Sons of the Buddha: Continuities and Ruptures in a Burmese Monastic Tradition 9783110254105, 9783110254099, 2010044295

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Jason A. Carbine Sons of the Buddha

Religion and Society Edited by Gustavo Benavides, Kocku von Stuckrad and Winnifred Fallers Sullivan

Volume 50

De Gruyter

Jason A. Carbine

Sons of the Buddha Continuities and Ruptures in a Burmese Monastic Tradition

De Gruyter

ISBN 978-3-11-025409-9 e-ISBN 978-3-11-025410-5 ISSN 1437-5370 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Carbine, Jason A., 1971Sons of the Buddha : continuities and ruptures in a Burmese Monastic Tradition / Jason A. Carbine. p. cm. - (Religion and Society ; Volume 50) Significant revision of the author’s thesis (doctoral - University of Chicago, 2004) under title: An Ethic of Continuity: Shwegyin monks and the Sasana in Contemporary Burma/Myanmar. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-025409-9 (hardcover 23 ¥ 15,5 : alk. paper) 1. Monastic and religious life (Buddhism) - Burma. 2. Shwegyin Nikaya. I. Title. BQ6160.B93C37 2011 294.3165709591-dc22 2010044295

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. ” 2011 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/New York Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ⬁ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

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Acknowledgementsȱ ȱ Thisȱ bookȱ isȱ aȱ significantȱ revisionȱ ofȱ myȱ doctoralȱ thesis,ȱ entitledȱ Anȱ EthicȱofȱContinuity:ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱandȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱContemporaryȱBurȬ ma/Myanmarȱ (2004).ȱ Asȱ timeȱ progressed,ȱ Iȱ beganȱ toȱ wonderȱ ifȱ aȱ bookȱ wouldȱemergeȱfromȱtheȱeffortsȱthatȱwentȱintoȱthatȱprojectȱandȱitsȱhashȬ ingȱ byȱ myselfȱ andȱ othersȱ sinceȱ then.ȱ Theȱ timeȱ hasȱ finallyȱ comeȱ andȱ gratitudeȱ isȱ owedȱ toȱ manyȱ peopleȱ andȱ organizationsȱ forȱ helpingȱ toȱ bringȱthisȱworkȱtoȱaȱfinishedȱproduct.ȱFrankȱReynolds,ȱStevenȱCollins,ȱ andȱ F.ȱ K.ȱ Lehmanȱ guidedȱ theȱ initialȱ shapeȱ ofȱ thisȱ workȱ asȱ aȱ doctoralȱ dissertation.ȱSayasȱUȱSawȱTunȱandȱJohnȱOkellȱreadȱandȱcommentedȱonȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ myȱ translationsȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ materialsȱ includedȱ inȱ thisȱ study.ȱAsȱtheȱpostȬdissertationȱlifeȱofȱthisȱstudyȱtookȱshape,ȱJohnȱHolt,ȱ Williamȱ Pruitt,ȱ Guillaumeȱ Rozenberg,ȱ Julianeȱ Schober,ȱ Katherineȱ UlȬ rich,ȱDavidȱMcMahan,ȱDonaldȱStadtner,ȱandȱErikȱBraunȱprovidedȱveryȱ helpfulȱcommentsȱandȱcriticisms.ȱCraigȱReynoldsȱofferedȱcrucialȱhelpȱinȱ trackingȱ downȱ someȱ elusiveȱ references.ȱ Koȱ Pyiȱ becameȱ anȱ importantȱ conversationȱpartnerȱinȱunderstandingȱBurmeseȱcultureȱandȱspirit.ȱ TheȱSitaguȱSayadawȱprovidedȱgenerousȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱlibraryȱcollecȬ tionsȱatȱSitaguȱInternationalȱBuddhistȱAcademyȱinȱMyanmar’sȱSagaingȱ Hills.ȱUȱKel¬sa,ȱaȱmeditationȱandȱEnglishȱinstructorȱatȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱ monasteryȱ inȱ Mandalay,ȱ sharedȱ muchȱ onȱ Shwegyinȱ life,ȱ thoughȱ inȱ anȱ allȱtooȱshortȱperiodȱofȱtime.ȱUȱѬѾaloka,ȱatȱtheȱMah¬satipaҁҁh¬naȱMediȬ tationȱ Centerȱ (Malden,ȱ MA),ȱ helpedȱ immenselyȱ withȱ manyȱ questionsȱ aboutȱ Shwegyin/widerȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ philosophicalȱ traditions.ȱ Uȱ ѬѾalokaȱalsoȱhelpedȱtoȱcoordinateȱoneȱofȱmyȱtripsȱtoȱMyanmar,ȱdurȬ ingȱ whichȱ timeȱ Iȱ wasȱ ableȱ toȱ meetȱ withȱ theȱ Waȱ Soȱ Sayadawȱ (Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱ monastery,ȱ Mandalay)ȱasȱ wellȱ theȱ Kyaȱ KhetȱWainȱ Sayadawȱ (Kyaȱ Khetȱ Wainȱ monastery,ȱ Pegu).ȱ Theȱ Mah¬myaingȱ SayaȬ dawȱ(Mah¬myaingȱmonastery,ȱMandalay)ȱbroughtȱmeȱtoȱhisȱteachersȱatȱ Mah¬gandh¬yon,ȱ whereȱ theȱ researchȱ forȱ thisȱ study,ȱ andȱ myȱ underȬ standingsȱofȱMyanmar,ȱreallyȱbegan.ȱVenerableȱKhammaiȱDhammasaȬ miȱprovidedȱgenerousȱandȱextensiveȱfeedbackȱonȱchapterȱthree.ȱAshinȱ Silacaraȱ offeredȱ significantȱ insightsȱ asȱ thisȱ projectȱ reachedȱ conclusion,ȱ andȱSayadawȱUȱThondaraȱprovidedȱvitalȱhelpȱasȱwell.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ severalȱ othersȱ whoȱ alsoȱ deserveȱ thanks.ȱ Moȱ Moȱ Thantȱ gaveȱmeȱaȱcopyȱofȱherȱownȱdissertationȱonȱShwegyinȱmonks;ȱherȱworkȱ carriedȱforwardȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱThanȱTunȱrelativeȱtoȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱandȱIȱ

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Acknowledgementsȱȱ

haveȱbenefittedȱimmenselyȱfromȱbothȱofȱtheirȱefforts.ȱSoeȱKyawȱThu,ȱatȱ theȱ Sitaguȱ Internationalȱ Buddhistȱ Academy,ȱ helpedȱ toȱ arrangeȱ theȱ meetingȱwithȱtheȱWaȱSoȱSayadaw,ȱasȱwellȱasȱwithȱotherȱShwegyinȱleadȬ ers,ȱ administrators,ȱ andȱ monks.ȱ Minȱ Zawȱ Oo,ȱ alsoȱ atȱ Sitaguȱ InternaȬ tionalȱBuddhistȱAcademy,ȱgaveȱmeȱanȱextensiveȱCDȬRomȱcollectionȱofȱ photographsȱ fromȱ theȱ “Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya“ȱ inȱ 1999;ȱIȱamȱsadȱtoȱreportȱthoughȱthatȱthatȱCDȱdidȱnotȱsurviveȱtransportȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ fromȱ Myanmar.ȱ Sanȱ Linȱ andȱ Khinȱ Meȱ Thetȱ extendedȱ muchȱ hospitalityȱ andȱ wereȱ pivotalȱ forȱ myȱ meetingȱ withȱ theȱ Kyaȱ Khetȱ Wainȱ Sayadaw.ȱ Romeshȱ Modi,ȱ whomȱ Iȱ metȱ throughȱ Bruceȱ Matthews,ȱwasȱanȱinvaluableȱfirstȱcontactȱinȱMyanmar.ȱAppreciationȱisȱ alsoȱ owedȱ toȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ authoritiesȱ whoȱ permittedȱ meȱ toȱ conductȱ researchȱ inȱ theirȱ country.ȱ Rosemaryȱ P.ȱ Carbineȱ readȱ throughȱ partsȱ ofȱ thisȱ workȱ atȱ variousȱ stagesȱ ofȱ formulation,ȱ andȱ withȱ herȱ Iȱ amȱ sharingȱ theȱ rewardsȱ andȱ challengesȱ ofȱ aȱ jointȱ academicȱ career.ȱ Judithȱ C.ȱ andȱ Stephenȱ A.ȱ Carbineȱ providedȱ importantȱ assistanceȱ onȱ variousȱ occaȬ sions.ȱ Whenȱ Iȱ foundȱ myselfȱ atȱ aȱ lossȱ forȱ timeȱ toȱ bringȱ thisȱ bookȱ toȱ aȱ conclusion,ȱ colleaguesȱ atȱ Whittierȱ College,ȱ Josephȱ Priceȱ andȱ Robertȱ Marks,ȱofferedȱinvaluableȱadviceȱandȱsupport.ȱ Theȱ Charlotteȱ W.ȱ Newcombeȱ Dissertationȱ Fellowshipȱ foundation,ȱ theȱMartinȱMartyȱCenter,ȱtheȱJosephȱM.ȱKitagawaȱScholarshipȱfund,ȱtheȱ Committeeȱ onȱ Southernȱ Asiaȱ Studies,ȱ theȱ FLASȱ Nationalȱ Resourceȱ Fellowshipȱ Center,ȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Chicagoȱ Divinityȱ School,ȱ andȱ WhittierȱCollegeȱprovidedȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱfinancialȱandȱotherȱsupportȱ essentialȱforȱtheȱcompletionȱofȱthisȱproject.ȱ Finally,ȱthisȱworkȱcontainsȱadaptedȱand/orȱrevisedȱversionsȱofȱsomeȱ ofȱmyȱpreviouslyȱpublishedȱwork.ȱUsedȱwithȱpermission,ȱtheseȱare:ȱ ȱ JasonȱA.ȱCarbine,ȱ“SaѼgha,”ȱinȱEncyclopediaȱofȱMonasticism,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱM.ȱ Johnston,ȱ vol.ȱ 2,ȱ pp.ȱ 1117–1120.ȱ (Chicago:ȱ Fitzroyȱ Dearborn,ȱ 2000)ȱ ©ȱ 2000ȱ byȱ Fitzroyȱ Dearborn;ȱ permissionȱ conveyedȱ throughȱ Copyrightȱ Clearanceȱ Center,ȱInc.ȱ Jasonȱ A.ȱ Carbine,ȱ “Shwegyinȱ S¬sana:ȱ Continuity,ȱ Rupture,ȱ andȱ TradiȬ tionalismȱinȱaȱBuddhistȱTradition,”ȱinȱHistoricizingȱ“Tradition”ȱinȱtheȱStudyȱ ofȱ Religion,ȱ ed.ȱ Stevenȱ Englerȱ andȱ Gregoryȱ P.ȱ Grieve,ȱ pp.ȱ 145–174ȱ (Berlin:ȱ WalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2005).ȱ©ȱ2005ȱbyȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter.ȱ Adaptedȱpagesȱ442–443ȱandȱ448–449ȱfromȱJasonȱA.ȱCarbine,ȱ“CareȱforȱBudȬ dhism:ȱText,ȱCeremony,ȱandȱReligiousȱEmotionȱinȱaȱMonkȇsȱFinalȱJourney,”ȱ inȱTheȱ Buddhistȱ Dead:ȱ Practices,ȱ Discourses,ȱ Representations,ȱ ed.ȱ Bryanȱ J.ȱ CuȬ evasȱandȱJacquelineȱI.ȱStone,ȱpp.ȱ438–456ȱ(Honolulu:ȱUniversityȱofȱHawaiiȱ Press,ȱ2007).ȱ©ȱ2007ȱbyȱtheȱKurodaȱInstitute.ȱ

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Acknowledgementsȱ

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ȱ Adaptedȱpagesȱ11–14ȱfromȱFrankȱReynoldsȱandȱJasonȱA.ȱCarbine,ȱeds.,ȱTheȱ LifeȱofȱBuddhismȱ(Berkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ2000).ȱ©ȱ2000ȱbyȱ theȱRegentsȱofȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱCalifornia.ȱ

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Contentsȱ ȱ Acknowledgementsȱ..........................................................................................ȱv Abbreviationsȱ.................................................................................................ȱxii FiguresȱandȱTablesȱ........................................................................................ȱxiii AȱNoteȱonȱtheȱNameȱMyanmarȱ..................................................................ȱxiv ConventionsȱforȱTransliterations,ȱetc..........................................................ȱxv MapȱofȱMyanmarȱ.........................................................................................ȱxvii ȱ Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱȱȱȱȱ Traditionȱ...............................................................................................ȱ1 TheȱSettingȱofȱtheȱStudyȱ............................................................................ȱ1 Fromȱg¬kyamuniȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ..................................................................................ȱ6 .ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱMonasticȱOrganizationȱandȱPracticesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ...................................ȱ9 .ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱtheȱShwegiynȱ.................................................................................ȱ17 VicissitudesȱofȱModernȱBurmeseȱPoliticalȱHistoryȱ............................ȱ23 SourcesȱandȱApproachȱforȱStudyingȱtheȱStoryȱ...................................ȱ27 ȱ ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱ..............ȱ32 Tradition:ȱInventedȱandȱReinvented.....................................................ȱ32 ShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱTraditionalismȱ..............................................ȱ34 AȱGenreȱofȱTraditionalism:ȱS¬sanaȱHistoriesȱandȱMonasticȱ Biographiesȱ..................................................................................ȱ41 Histories,ȱBiographies,ȱandȱtheȱEthicsȱofȱTraditionalismȱ..................ȱ46 BuddhistȱHistoriesȱandȱBiographiesȱinȱandȱbeyondȱMyanmarȱ.......ȱ48 CaseȱStudyȱ1:ȱTheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱandȱAspectsȱofȱLineageȱ............ȱ51 TheȱSÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsa’sȱIntroduction:ȱSupportingȱaȱȱȱȱȱȱ Lineageȱ.........................................................................................ȱ52 PaѾ҃ita’sȱVerseȱandȱCommentary:ȱTypesȱofȱLineageȱ.................ȱ55 PaѾ҃ita’sȱVerseȱandȱCommentary:ȱDynamicsȱofȱKilesasȱandȱȱȱȱ SÎlaȱ.................................................................................................ȱ58 CaseȱStudyȱ2:ȱTheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱandȱBeingȱaȱSonȱofȱtheȱ Buddhaȱ.........................................................................................ȱ60 Dreams:ȱSignsȱofȱaȱGoodȱDiscipleȬSonȱ..........................................ȱ61 AȱSon’sȱLineage:ȱTheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱVinayaȱandȱHigherȱȱȱ Ordinationȱ...................................................................................ȱ62

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Contentsȱȱ

AȱSonȱandȱHisȱPracticeȱ.....................................................................ȱ65 SonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha:ȱAȱClassicȱConflictȱandȱaȱShwegyinȱ Solutionȱ........................................................................................ȱ67 TraditionsȱandȱtheȱPast,ȱPresent,ȱandȱFutureȱ......................................ȱ70 ȱ ChapterȱTwo:ȱInstitutionalȱMooringsȱ..........................................................ȱ73 FromȱLineageȱtoȱNik¬yaȱ...........................................................................ȱ74 MonasticȱGroupsȱinȱMyanmar:ȱAȱSnapshotȱ........................................ȱ75 InclusionȱandȱExclusionȱamongȱBurmeseȱNik¬yaȱandȱGaingȱ............ȱ77 RecordsȱandȱMeetingsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ.................................ȱ83 TheȱMeetingsȱandȱtheȱTextsȱ............................................................ȱ87 RelationsȱwithȱClassicalȱPaliȱandȱOtherȱSourcesȱ..................ȱ91 TheȱHierarchyȱofȱShwegyinȱLeadersȱandȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Administratorsȱ....................................................................ȱ95 KeepingȱTrackȱofȱShwegyinȱMembershipȱ.............................ȱ99 DisciplineȱinȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya.......................................ȱ101 TheȱS¬sana’sȱCareȱGroupsȱ.....................................................................ȱ102 TheȱWorkȱofȱLeadersȱandȱAdministratorsȱ.........................................ȱ105 ȱ ChapterȱThree:ȱClassicȱRitualȱPermutationsȱ............................................ȱ107 MilitatingȱagainstȱS¬sanaȱDeclineȱandȱSocialȱDisruptionȱ................ȱ107 TheȱHigherȱOrdination:ȱInterpretiveȱIssuesȱ......................................ȱ110 AȱShwegyinȱHigherȱOrdinationȱ..........................................................ȱ116 SÎm¬ȱandȱParis¬:ȱTheȱHarmonyȱandȱUnityȱofȱtheȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Communityȱ...............................................................................ȱ118 Vatthu:ȱEligibilityȱtoȱLiveȱinȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ........................................ȱ119 ÑattiȱandȱAnuss¬vana:ȱVerbalȱConcordȱwithȱtheȱBuddhaȱ........ȱ127 PostȬAccomplishments:ȱExplainingȱLifeȱinȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ.............ȱ132 Records,ȱHierarchy,ȱandȱPropertyȱ........................................ȱ132 TheȱFourȱFoundationsȱ.............................................................ȱ133 TheȱFourȱActionsȱNotȱToȱBeȱDoneȱ........................................ȱ135 TakingȱLeaveȱ.............................................................................ȱ137 ArahantsȱinȱTrainingȱ..............................................................................ȱ138 ȱ ChapterȱFour:ȱExistentialȱRuminationsȱ.....................................................ȱ139 Oceans,ȱEverywhereȱ..............................................................................ȱ139 TheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱandȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ............................................ȱ144 TheȱWorkȱofȱAbhidhammaȱSpecialistsȱ...........................................ȱ146 TheȱAbhidhammaȱandȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱContemporaryȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Myanmarȱ...................................................................................ȱ148

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Contentsȱ

xiȱ

ȱ TheȱBuddha’sȱContemplationȱofȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ..................................ȱ149 Nibb¬na,ȱSaΚs¬ra,ȱandȱAbhidhammaȱ..............................................ȱ151 PaΞΞh¬naȱSermons:ȱ“Introduction”ȱbyȱUȱHtunȱHlaingȱ.....................ȱ152 PaΞΞh¬naȱSermonsȱbyȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ.........................................ȱ156 FaithȱinȱtheȱBuddhaȱtheȱArahantȱ...................................................ȱ157 TheȱPlaceȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱtheȱQuestȱforȱArahantshipȱ...........ȱ158 ComprehendingȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ........................................................ȱ161 RootȱConditionȱ.........................................................................ȱ161 RapturousȱJoyȱandȱtheȱWorkȱofȱanȱAbhidhammaȱSpecialist.............ȱ165 ȱ Conclusion:ȱContinuitiesȱandȱRupturesȱ....................................................ȱ169 BurmeseȱReligiousȱCultureȱandȱBeyondȱ............................................ȱ169 OtherȱImplicationsȱforȱTheoryȱandȱMethodȱ......................................ȱ179 ȱ Epilogue:ȱAȱCommentȱonȱContinuityȱandȱRupture,ȱfromȱAfarȱ............ȱ188 ȱ AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱ....................................................................................ȱ194 AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ.......................................................................................ȱ199 AppendixȱC:ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱ............................................ȱ219 ȱ Bibliographyȱ...................................................................................................ȱ223 BurmeseȱSourcesȱ....................................................................................ȱ223 PaliȱSourcesȱ.............................................................................................ȱ225 European/otherȬlanguageȱSourcesȱ......................................................ȱ225 Websitesȱ...................................................................................................ȱ234 ȱ IndexȱofȱAuthorsȱ...........................................................................................ȱ236 IndexȱofȱBurmeseȱTermsȱ..............................................................................ȱ239 IndexȱofȱPaliȱandȱSanskritȱTermsȱ...............................................................ȱ241 IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱ............................................................................................ȱ244 ȱ ȱ

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Abbreviationsȱ ȱ Asȱ Dȱ Milȱ Mohȱ Mpȱ Psȱ Svȱ VibhȬaȱ Vinȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

Atthas¬linÎȱ DÎghaȬnik¬yaȱ Milindapañhaȱ MohavicchedanÎȱ ManorathapĀraΦÎȱ PapañcasĀdanÎȱ SumaΤgalavil¬sinÎȱ SammohavinodanÎȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka

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FiguresȱandȱTablesȱ (inȱtheȱappendices)ȱ ȱ Figureȱ1.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱSittingȱforȱanȱExamȱatȱKyaȱKhetȱWainȱ Monastery,ȱPegu,ȱ2003.ȱCourtesyȱJasonȱCarbine.ȱ.............................ȱ194 Figureȱ2.ȱBasicȱWorldviewȱofȱaȱLineageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱinȱtheȱȱȱȱȱ ShwegyinȱSense.ȱ.....................................................................................ȱ195 Figureȱ3.ȱOrganizationȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱ Meeting.ȱ...................................................................................................ȱ196 Figureȱ4.ȱAshinȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱinȱJanuaryȱ1977.ȱCourtesyȱAnnaȱ Allott.ȱ........................................................................................................ȱ197 Figureȱ5.ȱContinuityȱandȱRupture:ȱRelationsȱSummarized.ȱ..................ȱ198 ȱ Tableȱ1.ȱMonasticȱGroupsȱinȱContemporaryȱMyanmarȱ.........................ȱ199 Tableȱ2.ȱMeetingsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ..............................................ȱ200 Tableȱ3.ȱShwegyinȱLeadersȱandȱAdministrators,ȱpriorȱtoȱ1920ȱ.............ȱ201 Tableȱ4.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱandȱMonasteriesȱ(1923)ȱ.................................ȱ202 Tableȱ5.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱandȱMonasteriesȱ(1999)ȱ.................................ȱ203 Tableȱ6.ȱStructureȱofȱaȱHigherȱOrdinationȱ................................................ȱ204 Tableȱ7.ȱSeniorȱAuthorities,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ...................................................................................ȱ205 Tableȱ8.ȱExecutiveȱOfficers,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱȱȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ...................................................................................ȱ212 ȱ

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AȱNoteȱonȱtheȱNameȱMyanmarȱ ȱ Sinceȱ 1989,ȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ militaryȱ hasȱ usedȱ theȱ nameȱ Myanmarȱ (B.ȱ Mranm¬,ȱ`mn\ma)ȱinsteadȱofȱBurmaȱforȱtheȱcountry,ȱandȱitȱhasȱinsistedȱthatȱ anyoneȱ referringȱ toȱ theȱ countryȱ inȱ Englishȱ doȱ theȱ same.ȱ Itȱ isȱ claimedȱ thatȱBurmaȱisȱaȱforeignȱnameȱandȱmustȱbeȱabolished;ȱthatȱ“Bama”ȱ(onȱ whichȱ“Burma”ȱisȱactuallyȱbased)ȱrefersȱproperlyȱtoȱtheȱBurmanȱmajoriȬ ty;ȱ andȱ thatȱ Myanmarȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ wholeȱ countryȱ andȱ allȱ itsȱ ethnicȱ groups.ȱTheȱnameȱisȱgainingȱmoreȱwidespreadȱuse,ȱthoughȱmany,ȱespeȬ ciallyȱ supportersȱ ofȱ theȱ proȬdemocracyȱ movementȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ doȱ notȱ acceptȱ theȱ designationȱ “Myanmar.”1ȱ Iȱ recognizeȱ theȱ controversyȱ overȱ theȱ name,ȱ butȱ IȱhaveȱoptedȱtoȱuseȱMyanmarȱinsteadȱofȱtheȱ usingȱ theȱmoreȱcumbersomeȱBurma/MyanmarȱorȱalternatingȱbetweenȱBurmaȱ andȱMyanmar.ȱ ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

ForȱfurtherȱinformationȱonȱtheȱnamesȱBurmaȱandȱMyanmar,ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱLintȬ nerȱ2003ȱp.ȱ174,ȱSteinbergȱ2001ȱpp.ȱxi–xii,ȱHoutmanȱ1999ȱpp.ȱ43–48,ȱMyanmar’sȱEmȬ bassyȱinȱWashingtonȱ(http://www.mewashingtondc.com/Myanmar_Burma.htm).ȱ

ȱ

ConventionsȱforȱTransliterations,ȱetc.ȱ ȱ Mostȱofȱtheȱmonksȱaddressedȱinȱthisȱstudyȱspeakȱwithȱandȱwriteȱaboutȱ oneȱanotherȱinȱBurmese,ȱtheirȱvernacular.ȱTheyȱalsoȱuseȱPali,ȱtheȱcanonȬ icalȱlanguageȱofȱtheirȱmonasticȱtradition,ȱespeciallyȱinȱritualsȱandȱcomȬ mentaries.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱmyȱuseȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱlanguagesȱinȱthisȱstudy,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱSanskrit,ȱ whichȱ isȱalsoȱimportantȱ forȱunderstandingȱtheȱ ShweȬ gyinȱandȱBurmeseȱculturalȱworld,ȱreadersȱshouldȱnoteȱtheȱfollowing.ȱ 1.ȱ Inȱ mostȱ cases,ȱ Sanskritȱ wordsȱ areȱ indicatedȱ withȱ anȱ “S,”ȱ Paliȱ wordsȱwithȱaȱ“P,”ȱandȱBurmeseȱwordsȱwithȱaȱ“B.”ȱTransliterationsȱforȱ Sanskrit,ȱ Pali,ȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ followȱ theȱ conventionsȱ approvedȱ byȱ theȱ Libraryȱ ofȱ Congressȱ andȱ Americanȱ Libraryȱ Association.1ȱ Forȱ Burmeseȱ transliterationsȱinȱparticular,ȱthisȱmeansȱaȱsacrificeȱofȱpronunciationȱforȱ consistentȱ accuracyȱ inȱ spelling.ȱ However,ȱ Iȱ makeȱ exceptionsȱ forȱ BurȬ meseȱ properȱ names,ȱ whichȱ areȱ spelledȱ approximatelyȱ theȱ wayȱ theyȱ sound.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ nameȱ Pui;kja;ȱ isȱ notȱ transliteratedȱ asȱ PhuiɇȱKy¬ɇȱbutȱratherȱasȱPhoȱKy¬.ȱMoreover,ȱforȱaȱfewȱselectȱBurmeseȱ wordsȱandȱphrases,ȱIȱdispenseȱwithȱtheȱconventionsȱandȱofferȱaȱtransliȬ terationȱbasedȱonȱsound.ȱȱ 2.ȱNamesȱofȱorganizationsȱ(suchȱasȱ“ShwegyinȱNik¬ya“ȱandȱ“MinȬ istryȱofȱS¬sanaȱAffairs“)ȱareȱcapitalizedȱbutȱnotȱitalicized.ȱCertainȱtitlesȱ ofȱ monasticȱ administrativeȱ positionsȱ (suchȱ asȱ “Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,“ȱ “AssociateȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,“ȱandȱ“PresidingȱAuthority“)ȱareȱcapitaȬ lizedȱ butȱ mayȱ haveȱ italicized,ȱ transliteratedȱ Paliȱ orȱ Burmeseȱ wordsȱ inȱ them.ȱȱ 3.ȱSomeȱPaliȱandȱBurmeseȱwords,ȱwhenȱtransliterated,ȱareȱalsoȱcapiȬ talizedȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱreaderȱclarity,ȱevenȱthoughȱneitherȱPaliȱnorȱBurȬ meseȱuseȱcapitalȱletters.ȱForȱexample,ȱIȱuseȱbothȱDhammaȱ(forȱteachingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha)ȱandȱdhammasȱ (forȱtheȱconstituentȱcomponentsȱofȱmindȱ andȱbody),ȱdependingȱonȱcontext.ȱȱ 4.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱpassagesȱquotedȱfromȱotherȱworks,ȱIȱhaveȱnot,ȱforȱtheȱ mostȱpart,ȱinȱthoseȱpassagesȱattemptedȱtoȱstandardizeȱspellings,ȱtransliȬ terations,ȱ andȱ italicsȱ ofȱ Paliȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ words.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ thereȱ areȱnoȱsetȱconventionsȱthatȱvariousȱauthorsȱfollow.ȱForȱexample,ȱwhereȱ Iȱuseȱnibb¬naȱanotherȱauthorȱmayȱuseȱNibbana.ȱOnȱoccasionȱinȱtheȱbodyȱ ofȱthisȱstudy,ȱIȱalertȱtheȱreaderȱtoȱsuchȱvariations.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

SeeȱBarryȱ1997.ȱ

xviȱ

ConventionsȱforȱTransliterations,ȱetc.ȱȱ

5.ȱ Finally,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ beingȱ intendedȱ forȱ anȱ EnglishȬ speaking/readingȱ audience,ȱ itȱ isȱ myȱ hopeȱ thatȱ Burmese,ȱ whetherȱ acaȬ demicsȱ orȱ not,ȱ findȱ thisȱ studyȱ orȱ partsȱofȱ itȱ worthyȱ ofȱ debateȱandȱ disȬ cussion.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱwhenȱIȱtranslateȱpassagesȱfromȱBurmeseȱandȱPaliȱIȱ provideȱtheȱoriginalȱpassagesȱasȱwell.ȱ

ȱ

MapȱofȱMyanmarȱ ȱ Withȱ administrativeȱ bordersȱ asȱwellȱ asȱsomeȱ placesȱ ofȱsignificanceȱforȱ theȱShwegyin.ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱ ShwegyinȱTraditionȱ TheȱSettingȱofȱtheȱStudyȱ Byȱ anyȱ standards,ȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ ofȱ Myanmarȱ isȱ deepȱ andȱ vast.ȱ Touringȱ theȱ country,ȱ oneȱ canȱ findȱ thrivingȱ traditionsȱ ofȱ layȱ andȱ monasticȱ meditation,ȱ expandingȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ monasticȱ tradiȬ tions,ȱ copiousȱ Buddhistȱ publications,ȱ numerousȱ templeȱ renovations,ȱ andȱ largeȬscale,ȱ militaryȬbackedȱ Buddhistȱ ceremonies.ȱ Travelingȱ toȱ variousȱ pagodas,ȱ oneȱ canȱ haveȱ goldȱ leafȱ pastedȱ toȱ themȱ byȱ ringingȱ aȱ bellȱandȱsendingȱtheȱgoldȱalongȱaȱsmallȱcableȱcarȱtoȱtheȱshrine.ȱAtȱtheȱ mightyȱ Shwedagonȱ pagodaȱ inȱ Yangon,ȱ believedȱ toȱ houseȱ theȱ relicsȱ ofȱ theȱpresentȱandȱthreeȱpastȱBuddhas,ȱoneȱcanȱwitnessȱteamsȱofȱwomenȱ competeȱ inȱ yearlyȱ robesȬweavingȱ contests.ȱ Atȱ theȱ impressiveȱ Greatȱ Cave,ȱalsoȱinȱYangon,ȱoneȱcanȱsitȱinȱanȱassemblyȱhallȱmeantȱtoȱrecallȱtheȱ caveȱ inȱ Indiaȱ whereȱ theȱ Firstȱ Buddhistȱ Councilȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ takenȱ placeȱafterȱdeathȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱOneȱcanȱtravelȱtoȱtheȱhillsȱofȱSagaingȱ andȱhearȱrecitationsȱofȱsacredȱtextsȱresoundingȱfromȱtheȱwallsȱofȱnunȬ neries,ȱorȱvisitȱtheȱfamousȱkingdomȱofȱPaganȱandȱitsȱimmenseȱtempleȬ dottedȱ“plainȱofȱmerit.”ȱ InȱtheȱenvironsȱofȱMandalay,ȱoneȱcanȱmeditateȱinȱcavesȱinȱfrontȱofȱ skeletonsȱsaidȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱdonatedȱtoȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱinȱtheȱ timesȱofȱkings,ȱandȱthenȱventureȱforthȱtoȱtheȱpilgrimageȱsiteȱofȱtheȱMaȬ hamuniȱ image,ȱ alsoȱclaimedȱtoȱhaveȱ beenȱ madeȱ duringȱtheȱlifetimeȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himself.ȱ Inȱ Pegu,ȱ theȱ humbleȱ butȱ sacredȱ precinctsȱ ofȱ theȱ Kaly¬ѾÎȱSÎm¬ȱ(“AuspiciousȱOrdinationȱHall”)ȱ await,ȱ theȱ seatȱ ofȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱmostȱfamousȱ“overhaulings”ȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱinȱSouthȬ eastȱAsia.ȱWhenȱmakingȱtheȱveryȱlongȱandȱarduousȱbusȱtripȱfromȱYanȬ gonȱtoȱMandalay,ȱorȱtoȱandȱfromȱotherȱareasȱrequiringȱaȱlongȱbusȱtrek,ȱ oneȱcanȱhearȱtapeȱrecordingsȱofȱprotectiveȱchants,ȱsomeȱfromȱtheȱmetaȬ physicalȱAbhidhammaȱ(TheȱDoctrineȱPureȱandȱSimple)ȱitself.ȱ Ifȱ Buddhistȱ doctrineȱ andȱ metaphysicsȱ areȱ indeedȱ one’sȱ thing,ȱ theȱ manyȱ traditionalȱ andȱ moreȱ modernȱ centersȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ learningȱ areȱ populatedȱ byȱ knowledgeableȱ peopleȱ whoȱ canȱ helpȱ oneȱ onȱ theȱ way.ȱ Ifȱ monasticȱritualsȱandȱliturgiesȱinspireȱone,ȱoneȱisȱwelcomeȱtoȱordainȱasȱaȱ

2ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

temporaryȱorȱlifeȬlongȱmonkȱorȱnunȱandȱseekȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthings.ȱIfȱtheȱ lightnessȱandȱfrivolityȱofȱfestivalȱtimesȱattractȱone,ȱtheȱfestivalȱofȱlightsȱ marksȱ theȱ descentȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ fromȱ theȱ T¬vatiѴsaȱ heavenȱ afterȱ preachingȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ toȱ theȱ natsȱ (gods).ȱ Suchȱ isȱ Myanmar,ȱhomeȱ toȱ wizards,ȱ hairȬrelicȱ worship,ȱ theȱ Goldenȱ Rock,ȱ aȱ Buddhistȱ monasticȱ communityȱ thatȱ isȱ theȱ largestȱ semiȬautonomousȱ institutionȱ outsideȱ militaryȱ control,ȱ andȱ twoȱ modernȱ Therav¬daȱ Buddhistȱ Councilsȱ (oneȱ wasȱheldȱinȱ1871ȱandȱtheȱotherȱwasȱheldȱfromȱ1954ȱtoȱ1956).ȱ AsȱGustaafȱHoutmanȱpointsȱout,ȱwithinȱthisȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱreȬ ligiousȱ culture,ȱ oneȱ canȱ beȱ identifiedȱ asȱ aȱ “Buddhist”ȱ inȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ ways,ȱfrequentlyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱtermȱS¬sana.1ȱAȱS¬sanaȱconsistsȱofȱ theȱ teachingsȱ andȱ practicesȱ establishedȱ byȱ aȱ Buddhaȱ orȱ “enlightenedȱ one”ȱandȱilluminatesȱtheȱpathȱofȱthoughtȱandȱpracticeȱthatȱhelpsȱbeingsȱ achieveȱliberationȱfromȱsuffering;ȱtheȱcurrentȱS¬sanaȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱ thatȱofȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱwhoȱlivedȱsomeȱ2500ȱyearsȱagoȱinȱnorthȬ easternȱIndia.ȱInȱcontemporaryȱBurmeseȱreligiousȱculture,ȱaȱBuddhistȱisȱ notȱsimplyȱaȱBuddhist,ȱ endȱ ofȱ story.ȱ Rather,ȱ thereȱareȱmanyȱ shadesȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ identity,ȱ oftenȱ relatedȱ inȱ someȱ wayȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana.2ȱ Forȱexample,ȱoneȱcanȱbeȱ“insideȱtheȱS¬sana,”3ȱaȱtermȱoftenȱreservedȱ“forȱ thoseȱ Buddhistsȱ withȱ aȱ heightenedȱ andȱ specialȱ involvementȱ withȱ the”ȱ S¬sanaȱthroughȱordination,ȱtheȱfollowingȱofȱmoralȱprecepts,ȱandȱmediȬ tation.4ȱ Thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ identityȱ appliesȱ especiallyȱ toȱ monks,ȱ thoughȱ layȱ practitionersȱofȱmeditationȱandȱ nunsȱ haveȱsometimesȱdescribedȱ themȬ selvesȱ inȱ thisȱ way.ȱ Asȱ aȱ monk,ȱ novice,ȱ orȱ nun,ȱ aȱ personȱ mayȱ alsoȱ beȱ identifiedȱasȱ oneȱ “carryingȱ outȱ dutiesȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana,”5ȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ pinȬ nacleȱofȱsuchȱcarriersȱareȱfiguresȱknownȱasȱ“HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.”6ȱTheseȱ monksȱ haveȱ playedȱ rolesȱ muchȱ likeȱ thatȱ ofȱ aȱ SaΤghaȬr¬jaȱ (“kingȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ community”)ȱ inȱ otherȱ contextsȱ inȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia;ȱ sometimesȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱpowerfulȱleadersȱandȱotherȱtimesȱdecidedlyȱ lessȱso,ȱsometimesȱsubvertedȱbyȱrealȱkingsȱandȱsometimesȱnot.ȱ InȱcontrastȱtoȱsupportingȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ“fromȱbeingȱatȱtheȱinsideȱofȱit,”7ȱ oneȱ mayȱ supportȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ “fromȱ beingȱ atȱ theȱ outsideȱ ofȱ it,”8ȱ asȱ oneȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ 2ȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ 6ȱ 7ȱ 8ȱ

Houtmanȱ1990a.ȱ Theȱreaderȱcanȱbeȱalertedȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱg¬kyamuniȱisȱnotȱtheȱfirstȱBuddhaȱbelievedȱ toȱhaveȱdispensedȱhisȱteachings,ȱnorȱisȱheȱbelievedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱlastȱwhoȱwill.ȱ “InsideȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ=ȱB.ȱS¬san¬ȱvaΤе,ȱqaqnawc\ȱ ;ȱinȱtheseȱopeningȱparagraphsȱtheȱEngȬ lishȱtransliterationsȱandȱBurmeseȱspellingsȱwillȱbeȱinȱtheȱfootnotes.ȱ Houtmanȱ1990aȱp.ȱ120.ȱȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱwanеȱthamеɇ,ȱqaqna.wn\Tm\;"ȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȱpuiΤе,ȱqaqnapuic\"ȱ B.ȱatvaΤеɇȱkaȱne,ȱAtQc;\ ken"ȱ B.ȱapraΤеȱbhakеȱkaȱne,ȱA`pc\Bk\ken"ȱ

ȱ

TheȱSettingȱofȱtheȱStudyȱ

3ȱ

whoȱ acquiresȱ theȱ “heritageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.”9ȱ Toȱ acquireȱ thisȱ “heritage,”ȱ oneȱ sponsorsȱ “theȱ monasticȱ ordinationȱ ceremonyȱ [and]ȱ provide[s]ȱ theȱ eightȱmonkȱrequisites.ȱ[Theȱphrase]ȱimpliesȱthatȱanȱindividualȱisȱnearerȱ toȱ theȱ [S¬sana]ȱ thanȱ ‘ordinary’ȱ laymenȱ whoȱ haveȱ neverȱ sponsoredȱ anȱ ordination.”10ȱ Onȱ occasion,ȱ theȱ phraseȱ mayȱ evenȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ referȱ toȱ thoseȱ whoȱ haveȱ sponsoredȱ theȱ constructionȱ ofȱ aȱ religiousȱ building,ȱ suchȱasȱanȱordinationȱhall.ȱTheȱepithetȱisȱtracedȱbackȱtoȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱ IndianȱmonarchȱAïokaȱ(r.ȱca.ȱ270–230ȱBCE),ȱwhoȱclaimedȱtoȱbeȱaȱBudȬ dhistȱ inȱ thisȱ sense.ȱ Moggaliputtatissathera,ȱ aȱ leadingȱ monk,ȱ setȱ himȱ straight:ȱAïoka,ȱwithȱallȱofȱhisȱgoodȱworksȱ(e.g.,ȱtheȱbuildingȱofȱwells,ȱ reservoirs,ȱ pagodas,ȱ etc.),ȱ wasȱ onlyȱ aȱ “masterȱ ofȱ charity.”11ȱ Toȱ acquireȱ theȱ“heritageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,”ȱheȱneededȱtoȱsponsorȱanȱordination.12ȱ Inȱ supportingȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ “fromȱ theȱ outsideȱ ofȱ it,”ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ asȱ aȱ layȬ person,ȱ oneȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ “aȱ goodȱ personȱ inȱ aȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.”13ȱ Thisȱphrase,ȱalongȱwithȱ“patronȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,”14ȱ“refer[s]ȱtoȱBuddhistsȱ whoȱareȱnotȱ‘insideȱ[theȱS¬sana]’ȱbutȱwhoȱare,ȱorȱconsiderȱthemselvesȱtoȱ be[,]ȱ moreȱ thanȱ ordinaryȱ Buddhists.”ȱ Theseȱ phrasesȱ mayȱ applyȱ toȱ “hermits,ȱdevotees,ȱnuns,ȱtrustees,ȱetc.,”ȱwhoȱperformȱvariousȱdeedsȱinȱ supportȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.15ȱMoreover,ȱasȱeitherȱmonkȱorȱlayperson,ȱoneȱcanȱ beȱactivelyȱengagedȱinȱ“doingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,”16ȱviaȱimplantingȱ doctrinesȱ andȱ practicesȱ inȱ particularȱ areas,ȱ nearȱ andȱ distant.ȱ Inȱ allȱ ofȱ theseȱ contexts,ȱmonks,ȱ nuns,ȱandȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱdevoteesȱ canȱallȱbeȱ referredȱtoȱasȱ“sonsȱandȱdaughtersȱofȱtheȱBuddha,”ȱthoughȱmoreȱrulesȱ andȱ regulations,ȱ specifiedȱ inȱ variousȱ S¬sanaȱ texts,ȱ applyȱ forȱ thoseȱ “sons”ȱandȱ“daughters”ȱofȱanȱasceticȱbent.ȱ SuchȱphrasesȱdoȱnotȱexhaustȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱBurmeseȱmayȱidenȬ tifyȱthemselvesȱasȱBuddhist,17ȱbutȱtheyȱareȱenoughȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱBurȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 9ȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱamwe,ȱqaqna.AemQ"ȱ 10ȱ Houtmanȱ 1990aȱ p.ȱ 121,ȱ bracketsȱ mine.ȱ Theȱ eightȱ monasticȱ requisitesȱ (P.ȱ aΞΞhaparikkh¬r¬)ȱ areȱ theȱ threeȱ robes,ȱ anȱ almsȱ bowl,ȱ aȱ razor,ȱ aȱ needleȱ withȱ thread,ȱ aȱ girdle,ȱandȱaȱwaterȱstrainer.ȱ 11ȱ B.ȱd¬naȱrhaΤе,ȱdfnrHc\"ȱ 12ȱ Houtmanȱ1990aȱp.ȱ121ȱandȱAshinȱSilacara,ȱprivateȱcommunication.ȱ 13ȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱnvayеȱvaΤеȱsĀȱtoеȱcaΤе,ȱqaqna. NQy\wc\qUeta\sc\"ȱ 14ȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȱd¬yak¬,ȱqaqnadfyka,ȱS¬san¬ȱd¬yik¬ma,ȱqannadfyikam"ȱ 15ȱ Houtmanȱ1990aȱp.ȱ121,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱȱ 16ȱ B.ȱS¬san¬ȱpru,ȱqaqna#p"ȱ 17ȱ SeeȱHoutmanȱ1990a.ȱAlso,ȱonȱpp.ȱ121–122ȱheȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱ“widestȱandȱleastȱspeȬ cific”ȱ categoryȱ consistsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ “insideȱ Buddhendom”ȱ (B.ȱ buddhaȱ bh¬s¬ȱ vaΤе,ȱ bud™Baqawc\),ȱaȱphraseȱthatȱconnotesȱaȱgeneralȱbeliefȱinȱtheȱBuddha,ȱhisȱteachings,ȱandȱ theȱ monasticȱ community.ȱ Moreover,ȱ asȱ Houtmanȱ notes,ȱ thereȱ areȱBurmeseȱ phrasesȱ forȱpeopleȱwhoȱfollowȱtheȱBuddhistȱcustomsȱofȱtheirȱparentsȱandȱgrandparentsȱbutȱ

4ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

meseȱreligiousȱcultureȱinȱgeneralȱhasȱaȱveryȱcompellingȱandȱhighȱlevelȱ ofȱ engagementȱ withȱ theȱ texts,ȱ doctrines,ȱ andȱ practicesȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Indeed,ȱwhenȱsurveyingȱsuchȱphrases,ȱoneȱgetsȱtheȱimpressionȱthatȱtheȱ texts,ȱ doctrines,ȱ andȱ practicesȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ haveȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ distincȬ tiveȱ waysȱ becomeȱ theȱ cruciblesȱ forȱ dominantȱ expressionsȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱreligiousȱculture.ȱForȱtheseȱreasons,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱcategoriesȱ relatedȱtoȱitȱ(suchȱasȱ“lineage,”ȱ“sonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha,”ȱandȱ“theȱS¬sana’sȱ frontȬlineȱfortress”)ȱfunctionȱasȱtheȱmajorȱBuddhistȱcategoriesȱcoursingȱ throughȱthisȱanalysis.ȱTheyȱconstituteȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱemicȱconceptualȱ threadsȱuponȱwhichȱthisȱbookȱisȱbased.ȱ WithȱregardȱtoȱthisȱdeepȱandȱvastȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱreligiousȱculȬ ture,ȱwithȱitsȱvariousȱdegreesȱofȱemphasisȱonȱS¬sana,ȱIȱhaveȱinȱthisȱbookȱ decidedȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ monasticȱ traditionsȱ inȱ Myanmar,ȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱwidelyȱconsideredȱtoȱexpressȱanȱintenseȱformȱ ofȱ beingȱ “insideȱ theȱ S¬sana.”ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ wereȱ initiallyȱ foundedȱ inȱ Upperȱ Myanmarȱ inȱ aroundȱ 1860ȱ byȱ Ashinȱ J¬garaȱ (1822–1894),ȱ whoȱ becameȱknownȱasȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.ȱShwegyinȱisȱtheȱnameȱ ofȱJ¬gara’sȱnatalȱvillageȱandȱSayadawȱisȱaȱtermȱofȱrespectȱforȱaȱreveredȱ monk.18ȱTheȱShwegyinȱareȱoneȱofȱtheȱ“Mindonȱsects”19ȱandȱareȱknownȱ amongȱ Shwegyinȱ themselvesȱ andȱalsoȱamongȱ othersȱ withinȱ Myanmarȱ asȱinȬgyinȱkhetȬkyainȱShwegyinȱGaing.20ȱThisȱisȱaȱmnemonicȱphraseȱforȱtheȱ BurmeseȬeraȱyearȱ1222ȱ(i.e.,ȱ1860)ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱgroupȱwasȱfoundedȱandȱ itȱisȱaȱsoundȱbiteȱforȱtheȱidentityȱofȱtheȱgroup,ȱ“theȱShwegyinȱgroup— strongȱlikeȱaȱsalȱtree.”21ȱ(Theȱsalȱtreeȱisȱtheȱtypeȱofȱtreeȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱ g¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱborn.)ȱTheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱ becomeȱtheȱsecondȱlargestȱmonasticȱgroupȱinȱMyanmarȱ(closeȱtoȱ40,000ȱ asȱ ofȱ 1999,ȱ withȱ someȱ presentȱ dayȱ figuresȱ offeringȱ aroundȱ 80,000).ȱ ThoughȱsignificantlyȱlessȱnumerousȱthanȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱ(Myanmar’sȱ largestȱmonasticȱentity),ȱtheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱplayedȱaȱcrucialȱroleȱinȱtheȱ productionȱ andȱ reproductionȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ values,ȱ orientations,ȱ andȱ practicesȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱAsȱaȱmonasticȱinstitution,ȱtheyȱareȱ“sonsȱofȱtheȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 18ȱ 19ȱ 20ȱ

21ȱ

withoutȱgoingȱbeyondȱsuperficialȱrhetoricȱandȱpractice:ȱmiȱyoȱphaȱlaȱboddhaȱbhathaȱ(B.ȱ mirui;Plabud™Baqa).ȱ Theȱtermȱ“Sayadaw”ȱisȱambiguousȱsinceȱitȱcanȱmeanȱthatȱaȱmonkȱisȱaȱroyalȱprecepȬ torȱorȱisȱaȱsimplyȱaȱpresidingȱmonkȱofȱaȱmonastery.ȱ TheȱShwegyinȱareȱamongȱseveralȱmonasticȱgroupsȱthatȱtraceȱtheirȱoriginsȱtoȱmonksȱ ofȱMindon’sȱtime.ȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ84–114ȱcallsȱtheseȱtheȱ“Mindonȱsects.”ȱ B.ȱ Ac\~kc\;Kk\kjioc\;erWkjc\gui%\;" Iȱ discussȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ termȱ gaingȱ (guiΦеɇ,ȱ gui%\;,ȱ derivedȱ fromȱ Paliȱ gaΦa,ȱ meaningȱ “meeting,”ȱ “chapter,”ȱ “collection,”ȱ orȱ “multitude”)ȱ laterȱ inȱ thisȱ study.ȱ Ashinȱ Silacara,ȱ privateȱ communication.ȱ Forȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ date,ȱ seeȱ ArticlesȱonȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱGaingȱ1995ȱpp.ȱ26–27.ȱ

ȱ

TheȱSettingȱofȱtheȱStudyȱ

5ȱ

Buddha”ȱ parȱ excellence,ȱ andȱ theyȱ remainȱ knownȱ forȱ aȱ disciplinaryȱ strictnessȱ alsoȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ muchȱ betterȱ knownȱ Thaiȱ ThamȬ mayuttikaȱ orderȱ establishedȱ byȱ Kingȱ Mongkutȱ duringȱ hisȱ timeȱ asȱ aȱ monkȱ(1824–1851).ȱ ThisȱbookȱisȱnotȱonlyȱmeantȱforȱreadersȱinterestedȱinȱtheȱBuddhistȱ worldsȱofȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱIntendedȱasȱaȱtheoreticalȱandȱmeȬ thodologicalȱ contributionȱ toȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ religion,ȱ theȱ bookȱ examinesȱ Shwegyinȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ withȱ itsȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ especiallyȱ throughȱtheȱanalyticalȱcategoriesȱofȱtraditionȱandȱtraditionalism.ȱTheseȱ categoriesȱareȱdiscussedȱatȱlengthȱinȱchapterȱone,ȱbutȱforȱnowȱemphasisȱ canȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱinȱgeneralȱIȱtreatȱtraditionȱasȱaȱsocialȱinstiȬ tutionȱ constructedȱ aroundȱ ideasȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ disruption/rupture.ȱ Inȱdoingȱthat,ȱandȱinȱbringingȱtheȱemicȱviewpointsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱintoȱ conversationȱwithȱtheȱeticȱenterpriseȱofȱinterpretingȱtheȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱ traditionȱwithȱaȱparticularȱtypeȱofȱtraditionalism,ȱtheȱbookȱisȱmeantȱforȱ anyoneȱinterestedȱinȱquestionsȱpertainingȱtoȱreligionȱandȱsociety.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ twoȱ mainȱ argumentsȱ thatȱ emergeȱ fromȱ thisȱ study,ȱ oneȱ aboutȱ Shwegyinȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ andȱ oneȱ aboutȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ culture.ȱ Theȱ argumentȱ aboutȱ Shwegyinȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ isȱ this:ȱ theȱ conceptsȱandȱpracticesȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheȱdualȱrupȬ turesȱofȱnibb¬naȱ(nirv¬Φaȱorȱliberation)ȱandȱS¬sanaȱ(asȱaȱcollectionȱofȱtextsȱ andȱ anȱ embodiedȱ community)ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ onȱ correspondingȱ andȱ dualȱ notionsȱ ofȱ continuity,ȱ namelyȱ thoseȱ ofȱ saΚs¬raȱ (cycleȱ ofȱ rebirth)ȱ andȱ S¬sana.ȱ Iȱ suggestȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ asȱ aȱ tradition,ȱ areȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ collectiveȱ effortȱ toȱ fosterȱ appropriateȱ kindsȱ ofȱ humanȱ thoughtȱ andȱ acȬ tionȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱdualȱformsȱofȱruptureȱandȱdualȱformsȱofȱcontinuity.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ lineȱ ofȱ argumentationȱ concernsȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ culȬ tureȱ moreȱ generally.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ evidenceȱ isȱ exemplary,ȱ bothȱ ShwegyinȱandȱwiderȱBurmeseȱreligiousȱcultureȱhaveȱbeenȱandȱareȱunȬ dergoingȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȬization,ȱ byȱ whichȱ Iȱ meanȱ aȱ focusingȱ andȱ expansionȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ theȱ conceptȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱasȱwellȱasȱofȱcomponentsȱofȱthoughtȱandȱpracticeȱ associatedȱ withȱ thatȱ concept,ȱ rangingȱ fromȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ (Discipline)ȱ toȱ theȱAbhidhamma,ȱfromȱtextsȱtoȱbodies,ȱandȱfromȱvariousȱcontinuitiesȱtoȱ variousȱ ruptures.ȱ Simplyȱ put,ȱ forȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ widerȱ Burmeseȱ reliȬ giousȱculture,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱhasȱbecomeȱanȱendȱinȱandȱofȱitself,ȱandȱaroundȱ thatȱ “end”ȱ allȱ sortsȱ ofȱ extremelyȱ importantȱ developmentsȱ areȱ takingȱ place.ȱUnpackingȱwhatȱtheseȱtwoȱlinesȱofȱargumentationȱmeanȱforȱourȱ understandingȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ culturesȱ inȱ andȱ beyondȱ Myanmarȱ isȱ theȱ ultimateȱtaskȱofȱthisȱbook.ȱ WithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱevidence,ȱtheȱsubstantiveȱchaptersȱofȱ thisȱ bookȱ exploreȱ theȱ timeȱ periodȱ fromȱ aroundȱ 1860ȱ (theȱ foundingȱ ofȱ

6ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

theȱ Shwegyin)ȱ toȱ 2003ȱ (whenȱ theȱ thirdȱ ofȱ myȱ threeȱ researchȱ stintsȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ cameȱ toȱ aȱ close).ȱ Theȱ chaptersȱ addressȱ historicalȱ andȱ bioȬ graphicalȱ texts,ȱ administrativeȱ practicesȱ andȱ records,ȱ ritualȱ patterns,ȱ andȱdownȬtoȬearthȱsermonsȱonȱtheȱhighestȱreachesȱofȱBuddhistȱphilosȬ ophy.ȱ Byȱ doingȱ that,ȱ theȱ bookȱ discussesȱ relationsȱ betweenȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱtraditionȱandȱtheȱlargerȱsocioculturalȱworldȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱpartȱandȱ parcelȱofȱitsȱhistoryȱandȱdevelopment.ȱ Toȱclearȱtheȱwayȱforȱtheȱsubstantiveȱchapters,ȱthisȱintroductionȱofȬ fersȱaȱdescriptiveȱsketchȱofȱculturalȱpatternsȱwithinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱBudȬ dhistȱ monasticismȱ inȱ Asia,ȱ leadingȱ upȱ toȱ developmentsȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ andȱotherȱAsianȱlands.ȱIȱprovideȱthisȱsketchȱinȱpartȱbecauseȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱbelieveȱthatȱtheirȱhistoryȱbeginsȱwithȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱandȱ withȱparticularȱeffortsȱthatȱheȱmadeȱtoȱhelpȱpeopleȱbreakȱfreeȱofȱsufferȬ ing.ȱIȱalsoȱprovideȱthisȱsketchȱtoȱhelpȱhighlightȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱtransmissionȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱcannotȱbeȱreducedȱtoȱtheȱforcesȱofȱmodȬ ernity,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ areȱ aȱ “modern”ȱ monasticȱ organizationȱ formedȱinȱtheȱcrucibleȱofȱBritishȱcolonialȱexpansionȱintoȱMyanmar.ȱAndȱ Iȱ provideȱ theȱ sketchȱ toȱ helpȱ readersȱ seeȱ whereȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ fallȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ monasticismȱ inȱ general.ȱ Withȱ thisȱ sketchȱinȱplace,ȱtheȱintroductoryȱnarrativeȱnarrowsȱsomewhatȱandȱadȬ dressesȱ theȱ earlyȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ andȱ itȱ thenȱ alertsȱ theȱ readerȱtoȱcertainȱvicissitudesȱ ofȱ moreȱ recentȱ Burmeseȱ politicalȱhistory.ȱ Theȱintroductionȱclosesȱbyȱdistillingȱtheȱscholarlyȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱthisȱ studyȱparticipatesȱandȱbyȱoutliningȱinȱmoreȱdetailȱtheȱtrajectoryȱofȱtheȱ subsequentȱsubstantiveȱchapters.ȱ

Fromȱg¬kyamuniȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ TheȱstoryȱtoldȱinȱthisȱbookȱactuallyȱbeginsȱinȱnortheasternȱIndiaȱsomeȬ timeȱduringȱtheȱsixthȱtoȱfourthȱcenturiesȱBCE.22ȱAtȱthatȱtime,ȱIndiaȱwitȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 22ȱȱ Thisȱsection,ȱi.e.,ȱ“Fromȱg¬kyamuniȱ.ȱ.ȱ.,“ȱandȱtheȱnext,ȱi.e.,ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱMonasticȱOrgaȬ nizationȱ andȱ Practicesȱ .ȱ .ȱ .,“ȱ areȱ adaptedȱ andȱ revisedȱ fromȱ Carbineȱ 2000ȱ pp.ȱ 1117Ȭ 1120ȱ(permissionȱviaȱCopyrightȱClearanceȱCenter,ȱInc.;ȱseeȱpageȱviȱforȱfullȱinfo.)ȱandȱ ReynoldsȱandȱCarbineȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ11Ȭ14.ȱReadersȱinterestedȱinȱhistorical,ȱsocial,ȱpolitiȬ cal,ȱ andȱ culturalȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ Buddhismȱ inȱ andȱ beyondȱ Myanmar,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ whatȱisȱpresentedȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱoverview,ȱmayȱfindȱsomeȱofȱtheȱfollowingȱrepreȬ sentativeȱ worksȱ useful:ȱ AungȬThwinȱ 1985,ȱ 1998,ȱandȱ 2005,ȱ Bartholomeuszȱ 1994,ȱ BiȬ zotȱ 1988,ȱ Blackburnȱ 2001ȱ andȱ 2010,ȱ Buswellȱ 1992,ȱ Collcuttȱ 1981,ȱ Collinsȱ 1982ȱ andȱ 1998,ȱ Faureȱ 1996,ȱ Fraschȱ 1996,ȱ Gethinȱ 1998,ȱ Gunawardanaȱ 1979,ȱ Havnevikȱ 1989,ȱ HenryȱandȱSwearerȱ1989,ȱHoltȱ1991ȱandȱ2009,ȱKieschnickȱ1997,ȱKitagawaȱandȱCumȬ mings,ȱeds.,ȱ1989,ȱMalandraȱ1993,ȱMendelsonȱ1975,ȱMusȱ1998,ȱNumrichȱ1996,ȱOrzechȱ 1998,ȱ Prebishȱ 1975,ȱ Rayȱ 1994,ȱ Rozenbergȱ 2005ȱ andȱ 2010,ȱ Sarkisyanzȱ 1965,ȱ Schoberȱ

ȱ

Fromȱg¬kyamuniȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ

7ȱ

nessedȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱsocialȱchange,ȱasȱwellȱasȱintellectualȱandȱreligiousȱ fervor.ȱAmongȱ theȱ religiousȱthinkersȱ whoȱemergedȱ duringȱthisȱ periodȱ ofȱchallengeȱandȱefflorescenceȱwasȱaȱyoungȱmanȱwhoȱcameȱtoȱbeȱcalledȱ theȱGotamaȱBuddha,ȱtheȱpersonȱcreditedȱbyȱtheȱBuddhistȱtraditionȱwithȱ establishingȱ theȱ basicȱ patternsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱ intrinsicȱ toȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ orȱ monasticȱ community.ȱ Heȱ alsoȱ cameȱ toȱ beȱ calledȱ g¬kyamuni,ȱ becauseȱheȱwasȱaȱsageȱ(muni)ȱofȱtheȱg¬kyaȱpeople.ȱ Overcomeȱ byȱ visionsȱ ofȱ suffering,ȱ theȱ stillȱ youngȱ Gotamaȱ reȬ nouncedȱ hisȱ princelyȱ lifeȱ toȱ becomeȱ aȱ wanderingȱ mendicant.ȱ Heȱ beȬ cameȱ frustratedȱ inȱ hisȱ attemptsȱ toȱ learnȱ fromȱ otherȱ mendicantsȱ andȱ embarkedȱ onȱ aȱ solitaryȱ meditativeȱ questȱ inȱ searchȱ ofȱ understandingȱ intoȱ theȱ trueȱ natureȱ ofȱ lifeȱ andȱ theȱ sufferingȱ inherentȱ inȱ it.ȱ Laterȱ BudȬ dhistsȱ believedȱ thatȱ Gotama’sȱ meditativeȱ questȱ culminatedȱ inȱ aȱ treȬ mendousȱamountȱofȱinsight:ȱheȱbecameȱaȱBuddhaȱbyȱmakingȱtheȱradiȬ calȱruptureȱoutȱofȱtheȱcycleȱofȱrebirthȱ(S.ȱsaΚs¬ra).ȱ Accordingȱtoȱvariousȱsources,ȱg¬kyamuniȱunderstoodȱthatȱallȱexisȬ tence,ȱ includingȱ allȱ sentientȱ life,ȱ wasȱ constitutedȱ byȱ compositeȱ mentalȱ andȱphysicalȱentitiesȱthatȱareȱsubjectȱtoȱaȱvirtuallyȱendlessȱcycleȱofȱdisȬ solutionȱ andȱ reconstitution,ȱ ofȱ deathȱ andȱ rebirth.ȱ Heȱ realizedȱ thatȱ deȬ sire—especiallyȱtheȱdesireȱforȱselfȬpreservation—wasȱtheȱprimaryȱforceȱ thatȱdrivesȱthisȱcycle.ȱHeȱknewȱthatȱone’sȱentrapmentȱinȱthisȱcycleȱcouldȱ beȱ overcomeȱ byȱ theȱ mindfulȱ practiceȱ ofȱ aȱ “middleȱ path”ȱ thatȱ avoidedȱ theȱ twoȱ extremesȱ ofȱ selfȬindulgenceȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ handȱ andȱ anȱ overlyȱ austereȱ lifestyleȱ onȱ theȱ other.ȱ g¬kyamuniȱ preachedȱ thisȱ basicȱ messageȱ inȱaȱmultitudeȱofȱformsȱoverȱtheȱfiftyȱorȱsoȱyearsȱthatȱfollowedȱhisȱenȬ lightenmentȱuntilȱhisȱdeath.ȱ Normativelyȱspeaking,ȱthisȱbasicȱmessageȱ underpinnedȱtheȱearliestȱethosȱofȱtheȱsaΤgha.ȱ Theȱethosȱofȱtheȱearlyȱmonasticȱcommunityȱwasȱpreserved,ȱatȱfirstȱ orallyȱ andȱ laterȱ inȱ writtenȱ form,ȱ inȱ aȱ collectionȱ knownȱ asȱ theȱ VinayaȬ piΞakaȱorȱ“BasketȱofȱDiscipline.”ȱThisȱbasketȱcontainedȱtheȱvariousȱreguȬ lationsȱ forȱ theȱ monasticȱ community,ȱ includingȱ theȱ pr¬timokΨa,ȱ aȱ listȱ ofȱ codesȱofȱconductȱ(seeȱbelow).ȱTheȱVinayaȱandȱsubsequentȱVinayaȱliteraȬ tureȱ (commentaries,ȱ handbooks,ȱ andȱ theȱ like)ȱ haveȱ remainedȱessentialȱ toȱ theȱ communalȱ andȱ liturgicalȱ constitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ andȱ itsȱ selfȬ identificationȱwithȱtheȱlifeȱandȱteachingsȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ Sinceȱ itsȱbeginningsȱ underȱ theȱ guidanceȱofȱtheȱ Buddha,ȱtheȱsaΤghaȱ hasȱgreatlyȱfacilitatedȱtheȱhistoricalȱdevelopmentȱofȱBuddhism.ȱThoughȱ modestȱinȱitsȱ beginnings,ȱ theȱsaΤghaȱeventuallyȱ grewȱinȱsizeȱ toȱ consistȱ ofȱ majorȱ institutionalȱ bodiesȱ responsibleȱ forȱ theȱ preservationȱ ofȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2005ȱandȱ2010,ȱSchopenȱ1997,ȱSilberȱ1995,ȱStrongȱ1992,ȱSwearerȱ2004ȱandȱ2005,ȱTamȬ biahȱ1984,ȱTeiserȱ1988,ȱVeidlingerȱ2006,ȱWijayaratnaȱ1990,ȱWilsonȱ1996.ȱ

8ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

purportedȱ teachingsȱ andȱ practicesȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ theȱ ordinationȱ ofȱ novicesȱandȱmonks,ȱandȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱprotectiveȱ ritualsȱintendedȱtoȱsafeguardȱtheȱlayȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcommunity.ȱ AȱsignificantȱcontributionȱofȱtheȱsaΤghaȱwasȱitsȱroleȱinȱtheȱtransmisȬ sionȱ ofȱ Buddhismȱ toȱ landsȱ beyondȱ theȱ Indianȱ context.ȱ Thisȱ transmisȬ sionȱ beganȱ inȱ aȱ seriousȱ wayȱ withȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ theȱ Indianȱ monarchȱ Aïokaȱ (r.ȱ ca.ȱ 270–230ȱ BCE),ȱ rememberedȱ byȱ laterȱ Buddhistsȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ Dharmar¬jaȱorȱ righteousȱ king.ȱWhileȱ itȱisȱ notȱ absolutelyȱ clearȱfromȱ theȱ historicalȱevidenceȱthatȱAïokaȱwasȱpersonallyȱaȱBuddhist,ȱheȱnonetheȬ lessȱ providedȱ majorȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ cause.ȱ Amongȱ otherȱ acȬ tions,ȱheȱsentȱBuddhistȱmonasticȱemissariesȱtoȱareasȱbeyondȱhisȱrealm.ȱ Fromȱ hisȱ reignȱ forward,ȱ suchȱ travellingȱ monksȱ occupiedȱ anȱ essentialȱ positionȱ inȱ theȱ floweringȱ ofȱ Buddhismȱ asȱ aȱ panȬAsianȱ religiousȱ tradiȬ tion,ȱasȱwellȱasȱinȱtheȱriseȱofȱdistinctiveȱculturalȱformsȱofȱtheȱtradition.ȱ Theȱ highȱ waterȱ markȱ ofȱ Buddhismȱ asȱ aȱ panȬAsianȱ religiousȱ tradiȬ tionȱ(fourthȱtoȱsixthȱcenturiesȱCE)ȱwitnessedȱtheȱtransregionalȱpassageȱ ofȱ monksȱ alongȱ bothȱ landȱ andȱ seaȱ tradeȱ routes.ȱ Thisȱ characterȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ traditionȱ eventuallyȱ brokeȱ down,ȱ butȱ acculturationȱ toȱ localȱ customsȱ inȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ areasȱ toȱ whichȱ Buddhismȱ spreadȱ ledȱ toȱ majorȱ innovationsȱ inȱ monasticȱ lifeȱ andȱ practice.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ areas—includingȱ China,ȱ Japan,ȱ Korea,ȱ Tibet,ȱ Thailand,ȱ Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ Myanmar,ȱ Vietnam,ȱ Cambodia,ȱ andȱ Laos—Buddhistȱ monasticȱ traditionsȱ developedȱ theirȱ ownȱdistinctiveȱcharacter.23ȱ Twoȱ developmentsȱ wereȱ centralȱ toȱ theȱ longȬtermȱ successȱ thatȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ saΤghaȱachievedȱinȱbothȱ itsȱpanȬAsianȱandȱculturallyȱ specificȱ expressions.ȱFirst,ȱwhileȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱwanderingȱmonksȱremainedȱaȱ vitalȱcomponentȱofȱmonasticȱpractice,ȱmanyȱmonksȱdecidedȱtoȱforgoȱitȱ inȱ favorȱ ofȱ livingȱ inȱ permanentȱ residences.ȱ Thisȱ development,ȱ whichȱ probablyȱ beganȱ duringȱ theȱ lifetimeȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ wasȱ facilitatedȱ byȱ giftȱgivingȱfromȱlayȱpatronsȱsuchȱasȱkingsȱandȱwealthyȱmerchantsȱandȱ families.ȱSuchȱgiftsȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱmonasteriesȱandȱtemȬ plesȱ asȱ centersȱ ofȱ missionaryȱ work,ȱ scripturalȱ study,ȱ philosophicalȱ speculation,ȱ artisticȱ innovation,ȱ andȱ retreat.ȱ Byȱ aboutȱ theȱ fifthȱ centuryȱ CE,ȱ largeȬscaleȱ monasticȱ centersȱ appearedȱ onȱ theȱ scene,ȱ andȱ inȱ manyȱ casesȱ theyȱ servedȱ asȱ majorȱ sitesȱ ofȱ learning,ȱ attractingȱ scholarsȱ fromȱ variousȱregionsȱacrossȱtheȱBuddhistȱworld.ȱ AȱsecondȱdevelopmentȱimportantȱforȱtheȱsaΤgha’sȱlongȬtermȱsuccessȱ wasȱ aȱ broadȱ butȱ stillȱ significantȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ life.ȱ Ideally,ȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ wasȱ theȱ communalȱ bodyȱ thatȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ interpretationȱandȱexemplificationȱofȱtheȱBuddha’sȱmessage.ȱThisȱkindȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 23ȱ AȱcaseȱinȱpointȱisȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱBuddhistȱmassesȱforȱtheȱdeadȱinȱmedievalȱChina.ȱ

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ofȱfocusȱunderpinnedȱtheȱsaΤgha’sȱroleȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱ“threeȱrefuges”ȱinȱ Buddhism,ȱ theȱ otherȱ twoȱ refugesȱ beingȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ theȱ Dharmaȱ (theȱ teachings).24ȱForȱtheirȱpart,ȱ theȱlaityȱ tookȱ increasingȱ responsibilityȱ for,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱtheȱmaterialȱcareȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.25ȱ Theseȱ twoȱ developmentsȱ greatlyȱ impactedȱ howȱ Buddhistsȱ conȬ ceivedȱsociopoliticalȱ order,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ monksȱ withinȱit.ȱ Theȱ kingȱorȱrulerȱwasȱtoȱbeȱtheȱidealȱlayȱpatron,ȱsupportedȱinȱhisȱendeavorsȱ byȱhisȱlayȱsubordinates,ȱwhileȱmonks,ȱperformingȱprotectiveȱritualsȱonȱ behalfȱ ofȱtheȱstate,ȱalsoȱactedȱ asȱadvisorsȱ toȱ theȱ throne.ȱInȱ thisȱregard,ȱ theȱAïokanȱparadigmȱhasȱbeenȱabsolutelyȱessentialȱtoȱmanyȱlaterȱBudȬ dhistȱsocieties,ȱparticularlyȱthoseȱinȱSriȱLankaȱandȱtheȱBuddhistȱlandsȱofȱ Thailand,ȱ Myanmar,ȱ Laos,ȱ andȱ Cambodia;ȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ kingsȱ inȱ theseȱ areasȱwereȱevenȱseenȱasȱbodhisattvasȱorȱfutureȱBuddhas.ȱEvenȱtheȱpostȬ independenceȱsituationȱinȱMyanmarȱcontinuesȱtoȱexemplifyȱthisȱturnȱtoȱ theȱAïokanȱheritage,ȱamongȱpoliticosȱandȱmonksȱalike.ȱThere,ȱtheȱpolitȬ ical/militaryȱ elitesȱ stillȱ quiteȱ consciouslyȱ drawȱ onȱ modelsȱ ofȱ kingshipȱ andȱpolityȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱAïokanȱscheme,ȱandȱmanyȱmonksȱhaveȱactedȱ onȱ theirȱ behalfȱ orȱ inȱ concertȱ withȱ them.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ significantȱ outcomesȱ ofȱ thisȱ typeȱ ofȱ jointȱ actionȱ wasȱ theȱ Sixthȱ Buddhistȱ Councilȱ heldȱinȱMyanmarȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱtwentiethȱcentury.26ȱ

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱMonasticȱOrganizationȱandȱPracticesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ Initiallyȱcomprisedȱofȱaȱfewȱdevoutȱdisciples,ȱtheȱsaΤghaȱgrewȱconsiderȬ ablyȱ evenȱ beforeȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ death.ȱ Fromȱ anȱ earlyȱ timeȱ forward,ȱ itȱ probablyȱ consistedȱ ofȱ bothȱ monksȱ (S.ȱ bhikΨus)ȱ andȱ nunsȱ (S.ȱ bhikΨuΦÎs).ȱ LaterȱtraditionsȱrecordȱthatȱtheȱBuddhaȱwasȱatȱfirstȱresistantȱtoȱadmitȬ tingȱwomenȱintoȱtheȱmonasticȱorder.ȱSustainedȱpetitionȱfromȱoneȱofȱhisȱ leadingȱ disciplesȱ isȱ thoughtȱ toȱ haveȱ ledȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ toȱ allowȱ womenȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 24ȱȱ WhenȱusingȱDharma/DhammaȱinȱtheȱsenseȱofȱtheȱteachingsȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱIȱcapitalizeȱ itȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱreaderȱclarity.ȱ 25ȱ Oneȱofȱtheȱbroadȱareasȱofȱoverlapȱbetweenȱmonasticȱandȱlayȱlifeȱhasȱconcernedȱtheȱ culticȱactivitiesȱsurroundingȱrelicsȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱotherȱBuddhistȱsaints.ȱ 26ȱ Ofȱcourse,ȱotherȱvisionsȱofȱBuddhistȱpolityȱandȱitsȱrelationshipȱtoȱmonasticȱlifeȱhaveȱ occurredȱ throughoutȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ world.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ theȱ seventeenthȱ centuryȱ Tibetanȱ Buddhistsȱ successfullyȱ establishedȱ aȱ theocracyȱ underȱ theȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ monks—knownȱasȱtheȱDalaiȱLamas—upheldȱasȱsuccessiveȱincarnationsȱofȱtheȱbodhiȬ sattvaȱ Avalokiteïvaraȱ (aȱ bodhisattvaȱ isȱ aȱ typeȱ ofȱ spirituallyȱ advancedȱ being).ȱ Andȱ T’angȱDynastyȱChinaȱwitnessedȱaȱvisionȱofȱaȱBuddhistȱpolityȱpresidedȱoverȱbyȱEsoȬ tericȱBuddhistȱmasterȱ(theȱ¬c¬rya)ȱandȱSonȱofȱHeaven.ȱForȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱChineseȱcaseȱ seeȱOrzechȱ1998.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

entry,ȱ butȱ onlyȱ withȱ theȱ addedȱ caveatȱ thatȱ theyȱ rankȱ subordinateȱ toȱ monks,ȱevenȱtheȱmostȱjunior.ȱTheȱBuddhaȱisȱalsoȱsaidȱtoȱhaveȱissuedȱaȱ statementȱtoȱtheȱeffectȱthatȱtheȱmoveȱwouldȱsignificantlyȱspeedȱupȱtheȱ disruptionȱandȱdisappearanceȱofȱhisȱteachings.27ȱ Theȱ purportedȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ earlyȱ monksȱ andȱ nunsȱ notȬ withstanding,ȱ theȱ evidenceȱ inȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ literatureȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ earlyȱ saΤghaȱ wasȱ foundedȱ alongȱ democraticȱ andȱ antiȬauthoritarianȱ lines.ȱStrictlyȱspeaking,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱwasȱregardedȱasȱtheȱmostȱ importantȱ authorityȱ forȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ whileȱ heȱ wasȱ alive.ȱ However,ȱ afterȱ hisȱ deathȱ noȱ individualȱ monkȱ wasȱ investedȱ withȱ supremeȱ authorityȱ overȱ theȱ saΤgha.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ earlyȱ literatureȱ statesȱ thatȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ leftȱ explicitȱ instructionsȱ toȱ hisȱ disciplesȱ toȱ beȱ governedȱ byȱ theȱ Dharma.ȱ Questionsȱwereȱtoȱbeȱdecidedȱcommunallyȱbyȱvote,ȱwithȱconsentȱforȱaȱ givenȱ ideaȱ orȱ solutionȱ signaledȱ byȱ silence.ȱ Further,ȱ seniorityȱ inȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ wasȱ determinedȱ onlyȱ byȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ yearsȱ inȱ robes.ȱ UnwitȬ tingly,ȱ perhaps,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ setȱ inȱ motionȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ basicȱ featuresȱ ofȱ fragmentationȱthatȱhasȱhistoricallyȱpervadedȱBuddhistȱmonasticism.ȱ Theȱ antiȬauthoritarianȱ andȱ democraticȱ emphasisȱ ofȱ theȱ earlyȱ BudȬ dhistȱ communityȱ wasȱ strainedȱ byȱ theȱ demandsȱ ofȱ largeȬscaleȱ settledȱ monasticȱlife.ȱSuchȱdemandsȱwereȱoftentimesȱrespondedȱtoȱwithȱformalȱ divisionsȱ ofȱ laborȱ andȱ rigidȱ administrativeȱ hierarchiesȱ thatȱ placedȱ aȱ greatȱdealȱofȱpowerȱinȱtheȱhandsȱofȱparticularȱmonks.ȱItȱwasȱ(andȱis)ȱnotȱ uncommonȱ forȱ leadingȱ orȱ seniorȱ monks—throughoutȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ world—toȱ assumeȱ aȱ greatȱ dealȱ ofȱ authorityȱ overȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ theirȱ particularȱorderȱorȱbranchȱofȱtheȱsaΤgha.ȱForȱexample,ȱwhenȱBuddhismȱ becameȱ entrenchedȱ amongȱ theȱ Burmese,ȱ itȱ eventuallyȱ witnessedȱ apȬ pointmentsȱ ofȱ aȱ “Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ puiΤе,ȱ qaqnapuic)\ .28ȱ Asȱ withȱotherȱmonasticȱhierarchiesȱinȱtheȱBuddhistȱworld,ȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱ considerableȱdegreeȱofȱvariationȱinȱhowȱsuchȱSaΤghaȬr¬jasȱ(“communiȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 27ȱ Theȱironyȱis,ȱ perhaps,ȱ thatȱwhileȱtheȱBuddhistȱ teachingsȱhaveȱsurvived,ȱ theȱofficialȱ orderȱofȱBuddhistȱnunsȱdiedȱoutȱinȱtheȱBuddhistȱworldȱofȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱ sometimeȱduringȱtheȱlatterȱhalfȱofȱfirstȱmillenniumȱCE.ȱThisȱhasȱbeenȱtakenȱbyȱsomeȱ inȱthoseȱareasȱtoȱbeȱaȱ signȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱdeclineȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheȱofficialȱ orderȱofȱ nunsȱdidȱnotȱvanishȱinȱvariousȱotherȱAsianȱcontexts,ȱandȱthereȱhaveȱbeenȱeffortsȱtoȱ reinvigorateȱtraditionsȱofȱbhikkhunÎȱ(bhikΨuΦÎ)ȱorȱbhikkhunÎȬlikeȱcommunitiesȱthroughȬ outȱSriȱLankaȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱTheȱthilaȬshinȱ(B.ȱsÎlaȱrhaΤе,ȱqIl rHc\,ȱlit.ȱ“upholdersȱofȱ precepts”)ȱinȱMyanmarȱareȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint.ȱThoughȱnotȱrecognizedȱasȱfullyȱordainedȱ nuns,ȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱencouragedȱtoȱthriveȱbyȱShwegyinȱmonksȱasȱwellȱasȱothers.ȱForȱ studiesȱofȱBurmeseȱnunsȱandȱwomen,ȱseeȱKawanamiȱ1990,ȱ1997,ȱ2000,ȱ2001ȱandȱ2007,ȱ andȱJordtȱ2005ȱandȱ2007.ȱ 28ȱ Fromȱhereȱforward,ȱtransliterationsȱandȱBurmeseȱspellingsȱareȱincludedȱinȱtheȱbodyȱ ofȱtheȱstudy.ȱ

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tyȬkings”/“Headsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”)ȱ haveȱ beenȱ appointed,ȱ andȱ inȱ howȱ theirȱauthorityȱhasȱbeenȱexercised.ȱ TheȱearlyȱsaΤghaȱwasȱalsoȱcharacterizedȱbyȱtwoȱtypesȱofȱinjunctionsȱ thatȱ setȱ theȱ basicȱ parametersȱ ofȱ interactionȱ withȱ theȱ laity.ȱ Oneȱ typeȱ ofȱ injunctionȱ encouragedȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ toȱ wanderȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱforȱtheȱ“benefitȱofȱtheȱmany.”29ȱTheyȱwereȱtoȱpreachȱsermonsȱtoȱ thoseȱ whoȱ wouldȱ listen,ȱ debateȱ withȱ thoseȱ whoȱ wished,ȱ andȱ collectȱ almsȱ fromȱ thoseȱ whoȱ wantedȱ toȱ offerȱ them.ȱ Inȱ theseȱ capacities,ȱ theȱ monksȱwereȱtoȱactȱasȱ“fieldsȱofȱmerit”ȱ(S.ȱpuΦyaȬkΨetra)ȱforȱtheȱlaityȱbyȱ providingȱ themȱ withȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ cultivateȱ statesȱ ofȱ mindȱ andȱ storesȱ ofȱ karmaȱ conduciveȱ toȱ positiveȱ retributionȱ inȱ thisȱ lifeȱ andȱ theȱ next.ȱInȱshort,ȱmonksȱwereȱtoȱaffordȱtheȱlaityȱandȱotherȱmonasticsȱalikeȱ withȱanȱoccasionȱtoȱcultivateȱreligiousȱmeritȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱenhanceȱ theȱqualityȱofȱtheirȱcontinuityȱinȱsaΚs¬ra.ȱ DifferentȱBuddhistsȱunderstoodȱtheȱspecificȱdynamicsȱofȱthisȱcultiȬ vationȱofȱmeritȱinȱdifferentȱways.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱitȱwasȱbelievedȱthatȱ certainȱmonksȱhadȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱmeritȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱtransferȱtoȱothȬ ers.ȱ Thisȱ oftenȱ encouragedȱ anȱ emphasisȱ onȱ givingȱ giftsȱ toȱ monksȱ ofȱ highȱ regard.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ alsoȱ stressedȱ wasȱ theȱ notionȱ thatȱ giftȱ givingȱtoȱmonksȱprovidedȱaȱcontextȱforȱtheȱgiftȬgiverȱtoȱcalmȱone’sȱownȱ mind—anȱimportantȱprerequisiteȱforȱtheȱacquisitionȱofȱmeritȱforȱandȱbyȱ oneselfȱandȱforȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱaȱbreakthroughȱtoȱnirv¬Φa.ȱ Aȱ secondȱ typeȱ ofȱ injunctionȱ forȱ theȱ earlyȱ saΤghaȱ focusedȱ onȱ abstiȬ nenceȱfromȱpersonalȱengagementȱinȱtheȱmundaneȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱworld— suchȱasȱpolitics,ȱtheȱacquisitionȱofȱwealth,ȱkillingȱ(evenȱofȱinsectsȱwhenȬ everȱpossible),ȱsexualȱactivity,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱItȱwasȱarguedȱthatȱthisȱabȬ stinence,ȱaugmentedȱbyȱardentȱstrivingȱonȱtheȱmiddleȱpath,ȱcouldȱleadȱ toȱreligiousȱattainmentȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱtheȱflourishingȱofȱtheȱteachings.ȱ Theȱmiddleȱpathȱitselfȱconsistedȱofȱthreeȱbasicȱcomponents:ȱethicalȱ conductȱ (S.ȱ ïÎla),ȱ mentalȱ concentrationȱ (S.ȱ sam¬dhi),ȱ andȱ wisdomȱ (S.ȱ prajñ¬).ȱ Thisȱ pathȱ wasȱ alsoȱ identifiedȱ asȱ theȱ nobleȱ eightfoldȱ path,ȱ beȬ causeȱ wisdomȱ consistedȱofȱ twoȱ factorsȱ (rightȱ understandingȱ andȱ rightȱ thought);ȱethicalȱconductȱofȱthreeȱfactorsȱ(rightȱspeech,ȱrightȱaction,ȱandȱ rightȱ livelihood);ȱ andȱ mentalȱ concentrationȱ ofȱ threeȱ factorsȱ asȱ wellȱ (rightȱeffort,ȱrightȱmindfulness,ȱandȱrightȱconcentration).ȱ Whenȱtakenȱtogether,ȱtheȱtwoȱtypesȱofȱinjunctionsȱforȱmonasticȱlifeȱ highlightȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ idealȱ activityȱ ofȱ theȱ earlyȱ Buddhistȱ monkȱ consistedȱofȱbegging,ȱwandering,ȱpreaching,ȱpoverty,ȱmeditation,ȱnonȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 29ȱ Inȱ someȱ contemporaryȱ situations,ȱ thisȱ injunctionȱ toȱ wanderȱ forthȱ forȱ theȱ manyȱ hasȱ beenȱusedȱasȱaȱbackdropȱforȱactivistȱmonksȱseekingȱtoȱbringȱaboutȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱ andȱpoliticalȱchange.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

violence,ȱ sexualȱ abstinence,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ intentionalȱ effortsȱ toȱ avoidȱ and/orȱ resolveȱ communalȱ conflict.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ theȱ earlyȱ monasticȱ wasȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ livingȱ embodimentȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ teachings.ȱ Thatȱ beingȱ said,ȱ accountsȱofȱDevadattaȱ(aȱcousinȱofȱtheȱBuddha)ȱandȱotherȱtroubleȱmakȬ ersȱsuggestȱthatȱthisȱidealȱwasȱnotȱalwaysȱrealized.30ȱ Forȱ theȱ earlyȱ Buddhistȱ monasticȱ community,ȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ theȱ middleȱ pathȱ entailedȱ aȱ lifestyleȱ thatȱ alternatedȱ betweenȱ periodsȱ ofȱ wanderingȱ andȱ periodsȱ ofȱ temporaryȱ settlementȱ duringȱ theȱ rainyȱ seaȬ sonȱ(fromȱJulyȱtoȱAugust).ȱBothȱperiodsȱinvolvedȱbeggingȱforȱalmsȱandȱ otherȱrequisites,ȱasȱwellȱasȱstudyȱunderȱtheȱguidanceȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱor,ȱ afterȱ hisȱ death,ȱ underȱ theȱ tutelageȱ ofȱ seniorȱ orȱ moreȱ knowledgeableȱ monks.ȱItȱisȱinterestingȱtoȱnoteȱinȱtheseȱregardsȱthatȱtheȱSanskritȱwordȱ forȱBuddhistȱmonk,ȱbhikΨu,ȱcanȱbeȱliterallyȱtranslatedȱasȱ“beggar.”ȱTheȱ Buddhistȱmonkȱwasȱtoȱacceptȱhisȱpositionȱasȱaȱreligiousȱseekerȱindebtedȱ toȱ othersȱ forȱ theȱ toolsȱ (food,ȱ religiousȱ knowledge,ȱ lodging,ȱ and,ȱ ifȱ theȱ occasionȱwarrantedȱit,ȱprotectionȱfromȱphysicalȱharm)ȱthatȱwouldȱallowȱ himȱtoȱstriveȱforȱhisȱownȱsalvation.ȱ Toȱfacilitateȱtheȱproperȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱmiddleȱpath,ȱandȱtoȱprovideȱ theȱmeansȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱtheȱproblemsȱofȱaȱrapidlyȱexpandingȱmonasticȱ body,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ institutedȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ codesȱ forȱ theȱ regulationȱofȱmonasticȱlife.ȱTheseȱgovernedȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱinȱ bothȱ itsȱ wanderingȱ andȱ settledȱ phases.ȱ Theȱ codes,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ preȬ eminentȱpositionȱaccordedȱtoȱthemȱwithinȱtheȱdomainȱofȱmonasticȱlife,ȱ persistedȱ asȱ aȱ hallmarkȱ ofȱ theȱ earlyȱ saΤgha.ȱ Followingȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ death,ȱ theȱearlyȱcommunityȱcontinuedȱtoȱ alternateȱbetweenȱ periodsȱ ofȱ wanderingȱandȱtemporaryȱsettlement.ȱHowever,ȱduringȱtheȱlatterȱofȱtheȱ twoȱ phases,ȱtheseȱearlyȱmonksȱ wouldȱaffirmȱ theirȱsolidarityȱ andȱ comȬ mitmentȱtoȱtheȱBuddhistȱpathȱthroughȱaȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱpr¬timokΨa.ȱTheȱ preciseȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ earliestȱ pr¬timokΨaȱ isȱ debatable,ȱ butȱ itȱ probablyȱ consistedȱ ofȱ basicȱ rulesȱ pertainingȱ toȱ theȱ disciplineȱ laidȱ downȱ byȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱTheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱpr¬timokΨaȱtookȱplaceȱduringȱaȱcommunalȱ ceremonyȱ (S.ȱ poΨadha),ȱ aȱ ceremonyȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ laityȱ mightȱ haveȱ alsoȱ participated.ȱ Theȱ pr¬timokΨaȱ wasȱ eventuallyȱ preservedȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ canonicalȱ literatureȱ dealingȱ withȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ (discipline)ȱ ofȱ theȱ saΤgha.ȱ Theȱ historicalȱ evidenceȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ fromȱ theȱ firstȱ centuryȱ BCEȱ onȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 30ȱ Theȱ idealȱ forȱ theȱ earlyȱ Buddhistȱ monasticȱ practitionerȱ clearlyȱ influencedȱ laterȱ moȬ nasticȱ practice,ȱ butȱ theȱ idealȱ wasȱ notȱ withoutȱ reinterpretationȱ inȱ manyȱ contexts.ȱ SomeȱtraditionsȱofȱTibetȱandȱJapanȱhaveȱpermitted—asȱpartȱofȱaȱcarefullyȱenactedȱriȬ tualȱorȱvisualizedȱmeditativeȱprogram—violationsȱofȱtraditionalȱprohibitionsȱagainstȱ sexualȱ activity.ȱ Vowsȱ ofȱ povertyȱ tendedȱ toȱ becomeȱ moribundȱ inȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ monasticȱ contexts,ȱ especiallyȱ becauseȱ ofȱ layȱ giving.ȱ Andȱ Buddhistȱ warriorȱ monksȱ wereȱaȱfeatureȱofȱmedievalȱJapaneseȱpoliticalȱlife.ȱ

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ward,ȱ suchȱ literatureȱ becameȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ prominentȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ panȬAsianȱandȱculturalȱspreadȱofȱBuddhism.ȱ Theȱ specificȱ numberȱ ofȱ rulesȱ inȱ theȱ pr¬timokΨaȱ sectionsȱ ofȱ theȱ variȬ ousȱBuddhistȱcanonsȱhasȱdiffered.ȱTypically,ȱmoreȱrulesȱwereȱlistedȱforȱ nunsȱthanȱforȱmonks.ȱDespiteȱtheseȱdifferencesȱacrossȱtextsȱandȱgender,ȱ theȱrulesȱasȱaȱwholeȱremainȱbasicallyȱtheȱsameȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱethicalȱ andȱpracticalȱcontent.ȱTheyȱidentifyȱtheȱmajorȱinfractions—sexualȱinterȬ course,ȱ murder,ȱ theft,ȱ andȱ boastingȱ aboutȱ one’sȱ magicalȱ powers—thatȱ indicateȱthatȱsomeoneȱisȱunworthyȱtoȱproceedȱonȱtheȱmonasticȱpathȱandȱ thatȱ thusȱ justifyȱ expulsionȱ fromȱ theȱ saΤgha.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ specifyȱ theȱ lessȱ severeȱ transgressionsȱ thatȱ requireȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ expiation.ȱ Recitationȱ ofȱ theȱ pr¬timokΨaȱ afterȱ aȱ confessionȱ ceremonyȱ everyȱ fortnightȱ (aroundȱ theȱfullȱandȱnewȱmoons)ȱremainsȱimportantȱinȱmanyȱmonasticȱcontexts.ȱ Theȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱpr¬timokΨaȱandȱtheȱsenseȱofȱcommunalȱidentityȱ itȱ fosteredȱ haveȱ beenȱ complementedȱ andȱ enhancedȱ byȱ otherȱ monasticȱ ritualsȱorȱliturgies.ȱTheseȱincludedȱfullȱordinationsȱofȱmonksȱthatȱwereȱ requiredȱtoȱtakeȱplaceȱwithinȱofficiallyȱestablishedȱboundariesȱofȱsomeȱ sortȱ toȱ whichȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ performingȱ theȱ riteȱ consented.ȱ (Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ ordinationȱ ofȱ women,ȱ bothȱ monksȱ andȱ nunsȱ wereȱ requiredȱtoȱparticipate.)ȱOrdinationȱpatternsȱhaveȱchangedȱfromȱschoolȱ toȱ school,ȱ andȱ monasticsȱ ofȱ differentȱ schoolsȱ haveȱ maintainedȱ variousȱ degreesȱ ofȱ inclusivenessȱ andȱ exclusivenessȱ relativeȱ toȱ theirȱ ordinationȱ procedures,ȱ andȱ haveȱ oftenȱ usedȱ theseȱ proceduresȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ toȱ claimȱ andȱassertȱdisciplinaryȱandȱdoctrinalȱfidelityȱtoȱtheirȱunderstandingȱofȱ whoȱtheȱBuddhaȱwas.ȱ Likewise,ȱ theȱ preservationȱ ofȱ certainȱ typesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ literatureȱ (includingȱbutȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱVinayaȱliterature)ȱhasȱbeenȱaȱpracticeȱcenȬ tralȱ toȱ theȱ identityȱ ofȱ differentȱ monasticȱ traditionsȱ andȱ theirȱ religiousȱ goals.ȱ Someȱ monasticȱ traditions,ȱ sometimesȱ identifiedȱ pejorativelyȱ byȱ competitorsȱasȱHÎnay¬naȱ(“LesserȱVehicle”),ȱtendedȱtoȱfocusȱtheirȱenerȬ giesȱonȱaȱrelativelyȱconservativeȱtransmissionȱofȱtheȱtextsȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱ teachingsȱ ofȱ g¬kyamuniȱ Buddha.ȱ Theirȱ textsȱ alsoȱ extolledȱ theȱ attainȬ mentȱ ofȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ anȱ arahant,ȱ aȱ fullyȱ perfectedȱ saintȱ whoȱ madeȱ theȱ radicalȱ breakthroughȱ toȱ theȱ liberatedȱ stateȱ ofȱ nirv¬Φa.ȱ Theȱ monkȱ whoȱ stroveȱtoȱbeȱanȱarahantȱwasȱultimatelyȱrequiredȱtoȱengageȱinȱtheȱsolitaryȱ meditativeȱ questȱ laidȱ downȱ byȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ ultimateȱ requirementȱ wasȱ oftenȱ temperedȱ byȱ aȱ moreȱ immediateȱ emphasisȱ onȱ transmittingȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ teachingsȱ andȱ practices,ȱ identifiedȱ withinȱ Pali31ȱ sourcesȱ asȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ dividedȱ intoȱ threeȱ majorȱ components:ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 31ȱ Paliȱ isȱ theȱ “Latin”ȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ traditionȱ thatȱ hasȱ comeȱ toȱ predominateȱ inȱ Sriȱ LankaȱandȱmainlandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

theȱ pariyattiȬS¬sanaȱ orȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ studied;ȱ theȱ paΞipattiȬS¬sanaȱ orȱ S¬sanaȱasȱitȱisȱputȱintoȱdailyȱpractices;ȱandȱtheȱpaΞivedhaȬS¬sanaȱorȱS¬sanaȱ asȱitȱisȱexperiencedȱasȱaȱfruitȱofȱstudyȱandȱpractice.ȱ Mah¬y¬naȱ (“Greaterȱ Vehicle”)ȱ monksȱ playedȱ anȱ importantȱ roleȱ inȱ theȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱnewȱkindȱofȱtextȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱBuddha.ȱTheseȱ textsȱ recordedȱ sermonsȱ preachedȱ byȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ toȱ specialȱ audiencesȱ comprisedȱofȱhisȱmostȱadeptȱdisciples,ȱassembledȱinȱ specialȱ timesȱ andȱ places.ȱ Suchȱ newȱ Mah¬y¬naȱ textsȱ affirmedȱ aȱ religiousȱ goalȱ thatȱ exȬ pandedȱuponȱideasȱalsoȱpreservedȱinȱPaliȱsourcesȱandȱperhapsȱpresentȱ evenȱinȱtheȱearliestȱformulationsȱofȱBuddhistȱthoughtȱandȱpractice.ȱTheȱ goalȱwasȱbecomingȱaȱbodhisattva,ȱaȱbeingȱwhoȱcultivatedȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱ meritȱandȱpower,ȱandȱwho,ȱoutȱofȱcompassionȱforȱtheȱworld,ȱintentionȬ allyȱ retainedȱ aȱ smallȱ measureȱ ofȱ theȱ defilementsȱ thatȱ keptȱ himȱ orȱ herȱ boundȱ withinȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ deathȱ andȱ rebirth.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ theȱ bodhisatȬ tva—anȱ exemplarȱ forȱ bothȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ practice—couldȱ useȱ bothȱ powerȱandȱinsightȱtoȱworkȱforȱtheȱsalvationȱofȱallȱbeings.ȱ Yetȱ otherȱ monksȱ (variouslyȱ identifiedȱ asȱ Esoteric,ȱ Vajray¬na,ȱ TanȬ tric,ȱetc.)ȱpreservedȱyetȱmoreȱtypesȱofȱtextsȱthatȱemphasizedȱmeditativeȱ techniquesȱ andȱ ritualȱ practicesȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ capableȱ ofȱ rapidlyȱ proȬ ducingȱ tremendousȱ amountsȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ insightȱ andȱ magicalȱ power.ȱ Manyȱ ofȱ theseȱ textsȱ haveȱ beenȱ preservedȱ inȱ aȱ wayȱ thatȱ makesȱ themȱ extremelyȱ difficultȱ toȱ understand.ȱ Thisȱ mannerȱ ofȱ preservationȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱfurtherȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱrelationship—importantȱinȱmostȱifȱnotȱallȱ Buddhistȱmonasticȱtraditions—betweenȱaȱdiscipleȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱmoreȱ spirituallyȱ adeptȱ mentor.ȱ Personalȱ guidanceȱ byȱ aȱ master,ȱ sometimesȱ perceivedȱ asȱ aȱ “livingȱ Buddha,”ȱ wasȱ aȱ prerequisiteȱ forȱ anyȱ possibleȱ achievementȱofȱspiritualȱadvancementȱalongȱtheȱpathȱtoȱenlightenment.ȱ Importantly,ȱ someȱ ofȱ theseȱ Mah¬y¬naȱ andȱ Esoteric/Tantricȱ BudȬ dhistȱ traditions,ȱ monasticȱ andȱ lay,ȱ becameȱ famousȱ forȱ collapsingȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ saΚs¬raȱ andȱ nirv¬Φa,ȱ andȱ forȱ (re)articulatingȱ theȱ pathȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ bodhisattvaȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ aȱ unityȱ ofȱ ratherȱ thanȱ radicalȱruptureȱbetweenȱsaΚs¬raȱandȱnirv¬Φa.ȱButȱotherȱBuddhistȱtradiȬ tions,ȱsuchȱasȱmanyȱofȱtheȱPaliȬorientedȱS¬sanaȱtraditionsȱofȱSouthȱandȱ Southeastȱ Asia,ȱ didȱ notȱ (andȱ haveȱ not)ȱ madeȱ thisȱ move.ȱ Forȱ them,ȱ aȱ goalȱhasȱoftenȱbeenȱtoȱprohibitȱorȱinhibitȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱdoctrinesȱ thatȱcould,ȱinȱtheirȱview,ȱchipȱawayȱatȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱBuddha’sȱteachȬ ingsȱandȱpractices.ȱSuchȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱcaseȱamongȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱ TheȱexpansionȱofȱBuddhismȱintoȱSriȱLankaȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱbeȬ ganȱ veryȱ early.ȱ Anȱ inscriptionȱ ofȱ Kingȱ Aïokaȱ assertsȱ thatȱ heȱ commisȬ sionedȱ Buddhistȱ emissariesȱ toȱ travelȱ toȱ manyȱ areasȱ ofȱ theȱ Indianȱ subȬ continentȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱareasȱofȱSriȱLankaȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱThereȱisȱ strongȱevidenceȱthatȱtheseȱemissariesȱdidȱarriveȱinȱSriȱLankaȱandȱthatȱaȱ

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Buddhistȱ communityȱ wasȱ establishedȱ inȱ theȱ capitalȱ cityȱ ofȱ AnuradhaȬ pura.ȱ Inȱ Southeastȱ Asia,ȱ theȱ situationȱ isȱ lessȱ clear.ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ areȱ longȬstandingȱ localȱ traditionsȱ claimingȱ thatȱ Aïokanȱ emissariesȱ didȱ arriveȱ inȱ southernȱ Myanmarȱ andȱ thatȱ theyȱ didȱ succeedȱ inȱ foundingȱ aȱ Buddhistȱcommunityȱamongȱtheȱlocalȱinhabitants.ȱ InȱSriȱLanka,ȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱmoreȱorȱlessȱcontinuousȱdevelopmentȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ cultureȱ thatȱ wasȱ establishedȱ atȱ leastȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ theȱ Aïokanȱmission.ȱInȱSoutheastȱAsia,ȱtheȱbeginningsȱofȱBuddhistȱhistoryȱ areȱ associatedȱ withȱ archaeologicalȱ remainsȱ inȱ southernȱ Myanmarȱ thatȱ dateȱ toȱ aroundȱ theȱ fifthȱ centuryȱ CE.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ timeȱ thatȱ Buddhistȱ culȬ turesȱinȱSriȱLankaȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱwereȱfirstȱestablishedȱthroughȱtheȱ endȱofȱtheȱsecondȱmillenniumȱCE,ȱtheyȱmaintainedȱcloseȱrelationsȱwithȱ oneȱanotherȱandȱtheirȱcounterpartsȱinȱIndia.ȱTheyȱcontinuedȱtoȱuseȱtheȱ classicalȱIndianȱlanguagesȱSanskritȱandȱPaliȱforȱreligiousȱpurposes.ȱAndȱ theirȱ communitiesȱ cameȱ toȱ includeȱ practitionersȱ ofȱ variousȱ Buddhistȱ persuasionsȱwhoȱembodiedȱmuchȱofȱtheȱIndianȱculturalȱexpansionȱintoȱ mainlandȱandȱinsularȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱfromȱtheȱfifthȱcenturyȱonward.ȱ Inȱ theȱ expansionȱ ofȱ theȱ Indianȱ Buddhistȱ worldȱ intoȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia,ȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ developedȱ inȱ thoseȱ areasȱproducedȱtheirȱownȱparticularȱcharacteristicsȱandȱemphases.ȱPerȬ hapsȱtheȱmostȱdistinctiveȱdevelopmentȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱmillenniumȱCEȱ wasȱtheȱveryȱclearȱemergenceȱofȱaȱmonasticȱschoolȱthatȱusedȱPaliȱasȱitsȱ sacredȱ language.ȱ Thisȱ schoolȱ laterȱ cameȱ toȱ beȱ identifiedȱ asȱ theȱ Therav¬daȱ(“WayȱofȱtheȱElders”).32ȱInȱSriȱLanka,ȱtheȱschoolȱhadȱitsȱmaȬ jorȱ centerȱ atȱ theȱ greatȱ Mah¬vih¬raȱ monasteryȱ originallyȱ foundedȱ inȱ AnuradhapuraȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱAïoka.ȱOutȱofȱconcernsȱoverȱtheȱdemiseȱofȱ theȱ tradition,ȱ theyȱ createdȱ andȱ preservedȱ aȱ writtenȱ Paliȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ TripiΞakaȱ (“Threeȱ Baskets”).ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ producedȱ anȱ extensiveȱ bodyȱ ofȱ commentariesȱ onȱ virtuallyȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ TripiΞakaȱ texts.33ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theyȱ becameȱ involvedȱ inȱ anȱ ongoingȱ seriesȱ ofȱ interactionsȱ withȱ Sinhaleseȱ kingsȱ fromȱ whomȱ theyȱ oftenȱ (thoughȱ notȱ always)ȱ receivedȱ royalȱ supȬ port.ȱ Althoughȱ ourȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ contemporaneousȱ Buddhistȱ deȬ velopmentsȱinȱmainlandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱisȱmuchȱmoreȱfragmentary,ȱitȱisȱ clearȱ thatȱ aȱ parallelȱ traditionȱ wasȱ established,ȱ primarilyȱ amongȱ theȱ MonȱpeoplesȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱsouthernȱMyanmarȱandȱcentralȱThailand.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 32ȱȱ Forȱ anȱ overviewȱ ofȱ Therav¬daȱ Buddhism,ȱ seeȱ Crosbyȱ 2004;ȱ forȱ anȱ overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ studyȱofȱTherav¬daȱBuddhism,ȱseeȱReynoldsȱandȱCarbineȱ2006.ȱ 33ȱ Manyȱscholarsȱhaveȱacceptedȱasȱ historicallyȱaccurateȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱaccountȱthatȱtellsȱ ofȱtheȱwritingȱ downȱofȱtheȱPaliȱversionȱofȱtheȱTripiΞakaȱ inȱtheȱfirstȱcenturyȱBCEȱbutȱ alsoȱ theȱ claimȱ thatȱ thisȱ wasȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ thatȱ theȱ TripiΞakaȱ (previouslyȱ transmittedȱ orally)ȱhadȱbeenȱcommittedȱtoȱwriting.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

Duringȱ theȱ earlyȱ centuriesȱ ofȱ theȱ secondȱ millenniumȱ CE—asȱ BudȬ dhismȱ inȱ Indiaȱ basicallyȱ collapsedȱ andȱ virtuallyȱ disappeared—BudȬ dhistsȱinȱSriȱLankaȱandȱmainlandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱsetȱoutȱevenȱmoreȱonȱ theirȱownȱindependentȱcourse,ȱembarkingȱonȱaȱprocessȱofȱtransformingȱ theȱ receivedȱ traditionsȱ andȱ adaptingȱ themȱ inȱ newȱ ways.ȱ Thisȱ process,ȱ spearheadedȱ byȱ reformȬmindedȱ kingsȱ andȱ theirȱ allies,ȱ bothȱ monasticȱ andȱlay,ȱwasȱquiteȱrich.ȱTheȱprocessȱwitnessedȱtheȱrisingȱdominanceȱofȱ aȱSriȱLankan/Paliȱmonasticȱorientationȱthatȱwasȱ“orthodox”ȱandȱtendedȱ toȱ receiveȱ specialȱ supportȱ fromȱ kingsȱ whoȱ desiredȱ toȱ exerciseȱ greaterȱ controlȱoverȱtheirȱrespectiveȱregions.ȱItȱincludedȱaȱnewȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱ useȱ ofȱ vernacularȱ languagesȱ toȱ reachȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ Buddhists,ȱ eliteȱ andȱ common.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ sawȱ theȱ retentionȱ ofȱ manyȱ elementsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱfromȱaȱvarietyȱofȱpreexistingȱBuddhistȱtraditions.ȱ Theseȱ reinvigoratedȱ patternsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practice—developingȱ underȱtheȱauspicesȱofȱkings,ȱmonks,ȱandȱothers—achievedȱaȱdominantȱ positionȱinȱSriȱLankaȱandȱMyanmarȱinȱtheȱeleventhȱtoȱthirteenthȱcentuȬ ries.ȱ Withȱ Myanmarȱ providingȱ keyȱ linkagesȱ toȱ Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ theyȱ soonȱ spreadȱ toȱ otherȱ areasȱ ofȱ mainlandȱ Southeastȱ Asia.ȱ Inȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ throughȱfifteenthȱ centuries,ȱtheyȱ becameȱfirmlyȱ establishedȱinȱ theȱ reliȬ giousȱ landscapeȱ ofȱ Thailand,ȱ Cambodia,ȱ andȱ Laos.ȱ Inȱ theȱ laterȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ period,ȱ theyȱ stimulatedȱ wavesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ chronicleȱ writingȱ withȱ claimsȱ aboutȱpoliticalȱlegitimacyȱ oftenȱ correlatedȱ withȱ theȱ Sriȱ Lankan/ Paliȱ orientationȱ ofȱ theȱ Mah¬vih¬raȱ lineȱ derivingȱ fromȱ Sriȱ Lanka.34ȱ Inȱ Thailand,ȱ theȱ reinvigoratedȱ patternsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱ wereȱ adoptedȱbyȱtheȱThaiȱpeople,ȱwhoȱwereȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱassertingȱconȬ trolȱ overȱ anȱ olderȱ Monȱ populationȱ thatȱ hadȱ beenȱ Buddhistȱ forȱ someȱ time.ȱInȱCambodia,ȱtheyȱgraduallyȱdisplacedȱtheȱpredominantlyȱHinduȱ andȱ Mah¬y¬naȱ traditionsȱ thatȱ hadȱ prevailedȱ inȱ theȱ previouslyȱ greatȱ kingdomȱofȱAngkor.ȱInȱLaos,ȱtheyȱbecameȱentrenchedȱasȱwell.35ȱ Throughoutȱtheȱperiod,ȱandȱcontinuingȱrightȱupȱtoȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱ seriousȱintrusionȱofȱcolonialȱpowerȱinȱtheȱland,ȱaȱpatternȱofȱdiscipliningȱ ofȱtheȱsaΤghaȱemerged,ȱextendingȱbackȱtoȱatȱleastȱtheȱ“overhauling”ȱ(P.ȱ katik¬Ȭvatta,ȱlit.ȱ“theȱobservanceȱofȱaȱpact”)ȱofȱkingȱParakramabahuȱIȱ(r.ȱ 1153–1186)ȱofȱPolonnaruvaȱinȱSriȱLanka.36ȱInȱmedievalȱSoutheastȱAsia,ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 34ȱ Includedȱ amongȱ theseȱ chroniclesȱ areȱ theȱ famousȱ Peguȱ Kaly¬ѾÎȱ Inscriptionsȱ ofȱ theȱ MonȱkingȱDhammacetiȱ(r.ȱ1462–1492),ȱclaimedȱbyȱPrankeȱ2004ȱp.ȱ23ȱtoȱbeȱ“theȱearliȬ estȱexampleȱofȱhistoricalȱwritingȱofȱanyȱkindȱinȱBurma.”ȱ 35ȱȱ Holtȱ 2009ȱ p.ȱ 14ȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ “theȱ Laoȱ wereȱ probablyȱ theȱ lastȱ “ethnicȱ people”ȱ ofȱ SoutheastȱAsiaȱwhoȱadoptedȱTheravadaȱonȱaȱwholesaleȱbasis.”ȱHowever,ȱ onȱp.ȱ277ȱ n.ȱ15,ȱheȱalsoȱsuggestsȱthatȱitȱ”itȱisȱmoreȱthanȱlikelyȱthatȱtheȱTheravadaȱwasȱinitiallyȱ introducedȱtoȱtheȱLaoȱthroughȱtheȱearlierȱMonȱBuddhistȱcommunity.“ȱ 36ȱ ForȱtheȱSriȱLankanȱmaterial,ȱseeȱRatnapalaȱ1971.ȱ

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theȱ mostȱ famousȱ ofȱ theseȱ occurredȱ duringȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ theȱ fifteenthȬ centuryȱ Monȱ kingȱ Dhammaceti,37ȱ butȱ theȱ patternȱ ofȱ linkingȱ politicalȱ ruleȱ withȱ discipliningȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ continuedȱ rightȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ adventȱ ofȱ theȱ colonialȱ period.38ȱ Realitiesȱ andȱ memoriesȱ ofȱ suchȱ guidanceȱfromȱkingsȱwouldȱbecomeȱcrucialȱtoȱtheȱhistoricalȱconsciousȬ nessȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monks,ȱ asȱ theyȱ struggledȱ toȱ maintainȱ themselvesȱinȱtheȱmidstȱofȱincreasinglyȱdisruptiveȱcolonialȱpower.ȱ

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱtheȱShwegiynȱ Comingȱ toȱ theȱ earlyȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ itȱ isȱ necessaryȱ forȱ theȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱstudyȱtoȱpresentȱtheȱreaderȱwithȱmoreȱdetail.ȱWhileȱ theȱprecedingȱdiscussionȱcoveredȱinȱaȱgeneralȱwayȱmanyȱcenturies,ȱtheȱ followingȱ willȱ attendȱ toȱ certainȱ developmentsȱ withinȱ theȱ firstȱ halfȬ centuryȱofȱShwegyinȱhistory.ȱTheȱpurposeȱhereȱisȱtoȱgiveȱaȱsenseȱofȱtheȱ riseȱandȱethosȱofȱimportantȱearlyȱShwegyinȱleaders,ȱtheirȱrelationsȱwithȱ layȱ powers,ȱ andȱ theȱ mannerȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ builtȱ onȱ someȱ preexistingȱpatternsȱinȱtheȱlongerȱhistoryȱofȱBuddhistȱmonasticism.ȱ Theȱriseȱofȱtheȱmodernȱworldȱseriouslyȱdisruptedȱmanyȱtraditionalȱ Buddhistȱpatternsȱofȱcommunalȱexpressionȱandȱidentification.ȱTheȱBudȬ dhistȱpolitiesȱandȱculturesȱofȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱwereȱseriouslyȱ challengedȱ byȱ newȱ modesȱ ofȱ thought,ȱ byȱ colonialismȱ (Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ Myanmar,ȱ Cambodia,ȱ Laos),ȱ byȱ postcolonialȱ traumasȱ suchȱ asȱ violentȱ ethnicȱconflictȱ(SriȱLanka),ȱbyȱmilitaryȱandȱsocialistȱruleȱ(Myanmar),ȱbyȱ rapidȱ capitalistȱ developmentȱ (Thailand),ȱ andȱ byȱ radicalȱ communistȱ revolutionȱ(CambodiaȱandȱLaos).ȱInȱMyanmarȱitself,ȱBritishȱcolonialismȱ hadȱ staggeringȱ consequencesȱ forȱ aȱ peopleȱ withȱ aȱ profoundȱ senseȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ Buddhistȱ cosmology—aȱ cosmologyȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ righteousȱ ruleȱofȱtheȱkingsȱwasȱbelievedȱtoȱemulateȱtheȱruleȱofȱtheȱheavenlyȱkingȱ Thagyaȱ(i.e.,ȱIndra),ȱandȱinȱwhichȱbothȱlevelsȱofȱruleȱ(humanȱandȱheaȬ venly)ȱ wereȱ deeplyȱ connectedȱ toȱ beliefsȱ aboutȱ theȱ flourishingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.39ȱWithȱtheȱdismantlingȱofȱtheȱhumanȱcorollaryȱtoȱtheȱstructuresȱ ofȱlawȱandȱorderȱthatȱwereȱbelievedȱtoȱoperateȱonȱtheȱlevelȱofȱtheȱgods,ȱ theȱlossȱofȱkingshipȱinȱMyanmarȱwasȱaȱhugeȱruptureȱinȱtheȱcontinuityȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 37ȱ PurportedlyȱconcernedȱaboutȱtheȱwelfareȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱDhammacetiȱsentȱmonksȱtoȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ toȱ beȱ reȬordainedȱ onȱ theȱ Kaly¬ѾÎȱ (“auspicious”)ȱ River,ȱ nearȱ Colombo,ȱ whereȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ bathed,ȱ thusȱ enablingȱ themȱ toȱ bringȱ backȱ toȱ hisȱkingdomȱaȱrevivedȱmonasticȱtradition.ȱȱ 38ȱ Mindon’sȱroyalȱorderȱofȱFebruaryȱ15,ȱ1856,ȱprovidesȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint.ȱSeeȱThanȱTun,ȱ ed.,ȱ1989ȱpp.ȱ433–438.ȱ 39ȱ E.g.,ȱCharneyȱ2006ȱp.ȱ89.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

ofȱ theȱ religiopoliticalȱ order—aȱ ruptureȱ thatȱ spawnedȱ variousȱ kindsȱ ofȱ movements,ȱbothȱmonasticȱandȱlay,ȱandȱevenȱpromptedȱ“revolution.”40ȱ TheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱemergedȱwhenȱthisȱdisruptionȱbeganȱ toȱ takeȱ shapeȱ butȱ hadȱ notȱ yetȱ fullyȱ developed.ȱ Moreȱ specifically,ȱ theȱ originsȱandȱearlyȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱareȱtraceableȱtoȱaȱconȬ vergenceȱ ofȱ severalȱ political,ȱ social,ȱ andȱ religiousȱ forcesȱ coalescingȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ reactionsȱ toȱ theȱ increasingȱ religiopoliticalȱ rupȬ tureȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱcolonialȱexpansion,ȱfromȱ1824ȱwithȱtheȱFirstȱAnȬ gloȬBurmeseȱ Warȱ andȱ endingȱ withȱ theȱ annexationȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ inȱ 1885ȱ inȱ theȱ culminationȱ ofȱ theȱ Thirdȱ AngloȬBurmeseȱ War.ȱ Duringȱ thisȱ time,ȱKingȱMindonȱcameȱtoȱpower,ȱrulingȱUpperȱ Myanmarȱfromȱ1853ȱ toȱ 1878.ȱ Establishingȱ aȱ newȱ capitalȱ ofȱ Mandalayȱ inȱ 1857,ȱ Mindonȱ enȬ gagedȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱeffortsȱtoȱmodernizeȱhisȱdomainȱandȱrule.ȱInȱtheȱ process,ȱ heȱ soughtȱ outȱ advisorialȱ inputȱ fromȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ people;ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ them,ȱ andȱ theȱ monkȱ appearsȱ toȱ haveȱ counseledȱtheȱkingȱonȱmattersȱrangingȱfromȱtaxationȱtoȱmonasticȱpracȬ tice.41ȱ Fergusonȱ arguesȱ theȱ “balanceȱ ofȱ powerȱ betweenȱ monkȱ andȱmoȬ narchȱ developedȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ [isȱ reputedȱ toȱ have]ȱ frequentlyȱ lecturedȱ orȱ scoldedȱ Mindon,ȱ particularlyȱ whenȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱthoughtȱtheȱkingȱwasȱoverȬplayingȱhisȱdefenderȱofȱtheȱfaithȱroleȱinȱ discipliningȱmonks.”42ȱ Thatȱbeingȱsaid,ȱitȱwasȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadaw’sȱroleȱasȱ advisorȱtoȱtheȱkingȱthatȱledȱtoȱtheȱearlyȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ asȱ aȱ distinctȱ monasticȱ group.ȱ Afterȱ havingȱ beenȱ invitedȱ byȱ Mindonȱ toȱ theȱ newȱ capital,ȱ Ashinȱ J¬garaȱ (i.e.,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw),ȱ andȱ hisȱ followersȱ wereȱ freedȱ byȱ Kingȱ Mindonȱ fromȱ theȱ controlȱ ofȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Councilȱ andȱ itsȱ head,ȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.43ȱ Theȱ processesȱ thatȱ culminatedȱ inȱ Mindon’sȱ decisionȱ toȱ grantȱ theȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱindependenceȱfromȱotherȱmonasticȱleadersȱareȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 40ȱ Sarkisyanzȱ1965.ȱ 41ȱ Dhammasamiȱ 2004ȱ pp.ȱ 111–112;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ hisȱ commentsȱ followingȱ upȱ toȱ p.ȱ 120.ȱ Forȱ otherȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ Mindon,ȱ seeȱ MyintȬUȱ 2001ȱ andȱ Charneyȱ 2006.ȱ Charneyȱ2006ȱp.ȱ219ȱarguesȱthatȱMindonȱeffectedȱaȱtransitionȱ“fromȱtheȱ‘traditional’ȱ relationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱthroneȱandȱtheȱmonasticȱorderȱtoȱaȱnewȱandȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmodernȱreȬ lationship.”ȱ 42ȱ Fergusonȱ 1978ȱ p.ȱ 74,ȱ bracketsȱ mine,ȱ withȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1963ȱ pp.ȱ 137,ȱ 183–184ȱ asȱ exȬ amples.ȱ 43ȱ AlthoughȱIȱdiscussȱsomeȱofȱtheȱdevelopmentsȱduringȱtheȱreignȱofȱMindonȱandȱothȬ ers,ȱmanyȱofȱthoseȱdevelopmentsȱremainȱbeyondȱtheȱscopeȱofȱmyȱanalysisȱhere.ȱInȬ fluencedȱ byȱ Anneȱ Blackburn’sȱ 2001ȱ studyȱ ofȱ “textualȱ communities”ȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ Charneyȱ 2006ȱ providesȱ anȱ importantȱ studyȱ ofȱ Konbaung,ȱ Myanmar,ȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ coȬ lonialȱconquest.ȱ

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believedȱtoȱhaveȱbegunȱpriorȱtoȱMindon’sȱownȱascensionȱtoȱtheȱthrone.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱShwegyinȱ legendȱ hasȱ itȱ thatȱ whenȱ Princeȱ Mindonȱ escapedȱ fromȱ theȱ capitalȱ onȱ 17thȱ Decemberȱ1852ȱtoȱraiseȱtheȱstandardȱofȱrebellionȱagainstȱhisȱbrother,ȱheȱmetȱ againȱ Uȱ J¬garaȱ [i.e.,ȱ Ashinȱ J¬gara]ȱ atȱ Magyisinȱ beforeȱ heȱ reachedȱ Shweboȱ onȱ 20[th]ȱ Decemberȱ 1852.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ heȱ hadȱ noticedȱ theȱ youngȱ monkȱ asȱ aȱ brightȱ studentȱ withȱ thoroughȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ atȱ theȱ ThéȬinȱ moȬ nasticȱ establishment,ȱ Amarapura.ȱ Princeȱ Mindonȱ wasȱ [so]ȱ veryȱ muchȱ imȬ pressedȱwithȱtheȱpersonalityȱofȱUȱJ¬garaȱthatȱheȱdecidedȱtoȱenlistȱtheȱhelpȱ ofȱ thatȱ monkȱ whenȱ heȱ hadȱ timeȱ toȱ lookȱ afterȱ theȱ religiousȱ affairsȱ afterȱheȱ madeȱ himselfȱ king.ȱ Likeȱ severalȱ otherȱ disciplesȱ ofȱ Thalonȱ Sayadawȱ Uȱ Candim¬,ȱ Uȱ J¬garaȱ agreedȱ toȱ theȱ firstȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ kingȇsȱ proposalȱ toȱ helpȱ improveȱ theȱ religiousȱ affairsȱ becauseȱ byȱ livingȱ anȱ exemplaryȱ lifeȱ himself,ȱ heȱbelievedȱthatȱheȱwasȱalreadyȱdoingȱthat.44ȱ

WhenȱtheȱnewȱcapitalȱwasȱbuiltȱinȱMandalay,ȱMindonȱhadȱaȱmonastery,ȱ theȱ Mah¬dhammik¬r¬ma,ȱ builtȱ forȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw,ȱ andȱ theȱ latterȱ wasȱ alsoȱ madeȱ theȱ chiefȱ ofȱ fiveȱ monasticȱ establishments.ȱ Moreȱ establishmentsȱ wereȱ laterȱ added.45ȱ Thanȱ Tunȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱ Sayadawȱ hadȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ orȱ “separateȱ status”ȱ fromȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱCouncilȱfromȱtheȱ“veryȱtimeȱthat”ȱheȱ“cameȱtoȱMandalayȱ inȱ 1860,”ȱ butȱ theȱ preciseȱ dateȱ seemsȱ uncertain.46ȱ Whileȱ theȱ detailsȱ areȱ murky,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱtheȱSecondȱMaungdaungȱSayadaw,ȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ hadȱ aȱ fallingȱ outȱ thatȱ ledȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ toȱ attemptȱ toȱ leaveȱ Mandalayȱ forȱ theȱ forestȱ (B.ȱ to,ȱ eta)ȱ“ratherȱthanȱsubmitȱtoȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱroyallyȱappointedȱheadȱ ofȱtheȱSangha.”ȱItȱwasȱatȱthatȱpointȱthatȱMindonȱapparentlyȱmadeȱ“theȱ historicallyȱ crucialȱ decision”ȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ andȱ hisȱ disȬ ciplesȱ wereȱ freeȱ fromȱ theȱ powerȱ andȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Councilȱandȱitsȱleader.47ȱ Aȱ Shwegyinȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ eventsȱ thatȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ orderȱrunsȱthus:ȱ AlthoughȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱhadȱtoȱgoȱthriceȱtoȱtheȱthathanabaingȱ[i.e.,ȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana]ȱwhoȱwasȱofȱtheȱThudhammaȱorderȱandȱwhoȱwasȱtwenȬ tyȬthreeȱ yearsȱ hisȱ seniorȱ inȱ ageȱ toȱ payȱ hisȱ respect,ȱ theȱ thathanabaingȱ reȬ mainedȱ silentȱ andȱ cold.ȱ Asȱ heȱ hadȱ toȱ goȱ backȱ withoutȱ sayingȱ aȱ word,ȱ itȱ dawnedȱonȱtheȱSayadawȱthatȱthereȱwasȱnoȱlongerȱanyȱneedȱforȱhimȱtoȱreȬ peatȱhisȱvisit.ȱHowever,ȱwhenȱheȱwasȱagainȱsummonedȱwithȱaȱtoneȱofȱauȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 44ȱ 45ȱ 46ȱ 47ȱ

ThanȱTunȱ1988ȱp.ȱ155,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱ89,ȱ103,ȱ155,ȱThanȱTunȱ1988ȱp.ȱ156.ȱ ThanȱTunȱ1988ȱp.ȱ156.ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ73.ȱThanȱTunȱ1988ȱp.ȱ158ȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱthisȱdecisionȱ“wasȱneverȱ officiallyȱdeclaredȱasȱsuch.”ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

thorityȱ[orȱthreatȱofȱforce,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱaccount],ȱheȱwentȱtoȱtheȱKingȱ andȱsubmittedȱthatȱheȱnoȱlongerȱdesiredȱtoȱstayȱinȱtheȱroyalȱcityȱandȱwouldȱ returnȱintoȱtheȱforestȱtoȱcarryȱonȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱgreatȱSasana.ȱWhenȱaskedȱ whyȱheȱtoldȱhisȱstory,ȱheȱsaidȱthatȱheȱthoughtȱhisȱpresenceȱinȱtheȱroyalȱcityȱ didȱ notȱ giveȱ peaceȱ ofȱ mindȱ toȱ theȱ thathanabaingȱ andȱ thatȱ heȱ hadȱ betterȱ leave.ȱTheȱ kingȱ answeredȱ“Myȱ Lord,ȱ thereȱ isȱnoȱ needȱ forȱ youȱtoȱ leaveȱonȱ accountȱ ofȱ this.ȱ Fromȱ todayȱ onwardsȱ noneȱ mayȱ summonȱ youȱ orȱ requireȱ yourȱ presence.ȱ Pleaseȱ abideȱ hereȱ inȱ peaceȱ andȱ comfort[.]”ȱ [Theȱ Kingȱ inȬ formedȱtheȱthathanabaingȱtoȱthatȱeffect]ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱthus,ȱcommencingȱwithȱtheȱ Kingȱ himself,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ andȱ theȱ monksȱ ofȱ hisȱ Orderȱ wereȱ heldȱinȱseparateȱesteemȱandȱworshippedȱasȱanȱOrderȱofȱtheirȱown.48ȱ

Ifȱ theseȱ detailsȱ areȱ true,ȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ causesȱ ofȱ theȱ falloutȱ betweenȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ andȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ couldȱ haveȱhadȱtoȱdoȱwithȱtheȱnatureȱofȱMindon’sȱroyalȱorderȱofȱFebruaryȱ15,ȱ 1856,ȱ whichȱ byȱ omissionȱ ofȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ officeȱ ofȱ theȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ suggestsȱ aȱ possibleȱ “deterioration”ȱ betweenȱ Mindonȱ andȱ theȱ chiefȱ monk.ȱ “Soȱ far,ȱ weȱ doȱ notȱ knowȱ ifȱ [the]ȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw,ȱ andȱ hisȱ seniorȱ colleague,ȱ [the]ȱ Shankalaykyunȱ Sayadaw,ȱ wereȱ partlyȱ reȬ sponsible”ȱforȱtheȱomission,ȱbutȱitȱ“mayȱexplainȱwhyȱtheȱ[Headȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana]ȱgaveȱaȱcoldȱreceptionȱtoȱ[the]ȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱwhenȱheȱcameȱ toȱ Mandalayȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ time.”49ȱ Regardlessȱ ofȱ theȱ details,ȱ itȱ isȱ clearȱ thatȱfromȱaroundȱ1860,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱhisȱfollowersȱexpeȬ riencedȱconsiderableȱfreedomȱfromȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱCouncil.ȱ Itȱ isȱ bothȱ interestingȱ andȱ importantȱ toȱ pointȱ outȱ thatȱ Mindonȱ didȱ notȱ inventȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ aȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ order.ȱ Onȱ previousȱ occasions,ȱ otherȱkingsȱgaveȱgaΦaȬvimuttiȱstatusȱtoȱforestȱandȱotherȱmonksȱtoȱ devoteȱ moreȱ timeȱ toȱ meditation.ȱ Alwaysȱ toȱ benefitȱ individualȱ monks,ȱ asȱ againstȱaȱgroup,ȱaȱgaΦaȬvimuttiȱorderȱexemptedȱtheȱmonkȱreferredȱtoȱinȱtheȱ royalȱorderȱfromȱallȱecclesiasticalȱadministrativeȱbusiness;ȱevenȱtheȱthathaȬ nabaingȱ [i.e.,ȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana]ȱ couldȱ notȱ summonȱ himȱ anyȱ more.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ However,ȱ unlikeȱ previousȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ orders,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ twoȱ uniqueȱ pointsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtoȱMindon’sȱroyalȱgaΦaȬvimuttiȱ[concerningȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayaȬ daw].ȱFirst,ȱ[the]ȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱwasȱnot,ȱatȱtheȱtimeȱtheȱorderȱwasȱisȬ suedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱaȱforestȱmonk,ȱalthoughȱheȱusedȱtoȱstudyȱmeditationȱunderȱaȱwellȬ knownȱmeditationȱteacherȱandȱforestȱmonk,ȱ[the]ȱThilonȱSayadaw,ȱhimselfȱ aȱ beneficiaryȱ ofȱ aȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ orderȱ byȱ Kingȱ Thayawadiȱ (1837–1846).ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱatȱthatȱtimeȱ[the]ȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱhadȱjustȱmovedȱtoȱMandalay,ȱtheȱ capital,ȱtoȱtakeȱchargeȱofȱfourȱmonasteriesȱbuiltȱbyȱMindonȱforȱhimȱandȱhisȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 48ȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ98,ȱbracketsȱ mine,ȱcitingȱtheȱPattamyaȱSayadaw,ȱaȱseniorȱShweȬ gyinȱmonk.ȱSeeȱalsoȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1963ȱpp.ȱ139–140ȱandȱ1988ȱpp.ȱ111–112,ȱandȱArticlesȱ onȱtheȱ ShwegyinȱSayadawȱ andȱGaingȱ1995ȱpp.ȱ45–48.ȱ Theȱ latterȱ isȱtheȱ mostȱconsistentȱ withȱtheȱversionȱfromȱMendelson’sȱinformant.ȱ 49ȱ Dhammasamiȱ2004ȱp.ȱ117,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

