial ones. Poor and inefficient water governance have created numerous water-related challenges and disasters which could have been avoided or have been improved upon specifically within South Africa. Overall water governance and management practices have been found wanting and the heavy criticism thereof is justified. The coexistence of hydrological boundaries for water resource management and administrative boundaries for water service provision as well as the attendant infrastructure requirements have increased the complexity of water management within the country. This created complexity in combination with the overall lack of skilled individuals have led to continued inaction, questionable decision-making, and overall mismanagement of already scarce and stressed water resources. The existing lack of integration between the national government institutions and the non-formal institutional provision in the country have led to various significant water-related issues. Despite the country’s noble intentions of its Constitution as well as internationally acclaimed legislation, the execution thereof has been less successful and the enforcement almost non-existent. The lack of coordination and communication within the DWS as well as other government departments and/or water management institutions are clearly illustrated in the given case studies. South Africa’s water governance is plagued by inaction, unaccountability, and no consequence, leading to the development of various environmental and human health disasters which could have been avoided or have been minimised. The country’s main powers that be needs to recognise these major failures, faults and incorporate individuals with high-level understanding of the current water issues to assist with short-, medium- and long-term interventions and overall improvement of water governance and management. Proactive strategic actions also need to be promoted to avoid the expansion of water crises in the near future. A culture of accountability and consequence needs to be developed within its water governance and management structures to move away from shifting the blame and inaction. The appointment of competent individuals within government departments and water management institutions as well as the enforcement of existing legislation needs to receive priority to show that poor performance and inaction does indeed have consequence.

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Chapter 5

Continued Decay of South Africa’s Basic Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Service Delivery

South Africa has focussed upon providing water access and services to its population since 1996. The focus of only providing new water access has led to the operational reality of existing aged infrastructure being stretched to the maximum or towards failure and collapse. Mismanagement, misappropriation of funds, alleged corruption and an overall capacity and skills shortfalls has led to a third of the country’s infrastructure being dysfunctional and in some instances, collapsed. Almost half of the country’s wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) are in poor or critical condition, causing significant human health risks and continued degradation of ecosystems. The available statistics of South Africa’s overall progress in trying to ensure access to water and sanitation for all and achieving SDG 6 by 2030, must be viewed as a whole to obtain the real picture. In conjunction with the COVID19 pandemic, the observed and determined negative trends in providing access to water and sanitation has intensified. It has become evident that a lower percentage of households have reliable water supply than in 1994. The expression of “having access” as stated in Section 27 of the Constitution, is used by the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) to show continued progress, however, this has proved to be misleading as it does not reflect people’s real experiences of having long and unaccounted for water interruptions, broken systems, or no water at all. Therefore, even though the delivery of infrastructure and access have increased on paper, in reality, the reliability of these services has decreased with some water supply schemes becoming dysfunctional and collapsing. This chapter starts with a brief evaluation progress made from a global perspective since the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. Water and sanitation services on a global scale as well as progress made, specifically the achievement of SDG 6 from a global perspective to illustrate current global trends. The chapter’s focus, however, is the critical evaluation of progress or nonprogress made in South Africa in terms of providing its citizens with access to water of an acceptable standard, reliable water supply as well as the delivery of water and sanitation services.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_5

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5.1 The Right to Water and Reaching Sustainable Development Goal 6 on a Global Scale As we are all aware, and highlighted throughout previous chapters, water plays a major role in human health as well as in the functioning of ecological systems. Water is vital for life, plays various important roles both for humans and the environment and is consequently described as a prerequisite for the realisation of other human rights. The right to water has been recognised by a variety of international documents, including treaties, declarations as well as other standards (UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2002). The United Nations (UN) Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) adopted General Comment number 15, the right to water, Articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights. Article 1 recognises that the right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity and acknowledges it as being a prerequisite for the realisation of other human rights. General Comment number 15 also provides a definition of right to water as the right of everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, and physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use. Both freedoms and entitlements are included in the right to water. Freedoms are focussed on the right to maintain access to existing water supplies, necessary for the right to water as well as the right to be free of interference i.e., the right to be free from arbitrary disconnections or contamination of water supplies. On the other hand, entitlements focus on the right to a system of water supply and management which provides equality of opportunity for people to enjoy the right to water (UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2002). In 2010, the UN General Assembly, explicitly recognised the human right to water as well as sanitation. It also acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation services are essential for the realisation of these rights. Resolution 64/292 called upon all countries and relevant international organisations to provide financial resources, to assist with capacity building and the transfer of technology to help, especially developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible, and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all (UN General Assembly 2010). Water is therefore a recognised human rights issue (internationally and nationally), is at the core of sustainable development and critical for socio-economic development, food and energy production, healthy ecosystems as well as for human survival itself. It is also at the centre of adaptation to climate change, linking the environment to society. The continued increase of the global population has created an urgent need to balance competing commercial demands of different water use sectors on water resources, to ensure that communities have enough water of a suitable quality for their needs (UNESCO 2021). Access to water of a suitable quality as well as access to sanitation services are therefore vital for decreasing the global burden of disease, improving health, education as well as economic productivity of populations across the globe.

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The vital importance of water, water being a recognised human right, the enormous scale of persistent water degradation, led to the 2030 Agenda and SDGs placing global water quality issues at the forefront for international action. SDG 6 explicitly focuses on the aim to ‘ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all to address and/or minimise the pressing challenges posed by water quality issues’. A total of eight targets with accompanied indicators have been developed to monitor and measure progress or non-progress made related to SDG 6 (Table 5.1). SDG 6 targets 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.a, are set to be achieved by 2030 and target 6.b with no set date for completion. The completion date for target 6 was set for 2020. The set goal went beyond just considering drinking water, sanitation and hygiene by including the quality and sustainability of water resources. The set indicators related to the quality and sustainability of the world’s freshwater resources include the following: . SDG 6.3.2—The proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality. . SDG 6.5.1—The degree of integrated water resource management implementation. . SDG 6.6.1—Freshwater ecosystems. The development of SDG 6 consequently shows that the 2030 Agenda has further recognised the overall importance and centrality of water resources to future sustainability and the vital role that improved drinking water, sanitation and hygiene plays in making progress in other universal goals including health, education, and the reduction of poverty. Progress made in terms of SDG 6 has the possibility of influencing progress made in other set SDGs. For example, the inclusion of water quality in other SDGs such as goals targeted upon health, reduction of poverty, ecosystems and sustainable consumption and production shows the centrality and interconnectedness of water resources. It is included in SDGs 1, 3, 12, 15 and specifically linked to targets 1.4, 3.3, 3.9, 12.4 and 15.1. In so doing, the links which exist between water quality and key environmental, socio-economic and development issues have been recognised on an international scale and the importance thereof for future sustainability emphasised (UNESCO 2021).

5.2 Progress Made on a Global Scale Since 2015 The world has made positive progress since the conclusion of the Millennium Development Goals in 2015 and the implementation of the SDGs. Despite some positive progress, the reality is that there is still a large proportion of the world’s population who still do not have access to water of an acceptable quality. The baseline data given for the SDGs indicated that in 2015, 844 million people remained without access to basic water services and 2.1 billion without safely managed drinking water with most of the affected populations living in rural areas (World Bank Group 2017).

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Table 5.1 SDG 6, primary targets and indicators (UN 2017) Sustainable Development Goal 6—Targets and Indicators SDG 6.1

Target—Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all Indicator—SDG 6.1.1: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services

SDG 6.2

Target—Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations Indicator—SDG 6.2.1: Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a handwashing facility with soap and water

SDG 6.3

Target—Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimising release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substantially increasing recycling and safe water reuse globally Indicator—SDG 6.3.1: Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated Indicator—SDG 6.3.2: Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality

SDG 6.4

Target—Substantially increase water use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity Indicator—SDG 6.4.1: Change in water use efficiency over time Indicator—SDG 6.4.2: Level of water stress—freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources

SDG 6.5

Target—Implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate Indicator—SDG 6.5.1: Degree of integrated water resource management Indicator—SDG 6.5.2: Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation

SDG 6.6

Target—Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes (by 2020) Indicator—SDG 6.6.1: Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time

SDG 6.a

Target—Expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies

SDG 6.b

Target—Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management Indicator—SDG 6.b.1: Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management

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These statistics have however improved on a global level since the implementation of the SDGs by countries who committed to the achievement of these goals by 2030. An estimated 5.3 billion people (71% of the global population) had access to and used safely managed drinking water services which is defined as one located on the premises, available when needed and free of contamination, in 2017. Approximately 3.4 billion (45% of the global population) used safely managed sanitation services which include an improved toilet or latrine, which is not shared, and where excreta are safely disposed of in situ or treated off site in 2017 (UN 2021). Most recent global statistics (2020) have shown the general global trend of positive progress (Fig. 5.1). The proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water services, increased from 70.2% to 74.3% between 2015 and 2020, with the largest proportion gaining access in Central and Southern Asia. Despite this progress, in 2020, two billion people still lacked safely managed drinking water, including 771 million who were without even basic drinking water. Importantly, the Sub-Saharan African region contain the largest numbers with 387 million people still lacking basic drinking water services. Further progress has also been made in terms of increasing access to safely managed sanitation services. Between 2015 and 2020, access increased from 47.1% to 54%. In terms of access to handwashing facilities with soap and water, the percentage of the global population having access increased from 67% in 2015 to 71% in 2020 (UN 2021; UNICEF 2021). The set targets and indicators, especially SDG 6.1 and 6.2, focusing on the improvement of access to safe and affordable drinking water as well as adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all as well as to end open defecation, led to renewed global aspirations to the world’s development agenda. Water, sanitation and 80

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Fig. 5.1 Global progress made from 2015 to 2020 in terms of the global population having access to safe drinking water services, safely managed sanitation services and access to handwashing with soap (UNICEF 2021)

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hygiene (WASH) was once again, placed high on the global development agenda, to make further improvements on this global water issue due to the major role it plays in quality of life (WHO 2019; UN 2021). A great effort is however still required from committed countries before all populations across the globe have access to WASH. Over two billion of the world’s population still rely on unsafe and/or untreated water and an estimated 4.2 billion people do not have suitable sanitation facilities, causing excreta to continuously leak into the environment, leading to major health issues and widespread environmental degradation. Furthermore, an estimated 2.3 billion people (one in three people) were still without basic handwashing facilities with soap and water at their home and a total of 670 million had no handwashing facilities at all in 2020, at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (UN 2021; UNEP 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact, especially on the world’s most vulnerable and poor populations, mostly living in informal settlements and urban slums. This consequently heavily influenced the rate of progress made, especially for these developing nations. The COVID-19 pandemic did have some positive influence as it clearly highlighted that a change in thinking is required by governments by realising that hygiene is more than just handwashing with soap and behaviour change. The highlighted change of thinking brought about the COVID-19 pandemic emphasised the importance of investments into improving infrastructure in the prevention and response to health crises as well as increasing the monitoring and reporting on hygiene needs and other related data such as water quality which is currently lacking for 60% of the world’s population (Butler et al. 2020; UNEP 2021). A total of 1.7 billion of the world’s population are still living without any sanitation of which 494 million still practicing open defecation. The world is however still on track, if current trends continue, to eliminate open defecation by 2030, however, the achievement of safely managed sanitation will require a fourfold increase in current rates of progress. A global coordinated effort with committed governments taking the lead will be required to ensure further positive progress in trying to ensure that all people receive provision of universal and safely managed water and sanitation services. National and/or local governments, development partners, civil society as well as all water users, will have to be central participants. Roles and responsibilities will consequently have to be clearly defined to ensure that all major role-players contribute as best as they can (WHO 2019; UN 2021; UNEP 2021). Overall, the given global statistics show that positive progress has been made since 2015. These statistics do however mask the troubling detail that the drinking water from these improved or developed water services does not assure that the drinking water is of a good or acceptable standard and/or quality and that some regions have lacked any progress at all. The Sub-Saharan African region is a good example of a region not making continued progress, with current coverage estimated at 30%. Of most concern is that even though it is stated that the world will achieve the goal of eliminating open defecation by 2030, the trend over the past three decades have shown an increasing trend (increased by 33 million people). The Sub-Saharan African region is also characterised by the highest proportion of people using unimproved

5.3 South Africa’s Progress Since 1996

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sanitation services and this proportion has continued to grow, suggesting that even though sanitation is on the rise, it does not occur without a cost (Creamer Media 2012). This chapter consequently primarily focusses on South Africa, a country which has focussed on providing new water services especially to its large proportion of its vulnerable population, since 1996. The overall progress made by the country will firstly be discussed to illustrate the progress made since 1996. This is followed by a critical evaluation of South Africa’s overall progress, especially in trying to ensure access to water and sanitation services for all and achieving SDG 6 by 2030 with the use of available statistics and literature. By so doing, the chapter aims to provide the “real picture” of South Africa’s current progress, non-progress or even decay of water and sanitation infrastructure and/or basic water services to establish whether the country will be able to succeed in meeting its set commitments, specifically the achievement of the set targets and indicators of SDG 6 by 2030.

5.3 South Africa’s Progress Since 1996 South Africa has made significant progress since 1996 attempting to provide basic water and sanitation services especially within the disadvantaged and vulnerable communities and rural areas. Before 1994, government policies were focussed upon the advancement of a select few and the development of the country’s water resources were less focused on alleviating the position of the poor (DWAF 1994). Before 1994, water and sanitation services were provided to municipalities and towns which could afford it along racial lines (Goldin 2005). South Africa used its well-developed social resources to engineer some degree of water security and was involved in large scale water transfer schemes. Water service provision was inferior in black populated areas as well as considered inefficient even in white local authorities (Carmichael and Midwinter 2003; MacKay 2003). The country’s water sector has made clear progress post 1994 by advancing and extending water supply to rural areas and previous underserviced areas (NPC 2020). Various water policies and programmes, aimed at creating sustainable water development as well as try to improve both the quantity and quality of water supply to its citizens was initiated and adopted (Adom and Simatele 2021). The existing water policies were altered to include the following: . The Water Service Act (White Paper) 1994—focussed on addressing the existing backlogs in the country’s water service as well as indicating the institutions and mechanisms needed to remedy the accumulations. . The Constitution (Act No. 108 of 1996)—established the human right dimension with importance to water access to adequate and sustainable water supply and services. . The Water Service Act (WSA) of 1997 (Act No. 108 of 1997)—established and empowered the country’s citizens with the right of access to basic water supply

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and sanitation. Ultimately, providing the regulatory framework and establishment of water service institutions such as water boards and water service providers (Coning and Shrwill 2004; StatsSA 2017). The country has created a comprehensive legislative framework for the provision of water supply and sanitation services to support life, personal hygiene, and recognise the need to manage in a manner that is consistent with the broader goals of integrated water resource management (Meissner et al. 2019). The WSA further urged cooperative governance with a specific focus on capacity building at all levels and set out the roles and powers of the DWS in the event of non-performance by provincial departments and local governments. This was followed by the development of the National Water Policy of 1997 (DWAF 1997), which redefined ownership and the allocation of water resources. The National Water Policy of 1997 specified that all water resources (irrespective of where it occurs in the hydrological cycle), are public water and that the national government will act as a public trustee (Tewari 2009). The National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998), was established with its main focus on sustainability and equity. In order to achieve the objectives, set by the NWA, the National Water Resource Strategy was developed within the given policy framework with the sole aim of managing the country’s water resources by providing a national implementation framework and divided the country into water management areas. The National Water and Sanitation Programme, which was part of an international partnership programme, was designed to enhance access to safe and affordable water supply and sanitation for the poor in South Africa (Soyapi 2017; DWS 2018). These policies and programmes were developed with the sole mission of improving and ensuring that the number of households with access to clean water increased across the country, especially in previously disadvantaged or rural areas. Access to clean water is therefore a recognised human right within South Africa. Having access to clean water is described to be the first step in reducing poverty and improving the standards of living especially within poor communities and/or rural settlements (DWAF 2003). The extension of basic water services to areas which have none as well as improving levels of service has been the primary two actions taken to try and address the backlog since 1996 (CALS 2008). The major role players tasked with improving sustainability of the country’s water resources as well as increasing water and sanitation services have been the DWS, the overall policy designer and regulator for overseeing activities of all water sector institutions, national/ international resource planning and allocation, as well as local government institutions structured as local or district municipalities. All these mentioned institutions are ultimately tasked with facilitating the provision of water to communities. Local municipalities have the responsibility to provide the first 6000 L of water per household per month free of charge according to the DWS. This in turn ensures that even those who are not able to pay (rural poor), have access to basic level of water services required for basic needs (Nkuna and Ngorima 2011). The country has made some improvements in basic service delivery in accordance with the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) commitment made

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in 1994. The stated target for the water and sanitation sector was to provide all households with a clean and safe supply of 25 L of water per capita per day, within 200 m of the household, as well as improved sanitation facilities. Separately from the RDP targets, other development commitments focussed on service delivery targets primarily related to household services provision, education, health care as well as security (Mbeki 2004). At the beginning of South Africa’s dawn of democracy in 1994, there were approximately 12 million people or more without adequate water supply services and almost 21 million people without adequate sanitation services. South Africa was faced with a greater backlog of providing water and sanitation services than most developing countries and had the added factor of great gross inequalities created by its historical roots. The country made progress in reducing this gross inequality, with more than nine million people provided with basic water supplies in nine years (1994– 2003), which is a great achievement (DWAF 2003). However, inequality in access to basic services is still a plain reality and progress with water supply and sanitation delivery has been either slow or have actually deteriorated. A great challenge therefore still remains after many decades. Unfortunately, even though 96% of households now have access to basic water supply infrastructure, the estimated percentage of households having reliable and safe water supply services has decreased. Since 1996, the country’s water situation has deteriorated, and the reliability of water services and infrastructure has been on a downward trend primarily attributed to significant underinvestment in maintenance of existing infrastructure and delays in the renewal of aged infrastructure. An evaluation of South Africa’s deteriorating trends, especially in terms of water and sanitation services for all, its overall SDG 6 reality, with specific focus on SDG targets 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3, as well as recommendations and interventions which are required to address the current decay now follow.

5.4 South Africa’s Basic Water and Sanitation Reality and Overcoming Decay The “leave no one behind” target set by the SDGs is echoed in SDGs 6 and 10 focussed on reducing inequalities within and among countries as well as SDG 5 focussed on gender equality. Countries, such as South Africa, have committed their actions since 2016 to target and reach populations living in vulnerable situations to close the existing WASH service gaps and expand access to these basic services to the unserved or populations who experience greater difficulties in accessing these services (WHO 2019). An evaluation of South Africa’s progress or non-progress in terms of SDG targets 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 now follows.