ȱ

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱToȱtheȱShwegiynȱ

21ȱ

pupils.ȱ Second,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ gaΦaȬvimuttiȱ wasȱ issuedȱ toȱ aȱ townȬdwellerȱ monk,ȱasȱ[the]ȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱwas,ȱitȱgaveȱriseȱtoȱtheȱopportunityȱforȱ theȱ followersȱ ofȱ [the]ȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ toȱ interpretȱ theȱ royalȱ orderȱ asȱ coveringȱ notȱ onlyȱ [the]ȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ butȱ also,ȱ byȱ extension,ȱ allȱ hisȱ followers.50ȱ

Theseȱ twoȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ orderȱ (i.e.,ȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ nonȬforestȬdwellingȱ ShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱalsoȱinterpretedȱbyȱhisȱfollowersȱtoȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱ allȱ ofȱ them)ȱ effectivelyȱ createdȱ theȱ sociopoliticalȱ circumstancesȱ forȱ theȱ flourishingȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱunderȱtheirȱownȱideology.ȱ MindonȱdidȱnotȱappointȱaȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱafterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱ Secondȱ Maungdaungȱ Sayadawȱ inȱ 1865.ȱ Instead,ȱ actingȱ asȱ somethingȱ likeȱhisȱownȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱheȱpreferredȱtoȱconsolidateȱandȱdisseȬ minateȱhisȱpowerȱthrough,ȱinȱpart,ȱdirectȱcontrolȱoverȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱ Council.51ȱ Kingȱ Thibawȱ (r.ȱ 1878–1885)ȱ optedȱ forȱ aȱ differentȱ approach;ȱ byȱaȱroyalȱorderȱissuedȱinȱ1881,ȱheȱattemptedȱtoȱappointȱtheȱShwegyinȱ SayadawȱasȱoneȱofȱtwoȱHeadsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ(theȱotherȱwasȱtheȱTaungȬ dawȱ Sayadaw).ȱ Bothȱ ofȱ theseȱ Sayadawsȱ wereȱ toȱ assumeȱ aȱ positionȱ ofȱ topȱ monasticȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ overseeingȱ monasticȱ effortsȱ toȱ “doȱ theȱ workȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱpru,ȱqaqna#p).ȱTheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱisȱ saidȱtoȱhaveȱrefusedȱtheȱoffice,ȱbutȱnineȱecclesiasticalȱdivisionsȱwereȱputȱ underȱ hisȱ generalȱ supervision,ȱ andȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ wereȱ sentȱ throughoutȱtheseȱareas.ȱThisȱdevelopmentȱgreatlyȱextendedȱandȱstrengȬ thenedȱtheȱShwegyinȱpresenceȱinȱandȱaroundȱtheȱMandalayȱarea.52ȱ TheȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱintoȱtheȱlowerȱregionsȱofȱtheȱcounȬ tryȱ alsoȱ beganȱ duringȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ Firstȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ himself,ȱ with,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ mergerȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ anotherȱ groupȱ ofȱ monks,ȱ theȱ Tawya,ȱ whichȱ hadȱ developedȱ especiallyȱ inȱ andȱ aroundȱ theȱareaȱofȱMonȱheritageȱinȱlowerȱMyanmar.ȱTheȱTawyaȱwasȱsimilarȱtoȱ theȱShwegyinȱinȱitsȱemphasisȱonȱaȱstrictȱadherenceȱtoȱtheȱVinaya,ȱandȱitsȱ founderȱ “wasȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ developedȱ meditationalȱ disciplinesȱ toȱ theȱ pointȱwhereȱheȱwasȱthoughtȱbyȱmanyȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱsupraȬnormalȱpowersȱ ofȱanȱarahantȱ[aȱfullyȱperfectedȱsaint].”53ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 50ȱ 51ȱ 52ȱ 53ȱ

Dhammasamiȱ2004ȱp.ȱ108,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ SeeȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ81–84ȱandȱCharneyȱ2006ȱpp.ȱ215–217.ȱ ThanȱTunȱ1988ȱpp.ȱ160–162,ȱFergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ76,ȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱ94–98.ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ77,ȱitalicsȱandȱbracketsȱmine.ȱAsȱaȱsubgroupȱwithinȱtheȱShwegyinȱ foldȱ theȱ Tawyaȱ isȱ calledȱ theȱ Araññav¬sÎȱ Shwegyin.ȱ Theȱ Paliȱ wordȱ Araññav¬sÎȱ isȱ equivalentȱtoȱtheȱBurmeseȱwordȱTawya.ȱSoȱfarȱasȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱableȱtoȱgatherȱfromȱinȬ formants,ȱ inȱ Burmeseȱ culturalȱ understanding,ȱ theȱ termsȱ Tawyaȱ andȱ Araññav¬siȱ meanȱ“apartȱfromȱtheȱconfinesȱofȱlayȱhabitations”ȱandȱnotȱnecessarilyȱ“forestȱdwelȬ lers”ȱperȱse.ȱInformationȱonȱtheȱinteractionsȱofȱShwegyinȱandȱTawyaȱmonksȱmayȱbeȱ foundȱinȱvariousȱsourcesȱ(e.g.,ȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988,ȱJotip¬laȱ1974).ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ expansionȱ outsideȱ Myanmar,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ himselfȱmadeȱaȱtripȱtoȱSriȱLankaȱinȱ1878.ȱThisȱsetȱtheȱstageȱforȱtheȱestabȬ lishmentȱofȱaȱShwegyinȱbranchȱinȱthatȱcountryȱinȱ1906.ȱThereȱhaveȱbeenȱ ShwegyinȱattemptsȱtoȱexpandȱbeyondȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia,ȱespeȬ ciallyȱwithȱtheȱuseȱofȱ“monasticȱleadersȱwhoȱdoȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ inȱ foreignȱ lands”ȱ (B.ȱ praññеȱ paȱ S¬san¬ȱ pruȱ saΤghaȱ n¬yaka,ȱ `pv\pqaqna#p qMGnayk).54ȱ TheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱwasȱsucceededȱbyȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadaw,ȱwhoseȱleadershipȱlastedȱfromȱ1894ȱtoȱ1916.ȱAȱqueenȱdonatedȱ aȱmonasteryȱtoȱhim,ȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱTaik,ȱ“whichȱlaterȱwasȱtoȱ becomeȱtheȱSect’sȱcentralȱheadquarters.”55ȱWithȱthisȱkindȱofȱsupport,ȱhisȱ leadershipȱsawȱaȱfurtherȱexpansionȱandȱsolidificationȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ leadershipȱandȱadministrativeȱstructure—aȱstructureȱtoȱbeȱexploredȱinȱ moreȱdetailȱlaterȱinȱthisȱstudy.ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadawsȱ areȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ setȱ severalȱ basicȱ featuresȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ firmlyȱ inȱ place,ȱfeaturesȱdrawnȱfromȱprecolonialȱBuddhistȱhistoryȱinȱandȱbeyondȱ Myanmar.ȱForȱexample,ȱasȱwithȱothersȱ(includingȱpeople,ȱforȱexample,ȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ andȱ Thailand)ȱ holdingȱ toȱ aȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ worldview,ȱ theyȱaffirmedȱtheȱreligiousȱprimacyȱofȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddha,ȱtheȱauthoriȬ tyȱ ofȱ Paliȱ texts,ȱtheȱuseȱ ofȱ Paliȱ asȱ aȱ sacredȱlanguage,ȱtheȱ basicȱ concepȬ tionsȱ ofȱ existentialȱ continuityȱ andȱ ruptureȱ outlinedȱ inȱ Paliȱ andȱ otherȱ sources,ȱtheȱbasicȱpatternsȱofȱritualȱlifeȱincludingȱtheȱhigherȱordination,ȱ andȱtheȱbasicȱexchangeȱrelationsȱbetweenȱmonksȱ(e.g.,ȱasȱ“fieldsȱofȱmeȬ rit”)ȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱ(e.g.,ȱasȱdonorsȱofȱmaterialȱsupport).ȱTheseȱaffirmaȬ tionsȱwereȱcorrelatedȱwithȱanȱintenseȱeffortȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ“fromȱ within”56ȱandȱanȱintenseȱconcernȱaboutȱmisconductȱ(P.ȱkukkucca),ȱor,ȱasȱ explainedȱinȱBurmese,ȱ“beingȱafraidȱthatȱoneȱhasȱfailedȱtoȱdoȱtheȱrightȱ thingȱorȱoneȱhasȱinadvertentlyȱdoneȱtheȱwrongȱthing.”57ȱTheyȱwereȱalsoȱ correlatedȱwithȱanȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱ“theȱS¬sanaȱasȱitȱisȱstudied”ȱ(P.ȱpaȬ riyattiȬS¬sana).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱsinceȱtheirȱfoundingȱtheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱ seenȱthemselvesȱasȱaȱveryȱhighȱscholasticȱtraditionȱfocusedȱonȱdiscipliȬ naryȱ purityȱ andȱ intellectualȱrigorȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ ByȱupholdȬ ingȱtheirȱpurityȱandȱrigor,ȱtheyȱconsiderȱthemselvesȱtoȱbeȱgoodȱmonasȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 54ȱ Forȱexample,ȱinȱ1999,ȱfiveȱmonksȱwereȱappointedȱtoȱthisȱposition:ȱthreeȱforȱtheȱUnitȬ edȱStates;ȱoneȱforȱEngland;ȱandȱoneȱforȱJapan.ȱSeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱ pp.ȱ177–181ȱforȱcopiesȱofȱtheȱappointmentȱcertificates.ȱ 55ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ78.ȱ 56ȱ Aȱmoreȱliteralȱtranslationȱofȱ“fromȱwithin”ȱ(B.ȱatvaΤеɇȱkaȱne,ȱAtQc\;ken)ȱisȱ“fromȱbeingȱ atȱtheȱinsideȱofȱit.”ȱ 57ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱpp.ȱ10,ȱ30ȱn.ȱ27.ȱ

ȱ

VicissitudesȱofȱModernȱBurmeseȱPoliticalȱHistoryȱ

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ticȱ“sonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha”ȱ(P.ȱsakyaȬputtiya,ȱB.ȱmratеȱcv¬ȱbhur¬ɇȱs¬ɇȱtoе,ȱ`mt\sQa Bura;qa;eta\).ȱ Againstȱthisȱbackdrop,ȱitȱisȱnotȱdifficultȱtoȱseeȱwhyȱBurmeseȱmonksȱ andȱlayȱpeopleȱalikeȱsometimesȱassertȱthatȱtheȱfocusȱonȱpariyattiȱamongȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ distinguishesȱ themȱ fromȱ otherȱ monks;ȱ otherȱ monksȱ mayȱfocusȱon,ȱforȱinstance,ȱparticularȱkindsȱofȱmeditationȱ(suchȱasȱ“inȬ sightȱmeditation,”ȱP.ȱvipassan¬).ȱMeditationȱdoesȱplayȱanȱimportantȱroleȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱ practice,ȱ particularlyȱ asȱ aȱ meansȱ forȱ preparingȱ theȱ mindȱ forȱstudyȱasȱwellȱasȱforȱconcentratingȱuponȱaȱparticularȱstudyȬlesson’sȱ meaning.ȱThatȱthereȱhaveȱbeenȱShwegyinȱmonksȱwhoȱhaveȱstressedȱanȱ evenȱstrongerȱemphasisȱonȱmeditationȱisȱtrue.58ȱHowever,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱ haveȱtakenȱtheȱpariyattiȬS¬sanaȱinȱitsȱvariousȱaspectsȱevenȱmoreȱseriousȬ ly,ȱ andȱ studyȱ andȱ teachingȱ haveȱ typicallyȱ seenȱ strongerȱ emphasisȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱsettings,ȱasȱappendixȱA,ȱfigureȱ1ȱsuggests.ȱ

VicissitudesȱofȱModernȱBurmeseȱPoliticalȱHistoryȱ InȱadditionȱtoȱthisȱbasicȱorientationȱtoȱtheȱfoundationsȱofȱBuddhistȱmoȬ nasticismȱasȱsetȱinȱmotionȱ inȱ ancientȱIndia,ȱ theȱ continuationȱ ofȱ certainȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ thatȱ monasticismȱ inȱ theȱ Asianȱ worldȱ inȱ generalȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱShwegyinȱcontextȱinȱparticular,ȱasȱwellȱasȱbasicȱelementsȱofȱpracȬ ticeȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ setȱ inȱ placeȱ byȱ theȱ earlyȱ Shwegyinȱ leaders,ȱ theȱreaderȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱawareȱthatȱBurmeseȱpoliticalȱhistoryȱsinceȱBritishȱ colonialȱ ruleȱ hasȱ seenȱ anȱ onȬagain,ȱ offȬagainȱ levelȱ ofȱ stateȱ supportȱ forȱ Buddhism.ȱForȱmyȱpurposesȱhere,ȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱmajorȱcontoursȱofȱ thoseȱdevelopmentsȱsuffices.59ȱ Theȱ transitionȱ toȱ aȱ postcolonialȱ governmentȱ inȱ theȱ wakeȱ ofȱ theȱ Secondȱ Worldȱ Warȱ witnessedȱ theȱ assassinationȱ ofȱ generalȱ Aungȱ Sanȱ (theȱ “father”ȱ ofȱ theȱ modernȱ Burmeseȱ armyȱ andȱ theȱ fatherȱ ofȱ currentȱ proȬdemocracyȱleaderȱDawȱAungȱSanȱSuuȱKyi).ȱItȱalsoȱsawȱtheȱriseȱofȱUȱ Nuȱtoȱtheȱpositionȱofȱprimeȱminister—aȱpositionȱthatȱheȱheldȱforȱmostȱ ofȱ1948–1958ȱandȱthenȱfromȱ1960–1962.ȱUȱNuȱandȱhisȱsupportersȱwereȱ keenȱ onȱ restoringȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ religionȱ toȱ whatȱ wasȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ itsȱprecolonialȱstatus.ȱToȱaidȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱinitiativesȱwereȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 58ȱ SeeȱJordtȱ2007ȱpp.ȱ42–42,ȱ50–54,ȱwhichȱdistillsȱrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱShwegyinȱorderȱ andȱ theȱ Mahasiȱ Sayadaw,ȱ whoȱ wasȱ originallyȱ ordainedȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ butȱ leftȱ theȱorderȱandȱwasȱreordainedȱaȱThudhamm¬ȱmonk.ȱ 59ȱȱ Readersȱ interestedȱ inȱ furtherȱ detailsȱ aboutȱ theȱ politicalȱ situationȱ beyondȱ whatȱ isȱ presentedȱ hereȱ mayȱ turnȱ to,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ sources,ȱ Callahanȱ 2003,ȱ Finkȱ 2001,ȱ HoutȬ manȱ 1999,ȱ Maungȱ Maungȱ Gyiȱ 1983,ȱ MyintȬUȱ 2001,ȱ Schoberȱ 2010,ȱ Silversteinȱ 1977,ȱ Smithȱ1965,ȱandȱSteinbergȱ1982.ȱ

24ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

eitherȱsupportedȱorȱsetȱfirmlyȱinȱmotionȱbyȱhimȱandȱhisȱcohorts.ȱAȱBudȬ dhistȱ S¬sanaȱ Councilȱ wasȱ established,ȱ withȱ itsȱ inauguralȱ meetingȱ inȱ 1951,ȱ toȱ seeȱ toȱ theȱ properȱ spreadȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ teachingsȱ andȱ practices.ȱ Severalȱ proȬBuddhistȱ actsȱ ofȱ legislationȱ wereȱ passedȱ thatȱ promotedȱ certainȱ kindsȱ ofȱ authorityȱ andȱ autonomyȱ ofȱ monksȱ andȱ theirȱ instituȬ tions.ȱ Theseȱ includedȱ theȱ VinicchayaȬHtanaȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1949,ȱ theȱ Paliȱ UniȬ versityȱ andȱ Dhammacariyaȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1950,ȱ andȱ theȱ Paliȱ Educationȱ Boardȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1952.ȱ And,ȱ inȱ keepingȱ withȱ Kingȱ Mindon’sȱ sponsorshipȱ ofȱ theȱ Fifthȱ Therav¬daȱ Buddhistȱ Councilȱ inȱ 1871,ȱ Uȱ Nuȱ announcedȱ thatȱ MyanmarȱwouldȱagainȱhostȱaȱSixthȱTherav¬daȱBuddhistȱCouncilȱstartȬ ingȱ inȱ 1954,ȱ inȱ commemorationȱ ofȱ theȱ 2500thȱ anniversaryȱ ofȱ theȱ BudȬ dha’sȱ finalȱ liberationȱ fromȱ suffering,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ toȱ markȱ theȱ halfwayȱ pointȱinȱtheȱlifeȱofȱhisȱS¬sana.ȱAtȱthatȱcouncil,ȱShwegyinȱmonksȱplayedȱ importantȱroles;ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱfamousȱmonkȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ(1900– 1977),ȱ discussedȱ inȱ chapterȱ fourȱ andȱ atȱ variousȱ otherȱ pointsȱ inȱ thisȱ study,ȱservedȱasȱanȱadvisorȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱeditorȱandȱreaderȱofȱtexts.ȱ Uȱ Nu’sȱ politicalȱ careerȱ asȱ primeȱ ministerȱ deterioratedȱ dueȱ toȱ failȬ uresȱ inȱ hisȱ economicȱ policies,ȱ toȱ anȱ inabilityȱ toȱ dealȱwithȱethnicȱsecesȬ sionismȱ (howeverȱ realȱ orȱ imagined),ȱ andȱ toȱ antagonismsȱ thatȱ aroseȱ overȱ theȱ stateȱ andȱ hisȱ personalȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ religion.ȱ Aȱ militaryȱ coupȱ inȱ 1962,ȱ ledȱ byȱ Generalȱ Neȱ Win,ȱ setȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ moreȱ thanȱ fortyȬfiveȱ yearsȱ ofȱ militaryȱ ruleȱ andȱ anȱ endȱ toȱ democracyȱ inȱ theȱ country.ȱ Theȱ initialȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ruleȱ underȱ Neȱ Winȱ witnessedȱ anȱ activeȱ campaignȱ toȱ separateȱ theȱ governmentȱ fromȱ certainȱ relationsȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ monks,ȱ asȱ representativesȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ wereȱ reȬ movedȱfromȱpositionsȱofȱpoliticalȱinfluence—positionsȱwhichȱtheyȱhadȱ garneredȱ duringȱ theȱ Uȱ Nuȱ years.ȱ Additionally,ȱ theȱ onsetȱ ofȱ Neȱ Win’sȱ ruleȱsawȱrepealsȱofȱtheȱactsȱofȱproȬBuddhistȱlegislation.60ȱ Yet,ȱwhateverȱtheȱinitialȱreactionsȱwereȱtoȱmonksȱandȱmonasticȱinȬ volvementȱinȱpoliticsȱduringȱtheȱinitialȱyearsȱofȱNeȱWinȱrule,ȱNeȱWin’sȱ relationsȱ withȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ wouldȱ changeȱ inȱ complexȱ ways.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱ1970sȱandȱperhapsȱevenȱearlierȱheȱappearsȱtoȱ haveȱturnedȱtoȱShwegyinȱmonksȱatȱtheȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱmonasteryȱinȱ AmarapĀraȱ (nearȱ Mandalay)ȱ forȱ advice.61ȱ Atȱ thatȱ time,ȱ Mah¬Ȭ gandh¬yonȱ wasȱ headedȱ byȱ theȱ famousȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ mentionedȱ above,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa.ȱMoreover,ȱbeginningȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1970sȱandȱ continuingȱ intoȱ theȱ midȬ1980s,ȱ Neȱ Winȱ andȱ “andȱ theȱ leadersȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱhavingȱconsolidatedȱtheȱlegislative,ȱjudicial,ȱandȱexecutiveȱstrucȬ turesȱ ofȱ theȱ nationȱ whichȱ wasȱ apparentlyȱ undergoingȱ moderateȱ ecoȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 60ȱ Matthewsȱ1999ȱpp.ȱ35–36.ȱ 61ȱ Matthewsȱ1999ȱp.ȱ48ȱn.ȱ46,ȱcitingȱWiantȱ1981ȱp.ȱ64;ȱFergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ82.ȱ

ȱ

VicissitudesȱofȱModernȱBurmeseȱPoliticalȱHistoryȱ

25ȱ

nomicȱ growth,ȱ turnedȱ theirȱ attentionȱ towardsȱ theȱ elusiveȱ taskȱ ofȱ unitȬ ingȱtheȱsanghaȱandȱpurifyingȱtheȱsasana.”62ȱThisȱeffortȱyetȱagainȱdrewȱonȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ paradigmȱ traceableȱ toȱ theȱ daysȱ ofȱ Aïokaȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ Myanmar’sȱroyalȱandȱmoreȱcontemporaryȱpastȱwhereinȱtheȱrulingȱpoȬ liticalȱorder,ȱoftenȱinȱanȱeffortȱtoȱbolsterȱitsȱownȱpowerȱandȱpublicȱimȬ ageȱ asȱ patronȬprotectorȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ takesȱ periodicȱ stepsȱ toȱ reinȱ inȱ corruptionsȱinȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.63ȱInȱthisȱcase,ȱafterȱappointingȱ aȱ Workingȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ monksȱ inȱ 1979,ȱ theȱ effortȱ culminatedȱ inȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ monasticȱ constitution,ȱ whichȱ includedȱ proviȬ sionsȱ forȱ theȱ appointmentȱ ofȱ aȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Committeeȱ andȱotherȱgoverningȱbodies.64ȱ InȱJulyȱ1988,ȱtheȱmilitaryȱdictatorȱgeneralȱNeȱWinȱretired,ȱinspiringȱ thoughtsȱofȱimminentȱandȱprofoundȱpoliticalȱchange.ȱSymbolizingȱbothȱ longȬfrustratedȱ andȱ possibleȱ hopes,ȱ millionsȱ ofȱ people,ȱ amongȱ whomȱ monksȱ figuredȱ prominently,ȱ protestedȱ inȱ theȱ streetsȱ throughoutȱ Myanmar.ȱOnȱAugustȱ8,ȱ1988ȱ(8Ȭ8Ȭ88,ȱreckonedȱanȱauspiciousȱday),ȱtheȱ militaryȱ brutallyȱ crushedȱ theȱ publicȱ dissent,ȱ withȱ anȱ estimatedȱ threeȱ thousandȱ fatalities.ȱ Inȱ theȱ aftermathȱ ofȱ theȱ crackdown,ȱ Aungȱ Sanȱ Suuȱ Kyiȱ(theȱdaughterȱofȱtheȱreveredȱgeneralȱAungȱSan)ȱdeliveredȱherȱfamȬ ousȱproȬdemocracyȱspeechȱatȱtheȱShwedagonȱPhaya,ȱoneȱofȱMyanmar’sȱ mostȱ importantȱ religiousȱ shrinesȱ (sinceȱ itȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ containȱ hairȱ relicsȱ ofȱ g¬kyamuniȱ Buddhaȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ ofȱ threeȱ otherȱ Buddhas).ȱ Herȱ speechȱ atȱ theȱ Shwedagonȱ pagodaȱ andȱ otherȱ eventsȱ setȱ “inȱ motionȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Leagueȱ forȱ Democracyȱ (NLD),”ȱ theȱ mainȱ voiceȱofȱdemocraticȱopposition.65ȱAndȱitȱdramaticallyȱcapturedȱhowȱtheȱ aspirationȱ forȱ liberationȱ fromȱ militaryȱ ruleȱ isȱ oftenȱ couchedȱ withinȱ aȱ Buddhistȱframework.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 62ȱ Tinȱ Maungȱ Maungȱ Thanȱ 1993ȱ p.ȱ 19.ȱ Tinȱ Maungȱ Maungȱ Than’sȱ essayȱ providesȱ aȱ detailedȱaccountȱofȱtheȱreformȱefforts.ȱ 63ȱ Thus,ȱ suchȱ reformȱ effortsȱ canȱ beȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ properȱ partȱ ofȱ “doingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱpru,ȱqaqna#p).ȱAsȱAungȬThwinȱ1985ȱpp.ȱ146–147ȱpartlyȱhelpsȱusȱtoȱ understand,ȱ theyȱ canȱ alsoȱ functionȱ inȱ atȱ leastȱ threeȱ otherȱ ways:ȱ asȱ attemptsȱ onȱ theȱ partȱofȱtheȱlayȱauthorityȱtoȱgainȱcontrolȱoverȱdonationȱproperty;ȱasȱattemptsȱtoȱgainȱ controlȱ overȱ orȱ silenceȱ dissidentȱ voicesȱ withinȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ preachingȱ againstȱgovernmentȱorȱroyalȱpolicies;ȱandȱasȱattemptsȱtoȱdeflectȱattentionȱawayȱfromȱ aȱfailingȱgovernment.ȱ 64ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱp.ȱ51ȱn.ȱ34ȱsummarizesȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱWorkȬ ingȱ Committee:ȱ “Basedȱ onȱ aȱ preliminaryȱ surveyȱ carriedȱ outȱ byȱ theȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ ReligiousȱAffairsȱinȱtheȱlastȱquarterȱofȱ1979,ȱnineȱgaingȱorȱordersȱwereȱofficiallyȱrecȬ ognizedȱbyȱtheȱstate.ȱOfȱtheseȱnine,ȱfourȱofȱtheȱlargestȱgaingȱwereȱrepresentedȱinȱtheȱ Workingȱ Committee.ȱ Thereȱ wereȱ fiftyȬeightȱ fromȱ Thudhammaȱ Gaing,ȱ fiveȱ fromȱ ShwegyinȱNikaya,ȱtwoȱfromȱMahadwayaȱGaing,ȱandȱoneȱfromȱMuladwayaȱGaing.”ȱ 65ȱ Matthewsȱ1999ȱp.ȱ38.ȱ

26ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

Inȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱincreasingȱpoliticalȱcrisis,ȱinȱSeptemberȱ1988ȱtheȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ Neȱ Win’sȱ politicalȱ partyȱ wasȱ itselfȱ overhauled;ȱ fromȱ theȱ chaosȱemergedȱtheȱStateȱLawȱandȱOrderȱRestorationȱCouncil,ȱcommonȬ lyȱknownȱasȱtheȱSLORC.ȱFurtherȱbrutalȱcrackdownsȱonȱdissentȱensued,ȱ butȱtheȱSLORCȱpromisedȱelectionsȱinȱMayȱofȱ1990.ȱTheȱelectionsȱwereȱ held,ȱandȱtheȱNationalȱLeagueȱforȱDemocracy,ȱwithȱactiveȱsupportȱfromȱ theȱmonasticȱcommunity,ȱ wonȱaȱlandslideȱvictoryȱ(winningȱ393ȱoutȱofȱ 485ȱ seatsȱ inȱ parliament).ȱ Theȱ SLORC,ȱ however,ȱ ignoredȱ theȱ electionȱ resultsȱandȱjailedȱandȱkilledȱmany,ȱlayȱpeopleȱandȱmonksȱincluded.ȱInȱ Novemberȱ 1997,ȱ inȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ softenȱ itsȱ image,ȱ theȱ SLORCȱ renamedȱ itselfȱtheȱStateȱPeaceȱandȱDevelopmentȱCouncilȱ(SPDC),ȱaȱchangeȱlargeȬ lyȱperceivedȱasȱbeingȱinȱnameȱonly.ȱ Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ relationshipȱ ofȱ theȱ currentȱ militaryȱ council,ȱ theȱ SPDC,ȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ itsȱ monasticȱ representatives,ȱ threeȱ pointsȱ areȱ crucialȱtoȱobserve.ȱTheȱfirstȱpointȱisȱthatȱtheȱSPDC,ȱasȱwithȱtheȱSLORCȱ andȱtheȱNeȱWinȱgovernmentsȱbeforeȱthem,ȱhasȱacutelyȱunderstoodȱthatȱ monasticȱ institutionsȱ andȱ Buddhistȱ practicesȱ inȱ generalȱ canȱ beȱ arenasȱ forȱ theȱ mobilizationȱ ofȱ potentiallyȱ destabilizingȱ adversarialȱ power.ȱ Second,ȱ theȱ SPDC,ȱ asȱ withȱ itsȱ predecessors,ȱ hasȱ increasinglyȱ turnedȱ towardȱ certainȱ formsȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ ritualȱ andȱ devotionalȱ activityȱ inȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ linkȱ themselvesȱ withȱ precolonialȱ conceptionsȱ ofȱ aȱ goodȱ BudȬ dhistȱ rulingȱ order.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ itȱ embracesȱ aȱ politicalȱ patternȱ alsoȱ embracedȱ byȱ theȱ Uȱ Nuȱ government.ȱ Thisȱ patternȱ consistsȱ ofȱ tryingȱ toȱ promoteȱ politicalȱ legitimacyȱ andȱ nationalȱ integrationȱ visȬàȬvisȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱThird,ȱ inȱ Burmeseȱsociety,ȱ politicalȱsupportȱofȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ alȬ mostȱ alwaysȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ heightenedȱ concernȱ whenȱ theȱ rulingȱ politicalȱ orderȱisȱperceivedȱtoȱbe—orȱactuallyȱis—inȱaȱstateȱofȱcrisis.ȱByȱattendȬ ingȱtoȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱpoliticiansȱandȱrulersȱareȱtryingȱtoȱsayȱthatȱthereȱrealȬ lyȱisȱnotȱaȱcrisis,ȱsinceȱtheyȱareȱdoingȱwhatȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱdoingȱasȱpartȱ ofȱ aȱ goodȱ Buddhistȱ governmentȱ orȱ politicalȱ order.ȱ Inȱ sum,ȱ then,ȱ theȱ SPDC,ȱperhapsȱstillȱattemptingȱtoȱcounteractȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱmassiveȱ religiopoliticalȱ ruptureȱ instantiatedȱ byȱ Britishȱ rule,ȱ triesȱ toȱ fillȱ aȱ veryȱ importantȱtraditionalȱroleȱwithinȱBuddhistȱcosmologyȱasȱsupporterȱandȱ guardianȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱitsȱvariousȱexpressions.66ȱ Asȱemphasizedȱbyȱothers,ȱandȱasȱisȱwellȱknownȱfromȱrecentȱeventsȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ monksȱ bothȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherwiseȱ haveȱ beenȱ anȱ integralȱ partȱ ofȱ theseȱ fraughtȱ politicalȱ developments.ȱ Bruceȱ Matthewsȱ providesȱ theȱ followingȱ distillation,ȱ relativeȱ toȱ theȱ colonialȱ periodȱ upȱ throughȱ1990:ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 66ȱ Forȱaȱfascinatingȱcaseȱstudy,ȱseeȱSchoberȱ1997.ȱ

ȱ

SourcesȱandȱApproachȱforȱStudyingȱtheȱStoryȱ

27ȱ

TheȱmodernȱhistoryȱofȱBurmaȱshowsȱaȱrecordȱofȱpoliticizedȱsanghaȱandȱreȬ ligiousȱactivismȱinȱpoliticsȱgoingȱbackȱtoȱsuchȱfiguresȱasȱUȱOttamaȱ(1879– 1939)ȱ andȱ toȱ suchȱ organizationsȱ asȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ Sasana/Noggahaȱ AssociaȬ tionȱofȱ1897,ȱtheȱYoungȱMen’sȱBuddhistȱAssociationȱofȱ1906,ȱandȱtheȱGenȬ eralȱCouncilȱofȱBurmeseȱAssociationsȱ(1920).ȱAnd,ȱinȱ1988,ȱdespiteȱ26ȱyearsȱ ofȱuncompromisingȱmilitaryȱrule,ȱduringȱwhichȱtheȱsanghaȱwasȱnotȱpermitȬ tedȱtoȱspeakȱfreelyȱaboutȱpoliticalȱorȱideologicalȱmatters,ȱitȱsuddenlyȱbrokeȱ awayȱfromȱtheseȱconstraints.ȱInȱtheȱperiodȱofȱintenseȱactivityȱbetweenȱtheȱ formationȱofȱtheȱmainȱoppositionȱgroup,ȱtheȱNLD,ȱandȱtheȱelectionsȱofȱMayȱ 27,ȱ1990,ȱtheȱsanghaȱwasȱatȱtheȱforefrontȱofȱagitation.ȱChargesȱbyȱtheȱstateȱ thatȱmonksȱactivelyȱsupportingȱtheȱNLDȱwereȱbreakingȱtheirȱownȱcodeȱofȱ conductȱ(vinaya)ȱhadȱlittleȱimpactȱonȱtheȱmonasticȱorder.67ȱ

Toȱthisȱdistillation,ȱweȱcanȱalsoȱaddȱofȱcourseȱtheȱmonasticȱandȱlayȱproȬ testsȱ thatȱ cameȱ toȱ dominateȱ Myanmarȱ inȱ Septemberȱ 2007.ȱ Thisȱ book,ȱ though,ȱ isȱ notȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ politicalȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ monks,ȱ norȱ onȱ theȱ supportiveȱ orȱ retaliatoryȱ actionsȱ ofȱ Myanmar’sȱ variousȱ postȬ independenceȱ governments.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theȱ briefȱ sketchȱ providedȱ hereȱ ofȱ theȱ vicissitudesȱ ofȱ theȱ country’sȱ modernȱ politicalȱ historyȱ sugȬ gestsȱ thatȱ aȱ culturalȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ providesȱ aȱ commonȱ groundȱ forȱ manyȱ peopleȱ toȱ articulateȱ theirȱ aspirationsȱ andȱ concerns,ȱ whateverȱ thoseȱ aspirationsȱ andȱ concernsȱ mayȱ be.ȱ Thisȱ bookȱ examinesȱ thatȱculturalȱemphasisȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱtradition,ȱ withȱ particularȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ themesȱ (i.e.,ȱ continuityȱ andȱ rupture)ȱ thatȱhelpȱexplainȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱanȱ“end”ȱinȱandȱofȱitself.ȱ

SourcesȱandȱApproachȱforȱStudyingȱtheȱStoryȱ WithȱaȱfocusȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfromȱaȱShwegyinȱmonasticȱperspective,ȱthisȱ bookȱ participatesȱ inȱ aȱ bodyȱ ofȱ scholarshipȱ onȱ Burmeseȱ monasticismȱ withȱrootsȱespeciallyȱbutȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtheȱworkȱofȱMelfordȱSpiroȱ([1970]ȱ 1982),ȱMichaelȱMendelsonȱ(1975),ȱJohnȱFergusonȱ(1975,ȱ1978),ȱandȱDoȬ naldȱ Smithȱ (1965).ȱ Theȱ scholarlyȱ energyȱ cultivatedȱ byȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ peopleȱ wasȱ severelyȱ underminedȱ byȱ theȱ closureȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ beginȬ ningȱinȱ1962ȱunderȱGeneralȱNeȱWin;ȱthatȱmomentȱinȱtimeȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱ aȱ massiveȱ ruptureȱ forȱ theȱ scholarlyȱ understandingȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ cultureȱ andȱ society.ȱ (Itȱ also,ȱ andȱ perhapsȱ ironicallyȱ so,ȱ provedȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ signifiȬ cantȱ boonȱ forȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.)ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ streamsȱ ofȱ scholarshipȱ haveȱ emerged,ȱ andȱ theseȱ haveȱ gainedȱ particularȱ momenȬ tum,ȱ especiallyȱ sinceȱ theȱ 1990sȱ whenȱ theȱ countryȱ beganȱ toȱ reopen.ȱ Asȱ summarizedȱbyȱoneȱscholar,ȱoneȱofȱtheseȱstrandsȱexploresȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 67ȱ Matthewsȱ1993ȱp.ȱ420.ȱ

28ȱ

Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

theȱ internalȱ ruptureȱ linesȱ inȱ theȱ Therav¬daȱ traditionȱ asȱ theyȱ areȱ localizedȱ withinȱ Burmeseȱ society,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ betweenȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ schoolsȱ ofȱ meditationȱ (Houtmanȱ 1990[aȱ andȱ b],ȱ Jordtȱ [2007]),ȱ betweenȱ monksȱ andȱ nunsȱ (KawaȬ namiȱ 1990),ȱ amongȱ ordinationȱ lineagesȱ (Carbineȱ 2004,ȱ Prankeȱ 2004),ȱ beȬ tweenȱvirtuosoȱandȱordinaryȱmonksȱ(Rozenbergȱ2005ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.),ȱandȱsoȱonȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.68ȱ

Yet,ȱanȱemphasisȱonȱ“rupture”ȱisȱonlyȱpartȱofȱtheȱstoryȱIȱwishȱtoȱexploreȱ inȱ thisȱ study.ȱ Theȱ storyȱ hereȱ isȱ oneȱ aboutȱ theȱ complexitiesȱ ofȱ variousȱ formsȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱvariousȱformsȱofȱruptureȱthatȱmayȱbeȱinvolvedȱ inȱtheȱconstitutionȱofȱanyȱreligiousȱculture,ȱShwegyinȱorȱotherwise.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ scholarlyȱ workȱ onȱ Myanmarȱ explicitlyȱ dealsȱ withȱ theȱ Shwegyin.ȱMendelsonȱ(1975,ȱeditedȱbyȱFerguson)ȱprovidesȱaȱwealthȱofȱ information,ȱasȱdoȱFerguson’sȱdissertationȱ(1975)ȱonȱmonasticȱsymbolȬ ismȱ andȱ essayȱ (1978)ȱ onȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ kings.ȱ Studiesȱ byȱ BurmeseȱscholarsȱincludeȱThanȱTun’sȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱShwegyin69ȱamongȱ others.ȱ Synthesizingȱ observationsȱ andȱ argumentsȱ fromȱ theseȱ sourcesȱ withȱ myȱ ownȱ independentȱ research,ȱ bothȱ textualȱ andȱ ethnographic,ȱ andȱwithȱworkȱdoneȱonȱSriȱLankaȱandȱLaos,ȱthisȱstudyȱbuildsȱtowardȱaȱ comparisonȱofȱBuddhistȱreligiousȱculturesȱinȱMyanmar,ȱSriȱLanka,ȱandȱ Laos.ȱTheȱcomparisonȱgrowsȱoutȱofȱmyȱeffortsȱtoȱunderstandȱShwegyinȱ andȱwiderȱBurmeseȱperspectivesȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱitsȱassociatedȱcontiȬ nuitiesȱ andȱ rupturesȱ andȱ theȱ relationsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ perspectivesȱ toȱ develȬ opmentsȱfurtherȱafield.ȱ Aȱ setȱ ofȱ comments,ȱ withȱ specificȱ referenceȱ toȱ Ferguson,ȱ canȱ beȱ madeȱhereȱatȱtheȱoutset,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱreaderȱoneȱmoreȱguidingȱpointȱ inȱregardȱtoȱwhatȱIȱseekȱtoȱdoȱinȱthisȱstudy.ȱGreatlyȱinfluencedȱbyȱMenȬ delson’sȱwork,ȱFergusonȱbothȱrejectedȱandȱfurtherȱhonedȱsomeȱofȱMenȬ delson’sȱideasȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱexploringȱmonasticȱidentityȱinȱMyanmarȱ fromȱtheȱPaganȱperiodȱupȱtoȱtheȱonsetȱofȱtheȱcolonialȱperiod.ȱForȱexamȬ ple,ȱFergusonȱrejectedȱMendelson’sȱargumentȱforȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ priorȱ toȱ Myanmar’sȱ Kongbaungȱ dynastyȱ (1752– 1885),ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱargumentȱthatȱmonasticȱsectsȱareȱ“aȱselfȱdefenseȱofȱ theȱ Sanghaȱ againstȱ theȱ stateȱ inȱ modernȱ times.”70ȱ Fergusonȱ pursued,ȱ however,ȱMendelson’sȱideasȱaboutȱ“continuum”ȱand,ȱdrawingȱonȱotherȱ scholarlyȱ workȱasȱ well,ȱdevelopedȱ themȱ intoȱaȱ theoryȱ aboutȱ theȱ socialȱ functionȱofȱmonasticȱinstitutions.ȱHeȱsuggestedȱthatȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 68ȱ Bracȱ deȱ laȱ Perrièreȱ 2009ȱ p.ȱ 194,ȱ bracketsȱ mine.ȱ Theȱ sourcesȱ listedȱ inȱ theȱ quoteȱ areȱ includedȱinȱtheȱbibliographyȱtoȱthisȱstudy.ȱ 69ȱ ThanȱTunȱ1988ȱpp.ȱ151–179.ȱSeeȱalsoȱThanȱTunȱ1980,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱpresentationalȱverȬ sionȱofȱtheȱ1998ȱpublishedȱversion.ȱTheȱ1980ȱversionȱcontainsȱseveralȱappendicesȱnotȱ inȱtheȱpublishedȱversion.ȱ 70ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ262.ȱ

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29ȱ

theȱ Sanghaȱ actsȱ inȱ someȱ respectsȱ likeȱ aȱ “culturalȱ gyroscope”ȱ (Bellah,ȱ ed.,ȱ 1965ȱp.ȱ173)ȱofȱstabilizing,ȱadjustive,ȱandȱdynamicȱvaluesȱthatȱhelpȱtheȱsoȬ cietyȱ navigateȱthroughȱ history.ȱ Theȱ gyroscope,ȱ itȱisȱ asserted,ȱisȱ ableȱ toȱreȬ tainȱitsȱbalanceȱbecauseȱofȱaȱflexibilityȱwhichȱisȱachievedȱthroughȱpatternsȱ ofȱitsȱmovementsȱdefinedȱinȱthisȱthesisȱasȱtakingȱplaceȱwithinȱ“bondedȱdiȬ mensions,”ȱthatȱisȱpairedȱandȱoppositeȱdirectionsȱofȱmovementȱforȱtheȱgyȬ roscope.ȱ Aȱ bondedȱ dimensionȱ isȱ aȱ continuumȱ ofȱ beliefȱ andȱ behaviorȱ patȬ ternsȱ withȱ contrastingȱ butȱ culturallyȱ relatedȱ extremesȱ atȱ eachȱ end.ȱ Theȱ Sanghaȱ asȱ aȱ gyroscopeȱ mayȱ developȱ towardȱ eitherȱ extremeȱ ofȱ aȱ bondedȱ dimensionȱasȱitȱmovesȱthroughȱtimeȱinȱitsȱdynamicȱroleȱasȱaȱviableȱsocioȬ logicalȱinstitutionȱandȱasȱaȱnationalȱculturalȱsymbol.71ȱ

IȱwillȱhaveȱmoreȱtoȱsayȱaboutȱtheȱspecificsȱofȱFerguson’sȱargumentȱlaterȱ inȱthisȱstudy,ȱbutȱforȱnowȱIȱwishȱtoȱpointȱoutȱthatȱthoughȱIȱdepartȱfromȱ hisȱperspective,ȱIȱamȱcompelledȱbyȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱheȱusedȱtheȱruȬ bricȱ of,ȱ soȱ toȱ speak,ȱ aȱ gyroscopicȱ continuumȱ toȱ exploreȱ theȱ labileȱ asȬ pectsȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ monasticȱ traditionsȱ andȱ theȱ societiesȱ ofȱ whichȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ aȱ part.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ not,ȱ byȱ anyȱ means,ȱ toȱ suggestȱ thatȱ Fergusonȱ wasȱtheȱfirstȱorȱlastȱtoȱstudyȱissuesȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱitsȱinverse,ȱdisrupȬ tion/rupture.72ȱ However,ȱ itȱ isȱ toȱ highlightȱ thatȱ forȱ me,ȱ hisȱ interpretiveȱ effortsȱ encourageȱ usȱ toȱ considerȱ theȱ interplaysȱ betweenȱ continuitiesȱ andȱdisruptions/rupturesȱinȱtheȱtexts,ȱpractices,ȱandȱhumanȱbodiesȱthatȱ makeȱupȱaȱreligiousȱtraditionȱsuchȱasȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱ Inȱtermsȱofȱmethod,ȱthisȱstudyȱadoptsȱanȱinterdisciplinaryȱapproachȱ withȱattentionȱtoȱliterary,ȱadministrative,ȱritual,ȱandȱdoctrinalȱevidence.ȱ UsingȱShwegyinȱbiographiesȱandȱhistoriesȱasȱcaseȬstudyȱmaterial,ȱchapȬ terȱ oneȱ framesȱ theȱ majorȱ theoreticalȱ andȱ methodologicalȱ premisesȱ ofȱ thisȱwork.ȱIȱoptȱforȱstartingȱwithȱbiographicalȱandȱhistoricalȱrepresentaȬ tionsȱnotȱbecauseȱIȱtakeȱsuchȱrepresentationsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱprimaryȱvehicleȱ ofȱShwegyinȱunderstanding,ȱnorȱbecauseȱtheyȱrepresent,ȱtransparently,ȱ “facts”ȱaboutȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱIȱfocusȱonȱthemȱbecauseȱtheyȱ areȱexcellentȱmediaȱforȱdistillingȱmyȱinterpretiveȱperspectiveȱinȱregardȱ toȱ Shwegyinȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ whichȱ Iȱ examineȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ traditionȱ andȱaȱtraditionalismȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture.ȱ ChaptersȱtwoȱthroughȱfourȱdiscussȱparticularȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱtraditionȱandȱitsȱtraditionalism,ȱfocusingȱonȱadministrative,ȱritual,ȱ andȱdoctrinalȱevidenceȱrespectively.ȱEachȱofȱtheseȱchaptersȱbeginsȱwithȱ aȱ shortȱ preludeȱ identifyingȱ theȱ majorȱ directionȱ ofȱ theȱ discussionȱ atȱ hand,ȱ asȱ wellȱ as,ȱ inȱ oneȱ case,ȱ aȱ personalȱ vignetteȱ relatedȱ toȱ myȱ expeȬ riencesȱ inȱ theȱ field.ȱ Andȱ eachȱ attemptsȱ toȱ giveȱ primaryȱ voiceȱ toȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 71ȱ Fergusonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ7.ȱ 72ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱworksȱrangingȱfromȱTurnerȱ[1957]ȱ1996ȱtoȱLincolnȱ1989.ȱ

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Introduction:ȱFromȱtheȱg¬kyamuniȱBuddhaȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱȱ

emicȱviewpointsȱofȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱwithȱreferencesȱbackȱtoȱtheȱcategoriesȱ ofȱtraditionȱandȱtraditionalism.ȱ Chapterȱ twoȱ picksȱ upȱ whereȱ theȱ historicalȱ sketchȱ providedȱ inȱ thisȱ introductionȱleftȱoff,ȱbyȱaddressingȱparticularȱinstitutionalȱmooringsȱofȱ theȱShwegyinȱtradition.ȱUsingȱaȱthematicȱapproach,ȱitȱexploresȱtheȱnaȬ tureȱofȱinclusivityȱandȱexclusivityȱamongȱBurmeseȱmonks,ȱtheȱrelationȱ ofȱsuchȱinclusivityȱandȱexclusivityȱtoȱissuesȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture,ȱ andȱtoȱaspectsȱofȱShwegyinȱleadershipȱandȱadministration.ȱTheȱchapterȱ alsoȱdevelopsȱtheȱnotionȱofȱmonasticȱandȱlayȱ“careȱgroups”ȱasȱaȱwayȱtoȱ thinkȱ aboutȱ Myanmar’sȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ asȱ somethingȱ thatȱ involvesȱ theȱ jointȱ effortsȱ ofȱ monks,ȱ nuns,ȱ layȱ people,ȱ andȱmembersȱofȱtheȱmilitary.ȱ ChapterȱthreeȱfocusesȱonȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱritualsȱconcernȬ ingȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monasticȱ traditions,ȱ theȱ higherȱordination,ȱandȱitȱoffersȱaȱdetailedȱdiscussionȱofȱoneȱsuchȱritualȱ asȱ performedȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ monastery.ȱ Shiftingȱ fromȱ ritualȱ toȱ doctrine,ȱ chapterȱ fourȱ exploresȱ theȱ relevanceȱ ofȱ theȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ viaȱ sermonsȱ byȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ onȱ theȱ S¬sana’sȱ “frontȬlineȱ fortress,”ȱ theȱConditionalȱRelationsȱ(P.ȱpaΞΞh¬na),ȱrealizationȱofȱwhichȱareȱintrinsicȱ toȱtheȱquestȱforȱmetaphysicalȱrupture.ȱ Theȱ conclusionȱ integratesȱ theȱ argumentsȱ developedȱ inȱ thisȱ studyȱ and,ȱ correlatingȱ themȱ withȱ workȱ onȱ Myanmarȱ doneȱ byȱ others,ȱ usesȱ themȱ toȱ suggestȱ thatȱ Myanmar’sȱ Buddhistȱ cultureȱ hasȱ witnessedȱ aȱ processȱofȱS¬sanaȬizationȱinȱwaysȱthat,ȱforȱinstance,ȱdifferentiateȱitȱfromȱ otherȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ culturesȱ inȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia,ȱ inȱ parȬ ticularȱSriȱLankaȱandȱLaos.73ȱTheȱconclusionȱalsoȱoffersȱaȱseriesȱofȱreflecȬ tionsȱonȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱthisȱstudyȱforȱtheoryȱandȱmethod.ȱAnȱepiȬ logueȱcommentsȱonȱdevelopmentsȱbeyondȱtheȱscopeȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱbutȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 73ȱȱ TheȱkindȱofȱS¬sanaȬizationȱarguedȱforȱinȱthisȱstudyȱisȱrelatedȱtoȱbutȱdiffersȱfromȱthat,ȱ forȱexample,ȱdistilledȱbyȱObeyesekereȱ1995ȱp.ȱ244.ȱThereȱheȱcorrelatesȱ“s¬sanization”ȱ withȱ“Buddhicizationȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱofȱSouthȱIndianȱgroups,ȱincludingȱtheirȱgods,ȱmagicalȱpracȬ tices,ȱlanguage,ȱandȱtexts,ȱwhichȱifȱtranslatedȱintoȱtheȱEuropeanȱlanguageȱisȱaȱformȱ ofȱlifeȱthatȱisȱcalledȱnaturalization.ȱViewedȱinȱlongȬtermȱhistoricalȱperspective,ȱSinhaȬ lasȱ haveȱ beenȱ forȱ theȱ mostȱ partȱ Southȱ Indianȱ migrantsȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ s¬sanized.”ȱ Onȱp.ȱ243ȱheȱsetsȱtheseȱpointsȱwithinȱaȱframeworkȱofȱ“trueȱconsciousness”ȱandȱ“falseȱ consciousness,”ȱ bothȱ ofȱ whichȱ forȱ himȱ areȱ partȱ andȱ parcelȱ ofȱ theȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ s¬sanization/Buddhicization.ȱ Asȱ theȱ readerȱ willȱ see,ȱ Iȱ amȱ notȱ soȱ muchȱ concernedȱ withȱ theȱ Buddhicizationȱ ofȱ theȱ gods,ȱ etc.,ȱ orȱ withȱ trueȱ orȱ falseȱ consciousness,ȱ butȱ withȱ whatȱ areȱ distinctiveȱ developmentsȱ inȱ theȱ cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ itselfȱ inȱ MyanȬ mar.ȱ Whileȱ itȱ mayȱ seemȱ paradoxical,ȱ myȱ suggestionȱ isȱ thatȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ culȬ tureȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ isȱ undergoingȱ anȱ intensificationȱ ofȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ Buddhicizationȱ toȱ whichȱObeyesekereȱalludes.ȱAsȱanȱintenseȱformȱofȱS¬sanaȬization,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱhelpȱ usȱtoȱseeȱthatȱpoint.ȱSeeȱtheȱconclusionȱtoȱthisȱstudyȱforȱfurtherȱcomments.ȱ

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31ȱ

raisesȱtheȱquestionȱofȱtheȱpotentiallyȱpositiveȱroleȱsuchȱaȱstrongȱemphaȬ sisȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱcanȱhaveȱonȱMyanmar’sȱpoliticalȱfuture.ȱ

ȱ

ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱ Traditionalismȱ Tradition:ȱInventedȱandȱReinventedȱ Analytically,ȱthisȱstudyȱtreatsȱtraditionsȱasȱsubsetsȱofȱculturesȱ(systemsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practice,ȱ sometimesȱ formalȱ andȱ sometimesȱ informal,ȱ organizedȱaroundȱparticularȱideasȱofȱtimeȱandȱspace,ȱhistory,ȱadminisȬ trativeȱ work,ȱ doctrinalȱ endeavors,ȱ and/orȱ overallȱ collectiveȱ effortȱ atȱ producingȱ andȱ reproducingȱ objectsȱ andȱ values).1ȱ Asȱ Iȱ seeȱ them,ȱ tradiȬ tionsȱ tendȱ toȱ exhibitȱ aȱ highȱ degreeȱ ofȱ formalizationȱ aroundȱ notionsȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ disruption/rupture.ȱ Throughȱ anȱ analysisȱ ofȱ aȱ traditionȱ weȱcanȱhoneȱourȱthoughtsȱaboutȱaȱgivenȱlargerȱcultureȱofȱwhichȱitȱisȱaȱ part.ȱ Suchȱ isȱ myȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ whichȱ allowsȱ usȱ toȱ thinkȱ aboutȱhowȱideasȱof,ȱandȱpracticesȱrelatedȱto,ȱcontinuityȱandȱdisruption/ ruptureȱ areȱ usedȱ inȱ waysȱ attentiveȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ theȱ mainȱ goal,ȱ theȱ end,ȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition.ȱ Butȱ beforeȱ divingȱ intoȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ andȱ itsȱ “traditionalism,”ȱ itȱ isȱ usefulȱ toȱ frameȱ theȱ analyticalȱ agendaȱatȱhandȱwithȱstudiesȱbyȱEdwardȱShilsȱandȱEricȱHobsbawm.ȱ Inȱ1981,ȱShilsȱadoptedȱtheȱnotionȱofȱ“substantiveȱtradition”ȱtoȱanaȬ lyzeȱ howȱ peopleȱ valueȱ pastȱ accomplishmentsȱ andȱ wisdom,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ desireȱtheȱcontinuingȱroleȱofȱsuchȱaccomplishmentsȱandȱwisdomȱinȱtheȱ presentȱ andȱ future.ȱ Inȱ 1983,ȱ Hobsbawmȱ elaboratedȱ onȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ “inventedȱtradition”ȱasȱaȱwayȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱconstructionȱandȱdeployȬ mentȱ ofȱ ruleȬgovernedȱ practicesȱ intendedȱ “toȱ inculcateȱ certainȱ valuesȱ andȱ norms”ȱ inȱ suchȱ aȱ wayȱ asȱ toȱ makeȱ thoseȱ practices,ȱ values,ȱ andȱ norms,ȱ evenȱ andȱ especiallyȱ thoseȱ ofȱ relativelyȱ recentȱ origin,ȱ appearȱ continuousȱ “withȱ theȱ past.”2ȱ Likeȱ othersȱ examiningȱ theȱ topicȱ ofȱ tradiȬ tion,ȱ bothȱ Shilsȱ andȱ Hobsbawmȱ positionȱ theirȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ traditionȱ inȱlightȱofȱideasȱaboutȱdisorder/breakageȱor,ȱasȱusedȱinȱthisȱstudy,ȱdisȬ ruption/rupture.3ȱShils,ȱforȱexample,ȱcommentsȱthatȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱȱ 2ȱ 3ȱ

ThisȱchapterȱisȱaȱrevisedȱversionȱofȱCarbineȱ2005.ȱ Hobsbawmȱ1983ȱp.ȱ1.ȱ Forȱ thisȱ study,ȱ “disruption”ȱ refersȱ toȱ aȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ linesȱ ofȱ continuity,ȱ howeverȱunderstoodȱinȱaȱculturalȱcontext,ȱhaveȱbeen,ȱareȱbeing,ȱorȱareȱperceivedȱtoȱ be,ȱ undermined.ȱ “Rupture”ȱ refersȱ toȱ aȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ disruptionȱ hasȱ reachedȱ

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33ȱ

substantiveȱtraditionsȱareȱmoreȱendangeredȱbyȱtheȱdisorderȱofȱurbanȱidleȬ nessȱandȱtheȱsupplantationȱofȱlocalȱandȱtribalȱauthoritiesȱthanȱtheyȱareȱbyȱ theȱfragmentaryȱandȱunsuccessfulȱauthorityȱofȱaȱremoteȱandȱspuriouslyȱraȬ tionalizedȱbureaucracy.4ȱȱ

Thisȱisȱanȱintriguingȱargumentȱbutȱoneȱthatȱcanȱbeȱadjustedȱforȱtheȱkindȱ ofȱ variegatedȱ responsesȱ thatȱ particularȱ traditions,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyin,ȱmayȱdisplayȱtowardȱproblemsȱofȱbothȱdisruptionȱandȱrupture,ȱonȱ bothȱsociologicalȱandȱexistentialȱlevels.ȱForȱinstance,ȱitȱcouldȱveryȱwellȱ beȱ thatȱ aȱ substantiveȱ traditionȱ isȱ threatenedȱ moreȱ byȱ aȱ distant,ȱ “spuȬ riouslyȱrationalized”ȱbureaucracyȱthanȱurbanȱidleness,ȱespeciallyȱwhenȱ thatȱ remoteȱ bureaucracyȱ triesȱ toȱ exertȱ itsȱ controlȱ overȱ aȱ localȱ areaȱ viaȱ forcedȱsubjugation.ȱAndȱitȱalsoȱcouldȱbeȱthatȱaȱsubstantiveȱtraditionȱisȱ ultimatelyȱ atȱoddsȱwithȱitsȱ ownȱcontinuityȱ andȱ expresses,ȱtoȱsomeȱ deȬ gree,ȱtheȱdesirabilityȱofȱitsȱownȱdisruption,ȱifȱnotȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱtheȱenȬ tireȱtraditionȱitselfȱthenȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱindividualȱexperience.ȱ Reflectingȱonȱtheȱideaȱofȱaȱbreakȱinȱ“genuineȱtradition,”ȱHobsbawmȱ suggestsȱthatȱȱ theȱveryȱappearanceȱofȱmovementsȱforȱtheȱdefenseȱorȱrevivalȱofȱtraditions,ȱ “traditionalist”ȱorȱotherwise,ȱindicatesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱaȱbreak.ȱSuchȱmovements,ȱcomȬ monȱ amongȱ intellectualsȱ sinceȱ theȱ Romantics,ȱ canȱ neverȱ developȱ orȱ evenȱ preserveȱ aȱ livingȱ pastȱ (exceptȱ conceivablyȱ byȱ settingȱ upȱ humanȱ naturalȱ sanctuariesȱforȱisolatedȱcornersȱofȱarchaicȱlife),ȱbutȱmustȱbecomeȱ“inventedȱ tradition.”ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhandȱtheȱstrengthȱandȱadaptabilityȱofȱgenuineȱtraȬ ditionsȱ isȱnotȱtoȱ beȱ confusedȱwithȱ theȱ “inventionȱ ofȱ tradition.”ȱ Whereȱ theȱ oldȱwaysȱareȱalive,ȱtraditionsȱneedȱbeȱneitherȱrevivedȱnorȱinvented.5ȱ

Theȱ interpretiveȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ “genuineȱ traditions”ȱ andȱ “inȬ ventedȱtraditions”ȱmayȱhaveȱadvantagesȱforȱexaminingȱsomeȱtraditionsȱ andȱ theirȱ rolesȱ inȱ recentȱ history.ȱ However,ȱ suchȱaȱ distinctionȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ beȱusedȱhere.ȱEvenȱaȱ“genuineȱtradition”ȱisȱasȱinventedȱasȱanyȱotherȱsoȬ calledȱ newȱ tradition,ȱ itȱ isȱ justȱ thatȱ itsȱ initialȱ pointsȱ ofȱ inventionȱ wereȱ furtherȱ backȱ inȱ theȱ past,ȱ perhapsȱ hundredsȱ ifȱ notȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ yearsȱ ago.ȱTherefore,ȱwhileȱdepartingȱfromȱShilsȱandȱHobsbawmȱinȱparticuȬ larȱ ways,ȱthisȱ chapter,ȱ andȱ theȱ studyȱasȱ aȱ whole,ȱ takesȱ aȱpointȱ ofȱ leadȱ fromȱthem.ȱTheyȱaddressȱaȱsubstantiveȱBuddhistȱtradition,ȱaȱBuddhistȱ monasticȱ tradition,ȱ butȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ thatȱ traditionȱ isȱ asȱ “invented”ȱ andȱ “reinvented”ȱ asȱ anyȱ otherȱ tradition,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ itsȱ pointȱ ofȱ hisȬ toricalȱgenesis.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ

suchȱaȱhighȱdegreeȱ thatȱaȱ breakageȱofȱ theȱlinesȱ ofȱcontinuity,ȱ howeverȱunderstood,ȱ hasȱoccurredȱorȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱoccur.ȱ Shilsȱ1981ȱp.ȱ298.ȱ Hobsbawmȱ1983ȱpp.ȱ7–8.ȱ

34ȱ

ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

ShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱTraditionalismȱ Asȱ pointedȱ outȱ inȱ theȱ introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ study,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ groupsȱ areȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ muchȱ largerȱ Buddhistȱ tradition,ȱ nowadaysȱ commonlyȱ referredȱ toȱ asȱ theȱ Therav¬da.ȱ Ofȱ late,ȱ thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ moveȱ amongȱ someȱ scholarsȱ ofȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asianȱ Buddhismȱ toȱquestionȱ bothȱ theȱ accuracyȱ andȱ utilityȱ ofȱ theȱ termȱ “Therav¬da”ȱasȱaȱdescriptor.ȱPeterȱSkillingȱhasȱbeenȱaȱprominentȱvoiceȱ inȱtheȱdebate,ȱandȱheȱhasȱaȱpointȱrelatedȱtoȱmyȱfocusȱhere:ȱifȱusingȱtheȱ termȱTherav¬daȱforȱtheȱBuddhistȱtraditionsȱthatȱhaveȱcomeȱtoȱdominateȱ theȱ landscapeȱ ofȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asiaȱ canȱ lendȱ itselfȱ toȱ creatingȱ artificialȱ andȱ ahistoricalȱ entitiesȱ thatȱ haveȱ littleȱ ifȱ anyȱ connectionȱ toȱ Buddhistȱtraditionsȱonȱtheȱground,ȱweȱshouldȱseekȱtoȱreplaceȱorȱnuanceȱ theȱtermȱwithȱadditionalȱsetsȱofȱterminologyȱthatȱresonateȱmoreȱstrongȬ lyȱwithȱtheȱdataȱinȱhand.6ȱ Sinceȱitȱisȱclearȱthatȱtheȱtermȱ“Therav¬da”ȱisȱanȱimportantȱreferentȱ forȱ manyȱ Buddhistsȱ inȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asiaȱ andȱ elsewhere,ȱ itȱ isȱ unreasonableȱandȱundesirableȱtoȱjettisonȱitȱentirely.ȱYet,ȱitȱisȱalsoȱclearȱ thatȱfurtherȱattentionȱcanȱandȱshouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱlocalȱcategoriesȱ ofȱ traditionȬmakingȱ throughȱ whichȱ Buddhistȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ practiceȱ areȱandȱhaveȱbeenȱconstructed.7ȱAȱparadigmȱshiftȱisȱneededȱasȱaȱwayȱtoȱ openȱupȱnewȱandȱpotentiallyȱmoreȱaccurateȱdiscussionsȱandȱinvestigaȬ tionsȱ intoȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ phenomenaȱ thatȱ haveȱ beenȱ groupedȱ underȱ theȱ rubricȱofȱTherav¬da.ȱSkillingȱhimselfȱhasȱsuggestedȱturningȱtoȱvariousȱ issuesȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱconstitutionȱofȱmonasticȱlineages.ȱHereȱIȱpursueȱ thisȱ lineȱ ofȱ inquiryȱ byȱ examiningȱ howȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ beenȱ representedȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ literatureȱ asȱ aȱ lineageȱ attemptingȱ toȱ embodyȱ andȱ transmitȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Forȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ andȱ forȱ manyȱ ofȱ theirȱ Burmeseȱ coreligionists,ȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ S¬sanaȬrelatedȱtermsȱsuchȱasȱ“doingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱ pru,ȱqaqna#p),ȱ“lineageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(e.g.,ȱP.ȱS¬sanaȬvaΚsa,ȱB.ȱS¬san¬ȱtoеȱ e*ȱ anvayеȱ achakе,ȱ qaqnaeta\% ANQy\ASk\),ȱ andȱ “Shwegyinȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱ S¬san¬,ȱ erWkjc\qaqna)ȱ areȱ centralȱ toȱ theirȱ selfȬidentificationȱ ofȱ whatȱIȱcallȱaȱtradition.ȱ Toȱbeȱclear,ȱtheȱtermȱ“tradition”ȱisȱusedȱhereȱasȱanȱinterpretiveȱcatȬ egoryȱ toȱ referȱ toȱ particularȱ thoughts,ȱ practices,ȱ andȱ peopleȱ thatȱ haveȱ coalescedȱaroundȱparticularȱvisionsȱofȱsocial,ȱhistorical,ȱand/orȱreligiousȱ continuityȱ andȱ rupture.ȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ withȱ theirȱ emphasisȱ onȱ beȬ ing,ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱ“lineageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,”ȱcompriseȱoneȱsuchȱtradition.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 6ȱȱ 7ȱ

Skillingȱ2004.ȱȱ Halliseyȱ1995.ȱ

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ShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱTraditionalismȱ

35ȱ

Inȱtermsȱofȱthisȱstudyȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱIȱaskȱandȱanswerȱthisȱquestion:ȱwhatȱ areȱtheȱspecificȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱconceiveȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture,ȱ inȱ theȱ past,ȱ present,ȱ andȱ future,ȱ andȱ howȱ doȱ theyȱ relateȱ suchȱ concepȬ tionsȱ toȱ actualȱ practice?ȱ Inȱ thisȱ chapterȱ specifically,ȱ Iȱ askȱ andȱ answer:ȱ howȱ mightȱ weȱ approachȱ theirȱ historiesȱ andȱ biographiesȱ asȱ anȱ entryȱ pointȱintoȱunderstandingȱtheȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱtradition?ȱ ShwegyinȱconceptionsȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱruptureȱareȱhardlyȱnormaȬ tiveȱ forȱ allȱ Buddhists,ȱ monasticȱ orȱ otherwise,ȱ inȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia.ȱ Yetȱ theirȱ conceptionsȱ areȱ representativeȱ ofȱ certainȱ positionsȱ reȬ gardingȱcontinuityȱandȱruptureȱthatȱhaveȱhadȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱhisȬ toryȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱtheȱregion,ȱandȱaboveȱallȱinȱMyanmar.ȱ ToȱunderstandȱShwegyinȱconceptionsȱofȱcontinuity,ȱitȱisȱfirstȱnecesȬ saryȱtoȱunderstandȱsomethingȱaboutȱtheirȱperspectivesȱonȱtwoȱkindsȱofȱ rupture.ȱOneȱkindȱofȱrupture,ȱandȱaȱkindȱofȱruptureȱthatȱisȱconsideredȱ toȱbeȱgoodȱbutȱextremelyȱdifficultȱtoȱachieve,ȱisȱaȱpermanentȱruptureȱinȱ one’sȱsuccessiveȱbirthsȱ(P.ȱpaΞisandhi)ȱinȱsaΚs¬raȱorȱtheȱcycleȱofȱrebirth.ȱ Inȱ achievingȱ thatȱ rupture,ȱ oneȱ makesȱ theȱ radicalȱ breakthroughȱ toȱ theȱ peacefulȬblissȱ (P.ȱ santiȬsukha)ȱ ofȱ nibb¬na.ȱ Inȱ S¬sanaȱ parlance,ȱ nibb¬naȱ isȱ theȱ“unconditioned”ȱandȱ“nonȬcompounded,”ȱwhereasȱtheȱexistentsȱ(P.ȱ dhammas)ȱthatȱmakeȱupȱsaΚs¬raȱareȱ“conditioned”ȱandȱ“compounded.”ȱ Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ nibb¬na,ȱ saΚs¬raȱ isȱ composedȱ ofȱ manyȱ conditionedȱ exisȬ tentsȱ thatȱ areȱ ultimatelyȱ reducibleȱ toȱ threeȱ classesȱ thatȱ compriseȱ theȱ mindȱandȱbody:ȱconsciousnessȱorȱawarenessȱofȱobjectsȱ(P.ȱcitta),ȱwhichȱ isȱneitherȱgoodȱnorȱbad;ȱmentalȱconcomitantsȱorȱmentalȱfactorsȱ(P.ȱcetaȬ sika),ȱwhichȱplayȱparticularȱrolesȱinȱtheȱvariousȱprocessesȱofȱcognition;ȱ andȱ materialityȱ (P.ȱ rĀpa),ȱ whichȱ comprisesȱ theȱ physicalȱ componentȱ ofȱ specified,ȱ individualȱ identity.ȱ Theseȱ threeȱ classesȱ ofȱ conditionedȱ exisȬ tentsȱcombine,ȱdecay,ȱandȱrecombineȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱasȱtoȱmakeȱupȱtheȱ continuityȱ ofȱ beingsȱ inȱ saΚs¬ra.ȱ Inȱ anyȱ givenȱ life,ȱ aȱ beingȱ isȱ aȱ comȬ poundedȱandȱconstructedȱentity,ȱanalogousȱtoȱaȱhouse.ȱ Theȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ continuityȱ inȱ saΚs¬raȱ andȱ breakingȱ freeȱ ofȱ thatȱ continuityȱ isȱ understoodȱ byȱ aȱ Buddha,ȱ whoȱ gainsȱ perfectȱ insightȱ intoȱ theȱ truthȱ (P.ȱ dhamma)ȱ ofȱ theȱ operationsȱ ofȱ consciousness,ȱ mentalȱ concomitants,ȱandȱ matter,ȱwhoȱ acquiresȱ nibb¬nicȱrealization,ȱ andȱwho,ȱ armedȱwithȱthatȱinsightȱandȱrealization,ȱisȱableȱtoȱinitiateȱaȱS¬sanaȱthatȱ showsȱothersȱhowȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱbreakthroughȱtoȱnibb¬na.ȱThus,ȱtheȱtemȬ poralȱ existenceȱ ofȱ aȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ predicatedȱ onȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ aȱ BudȬ dha’sȱownȱmetaphysicalȱnibb¬nicȱrupture.ȱAndȱtoȱbeȱclear,ȱthen,ȱaccordȬ ingȱtoȱShwegyinȱandȱsimilarȱmonasticȱtraditions,ȱaȱS¬sana,ȱwhenȱandȱifȱ properlyȱ transmitted,ȱ illuminatesȱ theȱ pathȱ (P.ȱ magga)ȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱthatȱallowsȱbeings,ȱbothȱindividuallyȱandȱcollectively,ȱtoȱcauseȱ

36ȱ

ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

aȱpermanentȱruptureȱinȱtheirȱconditionedȱflowȱinȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱtherebyȱmakȬ ingȱtheȱradicalȱbreakthroughȱtoȱtheȱpeacefulȬblissȱofȱnibb¬na.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ kindȱ ofȱ rupture,ȱ andȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ ruptureȱ thatȱ shouldȱ beȱ heldȱ inȱ check,ȱ concernsȱ theȱ decayȱ andȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ itselfȱ inȱ bothȱ textualȱ andȱ communalȱ ways.ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition,ȱ asȱ withȱ otherȱ monasticȱ andȱ Buddhistȱ groupsȱ adheringȱ toȱ aȱ Paliȱ textualȱ emphasis,ȱ presupposesȱthatȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱasȱaȱcollectionȱofȱtextsȱandȱasȱanȱembodiedȱ community,ȱlikeȱallȱcompoundedȱandȱconditionedȱthings,ȱisȱactuallyȱinȱ aȱprocessȱofȱdecayȱandȱwillȱeventuallyȱandȱinevitablyȱdisappear,ȱthereȬ byȱ sufferingȱ itsȱ ownȱ kindȱ ofȱ rupture.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ numerousȱ Buddhistȱ narrativesȱthatȱillustrateȱthisȱpoint.8ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱnarrativesȱreferȱtoȱtheȱ declineȱ andȱ discontinuityȱ ofȱ theȱ threeȱ kindsȱ ofȱ S¬sana:ȱ theȱ pariyattiȬ S¬sanaȱorȱS¬sanaȱasȱitȱisȱstudied;ȱtheȱpaΞipattiȬS¬sanaȱorȱS¬sanaȱasȱitȱisȱputȱ intoȱ dailyȱ practices;ȱ andȱ theȱ paΞivedhaȬS¬sanaȱ orȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ expeȬ riencedȱasȱaȱfruitȱofȱstudyȱandȱpractice.ȱAdditionally,ȱsomeȱofȱtheȱnarraȬ tivesȱ referȱ toȱ aȱ fivefoldȱ processȱ ofȱ decline:ȱ first,ȱ aȱ lossȱ inȱ anȱ abilityȱ toȱ achieveȱ certainȱ spiritualȱ attainmentsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ pathȱ toȱ nibb¬na;ȱ second,ȱ aȱ lossȱ inȱ anȱ abilityȱ toȱ upholdȱ certainȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ practice;ȱ third,ȱ aȱ lossȱ inȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ fourth,ȱ aȱ lossȱ inȱ anȱ abilityȱ toȱ maintainȱ theȱ signsȱ orȱ marksȱ ofȱ monasticism,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ robes;ȱ andȱ finally,ȱ aȱ lossȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ relics.ȱ Whetherȱ pitchedȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ aȱ threefoldȱ orȱ fivefoldȱ decline,ȱ theȱ narrativesȱ ofȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ emphasizeȱaȱcrucialȱpoint:ȱtheȱdefinitiveȱotherȱagainstȱwhichȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱ tradition,ȱ andȱ otherȱ S¬sanaȬtraditions,ȱ haveȱ beenȱ andȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱconstructedȱisȱnotȱaȱpersonȱorȱgroup,ȱbutȱtheȱtruthȱofȱimpermanenceȱ (P.ȱanicca)ȱandȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱendȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱtextsȱinȱ whichȱ itȱ isȱ preservedȱ andȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ striveȱ toȱ embodyȱit.ȱ Forȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ thoseȱ whoȱ thinkȱ likeȱ them,ȱ monasticȱ workȱ itselfȱ isȱ vitalȱ toȱ theȱ entireȱ enterpriseȱ ofȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Monasticȱ workȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ anȱ appropriateȱ expression,ȱ whetherȱ individuallyȱ orȱ communally,ȱ ofȱ theȱ metaphysicalȱandȱnarrativeȱS¬sanaȱworldviewȱdescribedȱabove.ȱThatȱis,ȱ asȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ seeȱ it,ȱ anyȱ monasticȱ groupȱ thatȱ claimsȱ toȱ beȱ desȬ cendedȱ fromȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ mustȱ seeȱ toȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ whichȱilluminesȱtheȱpathȱtoȱnibb¬na,ȱforȱthatȱisȱtheirȱresponsibilityȱ(B.ȱt¬ȱ wanе,ȱtawn\)ȱ asȱaȱ communalȱ embodimentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Thisȱisȱ oneȱreaȬ sonȱ whyȱ concernsȱ overȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ compositionȱ especiallyȱ ofȱ moȬ nasticȱ lineagesȱ figureȱ soȱ prominentlyȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ S¬sanaȬ orientedȱBuddhistȱdiscussionsȱofȱsocioreligiousȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 8ȱ

Nattierȱ1991,ȱBlackburnȱ2001.ȱ

ȱ

ShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱTraditionalismȱ

37ȱ

Byȱmilitatingȱagainstȱoneȱkindȱofȱruptureȱ(i.e.,ȱofȱtheȱS¬sana),ȱmonasticȱ traditions,ȱ inȱ waysȱ thatȱ areȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ distinctive,ȱ promoteȱ theȱ possibilityȱofȱanotherȱkindȱofȱruptureȱ(i.e.,ȱnibb¬nic).ȱ Inȱ sum,ȱ Shwegyinȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ texts,ȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ exploredȱbelow,ȱsuggestȱthatȱaȱmonasticȱlineageȱ(e.g.,ȱP.ȱvaΚsa,ȱB.ȱanvayеȱ achakе,ȱ ANQy\ASk\)ȱ is,ȱ ideally,ȱ oneȱ typeȱ ofȱ traditionȱ orientedȱ aroundȱ theȱ transmissionȱofȱreligiousȱknowledgeȱandȱpracticeȱconcerningȱtheseȱtwoȱ typesȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ twoȱ typesȱ ofȱ rupture.ȱ Oneȱ typeȱ ofȱ rupture— nibb¬nicȱrupture—isȱmetaphysicalȱ(sinceȱitȱinvolvesȱtheȱcompleteȱcessaȬ tionȱ ofȱ allȱ possibleȱ recombinationsȱ ofȱ mind,ȱ mentalȱ concomitants,ȱ andȱ matter),ȱ isȱ desirable,ȱ andȱ isȱ possibleȱ thoughȱ extremelyȱ difficultȱ toȱ atȬ tain.9ȱ Anotherȱ typeȱ ofȱ rupture—ofȱ theȱ S¬sana—isȱ textual,ȱ communal,ȱ undesirable,ȱ material,ȱ andȱ completelyȱ inevitableȱ thoughȱ possibleȱ toȱ slowȱdownȱorȱspeedȱup.ȱ EachȱofȱtheseȱtypesȱofȱruptureȱimpliesȱaȱcorrespondingȱtypeȱofȱconȬ tinuity.ȱ Oneȱ typeȱ ofȱ continuity—ofȱ beingsȱ inȱ saΚs¬ra—isȱ metaphysicalȱ (sinceȱitȱinvolvesȱtheȱrecombinationȱofȱmind,ȱmentalȱconcomitants,ȱandȱ matter),ȱisȱ ultimatelyȱundesirable,ȱandȱisȱ extremelyȱ easyȱtoȱperpetuateȱ (drivenȱasȱitȱisȱbyȱtheȱattachmentsȱofȱbeings).ȱTheȱotherȱtypeȱofȱcontinuȬ ity—ofȱtheȱS¬sana—isȱtextual,ȱcommunal,ȱdesirable,ȱmaterial,ȱandȱquiteȱ difficultȱtoȱmaintain.ȱIdeally,ȱthisȱtypeȱofȱcontinuityȱisȱmeantȱtoȱincludeȱ theȱparticipationȱofȱwellȬdisposedȱgroupsȱacrossȱtheȱreligious,ȱpolitical,ȱ andȱ cosmologicalȱ spectrum,ȱ includingȱ monks,ȱ nuns,ȱ layȱ people,ȱ theȱ politicalȱeliteȱincludingȱmilitaryȱleaders,ȱandȱeven,ȱasȱweȱwillȱseeȱlater,ȱ theȱgods.ȱAppendixȱA,ȱfigureȱ2ȱsummarizesȱthisȱinformation.ȱ Theȱ perspectiveȱ onȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ offeredȱ inȱ thisȱ chapterȱ (fromȱ theȱ vantageȱ pointȱofȱlineage)ȱandȱinȱ theȱ studyȱ asȱaȱ wholeȱ(fromȱ theȱ vantageȱ pointȱ ofȱ institutionalȱ life,ȱ ritual,ȱ andȱ metaphysics)ȱ isȱ inȱ someȱ waysȱ similarȱ toȱ andȱ radicallyȱ differentȱ fromȱ considerationsȱ ofȱ traditionȱlikeȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ Formulationsȱ ofȱ traditionsȱ andȱ communityȱ affirmȱ aȱ synchronicȱ bondȱ beȬ tweenȱactorsȱandȱextendȱthatȱbondȱintoȱtheȱpast,ȱintoȱaȱdiachronicȱcommuȬ nity.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Adherenceȱ toȱ traditionȱ isȱ bothȱ aȱ commitmentȱ andȱ aȱ dutyȱ toȱ aȱ communityȱthatȱexistedȱinȱtheȱpast,ȱexistsȱinȱtheȱpresent,ȱandȱwillȱcontinueȱ toȱexistȱasȱlongȱasȱitsȱmembersȱdoȱnotȱabandonȱit.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱactorsȱofȬ tenȱ considerȱ theirȱ traditionsȱ toȱ beȱ timely,ȱ relevantȱ inȱ allȱ times,ȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱtimeȱthisȱattributeȱparadoxicallyȱbecomesȱtheȱgroundsȱforȱaȱclaimȱtoȱ theȱtimelessnessȱofȱtradition,ȱitsȱeternalȱessence.ȱAdherenceȱtoȱtraditionȱisȱanȱ orientationȱ towardsȱ anȱ imaginedȱ timelessȱ community,ȱ borneȱ ofȱ theȱ desireȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 9ȱ

Thisȱ completeȱ cessationȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ confusedȱ withȱ whatȱ happensȱ toȱ anyȱ ordinaryȱ livingȱbeingȱuponȱ“death”—theȱtransmigrationȱofȱtheȱchangingȱbutȱpersistentȱmindȱ toȱaȱnewȱbody.ȱ

38ȱ

ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

toȱ submergeȱ one’sȱ personalȱ identityȱ intoȱ aȱ largerȱ communityȱ thatȱ tranȬ scendsȱthatȱindividual.ȱTheȱdesireȱforȱtraditionȱisȱthusȱalsoȱaȱdesireȱforȱimȬ mortality.10ȱ

Theȱ perspectiveȱ onȱ traditionȱ adoptedȱ inȱ thisȱ bookȱ isȱ similarȱ toȱ theȱ viewpointȱadvancedȱinȱthisȱpassageȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱtraditionsȱfunctionȱ asȱaȱkindȱofȱcohesiveȱbondȱbetweenȱpeople—aȱcohesiveȱbondȱthatȱcallsȱ forȱfidelityȱtoȱaȱperceivedȱpast,ȱandȱaȱcommitmentȱtoȱseeingȱtheȱtradiȬ tionȱ surviveȱ intoȱ theȱ future.ȱ However,ȱ asȱ beliefsȱ aboutȱ theȱ impermaȬ nenceȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱsuggest,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱevidenceȱhardlyȱsupportsȱanȱ understandingȱofȱtraditionȱasȱtimeless,ȱasȱrelevantȱtoȱallȱtimes,ȱandȱasȱinȱ anyȱwayȱlinkedȱwithȱanȱimaginedȱtimelessȱcommunityȱorȱsomeȱtypeȱofȱ immortality.ȱTheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱitselfȱisȱenoughȱtoȱshowȱthat.ȱ Toȱ helpȱ furtherȱ anȱ understandingȱaboutȱ continuityȱ andȱ ruptureȱ inȱ andȱamongȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱitȱisȱusefulȱtoȱdrawȱattentionȱtoȱoneȱmoreȱ category,ȱ“traditionalism,”ȱasȱdiscussedȱbyȱRosalindȱMorrisȱinȱregardȱtoȱ contemporaryȱdevelopmentsȱinȱThailand.ȱ Justȱasȱritualismȱisȱtoȱbeȱdistinguishedȱfromȱritual,ȱsoȱtraditionalismȱneedsȱ toȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱdiscourse,ȱwhichȱhasȱbeenȱelaboratedȱaroundȱtheȱfearȱ ofȱtradition’sȱloss.ȱ“Traditionalism”ȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱaȱmodeȱofȱpracticeȱchaȬ racterizedȱbyȱhistoricalȱrepetition,ȱnorȱactualȱcontinuity.ȱItȱis,ȱrather,ȱaȱpaȬ radoxicalȱconceptȱencompassingȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱpractices,ȱoneȱwhoseȱdeȬ finitiveȱ butȱ abstractȱ characteristicȱ isȱ pastnessȱ andȱ whoseȱ theoreticalȱ raisonȱ d’etreȱ isȱ theȱ healingȱ over,ȱ orȱsublimationȱof,ȱ radicalȱ discontinuity.ȱ Clearly,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ practicesȱ whoseȱ valueȱ accruedȱ partlyȱ fromȱ theȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ theirȱantiquityȱinȱpreȬmodernȱtimes,ȱbutȱtheseȱareȱbetterȱunderstoodȱasȱinȬ dividualȱpracticesȱwithȱsingularȱhistoriesȱthanȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱgenericȱconcepȬ tualȱ category.ȱ And,ȱ insofar,ȱ asȱ suchȱ aȱ contrastȱ isȱ possible,ȱ itȱ seemsȱ likelyȱ thatȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ suchȱ preȬmodernȱ pastnessȱ assumedȱ continuityȱ withȱ anȬ tiquityȱratherȱthanȱaȱrupture.ȱ“Traditionalism”ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱisȱtheȱinȬ herentlyȱbelatedȱeffectȱofȱmodernity,ȱnotȱitsȱdisplacedȱantecedent.11ȱ

Morris’sȱ emphasisȱ onȱ “traditionalism”ȱ asȱ discourseȱ capturesȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱdynamicȱqualityȱtoȱtraditionȬmakingȱthisȱchapter,ȱinȱ keepingȱwithȱShils,ȱHobsbawm,ȱandȱothers,ȱseeksȱtoȱportray.ȱMoreover,ȱ herȱ focusȱ onȱ “traditionalism”ȱ asȱ aȱ formȱ ofȱ discourseȱ specificallyȱ orientedȱaroundȱtheȱfearȱofȱaȱtradition’sȱlossȱisȱalsoȱhelpful;ȱasȱimpliedȱ above,ȱ thereȱ isȱ muchȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalismȱ regardingȱ thisȱ veryȱ point.ȱYet,ȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱmaterial,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱsuggestȱaȱ differentȱwayȱofȱlookingȱatȱtraditionalismȱthanȱMorrisȱproposes.ȱ Theȱ materialȱ addressedȱ inȱ thisȱ chapterȱ andȱ bookȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ sugȬ gestsȱ thatȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ traditionalismȱ representedȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ disȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 10ȱ GrieveȱandȱWeissȱ2005ȱp.ȱ3.ȱ 11ȱ Morrisȱ2002ȱp.ȱ71.ȱ

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ShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱTraditionalismȱ

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coursesȱandȱpracticesȱisȱnotȱmostȱappropriatelyȱdescribedȱinȱtermsȱofȱaȱ “healingȱover,ȱ orȱsublimationȱ of,ȱ radicalȱ discontinuity.”ȱ Rather,ȱ ShweȬ gyinȱtraditionalismȱfocusesȱonȱslowingȱanȱinevitableȱmovementȱtowardȱ anȱ inevitableȱ formȱ ofȱ radicalȱ discontinuity;ȱ theȱ discontinuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱisȱalwaysȱinȱprogressȱinȱtheȱpresent.ȱItȱcannotȱbeȱhealedȱoverȱorȱ sublimated,ȱonlyȱslowedȱorȱtemporarilyȱputȱinȱcheck.ȱTheȱnarrativesȱofȱ theȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱaptlyȱsummarizeȱtheseȱpoints,ȱbutȱsoȱdoȱspecifȬ icȱ imagesȱ usedȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ othersȱ (bothȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ people)ȱtoȱreferȱtoȱparticularȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱForȱinstance,ȱinȱ S¬sanaȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practice,ȱ theȱ Basketȱ ofȱ Monasticȱ Lawȱ (P.ȱ VinayaȬ piΞaka)ȱisȱcommonlyȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱ“life”ȱ(P.ȱ¬yu)ȱofȱtheȱS¬sana;ȱthus,ȱ whenȱthatȱbasketȱstands,ȱsoȱtooȱdoesȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱSimilarly,ȱmanyȱBudȬ dhistsȱ inȱ contemporaryȱ Myanmarȱ itselfȱ haveȱ givenȱ aȱ distinctiveȱ interȬ pretationȱtoȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ(ConditionalȱRelations),ȱwidelyȱrecognizedȱasȱ aȱmostȱ difficultȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ metaphysicsȱinȱ theȱ Basketȱ ofȱ Doctrineȱ (P.ȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka),ȱ andȱ treatedȱ atȱ lengthȱ inȱ theȱ fourthȱ chapterȱ ofȱ thisȱ book.ȱ Theyȱ identifyȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ asȱ theȱ S¬sana’sȱ “frontȬlineȱ fortress.”ȱ WhenȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱfallsȱ(throughȱcorruptȱdoctrines,ȱcorruptȱritualȱactivȬ ities,ȱandȱimproperȱtransmissionȱinȱgeneral,ȱforȱexample),ȱtheȱterritoryȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱcanȱbeȱinvadedȱandȱdestroyed.ȱ IfȱweȱareȱtoȱrejectȱtheȱideaȱthatȱShwegyinȱtraditionalismȱconstitutesȱ aȱ healingȱ overȱ orȱ sublimationȱ ofȱ radicalȱ discontinuity,ȱ weȱ mustȱ alsoȱ rejectȱ theȱ ideaȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ “belatedȱ effectȱ ofȱ modernity.”ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ traditionalismȱ ofȱ slowingȱ S¬sanaȱ ruptureȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ recurrentȱ themeȱ throughoutȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theȱ “preȬmodernȱ pastness”ȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ traditionsȱ mayȱ haveȱ strivenȱ forȱ continuityȱ withȱ antiquityȱ (e.g.,ȱ theȱ lifeȱ andȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ earlyȱ Buddhistȱ community),ȱ butȱ itȱ assumedȱ thatȱ theȱ ruptureȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ wasȱ inȱ progressȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱsameȱpointȱisȱtrueȱforȱwhatȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱtheȱ“contemporaryȱpastȬ ness”ȱofȱS¬sanaȱtraditionsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱSoȱfarȱasȱtheȱhistoricalȱ evidenceȱ suggests,ȱ theȱ traditionalismȱ ofȱ tryingȱ toȱ slowȱ S¬sanaȱ ruptureȱ hasȱ neverȱ beenȱ displaced,ȱ inȱ eitherȱ theȱ “premodern”ȱ orȱ “modern”ȱ peȬ riods.ȱ Theȱ modernȱ worldȱ mayȱ haveȱ usheredȱ inȱ moreȱ speedyȱ formsȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ decline,ȱ butȱ itȱ didȱ notȱ usherȱ inȱ anythingȱ distinctivelyȱ new,ȱ atȱ leastȱinȱtermsȱofȱthatȱdeclineȱitself.ȱ Followingȱ butȱ departingȱ fromȱ Morris,ȱ traditionalismȱ canȱ beȱ interȬ pretedȱasȱaȱtacticȱforȱconstructingȱtraditionȱandȱthusȱforȱnegotiatingȱtheȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ rupture,ȱ howeverȱ theyȱ areȱ understoodȱ withinȱ particularȱ traditions.ȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalismȱ emphasizesȱ bothȱ theȱ embodimentȱ andȱ textualizationȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ toȱ preventȱ theȱ ruptureȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ whileȱ increasingȱ theȱ chancesȱ thatȱ atȱ leastȱ some,ȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ inȱ theȱ presentȱ life,ȱ mayȱ makeȱ theȱ ruptureȱ intoȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

nibb¬na.ȱForȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱandȱforȱmanyȱotherȱmonksȱlikeȱthem,ȱtheȱ humanȱbodyȱis,ȱclearly,ȱanȱimportantȱrepositoryȱofȱmemoriesȱconcernȬ ingȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ otherȱ monasticȱ exemplars,ȱ andȱ theȱ S¬sanaȬbasedȱ lifeȬ styleȱforȱwhichȱ theyȱadvocated.ȱ Inȱwearingȱtheȱ robes,ȱinȱshavingȱ theirȱ heads,ȱinȱholdingȱmonasticȱrituals,ȱinȱadheringȱtoȱtheȱlawsȱofȱmonasticȱ life,ȱinȱteachingȱaboutȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱorȱ“DoctrineȱPureȱandȱSimple,”ȱ andȱinȱdoingȱmanyȱotherȱmonasticȱthings,ȱmonksȱinȱtheirȱmindsȱandȱonȱ theirȱbodiesȱsustainȱmemoriesȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱotherȱexemplars,ȱandȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱ itself.12ȱ Asȱ such,ȱ monasticȱ lifeȱ isȱ intendedȱ toȱ be,ȱ firstȱ andȱ foreȬ most,ȱaȱcollectiveȱembodimentȱofȱtheȱkindȱofȱworldȱdepictedȱaboveȱallȱ inȱtheȱvariousȱbasketsȱandȱrelatedȱtextsȱofȱtheȱpariyattiȬS¬sana.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ overȱ andȱ againstȱ anyȱ kindȱ ofȱ embodimentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ itȱ isȱ essentialȱ toȱ recognizeȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ theȱ continualȱ (re)textualizationȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ asȱ anotherȱ componentȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalism.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ (re)productionȱ ofȱ aȱ nonȬembodied,ȱ textualȱ corpusȱ isȱ crucial.ȱ (Here,ȱ Iȱ haveȱinȱmindȱaȱbroadȱnotionȱofȱS¬sanaȬtexts,ȱwrittenȱandȱoral,ȱPaliȱandȱ vernacular,ȱ andȱ thusȱ includeȱ materialsȱ notȱ onlyȱ fromȱ theȱ canon,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ materialsȱ likeȱ contemporaryȱ historiesȱ andȱ biographies,ȱ monasticȱ administrativeȱ records,ȱ andȱ sermonsȱ thatȱ haveȱ beenȱ recorded,ȱ tranȬ scribed,ȱ andȱ published.)ȱ Evenȱ ifȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ supportersȱfailȱtoȱembodyȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱtheirȱdailyȱactions,ȱtheyȱcanȱstillȱ assistȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ retainingȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱ textualȱ repositoriesȱ ofȱ whatȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱothersȱhaveȱtaught,ȱvisȬàȬvisȱtheȱtransmissionȱofȱ theȱ variousȱ textsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ itself.ȱ Thatȱ is,ȱ toȱ drawȱ onȱ Collins’sȱ disȬ cussionȱofȱtheȱimaginativeȱworldȱassociatedȱwithȱnibb¬na,13ȱtheyȱsustainȱ theȱS¬sanaȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱ“culturalȱsystem,”ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱintegrationȱandȱ consistencyȱofȱS¬sanaȬtextsȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱlogic,ȱnarrative,ȱandȱimageryȱ areȱ marksȱ ofȱ aȱ faithfulȱ reproductionȱ ofȱtheȱ wordsȱ andȱ attitudesȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱandȱofȱotherȱreveredȱmonks.14ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 12ȱ Onȱ socialȱ memory,ȱ see,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Connertonȱ 1989,ȱ Stollerȱ 1995,ȱ Tanabeȱ andȱ Keyes,ȱeds.,ȱ2002,ȱandȱClimoȱandȱCattell,ȱeds.,ȱ2002.ȱ 13ȱ Collinsȱ1998ȱpp.ȱ79–81.ȱ 14ȱ Followingȱ anȱ analyticalȱ dualismȱ positedȱ byȱ Archer,ȱ Collinsȱ conceptualizesȱ “theȱ existenceȱofȱinterplay—thatȱis,ȱbothȱdifferenceȱandȱinterconnectionȱbetweenȱtheȱPaliȱ imaginaire,ȱasȱaȱ CulturalȱSystem,ȱinȱ whichȱintegrationȱisȱaȱ matterȱofȱ consistencyȱinȱ logic,ȱnarrative,ȱandȱimagery,ȱandȱSocioȬCulturalȱIntegration,ȱorȱlackȱofȱit,ȱinȱtheȱhisȬ toryȱofȱSouthernȱAsia,ȱwhichȱisȱnecessarilyȱ“moreȱdisorderly“ȱthanȱanyȱCulturalȱSysȬ temȱ(Archerȱ88:ȱ197ff).ȱOneȱcanȱthusȱavoidȱreadingȱPaliȱtexts,ȱnaively,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱ somehowȱ aȱ directȱ expressionȱ ofȱ Southernȱ Asianȱ historyȱ andȱ culture,ȱ andȱ also—theȱ otherȱextreme—avoidȱdismissingȱtheirȱcontentȱasȱirrelevantȱtoȱ“realȱlife,“ȱinȱaȱcrudeȬ lyȱmaterialistȱfashion.“ȱCollinsȱ1998ȱp.ȱ80,ȱcitingȱArcherȱ1988.ȱ

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AȱGenreȱofȱTraditionalism:ȱS¬sanaȱHistoriesȱandȱMonasticȱBiographiesȱ

41ȱ

AsȱtheȱnarrativesȱofȱS¬sanaȱdeclineȱandȱruptureȱsuggest,ȱwhenȱandȱ ifȱtheȱteachingsȱofȱaȱBuddhaȱbecomeȱbothȱthoroughlyȱdisembodiedȱ(i.e.,ȱ noȱhumanȱbeings—orȱanyȱbeingsȱanywhereȱforȱthatȱmatter—areȱcapaȬ bleȱofȱembodyingȱanyȱpartȱofȱtheȱS¬sana),ȱasȱwellȱasȱthoroughlyȱdetexȬ tualizedȱ (i.e.,ȱtheȱ[re]productionȱ ofȱ allȱ S¬sanaȬtextsȱ stops),ȱ aȱ S¬sanaȱ hasȱ runȱitsȱcourse.ȱThus,ȱthroughȱtheirȱcollectiveȱefforts,ȱmanyȱmonksȱandȱ layȱ peopleȱ tryȱ toȱ facilitate,ȱ inȱ theȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ contextsȱ ofȱ communalȱ interaction,ȱtheȱbackȬandȬforthȱmovementȱofȱembodyingȱandȱtextualizȬ ingȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ therebyȱ strengtheningȱ itsȱ continuity.ȱ Thatȱ movement,ȱ whichȱtakesȱasȱitsȱculminatingȱpointȱtheȱradicalȱruptureȱofȱnibb¬na,ȱconȬ stitutesȱtheȱheartȱofȱShwegyinȱtraditionalism.ȱ Inȱ connectionȱ toȱ theȱ viewpointsȱ offeredȱ byȱ Shils,ȱ Hobsbawm,ȱ andȱ Morris,ȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ toȱ pointȱ outȱ thatȱ thisȱ studyȱ isȱ alsoȱ inspiredȱ byȱ andȱ seeksȱ toȱ steerȱ clearȱ ofȱ structuralist/functionalistȱ studiesȱ thatȱ adȬ dressȱcontinuityȱinȱtermsȱofȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱstasisȱandȱrepetitionȱthatȱ takeȱplaceȱonȱsociologicalȱandȱotherȱlevels.15ȱForȱexample,ȱforȱShwegyinȱ andȱotherȱmonks,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱstructuresȱofȱlawȱ(bothȱdisciplinaryȱ andȱexistential)ȱthatȱconditionȱtheirȱlives.ȱAsȱsuch,ȱanyȱanalysisȱofȱconȬ tinuityȱ amongȱ theseȱ monksȱ shouldȱ considerȱ theseȱ kindsȱ ofȱ structures.ȱ Yet,ȱ notionsȱ ofȱ structureȱ andȱ function,ȱ andȱ ofȱ stasisȱandȱ repetition,ȱdoȱ notȱcaptureȱtheȱoverallȱkindȱofȱdynamicsȱexploredȱhere.ȱIndeed,ȱasȱexȬ emplifiedȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition,ȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ inherentȱ difficultyȱ inȱ theȱ maintenanceȱ ofȱ anyȱ andȱ allȱ patternsȱ ofȱ socioreligiousȱ continuity,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ howȱ static,ȱ repetitive,ȱ andȱ automaticȱ suchȱ patternsȱ mayȱ seem.ȱ Forȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition,ȱ thereȱ isȱ nothingȱ autoȬ maticȱaboutȱtheirȱcontinuity;ȱtheyȱbelieveȱthatȱtheyȱmustȱinvestȱanȱimȬ menseȱamountȱofȱsubstantiveȱlaborȱtoȱoffsetȱonȱongoingȱprocessȱofȱsoȬ cioreligiousȱrupture.ȱ

AȱGenreȱofȱTraditionalism:ȱS¬sanaȱHistoriesȱandȱMonasticȱ Biographiesȱ Toȱ initiateȱ theȱ weavingȱ ofȱ theseȱ theoreticalȱ threadsȱ togetherȱ withȱ theȱ evidenceȱfromȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱtheȱremainderȱofȱthisȱchapterȱfocusesȱonȱ twoȱ interrelated,ȱ dominantȱ themesȱ inȱ Shwegyinȱ representationsȱ ofȱ soȬ cioreligiousȱcontinuity—“lineage”ȱandȱ“sonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha.”ȱByȱfocusȬ ingȱonȱtheȱthemesȱofȱlineageȱandȱsonship,ȱtheȱchapterȱpursuesȱaȱbroadȱ considerationȱ ofȱ narrativeȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ discoursesȱ andȱ pracȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 15ȱ E.g.,ȱDurkheimȱ[1915]ȱ1965,ȱRadcliffeȬBrownȱ1952,ȱEliadeȱ1958,ȱLeviȬStraussȱ1962,ȱJayȱ 1992.ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

ticesȱthatȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱmaintainȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtoȱallowȱ peopleȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱbreakthroughȱtoȱnibb¬na.ȱToȱdevelopȱthisȱpoint,ȱtheȱ discussionȱ drawsȱ fromȱ representativeȱ S¬sanaȱ historiesȱ (e.g.,ȱ P.ȱ S¬sanaȬ vaΚsa,ȱB.ȱS¬san¬ȱvaΤе,ȱqaqnawc\)ȱandȱbiographiesȱofȱelderȱmonksȱ(e.g.,ȱP.ȱ theruppatti);ȱsuchȱhistoriesȱandȱbiographiesȱconstituteȱaȱliteraryȱdomainȱ intrinsicȱtoȱShwegyinȱtraditionalism.ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ mayȱ explicitlyȱ orȱ implicitlyȱ claimȱ thatȱ theyȱ haveȱ moreȱ purityȱ (P.ȱ parisuddhi)ȱ thanȱ otherȱ monks,ȱ bothȱ insideȱ andȱ outsideȱ ofȱ Myanmar.ȱ However,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ asȱ participantsȱ inȱ aȱ largerȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ culture,ȱ doȱ notȱ seeȱ themselvesȱ asȱ unique:ȱ theyȱ shareȱ commonȱcauseȱwithȱtheirȱcoȬreligionistsȱinȱtransmittingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱMyȱ purposeȱ is,ȱ then,ȱ toȱ provideȱ insightȱ intoȱ howȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ beenȱrepresented,ȱinȱhistoricalȱandȱbiographicalȱways,ȱasȱcarriersȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana.ȱTheȱpurposeȱisȱalsoȱtoȱshowȱhow,ȱasȱaȱgenreȱofȱtraditionalism,ȱ S¬sanaȱhistoriesȱandȱbiographiesȱaboutȱexemplaryȱmonksȱtestifyȱtoȱtheȱ workȱ thatȱ lineagesȱ andȱ sonsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ andȱ theȱ traditionsȱ whichȱ theyȱcomprise,ȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱdo.ȱ WhenȱShwegyinȱandȱsimilarȱmonksȱwantȱtoȱstressȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱ theirȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ activitiesȱ withȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ throughȱ anȱ unbrokenȱ successionȱofȱmonksȱ(especiallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱbothȱtheȱMonasticȱLawȱandȱ theȱ ritualȱ ofȱ higherȱ ordination),ȱ theyȱ willȱ oftenȱ useȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ lineȬ age.16ȱ Sometimes,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ othersȱ willȱ explicitlyȱ identifyȱ themselvesȱ asȱ aȱ “lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ toеȱ e*ȱ anvayеȱ achakе,ȱ qaqnaeta\% ANQyA \ Sk\),ȱanȱidentificationȱthatȱstressesȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱ bothȱ S¬sanaȱ embodimentȱ andȱ textualization.ȱ Importantly,ȱ inȱ Burmeseȱ culturalȱunderstanding,ȱmonasticȱlineagesȱareȱlikeȱtreesȱthatȱbranchȱoutȱ asȱgivenȱpreceptorsȱ(P.ȱupajjh¬ya)—suchȱasȱAshinȱJ¬garaȱ(theȱfounderȱofȱ theȱShwegyin)ȱworkingȱinȱtandemȱwithȱotherȱmonks—ordainȱandȱtrainȱ moreȱ monks,ȱ moreȱ monasticȱ sonsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Theȱ preceptorȱ isȱ aȱ “trunk,”ȱwhileȱthoseȱwhoȱdescendȱoutȱfromȱhimȱareȱhisȱ“branches.”ȱ TheȱnotionȱofȱbeingȱaȱsonȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱaddsȱaȱdistinctiveȱdimenȬ sionȱtoȱtheȱimageryȱofȱlineage:ȱwhenȱShwegyinȱorȱotherȱmonksȱwantȱtoȱ stressȱtheirȱaffectionȱforȱandȱ obedienceȱ toȱ theirȱ fatherȱ (B.ȱapha,ȱ AP)ȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ orȱ whenȱ theyȱ wantȱ toȱ stressȱ theȱ affectionate,ȱ protective,ȱ andȱ parentalȱroleȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱtheyȱmayȱuseȱsomeȱnotionȱofȱbeingȱaȱsonȱ ofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱConsiderȱthisȱpassage:ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 16ȱ Thereȱisȱaȱlargeȱliteratureȱonȱlineageȱandȱtheȱrelatedȱconceptȱofȱgenealogy.ȱSomeȱofȱ thisȱliteratureȱcomesȱfromȱBuddhistȱstudiesȱscholarship,ȱinȱregardȱtoȱMyanmarȱandȱ beyond.ȱ See,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ Mendelsonȱ 1975,ȱ Fergusonȱ 1975,ȱ Tambiahȱ 1984,ȱ Schoberȱ 1989,ȱHoutmanȱ1990b,ȱ1997,ȱHuxleyȱ2000,ȱBlackburnȱ2003,ȱPrankeȱ2004,ȱandȱWelterȱ 2004.ȱSomeȱofȱthisȱliteratureȱisȱaddressedȱbelow.ȱ

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43ȱ

qim\| rhn\;A`Ps\kui yUsV\kpc\ `mt\sQaBura;%ASuM;Ameta\kui KMyUrqv\ka;" Kjs\qa;, yKu rhn\;`Ps\ep`pI" lUtui>kE.qui> kun\qQy\`Kc\; ly\lup\`Kc\; sqv\`Pc\. Aqk\memQ;reta.eKj" qluM; `mc\;eKfc\;`Pc\.rc\;&rAp\eqa wf Aim\sV\l¨v\.lv\KfKM& rAp\eqa SQm\;`Pc\.qa Aqk\ emQ;elela." ^qui> Aqk\emQ;rn\ Aa;Tut\pfela" ^SQm\;mjoi;kui cfBura; N¨s\qk\l¨%" !KI;mQm\;l¨%" cf%qa;eta\ rhn\;mja;N¨c\. Ap\l¨%" qc\.elja\l¨% hu ASuM;Amep;eta\mUqv\"17 Whileȱ takingȱ ordinationȱ asȱ aȱmonkȱ (B.ȱ rahanеɇ,ȱ rhn\;),ȱ[aȱ newȱ monk]ȱ hasȱ toȱ acceptȱtheȱBuddha’sȱadmonishments;ȱasȱforȱwhatȱtheȱBuddhaȱadmonished:ȱ “Dearȱsonȱ(B.ȱkhyacеȱs¬ɇ,ȱKjs\qa;),ȱnowȱyouȱareȱaȱmonk;ȱyouȱcan’tȱmakeȱaȱlivȬ ingȱ anyȱ longerȱ by,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ tradingȱ andȱ farmingȱ likeȱ layȱ people.ȱ Liveȱ justȱbyȱfoodȱthatȱyouȱgetȱwhileȱwanderingȱaround,ȱalsoȱknownȱasȱwhatȱyouȱ getȱbyȱgoingȱfromȱhouseȱtoȱhouse.ȱDoȱstriveȱtoȱmakeȱaȱlivingȱinȱthisȱway.ȱIȱ amȱfondȱofȱthisȱkindȱofȱfood;ȱIȱpraiseȱitȱgreatly.ȱItȱisȱveryȱsuitableȱandȱapȬ propriateȱforȱmonksȱwhoȱareȱmyȱsonsȱ(B.ȱs¬ɇȱtoе,ȱqa;eta\).”ȱ

Whereȱ notionsȱ ofȱ lineageȱ emphasizeȱ historicalȱ connectionȱ toȱ theȱ BudȬ dhaȱvisȬàȬvisȱordinationȬbasedȱsuccession,ȱnotionsȱofȱbeingȱaȱsonȱofȱtheȱ Buddhaȱ mayȱ emphasizeȱ theȱ affective,ȱ familialȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ aȱ benevoȬ lentȱparentȬchildȱrelation.ȱInȱthisȱrelation,ȱaffectionȱandȱobedienceȱtakeȱ centerȱ stage,ȱ asȱ oneȱ humanȱ beingȱ (theȱ Buddha)ȱ helpsȱ anotherȱ humanȱ beingȱ(theȱmonk)ȱtoȱliveȱinȱandȱthusȱbuildȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfurther.ȱBothȱritualȱ andȱaffection,ȱthen,ȱareȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱaȱlineage.ȱ Considerȱ alsoȱ thisȱ passage,ȱ whichȱ offersȱ anȱ idealizedȱ accountȱ ofȱ earlyȱShwegyinȱlife:ȱ erWkjc\qMGaeta\mja;qv\ Aip\ka, sa;ka`Pc\. AKjin\#Pn\;& en~krqv\mhut\' erWkjc\Sraeta\ Bura;~kI;qv\ tuik\qa;qMGa tpv\.~kI;cy\tui>Aa; m`pt\mlp\ SuM;m~qwfdtra;ehae`paeta\ mUq`Pc\. yV\ekj;qim\emQ> rhn\;tui>%Del. kjc\.wt\tui>NHc\. vIvQt\sQa rhn\;ekac\;, qame%ekac\; `Ps\esqv\.`pc\ qMGena qMGacy\k s& tuik\Aup\, tuik\~kp\ mTr\~kI;mja;tuic\eAac\ kjc\.quM; luik\naPQy\ kjc\.wt\nv\; Vpedqmja;kuilv\; er;qa;ep;eta\mU& TuiVpedqAtuic\; luik\na~k esqv\" VpedqkTa| priyt\qamhut\ p«ipt\Alup\tra;kui Tv\.qQc\;pvt\eta\mUka ui \; kjc\.TuM;~kI;} hu SrasV\Sk\ Amv\ luik\naAa;Tut\eta\mUesqv\" yc\;Vpedqkui {erWkjc\g% ep;& el;el;sa;sa; yen>tuic\ erWkjc\eqQ;ss\ss\ rHieta\mU~keqa tuik\taAKjio> | luik\na kjc\.quM;ljk\pc\ rHiepqv\"18 Shwegyinȱ monksȱ weren’tȱ wastingȱ timeȱ sleepingȱ andȱ eating.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ greatȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱalwaysȱinstructedȱtheȱmonks,ȱtheȱelderȱandȱjuniorȱ disciples,ȱ heȱ causedȱ [them]ȱ toȱ beȱgoodȱ monksȱ andȱ goodȱ novicesȱinȱ accorȬ danceȱwithȱtheȱcustomsȱandȱrulesȱofȱconductȱofȱculturallyȱrefinedȱmonks;ȱ additionally,ȱ composingȱ andȱ givingȱ customaryȱ rulesȱ [concerningȱthe]ȱ meȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 17ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ55–56.ȱ 18ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱ115.ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

thodȱ ofȱ conductȱ toȱ beȱ observedȱ byȱ allȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ startingȱ fromȱ youngȱmonksȱupȱtoȱwarden,ȱdeputyȱwarden,ȱandȱgreatȱelders,ȱheȱletȱthemȱ practiceȱ accordingȱ toȱ thoseȱ rules.ȱ Inȱ puttingȱ forthȱ theȱ methodȱ ofȱ paΞipatti,ȱ [and]ȱ notȱ onlyȱ pariyatti,ȱ inȱ hisȱ instructionȬtalks,ȱ [theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw]ȱ causedȱ [hisȱ disciples]ȱ toȱ followȱ andȱ striveȱ afterȱ [goodȱ monasticȱ conduct].ȱ Theȱsuccessionȱofȱ[Shwegyin]ȱteachersȱnamedȱtheseȱinstructionsȱtheȱMajorȱ Rulesȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Gaingȱ andȱ theȱ rulesȱ areȱ beingȱ respectfullyȱ followedȱ andȱobservedȱinȱsomeȱmonasteries,ȱtheȱonesȱthatȱhaveȱtheȱpureȱShwegyinȱ bloodȱ(B.ȱrhvekyaΤеȱsveɇȱcacеȱcacе,ȱerWkjc\eqQ;ss\ss\)ȱupȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱday.ȱ

Here,ȱ “blood”ȱ isȱ aȱ metaphorȱ forȱ Shwegyinȱ orthodoxyȱ andȱ succession.ȱ Asȱaȱsignȱofȱbiologicalȱcontinuityȱ(i.e.,ȱcarryingȱonȱone’sȱfamilyȱline),ȱitȱ mayȱ beȱ andȱ isȱ extendedȱ toȱ monksȱ asȱ sonsȱ andȱ grandsonsȱ ofȱ otherȱ monks,ȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱMostȱimportantly,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱthisȱ passage,ȱ“pureȱblood”ȱisȱaȱsignifierȱofȱaȱhighȱdegreeȱofȱcontinuityȱwithȱ andȱ conformityȱ toȱ theȱ modesȱ ofȱ studyȱ andȱ practiceȱ establishedȱ byȱ theȱ FirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw,ȱand,ȱultimately,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱhimself.19ȱWhenȱ askedȱ aboutȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ thisȱ passage,ȱ oneȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ commentedȱ toȱ meȱ thatȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ haveȱ pureȱ Shwegyinȱ blood—asȱ heȱ explainedȱ it,ȱ aȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ adjustmentsȱ heȱ hasȱ hadȱ toȱ makeȱ sinceȱ livingȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱ Sons,ȱ grandsons,ȱ successionsȱ ofȱ goodȱ monksȱ andȱ teachers,ȱ pureȱ blood,ȱrules,ȱobedience:ȱtheseȱareȱbasicȱcomponentsȱofȱShwegyinȱrepreȬ sentationsȱofȱthemselvesȱasȱaȱS¬sanaȬorientedȱlineage.ȱUltimately,ȱShweȬ gyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ aȱ responsibilityȱ toȱ seeȱ toȱ theȱ persistenceȱ ofȱ theirȱ liȬ neage,ȱparticularlyȱbecauseȱtheyȱbelieveȱthatȱtheirȱfounderȱauthenticallyȱ embodiedȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAsȱoneȱShwegyinȱsource,ȱthoughȱheavyȱonȱShweȬ gyinȱidealism,ȱputsȱit:ȱȱ cftui>% AnN–ekj;zU;eta\rHc\ erWkjc\Sraeta\Bura;~kI;qv\ `mt\sQa Bura;% erWWrc\eta\N¨s\ qa;eta\ Kjs\ts\pf;`Ps\eta\mU& `mt\Bura;kuiy\eta\tuic\ kjc\.~kMAa;Tut\& rAp\eqa Dm¥rtnaAemQAN¨s\tui>kui Bura; rHc\%qa;~kI;rtna Ariyatpv\.ASk\Sk\tui>TMm¨ kuiy\eta\tuic\ kjc\.quM; Aa;Tut\eta\mU& Sk\KMeta\ KE.pfqv\"20ȱȱ OurȱboundlessȱbenefactorȱtheȱGreatȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱwasȱtheȱBuddha’sȱ ownȱdearȱson.ȱHeȱhimselfȱpracticedȱandȱstroveȱafterȱtheȱDhammaȬgemȱherȬ itage,ȱ etc.,ȱ whichȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himselfȱ stroveȱ afterȱ andȱ obtained;ȱ heȱ inheȬ ritedȱitȱfromȱtheȱsuccessionȱofȱtheȱnobleȱdisciples,ȱtheȱseniorȱsonȬgems,ȱofȱ theȱBuddha.ȱȱ

Theȱ referenceȱ hereȱ toȱ theȱ “seniorȱ sonȬgems”ȱ isȱ toȱ theȱ renownedȱ disȬ cipleȬsonsȱofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱsuchȱasȱUp¬li,ȱ theȱ masterȱofȱ theȱ Vinaya.ȱTheȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 19ȱ Onȱtheȱnotionȱofȱbloodȱasȱaȱ“sign”ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱConnertonȱ1989ȱpp.ȱ86–87.ȱ 20ȱ ArticlesȱonȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱGaingȱ1995ȱp.ȱ118.ȱ

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phraseȱ Iȱ haveȱ translatedȱ asȱ “own”ȱ isȱ aȱ Burmeseȱ idiomȱ (B.ȱ rhveȱ raΤеȱ toеȱ nhacе,ȱerWWrc\eta\N¨s)\ ,ȱandȱtheȱimageȱhereȱcallsȱtoȱmindȱtheȱBuddhaȱcuddlingȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ inȱ hisȱarms,ȱ asȱ aȱ lovingȱ parent.21ȱ Theȱ buildingȱ ofȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱasȱaȱcomponentȱofȱpromotingȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ thusȱ articulatedȱ onceȱ againȱ inȱ aȱ familyȬorientedȱ manner,ȱ beginningȱwithȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadaw,ȱaȱleaderȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱinȱ body,ȱ practice,ȱ andȱ leadership,ȱ thoughȱ distantȱ fromȱ himȱ inȱ timeȱ andȱ place.ȱInȱ aȱway,ȱ withȱ theseȱtypesȱofȱreferences,ȱweȱ areȱ presentedȱ withȱ textualȱ representationsȱ ofȱ possibleȱ affective,ȱ bodilyȱ connectionsȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ thatȱ mightȱ driveȱ behaviorȱ inȱ waysȱ thatȱ areȱ notȱ strictlyȱ textȬ literalȱ orȱ textȬrational.22ȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalism,ȱ itȱ seems,ȱ simultaȬ neouslyȱfocusesȱonȱbodily,ȱtextual,ȱandȱfamilialȱthemes.ȱ PerhapsȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱotherȱreveredȱShwegyinȱleadȬ ersȱ areȱ notȱ tooȱ differentȱ fromȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ saintlyȱ “standȬins,”ȱ andȱ Buddhistȱ historiesȱ (e.g.,ȱ P.ȱ S¬sanaȬvaΚsa,ȱ B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ vaΤе,ȱ qaqnawc\)ȱ andȱ monasticȱbiographiesȱ(e.g.,ȱtheruppatti)ȱareȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱ waysȱ ofȱ illustratingȱtheirȱimport,ȱ theirȱlineage.ȱHowever,ȱ beforeȱdwelȬ lingȱonȱthisȱpoint,ȱattentionȱshouldȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmanyȱifȱnotȱ mostȱBuddhistȱhistoriesȱandȱmonasticȱbiographiesȱhighlightȱanȱaffinityȱ betweenȱmonksȱandȱnonȬmonksȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtransmittingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Thisȱ affinityȱ isȱ drivenȱ byȱ severalȱ kindsȱ ofȱ culturalȱ andȱ politicalȱ emȬ phases.ȱ Oneȱ emphasisȱ consistsȱ ofȱ effortsȱ madeȱ byȱ monksȱ andȱ theirȱ supportersȱ(orȱbyȱlayȱpeopleȱandȱtheirȱmonasticȱsupporters)ȱtoȱeducateȱ potentialȱ readersȱ (monksȱ andȱ nonȬmonks)ȱ aboutȱ theȱ orientationsȱ ofȱ BuddhistȱmonksȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱcarryȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAnotherȱ emphasisȱconsistsȱofȱanȱeffortȱtoȱshowȱhowȱmonksȱareȱlinkedȱwithȱspeȬ cificȱlayȱfamiliesȱorȱlineages,ȱthatȱis,ȱhowȱ“this”ȱmonkȱcameȱfromȱ“that”ȱ family,ȱhowȱ“this”ȱmonkȱ(e.g.,ȱAshinȱJ¬gara)ȱwasȱsupportedȱbyȱ “that”ȱ kingȱ (e.g.,ȱ Kingȱ Mindon),ȱ andȱ soȱ forth.ȱ Aȱ thirdȱ kindȱ ofȱ emphasisȱ conȬ sistsȱofȱanȱattemptȱtoȱattractȱlayȱsupportȱforȱaȱgivenȱmonasticȱlineage,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱtoȱgiveȱspecialȱprominenceȱtoȱtheȱlaityȱwhoȱsupportȱthatȱmonasȬ ticȱlineage.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱaffinityȱbetweenȱmonksȱandȱnonȬmonksȱ isȱ drivenȱ inȱ greatȱ partȱ byȱ anȱ attemptȱ toȱ createȱ anȱ auraȱ ofȱ exemplaryȱ practiceȱamongȱthemȱasȱtheyȱmutuallyȱcareȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 21ȱ SayaȱUȱSawȱTunȱandȱUȱѬѾaloka,ȱprivateȱcommunications.ȱ 22ȱ ErikȱBraun,ȱprivateȱcommunication,ȱsuggestedȱputtingȱtheȱmatterȱthisȱway.ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

Histories,ȱBiographies,ȱandȱtheȱEthicsȱofȱTraditionalismȱ HistoriesȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱbiographiesȱofȱmonksȱhaveȱbeenȱmuchȱdisȬ cussedȱbyȱothersȱinȱvariousȱways.ȱInȱkeepingȱwithȱtheirȱstudies,ȱweȱcanȱ noteȱthatȱsuchȱliteraryȱmaterialsȱoftenȱportrayȱhistoryȱinȱwaysȱthatȱcanȱ beȱ suspect,ȱ especiallyȱ butȱ hardlyȱ limitedȱ toȱ theȱ “manipulationsȱ ofȱ geȬ nealogicalȱ lineagesȱ forȱ ideologicalȱ purposes.”23ȱ Evenȱ so,ȱ theyȱ canȱ beȱ extremelyȱusefulȱforȱunderstandingȱtheȱethicalȱvisionsȱthatȱareȱinvolvedȱ inȱtheȱtraditionalismȱofȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱTwoȱpointsȱareȱrelevantȱhere.ȱ First,ȱasȱseenȱinȱShwegyinȱandȱBurmeseȱhistoricalȱandȱbiographicalȱ materials,ȱ monksȱ (andȱ others)ȱ areȱ supposedȱ toȱ beȱ groundedȱ inȱ selfȬ detachmentȱandȱotherȬorientedȱempathy.ȱShwegyinȱandȱBurmeseȱhistoȬ riesȱandȱbiographiesȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱtransmittingȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱmostȱ effectiveȱ whenȱ monksȱ (andȱ others)ȱ possessȱ suchȱ dispositions.ȱ Ifȱ theyȱ areȱ detachedȱ towardȱ themselves,ȱ andȱ ifȱ theyȱ areȱ empatheticȱ towardȱ others,ȱtheyȱcanȱbeȱfreeȱfromȱtheȱconstraintsȱ(e.g.,ȱworldlyȱpassion)ȱthatȱ couldȱ cloudȱ theirȱ effortsȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ higherȱ thingsȱ (i.e.,ȱtheȱS¬sana).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱinȱtheȱhistoriesȱandȱbiographies,ȱthereȱ is,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱmonasticȱlife,ȱatȱleastȱoneȱtypeȱofȱidealȱethicalȱ agent:ȱtheȱmonkȱwhoȱproperlyȱembodiesȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱaȱlineageȱcarrierȱ (B.ȱanvayеȱachakеȱchoΤеȱsĀ, ANQy\ASk\ eSac\ qU)ȱandȱasȱaȱpureȱsonȱ(B.ȱs¬ɇȱtoеȱ cacе,ȱqa;eta\ss\)ȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ Second,ȱinȱmyȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱethicalȱdimensionsȱofȱBuddhistȱmoȬ nasticȱ historiesȱ andȱ biographies,ȱ Iȱ focusȱ onȱ howȱ historiesȱ andȱ biograȬ phiesȱareȱusedȱtoȱdepict,ȱatȱtheȱnarrativeȱlevel,ȱimportantȱlinksȱbetweenȱ theȱ mythicȱ pastȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ handȱ andȱ theȱ contemporaryȱ lifeȱ ofȱ BudȬ dhismȱonȱtheȱother.ȱIȱshowȱhowȱtheyȱareȱusedȱtoȱillustrateȱtheȱcontinuȬ ingȱ developmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ inȱ theȱ presentȱ dayȱ byȱ describingȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ monksȱ (andȱ layȱ people)ȱ asȱ theyȱ carryȱ onȱ itsȱ messageȱ andȱ practice.ȱ Inȱ doingȱ so,ȱ Iȱ alsoȱ illustrateȱ howȱ theyȱ pointȱ theirȱ potentialȱ readersȱ toȱ theȱ followingȱ topics:ȱ theȱ historyȱ andȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱtheȱcomponentsȱofȱmonasticȱtraining;ȱtheȱmoralȱconductȱ(P.ȱsÎla)ȱ ofȱreligiouslyȱexemplaryȱpeople;ȱtheȱeffortȱtoȱpurgeȱtheȱmindȱofȱdefileȬ mentsȱ(P.ȱkilesas)ȱthatȱtieȱpeopleȱtoȱtheȱcycleȱofȱrebirth;ȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱ theȱ Buddha;ȱ theȱ statesȱ ofȱ mentalȱ wellȬbeingȱ andȱ joyȱ thatȱ comeȱ withȱ exposureȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ andȱ theȱ dispositionsȱ (suchȱ asȱ selfȬdetachment,ȱ generosity,ȱ friendship,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ fear,ȱ otherȬregard,ȱ andȱ careȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana)ȱthatȱareȱsupposedȱtoȱformȱtheȱbedrockȱofȱmonasticȱlife.ȱThus,ȱIȱ discussȱhowȱtheyȱprovide,ȱatȱtheȱinterpretiveȱlevel,ȱaȱstartingȱpointȱforȱaȱ considerationȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱtraditionȱandȱitsȱtraditionalism.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 23ȱ Huxleyȱ2000ȱp.ȱ1091,ȱfollowingȱMendelsonȱ1975.ȱȱ

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TheȱapproachȱtakenȱhereȱtoȱShwegyinȱandȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱhistoȬ riesȱ andȱ monasticȱ biographiesȱ visȬàȬvisȱ lineageȱ andȱ monasticȱ sonshipȱ mayȱ beȱ brieflyȱ comparedȱ withȱ anȱ approachȱ takenȱ byȱ S.ȱ J.ȱ Tambiahȱ toȱ ThaiȱBuddhistȱbiographiesȱthatȱofferȱrepresentationsȱofȱsainthood.24ȱForȱ Tambiah,ȱ theȱ crucialȱ questionȱ concernsȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ crisisȱ andȱ theȱvariousȱrolesȱplayedȱbyȱBuddhistȱmonksȱandȱothersȱinȱcreatingȱandȱ respondingȱtoȱthatȱcrisis.ȱHisȱinvestigationȱofȱtheȱintersectionȱbetweenȱ biographyȱ andȱ lineageȱ speaksȱ toȱ thisȱ issue.ȱ Aȱ biographyȱ ofȱ aȱ givenȱ saint,ȱ whenȱ doneȱ inȱ aȱ “masterful”ȱ way,ȱ unitesȱ twoȱ features.ȱ First,ȱ itȱ providesȱaȱwrittenȱrecordȱofȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱsaint’sȱ“charisma”ȱ (“sedimentationȱ ofȱ power”)—aȱ charismaȱ mediatedȱ especiallyȱ byȱ liȬ neagesȱ ofȱ forestȱ monksȱassociatedȱ withȱ theȱ saintȱ andȱ withȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ lifestyleȱtheȱsaintȱembodies.ȱSecond,ȱitȱspeaksȱtoȱtheȱcollectiveȱsociopoȬ liticalȱ crisisȱ atȱ hand,ȱ articulatingȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ certainȱ “societalȱ idealsȱ suchȱ thatȱ theȱ protagonistȱ isȱ acclaimedȱ aȱ heroȱ orȱ saint.”25ȱ Ultimately,ȱ TambiahȱencompassesȱhisȱdiscussionȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱissuesȱwithinȱaȱsocioȬ politicalȱ analysisȱ orientedȱ aroundȱ theȱ circulationȱ andȱ contestationȱ ofȱ religiousȱandȱpoliticalȱpower.ȱ ThisȱstudyȱsharesȱwithȱTambiahȱaȱconcernȱwithȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱ theȱlifeȱandȱactionsȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱifȱnotȱstructurallyȱthenȱthematically.ȱ Bothȱ ofȱ ourȱ studiesȱ areȱ concernedȱ withȱ processesȱ ofȱ localizationȱ thatȱ groundȱ Buddhistȱ ideasȱ andȱ imagesȱ withinȱ specificȱ socioculturalȱ conȬ texts.ȱAndȱbothȱofȱourȱstudiesȱareȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱdynamicsȱofȱconȬ tinuityȱamongȱmonksȱasȱportrayedȱinȱnarratives.ȱHowever,ȱforȱmyȱpurȬ posesȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱIȱkeepȱtheȱfocusȱonȱtheȱimageryȱandȱactivitiesȱofȱ lineageȱandȱsonship,ȱwhichȱareȱatȱtimesȱconnectedȱtoȱandȱatȱotherȱtimesȱ disconnectedȱfromȱconcernsȱaboutȱsociopoliticalȱcrisis.ȱ TheȱapproachȱtakenȱhereȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱplacedȱagainstȱJohnȱFerguson’sȱ Theȱ Symbolicȱ Dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ Sangha,ȱ whichȱ addressesȱ theȱ Burmeseȱhistoricalȱandȱbiographicalȱgenre,ȱasȱwellȱasȱnotionsȱofȱmonasȬ ticȱlineage.ȱInȱFerguson’sȱview,ȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱ“symbolic”ȱdimenȬ sionȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱinȱMyanmarȱisȱitsȱsenseȱofȱcontinuityȱ withȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ past,ȱ preservedȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ “concept”ȱ ofȱ liȬ neage.26ȱ Inȱ hisȱ analysis,ȱ lineageȱ isȱ aȱ focalȱ pointȱ forȱ severalȱ “bondedȱ symbolicȱ dimensions,”ȱ whichȱ areȱ pairedȱ symbolicȱ extremesȱ throughȱ whichȱ theȱ flexibilityȱ of—andȱ tensionsȱ within—theȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ communityȱhasȱbeenȱfostered.ȱTheseȱbondedȱdimensionsȱincludeȱforestȱ andȱ townȱ monks;ȱ meditationȱ andȱ education;ȱ Monȱ (lowerȱ Burma)ȱ andȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 24ȱ Tambiahȱ1984.ȱȱ 25ȱ Tambiahȱ1984ȱp.ȱ128.ȱ 26ȱ Fergusonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ5.ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

UpperȱBurma;ȱandȱSinhaleseȱandȱBurmeseȱtraditions.27ȱInȱtermsȱofȱtheseȱ bondedȱdimensions,ȱFergusonȱremarksȱthatȱtheȱ“symbolicȱsystemȱofȱtheȱ Sanghaȱisȱsuchȱthatȱitsȱbondedȱdimensionsȱkeepȱitȱinȱaȱstateȱofȱconstantȱ changeȱinȱtheȱsenseȱofȱbeingȱinȱaȱkindȱofȱmultipleȱoscillation,ȱbutȱtheseȱ veryȱ changesȱ giveȱ itȱ theȱ resiliencyȱ toȱ preserveȱ itselfȱ whenȱ facedȱ withȱ outsideȱ pressures.ȱ Itsȱ survivalȱ andȱ viabilityȱ todayȱ Iȱ attributeȱ toȱ itsȱ reȬ markableȱdynamicȱpotentialȱforȱsymbolicȱadjustment,ȱnotȱnecessarilyȱtoȱ preserveȱanyȱmonarchȱorȱtypeȱofȱgovernmentȱbutȱtoȱpreserveȱitselfȱandȱ theȱreligionȱitȱteaches.”28ȱFergusonȱquiteȱeffectivelyȱdistillsȱaȱconsistentȱ setȱofȱconceptsȱinȱtheȱBurmeseȱliteratureȱdealingȱwithȱlineageȱconcerns.ȱ ItȱmayȱbeȱtrueȱthatȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱofȱotherȱmonks,ȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ suchȱ restsȱ onȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ sociologicalȱ flexibilityȱ ensuredȱbyȱaȱ“potentialȱforȱsymbolicȱadjustment.”ȱHowever,ȱcentralȱtoȱ theȱanalysisȱhereȱisȱanotherȱpointȱraisedȱbyȱFerguson’sȱstudy:ȱtheȱcontiȬ nuityȱofȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱandȱotherȱthingsȱBuddhist,ȱisȱtheȱ productȱofȱhumanȱlabor,ȱrootedȱinȱaȱdriveȱtoȱcarryȱonȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