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5.4.1 Access to Safe and Affordable Drinking Water The country has made noteworthy progress in terms of expanding access to water infrastructure on a national level however, access to water has declined in five of its nine provinces between 2002 and 2019. The largest decline was noted in Mpumalanga—(−5.3%), followed by Limpopo—(−3.8%) and Free State (−3.7%) provinces (DWS 2018a, b; StatsSA 2019a). Even though the mentioned policies and legislation have ensured that the total of households with access to clean water increased from 67% in 1993 to an estimated 85% in 2015, and 96% in 2018, only 64% of these households have reliable and safe water supply services. Despite access to sufficient water being a basic human right enshrined in the Constitution, only 64% of households are estimated to have a reliable and safe water supply service—a figure lower than in 1994, 68.9% (DWS 2018a, b; StatsSA 2019a). Importantly, water supply infrastructure coverage does not necessarily guarantee reliable and safely managed water supply. Safely managed water supply is lower in relation to water supply infrastructure coverage (Fig. 5.2). 99

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Fig. 5.2 Access to water infrastructure delivered versus actual reliability of water supply on a national level as well as per province based on 2021 statistics (DWS 2021)

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In 2001, an estimated 11% of the country’s population had no access to safe water supply and a further 15% did not have access to defined basic service levels (StatsSA 2011). In 2008, an estimated five million people still did not have adequate supplies of water while 15 million lacked basic sanitation (Smith 2009). The majority of the affected population are rural communities located in South Africa’s poorest provinces which include the Eastern Cape-, KwaZulu Natal-, Limpopo-, North Westand Mpumalanga provinces. These provinces are still at a disadvantage after almost three decades (Fig. 5.2). Therefore, despite the increase in coverage of new water infrastructure supply and sanitation expanding since 1994, the reliability of these services is currently declining. According to 2019 statistics, an estimated 44.9% of households have access to piped water to their dwelling/household, 28.5% access to water onsite, 12.2% still rely on communal taps and 2.5% rely on their neighbours’ taps. Although the overall households’ access to water shows an overall improvement since 1994, 3.1% of the country’s households still rely on fetching water from rivers, streams, stagnant water pools, dams, wells and springs in 2019. The declining trend can be attributed to overall poor management and insufficient investment and/or misappropriation of funds into water services and sanitation operation and maintenance (StatsSA 2019a). Unreliability of water services have a direct influence and/or impact on overall access to drinking water of an acceptable quality. Households are forced to make use of alternative sources of drinking water due to water interruptions which can last for two days or longer. According to StatsSA (2019a), on a national level, 32.1% of households used water from tankers or vendors while approximately 10.5% of households used water from springs, wells, dams, pools or from rivers and streams. A further 4.7% of households made use of water from rainwater tanks and 3.8% of boreholes. Of the households affected, it was determined that 24.3% stored water while 13.7% had no back up plans at all. The use of water vendors, water carriers and drawing water from alternative water services were the highest in provinces with high unreliability of water supply services. The highest proportion of households making use of water vendors was in the Limpopo—(41%) and North West (22%) provinces. The use of water carriers was highest in the KwaZulu Natal—(30.9%) and Free State (26.8%) provinces with the drawing of water from alternative water sources such as dams, pools, rivers or streams was most common in the Eastern Cape—(19.1%), KwaZulu Natal— (17%) and lastly Mpumalanga (9.3%) provinces (StatsSA 2019a). In terms of the average drinking water quality compliance on a national level for the period of 2016– 2022, chemical—acute health and chemical—chronic health has been mostly of an ideal standard, non-health aesthetic of an acceptable standard, microbiological— acute health at a tolerable level and lastly as well as concerningly, disinfectant and operational of an unacceptable level according to South African National Standards (SANS) 2015: 241 (Fig. 5.3). The country therefore still has some work to do if it aims to achieve SDG 6.1 as currently, it is not complying in terms of disinfectant, microbiological—acute health as well as operational drinking water quality standards.

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The continued decline in water service delivery and reliability of access to water has been accompanied by continued and escalating violent protests against poor service delivery. A dramatic increase in local government protests has occurred since 2004. These protests have become systematic and frequent over the past two decades with South Africa being reported as having one of the highest rates of public demonstrations protest in the world (ISS 2011). Inadequate service delivery has primarily been caused by poor governance, individual political struggles or conflicts within local government, poor communication, ineffective client interface, inept management, affordability issues and unfunded mandates (Nkuna and Ngorima 2011). Water service delivery issues have become amongst the primary reasons of protests within the country, highlighting the prevalence of continued water service delivery issues especially in poor and/or rural communities. Most service delivery protests related to poor water service delivery occur in working-class urban and peri-urban localities, characterised by high levels of poverty, unemployment, inequality as well as relative deprivation, marginalisation and disconnections between water service development planning on municipal and national levels. These major issues occur irrespective of political affiliation of the local government (Tapela 2013). The provision of basic water services to the neglected population has become a great challenge and almost impossible primarily due to funding shortfalls as well as the overall failure by municipalities and other users to pay for their suppliers (Ramcharan-Kotze and Lubbe 2019). The implementation of developed policies and programmes, especially the primary ones mentioned throughout this chapter, specifically formulated to address the country’s water challenges is unfortunately fragmented. The implementation and/or enforcement thereof is consequently uncoordinated and ultimately lacks effective supervision and enforcement. These constraints

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have been primarily attributed to the appointment of professionally unqualified or unskilled personnel to senior management positions and rampant misappropriation of funds in the country’s water sector (Mwendera 2003; van der Zaag and Savenije 2014).

5.4.2 Adequate and Equitable Sanitation and Hygiene The continued increase in unreliable water supply as well as blocked and/or overflowing sewers are currently the primary frustrations of the public which have led to continued protests and escalating vandalism. Even though an estimated 80.5% of the country’s population has access to sanitation services, a backlog of 19.5% still exists (DWS 2021). The majority of households in the Western Cape—(94.5%) and Gauteng (90%) provinces had access to adequate sanitation in 2019. The Limpopo— (63.4%) and Mpumalanga (63.7) provinces had the most limited access with the Eastern Cape Province showing the greatest increase in improved sanitation facilities, increasing by 54.1% between 2002 and 2019, growing from 33.4% to 87.6% (StatsSA 2019a). Approximately 56% of over 1150 wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) are in poor or critical condition, requiring urgent intervention and rehabilitation. Poor water and wastewater treatment has significant negative implications for public health, the environment as well as socio-economic development and growth. Despite current access to sanitation services being around 80% nationally, the delivery thereof is uneven and, in some municipalities, only 50% of its residents have access to adequate sanitation facilities (StatsSA 2019a). The sanitation services delivery rate on a national level has decreased since 2017/2018 (Fig. 5.4). The achievement of some of these early sanitation service delivery improvements were largely due to the installation of pit toilets with ventilation pipes. However, continued rapid household growth, urbanisation as well as the preference of flush toilets have contributed to delayed and slow progress since 2012 (StatsSA 2019a). The achievement of SDG 6.2 looks increasingly unlikely due to the continued decay of current infrastructure and increase in poor or no service delivery across the country, especially within rural areas or informal settlements. The country being water scarce as well as being characterised by regular water interruptions across the country has also led to the use of alternative sources of sanitation. Flush toilets, which are connected to the public sewerage system, is the most common in mostly urbanised provinces and include the Western Cape—(89.1%) and Gauteng (88.6%) provinces. Concerningly, only 26.5% of households in the Limpopo Province have access to any type of flush toilet, consequently forcing the population to use alternatives. An estimated 70.2% of the households in the Limpopo Province use pit latrines, most without ventilation pipes (37.6%). Furthermore, 40.3% of households in the Eastern Cape Province use pit latrines with ventilation pipes. On a national level, 1.1% of the country’s population still use bucket toilets which are supplied and cleaned by local municipalities. This statistic is however strongly denied

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by local municipalities. Given increased water stress and scarcity within the country, it is predicted that ecological toilets (urine diversion-, separation- or composting toilets) will become more common in future (StatsSA 2019a, b). In terms of addressing open defecation, this challenge remains within South Africa with the national average being 3.1%. Despite basic sanitation services being a recognised human right for all since 1997 through the promulgation of the WSA, open defecation is still an ongoing issue with an estimated 4% of the population in rural areas and 1% of the urban population still practicing open defecation. The causes for persisting open defecation in both urban and rural populations include firstly, that no sanitation facilities exist within these affected areas. Secondly, the existing sanitation facilities have either decayed to not functioning or are beyond functional capacity. Lastly, rural populations may be uninformed regarding the risks of open defecation and as a result this practice is continued despite the availability of an improved sanitation facility (DWS 2018b; StatsSA 2019b). The total reduction of open defecation within the country by 2030 will be primarily determined by these three given causes for persisting open defecation. It should also be noted, that despite the increase in access to sanitation facilities, numerous households continue without any proper facilities. On a national level, the percentage of households that continued to have no proper sanitation facilities have been steadily declining between 2002 and 2019, decreasing from 12.6% to 2.4%. The most progress made on a provincial level was within the Eastern Cape—(−32%), followed by the Limpopo—(−18.7%), Free State—(13.9%) and the Northern Cape (−11.5%) provinces over this period (StatsSA 2019a). Importantly, the tracking of the level of hygiene, only commenced in 2019, meaning that the data given is only baseline data and not a clear indication whether actual progress has been made. In terms of washing of hands with soap and water, less than one half of households (43.6%), indicated that they apply this hygienic practice after using the toilet and

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3.7% indicated that they did not wash their hands at all. The use of soap and water for handwashing is once again highest in urbanised provinces. The Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces were the highest (60.5%), followed by the Limpopo Province (28.4%) which was the lowest. This coincides with the number of households which have access to handwashing facilities. The Western Cape Province was once again the highest with 81.5%, followed by the Gauteng Province (78.3%). The Limpopo Province is once again the lowest or most uncommon with only 36.4% (StatsSA 2019a, b). The continued challenges of poor water and sanitation services are intricately linked to problems of poverty, inequality, the environment, and overall socioeconomic development. Rather than connecting poor infrastructure with the inability of poor communities to pay for upgrades, poverty should rather be connected as a partial consequence of poor infrastructure (Zawdie and Langford 2002). Poor infrastructure and services have major economic and environmental costs borne by the whole region, extending beyond the affected population to the larger community and urban region. The nexus which exists between poor infrastructure, poor management, and poor revenue streams, creates a vicious cycle of inadequate water services which needs to be recognised for the country to make positive progress in an attempt to achieve SDG 6.2 by 2030.

5.5 Key Issues and Overcoming Decay Despite the significant progress made in the post-apartheid era, from 1994, South Africa is still faced with numerous water resource challenges, and in some instances, have gone backwards instead of making positive progress, especially since 1996. The poor management of municipal infrastructure as well as continued pollution of water resources by various sources of pollution has led to the persistent decline in water quality. Increased water stress due to both water quantity and quality issues, are also contributing to increased competition for, and potential for conflict over limited water resources both within the country and transboundary or shared water resources. For the country to overcome and/or address current decay, the following persistent issues and causes for the country’s water crises need to be acknowledged and addressed: . . . . . . .

Insufficient water infrastructure maintenance and investment. Recurrent droughts driven by climatic variability and change. Inequities in access to water and sanitation infrastructure and services. Lack of water quality monitoring network and deteriorating water quality. Misappropriation of funds, alleged corruption and the lack of accountability. Deteriorating condition of water-related ecological infrastructure. Lack of sufficient capacity and skilled and competent professionals to address its major water challenges (NPC 2020).

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These persisting issues have already affected the country’s socio-economic growth, the well-being of its population and environment, opening gaps in the country achieving the set SDGs as well as overall water security. The following main gaps have been identified, inhibiting the country progressing with the SDGs, its set National Development Plan and overall water security. Firstly, the insufficient understanding of the bio-geophysical environment caused by the overall lack of sufficient monitoring and regular assessment leading to uninformed and/or questionable decision-making. This includes the continued use of using old or out-dated information or spatial planning models that are not necessarily accurate or responsive to new and complex demands. For example, the lack of monitoring and data in terms of the exact proportion of wastewater as well as updated status of the country’s water quality, causing progress to either be unknown or inaccurate, especially in terms of SDG 6.3. Poor or questionable water governance and leadership issues have had significant effects, especially in terms of, the decline in overall access to water and sanitation service delivery. The inadequacy of key role players in the governance of South Africa’s water resources have caused a lack of implementation and enforcement of policies and legislation, functional instability due to frequent change of leadership, consistent use of outdated strategies without considering existing empirical evidence as well as delayed or aborted decisions. The negative and significant effects of questionable water governance as well as inadequate financing and investment is clearly shown in the lack of progress made in terms of SDG 6.1 and 6.2 as well as the overall deterioration of the country’s water infrastructure and inability to provide reliable water supply and services. The progression in the development of technologies, together with the economy, will consequently be accompanied by the same existing pressures (if not addressed), and new and increased forms of pollution. Monitoring and further investigation will be required to improve current understanding and fill existing gaps due to lack of data related to current and emerging pollutants and their current and future impacts (DWS 2018a, b). The five primary persisting water quality issues within the country also need to be addressed with informed strategic, adaptive, and action-orientated water management programmes and strategies. Due to the multi-sectoral characteristics of these water quality challenges, strategic regulatory collaborations and partnerships will be required between the DWS and other levels of government, private sector as well as organised civil society and other relevant stakeholders (DWS 2018b). The alignment between various entities needs to be addressed as currently the fragmented nature thereof have contributed to poor water governance and overall lack of water and sanitation service delivery. Investment and funding of an improved monitoring framework is required as a matter of urgency. Currently, water quality data does not meet comprehensive standards, and consequently complete information on water quality levels in South Africa’s surface and groundwater resources are not available. An improvement of monitoring as well as reporting and record-keeping will be essential.

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Lastly, effective regulation, especially of the identified major issues, gaps and challenges, will be required to limit or minimise the development of additional and new accelerated water challenges in terms of quantity and quality. The lack of proper intervention can exacerbate current water challenges, continue the current trend of decay, placing both the country’s population and environment under immense pressure and impose additional and significant costs to the economy.

5.6 Conclusion Water resources are under increased pressure on a global and South African scale due to continued population growth and socio-economic development. Governments who have adopted and committed to the achievement of SDGs by 2030 have three main challenges namely, to reach the unserved populations (predominantly rural population groups), to increase service levels and to sustain existing and future services. Conventional management methods and strategies will have to be adapted to ensure that governments are able to cope with increasing demands. Despite South Africa having well developed and highly regarded legislation, policies and strategies related to the management of its water resources, the country has overall not made significant positive progress in terms of supplying water services and sanitation since 1996. From the statistics provided throughout this chapter, it can be concluded that South Africa has not made positive progress, especially in terms of water service delivery and reliability. Water and sanitation services has deteriorated instead. Municipalities’ capacity to deliver and maintain existing infrastructure as well as institutional problems of alleged corruption and mismanagement are all important factors negatively affecting basic service provision in the country. The primary challenges faced by local governments include acute problems of institutional capacity, mismanagement of funds, high levels of misappropriation of funds as well as lack of public anticipation which has contributed to the current widespread decay. The high frequency of service delivery protests and escalating vandalism of existing infrastructure also shows the poor implementation of policy guidelines by those tasked to do so, overall lack of coordination between different departments as well as the lack of communication between service development planning at national, local government or municipal levels, and water use at local household level. The probability of South Africa achieving the set targets and indicators related to SDG 6, is low, primarily due to the various highlighted key challenges, issues, and gaps. However, it should be noted that, the COVID-19 pandemic has also contributed to slower, or no progress being made at all. The COVID-19 pandemic is however not the cause for the country’s continued and increasing water woes. Progress, especially in terms of SDG 6.3, is difficult to accurately determine due to the lack of monitoring and data available to make informed conclusions. A proper monitoring framework and high-quality data are therefore required for better

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understanding as well as to enable informed planning and decisive decision-making, which is currently lacking. The continued lack of quality drinking water, reliable water supply and sanitation services as well as properly functioning wastewater treatment infrastructure will increase the risks and impacts on human health and overall functioning of ecosystems. The overall costs of continued poor water and sanitation services, persistent degradation of water resources as well as the benefits of improving these services, extend beyond only achieving the set SDGs and universal health indicators but also attempts to ensure sustainability and water security within South Africa which is already a water scarce country.

References Adom RK, Simatele MD (2021) Analysis of public policies and programmes towards water security in post-apartheid South Africa. Water Policy 23:503–520 Butler G, Pilotto RG, Hong Y, Mutambatsere E (2020) The impact of COVID-19 on the water and sanitation sector. International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group. https://www. ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/126b1a18-23d9-46f3-beb7-047c20885bf6/The+Impact+of+COVID_ Water%26Sanitation_final_web.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CVID=ncaG-hA. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 CALS (Centre for Applied Legal Studies) (2008) Water services fault lines: an assessment of South Africa’s water and sanitation provision across 15 municipalities. Centre for Applied Legal Studies, Norwegian Centre for Human Rights and Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions Carmichael P, Midwinter AF (2003) Central grants and local spending in Britain. In Carmichael P, Cass AFM (eds) Regulating local authorities. Frank Cass, London Coning CB, Shrwill T (2004) An assessment of the water policy process in South Africa. Water Research Commission, Pretoria Creamer Media (2012) Water 2012. A review of South Africa’s water sector. Creamer Media’s Water Report DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) (1994) Water supply and sanitation policy white paper, water—an indivisible national asset. Republic of South Africa, Pretoria DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) (1997) White paper on a national water policy for South Africa. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) (2003) Strategic framework for water services: water is life, sanitation is dignity. September 2003. https://www.datocms-assets.com/7245/157 4864518-strategic-framework-for-water-services-2003.pdf. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 DWS (Department of Water and Sanitation) (2018a) National water and sanitation master plan: ready for the future and ahead of the curve, vol 1. Department of Water and Sanitation, Pretoria DWS (Department of Water and Sanitation) (2018b) National water and sanitation master plan: ready for the future and ahead of the curve, vol 2. Department of Water and Sanitation, Pretoria DWS (Department of Water and Sanitation) (2021) National integrated water information system. Department of Water and Sanitation, Pretoria. https://www.dws.gov.za/niwis2/ Goldin J (2005) Trust and transformation in the water sector. Doctoral Thesis, Department of Political Studies, University of Cape Town ISS (Institute for Security Studies) (2011) In search of an African revolution. http://www.globaliss ues.org/news/2011/02/24/8651. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 MacKay H (2003) Water policies and practises. Chapter in towards a just South Africa—The political economy of natural resources wealth. WWF and CSIR, Pretoria

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Mbeki T (2004) Address to the first joint sitting of the third democratic parliament. Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, Cape Town Meissner R, Funke N, Nortje K, Steyn M (2019) Understanding water security at local government level in South Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, London, UK Mwendera EJ (2003) Overcoming constraints to the implementation of water demand management in Southern Africa. University of Swaziland, Luyengo, Faculty of Agriculture Nkuna ZW, Ngorima E (2011) Challenges for water service delivery and its impact on South Africa’s rural communities: The case of Thambonkulu, the small rural community in South Africa. Conference Paper. Presented at the 1st YWP Conference, Kampala NPC (National Planning Commission) (2020) National water security framework for South Africa: summary, principles and recommendations. https://www.nationalplanningcommission. org.za/assets/Documents/National%20Water%20Security%20Framework%20for%20South% 20Africa.pdf. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 Ramcharan-Kotze C, Lubbe J (2019) Investing in implementation model for water security and resilience a must. City Press, Pretoria Smith L (2009) Municipal compliance with water services policy: a challenge for water security. Development planning division. Working Paper Series No.10, DBSA, Midrand Soyapi CB (2017) Water security and the right to water in Southern Africa: an overview. Per/pelj 20:2–6 StatsSA (Statistics South Africa) (2011) Census 2011 statistical release. https://www.statssa.gov. za/publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 StatsSA (Statistics South Africa) (2017) Household access to services stabilised. Department of Statistics, Pretoria StatsSA (Statistics South Africa) (2019a) General household survey 2019. Department of Statistics, Pretoria StatsSA (Statistics South Africa) (2019b) Sustainable development goals: country report, 2019. Department of Statistics, Pretoria Tapela B (2013) Social protests and water service delivery in South Africa. http://www.plaas.org. za/blog/social-protests-and-water-service-delivery. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 Tewari DD (2009) A detailed analysis of evolution of water rights in South Africa: an account of the three and half centuries from 1652 to present. Water SA 35(5):694–706 UN (United Nations) (2017) Resolution adopted by the general assembly on 6 July 2017, work of the statistical commission pertaining to the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://docume nts-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N17/207/63/PDF/N1720763.pdf?OpenElement. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 UN (United Nations) (2021) The United Nations world water development report 2021: valuing water. UNESCO, Paris UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) General Comment No. 15. the right to water. November 2002 UN General Assembly (2010) The Human right to water and sanitation: resolution adopted by the general assembly, 3 August 2010, A/RES/64/292. https://www.refworld.org/docid/4cc926b02. html. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2021) Progress on freshwater ecosystems: tracking sdg 6 series, UNEP UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) (2021) The global water quality challenge and SDGs. https://en.unesco.org/waterquality-iiwq/wq-challenge. Accessed 28 Mar 2022 UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) (2021) Reimagining WASH: water security for all. UNICEF van der Zaag P, Savenije HG (2014) Principles of integrated water resource management. UNESCO—Institute for Water Education, Delft

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WHO (World Health Organisation) (2019) National systems to support drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene: global status report 2019. UN-Water global analysis and assessment of sanitation and drinking-water 2019 report. Geneva World Bank Group (2017) Sustainability assessment of rural water service delivery models: findings of a multi-country review. World Bank, Washington, DC Zawdie G, Langford DA (2002) Influence of construction-based infrastructure on the development process in Sub-Saharan Africa. Build Res Inf 30(3):160–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/096132101 10114019

Chapter 6

Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

This chapter focusses on discussing the continued water degradation within South Africa. The primary water quality challenges, as discussed in Chap. 3, are expanded upon, and critically evaluated to provide a clear picture of South Africa’s continued water degradation. The chapter ultimately aims to highlight the gravity of South Africa’s water quality challenges, which has reached crisis levels in some parts of the country. The chapter consequently makes use of real-world examples to illustrate the scale and magnitude of the country’s major water quality challenges. The following case studies are included namely, the developing water quality crisis within the Upper Vaal catchment, with specific focus on the Vaal Barrage catchment; continued acid mine drainage (AMD) within the Witwatersrand/Johannesburg region, with specific focus on the Eastern basin; and lastly, the continued sewage pollution and chemical spills in river systems and the ocean within the eThekwini metropolitan municipality (Durban metropolitan) which have led to human health risks, economic costs as well as overall environmental degradation and fish deaths on a large-scale.