BuddhistȱHistoriesȱandȱBiographiesȱinȱandȱbeyondȱ Myanmarȱ BuddhistȱhistoriesȱandȱmonasticȱbiographiesȱareȱubiquitousȱinȱcontemȬ poraryȱ Myanmar.ȱ Theyȱ canȱ beȱ purchasedȱ atȱ roadsideȱ bookstallsȱ andȱ bookshops,ȱatȱmonasteries,ȱatȱBuddhistȱuniversities,ȱandȱatȱmeditationȱ centers.ȱTheyȱareȱavailableȱinȱmanyȱdifferentȱstylesȱandȱformats:ȱhistorȬ icalȱ treatmentsȱ ofȱ theȱS¬sana;ȱ fullȬlengthȱbiographicalȱ treatments;ȱ comȬ pilationsȱ ofȱ biographicalȱ sketches;ȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ summaȬ riesȱ inȱ monasticȱ cremationȱ volumes;ȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ notesȱ inȱdiscussionsȱthatȱlinkȱlivesȱofȱparticularȱmonksȱwithȱparticularȱpagoȬ dasȱ (Buddhistȱ monuments);ȱ andȱ biographicalȱ storiesȱ aboutȱ Buddhistȱ saints.29ȱSomeȱmaterialsȱinȱtheȱhistoricalȱandȱbiographicalȱgenre,ȱsuchȱasȱ theȱ autobiographyȱ ofȱ theȱ famousȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ Ashinȱ Janak¬bhiȬ vaѴsa,ȱhaveȱbeenȱreprintedȱseveralȱtimesȱandȱhaveȱbecomeȱveryȱpopuȬ lar,ȱ particularlyȱ amongȱ Burmeseȱ layȱ people.30ȱ Andȱ someȱ includeȱ bothȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 27ȱ Fergusonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ5–12ȱandȱ253–259.ȱ 28ȱ Fergusonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ271.ȱ 29ȱ Aȱgreatȱdealȱofȱresearchȱremainsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱonȱtheseȱkindsȱofȱsources,ȱwhichȱincludeȱ materialsȱlikeȱGyÎȱPheȱ1967,ȱMaungȱPhoȱ1977,ȱMonksȱWho’veȱBeenȱAwardedȱReligiousȱ Titlesȱ 1991,ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1963ȱ andȱ 1988,ȱ Kel¬saȱ 1985,ȱ Mediȱ Sayadawȱ 1966,ȱ Mah¬Ȭ dhammathingyanȱ1956,ȱandȱArticlesȱonȱtheȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱandȱGaingȱ1995.ȱ 30ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ 2000.ȱ Sayaȱ Uȱ Sawȱ Tunȱ pointedȱ outȱ theȱ popularityȱ ofȱ thisȱ workȱ toȱ me.ȱ

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handwrittenȱ andȱ printedȱ remarksȱ aboutȱ layȱ donors,ȱ moniesȱ spentȱ toȱ helpȱ defrayȱ publicationȱ costs,ȱ datesȱ onȱ whichȱ aȱ particularȱ biographyȱ wasȱgivenȱtoȱaȱspecificȱmonk,ȱasȱwellȱasȱremarksȱfromȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱ haveȱreadȱthemȱorȱwhoȱhaveȱgivenȱthemȱtoȱotherȱpeople.ȱForȱinstance,ȱaȱ copyȱofȱaȱ biographyȱaboutȱ theȱ Myaungȱ MyaȱSayadawȱ(1888–1975,ȱ theȱ Tenthȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana),31ȱ bearsȱ notȱ onlyȱ donorȱ informaȬ tionȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱhandwrittenȱwords:ȱȱ ^saAup\AtQc\;| pfrHieqa Sraeta\Bura;Aa; el;sa; ~kv\vioeqaAa;`Pc\. nim\.kjeqaArp\| mTa;mirn\ gRusuik\esKjc\pfqv\" ByȱwayȱofȱreverenceȱtowardsȱtheȱSayadawȱwrittenȱaboutȱinȱthisȱbook,ȱmayȱ Iȱremindȱyouȱnotȱtoȱplaceȱitȱinȱanȱimproperȱplace.ȱ

Suchȱ remarksȱ areȱ onlyȱ suggestiveȱ ofȱ howȱ monasticȱ historiesȱ andȱ bioȬ graphiesȱ circulateȱ amongȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ people,ȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ thatȱ suchȱ materialsȱ haveȱ forȱ thoseȱ whoȱ readȱ orȱ exchangeȱ them.ȱEvenȱso,ȱtheȱdetailsȱhelpȱhighlightȱtheȱvibrantȱroleȱthatȱBuddhistȱ historiesȱ andȱ biographiesȱ playȱ inȱ theȱ “affairsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱreɇ,ȱqaqnaer;)ȱinȱcontemporaryȱMyanmar.ȱ Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ type,ȱ theȱ historicalȬbiographicalȱ genreȱ canȱ beȱ distinȬ guishedȱ fromȱ anotherȱ majorȱ Buddhistȱ textualȱ genre—theȱ distinctlyȱ TipiΞakaȬcommentarialȱ genre.ȱ Bothȱ theȱ historicalȬbiographicalȱ genreȱ onȱ theȱoneȱhandȱandȱtheȱTipiΞakaȬcommentarialȱgenreȱonȱtheȱotherȱareȱpartȱ ofȱ theȱ circulationȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ practice.ȱ Bothȱ genresȱ areȱ involvedȱ inȱ localȱ processesȱ ofȱ legitimation,ȱ pedagogy,ȱ discipline,ȱ legalȱ practice,ȱandȱmoralȱtraining.ȱBothȱgenresȱincludeȱwrittenȱandȱoralȱmaȬ terialsȱ composedȱ inȱ Pali,ȱ inȱ vernaculars,ȱ orȱ inȱ combinationsȱ ofȱ both.32ȱ However,ȱ theȱ TipiΞakaȬcommentarialȱ genreȱ consistsȱ ofȱ componentsȱ ofȱ theȱPaliȱTherav¬daȱcanonicalȱtradition,ȱincludingȱcommentaries,ȱhandȬ books,ȱandȱrelatedȱmaterials.ȱInȱcontrast,ȱtheȱhistoricalȱandȱbiographicalȱ genreȱincludesȱnarrativeȱmaterialsȱ(e.g.,ȱ vaΚsa,ȱtheruppatti)ȱthatȱchroniȬ cleȱ theȱ foundationȱ andȱ spreadȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ S¬sanaȱ withinȱ specificȱ geoȬculturalȱcontexts,ȱoftenȱtracingȱinȱtheȱprocessȱtheȱrelationsȱbetweenȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ people.ȱ Theȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ materialsȱ mayȱ drawȱuponȱideas,ȱthemes,ȱissues,ȱandȱinterpretiveȱstrategiesȱembeddedȱ inȱ theȱ dataȱ fromȱ theȱ TipiΞakaȬcommentarialȱ materials,ȱ andȱ viceȬversa.ȱ However,ȱ materialsȱ inȱ theȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ genreȱ generallyȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 31ȱ VariousȱDisciplesȱ1980.ȱ 32ȱ Inȱ preȬcontemporaryȱ contexts,ȱ orallyȱ expressedȱ andȱ transmittedȱ materialsȱ mayȱ beȱ difficultȱtoȱidentifyȱandȱtoȱstudyȱinȱdetail.ȱHoweverȱtheȱinterpreterȱofȱlocalȱBuddhistȱ traditionsȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ remainȱ alertȱ toȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ oralȱ expressionȱ andȱ transmissionȱ inȱ virtuallyȱ allȱ Buddhistȱ contexts.ȱ Seeȱ Veidlingerȱ 2006ȱ forȱ aȱ relevantȱ studyȱthatȱaddressesȱtheȱNorthernȱThaiȱcase.ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

departȱfromȱmaterialsȱinȱtheȱTipiΞakaȬcommentarialȱgenreȱbecauseȱtheyȱ areȱ notȱ primarilyȱ concernedȱ withȱ aȱ commentarialȬstyleȱ approach,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱaȱwordȬbyȬwordȱexpositionȱofȱcanonicalȱtexts.33ȱ Buddhistȱhistoriesȱandȱmonasticȱbiographiesȱexhibitȱmanyȱcommonȱ featuresȱ regardingȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theseȱ consistȱ ofȱ inȬ structionȱ inȱ topicsȱ likeȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ asȱ aȱ fatherȬfigure,ȱ theȱ ritualizedȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ monasticȱ dailyȱ life,ȱ andȱ theȱ processesȱ ofȱ moȬ nasticȱ education.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ includeȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ incorporateȱ Paliȱ ideasȱ intoȱmonasticȱlife,ȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱattemptȱtoȱshowȱtheȱdynamicsȱofȱpracȬ ticeȱ throughȱ whichȱ monksȱ bringȱ themselvesȱ togetherȱ asȱ sociallyȱ andȱ historicallyȱcontinuousȱlineages.ȱ Buddhistȱ historiesȱ andȱ monasticȱ biographiesȱ involveȱ aȱ didacticȱ qualityȱ thatȱ canȱ makeȱ readingȱ themȱ aȱ modeȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ education,ȱ beȬ causeȱ theyȱ affirmȱ andȱ describeȱ theȱ conductȱ ofȱ particularȱ monksȱ andȱ provideȱidealizedȱpatternsȱforȱindividualsȱtoȱthinkȱabout,ȱsupport,ȱand,ȱ potentially,ȱ personallyȱ undertake.ȱ Theȱ possibilityȱ impliedȱ byȱ theȱ emȬ phasisȱ onȱ “can”ȱ hereȱ isȱ deliberate,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ isȱ difficultȱ toȱ knowȱ howȱ manyȱ andȱ inȱ whatȱ contextȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ readȱ theȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ materialȱ addressedȱ inȱ theȱ twoȱ caseȱ studiesȱ below,ȱ eitherȱinȱfullȱorȱinȱpart.ȱForȱinstance,ȱwhenȱaskedȱaboutȱtheȱidentityȱofȱ theȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱlineageȱandȱasȱaȱnik¬yaȱ(“group”ȱorȱ“sect”),ȱaȱmonkȱ atȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱmonasteryȱdirectedȱmeȱtoȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ asȱ aȱ mostȱ importantȱ account;ȱ Iȱ wasȱ assuredȱ thatȱ allȱ Iȱ neededȱtoȱknowȱwasȱthere,ȱandȱthatȱotherȱmonksȱinȱtheȱmonasteryȱhadȱ spentȱtimeȱwithȱtheȱtext.ȱButȱthisȱilluminatedȱnothingȱaboutȱtheȱwiderȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ bookȱ onȱ aȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ levelȱ amongȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ asȱ aȱ whole.ȱ Theȱ situationȱ provesȱ evenȱ moreȱ difficultȱ toȱ assessȱ withȱ aȱ farȱ olderȱ textȱ likeȱ theȱ Biographyȱ ofȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw,ȱ whichȱ isȱ alsoȱ addressedȱbelow.ȱ Nonetheless,ȱ theȱ difficultyȱ ofȱ establishingȱ theȱ actualȱ contextsȱ inȱ whichȱ manyȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ materialsȱ areȱ readȱ doesȱ notȱ necessarilyȱundermineȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱtheȱtextsȱandȱwhatȱtheirȱ“inȬ sides”ȱhaveȱtoȱsay.ȱThatȱthisȱisȱtrueȱisȱpartiallyȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱcomȬ mentsȱ fromȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ justȱ noted.ȱ Additionally,ȱ aȱ shortȱ butȱ illuminatingȱanalysisȱ byȱAndrewȱ Huxleyȱ promptsȱusȱtoȱ considerȱsuchȱ materialsȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ anotherȱ kindȱ ofȱ “context,”ȱ oneȱ inȱ whichȱ lineageȱ mayȱ beȱ saidȱ toȱ determineȱ Vinaya.34ȱ Huxleyȱ urgesȱ usȱ toȱ “considerȱ twoȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 33ȱ Clearly,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱkindsȱofȱmaterialȱthatȱstandȱoutsideȱofȱorȱbridgeȱtheȱtwofoldȱ typologyȱ proposedȱ here.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ someȱ data,ȱ likeȱ theȱ Kaly¬ѾÎȱ Inscriptionsȱ (Phay¬ȱ PhyĀȱ Sayadawȱ 1938)ȱ inȱ Lowerȱ Myanmar,ȱ representsȱ anȱ intertwiningȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱtypes.ȱ 34ȱȱ Huxleyȱ2000ȱp.ȱ1093.ȱ

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CaseȱStudyȱ1:ȱTheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱandȱAspectsȱofȱLineageȱ

51ȱ

aspectsȱofȱtheȱinteractionȱbetweenȱlineageȱandȱvinaya.ȱFirst,ȱaȱfunctionȬ alȱ aspect:ȱ lineageȱ wasȱ calledȱ intoȱ beingȱ byȱ theȱ needȱ toȱ bringȱ vinayaȱ disputesȱtoȱaȱresolution.ȱSecond,ȱaȱliteraryȱaspect:ȱ[lineagesȱhave]ȱproȬ ducedȱ[their]ȱownȱgenreȱofȱvinayaȱtext[s]ȱthatȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱlineageȱcasȬ es.”35ȱ Theseȱ areȱ textsȱ copiedȱ andȱ transmittedȱ withinȱ specificȱ lineagesȱ andȱcontainȱinformationȱaboutȱdisciplinaryȱarguments,ȱjudgments,ȱandȱ rulingsȱ relevantȱ toȱ thoseȱ lineages.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ formedȱ theirȱ ownȱ lineageȱ theyȱ didȱ soȱ inȱ partȱ byȱ compilingȱ suchȱ casebooks.36ȱ Ifȱ weȱ broadenȱ thisȱ notionȱ ofȱ casebooksȱ toȱ includeȱ theȱ entireȱ corpusȱ ofȱ textsȱ (thatȱ is,ȱ coveringȱ VinayaȬrelatedȱ discussionsȱ andȱ pronouncementsȱ asȱ wellȱasȱvariousȱotherȱaspectsȱofȱthoughtȱandȱpractice)ȱproducedȱbyȱandȱ withinȱ aȱ givenȱ monasticȱ lineage,ȱ anȱ importantȱ pointȱ emerges.ȱ Seenȱ againstȱthisȱtypeȱofȱlargerȱsociohistoricalȱcontext,ȱorȱperhapsȱevenȱsociȬ otextualȱ contextȱ isȱ better,ȱ bothȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱandȱ theȱ Biographyȱofȱ theȱKyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw,ȱ addressedȱ below,ȱ areȱlineageȱcasesȱinȱtheirȱownȱright.ȱTheyȱhelpȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱcertainȱ typesȱofȱ patternsȱ inȱ theȱrhetoricȱ andȱ imageryȱofȱShwegyinȱrepresentaȬ tionsȱofȱtheirȱlineage.ȱAsȱsuchȱtheyȱalsoȱhelpȱusȱunderstandȱtheȱworldȱ ofȱShwegyinȱtraditionalism.ȱ

CaseȱStudyȱ1:ȱTheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱandȱAspectsȱofȱLineageȱ Theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱ publishedȱ inȱ 1988,ȱ wasȱ compiledȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ Ashinȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ andȱ isȱ aȱ revisedȱ andȱ editedȱversionȱofȱtheȱmuchȱlongerȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱwhichȱ PaѾ҃itaȱinitiallyȱcompletedȱinȱtimeȱforȱtheȱ“TenthȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱNik¬ya”ȱheldȱNovemberȱ18–20,ȱ1963.37ȱTheȱyearsȱleadingȱupȱtoȱtheȱ initialȱpublicationȱofȱtheȱtextȱhadȱseenȱvigorousȱdebateȱwithinȱtheȱcounȬ tryȱ regardingȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ monasticȱ discipline,ȱ purity,ȱ andȱ disputeȱ resolution.38ȱItȱisȱpossibleȱthoughȱnotȱentirelyȱclearȱthatȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱgrewȱinȱpartȱoutȱofȱShwegyinȱreactionsȱtoȱthisȱdebate,ȱ primarilyȱasȱaȱrecordȱofȱtheȱlineage’sȱfidelityȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱVinaya.ȱ Likeȱ theȱ longerȱ History,ȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ coversȱ theȱ livesȱ ofȱ manyȱ monks,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ developmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ overȱ aȱ largeȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 35ȱ Huxleyȱ2000ȱp.ȱ1092,ȱbracketsȱmine,ȱitalicsȱinȱoriginal.ȱ 36ȱ Iȱ considerȱ materialsȱ likeȱ J¬garaȱ andȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadawȱ 1966ȱ andȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱSayadawȱ1985ȱtoȱbeȱinȱthisȱcategory.ȱ 37ȱ ForȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱseeȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988;ȱforȱtheȱHistoryȱ ofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱseeȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1963.ȱ 38ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ239–245.ȱ

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socialȱ andȱ historicalȱ scale,ȱ includingȱ developmentsȱ inȱ India,ȱ theȱ areaȱ whereȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ originated.ȱ However,ȱtheȱtextȱdiscussesȱnotȱ soȱmuchȱ theȱBuddha’sȱS¬sana—forȱexample,ȱtheȱnatureȱofȱpariyatti,ȱpaΞipatti,ȱandȱ paΞivedhaȱ asȱ portrayedȱ inȱ theȱ Paliȱ canon—butȱ ratherȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ aȱ specificȱlineageȱofȱmonksȱwho,ȱinȱcomprisingȱaȱspecificȱmonasticȱtradiȬ tion,ȱhaveȱbeenȱactiveȱparticipantsȱinȱtheȱembodiedȱlifeȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ dividesȱ intoȱ twoȱ thematicȱ parts.ȱ Forȱ theȱ firstȱ part,ȱPaѾ҃itaȱbeginsȱwithȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱtransmissionȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ inȱMajjhimadesaȱ(aȱPaliȱnameȱusedȱbyȱBurmeseȱandȱotherȱBuddhistsȱforȱ India;ȱ theȱ wordȱ isȱ alsoȱ usedȱ inȱ Paliȱ textsȱ forȱ theȱregionȱ inȱ whichȱBudȬ dhasȱalwaysȱarise).ȱPaѾ҃itaȱthenȱgoesȱonȱtoȱdiscussȱcertainȱdisciplesȱofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ suchȱ asȱ Up¬li.ȱ Heȱ alsoȱ discussesȱ theȱ firstȱ threeȱ Buddhistȱ Councilsȱ (P.ȱ saΤg¬yan¬)ȱ andȱ theȱ monksȱ whoȱ playedȱ aȱ roleȱ inȱ them.ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱthenȱbringsȱtheȱfirstȱsectionȱtoȱaȱconclusionȱwithȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱ activitiesȱofȱparticularȱmonksȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱitself.ȱ TheȱsecondȱandȱlargerȱpartȱofȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱportraysȱtheȱmoȬ nasticȱ trajectoriesȱ ofȱ theȱ Firstȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ andȱ hisȱ successors,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadawȱ (Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ 1894–1916)ȱandȱMyaungȱMyaȱSayadawȱ(ShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱ 1972–1975).ȱItȱalsoȱfocusesȱonȱotherȱleadersȱinȱvariousȱplacesȱinȱUpperȱ andȱLowerȱMyanmar,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱ(1843–1925),ȱaȱ famousȱdiscipleȱofȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.ȱThus,ȱinȱitsȱsecondȱandȱ mainȱ partȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ providesȱ anȱ overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ leadingȱ monksȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ theȱ “branchesȱ andȱ twigs”ȱ (B.ȱ atakеȱ alakе,ȱ Atk\Alk\)ȱthatȱhaveȱextendedȱtheȱvitalityȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱandȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ forȱ whichȱ itȱ carriesȱ responsibility.39ȱ Toȱ assessȱ theȱ wayȱ inȱ whichȱlineageȱnotionsȱareȱusedȱinȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistoryȱandȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱ informȱ it,ȱ attentionȱ canȱ beȱ directedȱ towardȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ frontȱ matterȱ containedȱinȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistory.ȱ

TheȱSÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsa’sȱIntroduction:ȱSupportingȱaȱLineageȱ Theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ opensȱ withȱ anȱ introductionȱ writtenȱ byȱ theȱ monkȱ SÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsa,ȱ whoȱ framesȱ hisȱ discussionȱ withȱ aȱ passage,ȱ transȬ latedȱintoȱBurmese,ȱfromȱaȱPaliȱsource,ȱtheȱMilindapañhaȱ(Questionsȱofȱ KingȱMilinda).ȱTheȱMilindapañhaȱusesȱconversationsȱbetweenȱKingȱMiȬ lindaȱ andȱ theȱ monkȱ N¬gasenaȱ toȱ clarifyȱ differentȱ Buddhistȱ teachings.ȱ TheȱpassageȱfromȱtheȱMilindapañhaȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱreverenceȱthatȱaȱlayȱ donorȱ(P.ȱd¬yaka)ȱwhoȱhasȱenteredȱtheȱstreamȱ(P.ȱsot¬panna)ȱshouldȱgiveȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 39ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱ4.ȱ

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53ȱ

toȱordinaryȱmonksȱ(B.ȱputhujañеȱrahanеɇ,ȱpuTuzV\ rhn\;),ȱthatȱis,ȱmonksȱofȱnoȱ particularȱspiritualȱadvancement.ȱInȱtheȱBurmeseȱtranslation,ȱN¬gasenaȱ tellsȱKingȱMilinda,ȱ mc\;`mt\' VpmaAa;`Pc\. mc\;qa;teyak\qv\ puerahit\t‚;% ATM| Att\pvakui qc\yU%' mc\;kjc\.wt\kui qc\yU%' enac\AKf Tuimc\;qa;qv\ mc\;A`Ps\| ABiqik\qQn\;Ap\`pI;eqa\ {^ puerahit\ka; cf.kui Att\pva qc\ep;qqUtv\;}hu eAak\em.ljk\ Sra`Ps\eqa puerahit\kui rHiKui;%' KrI;‚;$kiSui%' mc\;`mt\' ^AtUqalJc\ {puTuzV\ rhn\;qv\ka; rhn\;A`Ps\kui #ptt\eqa 20-eqa Akjc\.tra;NHc\. 2-mjoi;eqa AqQc\A`pc\tui>kui kjc\.quM;tt\qqUtv\;' ANQy\ kui eSac\epqqUtv\;} hu eAak\em.ljk\ eqatapn\ lUdfykaqv\ puTuzV\ rhn\;kui rHiKui;`Kc\;cHf KrI;‚;$kiSui`Kc\;cHf Tuik\ep%''40 Oȱking,ȱjustȱasȱaȱprinceȱundertakesȱhisȱeducationȱandȱisȱtaughtȱtheȱdutiesȱofȱ aȱkingȱinȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱaȱbrahman,ȱthen,ȱafterȱthatȱprinceȱhasȱbeenȱconseȬ cratedȱ asȱ king,ȱ heȱ reveresȱ andȱ paysȱ respectsȱ toȱ theȱ brahman,ȱ thinking,ȱ “Thisȱ brahmanȱ isȱ myȱ teacher,”ȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ way,ȱ oȱ king,ȱ itȱ isȱ fittingȱ forȱ aȱ laymanȱ whoȱ hasȱ enteredȱ theȱ streamȱ [i.e.,ȱ theȱ firstȱ stageȱ ofȱ awakening]ȱ toȱ revereȱ andȱ payȱ respectsȱ toȱ anȱ ordinaryȱ monk,ȱ thinking,ȱ “Anȱ ordinaryȱ monkȱundertakesȱtheȱtwentyȱtypesȱofȱmonasticȱpracticeȱandȱpossessesȱtheȱ twoȱ physicalȱ characteristicsȱ ofȱ aȱ monkȱ [i.e.,ȱ wearingȱ monasticȱ robesȱ andȱ havingȱ hisȱ headȱ shaved];ȱ heȱ carriesȱ aȱ lineageȱ (B.ȱ anvayеȱ kuiȱ choΤе,ȱ ANQy\kui eSac\).”ȱ

TheȱSÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsaȱtellsȱhisȱreadersȱthatȱtheȱpassageȱunderȱconsidȬ erationȱ dealsȱ withȱ aȱ disjunctionȱ betweenȱ twoȱ Buddhistȱ positions:ȱ one,ȱ thatȱtheȱDhammaȱisȱtheȱhighestȱthingȱinȱtheȱpresentȱlifeȱandȱinȱlivesȱyetȱ toȱcome;ȱandȱtwo,ȱthatȱaȱlayȱpersonȱwhoȱhasȱenteredȱtheȱstreamȱshouldȱ revereȱ andȱ welcomeȱ ordinaryȱ monks.ȱ Theȱ conundrumȱ isȱ this:ȱ whichȱ hasȱ precedence,ȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ insightȱ orȱ ordinaryȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ behavior?ȱOr,ȱwhyȱshouldȱaȱspirituallyȱadvancedȱlayȱpersonȱrevereȱanȱ ordinaryȱmonk?ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱSÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsa,ȱtheȱreasonȱhasȱtoȱ doȱ withȱ followingȱ theȱ modesȱ ofȱ monasticȱ practice,ȱ andȱ “carryingȱ aȱ liȬ neageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ toеȱ e*ȱ anvayеȱ achakеȱ choΤе,ȱ qaqnaeta\% ANQy\ASk\ eSac\).41ȱ Aȱ footnoteȱ inȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ tellsȱ readersȱ toȱ lookȱ inȱ MilindaȬ pañhaȱitselfȱforȱtheȱtwentyȱkindsȱofȱmonasticȱconductȱandȱtheȱtwoȱphysȬ icalȱcharacteristicsȱthatȱenableȱanȱindividualȱtoȱbeȱaȱmonk.ȱAsȱtranslatedȱ byȱRhysȱDavids,ȱtheȱtwentyȱmodesȱofȱmonasticȱconductȱareȱtheȱȱ bestȱ formȱ ofȱ selfȬrestraint,ȱ theȱ highestȱ kindȱ ofȱ selfȬcontrol,ȱ rightȱ conduct,ȱ calmȱ manners,ȱ masteryȱ overȱ (hisȱ deedsȱ andȱ words),ȱ subjugationȱ (ofȱ hisȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 40ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱka;ȱseeȱalsoȱMilȱp.ȱ164.ȱ 41ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱka–kha.ȱ

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senses),ȱlongȬsuffering,ȱsympathy,ȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱsolitude,ȱloveȱofȱsolitude,ȱ meditation,ȱmodestyȱandȱfearȱofȱdoingȱwrong,ȱzeal,ȱearnestness,ȱtheȱtakingȱ uponȱhimselfȱofȱtheȱprecepts,ȱrecitationȱ(ofȱtheȱScriptures),ȱaskingȱquestionsȱ (ofȱthoseȱwiseȱinȱtheȱDhammaȱandȱVinaya),ȱrejoicingȱinȱtheȱSîlasȱandȱotherȱ (rulesȱ ofȱ morality),ȱ freedomȱ fromȱattachmentȱ (toȱtheȱ thingsȱ ofȱtheȱ world),ȱ fulfillmentȱofȱtheȱprecepts.42ȱ

Theȱtwoȱphysicalȱcharacteristicsȱconsistȱofȱwearingȱtheȱmonasticȱrobesȱ andȱ shavingȱ one’sȱ head.43ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ SÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsa,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ anȱ ordinaryȱ monkȱ doesȱ notȱ possessȱ theȱ highȱ degreeȱ ofȱ insightȱ thatȱ wouldȱ allowȱ himȱ to,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ “enterȱ theȱ stream,”ȱ heȱ stillȱ folȬ lowsȱtheȱformsȱofȱmonasticȱpracticeȱthatȱenableȱhimȱtoȱbeȱaȱmonk.ȱAnd,ȱ furthermore,ȱtheȱordinaryȱmonkȱcanȱinstructȱmenȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱtooȱwillȱ becomeȱmonksȱandȱfollowȱtheȱmonasticȱpathȱasȱindicatedȱinȱtheȱ“twenȬ ty”ȱandȱtheȱ“two.”ȱTheȱSÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsaȱthusȱreȬemphasizesȱthatȱtheȱ layȱ personȱ whoȱ isȱ aȱ streamȬentererȱ shouldȱ revereȱ theȱ ordinaryȱ monkȱ becauseȱ theȱ monkȱ isȱ aȱ lineageȬbearerȱ (P.ȱ vaΚsaȬdhara),ȱ aȱ personȱ whoȱ carries,ȱwithoutȱseveringȱit,ȱaȱlineageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.44ȱ Furthermore,ȱ theȱ SÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsaȱ commentsȱ thatȱ inȱ readingȱ N¬gasena’sȱexplanationȱtoȱKingȱMilinda,ȱpeopleȱcanȱseeȱjustȱhowȱmuchȱ individualsȱ whoȱ supportȱ aȱ lineageȱ (givenȱ inȱ hisȱ textȱ asȱ bothȱ P.ȱ vaΚsaȬ dharaȬpuggalaȱ andȱ B.ȱ anvayеȱ achakеȱ coΤеȇȱ sĀ,ȱ ANQy\ASk\esac\.qU)ȱ shouldȱ beȱ revered.ȱAndȱtheyȱcanȱseeȱjustȱhowȱmuchȱimportanceȱisȱplacedȱonȱtheȱ continuingȱ existenceȱ ofȱ anȱ unȬdestroyedȱ lineageȱ (B.ȱ anvayеȱ achakеȱ maȱ pyakеȱmaȱcÎɇ,ȱANQy\ASk\mpjk\msI;).ȱHeȱthenȱcommentsȱthatȱȱ Tui>e~kac\.pc\lv\; mimitui>Suic\ra ANQy\ASk\kui esac\.erHak\rn\ tawn\qv\ ANQy\wc\pug‰iol\tuic\; AepF | kjerak\ljk\ rHi`Kc\;`Ps\epqv\' 45 Thereforeȱeveryȱmemberȱofȱtheȱlineageȱhasȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱprotectȱhisȱ ownȱlineage.ȱ

However,ȱ theȱ SÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsaȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ potentialȱ problem:ȱ aȱ monkȱ mayȱ beȱ unableȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ hisȱ dutyȱ toȱ protectȱ hisȱ lineageȱifȱheȱdoesȱnotȱknowȱhowȱtheȱlineageȱitselfȱhasȱcomeȱtoȱexist.ȱToȱ thatȱ end,ȱ theȱ SÎl¬nand¬bhivaѴsaȱ suggestsȱ theȱ followingȱ kindȱ ofȱ liteȬ raryȬbasedȱpedagogy:ȱȱ ^qui>lJc\ ^dutIyA~kim\Ruik\ erWkjc\qaqnawc\kjm\;qv\ erWkjc\g% ui \;wc\ pug‰iol\tui>APui> mimitui> ANQy\ASk\kui qirHieAac\ Aa;Tut\ratQc\ mrHim`Ps\eqa A`mEtm\; lk\kuic\#prmv\. kjm\;sa ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 42ȱ 43ȱ 44ȱ 45ȱ

RhysȱDavidsȱ1963,ȱtrans.,ȱpt.ȱ1ȱpp.ȱ230Ȭ231.ȱȱ SeeȱMilȱpp.ȱ162–163.ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱkha.ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱkha.ȱ

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55ȱ

tesac\ `Ps\epqv\' ^kjm\;saqv\ erWkjc\g% ui \;% ANQy\ASk\kui mpjk\mkQk\reAac\ esac\. erHak\ Tin\;qim\;mv\. erWkjc\wMqDrpug‰iol\mja;kui epFTQk\esljk\ yc\;tui>Aa; mI;RÐ;qPQy\ Alc\; erac\ep;ka erWkjc\qaqna% tawn\kui ttp\tAa; AenAa;`Pc\. Tm\;eSac\ qQa;ep lim\.mv\' 46ȱ Therefore,ȱ thisȱ secondȱ editionȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ historyȱ isȱ aȱ textȱ forȱ thoseȱ individualsȱ whoȱ areȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Gaing,ȱ aȱ textȱ thatȱ theyȱ shouldȱalwaysȱdependȱuponȱ whileȱstrivingȱtoȱknowȱtheirȱownȱlineageȱ(B.ȱ \ Sk\).ȱThisȱtextȱwillȱmakeȱtheȱbearersȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱliȬ anvayеȱachakе,ȱANQyA neage,ȱwhoȱ willȱwithoutȱfailȱprotectȱandȱrestrainȱtheȱlineageȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱGaing,ȱcomeȱout,ȱandȱitȱgivesȱaȱlight,ȱjustȱlikeȱaȱblazingȱflame,ȱtoȱthem.ȱ Itȱ willȱ serve,ȱ inȱ aȱ wayȱ thatȱ substantiallyȱ contributesȱ toȱ communalȱ underȬ standing,ȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱS¬sana.ȱȱ

Theseȱcommentsȱareȱdirectedȱaboveȱallȱtoȱmonasticȱreaders,ȱwhoȱareȱtoȱ envisionȱthemselvesȱasȱbearersȱofȱaȱShwegyinȱlineageȱderivingȱfromȱtheȱ Buddha.ȱ Beingȱ aȱ bearerȱ ofȱ aȱ monasticȱ lineageȱ meansȱ knowingȱ howȱ itȱ hasȱcomeȱtoȱexistȱandȱitsȱstandardsȱofȱVinayaȬbasedȱpractice.ȱBearingȱaȱ lineageȱalsoȱmeansȱknowingȱtheȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱS¬sanaȱinterpretationsȱ andȱ emphasesȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ lineageȱ haveȱ maintained.ȱ Inȱ orderȱ toȱ learnȱ inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ monksȱ canȱ readȱ theȱ historicalȱ andȱ biographicalȱ maȬ terialȱ inȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ (asȱ wellȱ asȱ inȱ otherȱ sources)ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ helpȱ bringȱ intoȱ theirȱ ownȱ everydayȱ worldȱ certainȱ visionsȱ ofȱ theȱ comȬ munalȱ workȱ ofȱ transmittingȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ isȱ thusȱ aȱ typeȱ ofȱ practiceȬorientedȱ handbookȱ especiallyȱ forȱ monksȱ whoȱ mayȱ wantȱtoȱtryȱtoȱknowȱhowȱtheyȱshouldȱcarryȱthemselvesȱandȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ soȱthatȱneitherȱsuffersȱseriousȱrupture.ȱ

PaѾ҃ita’sȱVerseȱandȱCommentary:ȱTypesȱofȱLineageȱ Theȱfrontȱmatterȱ toȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ alsoȱ includesȱ aȱPaliȱverseȱ andȱ BurmeseȱcommentaryȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmonkȱAshinȱPaѾ҃itaȱpaysȱreverenceȱ toȱtheȱBuddha,ȱDhamma,ȱandȱSaΤgha,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱtheȱleadingȱeldersȱofȱ theȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱPaliȱverse:ȱ savaΚsaȬdesakaΚȱ BuddhaΚȱ dhammaΚȱ saΤghañȱ caȱ saΚsuddhaΚȱ vaΚs¬nup¬lakeȱ thereȱ ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬbhĀsaneȱ paΦ¬maΚȱ s¬daraΚȱ katv¬ȱ ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬ vaΚsakaΚȱsaΚkhepaΚȱdÎpakaΚȱkassaΚȱsuddhaȬv¬kyenaȱsaΚyuttaΚ.ȱ

PaѾ҃ita’sȱfullȱwordȬbyȬwordȱBurmeseȱcommentaryȱisȱthis:ȱ ahaΚ ' cfqv\"

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 46ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱcha–ja.ȱ

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savaΚsaȬdesakaΚ ' mimi%ANQy\AsV\ bud™wc\kiu tITQc\eha~ka;eta\mU tt\eqa'' BuddhaΚȱcaȱ' `mt\sQaBura;kiu»' saΚsuddhaΚ ' ekac\;mQn\sc\~ky\sQaeqa'' dhammañca ' tra;eta\kiu»' saΚsuddhaΚ ' kielqaAvs\Ae~k;tiu>mH kc\;ew;qn\>sc\eta\mUeqa'' saΚghañca ' qMGaeta\kiu»' vaΚs¬nup¬lake ' eRWkjc\qMGANQy\AsV\kiu AmJc\m`pt\ esac\.Tin\;eta\mUtt\ kun\eqa'' ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬbhĀsane ' eRWkjc\gui%;\ % gu%\Ac\`mc\.sQa ASc\tn\;Salv\; `Ps\eta\mU kun\

eqa'' there ' qIladigu%\ `pv\.sMuqI;qI; ArHc\eTr\`mt\~kI;tiu>kiu»' s¬daraΚ ' Riueq`Kc\;NHc\.tkQ' paΦ¬maΚȱkatv¬ ' ‚;vQt\`mt\Niu;rHiKui;`pI;&'' suddhaȬv¬kyenaȱsaΚyutaΚ ' edfqmTc\ A`ps\sc\qv\. ska;NHc\.qa yHV\eqa'' saΚkhepaΚ ' AkjV\;mJ`Ps\eqa'' ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬvaΚsakaΚȱ' eRWkjc\qMGa eTr\mhatiu>% Alampjk\ NQy\ASk\kiu' dÎpakaΚ ' `pra`pe~kac\;`Ps\eqasatm\;kiu' kassaΚ ' kjV\;kjV\;NHc\.sMu suepfc\;#KM& tPMu`Ka;na; R:qUmja;Biu> er;qa;pfAM.qtv\;' 47

AȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱBurmeseȱglossesȱonȱtheȱPaliȱwordsȱisȱasȱfollows.ȱ ahaΚȱ[theȱimpliedȱsubject]:ȱIȱ savaΚsaȬdesakaΚ:ȱwhoȱhadȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱclarifyȱandȱpreachȱaboutȱtheȱlineageȱ ofȱBuddhasȱ(B.ȱbuddhaȱvaΤе,ȱbud™wc\),ȱ[whichȱwas]ȱhisȱownȱlineageȱ BuddhaΚȱca:ȱandȱtheȱBuddhaȱ saΚsuddhaΚ:ȱwhichȱisȱgoodȱandȱpureȱ dhammañca:ȱandȱtheȱDhammaȱ saΚsuddhaΚ:ȱwhichȱisȱfreeȱfromȱandȱpurgedȱofȱkilesas,ȱetc.ȱȱ saΤghañȱca:ȱandȱtheȱSaΤghaȱ vaΚs¬nup¬lake:ȱ whoȱ haveȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ safeguardȱ theȱ lineageȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱsoȱthatȱtheȱthreadȱisȱnotȱsnappedȱ(B.ȱamhyaΤеȱmaȱpratе,ȱAmJc\m`pt\)ȱ ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬbhĀsane:ȱ whoȱ areȱ theȱ veryȱ highȱ qualityȱ ornamentsȱ ofȱ theȱ ShwegyinȱGaingȱ there:ȱ[and]ȱtheȱnobleȱgreatȱelders,ȱwhoȱareȱeachȱendowedȱwithȱtheȱqualitiesȱ beginningȱwithȱsÎla,ȱetc.ȱ s¬daraΚ:ȱalongȱwithȱrespectȱ paΦ¬maΚȱkatv¬:ȱrespectfullyȱbowingȱbefore,ȱadoring,ȱandȱhonoringȱ suddhaȬv¬kyenaȱsaΚyuttaΚ:ȱusingȱwordsȱfreeȱfromȱangerȱandȱoffenseȱ saΚkhepaΚ:ȱinȱsummaryȱformȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 47ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱp.ȱda.ȱ

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ShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬvaΚsakaΚ:ȱ theȱ unbrokenȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ seniorȱ eldersȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱmonksȱ dÎpakaΚ:ȱaȱtreatiseȱthatȱdemonstratesȱ kassaΚ:ȱhavingȱcollectivelyȱcoveredȱthingsȱinȱaȱsummaryȱway,ȱwillȱwriteȱforȱ readersȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱisȱdifferentȱfromȱbefore.ȱ

PutȱintoȱmoreȱconventionalȱEnglishȱprose,ȱPaѾ҃ita’sȱcommentaryȱgives:ȱ Iȱwillȱwriteȱaȱbook,ȱinȱsummaryȱform,ȱandȱinȱaȱwayȱdifferentȱthanȱbefore,ȱ forȱ manyȱ differentȱ readers,ȱ usingȱ wordsȱ freeȱ fromȱ angerȱ andȱ offense,ȱ deȬ monstratingȱ theȱ unbrokenȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ seniorȱ eldersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monks.ȱIȱdoȱthisȱafterȱrespectfullyȱbowingȱbeforeȱandȱadoringȱandȱhonorȬ ingȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ preachȱ aboutȱ theȱ lineageȱ ofȱ BudȬ dhas,ȱ[whichȱwas]ȱhisȱownȱlineage;ȱtheȱDhamma,ȱwhichȱisȱgoodȱandȱpure;ȱ theȱSaΤgha,ȱwhichȱisȱfreeȱfromȱandȱpurgedȱofȱkilesas,ȱetc.;ȱandȱtheȱrespectedȱ elders,ȱ whoȱ areȱ eachȱendowedȱwithȱ theȱ qualitiesȱ beginningȱwithȱ sÎla,ȱ etc.,ȱ whoȱareȱtheȱveryȱhighȱqualityȱornamentsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱGaing,ȱandȱwhoȱ haveȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱsafeguardȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱsoȱthatȱtheȱthreadȱisȱnotȱ snapped.ȱ

InȱtheȱcourseȱofȱhisȱPaliȱverseȱandȱBurmeseȱcommentary,ȱPaѾ҃itaȱusesȱaȱ Paliȱ wordȱ thatȱ isȱ particularlyȱ relevantȱ toȱ theȱ analysisȱ atȱ hand:ȱ vaΚsa.ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ usesȱ vaΚsaȱ inȱ threeȱ phrasesȱ (savaΚsaȬdesakaΚ,ȱ vaΚs¬nup¬lake,ȱ andȱShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬvaΚsakaΚ).ȱWhenȱheȱexplainsȱeachȱofȱtheseȱphrasȬ es,ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ usesȱ Burmeseȱ wordsȱ thatȱ meanȱ lineageȱ (usingȱ theȱ wordȱ anvayе,ȱ “creeper”,ȱ inȱ combinationȱ withȱ anȱ additionalȱ wordȱ meaningȱ “continuity”ȱ orȱ “succession”).ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ glossesȱ savaΚsaȬdesakaΚȱ asȱ anȱ adjectiveȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱexplainingȱinȱBurmeseȱthatȱtheȱphraseȱmeansȱ heȱ “whoȱ hadȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ clarifyȱ andȱ preachȱ aboutȱ theȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhas,ȱ [whichȱ was]ȱ hisȱ ownȱ lineage.”ȱ Theȱ unexpressedȱ implicationȱ ofȱ thisȱ statementȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ lineageȱ isȱ anȱ offshootȱ ofȱ theȱ liȬ neageȱofȱBuddhas;ȱShwegyinȱmonksȱmayȱtraceȱtheirȱlineageȱtoȱtheȱBudȬ dha,ȱbutȱevenȱtheȱBuddhaȱhasȱhisȱownȱlineage—he,ȱlikeȱtheȱShwegyinȱ Sayadaw,ȱisȱaȱbranchȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱtrunk.ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱglossesȱtheȱphraseȱvaΚs¬nup¬lakeȱasȱanȱadjectiveȱofȱtheȱPaliȱ termȱ thereȱ (monasticȱ elders):ȱ vaΚs¬nup¬lakeȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ eldersȱ “whoȱ haveȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱsafeguardȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱsoȱthatȱtheȱthreadȱisȱ notȱsnapped.”ȱTheȱforceȱofȱPaѾ҃ita’sȱmetaphorȱisȱhardȱtoȱoverlook:ȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ lineageȱ asȱ wholeȱ hasȱ persistedȱ asȱ anȱ enduringȱ lineageȱ thatȱ hasȱnotȱsufferedȱaȱpermanentȱruptureȱorȱbreak—aȱradicalȱformȱofȱdisȬ continuity—becauseȱofȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱleadingȱmonksȱtoȱensureȱtheȱinteȬ grityȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineage.ȱ Finally,ȱPaѾ҃itaȱglossesȱShwegyinȬnik¬yaȬvaΚsakaΚȱasȱ“theȱunbrokenȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ seniorȱ eldersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monks.”ȱ PaѾ҃ita’sȱ taskȱ inȱ theȱ Abridgedȱ Historyȱ isȱ thusȱ toȱ writeȱ aȱ bookȱ concerningȱ theseȱ elderȱ monksȱandȱtheirȱeffortsȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineage.ȱHeȱwantsȱtoȱ

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showȱ theȱ rolesȱ theseȱ monksȱ haveȱ playedȱ inȱ keepingȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ liȬ neageȱpersistent.ȱ Givenȱ hisȱ Paliȱ verse,ȱ andȱ givenȱ hisȱ Burmeseȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ verse,ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ expressesȱ lineageȱ inȱ threeȱ ways:ȱ aȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ BudȬ dhas,ȱ whichȱ isȱ Gotamaȱ Buddha’sȱ ownȱ lineage;ȱ aȱ lineageȱ ofȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱNik¬yaȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱwhichȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱanȱoffshootȱfromȱtheȱ lineageȱofȱtheȱBuddhas;ȱandȱaȱlineageȱofȱShwegyinȱleadingȱelders,ȱwhoȱ takeȱonȱtheȱparticularȱactivitiesȱofȱsafeguardingȱtheȱlineageȱofȱShwegyinȱ monks.ȱ Itȱ isȱ crucialȱ toȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ allȱ threeȱ lineages—Buddhas,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leaders,ȱ andȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ asȱ aȱ whole—areȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ lineage.ȱ However,ȱ distinctionsȱ canȱ andȱ shouldȱ beȱ madeȱ amongȱ themȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ mannerȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ haveȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ forȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monasticȱ communities,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ isȱ theȱ exemplaryȱ S¬sanaȬconstructor.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ BudȬ dha’sȱimportanceȱdoesȱnotȱobviateȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱthoseȱleadersȱwhoȱ continueȱ toȱ upholdȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ lineȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ “threadȱ doesȱ notȱ snap.”ȱ And,ȱ lastly,ȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ lineageȱ ofȱ thoseȱ monksȱwhoȱareȱeverydayȱmonksȱshouldȱalsoȱnotȱbeȱoverlooked;ȱeveryȬ dayȱ monksȱ areȱ aȱ vitalȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ lineage,ȱ asȱ itȱ continuesȱ toȱ branchȱoutȱandȱcarryȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

PaѾ҃ita’sȱVerseȱandȱCommentary:ȱDynamicsȱofȱKilesasȱandȱSÎlaȱ InȱparticipatingȱinȱaȱlineageȱderivingȱfromȱtheȱBuddha,ȱmonksȱareȱsupȬ posedȱtoȱengageȱinȱanȱimportantȱandȱbasicȱtask:ȱtheyȱareȱtoȱstriveȱhardȱ toȱfreeȱthemselvesȱfromȱtheȱkilesasȱ(mentalȱdefilements)ȱthatȱkeepȱthemȱ embeddedȱ inȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ saΚs¬ra.ȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ touchesȱ onȱ thisȱ pointȱ inȱ anȱ implicitȱbutȱsignificantȱway:ȱheȱgivesȱreverenceȱtoȱtheȱsaΤghaȱ“whichȱisȱ freeȱ fromȱ andȱ purgedȱ ofȱ theȱ kilesas,ȱ etc.”ȱ Here,ȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ isȱ notȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ composedȱ ofȱ ordinaryȱ monks;ȱ suchȱ ordinaryȱ monksȱ are,ȱ likeȱ otherȱpeople,ȱstillȱinȱtheȱgripsȱofȱkilesas.ȱRather,ȱtheȱsaΤghaȱinȱthisȱsenseȱ isȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ ofȱ spirituallyȱ advancedȱ individuals.ȱ Beingȱ freeȱ fromȱ andȱ purgedȱofȱkilesasȱisȱaȱnecessaryȱconditionȱforȱattainingȱnibb¬nicȱrupture.ȱ ThereȱisȱaȱwidelyȱrecognizedȱPaliȱlistȱofȱtenȱbasicȱkilesas:ȱgreedȱ(loȬ bha),ȱangerȱ(dosa),ȱdelusionȱ(moha),ȱdoubtȱ(kaΤkh¬),ȱwrongȱviewȱ(micch¬Ȭ diΞΞhi),ȱshamelessnessȱ(ahirika),ȱnotȱbeingȱafraidȱofȱviceȱ(anottappa),ȱslothȱ (thina),ȱ prideȱ (m¬na),ȱ andȱ overȬagitatedȱ mentalȱ activityȱ (uddhacca).ȱ Theȱ firstȱthreeȱofȱtheseȱkilesas—inȱotherȱwords,ȱgreed,ȱanger,ȱandȱdelusion— areȱ alsoȱ knownȱ asȱ theȱ threeȱ kindsȱ ofȱ badȱ rootsȱ (P.ȱ akusalaȬhetu)ȱ that,ȱ fromȱ anȱ Abhidhammaȱ perspective,ȱ fuelȱ theȱ operationsȱ ofȱ theȱ bodyȱ (P.ȱ rĀpa)ȱandȱmindȱ(P.ȱn¬ma)ȱinȱnegativeȱways.ȱInȱcommentarialȱliterature,ȱ

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theȱkilesasȱareȱexpandedȱtoȱ1500;ȱtheȱdestructionȱofȱtheȱ“1500ȱkilesas”ȱisȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ attainingȱ omniscienceȱ (P.ȱ sabbaññutaȬñ¬na)ȱ asȱ aȱ fullyȱ enlightenedȱ Buddha.48ȱ Theȱ kilesasȱ clutterȱ theȱ mindȱ andȱ makeȱ itȱ dingy,ȱdull,ȱandȱdifficultȱtoȱmoveȱaheadȱonȱtheȱpathȱtowardȱwisdomȱ(P.ȱ ñ¬na).ȱHence,ȱPaѾ҃ita’sȱBurmeseȱ glossȱonȱkilesas:ȱfilthȱ orȱexcrementȱ (B.ȱ aññacеȱakreɇ,ȱAvs\Ae~k;).ȱInȱidealȱterms,ȱmonasticȱlineagesȱ(andȱtheȱnik¬yaȱ orȱgaingȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱaȱpart)ȱconsistȱofȱthoseȱpeopleȱwhoȱareȱtryingȱ inȱ variousȱ waysȱ toȱ curbȱ kilesas,ȱ soȱ thatȱ theyȱ canȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ whichȱisȱfreeȱofȱkilesas,ȱandȱsoȱon.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ primaryȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ peopleȱ canȱ curbȱ kilesasȱ isȱ throughȱtheȱcultivationȱofȱsÎla.49ȱAgain,ȱPaѾ҃itaȱtouchesȱonȱthisȱpointȱinȱ anȱ implicitȱ butȱ importantȱ way:ȱ heȱ alsoȱ paysȱ reverenceȱ toȱ theȱ “nobleȱ greatȱelders,ȱwhoȱareȱeachȱendowedȱwithȱtheȱqualitiesȱbeginningȱwithȱ sÎla,ȱetc.”ȱSÎlaȱhasȱaȱveryȱlargeȱsemanticȱrange,ȱpartsȱofȱwhichȱapplyȱtoȱ monksȱandȱpartsȱofȱwhichȱapplyȱtoȱnonȬmonks.ȱWithȱrespectȱtoȱmonks,ȱ nuns,ȱandȱlayȱpeople,ȱsÎlaȱisȱaȱtermȱthatȱinȱitsȱmostȱgeneralȱsenseȱrefersȱ toȱ goodȱ speechȱ andȱ otherȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ stemȱ fromȱ andȱ helpȱ produceȱ goodȱ statesȱ ofȱ mindȱ orȱ volition.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ inȱ theȱ “nobleȱ eightfoldȱ path”ȱ (aȱ basicȱ distillationȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ conductȱ referredȱ toȱ byȱ bothȱ monksȱ andȱ nonȬmonks),ȱ sÎlaȱ consistsȱ ofȱ “rightȱ speech,”ȱ “rightȱ action,”ȱ andȱ“rightȱlivelihood.”ȱ Whenȱusedȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱmonksȱthemselves,ȱtheȱnotionȱofȱsÎlaȱexȬ pandsȱ toȱ includeȱ manyȱ moreȱ levelsȱ ofȱ conductȱ thatȱ doȱ notȱ typicallyȱ applyȱtoȱlayȱ people.ȱForȱ monks,ȱ sÎlaȱinvolvesȱconformity,ȱ especiallyȱ toȱ theȱwishesȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱasȱlaidȱoutȱinȱtheȱspecificȱlawsȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬ piΞaka.ȱTherefore,ȱwhenȱPaѾ҃itaȱsuggestsȱinȱhisȱcommentaryȱthatȱheȱalsoȱ reveresȱtheȱeldersȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱwhoȱareȱ“endowedȱwithȱsÎla,ȱ etc.,”ȱ heȱ situatesȱ thoseȱ eldersȱ withinȱ aȱ wellȬdefinedȱ repertoireȱ ofȱ PaliȬ relatedȱ termsȱ andȱ practicesȱ concerningȱ properȱ behaviorȱ forȱ monks,ȱ suchȱ asȱ “restraintȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ monasticȱ disciplinaryȱ code”ȱ (P.ȱ p¬ΞimokkhaȬsaΚvaraȬsÎla).ȱTheȱfirstȱfourȱrulesȱofȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱcodeȱareȱ refrainingȱ fromȱ sexualȱ activity,ȱ fromȱ takingȱ humanȱ life,ȱ fromȱ stealing,ȱ andȱ fromȱ tellingȱ liesȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ achievementȱ ofȱ meditativeȱ statesȱ orȱ ofȱ stagesȱ ofȱ theȱ path.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ monksȱ areȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ guidedȱinȱtheirȱactionsȱbyȱtheȱkilesasȱ(e.g.,ȱgreedȱorȱdesire,ȱanger,ȱdeluȬ sion)ȱwhichȱwouldȱdriveȱthemȱtoȱsuchȱacts.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 48ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱAsȱp.ȱ12,ȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002bȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ71–72,ȱObh¬s¬bhivaѴsaȱ 1955ȱp.ȱ126.ȱSinceȱtheȱ10ȱbasicȱkilesasȱareȱeachȱassociatedȱwithȱ150ȱmentalȱandȱphysiȬ calȱphenomena,ȱthereȱareȱaȱtotalȱofȱ1500ȱkilesas.ȱSeeȱPrankeȱ2004ȱp.ȱ38ȱn.ȱ16ȱforȱusefulȱ summary.ȱ 49ȱ Twoȱotherȱprimaryȱwaysȱareȱthroughȱmeditationȱandȱtheȱcultivationȱofȱwisdom.ȱ

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ListsȱofȱsÎlaȱcouldȱbeȱdetailedȱinȱdifferentȱways;ȱweȱwillȱdoȱsoȱbelowȱ onȱ aȱ limitedȱ basisȱ withȱ theȱ biographyȱ ofȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw.ȱ However,ȱforȱtheȱmoment,ȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱemphasizeȱaȱfundamentalȱ point:ȱ theȱ variousȱ formsȱ ofȱ sÎlaȱ standȱ inȱ oppositionȱ to—andȱ canȱ helpȱ peopleȱ overcome—kilesas.ȱInȱ termsȱ ofȱ supportingȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱwhileȱ livȬ ingȱinsideȱitȱasȱaȱmemberȱandȱcarrierȱofȱaȱmonasticȱlineage,ȱanȱindividȬ ualȱ reallyȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ guidedȱ inȱ hisȱ actionsȱ byȱ theȱ kilesasȱ ofȱ greed,ȱ anger,ȱandȱdelusion,ȱandȱsoȱon.ȱIfȱheȱisȱguidedȱbyȱtheseȱkindsȱofȱmentalȱ defilementsȱorȱ “badȱ roots,”ȱthenȱheȱmayȱ actȱ inȱ waysȱ unbecomingȱ toȱ aȱ lineageȱmember.ȱInȱextremeȱcases,ȱheȱmayȱcauseȱgreatȱharmȱtoȱhimselfȱ andȱ othersȱandȱ thusȱ beȱ expelledȱ fromȱ theȱ communityȱ forȱ doingȱ so.ȱ Inȱ suchȱ aȱ case,ȱ aȱ monkȱ isȱ consideredȱ unfitȱ toȱ participateȱ furtherȱ inȱ theȱ carryingȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱaȱmemberȱofȱaȱmonasticȱlineage.ȱ

CaseȱStudyȱ2:ȱTheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱandȱBeingȱaȱSonȱ ofȱtheȱBuddhaȱ TheȱBiographyȱofȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadaw,ȱlikeȱtheȱAbridgedȱHistory,ȱproȬ videsȱ anȱ excellentȱ placeȱ toȱ investigateȱ theȱ representationȱ ofȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ activitiesȱ associatedȱ withȱ embodyingȱ andȱ transmittingȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ amongȱShwegyinȱmonks.ȱSaidȱtoȱhaveȱbasedȱhisȱaccountȱonȱtheȱworksȱ ofȱtwoȱmonks,ȱPhoȱKy¬,ȱtheȱauthor,ȱportraysȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱ asȱ anȱ exemplaryȱ discipleȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Indeed,ȱ Phoȱ Ky¬ȱ explicitlyȱ identifiesȱtheȱSayadawȱasȱ“aȱpureȱsonȱofȱtheȱBuddha”ȱ(B.ȱbhur¬ɇȱs¬ɇȱtoеȱ cacе,ȱ Bura;qa;eta\ss\),ȱ becauseȱ ofȱ hisȱ lineageȱ andȱ hisȱ sÎla.50ȱ Asȱ depictedȱ inȱ theȱbiography,ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadaw’sȱdiscipleshipȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱ isȱnotȱexhaustedȱbyȱhisȱlineageȱandȱsÎla,ȱbutȱtheseȱqualitiesȱdoȱmakeȱhimȱ aȱmonkȱwhoȱtrulyȱembodiesȱwhatȱitȱmeansȱtoȱbeȱaȱdiscipleȬson.ȱ Kyauntawyaȱ isȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ theȱ monasteryȱ inȱ Yangonȱ (theȱ formerȱ capitalȱ ofȱ Myanmar)ȱ whereȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ eventuallyȱ becameȱ abbot.ȱ TakingȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱasȱhisȱpreceptorȱ(P.ȱupajjh¬ya),ȱtheȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadawȱ receivedȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ inȱ 1862,ȱ thusȱ beingȱformallyȱincorporatedȱintoȱtheȱShwegyinȱlineageȱasȱaȱfullȱmonk.ȱ Initiallyȱ knownȱ byȱ hisȱ ecclesiasticalȱ nameȱ Ashinȱ S¬sanaȱ (lit.,ȱ Worthyȱ S¬sana),ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱspentȱsixtyȬthreeȱyearsȱofȱhisȱlifeȱasȱaȱ fullyȱ ordainedȱ Shwegyinȱ monk.ȱ Asȱ aȱ preceptorȱ himself,ȱ heȱ ordainedȱ manyȱmonks,ȱincludingȱtheȱmonkȱwhoȱeventuallyȱbecameȱtheȱTwelfthȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ ShwehiѼth¬ȱ Sayadawȱ (Headȱ ofȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 50ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ23.ȱ

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S¬sana,ȱ 1989–1995).51ȱ Asȱ aȱ teacher,ȱ heȱ instructedȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ monksȱ andȱ isȱ evenȱ creditedȱ withȱ teachingȱ oneȱ whoȱ playedȱ aȱ roleȱ inȱ establishingȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ branchȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lanka.ȱ Likeȱ manyȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaws,ȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadawȱ hasȱ beenȱ rememberedȱ forȱ hisȱ strictȱ disciplineȱ relativeȱ toȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱ aȱ strongȱ senseȱ ofȱ dutyȱ toȱ theȱShwegyinȱS¬sana,ȱandȱaȱdesireȱtoȱstriveȱonȱhisȱsolitaryȱpath.ȱ InȱrecountingȱtheȱSayadaw’sȱlife,ȱPhoȱKy¬ȱdividesȱtheȱBiographyȱinȬ toȱfiveȱparts.ȱTheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱtheȱbiographyȱcoversȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱSayaȬ dawȱ fromȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ hisȱ conceptionȱ upȱ toȱ hisȱ ordinationȱ asȱ aȱ fullȱ monk.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ partȱ spansȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ asȱ aȱ monkȱ untilȱ hisȱarrivalȱatȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱmonastery.ȱTheȱthirdȱpartȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱ Sayadaw’sȱ activitiesȱ asȱ theȱ abbotȱ ofȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ monasteryȱ untilȱ hisȱ death.ȱ Theȱ fourthȱ partȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ virtuesȱ ofȱ theȱ Sayadaw.ȱ Theȱ fifthȱ andȱ lastȱ partȱ summarizesȱ andȱ praisesȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ Sayadaw.ȱ Whileȱbeingȱattentiveȱtoȱtheȱstructuralȱpartsȱofȱtheȱbiography,ȱIȱdoȱnotȱ attemptȱ toȱ useȱ themȱ asȱ aȱ frameworkȱ fromȱ whichȱ toȱ investigateȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱlife.ȱ Rather,ȱ Iȱuseȱ aȱthematicȱapproach,ȱdevelȬ opedȱaroundȱtheȱbasicȱpointȱthatȱtheȱSayadawȱisȱaȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱanȱ exemplaryȱsonȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱThisȱkindȱofȱapproachȱwillȱhelpȱtoȱconȬ veyȱ inȱ aȱ moreȱ effectiveȱ wayȱ theȱ relevantȱ insightsȱ thatȱ aȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ biographyȱcanȱyieldȱinȱtermsȱofȱlivingȱinȱandȱworkingȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

Dreams:ȱSignsȱofȱaȱGoodȱDiscipleȬSonȱ Theȱ Biographyȱ beginsȱ byȱ pointingȱ outȱ thatȱ whenȱ meritoriousȱ peopleȱ takeȱupȱlifeȱinȱanȱembryoȱotherȱpeopleȱhaveȱvariousȱsortsȱofȱauspiciousȱ dreamsȱaboutȱthem.52ȱSeveralȱsuchȱdreamsȱareȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱbiograȬ phy.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱSayadaw’sȱmother,ȱuponȱhisȱconception,ȱdreamsȱ ofȱaȱradiantȱandȱsublimeȬlookingȱmonkȱwhoȱcomesȱtoȱherȱhouseȱnotȱtoȱ gatherȱ almsȱ butȱ toȱ live.ȱ Andȱ priorȱ toȱ hisȱ birth,ȱ sheȱ dreamsȱ thatȱ sheȱ walksȱupȱintoȱaȱpalace,ȱsituatedȱbetweenȱtwoȱBadaukȱtreesȱ(treesȱassoȬ ciatedȱwithȱtranquility),ȱand,ȱwhileȱdwellingȱthere,ȱgivesȱbirthȱtoȱaȱsonȬ gemȱ (B.ȱ s¬ɇȱ koΤеɇȱ ratan¬,ȱ qa;ekac\;rtna).53ȱ (Theȱ Burmeseȱ wordȱ forȱ gem,ȱ ratan¬,ȱisȱtheȱsameȱasȱtheȱPaliȱwordȱforȱgem,ȱratana,ȱwhichȱisȱusedȱinȱtheȱ phraseȱ“tripleȱgems,”ȱaȱBuddhistȱtermȱreferringȱtoȱtheȱBuddha,ȱDhamȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 51ȱ Theȱ ShwehiѼth¬ȱ Sayadawȱ receivedȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ withȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadawȱ asȱ preceptor,ȱ onȱ Julyȱ 16,ȱ 1913,ȱ inȱ theȱ SÎlavisodhanÎȱ SÎm¬ȱ atȱ ShwehiѼth¬ȱ TawyaȱTaikȱinȱNyaunȬtonȬmyo.ȱSeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ53.ȱ 52ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ5.ȱ 53ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ7.ȱ

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ma,ȱ andȱ SaΤgha,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ phraseȱ “sevenȱ gems”ȱ ofȱ aȱ wheelȬ turningȱ king.)ȱ Evenȱ theȱ Firstȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw,ȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱ preceptor,ȱ dreamsȱ aboutȱ him.ȱ Heȱ dreamsȱ ofȱ aȱ cultivatedȱ field,ȱcompletelyȱfilledȱwithȱriceȱandȱotherȱfoods,ȱwhichȱbelongsȱtoȱhisȱ student,ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadaw.54ȱ Withȱ theseȱ visionsȱ ofȱ physicalȱ wellȬbeing—aȱ soundȱ andȱ beautifulȱ bodyȱ(radianceȱandȱsublimity),ȱtranquilityȱ(Badaukȱtrees),ȱprosperityȱ(aȱ palace,ȱaȱgem),ȱandȱabundanceȱ(aȱfertileȱfield)—theȱdreamsȱsituateȱtheȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadawȱ withinȱ aȱ culturallyȱ definedȱ semanticȱ fieldȱ reȬ latedȱ inȱ specificȱ waysȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ otherȱ meritoriousȱ people.ȱ ThereȱisȱaȱbasicȱconceptȱinȱtheȱS¬sanaȱtraditionsȱofȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱandȱ SriȱLankaȱthatȱgoodȱconductȱinȱpastȱlivesȱcorrelatesȱwithȱphysicalȱandȱ mentalȱwellȬbeingȱinȱaȱperson’sȱlife,ȱespeciallyȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱpeopleȱ whoȱwillȱbeȱgoodȱmonks,ȱlikeȱtheȱBuddhaȱhimself.ȱ Theȱdreamsȱreflectȱ thisȱ understanding,ȱ andȱ therebyȱ suggestȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ environmentȱ thatȱ theȱSayadawȱwillȱhelpȱfosterȱasȱanȱexemplaryȱdiscipleȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ

AȱSon’sȱLineage:ȱTheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱVinayaȱandȱHigherȱOrdinationȱ PartȱoneȱofȱtheȱBiographyȱconcludesȱbyȱprovidingȱaȱlistȱofȱtheȱSayadaw’sȱ lineage.ȱTheȱlistȱcoversȱaboutȱ2400ȱyearsȱofȱpurportedȱS¬sanaȱhistory.ȱItȱ spansȱ mostȱ ifȱ notȱ allȱ ofȱ whatȱ manyȱ Burmeseȱ andȱ nonȬBurmeseȱ BudȬ dhistȱ historiansȱ haveȱ thoughtȱ ofȱ asȱ theȱ majorȱ periodsȱ inȱ theȱ developȬ mentȱ andȱ spreadȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ toȱ Myanmar.ȱ Theseȱ periodsȱ coverȱ theȱ beginningsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱIndia;ȱtheȱruleȱofȱtheȱgreatȱIndianȱemperorȱ Aïokaȱ (ca.ȱ 270–230ȱ BCE),ȱ whoȱ sentȱ outȱ emissariesȱ toȱ variousȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsianȱworld;ȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱpartȱ ofȱ theȱ cultureȱ ofȱ Thaton;ȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ effloresȬ cenceȱofȱtheȱcultureȱofȱPaganȱ(inȱUpperȱMyanmar);ȱ andȱtheȱrolesȱofȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱinȱpostȬPaganȱMyanmar.ȱ AsȱpresentedȱinȱtheȱBiography,ȱtheȱlistȱisȱintroducedȱbyȱaȱheading— “Theȱ Successionȱ ofȱ Teachers”—andȱ closedȱ byȱ aȱ briefȱ noteȱ statingȱ thatȱ theȱlistȱpresentsȱtheȱlineageȱofȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱShwegyinȱSayadawȱthatȱ descendsȱ fromȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Here,ȱ Iȱ includeȱ onlyȱ theȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ listȱ directlyȱrelevantȱtoȱtheȱanalysis.ȱ mzimedqeTr\mja; 1' rHc\Vpfli' `mt\sQaBura;%tpv\;.qa;eta\ winv\;tQc\ƒtdg\reta\mUqv\".ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 54ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ48.ȱ

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5' rHc\emag‰liput–ti§eTr\' ^ ArHc\mHa RHc\qig‰wrHc\sN˜wz©INHs\pf;tui>% tpv\.`Ps\qv\" ttiy qgCfynakui @kI;mÐ;& tc\qv\" rHc\eqa%NHc\.RHc\Vt–rtpv\.NHs\pf;kui qTuMqui> qaqna#p es lWt\eta\mUqv\" quw·Bum¥IqTuM`pv\eTr\mja; 6' rHc\eqa%' RHc\Vt–r' qTuMqaqna#pqv\".ȱ.ȱ.ȱ. 14' RHc\bjand§I' (pja%d§Ilv;hU)' » ArHc\mHa elakIZan\ABivaV\kuir& en>tuic\;m`pt\ nMnk\ esa esak mgDraz\tuic\; VRuew¸niguM; mhaebfDiqui>~kQ& mhaebfDiyc\`pc\kui tM`mk\ lHv\;!pI;mH tPn\`pn\& qTuM#mi>mHa SQm\;KMwc\`mEtv\;" TuiAe~kac\;kui qTuM#mi>k mgDraz\tuic\; qui>qQa;& VRuew¸niguM;| kun\qQy\erac\;wy\eqa kun\qv\tui>etQ>`mc\KE.q`Pc\. qTuMqa;tui> Aa; `pn\e`pa eqae~kac\. elakIZan\ABivaV\ re~kac\;lUAmja; qirqtv\;".ȱ.ȱ.ȱ. pugM`pv\eTr\mja;" 17' RHc\Dm¥d§I' RHc\ArhMlv\; hU%' ^ArHc\qv\ pugMena\rTaesalk\Tk\ ATk\`mn\ma`pv\qui> erak\ qv\mHs& qaqnaeta\~kI; pQf;qv\".ȱ.ȱ.ȱ. 21' rHc\Vt–razIw" qIhui¸\qui>erak\qv\".ȱ.ȱ.ȱ. 32' rHc\sNi™ma" "erWBui>#mi>"qI;luM;rQa"etarekjac\;'qI;luM;Sraeta\" 33' erWkjc\ Sraeta\\Bura;" 34' ekjac\;eta\raerWkjc\ Sraeta\"55 EldersȱinȱMajjhimadesaȱ(India)ȱ 1.ȱShinȱUp¬li,ȱtheȱdiscipleȬsonȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱrecognizedȱtoȱbeȱpreeminentȱ inȱtheȱVinaya.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ 5.ȱ Shinȱ Moggaliputtatissathera:ȱ thisȱ venerableȱ oneȱ isȱ theȱ discipleȱ ofȱ Shinȱ SiggavaȱandȱShinȱCandavajjÎ.ȱHeȱledȱtheȱThirdȱCouncil,ȱandȱsentȱShinȱ SoѾaȱandȱShinȱUttaraȱtoȱThatonȱtoȱdoȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱ pru,ȱqaqna#p).ȱ EldersȱinȱSuvaѾѾabhumÎ,ȱThatonȱ 6.ȱShinȱSoѾaȱandȱShinȱUttara,ȱwhoȱestablishedȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ(in)ȱThaton.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ 14.ȱShinȱBy¬nadassÎ,ȱalsoȱknownȱasȱPy¬ѾadassÎ.ȱThisȱvenerableȱone,ȱhavingȱ attainedȱ theȱ meditativeȱ statesȱ (P.ȱ lokijh¬na)ȱ andȱ supernaturalȱ knowȬ ledgesȱ(P.ȱabhiññ¬),ȱwent,ȱearlyȱeveryȱmorning,ȱtoȱtheȱMah¬bodhiȱtree56ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 55ȱ Phoȱ Ky¬ȱ 1925ȱ pp.ȱ 20–22.ȱ Theȱ lineageȱ listȱ presentedȱ inȱ Phoȱ Ky¬ȱ 1925ȱ isȱ almostȱ theȱ sameȱlistȱthatȱisȱpresentedȱinȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988.ȱPaѾ҃itatherе addsȱaȱfewȱmoreȱclarifiȬ cations;ȱ heȱ dividesȱ teachersȱ 25–33ȱ intoȱ threeȱ differentȱ groups:ȱ teachersȱ 25–27ȱ areȱ fromȱtheȱKĀkhankyÎȱregion;ȱteachersȱ30–31ȱareȱfromȱtheȱDipeyinȱregion;ȱandȱ32–33ȱ areȱfromȱtheȱShwebhoȱregion.ȱSeeȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱ6–7.ȱ 56ȱ ThisȱisȱtheȱtreeȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱBuddhaȱwasȱenlightened.ȱ

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inȱUruveѰaȱvillage,ȱinȱtheȱMagadhar¬jaȱregion.ȱAfterȱheȱsweptȱtheȱareaȱ aroundȱ theȱ Mah¬bodhiȱ tree,ȱ heȱ alwaysȱ returnedȱ toȱ goȱ onȱ hisȱ almsȱ roundsȱ inȱ Thaton.ȱ Becauseȱ merchantsȱ travelingȱ fromȱ Thatonȱ toȱ Magadhar¬jaȱandȱtradingȱinȱUruveѰaȱpersonallyȱwitnessedȱthatȱmatterȱ andȱthenȱtoldȱitȱtoȱnativesȱofȱThaton,ȱmanyȱpeopleȱwereȱableȱtoȱknowȱ thatȱ theȱ monkȱ attainedȱ theȱ meditativeȱ statesȱ andȱ supernaturalȱ knowȬ ledges.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ EldersȱofȱtheȱPaganȱRegionȱ 17.ȱ Shinȱ DhammadassÎ,ȱ alsoȱ calledȱ Shinȱ Arahan.ȱ Startingȱ fromȱ theȱ arrivalȱ ofȱ thisȱ venerableȱ oneȱ inȱ Upperȱ Myanmarȱ duringȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ Paganȱ Anawyatha,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱflourished.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ 21.ȱShinȱUttar¬jÎva,ȱwhoȱwentȱtoȱSriȱLanka.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ 32.ȱ Shinȱ Candim¬.ȱ Theȱ Thilonȱ Sayadaw,ȱ ofȱ Tawyaȱ Monastery,ȱ Thilonȱ vilȬ lage,ȱinȱShwebo.ȱ 33.ȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.ȱ 34.ȱKyauntawyaȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.ȱ

Byȱ includingȱ theȱ lineageȱ list,ȱ Phoȱ Ky¬ȱ triesȱ toȱ showȱ thatȱ theȱ KyaunȬ tawyaȱ Sayadawȱ isȱ traceablyȱ legitimateȱ asȱ aȱ monasticȱ discipleȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱHeȱisȱhereȱidentifiedȱasȱtheȱheirȱofȱaȱnumberȱofȱmonksȱviewedȱ asȱamongȱtheȱmostȱnotableȱfiguresȱinȱS¬sanaȱhistory:ȱMoggaliputtatissaȬ thera,ȱwhoȱconvenedȱtheȱThirdȱCouncil;ȱSoѾaȱandȱUttara,ȱwhoȱbroughtȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ toȱ Thaton;ȱ By¬nadassÎ,ȱ anȱ adeptȱ atȱ meditativeȱ attainmentsȱ andȱsupernaturalȱknowledges;ȱArahan,ȱwhoȱplayedȱaȱprominentȱroleȱinȱ theȱ flourishingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ atȱ Pagan;57ȱ Uttar¬jÎva,ȱ aȱ famousȱ teacherȱ whoȱ wentȱ toȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ worshippingȱ Buddhistȱ shrines;ȱ andȱ theȱ Thilonȱ (theȱ “eminenceȱ griseȱ toȱ Kingȱ Mindon”)58ȱ andȱ ShwegyinȱSayadaws.ȱ Inȱtermsȱofȱtheȱlineageȱlist,ȱtwoȱissuesȱshouldȱbeȱemphasized.ȱOneȱ issueȱisȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱadherenceȱtoȱtheȱrulesȱandȱcodesȱofȱmonasticȱ conductȱ outlinedȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ theȱ VinayaȬ piΞakaȱ toȱ Shwegyinȱ notionsȱ ofȱ lineageȱ isȱ explicitȱ fromȱ theȱ outsetȱ ofȱ theȱ list,ȱ whereȱ Up¬liȱ sitsȱ inȱ theȱ no.ȱ 1ȱ position.ȱ Asȱ implicatedȱ atȱ variousȱ pointsȱ inȱ thisȱ study,ȱ Up¬liȱ isȱ celebratedȱ inȱ S¬sanaȱ sourcesȱ asȱ theȱ foreȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 57ȱ Arahanȱ isȱ creditedȱ withȱ urgingȱ Kingȱ Anawyathaȱ toȱ acquireȱ aȱ completeȱ setȱ ofȱ theȱ TipiΞakaȱasȱwellȱasȱrelicsȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱfromȱtheȱMonȱkingdomȱofȱThaton.ȱAccordingȱ toȱ Burmeseȱ narratives,ȱ forȱ whichȱ weȱ lackȱ historicalȱ evidence,ȱ Anawyathaȱ invadedȱ Thatonȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱgoal.ȱSeeȱAungȬThwinȱ2005ȱforȱaȱcritiqueȱofȱwhatȱheȱcallsȱtheȱ Monȱparadigm.ȱOnȱPagan,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstanceȱAungȬThwinȱ1985ȱandȱFraschȱ1996.ȱȱ 58ȱȱ Huxleyȱ2000ȱp.ȱ1092.ȱ

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mostȱ Vinayaȱ specialistȱ atȱ theȱ Firstȱ Council,ȱ heldȱ onȱ mattersȱ relatingȱ toȱ theȱDhammaȱandȱVinaya,ȱfollowingȱtheȱBuddha’sȱdeath.59ȱ Theȱsecondȱissue,ȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱfirst,ȱisȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱtheȱ higherȱordination,ȱwhichȱisȱarguablyȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱritualsȱ codifiedȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞakaȱ andȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ theȱ lineageȱ listȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ Biographyȱ doublesȱasȱaȱlistȱofȱpreceptorsȱ(P.ȱupajjh¬ya),ȱtheȱmonksȱwhoȱhaveȱtakenȱ aȱ leadingȱ roleȱ inȱ theȱ fullȱ ordinationȱ ofȱ newȱ monks.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ Uttar¬jÎva,ȱ theȱ teacherȱ inȱ slotȱ no.ȱ 21,ȱ traveledȱ toȱ Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ andȱ conȬ ferredȱ thereȱ aȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ onȱ hisȱ studentȱ Chapaҁa.ȱ Heȱ didȱ soȱ inȱ unionȱwithȱSinhaleseȱmonksȱwhoȱpreservedȱaȱpureȱordinationȱlineȱdeȬ rivingȱfromȱMah¬mahindaȱ(theȱBuddhistȱemissaryȱsentȱtoȱSriȱLankaȱatȱ theȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱSoѾaȱandȱUttaraȱwereȱsentȱtoȱThaton).ȱThus,ȱtheȱlistȱ makesȱanȱimpliedȱbutȱneverthelessȱimportantȱclaimȱaboutȱpurityȱofȱtheȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱ ordinationȱ lineȱ asȱ itȱ derivesȱ fromȱ famousȱ monksȱ inȱ India,ȱ Myanmar,ȱ andȱ Sriȱ Lanka.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ fromȱ aȱ reȬ gionalȱS¬sanaȱperspective,ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱisȱextremelyȱpure.ȱ

AȱSonȱandȱHisȱPracticeȱ AsȱaȱdiscipleȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱaȱmonkȱisȱtoȱexhibitȱcertainȱtypesȱofȱdevoȬ tionalȱ andȱ ritualȱ relationshipsȱ toȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Forȱ theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw,ȱ theseȱ relationshipsȱ areȱ conciselyȱ depictedȱ inȱ theȱ fourthȱ partȱ ofȱ hisȱ biography.ȱ Inȱ thatȱ part,ȱ theȱ readerȱ learnsȱ moreȱ aboutȱ theȱ SayaȬ daw’sȱactivitiesȱasȱaȱyoungȱboy,ȱasȱaȱyoungȱapprentice,ȱasȱaȱnovice,ȱandȱ asȱ aȱ monk.ȱ Asȱ aȱ youngȱ boy,ȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ wasȱ restrainedȱ inȱ hisȱ senseȱ facultiesȱ(P.ȱsikkh¬Ȭindriya).ȱHeȱplayedȱatȱbeingȱaȱmonk,ȱcollectingȱalmsȱ fromȱ otherȱ children.ȱ Heȱ didȱ notȱ speakȱ obscenelyȱ andȱ wasȱ notȱ inȱ theȱ habitȱ ofȱ speakingȱ triviallyȱ orȱ flippantly.ȱ Heȱ didȱ notȱ attendȱvillageȱ fesȬ tivitiesȱandȱwasȱnotȱmixedȱ upȱwithȱ pleasurableȱ things.ȱAndȱheȱwouldȱ oftenȱmeditate.60ȱ Asȱ aȱ youngȱ apprentice,ȱ heȱ practicedȱ insightȱ meditationȱ (P.ȱ vipassan¬),ȱ observedȱ sÎla,ȱ andȱ performedȱ twoȱ austereȱ asceticȱ practicesȱ (P.ȱdhutaΤga),ȱforȱexample,ȱeatingȱinȱaȱsingleȱplaceȱandȱeatingȱwithȱonlyȱ oneȱbowl.ȱAdditionally,ȱeveryȱdayȱheȱsweptȱtheȱmonasteryȱandȱcarriedȱ sevenȱbucketsȱofȱwater,ȱofferingȱthemȱtoȱtheȱBuddha.ȱHeȱpaidȱobeisanceȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 59ȱ ForȱBurmeseȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱFirstȱCouncil,ȱseeȱPaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱpp.ȱ14–23ȱandȱMediȱ Sayadawȱ1966ȱpp.ȱ6–14.ȱ 60ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ49.ȱ

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toȱtheȱBuddhaȱthreeȱtimes,ȱofferedȱfourȱlamps,ȱandȱofferedȱfiveȱtraysȱofȱ flowers.ȱAndȱheȱrecitedȱhisȱprayerȱbeads.61ȱ Asȱaȱnoviceȱ(P.ȱs¬maΦera),ȱheȱobservedȱtheȱtenȱsÎlasȱandȱtheȱseventyȬ fiveȱtrainingȱcodesȱ(P.ȱsekhiya).ȱHeȱpracticedȱeightȱmoreȱaustereȱpracticȬ es,ȱ includingȱ theȱ wearingȱ ofȱ robesȱ madeȱ fromȱ ragsȱ thrownȱ awayȱ atȱ aȱ funeralȱ ground.ȱ Heȱ sweptȱ theȱ monasticȱ groundsȱ onceȱ aȱ day,ȱ andȱ heȱ carriedȱ fifteenȱ bucketsȱ ofȱ water,ȱ offeringȱ themȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ monks.ȱEveryȱday,ȱheȱpaidȱobeisanceȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱfiveȱtimes,ȱofferedȱ fiveȱ lampsȱ andȱ fiveȱ traysȱ ofȱ flowers,ȱ andȱ recitedȱ hisȱ rosaryȱ prayers.ȱ Andȱheȱdevotedȱhisȱremainingȱtimeȱtoȱhisȱstudies.62ȱ Asȱaȱfullyȱordainedȱmonk,ȱheȱ(andȱhisȱstudents)ȱadheredȱtoȱtheȱmoȬ nasticȱ disciplinaryȱ codeȱ (P.ȱ p¬ΞimokkhaȬsaΚvaraȬsÎla)ȱ andȱ controlledȱ hisȱ senseȱfacultiesȱ(P.ȱindriyaȬsaΚvaraȬsÎla).ȱHeȱlivedȱinȱpureȱwaysȱ(P.ȱ¬jivaȬ p¬risuddhiȬsÎla)ȱ andȱ subsistedȱ onȱ theȱ fourȱ kindsȱ ofȱ monasticȱ requisitesȱ (P.ȱ paccayaȬsannissitaȬsÎla).63ȱ Heȱ collectedȱ alms,ȱ woreȱ robes,ȱ lived,ȱ andȱ usedȱmedicineȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱwishesȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱHeȱsweptȱ onceȱaȱdayȱandȱcarriedȱtwentyȬfiveȱbucketsȱofȱwaterȱaȱday,ȱofferingȱfiveȱ toȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱtwentyȱtoȱmonks.ȱHeȱpaidȱobeisanceȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱ fiveȱ timesȱ aȱ day,ȱ offeredȱ tenȱ lampsȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ aȱ day,ȱ andȱ offeredȱ twentyȱ traysȱ ofȱ flowersȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ aȱ day.ȱ Heȱ fedȱ theȱ animalsȱ aroundȱtheȱmonasteryȱdaily.ȱHeȱcontinuallyȱgaveȱhisȱstudentsȱbothȱdayȱ andȱnightȱlessons.ȱHeȱsleptȱfromȱtwelveȱmidnightȱuntilȱthreeȱa.m.,ȱandȱ meditatedȱtwiceȱaȱday,ȱfromȱtenȱp.m.ȱuntilȱtwelveȱmidnight,ȱandȱfromȱ threeȱuntilȱfourȱinȱtheȱmorning.ȱAndȱheȱmadeȱofferingsȱtoȱtheȱShwedaȬ gonȱpagoda.64ȱ OfȱparticularȱinterestȱinȱtheseȱdetailsȱofȱtheȱSayadaw’sȱlifeȱandȱregiȬ menȱ isȱ howȱ theȱ biographyȱ portraysȱ theȱ highȱ degreeȱ ofȱ ritualizationȱ involvedȱinȱtheȱpatternsȱofȱsÎlaȱandȱotherȱformsȱofȱpracticeȱthatȱcourseȱ throughȱhisȱlife.ȱTheȱfocusȱofȱhisȱritualizedȱregimenȱisȱtheȱBuddha,ȱwhoȱ providesȱ aȱ locusȱ forȱ theȱ dailyȱ organizationȱ ofȱ theȱ Sayadaw’sȱ moveȬ mentsȱandȱreflections.ȱVirtuallyȱeveryȱmomentȱofȱtheȱSayadaw’sȱactiviȬ tyȱbecomesȱaȱmomentȱforȱreflectionȱonȱtheȱBuddha,ȱorientationsȱofȱhisȱ bodyȱ aroundȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ andȱ transmissionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Dhammaȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ taughtȱbyȱ theȱ BuddhaȱinȱhisȱS¬sana.ȱ Theȱ ritualȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ andȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ governsȱ evenȱ theȱ basicȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Sayadaw’sȱactivityȱ onȱaȱ generalȱ level;ȱheȱeats,ȱ dresses,ȱlives,ȱandȱusesȱmedicineȱfollowingȱtheȱBuddha’sȱwishes.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 61ȱ 62ȱ 63ȱ 64ȱ

PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ49–50.ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ50–53.ȱ Theȱfourȱrequisitesȱareȱfood,ȱrobes,ȱshelter,ȱandȱmedicine.ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ54–63.ȱ

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EncompassedȱwithinȱtheȱritualizedȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱis,ȱofȱ course,ȱ theȱ Sayadaw’sȱ relationship(s)ȱ toȱ hisȱ ownȱ students.ȱ Followingȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ example,ȱ heȱ teachesȱ hisȱ studentsȱ toȱ safeguardȱ theȱ reȬ straintsȱ(P.ȱsaΚvara)ȱassociatedȱwithȱmonasticȱlife.ȱHeȱinstructsȱthemȱinȱ bothȱ dayȱ andȱ nightȱ lessons.ȱ Andȱ heȱ modelsȱ byȱ personalȱ exampleȱ theȱ modesȱ ofȱ livelihoodȱ appropriateȱ toȱ monasticȱ pursuits.ȱ Theȱ repetitiousȱ passagesȱ aboutȱ theȱ Sayadaw’sȱvirtuesȱ appearȱ toȱ beȱ rootedȱ inȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱinstillȱinȱtheȱreaderȱaȱsenseȱofȱtheȱcareȱheȱhasȱforȱtheȱgeneralȱtrajectoȬ riesȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ practice,ȱ forȱ theȱ trainingȱ ofȱ hisȱ students,ȱ andȱ forȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ S¬sanaȱ inȱ itsȱ communalȱ activityȱ andȱ ritualisticȱ diversity.ȱ Aboveȱall,ȱthroughȱhisȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱwork,ȱheȱcarriesȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ thatȱcanȱsaveȱbeingsȱfromȱsaΚs¬ra.ȱ

SonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha:ȱAȱClassicȱConflictȱandȱaȱShwegyinȱSolutionȱ Becomingȱ aȱ discipleȬsonȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ mayȱ involveȱ aȱ considerableȱ amountȱ ofȱ personalȱstruggleȱbetweenȱ whatȱcountsȱasȱ goodȱ forȱ oneselfȱ andȱwhatȱcountsȱasȱgoodȱforȱtheȱwiderȱcontext—socialȱorȱotherwise—inȱ whichȱ oneȱ isȱ involved.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ personalȱ strugglesȱ associatedȱ withȱ renunciationȱmayȱworkȱinȱtandemȱwithȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱsocialȱtensionȱasȱ well.ȱ Thisȱ pointȱ lurksȱ justȱ beneathȱ theȱ surfaceȱ ofȱ theȱ biographyȱ asȱ itȱ relatesȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱtoȱPrinceȱVessantara,ȱaȱquintessentialȱ figureȱofȱselfȬdetachmentȱandȱgenerosity.ȱVessantara,ȱaȱbirthȱprecursorȱ toȱGotamaȱBuddha,ȱperfectedȱhisȱcapacityȱtoȱgiveȱand,ȱasȱstoriesȱaboutȱ himȱ go,ȱ tensionsȱ mountȱ asȱ heȱ plungesȱ hisȱ kingdomȱ intoȱ ruinȱ andȱ hisȱ familyȱintoȱdespair.ȱHeȱgivesȱawayȱtheȱkingdom’sȱrichesȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱ wifeȱ andȱ children.ȱ Hisȱ soȬcalledȱ selfȬdetachmentȱ andȱ compassion,ȱ whichȱ bringȱ aboutȱ wellȬbeingȱ forȱ someȱ peopleȱ (includingȱ himself),ȱ actuallyȱbringȱaboutȱsufferingȱforȱothers.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱquestȱforȱ nibb¬naȱisȱinherentlyȱdisruptiveȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱorder.ȱ StoriesȱaboutȱVessantaraȱinsistȱ“onȱconflictsȱofȱvalue.”ȱIndeed,ȱhisȱ fulfillmentȱofȱtheȱPerfectionȱofȱGenerosityȱweavesȱitsȱwayȱthroughȱtwoȱconȬ flicts:ȱsocially,ȱbetweenȱtheȱasceticȱvaluesȱofȱrenunciationȱandȱtheȱmundaneȱ needȱforȱprudentialȱgovernment;ȱandȱpsychologically,ȱbetweenȱtheȱaspiraȬ tionȱtoȱmentalȱdetachment,ȱtoȱaȱloveȱuniversalizedȱandȱdepersonalized,ȱandȱ theȱimmediateȱjoysȱandȱtiesȱofȱparticularȱaffection.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.65ȱȱ

Inȱotherȱwords,ȱbecomingȱaȱmonasticȱdiscipleȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱorȱbetter,ȱ becomingȱ aȱ Buddha,ȱ oneȱ whoȱ ultimatelyȱ hasȱ completeȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ theȱ Dhamma,ȱ mayȱ veryȱ wellȱ involveȱ atȱ certainȱ andȱ crucialȱ stagesȱ ofȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 65ȱ Collinsȱ1998ȱp.ȱ500.ȱ

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religiousȱadvancementȱapparentȱdisregardȱforȱsomeȱkindsȱofȱsufferingȱ thatȱ oneȱ bringsȱ uponȱ otherȱ people.ȱ Theseȱ kindsȱ ofȱ disregardȱ andȱ conȬ flictȱindicateȱaȱnewȱlevelȱofȱspiritualȱadvancement,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱruptureȱ thatȱ mustȱ occurȱ withȱ worldlyȱ thingsȱ ifȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ maintained.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ monksȱ areȱ individualsȱ whoȱ mustȱ severȱ themselvesȱ fromȱ theirȱlayȱfamiliesȱifȱtheyȱareȱtoȱliveȱinȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ TheȱhighlyȱproblematicȱmoralȱexplorationsȱraisedȱbyȱtheȱVessantaraȱ storyȱ concerningȱ individualȱ versusȱ collectiveȱ goodsȱ doȱ notȱ enterȱ intoȱ theȱBiographyȱinȱanȱimmediatelyȱapparentȱway.ȱIndeed,ȱafterȱnotingȱthatȱ theȱSayadawȱhasȱtheȱsameȱastrologicalȱsignsȱasȱPrinceȱVessantara,ȱsignsȱ thatȱ indicateȱ theȱ Sayadaw’sȱ ownȱ dispositionȱ towardȱ generosity,ȱ theȱ biographyȱ followsȱ withȱ shortȱ accountsȱ aboutȱ howȱ heȱ (theȱ Sayadaw)ȱ wasȱgenerous.66ȱTheȱbiographyȱevenȱgoesȱsoȱfarȱasȱtoȱannounceȱthatȱtheȱ levelȱofȱgivingȱthatȱtheȱSayadawȱundertakesȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱ ordinaryȱ people;ȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ isȱ ableȱ toȱ giveȱ soȱ muchȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ goodȱresultȱofȱhisȱsÎlaȱandȱtheȱperfectionȱ(P.ȱp¬ramÎ)ȱofȱhisȱmerit.67ȱ Theȱ biographyȱ doesȱ occasionallyȱ renderȱ apparentȱ theȱ tensionȱ beȬ tweenȱpersonalȱandȱcollectiveȱgoodsȱasȱunderstoodȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱ S¬sana.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ secondȱ sectionȱ ofȱ theȱ biographyȱ isȱ structuredȱ byȱtheȱstruggleȱtheȱSayadawȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱmadeȱbetweenȱhisȱdesireȱ toȱmeditateȱinȱsolitude,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱneedsȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱ communityȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱhisȱabilityȱtoȱteachȱandȱadministrate,ȱonȱtheȱ other.ȱ Theȱ biographyȱ recordsȱ thatȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ madeȱ threeȱ tripsȱ toȱ secludedȱsettings,ȱsoȱthatȱheȱcouldȱmeditateȱwithoutȱinterruption.ȱ OneȱpassageȱinȱparticularȱrecountsȱtheȱeffortsȱmadeȱbyȱtheȱKyaunȬ tawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱ ownȱ teacherȱ toȱ callȱ himȱ backȱ fromȱ hisȱ meditativeȱ endeavorsȱ toȱ helpȱ teach.ȱ Theȱ passageȱ isȱ compellingȱ inȱ howȱ itȱ resolvesȱ theȱconflictȱbetweenȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadaw’sȱindividualȱsoteriologiȬ calȱ interestsȱ andȱ theȱ needsȱ ofȱ hisȱ monasticȱ community.ȱ Asȱ shownȱ beȬ low,ȱtheȱpassageȱresolvesȱtheȱtensionȱbyȱanȱappealȱtoȱtheȱfigureȱofȱGoȬ tamaȱBuddhaȱhimself,ȱanȱappealȱparticularlyȱattentiveȱtoȱtheȱcollectiveȱ needsȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.ȱUltimately,ȱtheȱappealȱprioritizesȱtheȱ importanceȱ ofȱ collectiveȱ lifeȱ inȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ overȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ perȬ sonalȱadvancementȱtowardȱnibb¬nicȱrupture.ȱ ^qiu> DUtc\etac\ etar| tra; Aa;Tut\& Nƒs\Nƒs\mJ~kaeqaAKf 10-wfe`mak\ 1234-KutQc\ erWkjc\Sraeta\Bura;k saep;&eKFeta\mU%" sapfADip¡fy\ka;" cf%tpv.\~kI; etaren& tra;Aa;Tut\qv\mƒa AlQn\ekac\;`mt\lƒpfepqv\" cf qaDu eKF%" qiu>pfeqa\lv\; yKu ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 66ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ64–66.ȱIȱamȱthankfulȱtoȱSayaȱUȱThanȱHtutȱforȱpointingȱthisȱoutȱtoȱ me.ȱ 67ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱp.ȱ66.ȱ

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cfSraeta\| saeppiu>Kj`Kc\;seqa AkUAvI mja;sQa liuelqv\" priyt–i p«ipt–i p«iewd tv\;hUeqaqaqnaeta\ quM;rp\tQc\ saeppiu>Kj`Kc\;tv\;hUeqa priyt–iqaqnaqv\ A`Ka; Nƒs\pf;% Ae`K`Ps\qv\" mimi% wn\qa mhut\" qaqnaeta\% wn\kiulv\; yUesliueq;e~kac\;" cftiu>AP-`mt\sQaBura;qv\lv\; dIpkCraBura; e`Krc\;eta\|pc\ nib¥an\kiurekac\;ljk\ myU‚I;BE ns\mQn\;e`mapf;ljk\ rƒi~keqaqt–wftiu>kui cE.vƒa& At–hit prhita Akjoi;-2-pf; AtQk\ Bura; A`Ps\qiu> erak\eAac\ Apc\pn\;KMeta\mUqv\" qiu>Nƒc\.elja\sQa cf%tpv\.~kI;mƒalv\; tiuk\ta qiu>`pn\la& saeppiu>Kj`Kc\; tra;Aa;Tut\`Kc\; tv\;hUeqa gN–aDur wip§naDur-2-pf;tiu>kiu `Pv\.esliue~kac\;" satQc\er;qa;& eKFeta\mUqv\" ^qiu> tra;lm\;`pljk\ eKFeta\ mUeqaAKf mja;sQapc\ tra;Aa;Tut\& enliu qmc\.lv\;" AKQc\.mqa" Sra;%Aa%akiu ekac\;sQanaKMljk\' en`pv\eta\Dmi¥karam' erWkjc\cf;tiuk\Awc\ mi:c\;luM;tiuk\qiu> `pn\~kQla& priyt\-p«ipt\-2-pf;kiu Aa;Tut\elqtv\;"68 Inȱ 1234ȱ [1872],ȱ inȱ hisȱ tenthȱ yearȱ asȱ aȱ monk,ȱ whenȱ heȱ hadȱ meditatedȱ forȱ aboutȱ twoȱ yearsȱ atȱ DhĀtiѼtauѼȱ tawya,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ [i.e.,ȱ Ashinȱ J¬gara]ȱ sentȱ himȱ aȱ letterȱ callingȱ himȱ back.ȱ Theȱ gistȱ ofȱ theȱ letterȱ was:ȱ Myȱ chiefȱstudent,ȱit’sȱextremelyȱgoodȱthatȱyouȱhaveȱmeditatedȱwhileȱlivingȱatȱ [DhĀtiѼtauѼ]ȱtawya.ȱIȱapprove.ȱHowever,ȱrightȱnowȱIȱneedȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱ helpȱ withȱ teaching,ȱ etc.ȱ Amongȱ theȱ threeȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana—pariyatti,ȱ paΞipatti,ȱ andȱ paΞivedha—theȱ pariyattiȬS¬sana,ȱ theȱ teachingȱ ofȱ texts,ȱ isȱ theȱ foundationȱ ofȱ theȱ otherȱ two.ȱ Youȱ areȱ notȱ responsibleȱ forȱ yourselfȱ alone.ȱ Iȱ wishȱyouȱtoȱtakeȱresponsibilityȱ(B.ȱwanе,ȱwn\)ȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱtoo.ȱAlthoughȱourȱ fatherȱ(B.ȱapha,ȱAP)ȱtheȱ[Gotama]ȱBuddhaȱcouldȱhaveȱattainedȱnibb¬naȱatȱtheȱ feetȱofȱtheȱDÎpaѼkar¬ȱBuddha,ȱheȱmadeȱtiringȱeffortsȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱBuddhaȱ bothȱforȱhisȱownȱbenefitȱandȱforȱtheȱbenefitȱofȱothersȱbecauseȱheȱwasȱsymȬ patheticȱtowardȱ[all]ȱbeingsȱdrowningȱandȱdriftingȱ[inȱtheȱcycleȱofȱrebirth].ȱ Inȱaccordanceȱwithȱthat,ȱmyȱchiefȱdisciple,ȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱmonastery;ȱIȱwantȱ youȱtoȱcompleteȱhereȱtheȱgant¬Ȭdhuraȱandȱvipassan¬Ȭdhura,ȱrespectively,ȱtheȱ teachingȱofȱtextsȱandȱmeditation.ȱHeȱcalledȱhimȱbackȱbyȱwritingȱthatȱinȱtheȱ letter.ȱWhenȱheȱwasȱcalledȱbackȱandȱshownȱhisȱteacher’sȱwishesȱconcerningȱ theȱDhamma,ȱheȱcertainlyȱwantedȱtoȱstayȱandȱmeditateȱwhereȱheȱwas.ȱButȱitȱ wasn’tȱ opportune.ȱ Heȱ graciouslyȱ acceptedȱ theȱ authorityȱ (P.ȱ ¬Φ¬)ȱ ofȱ hisȱ teacher.ȱHeȱreturnedȱtoȱHmaiѼlontaik,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱfiveȱShwegyinȱestablishȬ ments,69ȱandȱstroveȱafterȱbothȱpariyattiȱandȱpaΞipatti.ȱ

Ifȱ thereȱ wasȱ anyȱ greatȱ struggleȱ withinȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ aboutȱ theȱ approȬ priatenessȱofȱpursuingȱhisȱindividualȱreligiousȱaspirationsȱandȱfulfillingȱ aȱlargerȱobligationȱtoȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity,ȱitȱisȱresolved,ȱatȱleastȱonȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ practicalȱ action,ȱ byȱ anȱ appealȱ toȱ twoȱ typesȱ ofȱ interlockingȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 68ȱ PhoȱKy¬ȱ1925ȱpp.ȱ24–25.ȱ 69ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе 1988ȱ p.ȱ 89ȱ andȱ Thanȱ Tunȱ 1988ȱ p.ȱ 156ȱ listȱ theȱ five:ȱ Htayangataikȱ (HmaiѼlontaik),ȱ Yamathintaik,ȱ Mah¬dhammik¬r¬maȱ (Shwegyinȱ taikȬma),ȱ MinginȬ taik,ȱMyadaungtaik.ȱ

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spiritualȱ authority.ȱ Neitherȱ type,ȱ interestingly,ȱ hingesȱ onȱ theȱ figureȱ ofȱ Vessantara,ȱwhoȱisȱtooȱmorallyȱproblematicȱtoȱdeployȱinȱsomeȱcontexts.ȱ AnȱappealȱtoȱtheȱfigureȱofȱVessantaraȱmightȱactuallyȱjustifyȱtheȱKyaunȬ tawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱ effortsȱtoȱcontinueȱ hisȱ meditativeȱpursuitsȱ atȱ theȱ exȬ penseȱofȱtakingȱhisȱpartȱinȱtheȱcommunalȱlifeȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱcommuȬ nity.ȱ Oneȱ typeȱ ofȱ authorityȱ isȱ thatȱ ofȱ one’sȱ teacher,ȱ whomȱ oneȱ isȱ obligatedȱ toȱ follow,ȱ becauseȱ oneȱ isȱ one’sȱ teacher’sȱ discipleȬson.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ typeȱ ofȱ authorityȱ isȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ quintessentialȱ Shwegyinȱ fatherȱ himself,ȱ Gotamaȱ Buddha.ȱ Theȱ Kyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw’sȱ teacherȱ drawsȱ onȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ formerȱ livesȱ ofȱ theirȱ fatherȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ emȬ phasizeȱtheȱimportanceȱnotȱonlyȱofȱcombiningȱpariyattiȱandȱpaΞipatti,ȱbutȱ alsoȱ givingȱ aȱ veryȱ clearȱ priorityȱ toȱ pariyatti.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ this,ȱ itȱ isȱ interestingȱtoȱpointȱoutȱthatȱHoutmanȱsuggestsȱthatȱitȱisȱappropriate,ȱinȱ someȱ cases,ȱ toȱ distinguishȱ betweenȱ aȱ scripturalȬlearningȱ lineageȱ (B.ȱ pariyattiȱ acañе achakе,ȱ priyt–i AsV\ASk\)ȱ andȱ aȱ practiceȱ lineageȱ (B.ȱ paΞipattiȱ acañеȱ achakе,ȱ p«ipt–i AsV\ASk\).ȱ Theȱ formerȱ doesȱ notȱ includeȱ theȱ unorȬ dained,ȱ butȱ theȱ latterȱ does.70ȱ Thisȱ passageȱ aboveȱ doesȱ notȱ quiteȱ makeȱ thatȱkindȱofȱdistinction,ȱbutȱthereȱisȱaȱhintȱthatȱshouldȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱ Sayadawȱ pursueȱ hisȱ ownȱ meditationȱ orȱ paΞipattiȱ tooȱ strenuouslyȱ andȱ tooȱ selfishly,ȱ heȱ couldȱ detractȱ fromȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ pariyattiȱ thatȱ isȱ soȱ crucialȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱline.ȱ Likeȱhisȱultimateȱfatherȱbeforeȱhim,ȱthen,ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadawȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ tryȱ toȱ obtainȱ nibb¬naȱ quickly,ȱ butȱ toȱ pursueȱ aȱ slowerȱ track,ȱ workingȱ tirelesslyȱ forȱ personalȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ communalȱ benefit.ȱ Inȱ effect,ȱ thereȱareȱtwoȱfathersȱwithȱwhomȱtheȱSayadawȱmustȱcontend,ȱhisȱteachȬ erȱandȱtheȱBuddha,ȱwhoȱareȱbothȱpresentedȱasȱindividualsȱwhoȱhaveȱaȱ senseȱofȱgreatȱresponsibilityȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtheȱconditionsȱthatȱconȬ tributeȱ toȱ itsȱ communalȱ sustenance.ȱ Thus,ȱ followingȱ theirȱ lead,ȱ theȱ SayadawȱmustȱreturnȱandȱhelpȱtoȱcontinueȱtheȱcollectiveȱworkȱofȱteachȬ ingȱandȱembodyingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

TraditionsȱandȱtheȱPast,ȱPresent,ȱandȱFutureȱ Basedȱ onȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱmaterialȱ discussedȱ inȱ thisȱchapter—andȱbasedȱ onȱ scholarlyȱ writingȱ acrossȱ severalȱ disciplinesȱ onȱ “traditions”ȱ andȱ theȱ variousȱ mediaȱ andȱ meansȱ throughȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ constructedȱ andȱ deployed—Iȱ takeȱ itȱ thatȱ traditionsȱ areȱ prettyȱ muchȱ whatȱ theyȱ haveȱ alwaysȱ been,ȱ andȱ whatȱ theyȱ willȱ alwaysȱ be:ȱ patternsȱ ofȱ thought,ȱ andȱ feeling,ȱinȱsomeȱwayȱrelatingȱtoȱvisionsȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱruptureȱinȱtheȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 70ȱ Houtmanȱ1997ȱp.ȱ322.ȱ

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TraditionsȱandȱtheȱPast,ȱPresent,ȱandȱFutureȱ

71ȱ

past,ȱpresent,ȱandȱfuture,ȱcreatedȱbyȱmultipleȱagentsȱwhoȱdevelopȱmulȬ tipleȱ formsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ andȱ engageȱ inȱ multipleȱ formsȱ ofȱ practice.ȱ Forȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition,ȱ theȱ manyȱ formsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ andȱ practiceȱ inȬ volveȱbeingȱaȱmemberȱofȱaȱlineageȱandȱaȱmonasticȱsonȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱ whoȱisȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱinȱbodily,ȱtextual,ȱandȱfamilialȱways.ȱ Andȱ theyȱ alsoȱ includeȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ curbȱ kilesasȱ andȱ cultivateȱ variousȱ formsȱ ofȱ sÎla,ȱ suchȱ thatȱ oneȱ becomesȱ anȱ agentȱ inȱ anȱ ongoingȱ socialȱ project,ȱinȱaȱtradition,ȱofȱsustainingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ TheȱargumentȱhereȱaboutȱwhatȱaȱtraditionȱisȱmayȱstrikeȱsomeȱreadȬ ersȱasȱcommonȱsense.ȱItȱmayȱstrikeȱotherȱreadersȱasȱfarȱtooȱbroadȱtoȱbeȱ ofȱmuchȱinterpretiveȱuse.ȱHowever,ȱIȱbelieveȱitȱisȱcrucialȱforȱaȱmethodoȬ logicallyȱ andȱ theoreticallyȱ balancedȱ considerationȱ ofȱ theȱ dynamicsȱ inȬ volvedȱinȱanyȱtradition.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱobservationȱpresupposesȱthatȱ whileȱ someȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ aȱ givenȱ traditionȱ canȱ beȱ highlyȱ sociopoliticalȱ inȱ nature,ȱ otherȱ aspectsȱ mayȱ notȱ be.ȱ Certainly,ȱ Shwegyinȱ assertionsȱ ofȱ theirȱ purityȱ visȬàȬvisȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ haveȱ been,ȱ dependingȱ onȱ context,ȱ exȬ plicitlyȱandȱimplicitlyȱconcernedȱwithȱreligiopoliticalȱmessagesȱdirectedȱ toward,ȱforȱinstance,ȱotherȱmonksȱandȱlayȱpeople.ȱ Theȱ interpretiveȱ effortȱ employedȱ hereȱ pointsȱ toȱ aȱ productiveȱ wayȱ forȱaddressingȱtheȱdynamicsȱwithinȱandȱpotentiallyȱacrossȱsocietiesȱandȱ cultures.ȱTraditions—inȱasȱmuchȱasȱtheyȱconsistȱofȱcomplexȱpatternsȱofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ feelingȱ createdȱbyȱ numerousȱagentsȱengagedȱ inȱ manifoldȱ formsȱ ofȱ practice—canȱ beȱ analyzedȱ ofȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ dynamicȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ continuitiesȱ andȱ ruptures,ȱ mediatedȱ throughȱ theȱ effortsȱ ofȱ whatȱ canȱ beȱ calledȱ aȱ locallyȱ constitutedȱ traditionalism.ȱ Regardlessȱ ofȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ theyȱ areȱ ofȱ historicallyȱ distantȱ orȱ moreȱ recentȱ origin,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ impactedȱ byȱ orȱ emergedȱ fromȱtheȱforcesȱofȱcolonialismȱandȱmodernity,ȱandȱregardlessȱofȱwhethȬ erȱ orȱ notȱ theirȱ contentȱ andȱ focusȱ areȱ sociopoliticalȱ inȱ nature,ȱ aȱ tradiȬ tion’sȱ traditionalismȱ comprisesȱ aȱ domainȱ ofȱ aȱ struggleȱ forȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ sociohistorical,ȱorȱasȱtheȱcaseȱmayȱbeȱsocioreligious,ȱcontinuityȱthatȱcanȱ eitherȱ staveȱ offȱ orȱ fosterȱ differentȱ kindsȱ ofȱ rupture.ȱ Thisȱ observation,ȱ then,ȱguidesȱtheȱremainingȱchaptersȱofȱthisȱwork.ȱ If,ȱ asȱ theȱ argumentȱ madeȱ hereȱ implies,ȱ understandingsȱ aboutȱ disȬ ruptionȱ orȱ completeȱ rupture,ȱ alwaysȱ coupledȱ withȱ correspondingȱ andȱ mutuallyȱdefiningȱunderstandingsȱofȱcontinuity,ȱplayȱanȱessentialȱpartȱ inȱanyȱtradition’sȱtraditionalism,ȱtheȱinterpreterȱshouldȱtryȱtoȱbeȱattenȬ tiveȱtoȱtheseȱunderstandings;ȱheȱorȱsheȱshouldȱthusȱalsoȱbeȱattentiveȱtoȱ theȱ explicitȱ andȱ implicitȱ contextsȱ ofȱ disruption/ruptureȱ andȱ continuityȱ thatȱ areȱ usedȱ toȱ frameȱ andȱ motivateȱ suchȱ perceptions.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ thereȱ mayȱ beȱ variousȱ levelsȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ variousȱ levelsȱ ofȱ ruptureȱ atȱ workȱ inȱ anyȱ givenȱ tradition,ȱ andȱ multipleȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ people,ȱ

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ChapterȱOne:ȱTheȱShwegyinȱTraditionȱandȱItsȱTraditionalismȱȱ

groups,ȱ andȱ theirȱ textsȱ orȱ otherȱ resourcesȱ areȱ positionedȱ asȱ agentsȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ disruption/rupture.ȱ Thisȱ chapterȱ hasȱ usedȱ theȱ topicȱ ofȱ lineageȱandȱsonshipȱtoȱframeȱtheȱanalysis;ȱtheȱremainingȱchaptersȱshiftȱ toȱ otherȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ andȱ itsȱ traditionalism.

ȱ

ChapterȱTwo:ȱInstitutionalȱMooringsȱ ȱ MyȱfirstȱresearchȱtripȱtoȱMyanmarȱinȱtheȱfallȱofȱ2000ȱhadȱallȱtheȱsignsȱofȱposiȬ tiveȱkarmaȱfromȱpastȱlives.ȱAfterȱaȱtremendousȱamountȱofȱtimeȱandȱenergy,ȱandȱ theȱsupportȱofȱmanyȱpeople,ȱcontactsȱhadȱbeenȱmadeȱwithȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱaȱ yearȬlongȱvisaȱtoȱstudyȱinȱtheȱcountryȱhadȱbeenȱgranted,ȱandȱfundingȱforȱreȬ searchȱwasȱfinallyȱfirmlyȱinȱhand.ȱEvenȱthoughȱaȱwaitȱofȱalmostȱaȱyearȱforȱbothȱ fundingȱandȱvisaȱpassed,ȱSakkaȱtheȱkingȱofȱgodsȱhimselfȱseemedȱtoȱhaveȱfinallyȱ comeȱ through.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ positivityȱ ratherȱ dramaticallyȱ changedȱ uponȱ arȬ rivingȱ inȱ theȱ airportȱ inȱ Yangon,ȱ whereȱ myȱ visaȱ wasȱ summarilyȱ reducedȱ toȱ aȱ monthȱ andȱ Iȱ wasȱ informedȱ thatȱ myȱ monasticȱ contactsȱ couldȱ notȱ supportȱ myȱ endeavors;ȱ littleȱ didȱ Iȱ knowȱ thatȱ aȱ letterȱ atȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ Affairsȱ awaited,ȱtellingȱtheȱpowersȱthatȱbeȱthatȱI’dȱbeenȱrejectedȱfromȱShwegyinȱsupȬ portȱinȱMandalay.ȱAȱmeetingȱwithȱanȱofficialȱatȱtheȱMinistryȱpromptedȱmeȱtoȱ goȱ toȱ Mandalayȱ anyway,ȱ toȱ seeȱ ifȱ thereȱ weren’tȱ someȱ wayȱ toȱ stillȱ pursueȱ theȱ studyȱ Iȱ wishedȱ toȱ do,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ monasticȱ practiceȱ amongȱ ShweȬ gyinȱmonks.ȱThroughȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱaȱleadingȱShwegyinȱmonk,ȱIȱwasȱrelocatedȱ toȱ aȱ monasteryȱ willingȱ toȱ hostȱ meȱ andȱ wasȱ assignedȱ toȱ theȱ careȱ ofȱ aȱ monk.ȱ However,ȱ anȱ atmosphereȱ ofȱ poisonȱ (concerningȱ meȱ andȱ myȱ work)ȱ developedȱ thatȱ madeȱ sustainedȱ fieldȱ researchȱ ofȱ theȱ sortȱ Iȱ hopedȱ toȱ doȱ impossible.ȱ Iȱ hadȱ beenȱ cast,ȱ apparently,ȱ byȱ someȱ withinȱMyanmar’sȱintelligenceȱcommunityȱinȱ theȱarea,ȱasȱanȱagentȱofȱpossiblyȱquiteȱdisruptiveȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱarea.ȱ Oneȱ monkȱ surmisedȱ thatȱ theȱ significantȱ “problems”ȱ thatȱ wereȱ emergingȱ wereȱdueȱtoȱtheȱcoincidenceȱofȱmyȱarrivalȱinȱtheȱMandalayȱareaȱwithȱaȱrecentȱ letterȱ byȱ leadingȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ inȱ theȱ regionȱ requestingȱ thatȱ theȱ governȬ mentȱhaveȱmoreȱopenȱdialogueȱwithȱDawȱAungȱSanȱSuuȱKyi.ȱWasȱIȱtryingȱtoȱ linkȱ upȱ withȱ monksȱ interestedȱ inȱ potentiallyȱ destabilizingȱ theȱ militaryȱ govȬ ernment?ȱTheȱmonkȱalsoȱsurmisedȱthatȱtheȱproblemsȱwereȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱveryȱ highȱlevelȱofȱfundsȱapparentlyȱbeingȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱmonasteryȱbyȱtheȱmilitaryȱforȱ newȱbuildingȱprojects;ȱtheseȱfunds,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱmonk,ȱwereȱmeantȱtoȱtryȱ toȱoffsetȱmonasticȱ“criticism”ȱofȱtheȱmilitary.ȱ Theȱexperiencesȱduringȱthatȱfirstȱtripȱledȱmeȱtoȱthinkȱaboutȱtheȱnatureȱofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ asȱ anȱ institutionȱ operatingȱ inȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ aȱ governmentȱ bothȱ veryȱsupportiveȱofȱitsȱendeavorsȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱalsoȱsuspiciousȱofȱitȱasȱaȱ possibleȱ siteȱ forȱ theȱ organizationȱ andȱ mobilizationȱ ofȱ destabilizingȱ dissent.ȱ Itȱ seemedȱtoȱmeȱthat,ȱinȱtheȱveryȱleast,ȱtheȱhistoryȱandȱstructureȱofȱthatȱinstituȬ tionȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱitȱhadȱbeenȱdevelopedȱoverȱtheȱyearsȱasȱaȱdistinctȱ entityȱ withȱ aȱ wellȬestablishedȱ hierarchyȱ ofȱ leadersȱ andȱ administrators,ȱ thatȱ

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ChapterȱTwo:ȱInstitutionalȱMooringsȱȱ

radiatedȱ throughoutȱ theȱ nik¬yaȱ (forȱ aȱ definition,ȱ seeȱ below),ȱ wasȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ equation.ȱWhetherȱorȱnotȱthisȱwasȱactuallyȱpartȱofȱtheȱviewsȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱbeȬ cameȱ“worried”ȱforȱme,ȱIȱwillȱneverȱknowȱforȱsure,ȱbutȱitȱisȱpartȱofȱwhatȱledȱmeȱ toȱ tryȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ structureȱ andȱ identityȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administration.ȱ Onȱ oneȱ level,ȱ thatȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrationȱ areȱ banal,ȱ mechanistic,ȱ andȱ dry;ȱ onȱ anotherȱ level,ȱ asȱ suggestedȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ themselvesȱ asȱwellȱasȱ othersȱwhoȱhaveȱ writtenȱ onȱ theȱShwegyin,ȱ theyȱareȱ theȱ veryȱfoundationȱofȱtheȱstrengthȱofȱtheȱgroupȱasȱaȱhighlyȱrespectedȱinstitution.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ then,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrationȱ areȱ exȬ aminedȱagainstȱtheȱbackdropȱofȱvariousȱcontextsȱofȱdisruption,ȱincludingȱfurȬ therȱ detailsȱ aboutȱ theȱ impactȱ ofȱ Britishȱ ruleȱ andȱ particularȱ disruptiveȱ forcesȱ fromȱwithinȱBurmeseȱsegmentsȱofȱsocietyȱ(e.g.,ȱcompetitionȱfromȱotherȱmonks,ȱ attemptsȱbyȱtheȱlaityȱtoȱexertȱcontrolȱoverȱmonks).ȱShwegyinȱreactionsȱtoȱtheseȱ typesȱofȱdisruptionȱledȱtoȱtheȱtypeȱofȱinstitutionalȱcontinuityȱexploredȱhere:ȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ asȱ aȱ formalizedȱ nik¬ya.ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ haveȱ becomeȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ nik¬yaȱthatȱtheyȱareȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱspecificȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱhaveȱsystemaȬ tized,ȱ onȱ theȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ levelȱ ofȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administration,ȱ aȱ reformȬ orientedȱethosȱagainstȱdisruptionȱandȱrupture,ȱinȱwhateverȱformȱitȱmayȱcome,ȱ hypotheticallyȱ orȱ inȱ reality.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ adoptedȱ earlyȱ onȱ inȱ theirȱ historyȱ anȱ approachȱ of,ȱ soȱ toȱ speak,ȱ becomingȱ Aïokaȱ forȱ themselvesȱ andȱ haveȱ maintainedȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱtheirȱnik¬yaȱbyȱretainingȱandȱfurtherȱdevelopingȱ thatȱ approach.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theyȱ routinizedȱ theȱ ethosȱ ofȱ “overhauling”ȱ traceableȱbackȱthroughȱtheȱkingsȱofȱMyanmarȱandȱSriȱLankaȱtoȱAïokaȱofȱIndia.ȱ

FromȱLineageȱtoȱNik¬yaȱ Asȱ pointedȱ outȱ byȱ variousȱ scholars,ȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ traditions,ȱ asȱ withȱmonasticȱtraditionsȱinȱotherȱBuddhistȱcontexts,ȱareȱfamouslyȱgivenȱ toȱaȱsectarianismȱderivingȱfromȱlocalȱcultsȱofȱpersonality,ȱresistancesȱtoȱ centralizedȱ authority,ȱ VinayaȬbasedȱ claimsȱ aboutȱ theȱ laxitiesȱ ofȱ certainȱ monks,ȱasȱwellȱas,ȱinȱsomeȱcases,ȱdoctrinallyȱorientedȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheȱ properȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ “whatȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ taught.”ȱ However,ȱ whatȱ isȱ particularlyȱ interestingȱ aboutȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ isȱ thatȱ whileȱ itȱ wasȱbornȱofȱtheȱforcesȱ thatȱhaveȱ producedȱ manyȱ suchȱ monasticȱ tradiȬ tions,ȱitȱsetȱinȱplace,ȱatȱanȱearlyȱstageȱinȱitsȱhistory,ȱvariousȱstructuresȱofȱ institutionalȱauthorityȱ andȱ organizationȱ meantȱ toȱ inhibitȱ internalȱ fragȬ mentationȱandȱthusȱfurtherȱsectarianȱfissureȱfromȱwithin.ȱThisȱchapterȱ attemptsȱ toȱ showȱ whatȱ thoseȱ structuresȱ ofȱ authorityȱ andȱ organizationȱ areȱlike,ȱhowȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱVinayaȱandȱotherȱS¬sanaȱmaterials,ȱandȱ howȱ theyȱ relateȱ toȱ aȱ concertedȱ emphasisȱ withinȱ Shwegyinȱ historyȱ toȱ resistȱcontrolȱandȱregulationȱbyȱlayȱandȱotherȱauthorities.ȱ

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Toȱdoȱthat,ȱthisȱchapterȱproceedsȱinȱthreeȱparts.ȱIȱfirstȱsupplyȱsomeȱ briefȱ andȱ basicȱ backgroundȱ aboutȱ theȱ majorȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ tradiȬ tionsȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ readerȱ canȱ haveȱ aȱ generalȱ senseȱ ofȱ theȱ placeȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ withinȱ theȱ overallȱ contemporaryȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ landȬ scape.ȱ Thenȱ inȱ aȱ secondȱ sectionȱ Iȱ turnȱ toȱ twoȱ notions,ȱ relatedȱ toȱ butȱ differentȱ thanȱ notionsȱ ofȱ lineage,ȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ usedȱ toȱ describeȱthemselves:ȱnik¬yaȱandȱgaing.ȱAttentionȱtoȱtheȱsemanticȱrangeȱ ofȱ theseȱ terms,ȱandȱtoȱwhatȱ theyȱ implyȱ aboutȱmonasticȱidentity,ȱ helpsȱ toȱ situateȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theirȱ distinctivenessȱ withinȱ theȱ overallȱcontextȱofȱBurmeseȱculturalȱperceptionsȱaboutȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱ disruptingȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Finally,ȱ theȱ thirdȱ sectionȱ exȬ ploresȱ themesȱ evidentȱ inȱ administrativeȱ meetingsȱ andȱ records.ȱ Fiveȱ themesȱareȱaddressed:ȱrelationsȱwithȱclassicalȱandȱotherȱBuddhistȱtexts,ȱ hierarchy,ȱ membership,ȱ discipline,ȱ andȱ careȱ groups.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ exploredȱ hereȱ areȱ theȱ institutionalȱ mooringsȱ ofȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬ya.ȱ

MonasticȱGroupsȱinȱMyanmar:ȱAȱSnapshotȱ TheȱmonasticȱgroupsȱlistedȱinȱappendixȱB,ȱtableȱ1ȱareȱtheȱnineȱthatȱareȱ mostȱcommonlyȱknownȱtoday,ȱandȱtheȱnineȱthatȱwereȱofficiallyȱrecogȬ nizedȱ duringȱ theȱ Neȱ Winȱ reformsȱ ofȱ 1980.1ȱ Theȱ nineȱ areȱ listedȱ inȱ anȱ orderȱthatȱreflects,ȱgenerally,ȱtheirȱsizeȱandȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheirȱinfluence.ȱ AmongȱBurmeseȱmonks,ȱtheȱvastȱmajorityȱareȱThudhamm¬,ȱwhichȱ isȱnotȱaȱseparateȱsectȱ(P.ȱnik¬ya)ȱinȱanyȱformalȱsenseȱlikeȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱ thoughȱ theȱ phraseȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ Nik¬yaȱ isȱ inȱ factȱ usedȱ atȱ timesȱ byȱ monksȱandȱothersȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱorder.ȱTheȱkeyȱdifferenceȱ isȱthatȱ thereȱisȱ noȱThudhamm¬ȱequivalentȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ leadershipȱ andȱadministrativeȱhierarchy,ȱinȱasȱmuchȱasȱthatȱhierarchyȱisȱintendedȱ toȱ unify,ȱ regulate,ȱ andȱ continuallyȱ purifyȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ interȬ nally.ȱTheȱThudhamm¬ȱ haveȱ aȱreputationȱ forȱ beingȱ moreȱ laxȱ thanȱ theȱ reformistȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱShwegyin.ȱThatȱbeingȱsaid,ȱsomeȱThudhamm¬ȱ monksȱ considerȱ allȱ otherȱ monasticȱ groupsȱ asȱ subgroupsȱ withinȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱmajority.ȱ Theȱ termȱ Thudhamm¬ȱitselfȱ derivesȱ fromȱ anȱ ecclesiasticalȱ council,ȱ theȱThudhamm¬ȱCouncil,ȱfoundedȱbyȱKingȱBodawpayaȱ(r.ȱ1782–1819).ȱ Thisȱcouncilȱwasȱnamedȱafterȱtheȱpavilion,ȱtheȱ“Thudhamm¬Ȭzayat,”ȱinȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

Inȱ2003,ȱthereȱwereȱrumorsȱinȱYangonȱthatȱtheȱmilitaryȱgovernmentȱwasȱattemptingȱ toȱtrimȱtheȱnumberȱofȱnik¬yaȱorȱgaingȱfromȱnineȱdownȱtoȱfour,ȱnamelyȱThudhamm¬,ȱ Shwegyin,ȱandȱtwoȱothersȱ(notȱspecifiedȱbyȱthoseȱwithȱwhomȱIȱspoke).ȱ

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whichȱ itȱmet,ȱ “whichȱinȱturnȱwasȱnamedȱ afterȱtheȱcelestialȱ pavilionȱinȱ [the]ȱ T¬vatiѴsaȱ heavenȱ whereȱ buddhasȱ teachȱ theȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ theȱ Sudhamm¬Ȭsabh¬.”2ȱToȱthisȱday,ȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱhaveȱproducedȱsomeȱ famousȱmonks,ȱandȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱisȱtheȱBhaddantaȱInd¬c¬raȱ(1897– 1993),ȱ who,ȱ inȱ 1980,ȱ wasȱ elevatedȱ toȱ theȱ positionȱ ofȱ chairmanȱ ofȱ theȱ stateȬbackedȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommittee.3ȱ Withinȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ (seeȱ below),ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱS¬sanaȱisȱaȱcontinuationȱofȱtheȱpositionȱofȱtheȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱ appointedȱbyȱBurmeseȱkingsȱandȱequivalentȱtoȱtheȱpositionȱofȱSaΤghaȬ r¬ja,ȱ “CommunityȬking,”ȱ inȱ otherȱ Therav¬daȱ contexts.ȱ Forȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ theirȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ hasȱ comeȱ toȱ beȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ SaΤghaȬsammuti,ȱ aȱ termȱ whichȱ meansȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ hasȱ beenȱ appointedȱ throughȱ theȱ consentȱ (P.ȱ sammuti)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱmonasticȱcommunityȱ(P.ȱsaΤgha)ȱratherȱthanȱbyȱaȱkingȱorȱlayȱ government.4ȱ Fergusonȱ notesȱ aȱ differentȱ butȱ relatedȱ understandingȱ ofȱ ideasȱaboutȱsammuti:ȱȱ sammutiȱ (goodȱ judge)ȱ [is]ȱ aȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ kingȱ ofȱ theȱ godsȱ orȱ spiritsȱ [Sakka]ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ whoȱ watchedȱ overȱ theȱ religionȱ and,ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ guidedȱ theȱ kingsȱofȱBurmaȱasȱdefendersȱofȱtheȱfaith.ȱInȱessence,ȱthen,ȱtheȱsectȱusedȱtheȱ veryȱtitleȱtoȱhonorȱitsȱheadȱmonkȱthatȱtheȱfounderȱofȱtheȱsectȱhadȱrejectedȱ fromȱKingȱThibaw,ȱbutȱtheirȱtitleȱwasȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱaȱheavenlyȱking,ȱpreȬ sumablyȱtoȱbeȱaȱmoreȱsuccessfulȱprotectorȱofȱtheȱreligionȱthanȱwereȱtheȱlastȱ kingsȱofȱBurma.5ȱ

Regardlessȱ ofȱ theȱ specificȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ SaΤghaȬsammuti,ȱ forȱ ShweȬ gyinȱ monksȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ himself,ȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ nik¬yaȱ overȱ whichȱ heȱ presides,ȱ areȱ consideredȱ toȱ haveȱ theȱ ultimateȱ wordȱonȱorthodoxȱdoctrineȱandȱpractice.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱofficialȱsealȱofȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ leavesȱ littleȱ doubt:ȱ “Nik¬yaȱ Supremeȱ PresidingȱAuthorityȱandȱGeneralȱofȱtheȱLaw”ȱ(P.ȱNik¬y¬dhipatiȱukkaΞΞhaȱ mah¬n¬yakaȱ dhammasen¬pati).ȱ Theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱS¬sanaȱdoesȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱextendȱtoȱmonksȱofȱotherȱgroups,ȱunlessȱ theyȱhaveȱenteredȱintoȱanȱagreementȱwithȱtheȱShwegyinȱtoȱbeȱincorpoȬ ratedȱintoȱtheirȱfold.ȱ Allȱ otherȱ monasticȱ communitiesȱ besidesȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ andȱ Shwegyinȱremainȱquiteȱlimitedȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱsize.ȱTheȱHngetwiѼ,ȱorȱ “cavesȱofȱbirds,”ȱreceivedȱitsȱnameȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1880sȱfromȱaȱstreamȱ“inȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2ȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ

Prankeȱ2004ȱp.ȱ2,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ Bhaddantaȱ Ind¬c¬ra’sȱ Finalȱ Journeyȱ 1993ȱ offersȱ aȱ pictoriallyȱ orientedȱ volumeȱ thatȱ commemoratesȱtheȱlifeȱandȱfuneralȱceremoniesȱforȱthisȱmonk.ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱp.ȱ56.ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ78,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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theȱ Sagaingȱ Hillȱ Rangeȱ [anȱ importantȱ centerȱ ofȱ Buddhismȱ inȱ Upperȱ Myanmar],ȱwhereȱtheȱfounderȱ[ofȱtheȱgroup]ȱoriginallyȱmeditatedȱandȱ studied.”6ȱAccordingȱtoȱoneȱscholar,ȱtheȱMah¬yiѼ,ȱGado,ȱandȱVeѰuwunȱ initiallyȱ developedȱ betweenȱ 1875ȱ andȱ 1900ȱ throughȱ theȱ “cumulativeȱ associationȱofȱfollowersȱaroundȱ[particular]ȱleaders,ȱratherȱthanȱasȱcleaȬ vagesȱ resultingȱ fromȱ personalityȱ clashesȱ orȱ vinayaȱ disputes.”7ȱ Theȱ VeѰuwunȱ itselfȱ wasȱ formallyȱ establishedȱ asȱ aȱ nik¬yaȱ inȱ 1919;ȱ atȱ thatȱ time,ȱ memberȱ monksȱ metȱ andȱ appointedȱ aȱ supremeȱ authority,ȱ analoȬ gousȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.8ȱ Theȱ Dv¬raȱ wasȱ establishedȱ inȱ 1855;ȱ likeȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ theyȱ hadȱ theirȱ ownȱ lineȱ ofȱ topȱ leadersȱ knownȱ asȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ andȱ haveȱ beenȱ knownȱ forȱ aȱ similarȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ Vinaya.ȱ Twoȱ otherȱ groupsȱ splinteredȱfromȱtheȱDv¬raȱ(theȱAnautȱChauѼȱDv¬raȱinȱaboutȱ1900ȱandȱ theȱ MĀlaȱ Dv¬raȱ inȱ aboutȱ 1918)ȱ dueȱ toȱ leadershipȱ andȱ otherȱ disputes.9ȱ TheȱnamingȱandȱinitialȱfoundingȱofȱtheȱDv¬raȱareȱinterestingȱinȱandȱofȱ theirȱ ownȱ right.ȱ Theȱ groupȱ becameȱ knownȱ asȱ theȱ Dv¬raȱ becauseȱ ofȱ aȱ particularȱinterpretationȱofȱaȱwellȬknownȱBuddhistȱprayer.ȱTheȱ prayerȱ isȱ“IȱworshipȱtheȱTripleȱGemȱthroughȱtheȱactsȱofȱmyȱbody,ȱthroughȱtheȱ actsȱ ofȱ myȱ speech,ȱ andȱ throughȱ theȱ actsȱ ofȱ myȱ mind.”ȱ Theȱ founderȱ ofȱ theȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ andȱ others,ȱ changedȱ theȱ formulationȱ fromȱ “actsȱ ofȱ myȱ body,”ȱandȱsoȱforth,ȱtoȱ“doorsȱorȱmediumȱ(P.ȱdv¬ra)ȱofȱmyȱbody,”ȱandȱ soȱ forth.10ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Dv¬raȱ initiallyȱ spawnedȱ asȱ aȱ cleavageȱ fromȱ Thudhamm¬ȱmonksȱbecauseȱofȱaȱVinayaȬbasedȱdisputeȱaboutȱtheȱvalidȬ ityȱ ofȱ aȱ particularȱ kindȱ ofȱ boundaryȱ (P.ȱ sÎm¬)ȱ withinȱ whichȱ monasticȱ communityȱtransactionsȱlikeȱhigherȱordinationsȱmustȱbeȱcarriedȱout.11ȱ

InclusionȱandȱExclusionȱamongȱBurmeseȱNik¬yaȱandȱGaingȱ Twoȱofȱtheȱmostȱcommonȱtermsȱusedȱbyȱmonksȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱalikeȱtoȱ referȱtoȱBurmeseȱmonasticȱgroupsȱareȱnik¬yaȱ(aȱPaliȱtermȱthat,ȱdependȬ ingȱ onȱ context,ȱmeansȱ “group,”ȱ“collection,”ȱ “assemblage,”ȱ “class,”ȱorȱ “sect”)ȱ andȱ gaingȱ (guiΦеɇ,ȱ gui%\;,ȱ aȱ Burmeseȱ termȱ derivedȱ fromȱ Paliȱ gaΦa,ȱ whichȱ meansȱ “meeting,”ȱ “chapter,”ȱ “collection,”ȱ orȱ “multitude”).ȱ OfȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 6ȱ 7ȱ 8ȱ 9ȱ 10ȱ

Mendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ107–108,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱp.ȱ10,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱp.ȱ11.ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱp.ȱ10.ȱ SeeȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ89–91,ȱSchoberȱ1989ȱpp.ȱ223–224,ȱTinȱMaungȱ MaungȱThanȱ 1993ȱp.ȱ10,ȱandȱIkunoȱ1987ȱp.ȱ126.ȱ 11ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱp.ȱ10,ȱIkunoȱ1987ȱpp.ȱ126–127.ȱSeeȱMaungȱMaungȱ1989ȱ forȱaȱBurmeseȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱnineȱgaing.ȱȱ

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feringȱaȱpreciseȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱnik¬yaȱandȱgaingȱprovesȱaȱcomplexȱ issueȱsinceȱbothȱmayȱbeȱusedȱinterchangeablyȱbyȱBurmeseȱmonksȱandȱ sinceȱbothȱmayȱimplyȱsimilarȱ“sectarian”ȱcharacteristics.ȱToȱapplyȱFerȬ guson’sȱcommentsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱgaingȱitself,ȱtheseȱmayȱincludeȱȱ aȱsenseȱofȱdistinctȱmonasticȱlineage;ȱaȱwrittenȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱsect’sȱformationȱ andȱtheȱlivesȱofȱitsȱleaders;ȱseparateȱrulesȱbasedȱonȱtheirȱparticularȱinterpreȬ tationȱofȱtheȱVinaya;ȱaȱhierarchicalȱchainȱofȱcommandȱunderȱaȱleader;ȱsomeȱ attemptȱatȱnationalȱcoverageȱinȱtermsȱofȱmemberȱmonasteries;ȱinsistenceȱonȱ separateȱ ordinationȱ rituals[;]ȱ distinctiveȱ interpretationsȱ ofȱ scripture[;]ȱ sometimesȱtheȱrefusalȱtoȱeat,ȱstudy,ȱorȱassociateȱcloselyȱwithȱ[membersȱofȱ otherȱgaing];ȱand,ȱmostȱimportantly,ȱofficialȱrecognitionȱinȱsomeȱfashionȱofȱ theirȱ distinctivenessȱ byȱ royaltyȱ orȱ someȱ branchȱ ofȱ theȱ modernȱ governȬ ment.12ȱȱ

Obviously,ȱ whatȱ weȱ areȱ dealingȱ withȱ hereȱ areȱ degreesȱ ofȱ separationȱ betweenȱ monasticȱ groups,ȱ sometimesȱ emphasizedȱ viaȱ rituals,ȱ someȬ timesȱviaȱtextualȱandȱdoctrinalȱinterpretations,ȱsometimesȱviaȱcommenȬ sality,ȱ sometimesȱ viaȱ otherȱ ways.ȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ mayȱ flagȱ theseȱ deȬ greesȱofȱseparationȱbyȱtheȱtermȱgaingȱorȱbyȱtheȱtermȱnik¬ya.13ȱ However,ȱ itȱ isȱ equallyȱ importantȱ toȱ noteȱ thatȱ onȱ someȱ occasionsȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monasticȱ leadersȱ haveȱ activelyȱ madeȱ attemptsȱ toȱ undermineȱ thoseȱ degreesȱ ofȱ separation.ȱ Aȱ statementȱ attributedȱ toȱ theȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱSayadawȱinȱ1891ȱoffersȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint.ȱHeȱbeginsȱbyȱ notingȱthatȱmonksȱfromȱdifferentȱgaingȱhaveȱnoȱcanonicalȱorȱcommenȬ tarialȱ basisȱ forȱ separatelyȱ performingȱ ceremoniesȱ (suchȱ asȱ protectionȱ ceremoniesȱandȱfunerals)ȱatȱwhichȱlayȱpeopleȱgiveȱalms.ȱInȱtheȱprocess,ȱ heȱinsinuatesȱthatȱmonksȱwhoȱdoȱsoȱareȱunderȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱ“causesȱ ofȱcompetingȱideologies”ȱ(B.ȱviv¬daȱmĀlaȱtar¬ɇȱtuiȇ,ȱwiwfdmUltra;tui> )ȱsuchȱasȱ anger,ȱ bearingȱ aȱ grudge,ȱ andȱ avarice,ȱ allȱ ofȱ whichȱ areȱ conduciveȱ toȱ leadingȱpeopleȱtoȱhellȱ(B.ȱΤaȱrai,ȱcrE).ȱHeȱthenȱnotesȱthatȱtheȱtwoȱHeadsȱofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ (i.e.,ȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ Thudhamm¬)ȱ instructedȱ monksȱ toȱ perȬ formȱ thoseȱ activitiesȱ together.ȱ Drawingȱ onȱ aȱ Vinayaȱ passage,ȱ heȱ sugȬ gestsȱ thatȱ goodȱ monksȱ shouldȱ getȱ ridȱ ofȱ badȱ mentalȱ states,ȱ shouldȱ avoidȱ quarrellingȱ inȱ public,ȱ shouldȱ performȱ theirȱ ceremoniesȱ jointly,ȱ andȱshouldȱeatȱtogether.14ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 12ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱpp.ȱ73–74,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ 13ȱ F.ȱK.ȱLehmanȱsuggestedȱtoȱmeȱthatȱaȱnik¬ya,ȱwhichȱmayȱcontainȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferȬ entȱgaingȱwithinȱit,ȱexcludesȱcommensalityȱbetweenȱcommunitiesȱofȱmonks,ȱwhileȱaȱ gaingȱdoesȱnot.ȱ 14ȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱ Sayadawȱ 1985ȱ pp.ȱ 328–334.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Thanȱ Tunȱ 1988ȱ p.ȱ 162.ȱ Theȱ Vinayaȱ passageȱ isȱ fromȱ theȱ P¬r¬jikakaΦΠaȬaΞΞhakath¬ȱ (dutiyoȱ bh¬go),ȱ 2.ȱ SaΤgh¬disesakaΦΠaΚ.ȱ

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ItȱisȱuncertainȱwhatȱprecipitatedȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬yonȱSayadaw’sȱ statement.ȱ Heȱ refersȱ toȱ someȱ monksȱ andȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theyȱ seemȱ conȬ cernedȱonlyȱwithȱfillingȱtheirȱstomachsȱinȱthisȱlifeȱandȱsoȱmixȱaȱ“mediȬ cineȱleadingȱtoȱhell,”ȱbutȱheȱdoesȱnotȱappearȱtoȱlistȱspecificȱoffendersȱbyȱ name.15ȱ Withȱ hisȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ twoȱ Headsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ hisȱ comȬ mentsȱ areȱ suggestiveȱ thoughȱ notȱ proofȱ ofȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ monks.ȱ Regardless,ȱ theȱ commentsȱ doȱ pointȱ toȱ tenȬ sionsȱ thatȱ heȱ considersȱ simultaneouslyȱ (a)ȱ subversiveȱ toȱ theȱ effectiveȱ transmissionȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱ(b)ȱconduciveȱtoȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱwoeȬ fulȱ statesȱ ofȱ birth.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theȱ tensionsȱ pointȱ toȱ sufferingȱ forȱ one’sȱownȱcontinuityȱasȱmuchȱasȱthatȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Whileȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ contextualȱ issuesȱ areȱ forȱ nowȱ unresolved,ȱ theȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱ Sayadaw’sȱ commentsȱ promptȱ considerationȱ ofȱ sixȱ pointsȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱcomplexitiesȱofȱShwegyinȱinclusivityȱandȱexclusivȬ ity.ȱ First,ȱ thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ andȱ isȱ inȱ presentȬdayȱ Shwegyinȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱanȱincreasedȱemphasisȱonȱgreaterȱdegreesȱofȱmonasticȱinclusivȬ ity,ȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ eatingȱ andȱ otherȱ kindsȱ ofȱ practice,ȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ toȱ preȬ ventȱaȱmonasticȱschismȱthatȱwouldȱleadȱtoȱtheȱcorrosionȱandȱendȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana.ȱTheȱimpetusȱforȱthisȱkindȱofȱunitaryȱemphasisȱisȱtracedȱbackȱtoȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himself.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ causesȱ ofȱ disputeȱ givenȱ byȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ inȱhisȱsermonȱ areȱ inȱ factȱ enumeratedȱ inȱ theȱ ViȬ nayaȬpiΞaka;ȱinȱthatȱbasket,ȱitȱisȱstressedȱthatȱaȱmonkȱwhoȱisȱsoȱdisposedȱ livesȱ withoutȱ respectȱ forȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ Dhamma,ȱ andȱ SaΤgha,ȱ failsȱ toȱ completeȱtheȱtraining,ȱandȱproducesȱaȱdisputeȱthatȱbringsȱaboutȱmisforȬ tuneȱforȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱgods.16ȱAdditionally,ȱthereȱisȱaȱlongȱsectionȱinȱ theȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱaboutȱtheȱfirstȱschismȱcreatedȱbyȱDevadatta,ȱtheȱBudȬ dha’sȱcousin.17ȱVenerableȱUp¬liȱquestionsȱtheȱBuddhaȱaboutȱwhatȱcomȬ prisesȱaȱschism,ȱandȱinȱtheȱanswersȱweȱlearnȱthatȱaȱmonkȱwhoȱdelibeȬ ratelyȱcausesȱaȱschismȱisȱliableȱtoȱgoȱtoȱtheȱlowestȱhellȱandȱsufferȱforȱanȱ eon.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ moreȱ famousȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ whoȱ becameȱ “antiȬ sectarian”ȱ (B.ȱ guiΦеɇȱ citеȱ maȱ rhi,ȱ gui%\;sit\mrHi),ȱ andȱ thusȱ antiȬschismatic,ȱ wasȱ theȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ(1900–1977).ȱInȱoneȱinterestingȱcase,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱapparentlyȱrejectedȱanȱattemptȱtoȱpresentȱaȱShwegyinȱmonkȱwithȱ aȱShwegyinȱtitleȱafterȱpassingȱtheȱTipiΞakadharaȱexaminationȱinȱ1973.ȱHeȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 15ȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱ Sayadawȱ 1985ȱ p.ȱ 328.ȱ Atȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ theȱ statement,ȱ theȱ Sayadawȱprovidesȱaȱlistȱofȱgaing,ȱwhichȱappearȱtoȱbe:ȱShwegyin,ȱThudhamm¬ȱ,ȱKaѴ,ȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ Lajjiȱ Alajjiȱ AȬnyi,ȱ AȬmy¬,ȱ Taw,ȱ Yw¬,ȱ Yedv¬ra,ȱ Konȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ Buddhaȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ andȱBeȬbautȱDv¬ra.ȱ 16ȱ VinȱIIȱp.ȱ89.ȱ 17ȱ VinȱIIȱpp.ȱ199–206.ȱ

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didȱ thatȱ becauseȱ theȱ monkȱ wasȱ toȱ serveȱ theȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ entireȱ S¬sana,ȱnotȱjustȱtheȱShwegyin.18ȱ TheȱsecondȱpointȱthatȱmayȱbeȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬yonȱ Sayadaw’sȱ commentsȱ isȱ thatȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ emphasisȱ onȱ incluȬ sivityȱ isȱ actuallyȱ drivenȱ byȱ ordinaryȱ layȱ peopleȱ ratherȱ thanȱ monks.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ layȱ peopleȱ areȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ awareȱ of—orȱ concernedȱ aboutȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ areȱ awareȱ of—theȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaingȱ affiliationsȱ ofȱ theȱ monksȱwithȱwhomȱtheyȱinteract.ȱAndȱthusȱlayȱpeopleȱwillȱoftenȱinviteȱ monksȱtoȱreceiveȱalmsȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱnik¬yaȱorȱgaingȱaffiliations.ȱForȱ manyȱ layȱ people,ȱ monksȱ areȱ firstȱ andȱ foremostȱ individualsȱ ofȱ “greatȱ glory”ȱ (B.ȱ bhunеɇȱ krÎɇ,ȱ Bun\;~kI;)ȱ andȱ thusȱ alsoȱ greatȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ merit,ȱ ratherȱ than,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ “membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Gaing”ȱ (B.ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱ guiΦеɇȱ s¬ɇ,ȱ erWkjc\ gui%\;qa;).ȱ Withinȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ communityȱ asȱ aȱ whole,ȱsomeȱgroupsȱofȱmonksȱmayȱhaveȱaȱsharpȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱ identityȱasȱdistinctȱfromȱotherȱgroupsȱofȱmonks,ȱbutȱinȱtheȱwiderȱpublicȱ viewȱsuchȱaȱdistinctionȱmayȱbeȱmoot.ȱIndeed,ȱwhenȱqueried,ȱsomeȱlayȱ peopleȱ mayȱ simplyȱ notȱ knowȱ ifȱ aȱ specificȱ monkȱ isȱ Shwegyin,ȱ Thudhamm¬,ȱorȱotherwise.ȱ Third,ȱ actualȱ occurrencesȱ ofȱ eatingȱ andȱ workingȱ togetherȱ areȱ priȬ maryȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtransȬgroupȱinclusivityȱisȱputȱintoȱeverydayȱpracȬ ticeȱ byȱ monksȱ themselves.ȱ Indeed,ȱ mostȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ Iȱ haveȱ talkedȱ toȱ assertȱ thatȱ whileȱ theyȱ mayȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ specificȱ nik¬ya/gaing,ȱ theyȱ areȱ permitted—asȱ warrantedȱ byȱ theȱ occasionȱ atȱ hand—toȱ eatȱ andȱ practiceȱ withȱ monksȱ ofȱ otherȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing.ȱ ShweȬ gyinȱ monks,ȱ likeȱ otherȱ monksȱ inȱ Myanmar,ȱ mayȱ spendȱ muchȱ timeȱ travelingȱtoȱmonasteriesȱorȱschoolsȱbelongingȱtoȱorȱheadedȱbyȱmonksȱofȱ differentȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing;ȱ theyȱ doȱ soȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ studyȱ withȱ renownedȱ monasticȱ teachers.ȱ Moreover,ȱ andȱ thisȱ isȱ trueȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱIȱhaveȱknownȱinȱtheȱinternationalȱcontext,ȱmanyȱwillȱassertȱthatȱ theyȱ areȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ monasticȱ communityȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ distinctionsȱ beȬ tweenȱ monksȱ areȱ ofȱ littleȱ ifȱ anyȱ significance.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ study,ȱ teaching,ȱ andȱ travelȱ patterns,ȱ likeȱ eatingȱ patterns,ȱ oftenȱ subvertȱ sharpȱ monasticȱdivides,ȱorȱareȱusedȱasȱwaysȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱmonasticȱdividesȱ areȱnotȱsoȱgreat.ȱ Fourth,ȱbesidesȱeating,ȱstudying,ȱandȱtravelingȱpractices,ȱtheȱincluȬ siveȱorȱexclusiveȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ(asȱwithȱotherȱmoȬ nasticȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing)ȱ hasȱ alsoȱ restedȱ uponȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ itsȱ membersȱ haveȱ attemptedȱ toȱ formallyȱ assertȱ theirȱ separateȱ statusȱ throughȱ variousȱ publications,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ throughȱ variousȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ activities.ȱ Shwegyinȱ leaders,ȱ administrators,ȱ andȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 18ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱp.ȱ82.ȱ

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theirȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ supportersȱ haveȱ beenȱ extremelyȱ activeȱ inȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ nik¬yaȱ work.ȱ Weȱ canȱ illustrateȱ thisȱ inȱ partȱ withȱ Shwegyinȱ resȬ ponsesȱ toȱ governmentalȱ attemptsȱ inȱ theȱ postȬindependenceȱ periodȱ toȱ establishȱaȱcourtȱsystemȱforȱmonks,ȱ“resultingȱinȱtheȱVinicchayaȬHtanaȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1949,ȱ whichȱ attemptedȱ toȱ returnȱ religiousȱ disputesȱ fromȱ civilȱ courtsȱtoȱtheȱmonkhoodȱforȱsolution,”ȱandȱotherȱjudicialȱinitiatives.19ȱ Initially,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱ(andȱatȱleastȱtheȱDv¬ra)ȱrefusedȱtoȱsubmitȱtoȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ courts,20ȱ thoughȱ inȱ 1954ȱ twoȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ inȬ cludingȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱjoinedȱaȱVinicchayaȱActȱScrutinyȱCommitȬ tee,21ȱ whichȱ ledȱ toȱ anȱ amendmentȱ emphasizingȱ “notȱ ecclesiasticalȱ courtsȱ butȱ tribunalsȱ thatȱ couldȱ bypassȱ theȱ originalȱ townshipȱ courts.”22ȱ Again,ȱ though,ȱ monasticȱ commitment,ȱ includingȱ Shwegyin,ȱ wasȱ notȱ firm.ȱThereȱwereȱmonasticȱprotestsȱinȱtheȱstreetsȱofȱYangon,ȱandȱcomȬ plaintsȱ ofȱ partialityȱ andȱ corruption.23ȱ Inȱ 1960,ȱ anotherȱ governmentalȱ attemptȱwasȱmadeȱtoȱdrawȱonȱeminentȱSayadawsȱtoȱamendȱtheȱact;ȱinȱ 1961,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱputȱforwardȱtheirȱownȱvisionȱofȱamendment,ȱwhichȱ providedȱ forȱ moreȱ flexibilityȱ inȱ monasticȱ rulingsȱ andȱ keepingȱ aȱ caseȱ heardȱbyȱ monksȱ fromȱgoingȱ toȱ layȱcourts.24ȱ Inȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱ continuedȱ toȱ buckȱ theȱ intrusiveȱ andȱ potentiallyȱ destabilizingȱ inȬ terventionsȱofȱlayȱpowerȱoverȱtheirȱownȱorganization.ȱ Asȱ aȱ caseȱ inȱ point,ȱ attentionȱ canȱ beȱ givenȱ toȱ howȱ Mendelsonȱ reȬ countsȱtheȱviewsȱofȱoneȱhisȱinformants.ȱ Theȱ problemȱ wasȱ placedȱ inȱ betterȱ perspectiveȱ whenȱ myȱ kappiyaȱ (layȱ steȬ ward)ȱinformantȱlinkedȱtheȱwholeȱquestionȱofȱecclesiasticalȱcourts,ȱwithȱtheȱ attemptȱ ofȱ theȱ governmentȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ Sanghaȱ Parliamentȱ whichȱ wasȱ toȱ bringȱ democraticȱ selfȬgovernmentȱ toȱ theȱ monks.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ view,ȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱmonksȱwereȱagainstȱtheseȱplansȱbecauseȱtheyȱsmackedȱofȱgovernmentalȱ control,ȱwhetherȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱSanghaȱParliamentȱorȱaȱcourtȱsystem.ȱInȱ theȱoldȱdays,ȱbeforeȱanyȱofȱtheseȱlawsȱwereȱpassed,ȱtheȱmonksȱhadȱbeenȱacȬ customedȱtoȱdecidingȱtheirȱquarrelsȱamongȱthemselves.ȱTheȱ1949ȱecclesiasȬ ticalȱcourtsȱactȱhadȱputȱanȱendȱtoȱthisȱandȱhadȱvestedȱjudgmentȱpowersȱinȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 19ȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ240–241.ȱ 20ȱ Smithȱ1965ȱp.ȱ218.ȱThanȱTunȱ1988ȱp.ȱ176ȱtranslatesȱtheȱofficialȱShwegyinȱposition,ȱasȱ statedȱ byȱ Uȱ Kosallaȱ (Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ 1949–1950).ȱ Uȱ Kosalla’sȱ docuȬ mentȱisȱshortȱandȱessentiallyȱclaimsȱthat,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱtheȱactȱisȱnotȱ necessary.ȱHeȱrefersȱtoȱpreviousȱdeclarationsȱbyȱtopȱShwegyinȱleaders,ȱincludingȱdeȬ cisionȱ4ȱfromȱtheȱSeventhȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱwhichȱitselfȱrefersȱbackȱ toȱ theȱ debateȱ aboutȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ theȱ SaѼghaȱ S¬maggÎȱ (Unionȱ ofȱ Monks).ȱ SeeȱbelowȱforȱcommentsȱonȱtheȱSaѼghaȱS¬maggÎȱandȱtheȱShwegyinȱMeetings.ȱ 21ȱȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱp.ȱ43.ȱ 22ȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ241.ȱ 23ȱ SeeȱSmithȱ1965ȱpp.ȱ219–220,ȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ242.ȱ 24ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱp.ȱ44.ȱ

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monksȱ whomȱ theȱ politiciansȱ inȱ powerȱ alwaysȱ foundȱ someȱ meansȱ ofȱ inȬ fluencing.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ light,ȱ theȱ 1954ȱ amendmentȱ actȱhadȱ beenȱ aȱ throwbackȱ toȱ theȱoldȱprecourtsȱsystemȱandȱhadȱnaturallyȱbeenȱfavoredȱbyȱtheȱmoreȱdisȬ ciplinarianȱShwegyinȱandȱDwayaȱsects.25ȱ

Theȱ observationsȱ hereȱ areȱ consistentȱ withȱ theȱ warinessȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱhaveȱtypicallyȱdisplayedȱtowardȱlayȱandȱnonȬShwegyinȱmonasȬ ticȱcontrol.ȱItȱisȱasȱifȱtheȱattitudeȱamongȱtheȱShwegyinȱisȱthatȱthey,ȱwhoȱ goȱtoȱgreatȱlengthsȱtoȱ“supportȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfromȱwithin,”ȱshouldȱbeȱorȬ ganizedȱ andȱ judgedȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ standardsȱ andȱ percepȬ tionsȱofȱcontinuingȱtheȱS¬sana.26ȱ Theȱfifthȱpointȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱinclusiveȱorȱexclusiveȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱisȱthat,ȱforȱmanyȱmonks,ȱShwegyinȱorȱotherwise,ȱidentityȱasȱaȱ separateȱ nik¬yaȱ hasȱ hingedȱ uponȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ theyȱ performȱ communityȱtransactionsȱ(P.ȱsaΤghaȬkamma)ȱsuchȱasȱhigherȱordinationȱ(P.ȱ upasampad¬)ȱseparatelyȱfromȱmonksȱofȱotherȱnik¬yaȱorȱgaing.27ȱAsȱwillȱbeȱ discussedȱatȱlengthȱinȱchapterȱthree,ȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱisȱcrucialȱforȱ supportingȱtheȱBuddha’sȱS¬sanaȱ“fromȱtheȱinside.”ȱAȱveryȱstrictȱnik¬yaȱ willȱnotȱperformȱitsȱcommunityȱtransactions,ȱandȱespeciallyȱtheȱhigherȱ ordination,ȱ withȱ monksȱ ofȱ otherȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing,ȱ andȱ mayȱ evenȱ assertȱ thatȱtheȱcommunityȱtransactionsȱofȱotherȱnik¬yaȱorȱgaingȱareȱnotȱvalid.ȱ Partȱofȱwhatȱisȱatȱissueȱhereȱisȱwhetherȱmonksȱthinkȱthatȱotherȱmonksȱ haveȱaȱpureȱlineageȱstretchingȱbackȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱorȱareȱproperlyȱemȬ bodyingȱ andȱ transmittingȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ stoodȱ onȱ bothȱsidesȱofȱthisȱissueȱofȱperformingȱhigherȱordinationsȱandȱcommuniȬ tyȱ transactionsȱ withȱ monksȱ ofȱ nonȬShwegyinȱ persuasions.ȱ Theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ wasȱ wellȱ knownȱ andȱ evenȱ criticizedȱ byȱ otherȱ ShweȬ gyinȱmonksȱforȱrecitingȱ“verbalȱacts”ȱ(P.ȱkammav¬c¬)ȱwithȱmonksȱfromȱ otherȱnik¬yaȱorȱgaing.28ȱ AȱveryȱdifferentȱsortȱofȱemphasisȱamongȱShwegyinȱleaders,ȱthough,ȱ hasȱbeenȱevidentȱatȱotherȱtimes,ȱsuchȱasȱduringȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱtheȱ uposatha.ȱTheȱuposathaȱisȱaȱcommunityȱtransactionȱ(P.ȱsaΤghaȬkamma)ȱinȱ whichȱ monksȱ assemble,ȱ confessȱ theirȱ faults,ȱ andȱ thenȱ reciteȱ theȱ p¬Ξimokkhaȱ(theȱPaliȱversionȱofȱtheȱpr¬timokΨaȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱintroducȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 25ȱȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ242–243.ȱ 26ȱ Awaitingȱfutureȱ scholarshipȱ isȱaȱ fullȬlengthȱtreatmentȱofȱ theȱparticipationȱ ofȱ ShweȬ gyinȱmonksȱonȱtheȱStateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommittee.ȱ 27ȱ Communityȱ transactionsȱ requireȱ thatȱ monksȱ reciteȱ verbalȱ actsȱ (P.ȱ kammav¬c¬).ȱ Noȱ partȱofȱaȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱcommunityȱtransacȬ tionȱ sinceȱ theȱ meetingsȱ doȱ notȱ involveȱ theȱ recitationȱ ofȱ verbalȱ acts.ȱ Forȱ kammav¬c¬,ȱ Coneȱ2001ȱp.ȱ642ȱprovidesȱ“theȱstatementȱorȱtextȱofȱanȱofficialȱactȱofȱtheȱsaΤghaȱ(forȱ whichȱsilenceȱisȱassent).”ȱ 28ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱpp.ȱ81–82.ȱ

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tionȱ toȱ thisȱ book).ȱ Asȱ pointedȱ outȱ byȱ Thanissaro,ȱ particularȱ monasticȱ communitiesȱ mayȱ beȱ “veryȱ strictȱ inȱ notȱ allowingȱ anyoneȱ whoȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ bhikkhuȱ[monk]ȱinȱcommonȱaffiliationȱandȱinȱgoodȱstandingȱtoȱ[particȬ ipateȱin]ȱtheirȱtransactionȱmeetings,ȱbutȱtheȱCanonȱrequiresȱthisȱsortȱofȱ strictnessȱonlyȱforȱtwoȱtransactions,”ȱandȱoneȱofȱtheseȱisȱtheȱuposatha.29ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ byȱ refusingȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ uposathaȱ withȱ nonȬ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ mayȱ beȱ emphasizingȱ thatȱ thoseȱ monksȱareȱnotȱinȱgoodȱstanding.ȱ Theȱsixthȱandȱfinalȱpointȱisȱthat,ȱatȱtheirȱmeetingsȱandȱinȱtheirȱpubȬ lications,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ haveȱ atȱ timesȱ droppedȱ theȱ officialȱ designationȱ ofȱ nik¬yaȱ inȱ favorȱ ofȱ theȱ lessȱ exclusiveȱ termȱ gaing,ȱ andȱ atȱ timesȱ theyȱ haveȱ usedȱ bothȱ simultaneously.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ theyȱusedȱbothȱtermsȱinȱ1980ȱwhenȱleadersȱofȱtheȱBurmeseȱstateȱunderȱ Neȱ Win,ȱ inȱ tandemȱ withȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ monksȱ includingȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ triedȱ toȱ reorganizeȱ theȱBurmeseȱmonasticȱcommunityȱ withȱ theȱ aimȱ of,ȱ inȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ parlanceȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ reform,ȱ purifyingȱ (B.ȱ sanеȇȱ rhaΤеɇ,ȱ qn\>r¨c\;),ȱ maintainingȱ (B.ȱ taññеȱ taΚȇ,ȱ tv\t.M),ȱ andȱ spreadingȱ (B.ȱ pranеȇȱ pv¬ɇ,ȱ `pn\>pQa;)ȱtheȱS¬sana.30ȱ Inȱsum,ȱtheȱtermsȱnik¬yaȱandȱgaingȱareȱvariouslyȱusedȱbyȱShwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ toȱ assertȱ varyingȱ degreesȱ ofȱ separationȱ fromȱ oneȱ anotherȱ orȱ toȱ undermineȱ theȱ constructionȱ ofȱ suchȱ divisions.ȱ Forȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱatȱleastȱtwoȱpointsȱareȱevident.ȱFirst,ȱinȱcertainȱcontextsȱtheȱ driveȱ forȱ separate,ȱ exclusiveȱ statusȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ leadershipȱ andȱ adȬ ministrationȱ hasȱ beenȱ andȱ stillȱ isȱ emphasizedȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ maintainȱ aȱ disȬ tinctiveȱ groupȱ identityȱ withinȱ theȱ overallȱ monasticȱ fold.ȱ Second,ȱ itȱ isȱ equallyȱtrueȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱatȱtimesȱtemperedȱtheirȱdriveȱforȱseparate,ȱ exclusiveȱ statusȱ byȱ anȱ effortȱ toȱ showȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ interestedȱ inȱ causingȱaȱmonasticȱschismȱandȱthusȱspeedingȱupȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱrupȬ tureȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheȱShwegyinȱtraditionȱmayȱbeȱaȱnik¬ya,ȱbutȱoneȱnotȱ interestedȱinȱdisruptingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

RecordsȱandȱMeetingsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ FurtherȱilluminationȱaboutȱtheȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱnik¬yaȱwithȱanȱextremelyȱ wellȬdevelopedȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ structureȱ canȱ beȱ gainedȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 29ȱ Thanissaroȱ 2007–2009,ȱ vol.ȱ 2,ȱ p.ȱ 151,ȱ bracketsȱ mine.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ isȱ theȱ invitationȱ (P.ȱ pav¬raΦ¬).ȱ 30ȱ ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱNeȱWinȱreform,ȱseeȱTinȱMaungȱMaungȱThanȱ1993ȱasȱwellȱasȱ Kel¬saȱ 1985.ȱ Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Committee,ȱ seeȱ LuȬ beigtȱ1990.ȱ

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byȱ considerationȱ ofȱ theȱ recordsȱ (B.ȱ mhatеȱ tamеɇ,ȱ mHt\tm\;)ȱ associatedȱ withȱ “Meetingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ Concerningȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ toеȱ luΚɇȱ chuiΤеɇȱ r¬ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱ nik¬yaȱ guiΦеɇȱ luΚɇȱ kyvatеȱ saΤghaеȱ acaññеɇȱ aveɇȱ krÎɇ,ȱqaqnaeta\luM;Suic\ra erWkjc\nikay gui%\;luM;kYt\ qMGa. Asv\;Aew;@kI;).ȱWhenȱconȬ ductingȱmyȱresearch,ȱIȱwasȱsurprisedȱtoȱfindȱthatȱtheȱShwegyinȱmonasȬ teriesȱIȱvisitedȱreadilyȱhadȱonȱhandȱcopiesȱofȱtheȱrecords,ȱinȱpartȱorȱinȱ whole;ȱ Iȱ wasȱ alsoȱ surprisedȱ toȱ findȱ thatȱ leadersȱ atȱ theȱ monasteriesȱ exȬ pressedȱfamiliarityȱwithȱtheirȱcontentȱinȱsubstantiveȱways.ȱThisȱwasȱinȱ partȱ becauseȱ Iȱ didȱ notȱ anticipateȱ theȱlevelȱ ofȱ administrativeȱ effortȱ andȱ unityȱ thatȱ suchȱ records,ȱ andȱ Shwegyinȱ rhetoric,ȱ actuallyȱ pointedȱ to,ȱ particularlyȱ givenȱ whatȱ Iȱ hadȱ comeȱ toȱ learnȱ aboutȱ theȱ propensityȱ ofȱ monksȱ toȱ fragmentȱ intoȱ smallȱ groupsȱ alongȱ localȱ linesȱ ofȱ affiliation,ȱ evenȱinȱtheȱmidstȱofȱassertionsȱofȱunityȱinȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱways.ȱIȱwasȱ alsoȱ struckȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ discussionȱ aboutȱ theȱ materialsȱ seemedȱ toȱ ariseȱ afterȱ doingȱ moreȱ “Buddhist”ȱ thingsȱ likeȱ lookingȱ atȱ skeletonsȱ inȱ cavesȱusedȱforȱmeditating,ȱasȱhappenedȱwithȱsomeȱShwegyinȱmonksȱinȱ Mandalay.ȱ Whetherȱ byȱ myȱ contrivanceȱ orȱ theirs,ȱ discussionsȱ aboutȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrationȱ repeatedlyȱ surfaced,ȱ andȱ theȱ meetingsȱ andȱrecordsȱareȱanȱimportantȱpointȱofȱentryȱintoȱthoseȱdiscussions.ȱ Theȱ recordsȱ themselvesȱ mayȱ beȱ identifiedȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ “local”ȱBurmeseȱethnography.ȱWhileȱtheyȱmayȱlackȱtheȱcriticalȱdistanceȱ andȱwideȱculturalȱanalysisȱassociatedȱwithȱethnographicȱworkȱbyȱconȬ temporaryȱ scholars,ȱ theȱ recordsȱ provideȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ documentary,ȱ biographical,ȱ pictorial,ȱ andȱ oralȱ materialsȱ thatȱ bringȱ toȱ lifeȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ culturalȱ eventsȱ orchestratedȱ aroundȱ aȱ specificȱ nik¬yaȱ andȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ itȱ strivesȱ toȱ enhance.ȱ Indeed,ȱ withȱ theirȱ arrayȱ ofȱ commemorativeȱ sketches,ȱ biographicalȱ articles,ȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱmonks,ȱandȱreferencesȱtoȱPaliȱscriptures,ȱtheȱrecordsȱprovideȱ aȱ literary,ȱ andȱ sometimesȱvisual,ȱfeastȱ regardingȱtheȱShwegyinȱandȱitsȱ administrativeȱlife.ȱ SuchȱBurmeseȱethnographicȱeffortsȱareȱbestȱdescribedȱby,ȱagain,ȱadȬ justingȱ Huxley’sȱ perspectiveȱ towardȱ lineage,ȱ asȱ outlinedȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱ chapter.ȱThatȱis,ȱratherȱthanȱ“lineageȱcases,”ȱtheȱmeetingsȱandȱrecordsȱ are,ȱrespectively,ȱnik¬yaȱ“caseȱpractices”ȱandȱ“caseȱbooks”ȱthatȱlayȱoutȱ theȱstructuresȱofȱgovernance,ȱauthority,ȱandȱdailyȱlifeȱwithinȱtheȱtradiȬ tion.ȱAndȱatȱtheȱinterpretiveȱlevel,ȱweȱmayȱseeȱthemȱasȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱ waysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱabsorbedȱintoȱtheirȱdayȬtoȬdayȱtradiȬ tionalismȱtheȱAïokanȬbasedȱroyalȱtraditionȱofȱpurification.ȱ Toȱ seeȱ theȱ connectionȱ toȱ theȱ royalȱ tradition,ȱ weȱ canȱ recallȱ aȱ fewȱ pointsȱ madeȱ inȱ theȱ introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ study.ȱ Historicallyȱ backedȱ byȱ BuddhistȱkingsȱideallyȱlookingȱoutȱforȱtheȱwelfareȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱ“puriȬ ficationsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(P.ȱS¬sanaȬsuddhi)ȱhaveȱbeenȱpartȱandȱparcelȱofȱ

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theȱ activitiesȱ meantȱ toȱ doȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theseȱ purificationsȱ haveȱ involvedȱ theȱ cullingȱ ofȱ monksȱ deemedȱ toȱ beȱ laxȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱVinayaȱandȱtheȱdispellingȱofȱdoctrineȱdeemedȱtoȱbeȱerroneous,ȱandȱ theyȱareȱwellȱattestedȱtoȱinȱplacesȱlikeȱMyanmar,ȱSriȱLanka,ȱandȱThaiȬ land.ȱ Theȱ mostȱ famousȱ Southeastȱ Asianȱ exampleȱ occurredȱ inȱ lowerȱ Myanmarȱ inȱtheȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱ reignȱofȱKingȱ Dhammaceti,ȱ whereinȱ Monȱ monks,ȱ sentȱ toȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ forȱ reordination,ȱ establishedȱ aȱ lineȱ ofȱ descentȱ thatȱ mostȱ ifȱ notȱ allȱ contemporaryȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ groupsȱ recognizeȱasȱpartȱofȱtheirȱown.ȱSuchȱpurificationsȱhaveȱbeenȱandȱareȱanȱ extensionȱofȱaȱpatternȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱsetȱinȱmotionȱinȱtheȱthirdȱ centuryȱBCEȱbyȱtheȱIndianȱmonarchȱAïokaȱandȱtheȱmonkȱMoggaliputȬ tatissathera.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Buddhistȱ sources,ȱ Aïoka,ȱ withȱ theȱ aidȱ ofȱ Moggaliputtatissathera,ȱexpelledȱaȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱmonksȱforȱhereticalȱ doctrinesȱsuchȱasȱ“eternalism”ȱ(P.ȱsassata).31ȱ Importantly,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱ othersȱ believeȱ thatȱ theȱ councilȱ convenedȱunderȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱMoggaliputtatissatheraȱwithȱtheȱdirectȱ supportȱ ofȱ Aïokaȱ culminatedȱ inȱ theȱ dispatchingȱ ofȱ severalȱ Buddhistȱ emissariesȱtoȱvariousȱplacesȱthroughoutȱwhatȱisȱnowȱcalledȱSouthȱandȱ SoutheastȱAsia.ȱTheȱeldersȱSoѾaȱandȱUttaraȱwentȱtoȱSuvaѾѾabhumÎ,ȱorȱ theȱ regionȱ ofȱ Thaton,ȱ andȱ establishedȱ thereȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theȱ jointȱ imageȱ ofȱ Aïokaȱ andȱ Moggaliputtatissatheraȱ isȱ soȱ importantȱ forȱ monksȱ andȱ othersȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ (and,ȱ oneȱ mayȱ add,ȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ andȱ Thailand)ȱ thatȱ Johnȱ Fergusonȱ hasȱ calledȱ themȱ “archetypalȱ exemplars”ȱ ofȱtheȱ“kingȬmonkȱbonding.”32ȱFerguson’sȱreferenceȱisȱtoȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱ whichȱ theȱ imageȱ ofȱ kingsȱ andȱ monksȱ workingȱ inȱ tandemȱ toȱ achieveȱ reformsȱ recursȱ asȱ aȱ motifȱ inȱ theȱ discoursesȱ andȱ practicesȱ thatȱ concernȱ theȱcontinuationȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ ManyȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱstrategiesȱusedȱbyȱtheȱBritishȱduringȱtheirȱcoȬ lonialȱruleȱusheredȱinȱaȱperiodȱofȱturbulenceȱforȱtheȱabilityȱofȱBurmeseȱ monksȱ andȱ nonȬmonksȱ alikeȱ toȱ sustainȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ BritishȱterminatedȱtheȱinstitutionȱofȱBurmeseȱkingship,ȱlongȱconnectedȱ toȱ theȱ supportȱ andȱ regulationȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ community.ȱ Andȱ theyȱ eventuallyȱeliminatedȱtheȱlegalȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱstateȬsupportedȱleaderȱ ofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity,ȱtheȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAȱcriticalȱmomentȱ cameȱ inȱ 1935,ȱ whenȱ “noȱ lessȱ thanȱ 11ȱ casesȱ decidedȱ sinceȱ 1893ȱ [wereȱ overturned]ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ severȱ theȱ tiesȱ betweenȱ colonialȱ stateȱ andȱ theȱ chiefȱmonk.”33ȱAȱdefinitiveȱpointȱwasȱmade:ȱ“theȱBuddhistȱCommunityȱ inȱBurmaȱandȱtheȱ[chiefȱmonk]ȱandȱtheȱhierarchyȱsetȱupȱbyȱhimȱinȱUpȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 31ȱ Forȱexample,ȱseeȱPhay¬ȱPhyĀȱSayadawȱ1938ȱp.ȱ2.ȱ 32ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ66;ȱseeȱalsoȱFergusonȱ1975.ȱ 33ȱȱ Huxleyȱ2001ȱp.ȱ132,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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perȱ Burmaȱ haveȱ noȱ constitutionalȱ orȱ legalȱ status,ȱ andȱ areȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ positionȱasȱanyȱotherȱreligiousȱbodyȱnotȱestablishedȱbyȱtheȱState.”34ȱAsȱ putȱ byȱ Mendelson,ȱ “noȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ [monastic]ȱ hierarchyȱ thereforeȱ hadȱ anyȱ jurisdictionȱ toȱ determineȱ disputesȱ ofȱ aȱ civilȱ natureȱ whetherȱ amongȱ monksȱ orȱ betweenȱ monksȱ andȱ laymen.”35ȱ Inȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ waysȱ (e.g.,ȱ aȱ turnȱ awayȱ fromȱ supportingȱ monasticȬbasedȱ education),ȱ theȱBritishȱunderminedȱtheȱstabilityȱofȱcertainȱkindsȱofȱcommunalȱactivȬ ityȱlongȱconnectedȱtoȱtheȱpersistenceȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱ Britishȱwereȱperceivedȱtoȱbeȱspeedingȱupȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱdisappearanceȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana.36ȱ Inȱtheȱgrowingȱabsenceȱofȱaȱstrongȱkingȱorȱsimilarȱkindȱofȱpowerfulȱ layȱ authorityȱ orȱ governingȱ bodyȱ thatȱ couldȱ orȱ wouldȱ assumeȱ aȱ directȱ regulatoryȱ roleȱ inȱ monasticȱ affairs,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ responseȱ wasȱ toȱ strengthenȱaȱtrend,ȱinitiatedȱduringȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayaȬ dawȱ himself,ȱ towardȱ creatingȱ specificȱ organizationalȱ structuresȱ meantȱ toȱ beȱ independentȱ ofȱ otherȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ organizations.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱasȱFergusonȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱregulatorȱofȱaȱreformȱprocessȱ leadingȱtoȱgreaterȱfidelityȱtoȱtheȱVinaya,ȱtypicallyȱattributedȱtoȱBuddhistȱ kings,ȱwasȱconsciouslyȱabsorbedȱintoȱtheȱinstitutionalȱstructuresȱofȱtheȱ Shwegyin,ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ dealȱ withȱ theȱ disruptiveȱ politicalȱ andȱ economicȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ British.37ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ dealtȱ withȱ theȱ ruptureȱ ofȱ theȱ politicalȱorderȱbyȱcastingȱitȱasȱpotentiallyȱdevastatingȱtoȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱ turningȱinwardȱforȱitsȱregulatoryȱstructures.ȱ AȱShwegyinȱreportȱinȱ1929ȱcapturesȱtheȱoverallȱsentimentȱwell.ȱTheȱ reportȱ hailedȱ theȱ arrivalȱ ofȱ theȱ Eldersȱ SoѾaȱ andȱ Uttaraȱ andȱ theȱ jointȱ workȱofȱleadingȱmonksȱandȱkingsȱupȱthroughȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱlastȱBurȬ meseȱ king,ȱ Thibaw.ȱ Itȱ thenȱ lamentedȱ theȱ demiseȱ ofȱ politicalȱ supportȱ fromȱ kingsȱ andȱ theȱ layȱ governmentȱ andȱ reaffirmedȱtheȱ vigilanceȱ withȱ whichȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ communityȱ mustȱ itselfȱ workȱ toȱ suppressȱ laxȱ monks.ȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ theȱ reportȱ emphasized,ȱ hadȱ toȱ findȱ waysȱ toȱ organize,ȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administration,ȱ soȱ thatȱ theyȱ couldȱguaranteeȱtoȱoneȱanotherȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱ“pureȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱ [theyȱ observed]ȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ veryȱ strictly.”38ȱ Toȱ effectȱ thisȱ purity,ȱ underȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 34ȱ Fromȱ theȱ 1935ȱ caseȱ Uȱ Pyinnyaȱ Thihaȱ v.ȱ Uȱ Ottama,ȱ asȱ citedȱ byȱ ȱ Huxleyȱ 2001ȱ p.ȱ 132,ȱ bracketsȱinȱoriginal.ȱFollowingȱMendelson,ȱHuxleyȱsuggestsȱthatȱthisȱandȱotherȱrulȬ ingsȱwereȱinȱpartȱaȱreactionȱagainstȱrisingȱtidesȱofȱBurmeseȱnationalism.ȱHuxleyȱpp.ȱ 132–133ȱalsoȱ suggestsȱthatȱtheȱ rulingsȱwereȱretaliationȱfromȱ colonialȱofficersȱ whoseȱ postingsȱtoȱMyanmarȱseverelyȱcurtainedȱtheirȱambitions.ȱ 35ȱȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ192,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ 36ȱ Forȱotherȱdetails,ȱseeȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ179–196ȱandȱSmithȱ1965ȱpp.ȱ38–80.ȱ 37ȱ Fergusonȱ1978.ȱ 38ȱ ThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ61,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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theirȱ ownȱ aegis,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ evolvedȱ inȱ particularȱ ways.ȱ Fergusonȱ offersȱthisȱsummary,ȱdrawingȱfromȱhisȱearlierȱargumentȱaboutȱtheȱrelaȬ tionȱofȱtheȱtermȱsammutiȱ(“goodȱjudge”)ȱtoȱSakka,ȱkingȱofȱgods:ȱȱ FromȱbeingȱaȱtraditionalȱBurmeseȱgaingȱlooselyȱorganizedȱbyȱrespectȱforȱaȱ charismaticȱleader,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱmonksȱevolvedȱintoȱaȱsectȱthat,ȱinȱeffect,ȱ recreatedȱinȱtheȱmodernȱworldȱtheirȱversionȱofȱtheȱidealȱSanghaȱunderȱanȱ idealȱ kingȱ (albeitȱ aȱ heavenlyȱ one),ȱ completeȱ withȱ theȱ officeȱ ofȱ aȱ [Headȱ ofȱ theȱS¬sana].39ȱ

Thisȱclaimȱcanȱbeȱslightlyȱbutȱimportantlyȱadjusted.ȱTheȱShwegyinȱdidȱ notȱsoȱmuchȱbecomeȱunitedȱunderȱaȱheavenlyȱking;ȱrather,ȱtheyȱbecameȱ Aïokaȱforȱthemselves.ȱ Givenȱthisȱ point,ȱ weȱ canȱturnȱ toȱ theȱ meetingsȱ andȱ theirȱassociatedȱ recordsȱandȱaskȱseveralȱquestions.ȱHowȱhaveȱShwegyinȱmonksȱactuallyȱ correlatedȱ theirȱ organizationalȱ structureȱ withȱ classicalȱ Paliȱ andȱ otherȱ textsȱ thatȱ eitherȱ outlineȱ orȱ implyȱ monasticȱ governanceȱ butȱ doȱ littleȱ toȱ specifyȱ theȱ veryȱ wellȬdefinedȱ structuresȱ ofȱ powerȱ andȱ authorityȱ thatȱ operateȱ withinȱ theȱ Shwegyin?ȱ Howȱ isȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ structureȱ actuallyȱ structured?ȱ Howȱ isȱ thatȱ structureȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ promotionȱ ofȱ membershipȱ andȱ disciplineȱ inȱ theȱ nik¬ya?ȱ Howȱdoesȱitȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱlayȱpeople?ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱwhatȱ doȱ theȱ meetingsȱ andȱ recordsȱ tellȱusȱ aboutȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ andȱ itsȱtraditionalism?ȱ

TheȱMeetingsȱandȱtheȱTextsȱ Theȱ meetings,ȱ initiatedȱ inȱ 1920,ȱ areȱ “business”ȱ meetingsȱ inȱ whichȱ Shwegyinȱ“executives”ȱgetȱtogetherȱandȱdecideȱaboutȱtheȱtrajectoriesȱofȱ theirȱnik¬ya.ȱWhileȱtheȱShwegyinȱhadȱexperiencedȱaȱphaseȱofȱconsolidaȬ tionȱ underȱ theȱ Secondȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ (1894–1916),ȱ Shwegyinȱ sourcesȱ highlightȱ twoȱ basicȱ sortsȱ ofȱ claimsȱ aboutȱ theȱ reasonsȱ forȱ theȱ developmentȱandȱuseȱofȱtheȱmeetings.ȱOneȱclaim,ȱimpliedȱabove,ȱisȱthatȱ theȱmeetingsȱwereȱinstitutedȱasȱaȱwayȱinȱwhichȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱ administratorsȱcouldȱhelpȱcounteractȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱbreak,ȱcausedȱbyȱ theȱBritish,ȱinȱtheȱidealȱpatternȱofȱinteractionȱbetweenȱmonasticȱandȱlayȱ elite.ȱAȱsecondȱsortȱofȱclaimȱembeddedȱinȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱgenesisȱofȱtheȱ meetingsȱisȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱinitiallyȱestablishedȱinȱreactionȱtoȱaȱparticuȬ larȱsetȱofȱpoliticalȱissuesȱarisingȱaroundȱtheȱ1920s.ȱ Byȱtheȱearlyȱ1920s,ȱandȱpossiblyȱearlier,ȱaȱpoliticalȱmovementȱcalledȱ theȱSaѼghaȱS¬maggÎȱ(UnionȱofȱMonks),ȱledȱbyȱtheȱBaȱMeȱSayadawȱandȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 39ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ81.ȱ

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otherȱ monks,ȱ beganȱ toȱ appearȱ onȱ theȱ scene.40ȱ Questionsȱ wereȱ beingȱ raisedȱ withinȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ rankȱ andȱ fileȱ aboutȱ whetherȱ toȱ joinȱ theȱ movement,ȱandȱconcernsȱwereȱalsoȱbeingȱraisedȱaboutȱtheȱimplicationsȱ ofȱ itȱ forȱtheȱlongevityȱofȱtheȱorder.ȱAlso,ȱbyȱ 1918,ȱotherȱ questionsȱ hadȱ beenȱ voicedȱ aboutȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱbasedȱinȱUpperȱMyanmar,ȱextendedȱoverȱShwegyinȱ (andȱother)ȱmonksȱinȱLowerȱMyanmar.41ȱTheseȱchallenges,ȱandȱprobaȬ blyȱothers,ȱproducedȱaȱsituationȱthatȱthreatenedȱtoȱbringȱaboutȱtheȱabȬ sorptionȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ intoȱ otherȱ Buddhistȱ organizations.42ȱ Inȱfact,ȱ theȱtimeȱhasȱbeenȱpresentedȱinȱShwegyinȱsourcesȱasȱaȱpointȱatȱ whichȱtheȱorderȱcouldȱhaveȱvanishedȱasȱaȱseparateȱnik¬ya.43ȱ Theȱ Firstȱ Meetingȱ itselfȱ wasȱ thusȱ aȱ wayȱ forȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱtoȱtakeȱaȱfirmȱstandȱonȱtheȱissueȱofȱtheirȱseparateȱidentiȬ tyȱandȱcontrol.ȱAȱclearȱstatementȱonȱthisȱpointȱcameȱfromȱtheȱmeeting:ȱȱ quDm¥aqaqnapuic\% ~qzaAa%akui quDm¥agui%\;wc\ qMGaeta\tui>% ApF | `pn\>NH>M`Kc\;kui yKu Asv\;Aew;@kI;k kn\>kQk\`Kc\;cHf AluimrHi' erWkjc\gu% i \;wc\ qMGaeta\tui> ApF |ka; AyUwfdmtU eqagui%\;qI;gui%\;`Ka;`Ps\& `pn\>N>MH`Kc\; mrHiespE gu% i \;qI;gui%\;`Ka;A`Ps\`Pc\. `mn\mamc\; ASk\Sk\tui> ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 40ȱȱ SeeȱtheȱshortȱhistoricalȱsummaryȱprovidedȱbyȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ 152.ȱSeeȱalsoȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ199–204ȱforȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱfoundingȱdateȱofȱtheȱ SaѼghaȱ S¬maggÎ,ȱ complexitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ movement,ȱ andȱ itsȱ relationȱ toȱ theȱ Generalȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ Associationsȱ (GCBA)ȱ andȱ theȱ nationalistȱ monkȱ Uȱ Ottama.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱSarkisyanzȱ1965ȱpp.ȱ133–134.ȱRegardingȱtheȱGCBAȱandȱtheȱSaѼghaȱS¬maggÎ,ȱIleȬ toȱ1999ȱp.ȱ236ȱprovidesȱtheȱfollowingȱsummary,ȱwhichȱhighlightsȱsomeȱofȱtheȱdevelȬ opments:ȱ “Inȱ Burmaȱ duringȱ theȱ 1920s,ȱ theȱ urbanȱ leadersȱ ofȱ theȱ Generalȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ Associationsȱ (GCBA),ȱ backedȱ byȱ theȱ Generalȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Sanghaȱ Samaggiȱ (GCSS,ȱtheȱmonks’ȱassociation),ȱtookȱtheirȱmessageȱtoȱtheȱcountryside,ȱformingȱruralȱ nationalistȱ associationsȱ calledȱ wunthanuȱ athin.ȱ Inȱ writingsȱ andȱ speechesȱ directedȱ toȱ villageȱaudiences,ȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱlifeȱandȱteachingsȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱwereȱregularlyȱ interspersedȱwithȱtheȱwunthanuȱpoliticalȱmessage.”ȱ 41ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ152.ȱAsȱhighlightedȱinȱthisȱRecord,ȱtheȱquestionȱ had,ȱforȱexample,ȱbeenȱraisedȱduringȱaȱmeetingȱofȱtheȱYoungȱMen’sȱBuddhistȱAssoȬ ciationȱ(YMBA)ȱinȱMawlamyaingȱonȱOctoberȱ22,ȱ1918.ȱForȱdiscussionsȱofȱtheȱYMBA,ȱ seeȱ Mendelsonȱ 1975ȱ pp.ȱ 197–198,ȱ 200,ȱ 202,ȱ 278,ȱ 348;ȱ Smithȱ 1965ȱ pp.ȱ 86–87,ȱ 91–92;ȱ Charneyȱ 2009ȱ pp.ȱ 31,ȱ 38;ȱ andȱ Sarkisyanzȱ 1965ȱ pp.ȱ 128–132.ȱ Smithȱ 1965ȱ p.ȱ 91ȱ notesȱ thatȱ byȱ “1914ȱ theȱ YMBAȱ beganȱ toȱ pressȱ forȱ theȱ extensionȱ ofȱ theȱ thathanabaing’sȱ [HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana’s]ȱecclesiasticalȱjurisdictionȱtoȱLowerȱBurma.”ȱȱ 42ȱ Oneȱwondersȱwhetherȱtheȱrapidȱchangeȱinȱtheȱtopȱleadershipȱ ofȱtheȱShwegyinȱalsoȱ hadȱanȱimpact.ȱUponȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱSayadawȱinȱ1916,ȱleaderȬ shipȱ ofȱtheȱnik¬yaȱwasȱpassedȱtoȱtwoȱjointȱleaders,ȱtheȱDipeyinȱandȱtheȱKyaikkasanȱ Sayadaws,ȱrepresentingȱUpperȱandȱLowerȱMyanmar.ȱTheȱKyaikkasanȱpassedȱawayȱ inȱ1918,ȱandȱtheȱShwegyinȱdidȱnotȱreturnȱtoȱaȱdualȱleadershipȱstructure,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱ topȱpositions.ȱ 43ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ152.ȱ

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AqiAmHt\#pqv\.nv\;Atuic\; `pv\puic\Asui;rmc\;mja;klv\; AqiAmHt\#pesrn\ Atv\ #p SuM;`Pt\ luk \i q \ v\'44ȱ Thisȱpresentȱmeetingȱ[ofȱShwegyinȱmonks]ȱdoesȱnotȱobjectȱtoȱtheȱspreadȱofȱ theȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱoverȱmembersȱofȱtheȱ Thudhamm¬ȱGaing.ȱHowever,ȱbecauseȱweȱareȱaȱseparateȱgroupȱwithȱaȱdifȬ ferentȱ ideology,ȱ weȱ doȱ notȱ allowȱ itȱ toȱ spreadȱ overȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱ Gaing.ȱ Inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ recognitionȱ thatȱ theȱ successionsȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱkingsȱ[gaveȱtoȱus]ȱinȱtermsȱofȱbeingȱanȱindependentȱgaing,ȱweȱdeȬ cideȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱlayȱgovernmentȱacknowledgeȱ[this].ȱȱ

Theȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱ“successionsȱofȱBurmeseȱkings”ȱisȱaboveȱallȱaȱreferȬ enceȱ toȱ Mindonȱ andȱ Thibawȱ andȱ isȱ meantȱ toȱ legitimateȱ Shwegyinȱ efȬ fortsȱ toȱ controlȱ theirȱ ownȱ fateȱ asȱ aȱ separateȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing.ȱ Aȱ similarȱ statementȱwasȱmadeȱinȱregardȱtoȱinformingȱtheȱYoungȱMen’sȱBuddhistȱ AssociationȱandȱtheȱlargerȱconstituenciesȱofȱBurmeseȱsociety,45ȱandȱbothȱ theseȱandȱotherȱadministrativeȱmovesȱbecameȱaȱbasisȱforȱtheȱShwegyinȱ argumentȱthatȱitȱwasȱitsȱownȱsaΤghaȬs¬maggÎ.46ȱThisȱtypeȱofȱassertionȱofȱ itsȱownȱregulatoryȱcontrolȱhasȱpersistedȱupȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱday,ȱevenȱinȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ theȱ 1980ȱ reforms/reorganizationȱ underȱ Neȱ Win.47ȱ Indeed,ȱ atȱtheȱFirstȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱaȱbasicȱpatternȱofȱleaderȬ shipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ practiceȱ wasȱ formallyȱ asserted:ȱ aȱ meetingȱ wouldȱprovideȱtheȱcollectiveȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱleadersȱandȱadminisȬ tratorsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ couldȱ dealȱ withȱ problemsȱ regardingȱ organizationȱandȱregulation,ȱwhateverȱtheyȱmightȱbe.48ȱ Accordingȱ toȱShwegyinȱrecords,ȱ Shwegyinȱmonksȱdecidedȱ toȱ holdȱ eachȱ successiveȱ meetingȱ onceȱ everyȱ threeȱ years,ȱ onȱ aȱ dateȱ thatȱ coinȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 44ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ269.ȱ 45ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ269.ȱ 46ȱ InȱNovemberȱ1921,ȱtheȱDipeyinȱSayadaw,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱȱ(1916– 1927),ȱ issuedȱ aȱ statementȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ saidȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ needȱ notȱ joinȱ aȱ saΤghaȬs¬maggÎȱbecauseȱtheȱShwegyinȱwasȱalreadyȱitsȱownȱsaΤghaȬs¬maggÎ.ȱTheȱnonȬ politicalȱ emphasisȱ ofȱ theȱ statementȱ isȱ hardȱ toȱ miss:ȱ “Membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ shallȱ takeȱ itȱ uponȱ themselvesȱ theȱ dutyȱ toȱ preachȱ religionȱ toȱ layȱ peopleȱ toȱ promoteȱpeaceȱandȱtoȱeliminateȱsinȱ(asȱmuchȱasȱpossibleȱamongȱtheȱcommonȱpeople)ȱ andȱitȱisȱbelievedȱthatȱtheȱotherȱSa΢ghaȱS¬maggÎȱwouldȱbeȱdoingȱtheȱsame.ȱThereȱisȱ noȱ precedenceȱ thatȱ theȱ sameȱ oldȱ workȱ shouldȱ beȱ doneȱ byȱ formingȱ newȱ organisaȬ tions.ȱTheȱonlyȱthingȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱdoneȱisȱthatȱtheȱoldȱorganizationȱputȱmoreȱzestȱ inȱcarryingȱoutȱtheȱsameȱgoodȱoldȱprogramme.“ȱ(ThanȱTunȱ1988ȱpp.ȱ174–175.)ȱHowȬ ever,ȱheȱdidȱleaveȱopenȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱShwegyinȱmonksȱparticipatingȱinȱtheȱactiviȬ tiesȱofȱotherȱsaΤghaȬs¬maggÎs,ȱifȱsuchȱparticipationȱdidȱnotȱcompromiseȱtheȱShwegyinȱ ethos.ȱ 47ȱ SeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ233–254.ȱ 48ȱ TheȱreaderȱcanȱnoteȱthatȱthereȱareȱotherȱkindsȱofȱShwegyinȱinstitutionalȱmeetingsȱasȱ well.ȱForȱrepresentativeȱexamples,ȱseeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982.ȱ