6.1 South Africa’s Escalating Water Quality Challenges and Crises Water quality is defined as the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relation to set of standards (Bhagwan 2008). South Africa’s available water resources are described as being either “too little” (due to droughts and/or escalating water use and demands or collapsed infrastructure), “too much” (due to floods) or “too dirty”, due to continued water pollution. Emphasis has increasingly been placed on the country’s water being polluted with high levels of salinity, nutrients and bacterial and/or pathogenic contamination being detected on a frequent basis. As highlighted in previous chapters, the water quality of many of South Africa’s water systems are not fit for all water uses. Continued water © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_6

109

110

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

pollution across the country have been accompanied with significant financial costs and requires the application of new technologies which will play an increasing role in the treatment of polluted water resources to an acceptable standard for specific water uses (van der Merwe-Botha 2009). The link between water quality and quantity issues also needs to be kept in mind when managing the quality of water resources. Water resources have a specific assimilative capacity which can dilute pollution to acceptable levels. Increased abstraction has however caused a decrease in the amount of water available, resulting in reduced assimilative capacity and increased concentrations of various pollutants. Additionally, the portion of abstracted water is usually returned to water resources in a worse condition than originally abstracted. This consequently emphasises that water quality cannot and should not be managed in isolation and needs to include the management of water abstraction, storage and use (DWS 2022). A total of thirteen water quality management challenges have been noted in South Africa and include the following namely, eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation, urban runoff, thermal pollution, pathogens, organics (endocrine disruptors), hydrocarbons, agrochemicals, metals, radioactivity and nano-particles (micro-plastics). The characteristics of these mentioned issues differ according to the geographical extent of their impact/s; the cumulative severity of their impact/s on the fitness-foruse of the affected resource, on water users’ health, on the local and regional economy as well as on local and downstream ecosystems; the extent to which they have been or are being monitored and lastly, the levels of technical and/or scientific knowledge and understanding of the mentioned impacts, their temporal patterns and geographic prevalence (DWS 2022). As highlighted in Chap. 3, the country is faced with different water quality problems at varying magnitudes across the country. The country’s five recognised priority water quality challenges include increased salinity, eutrophication, microbial contamination or sewage pollution, sedimentation and acidification, which have all been briefly described in Chap. 3. These five issues stand above the rest as currently considerable knowledge for action is available and their impacts have been recognised as being significant. Other water quality challenges that are of concern countrywide include endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), microcystins as well as radionuclide and heavy metal contamination (Ashton 2009; van der Merwe-Botha 2009; Olujimi et al. 2010; WWF 2016; DWS 2022). Increased EDCs is primarily driven by the overall loss of dilution capacity of water resources. EDCs is not removed by wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) leading to these compounds being recycled, causing bio-accumulation. The management of increased EDCs requires further research with international collaboration to try and better understand the pathways for designing appropriate interventions, technology, and policy (van der Merwe-Botha 2009). In terms of the increased concentration of microcystins in South Africa, the load of this contaminant in water storage impoundments are among the highest in the world (Turton 2008). High-confidence studies are lacking however, a consensus exists that microcystins produced by cyanobacteria can be toxic to humans, fauna and flora (Oberholster and Ashton 2008; van der Merwe-Botha 2009).

6.1 South Africa’s Escalating Water Quality Challenges and Crises

111

Radionuclide and heavy metal contamination is directly linked to the legacy of more than a century of unregulated gold mining in combination with high-density populations living in close daily contact with dust and sediment arising from mine tailings dams. A good example of this issue is portions of Soweto as well as the East and West Rand residential complexes located in Johannesburg, on land that would be classified as contaminated sites in developed countries (van der Merwe-Botha 2009). Inadequate monitoring and the lack of knowledge regarding their geographical prevalence of other water quality issues, such as microbial (bacterial and/or pathogens), agrochemical and heavy metal pollution, have consequently led to major challenges in effectively managing these types of pollution (DWS 2022). Both surface water and groundwater resources across the country is polluted by both point- and non-point sources of pollution. The various water pollution issues, manifest at varying scales, is context/catchment specific and the severity of the impacts differ. The combination of escalating water demands for limited water supplies, continued deterioration of raw water quality as well as changes in temperature and rainfall due to increased climate variability create a perfect storm, limiting socio-economic growth if informed and urgent actions are not taken to address the primary identified challenges and water-related issues. Therefore, the continued deterioration of water quality can be deemed as a key factor in South Africa’s continued water challenges and is both an economic and developmental issue which include the following primary effects and/or impacts: . Reduction of water available for various uses as more water needs to be retained in the river systems to sustain acceptable levels and/or standards. . Increased costs of doing business as many water users are forced to treat water before it can be used in industrial processes. Municipal water treatment costs also increase. . Reduction in economic productivity as more work days are lost due to waterrelated illnesses. Poor water quality also reduces productivity within specific sectors. For example, poor water quality impacts negatively on crop yields and make crops vulnerable to import restrictions from countries with strict quality standards as well as on recreational activities and tourism. . Threatens both human health and livelihoods where the human population is exposed to poor water quality for consumptive or domestic usage. . Negative environmental implications due to biological and chemical contamination of water resources which negatively affects important aquatic species and sustainable functioning of ecosystems (DWS 2022). Impacts of water degradation can be observed immediately i.e., large-scale fish kills, or subtle over the long-term. When combined, these impacts can have a significant negative impact on the human population, various ecosystems and/or the environment as well as socio-economic development within the country. The primary driving forces for the deterioration of South Africa’s water quality in various water sources such as rivers, dams, wetlands and estuaries to name a few, include effluent discharges and runoff from urban and industrial areas, seepage and/or discharges from mining operations as well as nutrient pollution from agricultural activities (DWS 2022).

112

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

The magnitude of continued water degradation as well as overall compliance of in-stream water quality standards within South Africa is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. The main causes for South Africa’s declining water quality include the following. Firstly, untreated, or partially treated sewage, mostly from urban areas, are primarily attributed to inadequate or non-functioning sewerage systems, overloaded or poorly managed WWTWs, aging dilapidated infrastructure as well as the poor management and lack of capacity at municipal level which leads to the poor operation and non-maintenance of infrastructure. Hazardous or toxic chemicals produced by industrial processes are deposited into sewers, dams and/or reservoirs, rivers or wetlands. Various types of waste products disposed of in landfills can release pollutants that seep into surrounding water sources and groundwater. Immediate and long-term water pollution by mining operations also play a major role. Lastly, runoff from agricultural practices containing pesticides and fertilisers contribute to nutrient pollution causing eutrophication of water resources (van der Merwe-Botha 2009; DWS 2022). Water quality will continue to worsen if no changes are made in how land and water resources are managed. Continued water degradation will be accompanied with a further decrease in socio-economic benefits obtained from water resources of acceptable quality as well as continued increase in treatment costs. A shift needs to be made from trying to simply protect water resources and reactive management practices towards an effective, proactive, coordinated water quality management approach, especially between different planning, information management, monitoring and source directed control activities as well as stakeholder engagements (DWS 2018, 2022). Coordinated planning and informed action is required not only within the DWS but at all levels of government, individual landowners, affected stakeholders as

Sulphate

70

Ortho-Phosphate 1 3

10

25

55

33

44

Electrical Conductivity

29

28

17

18

pH

0%

10%

11

71

Ammonia

Chloride

9

Ideal

30%

40%

Acceptable

8

25

40 20%

5

60%

Tolerable

19

30

0 50%

7

42 70%

80%

90%

100%

Unacceptable

Fig. 6.1 National percentage of compliance of national in-stream water quality guidelines at 276 selected monitoring points (DWA 2011)

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage

113

well as civil society due to the interconnected nature of water quality management. Clear policies, strategies and plans need to be provided, implemented and standards enforced to provide necessary direction to the DWS as well as the water sector as a whole to ensure for effective, equitable, sustainable and integrated management of both surface- and groundwater quality (DWS 2022). The current primary issues within the country’s current water governance have been highlighted and evaluated in Chap. 4. The lack of water quality monitoring is a major issue caused by the lack of a monitoring network covering the whole country. Financial issues as well as continued pending court cases have also been a contributing factor to an overall decline and, in some instances, the complete lack thereof. For the country’s water resources to be managed within an effective and integrated manner, the continued lack or intermittent monitoring of its water resources will have to be addressed. Updated and more recent data are required to ensure that an accurate picture is available of the current state of the country’s water resources. This section as well as Chap. 3 have clearly highlighted the primary water quality challenges within South Africa. Real-world examples are consequently provided in the following sections to illustrate the country’s ongoing water quality challenges. A case study focussed on continued pollution of one of the most polluted catchments of the Vaal CMA now follows.

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage As briefly discussed in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.5, the Vaal River which supports over 19 million of the country’s population and contributing to socio-economic growth, has been experiencing an ongoing sewage crisis over the past two decades. The sewage crisis has been attributed to the collapse and failure of wastewater treatment facilities and infrastructure of the Emfuleni local municipality. Continued unaccountability and poor water governance in combination of the total collapse of water infrastructure has created an environmental and human health disaster. The Vaal River Barrage catchment being degraded to such an extent that it is now too contaminated to be used for domestic purposes or consumption is a prime example of this water quality disaster. The Vaal River Barrage catchment can be described as a large reservoir located 80 km downstream of the Vaal Dam, providing water supply to the PretoriaWitwatersrand-Vereeniging region, the economic hub of the country. It was originally built in 1916–1923 in a partnership between the mining industry and government to provide water to the Witwatersrand, the centre of the country’s gold mining industry (Tempelhoff et al. 2007). The Vaal River Barrage catchment consists of two secondary catchments namely the Barrage Reservoir and Blesbok Spruit as well as the following sub-catchments (river catchments) (Fig. 6.2):

114

. . . . .

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

The Vaal Barrage Reservoir; Blesbok Spruit; Klip River; Leeu-Taaiboschspruit, and Rietspruit

The Vaal River Barrage catchment is largely developed, and its water resources are highly altered by continued developments (Fig. 6.3). The predominant types of development within the catchment and the Integrated Vaal River System includes both formal and informal urbanisation, industrial growth, agricultural activities as well as widespread mining activities. Continued developments have consequently led to a continued decrease of the system’s water quality which require major management interventions to ensure future water security, decrease the risk of water-borne diseases as well as ecological health impacts, to mention but a few. There was increasing evidence of wastewater pollution in the Vaal River Barrage by the mid-1980s, reaching unacceptable levels more than two decades ago, causing the dam to only being used for recreational purposes (Hallowes and Munnik 2006). The deteriorating state of affairs is clearly visible with stakeholders, civil society and affected communities calling for action. The Vaal River Barrage catchment as well as its sub-catchments were selected as a real-world example case study to illustrate the continued and constant decline of

Fig. 6.2 The Vaal River Barrage catchment, its two secondary catchments, major rivers as well as primary urban centres

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage

115

Fig. 6.3 Land cover of the Vaal River Barrage catchment (2014)

water quality which has consequently led to a water quality crisis to such an extent that the water within the Vaal Barrage Reservoir is only suitable for recreational use due to its unacceptable quality. The catchment as well as its primary tributaries are characterised by large-scale industrial activities, malfunctioning WWTWs as well as declining system operations especially in terms of sewage and/or wastewater treatment. The discharge of sewage far exceeds the standards and conditions as stipulated in licences (DWAF 2004; DWA 2011). The given water quality standards have been exceeded on a regular basis and have had harmful impacts on both aquatic ecosystems as well as human health (Dabrowski and de Klerk 2013). Other major polluting factors, besides malfunctioning WWTWs and industrial activities, within the Vaal River Barrage catchment include mining activities, influencing both surface and groundwater resources, as well as growing agricultural activities, expanding populations as well as increased climate variability, which have all placed major increased pressures on the catchment’s water quality (Riemann et al. 2017). For the purpose of this case study, publicly available water quality data from Rand Water and the DWS, published in the public domain (https://www.reservoir. co.za/viewforum.php?f=10), for the period of January–March 2017 to present i.e., January–March 2022 were collected, structured and analysed for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole as well as for each sub-catchment. All Rand Water water quality sampling stations, located within the Vaal River Barrage catchment, were included for analysis (listed in Appendix I).

116

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

The Vaal River Barrage catchment contains a total of 63 Rand Water water quality sampling stations, spread across the whole catchment. A total of seven water quality parameters were selected for this case study, based on previous trends and knowledge related to the identified water quality issues. A wide range of water quality parameters were consequently selected to show a broad view of the extent of the catchment’s water pollution, water quality crisis as well as overall compliance to instream water quality guidelines (Appendix II). These selected water quality parameters were placed in three categories namely physical, chemical and microbiological. The water quality parameters and their specific measurement unit, selected for this case study include: . Physical parameters—Electrical Conductivity (EC) (mS/m) and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/l O2 ); . Chemical parameters—Nitrate (NO3 as N) (mg/l), Phosphate (PO4 as P) (mg/l) and Sulphate (SO4 ) (mg/l); and . Microbiological parameters—Escherichia coli (E. coli) (bacteriological) (counts/100 ml); Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (organic) (mg/l). The colour classification used to illustrate each water quality parameter’s compliance based on each sub-catchment’s specific in-stream water quality guidelines is given in Table 6.1. Water quality compliance are grouped into four primary classifications based on the relevant in-stream water quality which include ideal, acceptable, tolerable and unacceptable standards (Table 6.1). A description and evaluation of the current state of the Vaal River Barrage’s sub-catchments’ water quality, a time-series analysis of the selected water quality parameters to illustrate temporal trends since 2017 as well as the overall compliance of each sub-catchments’ water quality according to the set in-stream water quality guidelines now follows. Table 6.1 Colour classification used to illustrate overall water quality compliance

Water Quality Standard Ideal Acceptable Tolerable Unacceptable

Colour Classification

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage

117

6.2.1 Current State of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments’ Water Quality The most recent available water quality data were used to analyse and show the current water quality within the Vaal River Barrage catchment and its sub-catchments. The latest water quality data published and currently available (October 2022) was for the January–March quarter of 2022 for all the selected water quality parameters excluding E. coli where the last water quality data published was for the October– December 2021 quarter. The current state of the catchment’s water quality varies across the catchment from mostly acceptable to unacceptable standards (Table 6.2). Most of the sub-catchments’ COD concentrations is of an acceptable standard except within the Barrage Reservoir where it is of a tolerable standard. In terms of EC, most sub-catchments are characterised by tolerable concentrations except within the Blesbokspruit and Klip River catchments where EC is of an acceptable standard. All sub-catchments measured acceptable levels of DO for the January– March 2022 quarter. In terms of E. coli, the whole Vaal Barrage Reservoir catchment measured very high and unacceptable levels, illustrating the major sewage pollution crisis within all of its sub-catchments. Nitrate concentrations are mostly of an acceptable standard within most of the sub-catchments, excluding the LeeuTaaiboschspruit sub-catchment where nitrate levels are currently of an unacceptable standard. Phosphate levels are also of an unacceptable standard within the Barrage Reservoir and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit catchments. Lastly, sulphate levels within the catchment varies from ideal (Blesbokspruit catchment), to acceptable (Klip River and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit catchments) and lastly, tolerable levels (Barrage Reservoir and Rietspruit catchments). Water quality parameters of primary concern within the Vaal Barrage Reservoir catchment therefore include EC, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate and E coli. Table 6.2 Current state of the Vaal River Barrage catchments’ water quality based on in-stream water quality guidelines Water Quality Parameter

DO

NO3

PO4

SO4

E. coli

COD

(mS/m)

(mg/l O2)

(mg/l)

(mg/l)

(mg/l)

(counts/100ml)

(mg/l)

Barrage Reservoir

58.00

7.10

1.32

0.34

104.00

172 569.00

26.00

Blesbokspruit

52.33

7.06

0.91

0.26

86.61

2 519.73

29.00

Klip River

85.25

7.61

1.29

0.29

215.39

47 545.30

22.00

LeeuTaaiboschspruit

97.75

8.70

24.18

5.31

177.00

50 032.33

21.00

Rietspruit

101.17

7.13

2.81

0.22

328.83

882 927.00

30.75

Catchment

EC

118

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

High levels of EC or conductivity is usually an indicator of higher number of impurities which can include, but are not limited to, dissolved substances, chemicals as well as minerals within the relevant water resource. An increase of EC concentrations usually indicates an increase of pollutants, negatively affecting the quality of water. In the event of a sewage leak or increase in agricultural runoff for example, EC concentrations increase due to additional ions such as phosphate and nitrate in the affected water resource. EC is also closely linked to salinity whereby an increase in EC is associated with an increase of salinity which negatively affects DO. Therefore, the higher the salinity and EC levels, the lower DO levels become, negatively affecting aquatic fauna and flora, especially species which cannot tolerate changes in salinity. Human health can also be negatively affected by increased salinity levels and the treatment of water to drinking water standards is also more expensive. High concentrations of nitrate in water resources are usually caused by agricultural activities i.e., fertilisers and/or livestock, or by wastewater disposal by septic tanks, industry wastewater and/or effluent as well as other sewage treatment systems. Together with excess amounts of phosphate, high nitrate concentration levels usually accelerate eutrophication, causing an increase in aquatic plant growth as well as changes in the types of plants and animals which live in the relevant water body. It also negatively affects DO, temperature and other indicators. Excess nitrate levels can also cause hypoxia and become toxic under certain conditions. Human health effects include blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia), birth defects, thyroid disease as well as types of cancer. High concentrations of phosphate are usually attributed to poor agricultural practices, urban runoff, leaking septic tanks and/or systems or discharges from sewage treatment plants. As in the case of high nitrate concentrations, high phosphate concentrations also cause increased algae growth and large aquatic plants, negatively affecting DO. Continued high levels of phosphate can lead to algal blooms which can produce algal toxins, harmful to both humans and animal health. Sulphate either occurs naturally or as a result of municipal and/or industrial discharges. Point pollution sources of sulphate can include discharges from sewage treatment plants, industrial effluent discharges from tanneries, pulp mills, and textile mills as well as runoff from fertilised agricultural lands. High sulphate levels can be toxic to both humans as well as fish and can also have a corrosive effect particularly in copper piping. E. coli is a reliable indicator of faecal bacterial contamination of water resources through sewage and/or animal waste contamination which contain many types of disease-causing organisms. Consumption and/or ingestion of polluted water resources, usually results in illnesses of varying magnitudes which include, but are not limited to, gastrointestinal illnesses, skin-, ear-, respiratory-, eye-, neurologic, and wound infections. In the event of E. coli exceeding permissible recreational water standards, it can result in the closure of affected water bodies as well as the closure of swimming and fishing areas.

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage

119

6.2.2 Temporal Water Quality Trends of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments Since 2017 A time series analysis was completed for the period of January–March 2017 to present i.e., January–March 2022 to show major temporal trends of the selected water quality parameters within the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, but also for each sub-catchment. The standard deviation for each water quality parameter was also calculated for the mentioned time period to show how dispersed the data are in relation to the calculated mean. A linear trend line is also included to show the overall trend of the specific water quality parameter concentration and/or level during the selected time period. EC levels within the catchment varies quite considerably across the given time period between sub-catchments (Fig. 6.4). The overall trend of overall EC levels within the catchment is a slight decrease for the selected time period. The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 9.83 with the Barrage Reservoir sub-catchment having the lowest average EC levels (68 mS/m), followed by the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit- (81 mS/m), the Blesbokspruit- (83 mS/m), the Rietspruit- (89 mS/m) and lastly, the Klip River sub-catchment with the highest average EC levels of 95 mS/m over the given time period. EC levels are mostly of a tolerable standard according to each sub-catchments’ in-stream water quality guidelines. 140

120

EC (mS/m)

100 Overall

80

Barrage Reservoir Blesbokspruit Klip River

60

Leeu-Taaiboschspruit Rietspruit

40

Jan - Mar 2017 Apr - Jun 2017 Jul - Sep 2017 Oct - Dec 2017 Jan - Mar 2018 Apr - Jun 2018 Jul - Sep 2018 Oct - Dec 2018 Jan - Mar 2019 Apr - Jun 2019 Jul - Sep 2019 Oct - Dec 2019 Jan - Mar 2020 Apr - Jun 2020 Jul - Sep 2020 Oct - Dec 2020 Jan - Mar 2021 Apr - Jun 2021 Jul - Sep 2021 Oct - Dec 2021 Jan - Mar 2022

20

Linear (Overall)

Date

Fig. 6.4 EC levels for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each sub-catchment as well as overall linear trend

120

6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa 12 10

DO (mg/l O2)

8 Overall

6

Barrage Reservoir Blesbokspruit Klip River

4

Leeu-Taaiboschspruit Rietspruit

2

Jan - Mar 2017 Apr - Jun 2017 Jul - Sep 2017 Oct - Dec 2017 Jan - Mar 2018 Apr - Jun 2018 Jul - Sep 2018 Oct - Dec 2018 Jan - Mar 2019 Apr - Jun 2019 Jul - Sep 2019 Oct - Dec 2019 Jan - Mar 2020 Apr - Jun 2020 Jul - Sep 2020 Oct - Dec 2020 Jan - Mar 2021 Apr - Jun 2021 Jul - Sep 2021 Oct - Dec 2021 Jan - Mar 2022

0

Linear (Overall)

Date

Fig. 6.5 DO levels for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each sub-catchment as well as overall linear trend

DO levels within the different sub-catchments follow a very similar trend across the given time period (Fig. 6.5). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 and January–March 2021 is a decline in DO levels, followed by a sharp increase from January–March 2021 onwards. The increase in DO levels could perhaps be attributed to the La Nina phenomenon which brought above average rainfall to the area since 2020, consequently leading to higher DO levels. The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 2.22 with the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment having the highest average DO levels (8.70 mg/l O2 ), followed by the Klip River- (7.61 mg/l O2 ), the Rietspruit- (7.13 mg/l O2 ), the Barrage Reservoir- (7.10 mg/l O2 ) and lastly, the Blesbokspruit sub-catchment with the lowest average DO level of 7.06 mg/l O2 . DO levels are mostly of an acceptable standard according to each sub-catchments’ in-stream water quality guidelines. Nitrate concentrations within the different sub-catchments follow a similar trend except in the case of the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment where measured nitrate concentrations are significantly higher over the given time period (Fig. 6.6). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 to January–March 2022 is an increase in nitrate concentrations, primarily attributed by increasing nitrate levels within the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment. The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 3.43 with the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment having the highest average nitrate concentration (24.18 mg/l), followed by the Rietspruit- (2.81 mg/l), Barrage Reservoir(1.32 mg/l), the Klip River- (1.29 mg/l) and lastly, the Blesbokspruit sub-catchment with the lowest average nitrate concentration of 0.91 mg/l. Average nitrate concentration levels within the Vaal River Barrage catchment are mostly of an acceptable standard, with only the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment being characterised by

6.2 Living and Drowning in Sewage

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Fig. 6.6 Nitrate concentrations for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each subcatchment as well as overall linear trend

unacceptable average nitrate concentrations according to its in-stream water quality guidelines. Phosphate concentrations within the different sub-catchments once again follow a similar trend except in the case of the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment where measured phosphate concentrations are significantly higher over the given time period (Fig. 6.7). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 and January–March 2022 is an increase in phosphate concentrations across all sub-catchments. The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 1.18 with the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchment having the highest average phosphate concentration (5.31 mg/l), followed by the Barrage Reservoir- (0.34 mg/l), the Klip River(0.29 mg/l), the Blesbokspruit- (0.26 mg/l) and lastly, the Rietspruit sub-catchment with the lowest average phosphate concentration of 0.22 mg/l. Average phosphate concentration levels within the Vaal River Barrage sub-catchments are either of an acceptable standard (Blesbokspruit-, Klip River- and Rietspruit sub-catchments), with the Barrage Reservoir and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchments being characterised by unacceptable average phosphate concentrations according to the in-stream water quality guidelines. Sulphate concentrations within the different sub-catchments vary considerably over the given time period with the Rietspruit sub-catchment experiencing the

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6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa 18 16

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Fig. 6.7 Phosphate concentrations for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each sub-catchment as well as overall linear trend

highest average sulphate concentration (Fig. 6.8). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 and January–March 2022 is a minor decrease in sulphate concentrations. The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 29.53 with the Rietspruit sub-catchment having the highest average sulphate concentration (328.83 mg/l), followed by the Klip River- (215.39 mg/l), the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit(177 mg/l), the Barrage Reservoir- (104 mg/l) and lastly, the Blesbokspruit sub-catchment with the lowest average sulphate concentration of 86.61 mg/l. Average sulphate concentration levels within the Vaal River Barrage subcatchments are either of an ideal standard (Blesbokspruit), acceptable standard (Klip River- and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit catchments) or of a tolerable standard within the Barrage Reservoir and Rietspruit catchments according to in-stream water quality guidelines. E. coli counts within the different sub-catchments vary considerably, with the Rietspruit sub-catchment being characterised as having the highest count (Fig. 6.9). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 and January–March 2022 is a minor decrease in E. coli counts however, it should be noted that, E. coli is a major health hazard to the human population making use of these water resources in terms of recreational purposes as well as if accidentally consumed. The functioning of aquatic ecosystems is also consistently under major pressure and under threat.

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Fig. 6.8 Sulphate concentrations for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each subcatchment as well as overall linear trend

The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 303,129.75 with the Rietspruit sub-catchment having the highest average E. coli count/100 ml at an immense 882,927 counts/100 ml. This is followed by the Barrage Reservoir(172,569 counts/100 ml), the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit- (50,032.33 counts/100 ml), the Klip River- (47,545.30 counts/100 ml), and lastly, the Blesbokspruit sub-catchment with the lowest average E. coli count of 2519.73 counts/100 ml. Average E. coli counts/100 ml levels within the Vaal River Barrage sub-catchments are all of an unacceptable standard according to in-stream water quality guidelines, once again emphasising the major sewage pollution crisis within the whole catchment area, especially within the Rietspruit sub-catchment where the collapse of its WWTWs and the magnitude thereof on water resources’ quality within the catchment being quite evident with the sub-catchment recording the highest E. coli counts/100 ml. Lastly, COD concentration trends are quite similar between most of the analysed sub-catchments excluding the Rietspruit and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchments which recorded well above the average COD concentrations. The average COD concentrations within the Rietspruit sub-catchment experienced significant increase from April–June 2019 to July–September 2020, and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit from April–June 2020 to October–December 2021 (Fig. 6.10). The overall trend observed between January–March 2017 and January–March 2022 is an increase in COD concentrations.

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124 6 Progressive Deterioration of Water Quality Within South Africa

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Fig. 6.10 COD concentrations for the Vaal River Barrage catchment as a whole, for each subcatchment as well as overall linear trend

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The calculated standard deviation for the catchment as a whole is 5.44 with the Rietspruit sub-catchment having the highest average COD concentration (30.75 mg/l), followed by the Blesbokspruit- (29 mg/l), the Barrage Reservoir(26 mg/l), the Klip River- (22 mg/l) and lastly, the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit subcatchment (21 mg/l) measuring the lowest average COD within the catchment. Average COD concentration levels within the Vaal River Barrage sub-catchments are mostly of an acceptable standard except for the Barrage Reservoir sub-catchment where COD is of a tolerable standard according to the sub-catchment’s in-stream water quality guidelines. The existing water quality trends within the Vaal Barrage Reservoir is quite evident for each of the selected water quality parameters. From the given obtained results, especially in terms of the primary linear trend, the current continuous decline of water quality on a catchment scale as well as in terms of the sub-catchments can be observed. The water quality parameters of primary concern include: . Tolerable EC concentrations within the Barrage Reservoir-, the LeeuTaaiboschspruit- as well as the Rietspruit sub-catchments. . Nitrate concentrations are of specific concern in the Leeu-Taaiboschspruit subcatchment with unacceptable nitrate concentrations. . Phosphate concentrations are of specific concern within the Barrage Reservoir and Leeu-Taaiboschspruit sub-catchments with unacceptable levels of phosphate concentrations recorded. . Tolerable sulphate concentrations are of specific concern within the Rietspruit and Barrage Reservoir sub-catchments. . E. coli counts/100 ml is of major concern across the whole Vaal River Barrage catchment, posing major human health risks as well as widespread degradation of aquatic ecosystems, with large-scale fish deaths having been observed and recorded. The continuous decline and poor state of affairs of water resources within the Vaal River Barrage catchment is quite evident from the results presented, especially in terms of escalating E. coli counts/100 ml. The most problematic variables posing a threat to both human health as well as functioning of aquatic ecosystems include, but are not limited to, all of the analysed water quality parameters except DO and COD where levels are either of an acceptable or tolerable standard according to the various sub-catchment in-stream water quality guidelines.

6.2.3 Compliance Percentage of the Vaal River Barrage Catchment and Its Sub-catchments According to In-stream Water Quality Guidelines The magnitude of continued water degradation as well as overall compliance of instream water quality standards within the Vaal Barrage Reservoir catchment varies

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considerably between water quality parameters, with E. coli, once again being the primary water quality challenge within the catchment (Fig. 6.11). Unacceptable E. coli levels are present throughout the whole catchment and is a major concern in terms of human health as well as functioning of aquatic ecosystems. The consequence of the Rietspruit WWTWs’ collapse is clearly evident in the results presented. The main causes for this sub-catchment’s declining water quality according to the established and observed water quality trends is similar to the national observed trends and include the following: . Continued discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage primarily attributed to inadequate or non-functioning sewerage systems, . Overloaded and/or poorly managed WWTWs, . Aging and dilapidated infrastructure, and finally, . Overall poor management capacity primarily of the responsible municipality which is contributing to continued poor operation and non-maintenance of infrastructure. There is therefore an urgent need for the upgrading and/or maintenance of existing WWTWs, development of new WWTWs as well as proper training of municipal technical staff who are responsible for the functioning thereof. Sewage pollution has been an ongoing issue within the whole Vaal catchment and South Africa, with little to no improvement as shown in the presented results, despite the South African Human Rights Commission declaring it as an environmental disaster, affecting the population’s constitutional right to an environment that is not harmful towards their health.

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6.3 The Continued Water “Scars” of Mining AMD, especially within the Gauteng City-Region, has been described by media outlets as well as researchers to be a total ticking time-bomb after it was officially reported in 2002 that AMD have begun to make its way to the surface from old mining works on the West Rand (Masondo et al. 2011; TAU SA 2011; Slack 2013). Mining has taken place in the Witwatersrand area, within the Gauteng Province, in three of the underground mining basins namely, the East-, Central- and West Rand since the discovery of gold in 1886. Over 120 mines are required to pump out the water which entered to avoid AMD to decant to the surface. As these mines reached the end of their life cycle, dewatering of the mine voids became the responsibility of fewer mines, consequently leading to the filling of voids (tunnels, drives and shafts) with water. Since then, there has been extensive research and media coverage, specifically due to continued rising water levels in abandoned mine void/s beneath Johannesburg and neighbouring municipalities, with the threat of flooding to buildings and other infrastructure in the city region (McCarthy 2011; Bobbins 2015). AMD is generated by the ingress of water into abandoned mine voids, characterised by low pH, high salt content mostly consisting of sulphates, high levels of metals, especially iron which gives the polluted water a red-orange colour. Radiological risks may also be present such as uranium which may be present at all of the decanting points. The basic argument put forward regarding continued AMD within the Witwatersrand basin is that the acid mine water decanting from old mine workings is a reality and a danger to both human health and the environment. It consequently threatens all spheres i.e., the economy, human health, and the environment, and cannot be ignored. The large void beneath the Witwatersrand was created by gold mining operations over the last 120 years, filling with water, rising at an estimated 15 m per month. Once a void is completely flooded, water starts to leak out to the surface with major effects. The chances of there being more decanting points are possible in municipal areas across the Witwatersrand from Roodepoort to Boksburg (McCarthy 2011; Bobbins 2015). Increased water levels in mine voids also have an increased risk of possible seismic activity. AMD can also contaminate shallow aquifers as well as lead to the development of geotechnical impacts (i.e., sinkhole formation) when the decanted water is close to the surface. Once AMD eventually decants onto the surface level, as it did in 2002, already scarce water resources can become unusable for most water users such as agricultural and recreational activities not being able to use the water for their respective purposes due to heavy acidic pollution. The decanting of AMD within the Western basin has the possibility of flowing into wetlands, rivers and streams and may lead to the death of aquatic biota but also have major cost implications downstream due to elevated salt levels (McCarthy 2011; DWA 2012; Bobbins 2015). On the West Rand, AMD decanted to the surface and destroyed life in the Tweelopiespruit (part of the Crocodile River system and the Limpopo River catchment area) and in the Robinson Lake near Randfontein (Fig. 6.12).

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Fig. 6.12 The Robinson Lake (Google Earth image; Personal photographs taken 22 October 2022)

It also polluted some boreholes as well as soil, causing local communities to not be able to grow vegetables or other subsistence crops. The Tweelopiespruit was described as a class C river (in good ecological condition) in 2000. However, by 2004, the stream was downgraded to a class F river (unable to support normal aquatic life) and in 2011 as a class V river (a very high acute hazard) due to continued AMD. In terms of the Robinson Lake near Randfontein, located near the headwaters of the Tweelopiespruit, the dam has been classified by the National Nuclear Regulator as a radiation area with a uranium concentration of 16 mg/l i.e., 40,000 times higher than the area’s background levels of uranium in water, with aerial photographs showing that this polluted water has been spreading through both surface water and groundwater systems (DWA 2010, 2012). In terms of mining and water security in the Vaal River water supply area, it has been stated that if the current increasing loading of salt within the river system, caused primarily by AMD from mines and sewage effluent, are not eliminated or significantly reduced, excessive dilution-releases from the Vaal Dam will be needed to achieve

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the Resource Water Quality Objectives in the Vaal Barrage and further downstream. The consequences of this are major as it will increase unusable surpluses developing in the Lower Vaal River which has the potential to further externalise the cost of pollution to the Lower Orange River, ultimately threatening the acceptable levels of assurance of water supply and increasing the risk of imposing water restrictions on Vaal River water users (DWA 2010, 2012). The Inter-ministerial Committee on AMD, reported in 2010 that government and responsible mining companies had until June 2012 to control AMD before it would flood the Central basin, located under Johannesburg, flooding the tourist mine in Gold Reef City in March 2013. In terms of the East Rand, the Grootvlei mine located near Springs stopped the pumping of water in early 2011, with estimates showing that AMD will start to decant to the surface in three to five years—if no proactive action is taken. Importantly, the Blesbokspruit and the Marievale Bird Sanctuary are already contaminated by AMD (Expert Team of the Inter-Ministerial Committee under the Coordination of the Council of Geoscience 2010). The magnitude of the AMD crisis in South Africa, specifically the Witwatersrand area, was recognised by government which outlined an action plan entitled “Mine Water Management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields with Special Emphasis on Acid Mine Drainage” in December 2010 due to continued high media coverage and pressure from civil society organisations. Short-, medium- and long-term action plans were set out by this report for dealing with AMD in the Witwatersrand area and included the following namely: . Pumping and treating of water from flooded mine voids. . Stopping water from flowing into the old mine voids, with the aim of reducing the amount of water that must be treated and pumped over the long-term. . Increasing the monitoring of mine water, groundwater, surface water, seismicity, subsidence, and other geotechnical impacts of mine flooding to assess water quality changes and identify other remedial actions. . Monitoring other sources of AMD (i.e., tailings dams) and implementing remediation of these sources. . Investigating whether an environmental levy on operating mines is viable to cover the cost of treating AMD from abandoned mines. . Ongoing assessments, risk appraisals and recommendations of remedial measures to be completed, with necessary adaptations as and/or when conditions change (Expert Team of the Inter-Ministerial Committee under the Coordination of the Council of Geoscience 2010). The report further stated that there are serious concerns of the government’s ability to effectively regulate current mining practices due to the subject area being largely neglected by the South African state or state-funded work. It further called for immediate intervention due to the large threat it poses to the country’s water resources from AMD in other parts of the country, most notably the coal fields of Mpumalanga and the Free State provinces (Expert Team of the Inter-Ministerial Committee under the Coordination of the Council of Geoscience 2010).

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Concerningly, high concentration of uranium has been found in the Rietspruit river water and sediment, above the permissible limit of uranium. Despite the high concentration of uranium in the water, it is still currently used for irrigation of farmlands, cattle watering and for human consumption. The ingestion of uranium is dangerous to human health due to the toxic nature thereof and the consumption of the water for domestic use and/or agricultural purposes must be highly discouraged (Raji et al. 2021). Despite AMD being recognised as a crisis by government after continued pressure from media and civil society organisations, the response has been slow and of a reactive nature. Primary reasons for delayed action over the past two decades relate mostly to who is responsible for the clean-up and/or rehabilitation or reconstruction, political dynamics as well as the magnitude of the mining industry’s influence in South Africa. The lack of scientific knowledge and technical understanding of AMD as well as water treatment measures are therefore not the issue. The current legal framework which also allows mining companies to avoid both social and environmental responsibilities in combination with the lack of capacity within the government to enforce regulations and coordinate remediation measures has also been a major and continued issue in the delayed and/or no response to AMD. The DWS did implement a treatment programme which involved the pumping of AMD out of the Witwatersrand basin and partially treating the water through a neutralisation process. This programme has proved to not be a long-term measure as it has not alleviated the AMD challenge. By only focussing on managing the flooding of basins, is a reactive management response and does not address the root causes of AMD which primarily include mine tailings dams, open pits, receptor dams, polluted wetlands, streams and rivers as well as waste-rock dumps. The overall delay in properly addressing regulatory, capacity and overall enforcement of legislation issues as well as not dealing with actual causes of AMD, has led to continued widespread environmental degradation, widespread pollution of the country’s already stressed and scarce water resources as well as affecting the livelihoods, health and overall quality of life of affected human populations (FSE 2010). All three deep-level abstraction pumps of a government’s R1 billion AMD treatment plant in Springs (East Rand of the Gauteng Province) responsible for pumping and treating AMD within the Eastern basin has collapsed and have not been operational since early February 2022. The collapse can serve as a suitable example of the government’s delayed, and in this case, non-implementation of long-term responses to deal with this major water pollution issue. The non-functioning of the treatment plant has consequently led to the rapid rising of toxic mine water underground. The state-owned entity responsible for the management and control of the operation has however not raised any concern and the treatment plant is still not operational (June 2022) (Bega 2022). AMD is predicted to reach the environmental critical level by December 2022, meaning that the responsible authorities have until then to obtain and install the necessary parts to fix the abstraction pumps and avoid the decanting of AMD. AMD solutions need to be properly implemented to prevent decanting of acid mine water to the surface at different points in the Witwatersrand and other affected

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areas. These solutions are mostly expensive however not technically discouraging. After a century of mining by hundreds of companies, many which have ceased to exist, emphasises that the polluter pays principle or the pointing of fingers towards these companies in the mining sector will not be a fruitful and realistic exercise to address AMD as they cannot be held responsible or financially liable. The majority of the AMD costs will consequently have to come from the national fiscus as well as pro rata contributions from existing mines who contribute to the country’s AMD problem (McCarthy 2011). AMD is therefore an environmental as well as a social justice issue as it has adversely affected the health and livelihoods of mostly low-income and/or vulnerable groups who have been marginalised. The continued inaction or majorly delayed response has resulted in the continued pollution of areas such as the West Rand over the past two decades. The toxic acid mine water as well as dust from mine dumps poses a major threat to the health and livelihoods of thousands of people, most living in informal settlements. Despite the acknowledgement of the radiological risk posed by mine dumps and old slimes dams on the West Rand of the province, the assessment thereof by the National Nuclear Regulator’s deems it to be of no impending danger to the public due to symptoms of low-level radiation exposure taking years to develop. The level of radiation exposure involving uranium needs to be re-assessed and adequate treatment processes and plants need to be put in place to avert the flooding of areas of higher economic potential, a widespread environmental disaster as well as to ensure public health and safety. Unfortunately, actions are still continuously delayed, and treatment of AMD remains inadequate after more than two decades.

6.4 eThekwini Municipality’s Developing Water and Human Rights Crises: The Rivers and Ocean Used as a Dumping Ground A total of 80% of ocean pollution or pollution of marine environments originates on land, along the coast itself or further inland. Various types of contaminants such as chemicals, nutrients, litter as well as heavy metals and other toxic substances are carried by streams and rivers from different land use activities such as farms, industries, and urban areas to bays and/or harbours and finally out to sea. Debris such as litter, specifically plastic, are also deposited into the ocean by winds or via storm drains and sewers. Non-point sources of pollution, primarily through runoff from inland, are considered to be the largest contributor to ocean pollution by numerous anthropogenic activities. Depending on the magnitude and frequency of non-point pollution, these pollution sources can make rivers and ocean water unsafe for humans as well as fauna and flora. In major pollution cases, it can also lead to the closing of beaches due to high risk to human health (NOAA 2021).

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Plastic pollution is one of the most visible pollution types and has become an increased global and national concern due to the mere scale of the problem as well as major consequences for both marine life and human health. An estimated 80,000 tonnes of plastic leak into South Africa’s rivers and oceans on an annual basis, negatively affecting marine life through ingestion, entanglement as well as poisoning (Sgqolana 2022). Despite plastic pollution being high on the global agenda due to its transboundary nature, other inland sources of pollution, especially sewage pollution and chemical spills, have significantly affected South Africa’s fresh and ocean water quality, leading to major environmental impacts and the closure of beaches. Continued sewage pollution, and in some cases chemical spills, which have occurred along the Durban coastline and the eThekwini metropolitan municipality, serves as perfect examples to illustrate the magnitude and scale of this significant continued pollution problem within the context of South Africa. The eThekwini metropolitan municipality is located within the country’s KwaZulu Natal Province. It is the largest city in the province and the third largest city in the country, with a total estimated population of 3,476,686 (2011). The city is also home to Africa’s busiest port, the Port of Durban, located in Durban Bay. The city’s major economic sectors include finance (22%), manufacturing (22%), community services (18%), trade (16%), transport (16%), construction (3%) and electricity (2%) (eThekwini Municipality 2022). Durban Bay is the focal point of the city of Durban’s development, with the area’s major rivers such as the uMbilo, uMhlatuzana and aManzimnyama rivers receiving runoff from both residential and industrial areas. Several stormwater drains also originate in the Durban Central Business District, discharging into the Bay at various localities. Durban Bay is also classified as an estuarine bay and represents the rarest estuarine type in South Africa. It is also home of the Port of Durban, the leading container port in the southern hemisphere, functioning as one of the country’s key assets. Additionally, it is also an important resource for the city’s population in terms of recreational, subsistence and other social reasons (DEA 2016). The estuarine of Durban Bay is described as compromised with decreased resilience caused by numerous factors related to Port uses as well as social and economic activities taking place within the catchments draining into the Bay. The various communities within Durban Bay are also described to be in decline. Anthropogenic activities occurring within the estuarine boundaries and catchments have significantly impacted the physical, abiotic and biotic elements of the system. The system has been physically affected by significantly reducing its overall area from an estimated original area of 35–13.5 km2 . The historically shallow mouth has also been dredged and stabilised by breakers to enable shipping movements, modifying sediment distribution within the system causing upper reaches to become settlement points. In terms of abiotic effects, the development of the harbour has caused 90% habitat loss. The water quality trends are also negative, indicating disturbing levels of pollution, especially in the upper reaches of the Bay. DO has been decreasing at a continued rate, resulting in periodic large-scale fish deaths. Bacterial levels have also increased to such an extent that it is hazardous to human health. Algal blooms have

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increased in frequency, reflecting increased levels of nitrate and phosphate concentrations from the relevant catchments, resulting in highly variable DO, contributing to large-scale fish deaths. Biotic effects include the partial or total destruction of macro-vegetation with the surviving mangroves (5% of the original mangrove area) now protected in the natural heritage site (DEA 2016). The completed health assessment of Durban Bay indicates that it is in a perilous state with an overall health score of only 30, placing the system in the “provisional ecological status, category E”. Additionally, the habitat score is also low (48) and biotic health extremely low (13). Despite it being significantly degraded, the estuary remains of significance on a national, regional and local scale. The current social pressures are expected to become worse due to current population and development trends, showing increased urbanisation and population growth. Similarly, economic users are also expected to place additional increased pressure on the estuary, negatively impacting the functioning of the already degraded ecosystem. Given the significance of the Bay, priority needs to be placed on improving its current poor condition. The main threats are all anthropogenic in nature and include the following. Firstly, infrastructure development which has led to a nett loss of a significant portion of the habitats in the Bay. Some of these infrastructure developments include, but are not limited to, roads and riparian infrastructure, infilling and in-stream infrastructure as well as canalisation and dredging. Land use changes have resulted in continued and increased pollution of rivers and stormwater systems which drain into the Bay. The land use changes which have significantly contributed to ongoing pollution of water resources include human settlements, industry as well as agricultural activities in catchments as well as activities which take place in the Bay itself such as shipping and recreational activities. The water quality of the Bay is also negatively impacted upon by runoff from agricultural and human settlement areas, untreated or partially treated wastewater or industrial effluent as well as solid waste disposal such as plastics. Living resources within the Bay are also exploited by activities such as unsustainable harvesting of fish and mining activities (DEA 2016). The eThekwini metropolitan municipality is facing widespread continued degradation, affecting social, economic as well as environmental spheres. One of the most significant and concerning issues is the large-scale pollution of water bodies, rivers, streams as well as the ocean itself by sewage as well as chemical spill events. Real-world examples related to the chemical spills caused by United Phosphorus Limited (UPL), collapsing infrastructure and declining water service delivery as well as a description of its sewage crisis after floods which occurred in April 2022 now follows.

6.4.1 Chemical Spills by United Phosphorus Limited UPL, an Indian-owned pesticide and farm poisons supplier, manufactures agrochemicals, industrial chemicals, to name but a few, and offers crop protection solutions.

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Its warehouse contained millions of litres of herbicides, insecticides and fungicides, including carcinogens as well as agricultural products that are classified as very toxic. A UPL warehouse in Cornubia was targeted as part of the widespread unrest, i.e., July 2021 unrests, in the KwaZulu Natal Province. Violent protests were associated with vandalism of infrastructure, causing a chemical spill/s attributed to the warehouse being set alight. The fire and firefighting efforts resulted in a soup of chemicals flowing from the burning warehouse into the Ohlanga River, passing Blackburn villages (informal settlement flanking the river) and ultimately out to sea causing fish and crustacean deaths at an immense scale (van Rensburg and Comrie 2021; Zali 2021). The Ohlanga River as well as the Umhlanga Lagoon turned an unnatural bright blue colour within days of the spill. The cause is considered to be, due to 15,000 kg of blue dye stored within the UPL warehouse. It should be noted that UPL refused to make a full inventory of what was in the destructed warehouse public. Provincial authorities did however provide the results of initial tests taken days or weeks after the fire. The results were damning, resulting in an urgent public alert, warning that 40 km of beaches will remain closed until the contamination has sufficiently cleared. Soil samples collected along the Ohlanga River confirmed that the soil has extremely high concentrations of dangerous pesticides and arsenic, raising major human- and environmental health concerns. High concentrations of other chemicals were also found increasing public health concerns. After eight weeks of closed beaches, test results from a laboratory were received and indicated that the Ohlanga River, Umhlanga Lagoon as well as the surrounding wetland and/or estuary have been contaminated with highly toxic chemicals such as arsenic, atrazine and bromoxynil (van Rensburg and Comrie 2021). The Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment released a preliminary report on 3 October 2022 indicating that UPL had no environmental authorisation to operate its Cornubia chemical factory and warehouse. It was also reported that UPL also did not obtain risk assessment and planning permissions as required by environmental and municipal by-laws. All of these factors as well as the July 2021 unrests created one of the most serious environmental catastrophes in recent times, characterised by a significant number of fish deaths, closing of beaches and residents affected by both water and air pollution. Affected ecosystems will take several years to recover from this incident (Makhafola 2021; van Rensburg and Comrie 2021; Zali 2021; Bloomberg 2022). The KwaZulu Natal Province experienced major flooding caused by relentless downpours between 8 and 21 April 2022. The storm was declared one of the deadliest storms in its history, consequently declaring a state of disaster within the province. The floods resulted into over 400 fatalities, hundreds of injuries as well as mudslides in Durban and surrounding areas, affecting over 40,000 people. An estimated 13,000 homes were damaged, with community spokespeople stating that poor drainage and building standards have increased the scale and magnitude of the disaster (Nyoka 2022). Additionally, poor or dilapidated infrastructure, urbanisation, lack of resources as well as lacking adequate drainage systems are also considered to be factors which exacerbated the effects of the floods (Burke 2022; Mwai 2022).

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Major issues caused by the flooding include damage to water infrastructure and WWTWs, threatening water supply with 80% of the drinking water network being out of order as well as creating impassable roads and swept away bridges. UPL also suffered damage from the floods, leading to another chemical spill with devastating environmental effects. UPL’s pollution control dam, designed to safely capture toxic and hazardous waste overflowed, releasing an unknown amount of chemically contaminated wastewater into the Umhlanga River and adjoining beaches north of Durban. The dam was established as a temporary measure to collect toxic waste residue flowing from the charred remains of the Cornubia warehouse during decontamination and clean-up operations. The overflow occurred on 11 April 2022, at the height of the rainstorm, which caused widespread damage across the whole KwaZulu Natal Province. Consequently, all beaches were closed. UPL is still facing criminal charges related to alleged safety breaches and the toxic air, soil and water pollution caused by the chemical fire at their Cornubia warehouse during the July 2021 unrests. When asked about the quantity and quality of the chemical spill, no response was received (Carnie 2022a). The effects of the chemical spill were however very clear with large-scale fish deaths, closed beaches and some residents complaining of air pollution.

6.4.2 Collapsing Infrastructure and Declining Water Service Delivery Durban beaches were closed over the new year holiday season in December 2021 due to the immense and continued sewage pollution of the Umgeni River, 4 km upstream of its tourist beaches. Partially treated human waste was, and is still, continuously being deposited into the Umgeni River from a municipal outlet pipe located close to the Northern WWTWs, raising major public health concerns. These concerns were reinforced by reports indicating that several canoeists fell ill the last week of December 2021 after completing a canoe race along the Umgeni River between the Inanda Dam and Blue Lagoon. Completed research by the University of KwaZulu Natal have also emphasised the serious risks of cholera, hepatitis and other waterborne diseases transmitted via exposure to sewage bacteria and pathogens in the Umgeni River (Carnie 2022b). The management and delivery of water and sanitation within the municipality has also been described as a growing human rights crisis. The quality of life of hundreds of thousands of residents within the municipality has been declining over the past two decades at a rapid rate, reaching a crisis point in 2022. Constant sewage pollution on beaches as well as waterways have impacted severely on the municipality’s environmental, recreational and tourism sector. Aged water infrastructure is collapsing due to non-maintenance and/or lack of capacity, as is the case across South Africa. A total of 110 sewage pump stations do not have a second pump, meaning that in the event of the first pump failing or in the event of prolonged power outages, sewage will

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overflow, further exacerbating the current sewage crisis (Govender 2022a; Makhaye 2022). Access to water in the eThekwini municipality has also been severely compromised, with more than half of billable water purchased from Umgeni Water (a stateowned entity) being lost. An estimated 54% of water is lost through physical leakages, burst pipes and theft. The water crisis is further exacerbated by technical and infrastructure failures from Umgeni Water, significantly affecting water services. The constant decline of water service delivery and the collapse of aged infrastructure have led to communities having to wait for water tankers and being without any water supply for hours and days or experiencing periodical cut-offs. Rolling water outages or water rationing was consequently implemented since 2 May 2022 and will remain in place for the next 12–14 months, depending on how the situation unfolds, in an attempt to avoid a total collapse of water supply infrastructure. The municipality has placed blame on the recent floods (DWS 2022; Govender 2022a; Makhaye 2022). The recent floods have indeed caused destruction of water infrastructure. However, it should be noted, that the failure of water infrastructure has been an ongoing issue over the past two decades and cannot be singularly attributed to the recent floods.

6.4.3 The Sewage Crisis Post April 2022 Floods As mentioned in the previous section, the rivers and the ocean along the KwaZulu Natal Province’s coast have been affected by constant sewage spillages before the recent floods due to non-maintenance of WWTWs, leading to regular closing of beaches due to beyond normal and mostly critical E. coli levels. Leaking of sewage has also been attributed to vandalism, causing pumps to break and not functioning, however, lack of maintenance has been labelled as the primary cause for widespread sewage pollution within the province (Zali 2021). The KwaZulu Natal Province experienced immense rainfall, causing large-scale floods which caused widespread damage. The dramatic scale of the damage caused has been partly attributed to increased property development as well as inadequate management and maintenance of stormwater drains with these recent developments. The estimated cost of infrastructure damage across the province has been estimated at R25 billion, with the amount still increasing. The floods caused immense sewage pollution coinciding with another massive fish die off event at the Umgeni River mouth (Carnie 2022b; Mabaso 2022). Spilling of raw sewage, hundreds of thousands of litres of raw sewage flowing into the port every hour, led to the banning of bathing, surfing and fishing activities. The severe discharge of sewage has been largely attributed to the failure of pumps at the eThekwini municipality’s Mahatma Gandhi pump station. The municipality removed damaged pumps pending the arrival of spares and as a result, approximately 720,000 L of raw sewage was flowing into the Durban harbour on an hourly basis (Kockott 2022). The municipality warned residents against using the contaminated water after rivers were found to be significantly contaminated. High levels of

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E. coli were measured in rivers and at beaches. Residents were also advised to not use unboiled water for any activities as it will increase the risk of potential outbreaks of waterborne diseases (Mabaso 2022; Naidoo 2022). In August 2022, large-scale fish deaths were once again recorded in the Isipingo Beach lagoon, with more aquatic deaths recorded at the Umgeni River. E. coli was once again determined to be the primary culprit, resulting in decreased DO levels, majorly impacting aquatic life and ecosystems. The Umgeni River near Riverside recorded a shocking 23 million counts/100 ml of E. coli where the recreational standard of E. coli for seawater is less than 130 counts/100 ml (Govender 2022b). Tap water was measured to satisfy the SANS (South African National Standards) 241 microbiological drinking water standards. The most recent major E. coli pollution event where dead fish were observed on the banks of the Umgeni River and the river mouth has been attributed to poorly treated wastewater discharged directly into the river from WWTWs and spills from dysfunctional sewer pump stations. In conclusion, the competing demands of enhancing social and economic benefits of the Bay and the preservation and restoration of estuarine function, has created a convincing case for the overall need of improved management, with a primary objective of improving the resilience of ecosystems. Rehabilitation and proactive management of impacting activities are also a requirement to try and manage negative impacts such as poor water quality as well as investigating positive opportunities such as the protection and restoration of key habitats.

6.5 Conclusion South Africa’s available water resources are placed under severe stress by prolonged droughts, escalating water use and demands, floods as well as the continued pollution thereof. Therefore, both natural and anthropogenic activities play a role in increasing pressure on already scarce water resources, with anthropogenic activities being deemed the major driver of continued degradation. Emphasis has repeatedly been placed on increased water degradation in the country, accompanied with high levels of salinity, nutrients and bacterial and/or pathogenic contamination. Despite the recognised widespread degradation of the country’s already scarce water resources, pollution has continued, in some instances, escalated. Continued pollution of water resources have been accompanied by significant financial costs and requires the application of new technologies. The link between water quality and quantity issues is undeniable and needs to be kept in mind when managing the quality of water resources. Water quality therefore cannot and should not be managed in isolation and needs to include the proactive management of water abstraction, storage and use. A total of thirteen water quality management challenges have been noted in South Africa. The five priority water quality challenges include increased salinity, eutrophication, microbial contamination or sewage pollution, sedimentation and acidification.

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The combination of escalating water demands for limited water supplies, continued deterioration of raw water quality as well as changes in temperature and rainfall due to increased climate variability create a perfect storm, limiting socio-economic growth if informed and urgent actions are not taken to address the primary identified challenges and water-related issues. The primary driving forces for the deterioration of South Africa’s water quality in various water sources such as rivers, dams, wetlands and estuaries to name a few, include effluent discharges, runoff from urban and industrial areas, seepages and/or discharges from mining operations as well as nutrient pollution from agricultural activities. The main causes for South Africa’s declining water quality include untreated or partially treated sewage mostly from urban areas, primarily attributed to inadequate or non-functioning sewerage systems; overloaded or poorly managed WWTWs, aging dilapidated infrastructure as well as poor management capacity at municipal level; hazardous or toxic chemicals; various types of waste products disposed of; immediate and long-term water pollution by mining and lastly, runoff from agricultural practices. This chapter provided a discussion of three real-world examples to illustrate the country’s major water pollution challenges. These real-world examples included the following. Firstly, an evaluation of the Vaal River Barrage catchment’s water quality and overall compliance. The catchment has been degraded to such an extent that it is now too contaminated to be used for domestic purposes or consumption. AMD within the Witwatersrand basins (Eastern, Central and Western basins) were discussed due to the major environmental degradation that has occurred and its significant threat to human health as well as socio-economic growth. Lastly, chemical spills as well as persistent and escalating sewage pollution within the eThekwini metropolitan municipality was also discussed as a perfect example to illustrate the magnitude and scale of this significant continued pollution problem within the context of South Africa. Going forward, the issue of insufficient monitoring of water quality needs to receive attention for the country’s water resources to be managed within an effective and integrated manner. Informed decisions cannot be made without knowing the real extent and/or status of the degradation of water resources. The quality of South Africa’s water resources will continue to worsen if no changes are made in how land and water resources are managed. Continued water degradation will be accompanied with a further decrease in socio-economic benefits obtained from water resources of acceptable quality as well as continued increase in treatment costs. A shift is therefore required from trying to simply protect water resources and reactive management practices towards an effective coordinated water quality management approach especially between different planning, information management, monitoring and source directed control activities as well as stakeholder engagement.

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Chapter 7

South Africa’s Impending Water Crises: Transforming Water Crises into Opportunities and the Way Forward

This chapter focusses firstly on providing a suitable discussion of water security from a global perspective, highlighting the various primary themes which play a role either by affecting water security or factors which need to be considered for water security to persist. The discussion of water security from a global perspective also emphasises the recognised importance of water and sanitation through continuous recognition and placing it at the top of the global agenda. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which have passed as well as the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have put water and sanitation as a specific goal in an attempt to assist countries in placing water issues at the forefront of their political agenda with the primary aim of securing water resources for the future. This is followed by a synthesis of South Africa’s troubling freshwater reality. The primary factors and/or challenges are all briefly discussed. The main issues which have contributed to South Africa’s major freshwater challenges are discussed with the use of case studies and/or real-world examples to illustrate the country’s actual freshwater predicament. Already discussed case studies/real-world examples in Chaps. 4– 6 as well as inclusion of additional real-world examples such as the Giyani Water Project and collapse of water supply in Gauteng Province then follows to show the magnitude of the different types of water crises across South Africa. This chapter also focuses on highlighting the different facets of South Africa’s water crises and how these can be addressed to transform the worsening water predicament into problems which can be addressed and solved with informed decisions, appropriate interventions and proactive management. Matters which require urgent attention are highlighted and some interventions and/or solutions are given based on the primary cause of a specific water crisis and/or problem. The chapter concludes by emphasising what actions need to be taken to address its continued decline in freshwater resources availability and quality as well as overall poor or no water and sanitation service delivery. Lastly, this chapter concludes by emphasising the pertinent issues which require urgent informed actions. Possible general measures or solutions are also suggested to provide a possible way forward.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5_7

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7.1 Water Security from a Global Perspective Water is a vital aspect for life on Earth, essential for basic health and hygiene and acts as a major driver for society’s most basic industries such as agriculture, transportation, and energy, to name but a few. Water security is a basis for the stability of every country on a global level as the insecurity thereof is accompanied by widespread impacts affecting political, economic, social and environmental spheres. UN-Water (2013) defines water security as “the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human wellbeing, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against waterborne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability”. The concept of water security is used by various disciplines to emphasise sustainability, infrastructure, human capabilities, governance, production and agricultural needs, ecosystem health as well as socio-economic relations with water (UN 2010; Garrick & Hall 2014; Jepson et al. 2017; UN-Water 2017). The definition of water security differs according to the level of analysis, ranging from national to individual and water source level (Young et al. 2020). The three broad categories which can be used to classify water and security pathways include diminished water supply or quality, increased water demand, and extreme flood events (Gleick and Iceland 2018). There is no single strategy which can be implemented to reduce water risk due to its multifaceted nature. The understanding of water security requires looking beyond immediate supply impacts and includes the safeguarding of all aspects of water from everyday use to water required for ecological health and even to possible political and/or transboundary conflicts. It is achievable through developing a multifaceted systems approach. Mass collaboration from every country, industry and various sectors is also required to try and reduce the overall risk of potential conflicts over water resources, between sectors as well as between water users with the hope to achieve water security. The core idea of water security is that there is enough clean water to meet all current and future demand for human wellbeing and socio-economic development while ensuring the safeguarding of the environment and reducing and/or minimising the risk of pollution and waterborne diseases. It pursues the establishment of good water governance and transboundary cooperation from countries who share water sources. Water security also looks to exempt itself from human conflicts to try and ensure that global water infrastructure is not ever compromised, and that suitable funding is available for development and innovation. Water security as a concept is very broad as it is designed to cover everything related to water especially in terms of how it is used, how it is managed and how it is ensured that there will still be acceptable water in enough quantities for the future (Bigas 2013; SWP 2021; Young et al. 2021). Water security therefore considers four main domains which include availability, access, use and stability. Water security is crucial for five main areas which include human health and livelihoods, productive economies, ecosystems as well as disaster risk reduction. All

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societies depend on water resources of a suitable quantity and quality for survival, to secure sanitation services as well as other basic necessities. Water security is also significant for economic stability and growth as enough water fosters economic growth and empowers livelihood activities. Furthermore, ecosystems also rely on water, can rapidly deteriorate in its absence, and consequently endanger human livelihoods and various types of resources which these systems provide (SWP 2021). Economic sectors (agriculture, industry, and services) are dependent on water resources and related services. Improved access to water services and management of water resources can therefore directly translate into economic growth by increasing business development and productivity as well as considerably improving human health, productivity, and dignity. Water security, access to water and sanitation services, domestic water supply and economic growth are consequently all interlinked and play major roles in socio-economic development and human livelihoods. A positive correlation exists between increased national income and the amount of the population with access to improved water supply. A mere 0.3% increase in investment in household access to safe water can lead to a 1% increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The interaction between improved water supply and sanitation and economic growth is mutually reinforcing and has the potential to develop a “virtuous cycle”, improving people’s livelihoods, especially the poor and vulnerable communities (SIWI 2005). Water insecurity is identified upon the establishment of the absence of one of the mentioned primary domains of water security. The conceptualisation of water insecurity can be complex due to the overlapping of various terms related, but not synonymous, to water insecurity (Fig. 7.1) (Young et al. 2021). These terms can be explicitly defined, such as the case of, water scarcity, water stress (The Global Compact 2014) as well as plumbing poverty (Deitz and Meehan 2019) with some terms not having a clear definition. All of these terms, however, are directly related to water security, primarily quality, quantity and access. The primary factors contributing to water insecurity include, but are not limited to, climate change and/or increased climate variability, continued population growth and accompanied increased demands, conflict and migration as well as poor water management and misuse (UNICEF 2021). Decreased water supplies caused by excessive water demands, water degradation as well as increased climate variability and/or change can severely impact affected population’s livelihoods and ecosystems, consequently increasing the overall risk of instability, conflict and migration. This has in turn created a global water crisis which is worsening and/or escalating due to increasing numbers of the global population experiencing water-related problems, primarily insufficient, excessive and/or polluted water resources (Bigas 2013; OECD 2015; WEF 2020). Both high-income countries as well as low- and middle-income countries are affected by water insecurity. Existing impoverished regions and/or areas are most deeply affected as these areas lack the necessary resources to implement sound water management. Water security has become a global issue of varying degrees and/or magnitudes which will require various actions to either reduce or limit its occurrence across the globe in the near future. The strengthening of water security with predicted increase

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Fig. 7.1 Overlapping terms used in discussions of water insecurity. Adapted from Young et al. (2021)

in water demand, water scarcity, more extreme weather events, growing uncertainties as well as fragmentation challenges, will require investments into strengthening of institutions/government departments, information management as well as man-made or natural infrastructure development (The World Bank 2017). Additional measures and/or actions which should be considered to address water security within the South African context is discussed in detail in Sects. 7.4 and 7.5 of this chapter. From the given information provided in this chapter thus far, a clear relationship can be observed between water security, water supply of an acceptable quality as well as protection of, especially, vulnerable communities from water-related threats which include, but are not limited to, flooding and other extreme weather events which are predicted to increase with increased climate variability. It is important to be cognisant of these important existing relationships to be able to promote human health as well as to protect water resources within different contexts around the globe (Anthonj 2021). Therefore, the provision of overall water security as well as guaranteeing access to sufficient basic water supply of acceptable quality, can protect communities from significant water-related human health impacts, conserve available water resources and protect ecosystems to ensure ecological health. The interactions between water security and human health are determined or influenced by spatiotemporal dynamics and differs according to various contexts such as locations, between neighbourhoods, types of settlements, socio-economic disparities, cultural contexts and different spatial scales. It is also strongly determined

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by various factors. These include its geographic characteristics (i.e., place, environmental, climatic and hydrological factors) as well as exposures to water-related disasters, available healthcare systems and services, access to different education levels of health-related knowledge as well as risk perception and behaviours. All of these mentioned factors ultimately determine communities’ and individual’s waterrelated health risks and overall exposure to water-related diseases (Gatrell and Elliott 2015). In conclusion, water insecurity is an overwhelming issue among the most vulnerable populations across the globe, especially in areas where physical water scarcity and poor or no water services exist. The overall importance of water security has in turn become more prevalent primarily due to an increasing proportion of the global population (more than two billion), experiencing increased and high water stress (Young et al. 2021). The surge in water scarcity around the globe has led water security to become one of the greatest challenges. Increased water scarcity has consequently led to the achievement of water security becoming one of the main solutions to try and combat this global challenge. The implementation of a multifaceted and informed water management approach can reduce the impacts of probable stressors (long-term population growth, urbanisation, climate variability and change) or unpredictable shocks (sudden events from floods, droughts, chemical and/or oil spills to political conflicts). The informed management thereof can in turn promote stability on various scales and spheres, reducing the likelihood of the emergence of migration and/or violent protests and potential conflicts. The UN has consequently acknowledged the importance of water security and have called for viewing water and the water cycle in its entirety while considering the specific contexts (Anthonj 2021). SDG 6 has been developed from a holistic perspective and the goal aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, once again, emphasising the connection between main aspects of freshwater resources, which cannot be ignored. A discussion and critical evaluation of water security within the context of South Africa and the country’s ultimate freshwater reality now follows.

7.2 South Africa’s Troubling Freshwater Reality The status of South Africa’s available freshwater resources is of major concern, requiring immediate informed interventions to try and ensure future water security. The country is water scarce with a major projected risk of imbalance between resource demand and/or requirements and actual availability, highlighting the importance of informed governance and management practices to ensure future sustainable water security. Unfortunately, based on observed trends and increasing examples of water crises across the country, past and current management practices have been and still are far from being optimal. The collapse of aged infrastructure due to no or poor maintenance, unreliable and/or lack of water supply and sanitation service delivery,

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unacceptably high non-revenue water (NRW) (estimated national average of 41%) as well as widespread and increased pollution by anthropogenic activities are the primary driving forces behind South Africa’s impending water crises and worsening water woes, placing major pressure on already scarce water resources. Water security within a country is primarily determined and affected by the state of a country’s water infrastructure, institutions as well as regulatory frameworks, responsible for guiding the management of water service delivery. As discussed in detail throughout this book, South Africa is facing numerous challenges which threaten short- and long-term water supply and security. The most notable challenges include the following: 1. Naturally water stressed—South Africa is a water scarce country, experiencing physical water scarcity and prolonged droughts. 2. Increased water deficit—most river basins and water management areas (WMAs) are already in a water deficit due to unsustainable water demands. 3. Unsustainable growing water requirements and/or demands—continued population growth, rural–urban migration, improved livelihoods and increased socio-economic development are contributing to increased water demands in all primary water use sectors. 4. Poor and/or no water supply and sanitation service delivery—numerous areas across the country experience the complete lack of or unreliable water supply and sanitation service delivery due to misappropriation of funds, alleged corruption, lack of capacity as well as shortage of required skills, knowledge and/or qualifications. 5. Aging infrastructure and the collapse thereof—no or delayed maintenance and/or upgrade of aged infrastructure has been accompanied with majorly high physical water losses through, for example, leaks and bursting pipes, leading to water shortages and unreliable water supply. 6. Widespread deterioration of water quality—increased anthropogenic-related pollution has caused major water quality issues in dams, rivers, streams etc. These six major water challenges have, and still are, shaping the country’s growing water predicament and needs to be taken into account when framing South Africa’s freshwater reality. A brief discussion of each of these six major water challenges now follows to illustrate the country’s troubling freshwater reality and impending water crises.

7.2.1 Naturally Limited Water Resources and Physical Water Scarcity As emphasised throughout this book and concluding chapter, South Africa is classified as a semi-arid and water scarce country. Rainfall across the country varies greatly, influenced by both natural and human factors at varying degrees of magnitude. South Africa has also invested in water storage in the form of dams and/or reservoirs which

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play a major role in local water security as well as climate resilience (Pitman 2011; DWS 2018). Furthermore, seven of the nine provinces of South Africa rely on inter-basin transfers which provide more than half of their water requirements (van der MerweBotha 2009; DEAT 2012). It consequently depends on both intra- and inter-basin water transfers to try and meet increasing water demands. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) in the Orange River basin supplies the economic hub of the country, the Gauteng Province, with water supplies through a transfer into the Vaal River system. The LHWP is considered to be an example of successful bilateral engagements between South African and Lesotho as well as being one of the most complex and integrated water transfer schemes on a global scale (Vinti 2021). The two biggest river basins within the country includes the Orange River basin (largest in southern Africa), as well as the Limpopo River basin. The Orange River basin spans across 964 km2 , contains 138 registered large dams with an estimated Water Crowd Index (WCI) of 1803 by 2025. The Limpopo River basin covers an area of 183 km2 , contains 100 registered large dams with an estimated WCI of 4974 by 2025. Both of these river basins are considered to be “frequent water stress; seasonally severe” and “beyond the water barrier – chronic water stress” respectively (Ashton et al. 2008). The given WCIs projected for 2025 have been labelled to be of a serious concern, highlighting that existing water governance protocols and strategic action plans should be in place to address predicted water stress around each major river basin system (Alli 2021). Increased climate variability will place increased and additional pressure on the country’s already scarce and stressed water resources. The projected increase in rainfall variability as well as reduction of average rainfall, specifically in the western part of the country, increase in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts will place increased pressure on water resources. South Africa is therefore susceptible as well as vulnerable to the predicted effects of increased climate variability, especially the effects of prolonged (long-term) droughts. The most recent drought affecting most of the country, occurred between 2015 to 2017/2018. Severe drought episodes occurred in several parts of South Africa, with major incidents occurring in 2017, specifically affecting the Northern-, Western- and Eastern Cape provinces. The City of Cape Town was consequently projected to experience “Day Zero” in June 2018, narrowly avoiding it with the implementation of various measures and/or restrictions (Matumba 2019). The country will also be vulnerable to the increased frequency as well as magnitude of floods, specifically within the areas predicted to experience an increase in rainfall. Flooding poses a costly risk. In the event of financial resources being made available, floods can be better managed in areas which have been identified to be the most vulnerable. Flooding prevention and/or management measures which should be considered in the identified vulnerable areas include the construction of physical defences, rehabilitation of degraded catchment areas as well as improved management of settlements and other land use activities on flood plains. The implementation of informed measures can substantially decrease the overall cost of floods and

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droughts. Inadequate investments into infrastructure, poor and/or weak water governance and management practices as well as limited water security will be accompanied by major financial losses, 10% of the country’s annual GDP, caused by floods and droughts (Muller et al. 2009; Matumba 2019). Additionally, climate change can also threaten overall food security. Agricultural water demand is projected to increase due to higher temperatures, leading to a reduction of the reliability of rain-fed agriculture. Total water requirements will thus increase even further due to continued population growth, rural–urban migration and associated economic growth in combination with increased climate variability as well as prolonged droughts. Droughts as well as floods will consequently challenge the overall resilience and/or vulnerability of systems. For example, the drought which occurred between 2015 to 2018 exposed the vulnerability or lack of resilience of the City of Cape Town whereby the municipality struggled to effectively manage the effects of the prolonged drought. Therefore, despite South Africa being acknowledged for advanced water systems (i.e., complex inter-basin transfer schemes and LHWS), its water governance and management requires major improvement for present and future strategic needs and/or demands to be met. Water demands are expected to exceed water supply across the country by 17% in 2030, with numerous existing examples of where demands have already exceeded supply.

7.2.2 Unsustainable Growing Water Requirements and/or Demands Water demands across the country varies greatly across water use sectors and is projected to rise to 17 × 109 m3 per annum by 2025. Water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors on a national level, already exceed levels of sustainable supply. Based on best estimates for current water withdrawals and supply, many parts of the country have reached the point of where all easily accessible freshwater resources are fully utilised meaning that the development of surface water resources have been reached (DWA 2010; Hedden 2016; Matumba 2019). Despite being a water scarce country, the average domestic water use is approximately 237 L per person per day, 64 L higher than the international benchmark of 173 L per person per day despite the country being characterised by water scarcity. High water use is partly attributed to municipal NRW which is currently at an unacceptable level of 41% while the global best practice is 15%. NRW include real or physical water losses which occur due to leakages or bursting pipes owing to poor operation and maintenance of existing, mostly aged, water infrastructure, commercial losses caused by meter manipulation or other forms of water theft. The magnitude of NRW varies across municipalities and service providers and the calculated average of physical losses in municipal systems are estimated to be around 35%, with 70% of

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these losses classified as physical losses and 17% from commercial losses (Hedden 2016; DWS 2018; GreenCape 2020). The country’s NRW is significantly higher than other water stressed countries and requires urgent attention to avoid complete system collapse. In reality, the country does not have sufficient supply to meet increased water demand. Predictions show that estimated water demand will outstrip supply by 2025 however, some research suggests that water demand has exceeded available yield in 2017 already (WWF 2016; Matumba 2019). South Africa therefore has very limited water resources to accommodate consistent growing demand and needs to ensure that the management of water resources is done wisely and optimally which is currently, unfortunately, not the case. In addition to ineffective water use and demand management, continued population growth in combination with insistently poor water usage behaviours, major physical and commercial water losses as well as ecological degradation (such as the continued loss of wetlands) contribute to the country’s water crisis. The developing water deficit is driven by over-consumption, inefficient use, continued pollution, wastage and leakages, low tariffs, inadequate cost recovery, inappropriate infrastructure choices, inadequate planning and implementation as well as continued population, urbanisation and socio-economic growth. The effects of increased climate variability, poor land use practices as well as high levels of water pollution also contribute to the persistent decline of water availability and unreliability of water supply across the country. The shortage of water supply is the most obvious water crisis facing the country and can be easily managed with the necessary skills and resources. The first option considered to increase available water supply is the development and use of storage facilities, however, these facilities need to be in place before a water shortage occurs. In terms of South Africa, the development of additional dams to increase overall water supply is not realistic as the country does not have suitable sites available. It also requires specialised expertise and timeous management interventions, guided by good knowledge of local hydrology and patterns of water use. The variability of rainfall and river flows also plays a major role and abstraction rates should be guided by these factors. One of the greatest risks is unsustainable rapid water use which can leave inadequate water reserves in developed storage facilities especially during periods of below average rainfall and/or prolonged droughts. Management practices therefore need to be informed by the country’s climate and hydrology characteristics as well as following operational rules set in place to manage such risk. In addition to continued water degradation as well as poor management of infrastructure, the non-enforcement of set water allocation place additional pressure on the country’s already stressed water supply. Water should be allocated with the main aim of balancing social, economic and environmental needs. Informed actions focussed on maximising water supply, efficiency and conservation as well as minimising water demand and continued losses are essential to try and ensure reliable water supply. Solutions which embed water stewardship, public–private partnerships and climate consciousness will also be beneficial in trying to reduce poor water usage behaviours,

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high NRW as well as addressing existing and developing water deficits. This will require an immense effort as well as informed water governance and management practices which is currently lacking.

7.2.3 Poor and Fragmented Water Governance and Management Despite South Africa being recognised for its water legal framework, water governance as well as management have been found to be wanting. The country’s water governance structures have been characterised by poor regulation and enforcement of existing legislation, policies and/or strategies, lack of reform and transformation of water institutions envisaged by its legislative and policy development, lack of integration and common goals, lack of accountability, unclear roles and responsibilities, poor implementation of sufficient legislation and lastly, lack of decision-making to ensure informed and proactive water management as well as lack of follow-through. Unfortunately, there are key gaps in terms of planning for water security within South Africa. Some of the most noticeable gaps include the following, namely: . Insufficient understanding of the country’s bio-physical characteristics— Primarily caused by lack of sufficient and/or regular assessment as well as the use of outdated information or spatial planning models which are not responsive to existing and new complex demands. . Persistent water governance and leadership issues—Primary issues are related to the competence of the existing legal regime, institutional arrangements as well as infrastructure and capacity required for implementation and management. . Inadequate enforcement of information and/or data ownership and curatorship—Moved away from knowledge commons where large consultancy companies appear to hold onto critical data and information which is required and can be used for national planning needs. . Continued under-expenditure and qualified audits—An issue which requires independent investigations and decisive informed intervention. (NPC 2020) Poor water governance as well as reactive water management within South Africa can be attributed to numerous factors, influenced and determined by the specific context. The primary factors which have contributed to poor water governance include the following. Firstly, the overall lack of follow-through on existing legislation and policy can be observed in many decisions being aborted, slowed down or unnecessarily being reviewed. The frequent change in leadership within the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) as well as other water entities since 1994 has also contributed to continued functional instability and lack of continuity. The basic institutional framework, specifically legislation and policies focussed upon water resources, developed post-Apartheid has failed in terms of implementation and consequently the enforcement as well. The absence of the analysis of

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available empirical evidence has resulted in deficient emphasis being placed on new water management models as well as consistent generalisation of old strategies. Decisions related to prominent and continued water issues have either been delayed or completely aborted whereby officials lack confidence or are too afraid to decide on a specific matter primarily due to overall incapacity resulting from incompetence and ineptitude. Start-stop processes have also been exacerbated by incomplete restructuring and re-organisation processes (NPC 2020). The most critical governance factors affecting the country’s water security is the misappropriation of funds, alleged corruption, and unaccountability together with inadequate financing and investment, lack of suitable capacity and skilled individuals affecting water availability, quality and supply, as well as functioning and/or maintenance of water infrastructure and overall service delivery, ultimately exacerbating and/or developing major water crises in different areas of the country such as the current collapse of infrastructure in the Gauteng Province leading to continued water shortages, as well as the sewage crisis in the Vaal River catchments and in the various major rivers located in the eThekwini municipality, contributing to major ecological degradation as well as human health risks due to high counts of E. coli in freshwater resources and the ocean. The mentioned high frequency of service delivery protests has placed emphasis on the continued poor, or complete lack of, implementation of existing policy guidelines by those tasked to do so, overall lack of coordination between different departments as well as the lack of communication between service development planning at national, local government or municipal level, as well as water use at a local household level. Most service delivery protests in South Africa are associated with intermittent or the complete lack of water and sanitation infrastructure and/or services, especially in the working class and peri-urban populations characterised by high levels of unemployment, poverty, rapid population growth, inequality, deprivation, injustice as well as indignity (Tapela 2013). These factors coupled with the predominant perception that there does not seem to be effective measures or downward accountability when trying to deal with municipal councillors or officials who are perceived to be corrupt, inept, and negligent, are fuelling reactions into anger, violent protest action and in some instances, destruction of existing dilapidated infrastructure. The continued lack of quality drinking water as well as proper sewage treatment and/or disposal are associated with significant impacts on human health and widespread environmental degradation. However, the overall costs of poor water and sanitation services as well as the benefits of improving these services, extend beyond only human health indicators. The rapid rate of growth in urban areas and continued rural–urban migration, will be accompanied by increased fiscal stress on already strained governments, causing the provision of water and sanitation services to become more and more challenging. Unreliable water supply is increasing across the country, attributed to poor water governance as well as the collapse of aged water infrastructure due to not being maintained or continuously functioning beyond its capacity. South Africa’s overall water crisis is therefore a complex issue attributed to the sheer nature of existing governance structures, lack of skills and/or capacity as well as continued misappropriation

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of funds and unaccountability, to name but a few. Developing water insecurity is therefore not only due to natural limitations as well as unsustainable water demands but also due to numerous institutional issues, as mentioned in this section, which contributes to poor or delayed decision-making which have major repercussions to social, economic as well as environmental spheres.

7.2.4 Collapse of Aging, Non-maintained Infrastructure and Poor Service Delivery In addition to the factors discussed thus far, insufficient water infrastructure maintenance and investment is also a major factor which has contributed to water crises in the country. The crisis has already had major impacts on socio-economic growth as well as the quality of life of its citizens. These impacts will be exacerbated if informed actions and/or interventions are not implemented as soon as possible to avoid total collapse. Despite numerous programmes being initiated since 1994 to address and eradicate the historical geospatial inequalities and socio-economic disparities (Masindi and Duncker 2016), explicit inequalities in water infrastructure delivery still exist especially within predominantly rural provinces (Limpopo-, KwaZulu Natal- and Eastern Cape provinces) and small towns, characterised by a high water infrastructure backlog and poor water service reliability and delivery. The country has experienced continued deterioration of ageing bulk infrastructure over the last two to three decades due to continued insufficient maintenance and neglect of renewal. Ageing and poor infrastructure has led to major inefficiencies by increasing water losses. Poorly maintained and ageing water systems have resulted in high incidences of leakages, bursting pipes and overall, unacceptably high NRW, significantly affecting water supply. These issues are in turn intensified by illegal connections, especially in informal and rural settlements (SAICE 2017; Matumba 2019; Kings 2020). The state of infrastructure is closely intertwined and influences socio-economic growth as well as the overall effectiveness of resource management and water stewardship. The lack of maintenance has created major infrastructure quality challenges in numerous municipalities, in small centres and in rural nodes and more recently, also in some of its major metropolitan cities such as the eThekwini-, City of Johannesburg, City of Tshwane- and City of Ekurhuleni metropolitan municipalities facing intermittent water supply as well as human health risks due to poorly maintained or nonfunctioning WWTWs, directly discharging untreated wastewater into major rivers such as the Vaal River or Umgeni River and ultimately the ocean. This has led to some people falling ill, especially within the eThekwini municipality, which have led to the closing of beaches as well as citizens being advised to not consume municipal drinking water without boiling it first due to it being contaminated by bacteria and/or pathogens, causing waterborne illnesses.

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Poor delipidated infrastructure is therefore not an isolated incident or unique to small centres and/or rural nodes, but rather widespread across the country. It requires urgent interventions and major investments in the current short- and medium-term expenditure framework period in an attempt to reduce or avoid serious deficiencies. Currently, infrastructure is not coping with current demands, is overall in a poor condition due to the lack of maintenance and has major implications on the country’s water security. In the event of infrastructure being on the verge of failure or have collapsed, the public will face major health and safety hazards as well as be subjected to severe inconvenience and even danger if prompt and immediate action is not taken. The eThekwini municipality is unfortunately a perfect example of this scenario taking place in real-time. The combination of poor and ageing infrastructure is generating inefficiencies within the system through increased water losses. The high incidence of leakages as well as bursting pipes have contributed to the record high NRW within the country. The continued deterioration and even collapse of aged water infrastructure systems is threatening both assurance of water supply as well as overall water security. The implementation of water-shedding in the country’s economic hub, the Gauteng Province, despite the Vaal River Integrated System (providing the bulk of the province’s water supply) being above 90%. The collapse of water infrastructure due to decades of non-maintenance have led to water-shedding whereby water supply is reduced by 30% to force a reduction in water consumption (which includes both NRW as well as actual consumption of consumers). The province is therefore facing a great possibility of “Day Zero” in the near future, with some residents already being without water for weeks (Sept/Oct 2022) despite the Vaal River Integrated System being above 90%. The major water supply issues now being faced by the Gauteng Province is a good example of the major effects of under-investment and non-maintenance of water infrastructure as well as poor planning and management. The country’s water infrastructure is therefore facing challenges of both poor and/or lack of maintenance as well as under-investment and lack of suitable skills to manage water resources in a proactive manner. It is estimated that the water resources infrastructure sub-sector requires an investment of over R70 billion on an annual basis. Concerningly, only an estimated R43 billion is available, leaving a major shortfall of R27 billion which is further exacerbated by the historical backlogs associated with previous apartheid regime (Matumba 2019; NPC 2020). Water is also described as being under-priced which has led to cost recovery not being achieved and consequently, worsens the existing backlog. The capital-funding gap therefore needs to be reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that it is aligned to fiscal constraints and to try and stimulate financing and investment models. The country therefore needs to increase the investment into its already aged and dilapidated infrastructure to address the challenge and try to avoid an overall collapse by forming private–public partnerships. The aim should move away from simply providing infrastructure for water access but to the actual maintenance, upgrade and functioning of existing infrastructure to reduce NRW and major water losses

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which can cause widespread water-shedding and/or water shortages if not urgently addressed.

7.2.5 Continued and Widespread Water Quality Degradation A more insidious problem which can and will further exacerbate the country’s water crises is the widespread major pollution of its already scarce and under pressure water resources. The country’s water sources are facing numerous water quality challenges, mainly attributed to human activities and the lack of enforcement of existing legislation and policies. Primary pollution challenges include large volumes of un- or sub-treated wastewater discharged from dysfunctional WWTWs introducing excessive nutrients, phosphates and coliforms, discharge of industrial effluents into rivers, discharge of mining waste consequently introducing heavy metals into water sources and lastly, agriculture which uses pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers introducing salts, chemicals and other toxic substances into receiving water sources through runoff. Poor raw water quality has various widespread effects, reducing water resource availability, increases the treatment costs for domestic and industrial use, negatively affects agricultural production and have significant impacts on the ecology of aquatic ecosystems as well as the food-water nexus (Muller et al. 2009; van der Merwe-Botha 2009). Almost half of the country’s WWTWs are in poor or critical condition, causing significant health risks, while a total of 11% is reported to be in a dysfunctional and collapsed state. More than a third of the country’s water is leaking from broken pipes and 83% of the functioning river water quality monitoring sites are detecting tolerable to unacceptable levels of pollution. Long-term data trends as well as water quality case studies given in Chap. 6, clearly show that the country’s rivers and dams have significantly deteriorated over the past two to three decades, in some instances, posing serious human health risks, degradation of the environment and even destruction of sensitive aquatic ecosystems. The growing population, increased urbanisation, inadequate maintenance of WWTWs, poor planning and management as well as long-term consequences of major water quality issues such as acid mine drainage (AMD) have all attributed to the worsening situation, in some instances such as the eThekwini municipality and Vaal River, an ongoing sewage crisis with immense social, environmental and economic effects. The most prevalent contamination sources, affecting South Africa’s water resources’ water quality, through point and/or diffuse pollution sources, include: . Poorly or untreated sewage effluent from failing and unmaintained WWTWs. . Poor or no access to sanitation services as well as lack of reliable and/or safe water supply especially in informal settlements and/or rural areas. . Mining and ore processing activities which have led to AMD and in some instances, such as the Robinson Lake, radiation risks.

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. Industrial effluents which can contain pharmaceutical endocrine-disrupting chemicals. . Agricultural runoff containing pesticides, fertiliser and sediment, threatening the quality of water resources as well as affecting storage capacity of dams through increased sedimentation and siltation. The effects of agriculture, industrial developments, mining activities as well as the expansion of urban areas have compounded into large effects on the country’s quality of water and negatively affects the fitness for use. The given primary pollution problems and contamination sources (discussed in Chaps. 3 and 6) have led to the overall deterioration of South Africa’s water resources and created five major water quality challenges namely eutrophication, salinisation, sedimentation, acidification and microbiological pollution, with numerous real-world examples of these immense water quality challenges across the country. The increase in pollution fluxes into catchments across the country is primarily attributed to increased urbanisation, deforestation, destruction of wetlands, agriculture, industries, mining and energy use, accidental pollution or spillages as well as poor or no wastewater treatment leading to the significant reduction of available water resources. The municipal sewage system is described to be mostly non-functional with more than 90% of the total 824 treatment plants releasing raw or partially treated sewage directly into water resources. The Vaal River has been reported to be “polluted beyond acceptable levels” by the South African Human Rights Commission, significantly affecting the environment and endangering people’s health (Mnisi 2007; Adam 2021). The lack of maintenance of basic infrastructure due to alleged corruption at local government level, lack of capacity and suitable skills, overall lack of implementation and enforcement of existing legislation and policy as well as overall lack of accountability, has been identified to be the main contributing factors and driving forces behind the country’s major sewage crisis, other major water quality issues as well as contributing to developing water insecurity. High NRW coupled with current overexploitation and pollution of freshwater resources, high average per capita water consumption as well as overall poor management and planning is further exacerbating the country’s risk and is causing a clear water crisis. Water pollution levels are predicted to reach catastrophic levels in the near future due to decreased buffering capacity and overall resilience of water systems, corroborated by various studies showing through long-term data that the quality of rivers and dams have consistently and significantly deteriorated (WWF 2016; 2017). This consequently poses a huge threat to human health as well as the country’s water security and future sustainability. The continuously expanding populations and settlements, growing economies as well as predicted climate change effects will incessantly exert further pressure on the quality of water resources and will be accompanied by immense negative knock-on effects such as reducing crop yields, compromising and threatening food security as well as societal health and overall socio-economic growth (DWS 2022a). The continued lack of effective implementation and regulation in combination with current water challenges will lead to an accelerated water quality crises putting human

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and ecosystem health at risk and significant costs to the country’s economy. The monitoring of these major pollutants is a necessity to improve our understanding of the overall scale of the problem. Continued socio-economic growth will place further pressure on the country’s already scarce water resources. Improved management of water resources as well as enforcement of existing water legislation and policy is therefore crucial.

7.3 All Talk and No Action For South Africa to avoid overall water insecurity in the near future, the primary factors described in Sect. 7.2 require improvement as well as immediate informed action. Main factors which require immediate attention and improvement include water allocation and use efficiency in terms of all water use sectors, water quality needs to be monitored and the management thereof improved upon, the health of endangered and/or heavily degraded river systems and/or catchment areas needs to be preserved and/or rehabilitated and lastly, climate change principles need to be incorporated into planning and management practices to reduce the predicted risks of increased climate variability especially the proactive management of increased floods and prolonged droughts (Matumba 2019). For South Africa to maintain overall water security, a risk-based approach has been recommended (OECD 2013; NPC 2020). To achieve and maintain water security, acceptable risk levels for the following major water risks need to be maintained: 1. Physical water shortages, including droughts: A lack of sufficient water to meet water demands in the short-, medium- and long-term. 2. Unacceptable water quality: A lack of water of a suitable quality for a specific water use and/or purpose. 3. Excess: An overflow beyond the normal restrictions of water systems and/or destructive accumulation of water over areas which are not normally submerged. 4. Damaging the resilience and buffering capacity of water systems: The coping capacity of surface and/or groundwater bodies and their interactions are exceeded, possibly causing irrevocable damage to water system’s hydraulic and biological functions. (NPC 2020) These primary four risks are further exacerbated by the overall lack of capacity as well as lack of skills and/or qualifications on all levels of government. To manage these risks in an informed manner will require a detailed assessment of each risk in a concerted manner as these risks impact on each other due to the interconnected nature of the water system (NPC 2020). Despite the country being water scarce as well as experiencing numerous water crises such as collapsing decayed infrastructure, insatiable water consumption, widespread pollution, dysfunctional WWTWs creating a sewage crisis as well as poor water and sanitation service delivery, to name but a few, progress has either been slow, in some cases no progress at all or deterioration and or regression as discussed and shown in Chap. 5 in terms of the deterioration

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of water supply and sanitation services and delivery. Continued inaction or delayed actions in trying to address South Africa’s water crises has caused these challenges to increase in magnitude and/or frequency across the country, making it more and more challenging and costly to address. Slow to no progress or actual decay of the country’s water resources, infrastructure as well as overall governance can be attributed to water not being placed high on the country’s overall political agenda as well as the agenda of the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS) itself with the provided reason being it being “too demanding”. Despite some positive progress made since 1994, there have also been substantial blunders and continued decay since 1994. Some major blunders include the failure to establishment of functioning National Water Resources Infrastructure Agency (NWRIA) and Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) since 1996, nontransformation of irrigation boards, ineffective compulsory water licensing process as well as time consuming and delayed process of obtaining an individual water use licence to name but a few (NPC 2020). Most slippages are attributed to the lack of capacity of the DWS itself, within other government levels, as well as the overall lack of administrative and political will to address the country’s major water challenges which are expanding and increasing in intensity at a rapid rate. Additional blunders have also occurred due to continued issues with institutional partners, specifically local government i.e., municipalities, responsible for providing consumers with reliable water supply and water of an acceptable quality. The overall collapse and level of dysfunction especially on a local government level is clearly visible across the country in terms of the provided real-world examples given throughout this book but also the current given statistics on the actual performance of local government. A total of 151 municipalities are close to collapse and 43 municipalities have already collapsed and require immediate intervention. Primary problems identified which have contributed to this collapse include alleged corruption, underspending and financial problems due to revenue management failures. A total of 98 municipalities plan to spend more revenue than what they have collected, 175 are in financial distress and 151 have been declared insolvent or bankrupt. Unfortunately, funding or finance issues are not the only major issue or cause. Other major issues include weak governance, alleged corruption, poor asset-, operation-, and maintenance management, lack of experienced individuals with suitable qualifications and/or experience as well as the lack of accountability and political will. These issues within municipalities have consequently led to the failure of WWTWs and major increases in NRW which in some areas have reached critical and/or crisis levels. Examples of the consequence of collapsed or dysfunctional municipalities include the sewage crisis in the eThekwini municipality, Nelson Mandela Bay municipality getting closer to “Day Zero” and more recently, the City of Johannesburg, Tshwane and Ekurhuleni municipalities experiencing intermittent water supply and water-shedding, with some residents having been without water for weeks on end (September/October 2022). Delays in taking actual action and/or completion of budgeted projects such as maintenance of infrastructure, have led to the country’s major water challenges becoming actual water crises due to the consequent intensification thereof. The

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overall failure to complete mandatory water licensing processes have created a major backlog in approvals, especially in heavily used catchments or WMAs. Consequently, new water uses are not possible without the review of all existing uses, and it has led to the failure of implementing ecological reserves in over-allocated catchments (NPC 2020). The major delay in the establishment of the NWRIA is another major example of all talk and no action. The NWRIA was brought forward in 2008, with draft legislation being rejected by Parliament due to insufficient consultation, causing the proposed legislation to lapse in 2009. After more than a decade, the NWRIA has been brought forward again by the DWS in March 2022, anticipated to be passed by January 2023 depending on Parliamentary processes. The primary goal of this Agency is to foster private partnerships to ensure that investments are made into water infrastructure projects aimed at addressing water and sanitation challenges, especially in vulnerable communities. The Agency is also stated to be all inclusive of existing skills in the water sector and aims to create additional capacity without any job losses (DWS 2022b). The delay in the establishment of the NWRIA has been blamed for the major delays in implementing water supply augmentation projects in the eThekwini municipality. Other consequences of the major delay include the long-term inability of the water sector to fund and manage major national infrastructure. Furthermore, already identified opportunities for direct redress and for promoting equity have also not been realised and major water infrastructure projects focussed upon addressing major water and sanitation services in vulnerable and/or rural communities have not materialised (Muller et al. 2009; NPC 2020; DWS 2022b). Some other consequences of dysfunctional municipalities and alleged corruption is visible in real-world examples such as the major continued delays and cost of the Giyani Water Project in the Limpopo Province, the delay in addressing collapsed and/or destroyed infrastructure after April 2022 floods in the eThekwini municipality (discussed in Chap. 6) as well as the probable achievement of “Day Zero” in Nelson Mandela Bay municipality due to the prolonged drought since 2015, poor governance and high NRW (discussed in Chap. 4). The major ongoing delays of the Giyani Water Project is a good example of the consequences of no responsibility, unaccountability and fruitless spending of money. More than R4 billion have been spent on the Giyani Water Scheme while only 48% of the work has been completed. The project commenced in 2014 and was supposed to be completed in 2017 with a main aim of providing clean running water to the 55 villages located in Greater Giyani through the construction of a 320 km pipeline from the Nandoni Dam to connect with the villages (RSA Parliamentary Communication Services 2020; Kekana 2022; Sadike 2022). The project has been plagued by ongoing controversy and failure despite an estimated R4 billion in public funds spent on it. The communities still do not have water coming out of their taps and the Special Investigating Unit has issued a liability claim against three Lepelle Northern Water Board executives for a R1.9 billion loss suffered by the DWS due to tender irregularities (Kekana 2022; Sadike 2022). Despite the Minister promising in May 2022 that the project would be completed by September

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2022, the project has still not been completed by the publishing of this book and is now set for completion in 2023. From the real-world examples discussed in Chaps. 4–6 as well as other examples included in this chapter, it is clear that despite South Africa having world renowned legislation, policies and strategies related to its water resources, the implementation and/or enforcement thereof is either poor or completely lacking which has contributed to a culture of unaccountability and no or little consequence. From the given trends and real-world examples, it is also clear that water management as well as the provision of water and sanitation services have deteriorated since 1996 instead of improving and the country making progress. The continued deterioration of the country’s water resources, infrastructure, management and service delivery has placed water security under immense threat. Systematic and carefully considered informed actions and/or interventions together with actual political will are required to address immediate challenges in the short-term and attempt to ensure water security in the medium- and long-term.

7.4 Possible Solutions and Recommendations Water security has become a global issue of varying degrees and/or magnitudes which will require various actions to either reduce or limit its occurrence across the globe in the near future. The achievement of water security will require overall improvement in the global approach to water, from water supply to usage, infrastructure, governance and management. Importantly, it should be noted that, water security is socio-economic and environmental context-specific, requiring the reinforcement of the existing connections between water, food and energy securities while working towards climate resilience. The strengthening of water security with predicted increase in water demands, water scarcity, more extreme weather events, growing uncertainties as well as fragmentation challenges, will require investments into strengthening of institutions/government departments, information management as well as man-made or natural infrastructure developments. Legal and regulatory frameworks, water pricing and incentives can be positive institutional tools which could allow for the better allocation, regulation, and conservation of water resources. Importantly, information systems need to become a requirement to ensure informed resource monitoring, decision-making, reduce uncertainty and improve systems analysis as well as hydrometeorological forecasts and warnings. Investments into innovative technologies with the primary goal to enhance productivity, conserving and protecting water resources (both surface and groundwater), recycling of storm water and wastewater as well as developing non-conventional water resources, need to be explored through the completion of research and development to ensure that accurate and available information and/or literature is available for the exploration and development of non-conventional water resources (The World Bank 2017).

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In addition, focus needs to be placed on pursuing opportunities to enhance current water storage capacity of the country, including recharging and recovery of aquifers as well as trying to ensure that these mentioned technological advances are rapidly disseminated and that appropriate adaption and/or application of these continuously considered to strengthen water security across the globe but also on a regional, national and local scale. For the country to progress in the achievement of SDG 6, to overcome continuous decay as well as to increase overall water security to avoid a major water crisis and achieve water insecurity, the following recommendations and opportunities need to be considered and incorporated into its water strategies: . Water Demand and Supply—Address inefficient water use by all water use sectors, especially domestic/municipal water use. Limit unconstrained increase of water use by municipalities and address unauthorised water use especially by the agricultural and mining sectors. . Increase of Extreme Climatic or Weather Events and Climate Change— Further research is required to establish the magnitude and spatial extent of the predicted impacts. The increase in frequency of floods and prolonged droughts need to be included in scenarios and suitable adaptation measures need to be developed and incorporated in future water management strategies. . Infrastructure Asset Management and Functionality—The history of underinvestment in maintenance and renewal as well as deficient management systems and record-keeping needs to be investigated and revised where needed. Existing water schemes need to be evaluated; water systems classified as being high to critical risk as well as failing wastewater effluent infrastructure need to be restored. . Infrastructure Planning and Development—Despite there being an elaborate list of planned projects and activities, these projects are based on outdated records and in most cases will not take place due to insufficient funding and decisiveness. Incoherent planning, political interference, limited skills and the inadequate alignment across the different levels of government needs to be addressed as it has created a culture of deficient planning, questionable decisions, misappropriation of funds and overall unaccountability. . Institutional and Regulatory Framework—The limited collaboration between different spheres of government and private sector/stakeholders has led to divergent interpretations of plans and/or frameworks, has encouraged territorial contests and has ultimately led to continued inequitable water access and allocation. Roles must be reviewed and clearly defined to ensure that roles do not overlap, and that regulation takes place in an effective manner, is not compromised (as is currently the case) and ensure overall and not limited compliance of the existing regulatory frameworks. . Human Capital and Institutional Capacity—Deficient human capital and institutional incapacity has been well documented and is a critical factor. The skills deficit therefore needs to receive major attention and the capacity of key national government departments and municipalities need to be objectively reviewed and evaluated to ensure effective implementation of developmental water management and services. (NPC 2020)

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It is also clear from the preceding sections that what matters is not simply just the availability of water but rather how these water resources are used, by whom and how well the variability thereof is being managed. The current collapse of water infrastructure within the Gauteng Province, which has led to water-shedding and even collapse of the system, is a primary example of how high NRW as well as nonmaintained aged infrastructure can cause a major water crisis despite there being no water shortage i.e., the Integrated Vaal River System being above 90%. The most serious factors specifically related to infrastructure as well as water governance and management, posing an immense threat to continued water security within South Africa, are: . . . .

Dysfunctional and/or collapsing infrastructure. Non-functioning and insolvent local municipalities. Major skill deficits and the incapacity of decision-makers. Unrealistic political promises versus public expectations versus the actual reality in relation to finance and infrastructure. . Unaccountability and continued alleged corruption. . Non implementation and/or enforcement of existing legislation, policy and strategies. . Lack of overall political will. It should be noted that continued major blackouts due to the energy crisis have had major negative impacts on the country’s infrastructure by causing the collapse of WWTWs and requires immediate intervention as the country’s sewage crisis is expanding at a rapid rate. Potential solutions and recommendations can include actual political will and placing the country’s water crises on the political agenda, increased governance awareness, human capacity building, educating local government councillors to try and achieve good governance, public buy-in and awareness as well as the promotion of water re-use and conservation. In order to address the country’s unsustainably high water demands and use, the improvement of water use efficiency should be considered. Water management within the country is not optimal and leading to impending water crises due to increasing NRW, continued overexploitation of already scarce and stressed water resources as well as very high and above average per capita water consumption of 235 L per person per day. Unsustainably high levels of water consumption in combination with continued high NRW in the country’s aged water supply networks will further exacerbate the country’s major water challenges, increase the possibility of widespread water-shedding and create water shortages. Water supply management issues can be addressed by the development of additional water transfers, both within river basins as well as from other river basins as local supplies become fully developed. It should however be noted that this is already being done extensively within South Africa, hence few such opportunities might therefore exist. Desalinisation and the re-use of wastewater can add additional supply to the country’s supply network and should be considered. Desalinisation should be considered as it can increasingly become a good affordable alternative especially for high value uses for coastal areas. Recycling of polluted wastewater

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can be considered within the country’s inland areas. This is already being practiced extensively and it can also be a possible solution to address some water quality problems. The final source of additional water are natural environments. It should however be noted that prior to any allocation for economic purposes, enough water needs to be left in rivers to sustain an acceptable natural environment. Environmental flows need to be maintained to safeguard the country’s national parks and other sources of livelihood. There is however an increasing trend of using the water reserved for the environment due to water shortages. Water is taken illegally for economic as well as social uses due to poor implementation and non-enforcement of applicable legislation, policies and strategies. Strict management oversight will therefore be required at a local level, supported by national priorities, to ensure that the ecological reserve is maintained or re-established where it has been compromised. Water demands can also be managed with a range of options available at various levels and in each of the main water use sectors. Focus can be placed on the agricultural sector as it is the largest water user and there is scope for considerable improvements in overall water use efficiency. Technologies can be used to improve efficiency of irrigation however it will come at a cost. Suitable incentives need to be developed to try and ensure greater efficiency through compensation. Improving water efficiency within the agricultural sector would make more water available for production and provide a greater return on investment. In terms of improved water demand management within the industrial sector, water consumption within this sector is often dictated by controls on the disposal of wastewater. The policy which states that industry is responsible to cover the full costs of making water available, has consequently made these industries, especially large ones, placing focus on improving water efficiency and alternative locations with less pronounced water constraints. This has also increased cooperative arrangements where industries treat and re-use municipal wastewater in their processes. Measures at household level should also be considered and can include tariff increases to discourage high consumption, changes in settlement patterns (smaller plot sizes) as well as implementation of leakage control in extensive municipal distribution networks. The maintenance of household water fittings to regulate water use efficiency of domestic appliances can also be considered. As highlighted throughout this book, the health of South Africa’s water resources is not encouraging due to continued and increased degradation over the past two decades. Due to increased pollution, several water resources have become unfit for various uses or have made the treatment thereof increasingly difficult and costly. The pollution of the country’s already scarce water resources reduces the availability and suitability thereof as well as overall water security. The major water quality challenges discussed and highlighted throughout this book are multi-sectoral in nature and speak to overlapping and/or adjacent mandates of various government institutions. Current water governance and management practices need to be reviewed as these are clearly not effective based on the observed negative water availability and quality trends. Consequently, future management approaches will need to go beyond existing statutory and regulatory mandates,

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measures, controls, instruments as well as processes of the DWS alone. Strategic regulatory collaboration as well as partnerships will be required between the DWS and other state institutions across the three tiers of government, the catchment management agencies, water boards, the private sector and civil society.

7.5 Conclusions and the Way Forward From all the foregoing chapters, it cannot be disputed that South Africa’s water resources are under severe pressure, plagued by various major challenges, consequently leading to various water crises across the country, ultimately threatening national water security. Various water crises at different scales and magnitudes are already occurring across the country. Some of these major water crises include the continued and severe sewage pollution crisis within the eThekwini municipality as well as the Vaal River, the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality moving very close towards “Day Zero” as well as the Gauteng Province now experiencing water shortages and the implementation of water-shedding due to the collapse of infrastructure and lack of informed planning, to name but a few. Due to the complex nature of the water sector, it will take an immense effort to address all the highlighted water-related driving forces, pressures, challenges and consequences. The water sector, as a whole, is also complex in nature due to the fragmented nature thereof as well as having limited management capacity and skills and/or experience to address the country’s water predicament. It is of prime importance that interventions which would be the most effective to address immediate challenges be identified, prioritised and sequenced in a logical manner. This will in turn lay the foundation which is required for effective long-term management of the country’s water resources. Informed planning and institutional development would be a good starting point, however, already established major water crises must be addressed as a matter of urgency and should also be included in the early stage. A practical and realistic programme of investment needs to be drafted to inform necessary planning and institutional development. The following aspects are recommended to be included in the programme namely: . Improved planning of investment in and the operation of water and sanitation services at municipal and/or regional utility level. – This will enable for the provision of timeous estimates of future water demands as well as assist in identifying priority areas for investment, especially in terms of infrastructure and wastewater interventions. – Improved planning will speak to ongoing operational activities. . Integration of water resource planning and development planning at all levels of government. This can consequently ensure the following: – That water supports development as an economic enabler.

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– That interventions specifically focussed on water resource development, reflect a wider array of development priorities. – That development opportunities made possible by water resources are embraced. . Improvement of local governments (i.e., municipalities). – Capacity constraints need to be addressed and improved upon for municipalities to be able to ensure efficiency in water supply and use as well as to prevent and/or address severe water pollution. – This will also address the major issue of improving the quality and reliability of drinking water supply and sanitation service delivery. . Overall support of the implementation of institutional arrangements to develop and manage water resource infrastructure. – The NWRIA needs to go through proper consultation to ensure that it meets all requirements and is actually established and functional. . Specific water management programmes need to be prioritised and be phased in. Some of these programmes include the following: – – – – –

The actual functioning of CMAs. Development of tariffs related to wastewater discharges. Actual enforcement of obligatory licensing and water allocation reform. Establishment of a national water resource utility. A clear implementation and enforcement programme.

. Establishment of a clear rural development programme where water resource opportunities can be taken up. (Muller et al. 2009) All these mentioned factors will require effective and informed coordination across all water use sectors, will involve the identification of appropriate interventions which would support the existing or amended policy framework and ultimately, will require political will. Interventions can be grouped into technical, behavioural and comprehensive solutions which should be designed at multiple levels, covering all water users for these solutions to be effective and lead to positive change and progress. The major threat posed by increased climate variability and climate change on national water security, the projected impacts on the country’s severely strained water resources as well as the predicted exacerbation of existing challenges needs to receive appropriate attention. Appropriate management measures are required to either reduce or mitigate the effects and impacts on increased climate variability. Positive progress has been made in terms of climate change research and the development of mitigation and/or adaptation measures. Particular knowledge gaps however still exist such as the impact of climate change on municipal infrastructure as well as groundwater to mention a few.

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Going forward, conventional- and non-conventional water management approaches should be considered to improve overall water governance as well as water management practices. The exploration of additional groundwater and surface water resources is a key conventional option supported by use of advanced engineering. This approach has been implemented and has shown to be fruitful on a global scale. However, 98% of South Africa’s affordable and viable surface water resources have already been allocated, leaving little room for cheap and easy access water resources to augment current availability. South Africa’s water security can therefore be improved upon by optimising the use of limited and already strained surface water resources as well as reviewing current water allocations in the view of predicted growing demand and future requirements. The immense NRW crisis requires urgent intervention and can be addressed by improving and gaining efficiencies in water use per capita through demand management practices and conservation strategies. Severe water scarcity will also require an alteration from using traditional approaches to new approaches. New approaches should however be introduced in a professional and careful manner to avoid undue risks onto consumers. South Africa’s impending water crises requires the incorporation of non-conventional options such as desalination, water re-use and water reclamation options into the “water mix”. However, despite these options being incorporated into the country’s NWRS, political will is lacking. Prompt decision making which enables timely and effective implementation is also lacking. Current practice has shown that only when there is a severe crisis, usually triggered by a prolonged drought or major water pollution event such as a chemical spill, are non-conventional water options considered or made a priority. These options should not be considered as crisis options but rather normal options. The current reactive water management approach is ineffective, not cost-effective and usually causes end-users to pay an exorbitant price for water. The hurried and/or delayed nature of decision making unfortunately attract heightened risk and result in non-optimal and unsustainable solutions to South Africa’s water supply systems. For the country to avoid a complete water crisis as well as absolute water insecurity, the factors highlighted throughout this Book needs to receive appropriate and immediate attention, informed actions and appropriate interventions. The country can no longer afford reactive crisis water management, unaccountability, continued misappropriation of funds and alleged corruption, continued appointment of individuals without the necessary skills and qualifications as well as continued ignorance regarding the immense scale of South Africa’s water predicament. Informed action as well as proactive water management practices are required however, this will only be possible with the use of up-to-date information and data. South Africa’s water monitoring network consequently needs to be maintained and expanded to ensure that up to date data are available to enable informed actions and proactive water management practices. Political will as well as placing water at the top of the country’s agenda is however the primary factor which needs to be addressed as without political will, the country’s water challenges will continue to intensify, spread and become major crises. The threat of the country reaching water

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insecurity, experiencing rampant water shortages, unreliable supply, compromised water quality as well as collapsed infrastructure is immense and a reality. South Africa’s water reality requires urgent attention to avert a complete water predicament. Completed water research and knowledge gained needs to be used to create awareness and inform what actions need to be taken. Continued pressure needs to be placed on all levels of government and stakeholders responsible for the management the country’s water resources in an informed manner to ensure that water crises are placed on the political agenda to receive the attention and investment it deserves. Knowledge dissemination should be of prime importance to ensure informed decision-making, proactive management, creation of water stewardship and ultimately political will to actually address already established water crises, South Africa’s impending overall water crisis as well as major threat towards its overall water security. South Africa’s water resources are under immense pressure and already severely compromised. Immediate informed actions and proactive water management, together with actual political will, is required for the country to avert a complete water predicament and crisis.

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Appendix A

Rand Water Quality Sampling Stations

Catchment

Sample point B10 K19

Vaal Barrage Reservoir

Sample point description

Coordinates

Blesbokspruit Weir at Heidelberg Klip River Weir at Redan Train Bridge

26° 30.641'S 28° 21.049'E 26° 37.203'S 27° 58.831'E 26° 48.125'S 27° 47.936'E 26° 43.719'S 27° 43.077'E 26° 40.253'S 28° 01.828'E 26° 47.965'S 27° 54.468'E 26° 45.763'S 27° 41.015'E 26° 49.163'S 28° 03.810'E 26° 44.980'S 27° 49.543'E 26° 41.775'S 27° 55.900'E

LS1

Leeuspruit at Sasolburg

RV2

Rietspruit Weir at Loch Vaal

S2

Suikerbosrant River Weir at Three Rivers

TW2

Stream from Webb's Farm

V17

Vaal River at Barrage Outlet

V2

Vaal River at Engelbrecht's Drift Weir

VRB20

Vaal River at 20 km Beacon

VRB37

Vaal River at 37 km Beacon

(continued)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. du Plessis, South Africa’s Water Predicament, Water Science and Technology Library 101, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24019-5

171

172

Appendix A: Rand Water Quality Sampling Stations

(continued)

Blesbokspruit

B1

Outflow from Kleinfontein Dam

B2

Outflow from van Ryn Dam

B3

Stream from Brakpan Lake

B4

Causeway at Alexander Dam

B9

Outflow from Cowles Dam

B13

Stream from Daveyton below Welgedacht WWTW

B5

Blesbokspruit at Welgedacht

B16 B6 B15 B17 B11 B7

New

Blesbokspruit at Grootvlei Mine Train Bridge Klein Blesbokspruit at Selection Park Blesbokspruit on N17 Toll Road at Springs Blesbokspruit at Marievale Bird Sanctuary Blesbokspruit on R42 bridge at Nigel Stormwater drain from Nigel Dam

B8

Blesbokspruit at Nigel

B14

Blesbokspruit Park

B12

Stream from Kaydale Station

B10 S1 S2

at

Jameson

Blesbokspruit Weir at Heidelberg Suikerbosrant River below Balfour Suikerbosrant River Weir at Three Rivers

K1

Klip River at Lido Hotel

K10

Klip River at Everite

26° 10.979'S 28° 20.051'E 26° 09.961'S 28° 22.264'E 26° 12.876'S 28° 22.756'E 26° 12.673'S 28° 24.879'E 26° 12.523'S 28° 28.039'E 26° 11.941'S 28° 28.779'E 26° 12.871'S 28° 28.803'E 26° 15.332'S 28° 29.896'E 26° 16.979'S 28° 26.640'E 26° 16.287'S 28° 30.231'E 26° 21.536'S 28° 30.467'E 26° 23.433'S 28° 29.838'E 26° 24.933'S 28° 27.958'E 26° 26.313'S 28° 27.361'E 26° 28.717'S 28° 25.531'E 26° 28.627'S 28° 24.266'E 26° 30.641'S 28° 21.049'E 26° 37.793'S 28° 17.797'E 26° 40.253'S 28° 01.828'E 26° 19.555'S 27° 59.262'E 26° 25.276'S 28° 05.702'E (continued)

Appendix A: Rand Water Quality Sampling Stations

173

(continued)

K11 K14 K18 Klip Spruit

K19 K21 K25 K3 K4 K5

K6 E17 E2

Klip River from Roodepoort at R41 Bridge Klip River from Witpoortjie at R41 Bridge Klip River Weir at Henley-OnKlip Klip River Weir at Redan Train Bridge Klip River Weir at Zwartkopjes Farm Klip River downstream of Rietspruit Confluence Harringtonspruit at Nancefield Industrial Area Klip River at Olifantsvlei Sewage Works Klipspruit at Kliptown Klip River at Soweto N12 Highway Elsburgspruit at Heidelberg Road Stream at Witwatersrand Gold Mine

E7

Elsburgspruit at Elsburg Town

E8

Stream at Elspark

N4

Natalspruit from Simmer and Jack Mine

N7

Natalspruit at Alrode

N8

Natalspruit Road

R1

Rietspruit from Sallies

R2

Withokspruit Tributary

R3

Tributary at Carnival City

at

Heidelberg

26° 10.148'S 27° 50.013'E 26° 10.555'S 27° 49.075'E 26° 32.965'S 28° 03.868'E 26° 37.203'S 27° 58.831'E 26° 22.791'S 28° 04.233'E 26° 27.225'S 28° 05.124'E 26° 18.603'S 27° 54.741'E 26° 20.201'S 27° 54.219'E 26° 17.402'S 27° 53.137'E 26° 17.678'S 27° 50.209'E 26° 16.570'S 28° 12.115'E 26° 11.713'S 28° 11.405'E 26° 14.972'S 28° 12.260'E 26° 15.701'S 28° 13.312'E 26° 14.325'S 28° 07.412'E 26° 17.903'S 28° 08.646'E 26° 25.570'S 28° 09.895'E 26° 18.289'S 28° 20.145'E 26° 19.418'S 28° 20.325'E 26° 15.569'S 28° 19.239'E (continued)

174

Appendix A: Rand Water Quality Sampling Stations

(continued)

LeeuTaaiboschspruit

Rietspruit

R4

Rietspruit at Vosloorus

R5

Rietspruit at Hardmans Farm

R6

Rietspruit Weir below Waterval Sewage Works

LS1

Leeuspruit at Sasolburg

T1

Taaibosspruit Weir

T3

Tributary downstream Driefontein Dam outlet

of

TW2

Stream from Webb's Farm

LPO

Leeuspruit at Potchefstroom Road

LWA

Leeuspruit at Westonaria

REN

Rietspruit above Ennerdale

RV1

Rietspruit at Sebokeng

RV2

Rietspruit Weir at Loch Vaal

RV3

Rietspruit at Westonaria

26° 22.327'S 28° 14.682'E 26° 25.757'S 28° 10.856'E 26° 27.044'S 28° 05.355'E 26° 48.125'S 27° 47.936'E 26° 49.405'S 27° 56.007'E 26° 48.567'S 27° 52.771'E 26° 47.965'S 27° 54.468'E 26° 36.871'S 27° 45.210'E 26° 25.362'S 27° 40.881'E 26° 22.068'S 27° 44.334'E 26° 32.767'S 27° 49.803'E 26° 43.719'S 27° 43.077'E 26° 32.627'S 27° 48.402'E

Appendix B

In-Stream Water Quality Guidelines (Effective June 2003)

Vaal Barrage Reservoir Catchment Parameter Electrical Conductivity Dissolved Oxygen

Measured as Ideal mS/m

Acceptable Tolerable

Unacceptable

18 30

30‒70

>70

>6.0

5.0‒6.0