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cidedȱwithȱtheȱdeathȱmemorialȱofȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.49ȱInȱthisȱ way,ȱtheȱinstitutionalȱmeetingsȱwouldȱdoubleȱasȱcommemorativeȱoccaȬ sionsȱ forȱ theȱ founderȱ ofȱ theȱ nik¬ya.ȱ Thisȱ decisionȱ wasȱ soonȱ amended,ȱ however,ȱ andȱ theȱ meetingsȱ beganȱ toȱ beȱ heldȱ onlyȱ whenȱ deemedȱ apȬ propriateȱ orȱ whenȱ resourcesȱ wereȱ availableȱ toȱ holdȱ theȱ meetings.50ȱ Overall,ȱtheȱmeetingsȱ(seeȱappendixȱB,ȱtableȱ2)ȱreflectȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ beyondȱ itsȱ strongholdȱ centeredȱ inȱ andȱ aroundȱ Mandalay,ȱwhereȱfiveȱ(1–3,ȱ5,ȱ10)ȱofȱtheȱmeetingsȱhaveȱbeenȱheld.ȱThreeȱ meetingsȱ (7,ȱ 15,ȱ 16)ȱ haveȱ beenȱ heldȱ inȱ placesȱ inȱ theȱ Shanȱ State;51ȱ andȱ severalȱ meetingsȱ (e.g.,ȱ 6,ȱ 9,ȱ 11,ȱ 12)ȱ haveȱ beenȱ heldȱ inȱ partsȱ ofȱ Lowerȱ Myanmar,ȱ includingȱ Peguȱ andȱ Mawlamyaing,ȱ theȱ areaȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Tawyaȱdeveloped.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ outcomesȱ ofȱ theȱ meetingsȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ publication,ȱ reȬ publication,ȱ andȱ circulationȱ ofȱ meetingȱ records.ȱ Theȱ meetingȱ recordsȱ constituteȱ attemptsȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ leaders,ȱ administrators,ȱ andȱ theirȱ supportersȱtoȱdocumentȱShwegyinȱeffortsȱtoȱmaintainȱtheirȱconnectionȱ toȱtheȱBuddhistȱpastȱthroughȱcultivatingȱtheirȱmutualȱgrowthȱwithȱoneȱ anotherȱ inȱ theȱ present.ȱ Theȱ recordȱ forȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ (1999),ȱ givenȱtoȱmeȱbyȱtheȱSitaguȱSayadawȱinȱSagaing,ȱmayȱbeȱtakenȱasȱaȱrepȬ resentativeȱexample.52ȱ TheȱprefaceȱtoȱtheȱrecordȱopensȱwithȱhistoricalȱnotesȱonȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ (identifiedȱ asȱ aȱ “greatȱ gaing”)ȱ andȱ withȱ quotationsȱ fromȱ Paliȱ canonicalȱ sourcesȱ (seeȱ below).ȱ Thenȱ theȱ recordȱprovidesȱ aȱ pictureȱ ofȱ aȱ goldenȱ imageȱ ofȱ theȱ Firstȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadawȱ sittingȱ inȱ aȱ classicȱ representationȱ ofȱ meditativeȱ tranquility:ȱ theȱ Sayadawȱ sitsȱ withȱ backȱ straight,ȱ legsȱ crossed,ȱ eyesȱ slightlyȱ closed.ȱ Hisȱ armsȱ andȱ handsȱ restȱ easilyȱoverȱhisȱlegs,ȱandȱtheȱtipsȱofȱhisȱfingersȱonȱhisȱrightȱhandȱdrapeȱ downȱ andȱ touchȱ theȱ platformȱ onȱ whichȱ heȱ sits,ȱ asȱ ifȱ heȱ dispensesȱ theȱ snippetsȱofȱadviceȱonȱtheȱnextȱpages.ȱBiographicalȱsketchesȱofȱtheȱvariȬ ousȱShwegyinȱHeadsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfollow.ȱ TheȱrecordȱthenȱoffersȱselectedȱmeetingȬrelatedȱdocuments,ȱincludȬ ingȱ listsȱ ofȱ theȱ speechesȱ andȱ presentationsȱ givenȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ andȱlayȱsupporters;ȱselectedȱspeechesȱgivenȱbyȱShwegyinȱleaders;ȱaȱlistȱ ofȱ monksȱ appointedȱ toȱ theȱ positionȱ ofȱ Seniorȱ Authorityȱ (P.ȱ RattaññĀȱ mah¬n¬yaka)ȱandȱtheirȱqualifications;ȱaȱlistȱofȱmonksȱappointedȱtoȱvariȬ ousȱ otherȱ positions,ȱ includingȱ Executiveȱ Officersȱ (B.ȱ GuiΦеɇȱ luΚɇȱ van‘ȱ choΤеȱn¬yaka,ȱgui%\;luM;wn\eSac\ nayk);ȱaȱschematicȱoutlineȱandȱdescriptionȱofȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 49ȱ 50ȱ 51ȱ 52ȱ

RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ268,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ55.ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ274,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ57.ȱ TheȱShanȱStateȱisȱlocatedȱtoȱtheȱeastȱofȱwhatȱisȱnowȱcalledȱMandalayȱdivision.ȱ TheȱsourceȱisȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000.ȱ

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theȱ organizationalȱ structureȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya;ȱ theȱ rulesȱ forȱ apȬ pointingȱExecutiveȱOfficers,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱExecutiveȱSecretariesȱ (B.ȱ Akyuiɇȱ choΤе,ȱAkjio;eSac\)ȱandȱAssociateȱExecutiveȱSecretariesȱ(B.ȱTvaiȱphakеȱakyuiɇȱ choΤе,ȱtQEPk\Akjio;eSac\),ȱallȱworkingȱunderȱtheȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtheȱ Associateȱ Headsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ theȱ decisionsȱ passedȱ atȱ theȱ meeting;ȱ statisticsȱregardingȱShwegyinȱmembership;ȱlettersȱfromȱleadingȱmonksȱ whoȱ wereȱ unableȱ toȱ attendȱ theȱ meeting;ȱ newspaperȱ clippings,ȱ inȱ BurȬ meseȱ andȱ inȱ English,ȱ whichȱ summarizeȱ theȱ proceedingsȱ andȱ provideȱ theȱnamesȱandȱranksȱofȱtheȱtopȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱasȱwellȱasȱofȱattendȬ ingȱ militaryȱ andȱ governmentȱ personnel;ȱ andȱ picturesȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱ eventsȱandȱparticipants.ȱ TheȱrecordȱforȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱisȱtypicalȱ ofȱ meetingȱ records,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ concernsȱ theȱ structure,ȱ character,ȱ andȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ who,ȱ aidedȱ byȱ theȱ supportȱ ofȱ layȱpeople,ȱprotectȱ(B.ȱcoΤеȇȱrkokе,ȱesac\.er¨ak\)ȱandȱrestrainȱ(B.ȱsimеɇȱchaññеɇ,ȱ qim\;Sv\;)ȱtheirȱnik¬yaȱinȱwaysȱthatȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱbeȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱ theȱwillȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱhisȱS¬sana,ȱandȱparticularlyȱtheȱVinaya.ȱ RelationsȱwithȱClassicalȱPaliȱandȱOtherȱSourcesȱ TheȱmeetingȱrecordsȱareȱinȱfactȱsaturatedȱwithȱS¬sanaȱtextualȱmaterialsȱ quiteȱ oftenȱ drawnȱ directlyȱ fromȱ theȱ Paliȱ canonȱ itself.ȱ Importantly,ȱ theȱ quotationsȱ ofȱ andȱ referencesȱ toȱ Paliȱ andȱ relatedȱ materialsȱ areȱ usedȱ toȱ tryȱ toȱ establishȱ aȱ strongȱ linkȱ betweenȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ theȱ holdingȱ ofȱ theȱ meetings,ȱ theȱ resolutionȱ ofȱ particularȱ monasticȱ problems,ȱ andȱ “doingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ pru,ȱ qaqna#p).ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ meetingȱ recordsȱ themselvesȱ isȱ demonȬ stratedȱ wellȱinȱ aȱ decisionȱ fromȱ theȱ Eleventhȱ Meetingȱ (1975).ȱ Theȱ deciȬ sionȱunderȱconsiderationȱcitesȱaȱfewȱlinesȱfromȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱregardȬ ingȱaȱconversationȱbetweenȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱaȱmonk.ȱ naȱmayaΚȱapaññattaΚȱpaññ¬pess¬ma,ȱpaññattaΚȱv¬ȱnaȱsamucchindiss¬ma,ȱyath¬ȱ paññattesuȱsikkh¬padesuȱsam¬d¬yaȱvattiss¬ma.ȱ s¬dhuȱ s¬dhuȱ upasenaȱ apaññattaΚȱ naȱ paññ¬petabbaΚ,ȱ paññattaΚȱ v¬ȱ naȱ samucchinditabbaΚ,ȱyath¬ȱpaññattesuȱsikkh¬padesuȱsam¬d¬yaȱvattitabbaΚ.53ȱ [Upasena:]ȱWeȱwillȱnotȱmakeȱknownȱwhatȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱmadeȱknown,ȱandȱ weȱwillȱnotȱabolishȱwhatȱhasȱbeenȱmadeȱknown;ȱweȱwillȱdwellȱinȱconformiȬ tyȱwithȱtheȱtrainingȱcodesȱjustȱasȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱmadeȱknown.ȱ [TheȱBuddha:]ȱVeryȱgood,ȱUpasena,ȱwhatȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱmadeȱknownȱisȱnotȱ toȱbeȱmadeȱknown,ȱwhatȱhasȱbeenȱmadeȱknownȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱabolished.ȱOneȱ isȱ toȱ dwellȱ inȱ conformityȱ withȱ theȱ trainingȱ codesȱ justȱ asȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ madeȱknown.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 53ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱEleventhȱMeetingȱ1977ȱp.ȱ4;ȱVinȱIIIȱp.ȱ231.ȱ

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Next,ȱ theȱ decisionȱ indicatesȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ assignedȱ variousȱ monasteriesȱtheȱtaskȱofȱcompilingȱmanualsȱforȱwhatȱwasȱpermittedȱandȱ notȱ permittedȱ byȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ manualsȱ wasȱ publishedȱ inȱ 1982ȱwithȱtheȱrecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ(1980).ȱTheȱmanualȱbeganȱ withȱaȱBurmeseȱexplanationȱofȱaȱPaliȱphrase,ȱkulaȬdĀsaka:ȱȱ kuldUqk' lUtui>% qd™fss\kui rhn\;% mekac\;eqaAkjc\.`Pc\. Pjt\SI;tt\eqa rhn\;kui eKF %"54ȱ AȱkulaȬdĀsakaȱisȱaȱmonkȱ(B.ȱrahanеɇ,ȱrhn\;)ȱwhoȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱdestroyȱtheȱpureȱ faithȱofȱlayȱpeople,ȱetc.,ȱbyȱmeansȱofȱhisȱbadȱbehavior.ȱ

Anȱimpliedȱpointȱhereȱisȱthis:ȱaȱkulaȬdĀsakaȱcouldȱundermineȱtheȱabilityȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ toȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ cultivateȱ layȱ support,ȱ therebyȱ destabilizingȱ Shwegyinȱ effortsȱ toȱ sustainȱ theȱ vitalityȱ ofȱ theirȱ nik¬yaȱandȱS¬sana.ȱ Anotherȱ exampleȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ recordsȱ isȱ foundȱinȱtheȱrecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeeting.ȱTheȱrecordȱofȱthatȱmeetingȱ indicatesȱthatȱtheȱmeetingȱopenedȱwithȱrecitationsȱofȱcertainȱPaliȱverses,ȱ whichȱbegin:ȱȱ s¬sanassaȱcaȱlokassaȱvuddhÎȱbhavatuȱsabbad¬.ȱs¬sanampiȱcaȱlokañcaȱdev¬ȱrakkantuȱ sabbad¬.55ȱȱ MayȱthereȱalwaysȱbeȱprosperityȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtheȱworld.ȱMayȱtheȱgodsȱ alwaysȱprotectȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtheȱworld.ȱȱ

Whenȱ askedȱ whetherȱ theȱ Paliȱ linesȱ hadȱ anyȱ rootȱ texts,ȱ anȱ Executiveȱ Officer,ȱ Uȱ Thutivara,ȱ atȱMah¬dhammik¬r¬maȱmonasteryȱinformedȱmeȱ thatȱtheȱlinesȱwereȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱaȱworkȱonȱprotectiveȱtexts,ȱcomposedȱ byȱanotherȱShwegyinȱmonk,ȱseveralȱyearsȱearlier.56ȱWhileȱitȱisȱimpossiȬ bleȱ toȱ know,ȱ precisely,ȱ whichȱ“root”ȱ sourcesȱ wereȱ inȱ theȱ mindsȱ ofȱ theȱ monksȱ andȱ othersȱ whoȱ compiledȱ andȱ publishedȱ theȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ FifȬ teenthȱMeeting,ȱorȱinȱtheȱmindsȱofȱmonksȱwhoȱapparentlyȱrecitedȱthemȱ atȱ theȱ meetingȱ itself,ȱ thereȱ isȱ atȱ leastȱ oneȱ vitallyȱ importantȱ pointȱ here.ȱ Likeȱ otherȱ monks,ȱ manyȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ doȱ notȱ viewȱ theirȱ workȱ ofȱ sustainingȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ solelyȱ humanȱ affair.ȱ Inȱ theȱ conventionalȱ Buddhistȱvisionȱofȱtheȱcosmos,ȱthereȱareȱmanyȱbeingsȱthatȱareȱbeyondȱ normalȱ everydayȱ perceptionȱ (e.g.,ȱ theȱ gods),ȱ butȱ theyȱ areȱ potentiallyȱ availableȱtoȱhelpȱassistȱinȱtransmittingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAnd,ȱtheȱidealȱcosmoȬ logicalȱsituationȱisȱoneȱinȱwhichȱgods,ȱlikeȱotherȱgroupsȱacrossȱtheȱreliȬ gious,ȱpolitical,ȱandȱcosmologicalȱspectrum,ȱsupportȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 54ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ339–358.ȱ 55ȱ SeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ70.ȱ 56ȱ V¬seҁҁh¬bhivaѴsaȱ1979ȱp.ȱ2.ȱ

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FurtherȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȬorientedȱnatureȱofȱtheȱrecordsȱdealȱ withȱtheȱfactȱthatȱforȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱtheȱPaliȱcanonȱandȱtheȱBuddhaȱ himselfȱreallyȱdoȱmandateȱtheȱ holdingȱ ofȱ theȱ meetingsȱandȱ theirȱassoȬ ciatedȱactivities.ȱTheȱrecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱprovidesȱaȱcaseȱinȱ point.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ openingȱ pages,ȱ theȱ recordȱ statesȱ thatȱ monksȱ haveȱ severalȱ duties—includingȱ toȱ studyȱ (P.ȱ pariyattiȬganthaȬdhura),ȱ toȱ meditateȱ (P.ȱ paΞipattiȬvipassan¬Ȭdhura),ȱandȱtoȱbeȱmessengersȱofȱtheȱBuddha’sȱDhamȬ maȱ (P.ȱ dhammaȬdhĀta).ȱ Theȱ recordȱ thenȱ statesȱ thatȱ theȱ “advancing”ȱ ofȱ theȱ “greatȱ Shwegyinȱ Gaing”ȱ isȱ dueȱ toȱ theȱ consultationsȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱandȱadministrators;ȱmakingȱofȱdecisionsȱbyȱleadersȱandȱadminȬ istrators;ȱadherenceȱtoȱthoseȱdecisionsȱbyȱShwegyinȱmonks;ȱandȱfollowȬ ingȱtheȱadmonishmentsȱofȱelderȱShwegyinȱmonksȱwhoȱareȱtheȱleadingȱ authorities.ȱ Importantly,ȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ identifyingȱ theseȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ advancingȱ ofȱ theȱ greatȱ Shwegyinȱ Gaing,ȱ theȱ recordȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ suchȱ conditionsȱ areȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ Paliȱ teachings,ȱ suchȱasȱthisȱquotationȱfromȱtheȱDhammapadaȱ(versesȱofȱDhamma):ȱȱ sukh¬ȱsaΤghassaȱs¬maggÎ,ȱsamagg¬naΚȱtapoȱsukho.57ȱȱ Theȱconcordȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱisȱsukhaȱ(joyful);ȱtheȱasceticȱpracȬ ticeȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱinȱconcordȱisȱ[also]ȱsukha.58ȱȱ

Asȱaȱrepresentativeȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlineȱ“theȱconcordȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱ communityȱ isȱ sukha”ȱ hasȱ beenȱ reflectedȱ uponȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ attentionȱcanȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱoneȱofȱtheȱaddressesȱinȱtheȱrecordȱofȱtheȱFifȬ teenthȱ Meeting.59ȱ Inȱ theȱ address,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱ ÑeyyaȬ dhamm¬bhivaѴsaȱ citesȱ theȱ Paliȱ phraseȱ “theȱ concordȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ isȱ sukha”ȱ andȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ teachingȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ monasticȱ unityȱ (B.ȱ ññÎȱ ññvatе,ȱ vIvQt)\ ȱ isȱ extremelyȱ imporȬ tant.ȱHeȱthenȱexplicitlyȱconnectsȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱtoȱtheȱthemeȱofȱ monasticȱ unity;ȱ thenȱ unityȱ toȱ wellȬbeingȱ (B.ȱ khyamеɇȱ s¬,ȱ Kjm\;qa);ȱ thenȱ wellȬbeingȱ toȱ meritȱ (P.ȱ kusala)ȱ ofȱ bothȱ monksȱ andȱ theirȱ layȱ supportersȱ alike;ȱ andȱ lastly,ȱ meritȱ toȱ joyȱ (B.ȱ vamеɇȱ mrokе,ȱ wm\;e`mak\).ȱ Feelingsȱ ofȱ joy,ȱ rootedȱ inȱ theȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ karmicȱ benefit,ȱ areȱ positiveȱ mentalȱ statesȱ thatȱ canȱ helpȱ spurȱ individualsȱ onȱ toȱ actsȱ ofȱ kindnessȱ andȱ generosity,ȱ especiallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱlookingȱafterȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱandȱareȱactuallyȱaȱbasisȱ ofȱreachingȱnibb¬na,ȱaȱsubjectȱaddressedȱfurtherȱinȱchapterȱfour.ȱ AlongȱwithȱtheȱlineȱfromȱtheȱDhammapada,ȱtheȱopeningȱpartȱofȱtheȱ recordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱalsoȱcitesȱanotherȱsetȱofȱselections,ȱfromȱ theȱMah¬parinibb¬naȱSutta;ȱthisȱisȱaȱnarrativeȱthatȱrecountsȱtheȱfinalȱdaysȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 57ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱka.ȱ 58ȱȱ CarterȱandȱPalihawadana,ȱtrans.,ȱ1987ȱpp.ȱ250–251,ȱprovideȱ“Joyful,ȱtoo,ȱtheȱconcordȱ ofȱtheȱSaѼgha.ȱJoyful,ȱtheȱaustereȱpracticeȱofȱthoseȱinȱconcord.”ȱ 59ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ99.ȱ

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ofȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱpassingȱofȱhisȱrelicsȱtoȱ theȱlayȱcommunity.ȱSpecifiȬ cally,ȱtheȱselectionsȱusedȱinȱtheȱrecordȱareȱfromȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱMah¬pariȬ nibb¬naȱSuttaȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱvariousȱconditionsȱthatȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱ prosperityȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.ȱ y¬vakÎvañcaȱbhikkhaveȱbhikkhĀȱabhiΦhaΚȱsannip¬t¬ȱbhavissantiȱsannip¬tabahul¬,ȱ vuddhiyevaȱbhikkhaveȱbhikkhĀnaΚȱp¬ΞikaΤkh¬ȱnoȱparih¬ni.ȱ y¬vakÎvañcaȱ bhikkhaveȱ bhikkhĀȱ yeȱ teȱ bhukkhĀȱ ther¬ȱ rattaññĀȱ cirapabbajit¬ȱ saΤghapitaroȱ saΤghapariΦ¬yak¬,ȱ teȱ sakkarissantiȱ garuΚȱ karissantiȱ m¬nessantiȱ pĀjessanti,ȱ tesañcaȱ sotabbaΚȱ maññissanti,ȱ vuddhiyevaȱ bhikkhaveȱ bhikkhĀnaΚȱ p¬ΞikaΤkh¬ȱnoȱparih¬ni.60ȱ [Theȱ Buddhaȱ said:]ȱ Oȱ monks,ȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ monksȱ willȱ repeatedlyȱ andȱ freȬ quentlyȱassemble,ȱtheȱincrease,ȱindeed,ȱOȱmonks,ȱofȱtheȱmonksȱisȱtoȱbeȱexȬ pected,ȱnotȱtheȱdiminution.ȱ Oȱmonks,ȱasȱlongȱasȱmonksȱwillȱhonor,ȱesteem,ȱrevere,ȱandȱworshipȱthoseȱ monksȱ whoȱ areȱ elders,ȱ experienced,ȱ ofȱ longȱ standing,ȱ theȱ fathersȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱcommunity,ȱtheȱleadersȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity,ȱandȱbearȱinȱ mindȱtheirȱwords,ȱtheȱincrease,ȱindeed,ȱOȱmonks,ȱofȱtheȱmonksȱisȱtoȱbeȱexȬ pected,ȱnotȱtheȱdiminution.61ȱ

Theseȱselectionsȱstressȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱcollectiveȱmonasticȱeffortȱoverȱ time;ȱ theyȱ emphasizeȱ aboveȱ allȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ jointȱ effortȱ amongȱ leadersȱandȱtheirȱsubordinates.ȱ Inȱ sum,ȱ then,ȱ theȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ depictsȱ aȱ worldviewȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ advice,ȱ setȱ outȱ inȱ suchȱ sourcesȱ likeȱ theȱDhammapadaȱandȱtheȱMah¬parinibb¬naȱSutta,ȱmeansȱaȱgreatȱdeal.ȱInȱ fact,ȱtheȱPaliȱselections,ȱ asȱwellȱasȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ commentsȱthatȱ accomȬ panyȱ them,ȱ expressȱ severalȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱ intrinsicȱ toȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ aȱ properlyȱ orderedȱ monasticȱ groupȱ thatȱ isȱ capableȱofȱtransmittingȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheseȱaspectsȱconsistȱofȱpreservationȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ teachingsȱ andȱ wishes;ȱ concordȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ comȬ munity;ȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ monasticȱ practice;ȱ aȱ benevolentȱ paternalism;ȱ andȱ obedience.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ preservingȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ teachingsȱ andȱ wishes,ȱ theȱ Paliȱ passages,ȱ alongȱ withȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ comments,ȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ meetings,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ decisionsȱ madeȱ atȱ them,ȱ areȱ basedȱ uponȱ andȱderiveȱfromȱ theȱadviceȱ ofȱtheȱBuddhaȱhimself.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱmonasticȱconcordȱandȱpractice,ȱtheȱpassagesȱpositionȱtheȱmeetingsȱasȱ toolsȱthroughȱwhichȱmonksȱcanȱpreserveȱtheirȱunityȱandȱasceticȱfocus.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 60ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱk¬;ȱDȱIIȱpp.ȱ76–77.ȱ 61ȱȱ RhysȱDavids,ȱtrans.,ȱ1968ȱpp.ȱ6–7ȱprovidesȱ“Soȱlong,ȱOȱmendicants,ȱasȱtheȱbrethrenȱ meetȱtogetherȱinȱfullȱandȱfrequentȱassembliesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsoȱlongȱasȱtheȱbrethrenȱhonourȱandȱ esteemȱ andȱ revereȱ andȱ supportȱ theȱ eldersȱ ofȱ experienceȱ andȱ longȱ standing,ȱ theȱ faȬ thersȱandȱleadersȱofȱtheȱorder,ȱandȱholdȱitȱaȱpointȱofȱdutyȱtoȱhearkenȱtoȱtheirȱwordsȱȱȱ .ȱ.ȱ.ȱsoȱlongȱmayȱtheȱbrethrenȱbeȱexpected,ȱnotȱtoȱdecline,ȱbutȱtoȱprosper.”ȱ

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Inȱ termsȱofȱbenevolentȱ paternalism,ȱ theȱ passagesȱ implyȱthatȱ theȱ meetȬ ingsȱasȱaȱwholeȱareȱaȱdrivingȱforceȱbehindȱtheȱproliferationȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱ community.ȱ Lastly,ȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ obedience,ȱ theȱ Paliȱ passagesȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ commentsȱ implyȱ thatȱ forȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ theirȱ monasticȱ dutiesȱ withoutȱ breakingȱ theirȱ concord,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ obeyȱ theirȱ leadersȱandȱadministrators.ȱInȱ allȱ ofȱ theseȱ ways,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ canȱ ensureȱtheirȱincreaseȱandȱpreventȱtheirȱdiminution.ȱ TheȱHierarchyȱofȱShwegyinȱLeadersȱandȱAdministratorsȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Shwegyinȱ meetingȱ records,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ hierarchyȱ hasȱ undergoneȱ manyȱ transformationsȱ inȱ anȱ attemptȱ adjustȱ toȱ theȱ requireȬ mentsȱofȱexpansion,ȱconsolidation,ȱandȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱtheȱnik¬ya.ȱToȱ highlightȱtheȱkindsȱofȱtransformationsȱthatȱhaveȱbeenȱatȱplay,ȱitȱsufficesȱ toȱ concentrateȱ onȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ structuresȱ duringȱ theȱ earlyȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱnik¬yaȱandȱmoreȱrecently.ȱ Betweenȱ1894ȱandȱ1916,ȱduringȱtheȱruleȱofȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadawȱ(SecondȱShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana),ȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ developedȱ aȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrativeȱ structureȱ thatȱ consistedȱ ofȱ fiveȱ basicȱ levelsȱ (appendixȱ B,ȱ tableȱ 3).62ȱ Atȱ theȱ topmostȱ levelȱ wereȱ monksȱidentifiedȱasȱSeniorȱLeadersȱ(B.ȱyɇȱcÎɇȱakrÎɇȱn¬yaka,ȱVI;sI;A@kI;nayk),ȱ structurallyȱ equivalentȱ toȱ presentȬdayȱ Seniorȱ Authoritiesȱ (P.ȱ RattaññĀȱ mah¬n¬yaka).ȱ Theȱ secondȱ Shwegyinȱ leadership/administrativeȱ levelȱ consistedȱ ofȱ monksȱ calledȱ Guardiansȱ ofȱ theȱ GaΦaȱ (P.ȱ GaΦap¬laka,ȱ GaΦarakkha),ȱparallelȱtoȱpresentȬdayȱUkkaΞΞhaȱ(presiding)ȱSayadaws.ȱTheȱ Guardiansȱ ofȱ theȱ GaΦa,ȱ ledȱ byȱ theȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadaw,ȱ heldȱ “proprietaryȱ authority”ȱ (B.ȱ ¬Φ¬ȱ puiΤе,ȱ Aa%apuic\)ȱ overȱ Shwegyinȱ monks.ȱ TheȱnextȱthreeȱlevelsȱofȱtheȱhierarchyȱconsistedȱofȱaȱseriesȱofȱotherȱleadȬ ersȱandȱadministratorsȱwhoȱpresidedȱ overȱindividualȱmonasteriesȱ andȱ monasticȱcourts;ȱtheseȱincludedȱLocalȱLeadersȱ (B.ȱGuiΦеɇȱkhyupе,ȱgui%\;Kjop\),ȱ DeputyȱLeadersȱ (B.ȱGuiΦеɇȱupе,ȱgui%\;Aup)\ ,ȱandȱAssistantȱLeadersȱ (B.ȱGuiΦеɇȱ thokе,ȱ gui%\;eTak\).63ȱ Assistantȱ Leadersȱ consistedȱ ofȱ bothȱ administrativeȱ assistantsȱandȱVinayaȱjudges.ȱ Inȱ keepingȱ withȱ theirȱ ongoingȱ effortsȱ toȱ maintainȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ wereȱ aȱ separateȱ nik¬yaȱ orȱ gaing,ȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ adoptedȱ aȱ similarȱ structureȱ atȱ theȱ Firstȱ Meetingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱinȱ1920.ȱTheȱfirstȱfourȱdecisionsȱofȱtheȱFirstȱMeetingȱdealȱexpliȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 62ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ148.ȱ 63ȱȱ Mendelsonȱ1975ȱp.ȱ163ȱprovidesȱdifferentȱtranslationsȱofȱtheseȱterms:ȱ“districtȱofficȬ er,”ȱ “subdistrictȱ officer,”ȱ andȱ “assistantȱ toȱ subdistrictȱ officer,”ȱ respectively.ȱ Inȱ Pali,ȱ Localȱ Leadersȱ areȱ N¬yaka,ȱ Deputyȱ Leadersȱ areȱ Upan¬yaka,ȱ andȱ Assistantȱ Leadersȱ areȱAnun¬yaka.ȱ

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citlyȱ withȱ theȱ basicȱ levelsȱofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ hierarchy,ȱ indicativeȱ ofȱ theȱ potentiallyȱdestabilizingȱtimesȱfacedȱbyȱtheȱnik¬ya.ȱDecisionȱ1ȱconcernsȱ SeniorȱAuthorities,ȱthatȱis,ȱolderȱmonksȱwhoȱhaveȱperformedȱShwegyinȱ monasticȱdutiesȱforȱaȱlengthyȱperiodȱofȱtime;ȱtheȱdecisionȱlists,ȱinȱorderȱ ofȱseniority,ȱ theȱtwentyȱSayadawsȱelevatedȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱSeniorȱ AuȬ thority;ȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱSayadaw,ȱwhoseȱbiographyȱwasȱaddressedȱinȱ chapterȱone,ȱwasȱsixthȱinȱtheȱlist.ȱDecisionȱ2ȱconcernsȱtheȱappointmentȱ ofȱtheȱPresidingȱAuthority,ȱanotherȱtermȱforȱtheȱShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana.ȱ Itȱ statesȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ alongȱ withȱ theȱ Seniorȱ AuthoriȬ ties,ȱ appointedȱ theȱ Dipeyinȱ Sayadawȱ toȱ theȱ positionȱ ofȱ Presidingȱ AuȬ thority.64ȱDecisionȱ3ȱfocusesȱonȱmonksȱcalledȱGuardiansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ(P.ȱ GaΦap¬la).ȱItȱrequiresȱShwegyinȱmonksȱinȱaȱgivenȱregionȱtoȱformȱintoȱanȱ administrativeȱ districtȱ andȱ toȱ selectȱ aȱ monkȱ forȱ theȱ positionȱ ofȱ GuarȬ dianȱofȱtheȱGaΦa,ȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱactsȱasȱanȱadviserȱregardingȱShwegyinȱ customȱandȱrule.ȱThisȱmonk’sȱcandidacyȱwouldȱthenȱneedȱtoȱbeȱsubmitȬ tedȱ toȱ theȱ Presidingȱ Authorityȱ forȱ confirmation.65ȱ Decisionȱ 4ȱ turnsȱ toȱ theȱ appointmentȱ ofȱ otherȱ administrators,ȱ whoȱ areȱ identifiedȱ asȱ GuarȬ diansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ(P.ȱGaΦarakkha,ȱhereȱinȱdistinctionȱtoȱGaΦap¬la),ȱincludȬ ingȱ Localȱ Leaders,ȱ Deputyȱ Leaders,ȱ andȱ Assistantȱ Leadersȱ (whoȱ inȬ cludeȱ administrators,ȱ Vinayaȱ judges,ȱ andȱ thoseȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ theȱ uposatha).66ȱ ToȱhelpȱcharacterizeȱtheȱShwegyinȱhierarchyȱasȱitȱisȱoutlinedȱinȱtheȱ decisionsȱofȱtheȱFirstȱMeeting,ȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱemphasizeȱtwoȱpoints.ȱ First,ȱ notȱ onlyȱ theȱ initialȱ fourȱ decisionsȱ butȱ alsoȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ remainingȱ decisionsȱ dealȱ withȱ theȱ institutionalȱ dutiesȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ inȱ variousȱ ways.ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ areȱ toȱ maintain,ȱ compile,ȱ andȱ publishȱ ordinationȱ andȱ membershipȱ records.ȱTheyȱareȱtoȱdisciplineȱorȱexpelȱmonks.ȱTheyȱareȱtoȱpresideȱoverȱ courtsȱinȱorderȱtoȱresolveȱdisputesȱbetweenȱShwegyinȱmonks.ȱTheyȱareȱ toȱ holdȱ yearlyȱ examinationsȱ concerningȱ theȱ Vinaya.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ toȱ holdȱ meetings,ȱ andȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ appropriateȱ peopleȱ knowȱ andȱ recogȬ nizeȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ positionȱ regardingȱ itsȱ ownȱ statusȱ asȱ aȱ separateȱ community.67ȱSecond,ȱtheȱdecisionsȱinvestȱtopȱleadersȱandȱadministraȬ torsȱ withȱaȱconsiderableȱ degreeȱ ofȱauthorityȱoverȱtheȱShwegyinȱ groupȱ asȱaȱwhole.ȱForȱexample,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱdecisions,ȱtheȱPresidingȱAuȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 64ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ266;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ53.ȱ 65ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ266;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ53–54.ȱ 66ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ267;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ54.ȱInȱhisȱEnglishȱrendiȬ tionȱofȱtheȱBurmese,ȱThanȱTunȱdoesȱnotȱmentionȱtheȱuposatha.ȱ 67ȱ Forȱdetails,ȱseeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ266–271;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ54– 56.ȱ

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thorityȱhimselfȱhadȱtheȱfinalȱsayȱoverȱtheȱappointmentsȱtoȱmanyȱShweȬ gyinȱadministrativeȱpositions.ȱ Sinceȱtheȱ1920ȱmeeting,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱhierarchyȱhasȱunȬ dergoneȱmanyȱtransformations,ȱmostȱofȱwhichȱareȱbeyondȱtheȱscopeȱofȱ thisȱdiscussion.68ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱusefulȱtoȱhighlightȱaȱfewȱadjustmentsȱinȱ leadershipȱandȱadministrativeȱstructureȱandȱpracticeȱthatȱbearȱdirectlyȱ uponȱmoreȱpresentȬdayȱdynamicsȱofȱShwegyinȱorganization.ȱAsȱarticuȬ latedȱ inȱ theȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱFifteenthȱ Meeting,ȱ andȱasȱbornȱ outȱ inȱ ShweȬ gyinȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ discourseȱ andȱ practice,ȱ aȱ majorȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ centralȱ Shwegyinȱ administrativeȱ hierarchyȱ consistsȱ ofȱ aȱ fewȱ topȱ leadersȱ (theȱ UkkaΞΞhaȱorȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱUpaȬukkaΞΞhaȱorȱAssociateȱHeadsȱofȱ theȱS¬sana);ȱaȱrecentlyȱexpandedȱbodyȱofȱExecutiveȱOfficers;ȱaȱfewȱExȬ ecutiveȱ Secretaries;ȱ and,ȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ Associateȱ Executiveȱ Secretariesȱ (seeȱ appendixȱ A,ȱ figureȱ 3).ȱ Theȱ variousȱ Executiveȱ Secretariesȱ areȱ apȬ pointedȱbyȱtheȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfromȱtheȱbodyȱofȱExecutiveȱOfficers.ȱ Theȱ Associateȱ Headsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ areȱ appointedȱ byȱ theȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱandȱassumeȱcontrolȱofȱShwegyinȱaffairsȱwhenȱheȱisȱunableȱtoȱdoȱ so.ȱ Additionally,ȱ whenȱ theȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ passesȱ away,ȱ Associateȱ HeadsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ succeedȱhimȱinȱorderȱ ofȱ seniority,ȱ determinedȱbyȱtheȱlengthȱofȱtimeȱinȱrobes.ȱTheȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱ hisȱAssociateȱHeadsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱareȱtoȱbeȱassistedȱdirectlyȱbyȱtheȱvariȬ ousȱ Executiveȱ Secretariesȱ whoȱ aidȱ inȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ customsȱandȱrules,ȱasȱwellȱasȱbyȱtheȱExecutiveȱOfficers.ȱ Atȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ itselfȱ aȱ detailedȱ manifestoȱ forȱ theȱ apȬ pointmentȱofȱExecutiveȱOfficersȱwasȱconfirmed.ȱTheȱmanifestoȱisȱpubȬ lishedȱinȱtheȱrecordȱofȱtheȱmeeting,ȱwhereȱitȱwasȱpresentedȱasȱanȱextenȬ sionȱ ofȱ anotherȱ decision,ȱ madeȱ atȱ theȱ Seventhȱ Meetingȱ (1947)ȱ toȱ establishȱanȱexecutiveȱboardȱworkingȱunderȱtheȱPresidingȱAuthorityȱatȱ Mandalay.69ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱmanifesto,ȱExecutiveȱOfficersȱareȱtoȱhaveȱ fourȱ qualities:ȱ theyȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ ordainedȱ forȱ atȱ leastȱ twentyȱ years;ȱ theyȱ mustȱ workȱ towardȱ theȱ thrivingȱ (B.ȱ krÎɇȱ pv¬ɇȱ tuiɇȱ takеȱ reɇ,ȱ @kI;pQa;tui;tk\er;)ȱ andȱ unityȱ (B.ȱ caññеɇȱ luΚɇȱ ññÎȱ ññvatеȱ reɇ,ȱ sv\;luM;vIvQt\er;)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya;ȱ theyȱ mustȱ fulfillȱ theȱ responsibilitiesȱ (B.ȱ t¬ȱ wanе,ȱ tawn\)ȱ thatȱ areȱ givenȱtoȱthemȱbyȱhigherȱrankingȱmonks;ȱandȱbeingȱlearnedȱ(P.ȱbyatta),ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 68ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ 1947ȱ atȱ theȱ Seventhȱ Meetingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱpassedȱaȱprovisionalȱconstitution.ȱTheȱconstitutionȱhasȱservedȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱ basesȱofȱShwegyinȱorganization.ȱAȱpublishedȱversionȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱwasȱConstiȬ tutionalȱOrderȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱGaingȱ1948.ȱForȱaȱtranslation,ȱseeȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ85– 93.ȱ 69ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ298.ȱAccordingȱtoȱShwegyinȱrecords,ȱtheȱexecuȬ tiveȱ boardȱ wasȱ formedȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ atȱ theȱ Eighthȱ Meetingȱ (1953),ȱ withȱ nineȱ Shwegyinȱmonksȱappointed.ȱ(RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ303).ȱ

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competentȱ (P.ȱ paΞibala),ȱ andȱ desirousȱ forȱ theȱ trainingȱ codesȱ (P.ȱ sikkh¬Ȭ k¬ma),ȱ theyȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ garnerȱ theȱ respectȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ monks.ȱ Theirȱ specificȱ dutiesȱ includeȱ mediatingȱ mandatesȱ fromȱ topȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ toȱ otherȱ monksȱ andȱ novices,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ communicatingȱ toȱ topȱ Shwegyinȱleadersȱissuesȱconcerningȱtheirȱparticularȱlocalities.ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theseȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ (e.g.,ȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ Executiveȱ Officers,ȱ etc.),ȱ theȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ presentsȱ theȱ qualificationsȱ ofȱ Seniorȱ Authorities,ȱ who,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ severalȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ withȱ whomȱ Iȱ spoke,ȱ continueȱ toȱ occupyȱ aȱ topmostȱ butȱ largelyȱ honorificȱ level.ȱ Regardlessȱ ofȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ leaderȬ shipȱandȱadministrativeȱinfluencesȱthatȱtheseȱSeniorȱAuthoritiesȱmayȱorȱ mayȱnotȱexertȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱageȱorȱotherȱreasons,ȱitȱisȱworthwhileȱtoȱ detailȱtheȱqualitiesȱthatȱareȱrequiredȱforȱthemȱtoȱbeȱappointedȱasȱSeniorȱ Authorities.ȱ Theȱ qualitiesȱ attributedȱ toȱ Seniorȱ Authoritiesȱ depictȱ theȱ typesȱofȱidealȱpracticeȱandȱdispositionȱthatȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱflourishingȱ (B.ȱkrÎɇȱpv¬ɇȱtuiɇȱtakе,ȱ@kI;pQa;tui;tk\)ȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱespeciallyȱinȱitsȱShwegyinȱ mode.ȱFirstȱandȱforemost,ȱSeniorȱAuthoritiesȱmustȱbeȱrenunciantsȱforȱaȱ lengthyȱ periodȱ ofȱ time;ȱ asȱ resolvedȱ atȱtheȱ Seventhȱ Meetingȱ (1947),ȱ theȱ ageȱrequirementȱwasȱfortyȱyearsȱorȱmoreȱinȱtheȱrobes,ȱbutȱthisȱwasȱoffiȬ ciallyȱ uppedȱ atȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ inȱ 1999ȱ toȱ fiftyȱ yearsȱ orȱ more.70ȱ Seniorȱ Authoritiesȱ areȱ alsoȱ requiredȱ toȱ beȱ devotedȱ toȱ andȱ knowledgeȬ ableȱaboutȱtheȱShwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱinȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱextremelyȱreȬ verentȱtowardȱShwegyinȱrules,ȱhavingȱworkedȱdiligentlyȱforȱShwegyinȱ prosperity.ȱAdditionally,ȱSeniorȱAuthoritiesȱareȱrequiredȱtoȱbeȱdesirousȱ ofȱ followingȱ theȱ trainingȱ codesȱ (P.ȱ sikkh¬Ȭk¬ma),ȱ reverentȱ towardȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ(P.ȱvinayaȬgaruka),ȱandȱashamedȱtoȱdestroyȱtheȱcodesȱofȱmonasticȱ conductȱ (P.ȱ lajjÎȬpesala;ȱ moreȱ literally,ȱ lajjÎ,ȱ feelingȱ shame,ȱ pesala,ȱ wellȱ behaved)ȱthatȱtieȱthemȱtoȱsupportingȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfromȱtheȱinside.71ȱ(Seeȱ appendixȱB,ȱtablesȱ7ȱandȱ8,ȱforȱtheȱcompleteȱlistsȱofȱExecutiveȱOfficersȱ andȱSeniorȱAuthorities,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeeting.)ȱ Theseȱ briefȱ detailsȱ aboutȱ Shwegyinȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrationȱ highlightȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱtoȱspecifyȱ theȱ characterȱ of—andȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ existenceȱ of—theirȱ hierarchy.ȱ Inȱ makingȱthoseȱefforts,ȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱbelieveȱthatȱ theyȱ continueȱ toȱ actȱ muchȱ likeȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ mostȱ reveredȱ successors.ȱ Thisȱ pointȱ isȱ vividlyȱ highlightedȱ notȱ onlyȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱandȱadministratorsȱoftenȱencourageȱoneȱanotherȱandȱShwegyinȱ monksȱasȱaȱwholeȱtoȱemulateȱUp¬liȱ(theȱVinayaȱmaster),ȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱtheȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 70ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ202.ȱTheȱreasonsȱforȱtheȱchangeȱremainȱunclear.ȱ 71ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ297;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ66;ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱ Meetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ156.ȱ

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factȱthatȱtheȱPaliȱtermȱDhammasen¬patiȱ(GeneralȱofȱtheȱDhamma),ȱwhichȱ isȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ titleȱ ofȱ theȱ currentȱ Shwegyinȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ isȱ anȱ epithetȱofȱS¬riputta,ȱtheȱBuddha’sȱdiscipleȬsonȱforemostȱinȱtheȱwisdomȱ associatedȱwithȱtheȱAbhidhamma.ȱ KeepingȱTrackȱofȱShwegyinȱMembershipȱ ToȱaidȱinȱunderstandingȱtheȱexpansionȱorȱcontractionȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱmonitorȱtheȱthrivingȱ(orȱ lackȱofȱtheȱthriving)ȱofȱtheirȱnik¬yaȱby,ȱinȱpart,ȱkeepingȱmembershipȱandȱ otherȱ records.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ whenȱ heȱ succeededȱ Ashinȱ J¬gara,ȱ theȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱ Sayadawȱ isȱ creditedȱ withȱ developingȱ aȱ registraȬ tionȱ systemȱ focusingȱ onȱ theȱ specificȱ formsȱ ofȱ pariyattiȱ andȱ paΞipattiȱ inȱ whichȱaȱgivenȱmonkȱwasȱengaged.ȱPariyattiȱconsistedȱofȱvariousȱcategoȬ ries,ȱ includingȱ daytimeȱ andȱ nighttimeȱ lecturesȱ andȱ study,ȱ recitations,ȱ andȱmemorizations.ȱPaΞipattiȱtooȱconsistedȱofȱseveralȱcategories,ȱincludȬ ingȱmeditation,ȱaustereȱpractices,ȱwaterȱofferings,ȱflowerȱofferings,ȱandȱ dailyȱrecitations.72ȱInȱ1920,ȱaȱdecisionȱwasȱpassedȱatȱtheȱFirstȱMeetingȱtoȱ ensureȱthat,ȱinȱaccordȱwithȱaȱbookȱcalledȱSafeguardingȱtheȱShwegyinȱLineȬ age,ȱ registrationȱ listsȱ wouldȱ beȱ keptȱ concerningȱ theȱ numbersȱ andȱ purȬ suitsȱ ofȱ novicesȱ andȱ fullȱ monks.73ȱ Theȱ decisionȱ alsoȱ requiredȱ thatȱ theȱ relevantȱinformationȱbeȱforwardedȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱrainsȱretreatȱ (P.ȱvassa)ȱtoȱtheȱcentralȱhierarchy.74ȱAnotherȱdecisionȱofȱtheȱFirstȱMeetȬ ingȱaddedȱthatȱordinationȱlistsȱwereȱtoȱbeȱkeptȱandȱalsoȱsentȱtoȱtheȱtopȱ ShwegyinȱleadersȱinȱMandalayȱusingȱtheȱappropriateȱforms.75ȱ Anȱ officialȱ registrationȱ bookletȱ isȱ anotherȱ exampleȱ ofȱ recordȱ keepȬ ingȱ thatȱ demonstratesȱ concernsȱ forȱ monitoringȱ theȱ thrivingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ publishedȱ inȱ 1948ȱ andȱ calledȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱS¬sanaȱPurityȱBook.76ȱTheȱPurityȱBookȱincludedȱinformationȱaboutȱ aȱrespectiveȱmonk’sȱname,ȱnoviceȱordination,ȱordinationȱasȱaȱfullȱmonk,ȱ monasteryȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ andȱ anyȱ monasteryȱ atȱ whichȱ heȱ hadȱ soughtȱ resiȬ dence.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theȱ bookȱ distilledȱ theȱ majorȱ rulesȱ andȱ regulationsȱ thatȱShwegyinȱnovicesȱandȱmonksȱwereȱtoȱstudyȱandȱfollow.77ȱAccordȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 72ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ54.ȱ 73ȱ Aȱ recentlyȱ publishedȱ versionȱ ofȱ Safeguardingȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Lineageȱ isȱ Variousȱ ShweȬ gyinȱSayadawsȱ2003,ȱwhichȱisȱavailableȱatȱMah¬vithuddh¬yonȱmonasteryȱinȱMandaȬ lay.ȱ 74ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ267.ȱ 75ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ268;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ54–55.ȱ 76ȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱS¬sanaȱPurityȱBookȱ1948;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ78–84.ȱ 77ȱ Forȱexample,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱS¬sanaȱPurityȱBookȱ1948ȱrequiredȱmonksȱtoȱfollowȱ theȱregulationsȱinȱJ¬garaȱandȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱSayadawȱ1966.ȱ

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ingȱ toȱ meetingȱ recordsȱ andȱ decisions,ȱ theȱ Purityȱ Bookȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ asȱ theȱ standardȱ wayȱ ofȱ registeringȱ Shwegyinȱ monks.ȱ Decisionȱ 12aȱ ofȱ theȱ Ninthȱ Meetingȱ (1957)ȱ requiresȱ allȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ toȱ haveȱ theȱ Purityȱ Bookȱ inȱ theirȱ possession.78ȱ Decisionȱ 3aȱ ofȱ theȱ Tenthȱ Meetingȱ (1963)ȱ reȬ questsȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱacknowledgeȱtheȱvalidityȱofȱtheȱPurityȱBook,79ȱ andȱDecisionȱ3bȱaddsȱthatȱcertainȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱ wereȱ permittedȱ toȱ reviseȱ theȱ Purityȱ Bookȱ asȱ needed.80ȱ Theȱ Purityȱ Bookȱ wasȱinȱuseȱasȱaȱShwegyinȱregistrationȱbookȱuntilȱatȱleastȱ1980,ȱwhenȱtheȱ Neȱ Winȱ reformsȱ began.ȱ Atȱ present,ȱ allȱ Burmeseȱmonks,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ included,ȱ mustȱ haveȱ inȱ theirȱ possessionȱ aȱ registrationȱ cardȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ vaΤеȱ mhatеȱ tamеɇ,ȱ qaqnawc\mHt\tm\;,ȱ lit.,ȱ “recordȱ ofȱ entryȱ intoȱ theȱ S¬sana”),ȱ andȱtheȱmilitaryȱgovernmentȱhasȱsucceededȱinȱthisȱregard.81ȱ Theȱmannerȱofȱsubmittingȱregistrationȱlistsȱandȱpopulationȱfiguresȱ toȱheadȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱinȱMandalayȱhasȱbeenȱfurtherȱmodȬ ified.ȱForȱexample,ȱDecisionȱ10ȱofȱtheȱTenthȱMeetingȱsupplementsȱtwoȱ decisions—Decisionȱ5ȱofȱtheȱFirstȱMeetingȱ(1920)ȱandȱDecisionȱ25ȱofȱtheȱ Seventhȱ Meetingȱ (1947)—withȱ fourȱ featuresȱ intendedȱ toȱ facilitateȱ theȱ collectionȱandȱsubmissionȱofȱtheȱregistrationȱforms.82ȱTheȱfeaturesȱconȬ cernȱtheȱtimeȱwhenȱtheȱformsȱareȱsubmitted,ȱtheȱgroupingȱofȱmonasteȬ riesȱ andȱ monasticȱ examinationȱ centersȱ intoȱ units,ȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ aȱ committeeȱ toȱ collectȱ andȱ submitȱ theȱ registrationȱ recordsȱ ofȱ eachȱ unit,ȱ andȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱusingȱtheȱproperȱformȱforȱtheȱrecords.83ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ concernȱ withȱ registrationȱ recordsȱ andȱ populationȱ figuresȱ isȱ public.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ individualȱ recordsȱ ofȱ eachȱ meetingȱ haveȱ beenȱpublishedȱforȱcirculationȱamongȱShwegyinȱmonasteries,ȱtheyȱhaveȱ includedȱmembershipȱasȱwellȱasȱotherȱstatisticalȱfigures.ȱToȱgetȱaȱsenseȱ ofȱhowȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱhaveȱpostedȱmembershipȱ statisticsȱinȱtheȱmeetingȱrecords,ȱattentionȱcanȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱinformationȱ fromȱtheȱrecordsȱofȱtheȱSecondȱandȱFifteenthȱMeetingsȱ(seeȱappendixȱB,ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 78ȱ 79ȱ 80ȱ 81ȱ

RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ309.ȱ Iȱhaveȱnotȱfoundȱoutȱifȱtheȱgovernmentȱofficiallyȱrespondedȱtoȱthisȱrequest.ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ315;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ45–46.ȱ Regardingȱ theȱ discontinuationȱ ofȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ Purityȱ Book,ȱ differentȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ haveȱ providedȱ differentȱ dates.ȱ Williamȱ Pruittȱ hasȱ commentedȱ thatȱ “thereȱ isȱ nothingȱinȱtheȱVinayaȱtoȱrequireȱanythingȱlikeȱaȱPurityȱBookȱandȱthatȱforȱthisȱsortȱofȱ ruleȱtheȱSaΤghaȱhasȱtoȱrelyȱonȱtheȱgovernment”ȱ(privateȱcommunication).ȱ 82ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ generalȱ Shwegyinȱ pushȱ forȱ internalȱ regulationȱ thatȱ developedȱ sinceȱtheȱoriginsȱofȱtheȱnik¬yaȱunderȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw,ȱtheȱ1963ȱdecisionȱ canȱinȱpartȱbeȱseenȱagainstȱtheȱbackdropȱofȱpoliticalȱeventsȱbuildingȱsinceȱ1949,ȱwhenȱ theȱ governmentȱ introducedȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Registrationȱ Act,ȱ whichȱ providedȱ thatȱ allȱ people,ȱlayȱandȱmonasticȱalike,ȱwouldȱneedȱidentityȱcards.ȱForȱdetails,ȱseeȱThanȱTunȱ 1980ȱpp.ȱ44–45,ȱMendelsonȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ342–344,ȱandȱSmithȱ1965ȱp.ȱ216.ȱ 83ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ317;ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ75.ȱ

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tablesȱ 4ȱ andȱ 5).ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theseȱ figures,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ hasȱ experiencedȱ overȱ theȱ yearsȱ aȱ majorȱ increaseȱ inȱ itsȱ membership.ȱ Theȱ figuresȱsuggestȱthatȱinȱ1999ȱtheȱnik¬yaȱhadȱfourȱtimesȱasȱmanyȱmembersȱ andȱtwiceȱasȱmanyȱmonasteriesȱasȱinȱ1923.ȱTheȱmembershipȱfiguresȱareȱ ofȱmajorȱsignificanceȱforȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministrators,ȱparticuȬ larlyȱbecauseȱtheyȱhelpȱtoȱshowcaseȱtheȱlevelȱofȱsuccessȱthatȱsuchȱleadȬ ersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ haveȱ hadȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ strengtheningȱ theȱ mostȱ basicȱ componentȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ life:ȱ theȱ numbersȱ ofȱ malesȱ (monksȱ andȱ novices)ȱwhoȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱnik¬yaȱasȱdiscipleȬsonsȱandȱgrandsonsȱofȱ theȱ Firstȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw.ȱ Byȱ keepingȱ andȱ publishingȱ recordsȱ ofȱ membership,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ showȱ inȱ quantifiaȬ bleȱwaysȱtheȱdegreesȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱgroupȱhasȱnotȱ“turnedȱcold”ȱ(B.ȱsveɇȱ eaɇ, eqQ;eA;);ȱtheyȱshowȱstatisticallyȱtheirȱsuccessesȱinȱmakingȱmoreȱsonsȱ andȱgrandsonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱandȱofȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw.ȱ DisciplineȱinȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱ Theȱmeetingȱrecordsȱdoȱnotȱalwaysȱpaintȱanȱoverlyȱromanticȱpictureȱofȱ Shwegyinȱlife,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱactionȱnecessaryȱtoȱ maintainȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱManyȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadminisȬ tratorsȱ believeȱ theȱ monksȱ belongingȱ toȱ theirȱ communityȱ are,ȱ likeȱ anyȱ otherȱ monks,ȱ susceptibleȱ toȱ aȱ lackȱ ofȱ enthusiasm,ȱ toȱ corruptionȱ andȱ decline.ȱ Indeed,ȱ asȱ suggestedȱ above,ȱ theȱ Meetingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱhaveȱbeenȱenvisionedȱbyȱsomeȱShwegyinȱmonksȱasȱattemptsȱtoȱ returnȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱtoȱstrengthȱinȱtimesȱofȱdecline,ȱinstability,ȱ andȱevenȱdanger.ȱInȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱmeetings,ȱsomeȱShwegyinȱleadȬ ersȱ andȱ administrators,ȱ likeȱ monksȱ ofȱ otherȱ groupsȱ inȱ andȱ beyondȱ Myanmar,ȱhaveȱ explicitlyȱ usedȱ aȱrhetoricȱ ofȱ corruptionȱ andȱdeclineȱ toȱ justifyȱtheirȱdisciplinaryȱapproach.ȱThroughȱdisciplineȱandȱdisciplinaryȱ rhetoric,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ triedȱ toȱ reinȱ inȱ soȬcalledȱ degenerateȱ monksȱ whoȱ corrode,ȱorȱbeginȱtoȱcorrode,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱS¬sana.ȱ Decisionȱ 11ȱ fromȱ theȱ Firstȱ Meetingȱ (1920)ȱ isȱ exemplaryȱ ofȱ theȱ disȬ ciplinaryȱ ethosȱ supportedȱ byȱ manyȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱadministraȬ tors.ȱTheȱdecisionȱopensȱwithȱaȱcriticismȱofȱlaxȱandȱwickedȱmonks.ȱItȱisȱ followedȱbyȱaȱlistȱthatȱspecifiesȱtheȱbasicȱrulesȱgoverningȱShwegyinȱlife.ȱ Someȱofȱtheȱrulesȱinclude:ȱavoidingȱanȱactȱthatȱwouldȱshatterȱtheȱcodesȱ ofȱ monasticȱ lifeȱ orȱ thatȱ wouldȱ contradictȱ theȱ government;ȱ refrainingȱ fromȱ keepingȱ sticks,ȱ knives,ȱ andȱ soȱ on,ȱ whichȱ couldȱ beȱ usedȱ asȱ weaȬ pons;ȱavoidingȱfestivalsȱinvolvingȱmusicȱandȱdance;ȱavoidingȱgoingȱoutȱ atȱ nightȱ toȱ placesȱ frequentedȱ byȱ layȱ peopleȱ withoutȱ someȱ importantȱ matterȱorȱwithoutȱtheȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱleadingȱmonkȱofȱtheȱmonasteryȱ whereȱoneȱresides.ȱOtherȱrulesȱrequireȱparentsȱandȱlayȱteachersȱofȱanyȱ

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monasticȱ residentȱ toȱ agreeȱ toȱ disciplinaryȱ actionȱ takenȱ atȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ monasteryȱ againstȱ theirȱ sonȱ ifȱ heȱ hasȱ becomeȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ monk.ȱ Andȱ theȱrulesȱalsoȱrequireȱaȱmonkȱinȱaȱgivenȱShwegyinȱmonasteryȱtoȱactȱasȱaȱ guarantorȱofȱanȱincomingȱmonk.84ȱTheseȱandȱotherȱrulesȱmayȱbeȱstrict,ȱ butȱ theyȱ areȱ nonethelessȱ consideredȱ necessaryȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ fosterȱ theȱ embodiedȱcontinuityȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Atȱ times,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ areȱ expectedȱ toȱ makeȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ socialȱ rupture,ȱ especiallyȱ ifȱ aȱ monkȱ threatensȱ toȱ introȬ duceȱproblemsȱintoȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱasȱinȱanyȱ institutionalȱorder,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱmonksȱareȱ toȱ beȱ expelledȱ fromȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ someȱ deciȬ sions,ȱparticularȱleadersȱshouldȱbeȱexpelledȱifȱitȱisȱdiscoveredȱthatȱtheyȱ haveȱrisenȱthroughȱtheȱShwegyinȱhierarchicalȱranksȱwithoutȱtheȱproperȱ qualificationȱ orȱ underȱ falseȱ pretenses.85ȱ Anotherȱ decisionȱ toȱ expelȱ aȱ monkȱfromȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱalsoȱconcernsȱtheȱunwillingnessȱofȱaȱ monkȱtoȱacceptȱtheȱrulingsȱofȱShwegyinȱVinayaȱjudges;86ȱifȱaȱShwegyinȱ monkȱ commitsȱ himself,ȱ forȱ anyȱ reason,ȱ toȱ theȱ rulingsȱ ofȱ aȱ judgeȱ fromȱ anotherȱ monasticȱ communityȱ orȱ organization,ȱ heȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ expelled.ȱ Moreover,ȱ asȱ expressedȱ inȱ anotherȱ decision,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ willȱ nullifyȱ theȱ membershipȱ ofȱ aȱ monkȱ whoȱ makesȱ “himselfȱ partyȱ toȱ anyȱ otherȱ organization.”87ȱ Theȱ particularȱ monkȱ mayȱ stillȱbeȱaȱmonk,ȱjustȱnotȱShwegyin.ȱ

TheȱS¬sana’sȱCareȱGroupsȱ Theȱpreviousȱsectionsȱhaveȱbeenȱespeciallyȱconcernedȱwithȱhighlightingȱ evidenceȱforȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱShwegyinȱhaveȱbothȱreifiedȱtheȱreformȱ impulseȱ withinȱ theirȱ everydayȱ routinesȱ andȱ correlatedȱ thatȱ impulseȱ withȱ scripturalȱ materials.88ȱ However,ȱ itȱ isȱ necessaryȱ toȱ emphasizeȱthatȱ theȱ meetingȱ recordsȱ andȱ otherȱ materialsȱ showȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ impossibleȱ toȱ ignoreȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱlayȱpeople,ȱandȱtheȱmilitary,ȱinȱtheȱplanningȱandȱ fundingȱofȱeventsȱlikeȱtheȱMeetingsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱandȱinȱtheȱ fundingȱandȱsupportȱofȱtheȱnik¬yaȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱ1999ȱ record,ȱasȱmentionedȱabove,ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱmilitaryȱfigureȱprominentȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 84ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ269–270,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ55.ȱ 85ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ281,ȱ289,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱpp.ȱ 60,ȱ65.ȱ 86ȱ SeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ267,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ54.ȱ 87ȱ SeeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ309,ȱThanȱTunȱ1980ȱp.ȱ73.ȱ 88ȱȱ ThisȱsectionȱcontainsȱmaterialȱadaptedȱfromȱCarbineȱ2007ȱpp.ȱ442–443.ȱ

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lyȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheȱvolume’sȱphotographsȱandȱnewspaperȱarticles,ȱespeȬ ciallyȱasȱaȱwayȱtoȱshowcaseȱthemselvesȱasȱexemplaryȱsupporters.ȱAndȱ evenȱthoughȱnunsȱdoȱnotȱappearȱinȱtheȱphotographs,ȱfemaleȱsupportersȱ andȱdonorsȱdo.ȱTherefore,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱpeople,ȱbothȱ renunciantsȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱtext,ȱtheȱrecords,ȱandȱotherȱ formsȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ documentation,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ otherȱ Buddhistȱ docuȬ mentsȱproducedȱonȱaȱdailyȱlevelȱinȱMyanmar,ȱdoȱinȱfactȱencourageȱusȱ toȱseeȱBuddhistȱdiscoursesȱandȱpracticesȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱcontinuityȱ andȱruptureȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtwoȱbroad,ȱidealȬtypicalȱ “careȱ groups”ȱ whoseȱ interactionsȱ standȱ atȱ theȱ heartȱ ofȱ theȱ activitiesȱ theyȱ represent:ȱ Buddhistȱ renunciantsȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ handȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ onȱtheȱother.ȱ Inȱ idealȬtypicalȱ terms,ȱ asȱ canȱ beȱ seenȱ fromȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ material,ȱ renunciantsȱ areȱ understoodȱ toȱ beȱ qualitativelyȱ differentȱ fromȱ layȱ people.ȱ Renunciantsȱ haveȱ theirȱ ownȱ systemsȱ ofȱ discipline,ȱ textualȱ study,ȱ meditation,ȱ ordination,ȱ andȱ institutionalȱ meetingsȱ andȱ gatherȬ ingsȱ throughȱ whichȱ theyȱ bringȱ themselvesȱ togetherȱ asȱ communitiesȱ orientedȱinȱparticularȱwaysȱaroundȱandȱtowardȱtheȱBuddha’sȱteachingsȱ andȱpractices.89ȱTheȱmostȱobviousȱmarkersȱofȱaȱdistinctiveȱrenunciatoryȱ ethosȱconsistȱofȱtheȱshavedȱheadȱandȱtheȱwearingȱofȱtheȱrobes,ȱbothȱofȱ whichȱareȱmeantȱtoȱindicateȱthatȱoneȱisȱorientedȱtowardȱtheȱsupramunȬ daneȱ orȱ lawkottayaȱ inȱ waysȱ thatȱ ordinaryȱ layȱ peopleȱ areȱ not.ȱ Ifȱ monksȱ andȱ nunsȱ wereȱ onceȱ ordinaryȱ sonsȱ andȱ daughtersȱ carryingȱ onȱ familyȱ lines,ȱ theyȱ ideallyȱ becomeȱ religiouslyȱ andȱ ethicallyȱ exemplaryȱ “sons”ȱ andȱ“daughters”ȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱwhenȱtheyȱparticipateȱinȱtheirȱmonasticȱ communitiesȱthatȱcarryȱonȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱhisȱsuccessors,ȱ inȱasȱmuchȱasȱtheyȱcareȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Theȱ1999ȱrecord,ȱlikeȱmanyȱotherȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱsources,ȱmakesȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ layȱ peopleȱ areȱ hardlyȱ divorcedȱ fromȱ theȱ patternsȱ ofȱ reliȬ giousȱpracticeȱandȱsocialȱinteractionȱthatȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱcareȱforȱtheȱ S¬sana,ȱ andȱ thusȱ alsoȱ inȱ theȱ formationȱ andȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ particularȱ reȬ nunciantȱ communities.ȱ Becauseȱ inȱ anyȱ givenȱ socioculturalȱ contextȱ layȱ peopleȱcanȱsupportȱanyȱnumberȱofȱrenunciants,ȱsuchȱrenunciantsȱmustȱ seekȱtheȱcontinuingȱandȱhopefullyȱ positiveȱattentionȱofȱlayȱpeople,ȱ esȬ peciallyȱbutȱnotȱonlyȱlayȱpeopleȱinȱpositionsȱofȱsociopoliticalȱpower.ȱForȱ theirȱpart,ȱlayȱpeopleȱdesireȱtoȱsupportȱthoseȱrenunciantsȱwhoȱwillȱproȬ videȱ themȱ withȱ prestigeȱ andȱ meritȱasȱ careȬgiversȱ forȱ S¬sana.ȱ Thisȱ typeȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 89ȱ AsȱHirokoȱKawanamiȱ1990ȱhasȱdiscussed,ȱtheȱdistinctionȱinȱMyanmarȱbetweenȱnunsȱ andȱlayȱpeopleȱisȱmoreȱcomplexȱandȱproblematicȱthanȱthatȱbetweenȱmonksȱandȱlayȱ people.ȱButȱnevertheless,ȱlikeȱmonks,ȱnunsȱstillȱtryȱtoȱpositionȱthemselvesȱinȱrelationȱ toȱtheȱBuddha’sȱteachingsȱinȱwaysȱthatȱlayȱpeopleȱmayȱdoȱnot.ȱ

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ofȱ culturalȱ viewȱ resonatesȱ withȱ anȱ addressȱ byȱ Generalȱ Maungȱ Bho,ȱ aȱ commanderȱ ofȱ theȱ easternȱ region,ȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ 1999ȱ meeting.ȱInȱthatȱaddress,ȱinȱwhichȱheȱhighlightsȱhisȱpromiseȱ(B.ȱkatiȱpru,ȱ kti#p)ȱ ofȱ support,ȱ heȱ drawsȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ 1999ȱ meetingȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ increasingȱtheȱ“gloryȱandȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱguΦеȱarhinеȱ aw¬,ȱ qaqna. gu%\ArHin\Awf)ȱ inȱ theȱ Shanȱ regionȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ anȱ opportunityȱ toȱ gainȱmuchȱmerit.90ȱSimilarȱsentimentsȱareȱexpressedȱinȱtheȱ1999ȱaddressȱ byȱ theȱ ministerȱ ofȱ religiousȱ affairs,ȱ Uȱ Aungȱ Khin,ȱ withȱ specificȱ referȬ enceȱ toȱ supportȱ fromȱ theȱ Stateȱ Peaceȱ andȱ Developmentȱ Councilȱ andȱ fromȱ wellȬinclinedȱ peopleȱ (B.ȱ cetanƕȱ rhaΤе,ȱ estnarHc)\ ȱ asȱ aȱ whole.91ȱ Theseȱ sortsȱofȱstatementsȱresonateȱstronglyȱwithȱtheȱrhetoricȱaboutȱidealȱmoȬ nasticȬlayȱ interactionȱinȱsupportȱofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ thatȱ developedȱ overȱ theȱ yearsȱamongȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱandȱtheyȱareȱaȱclearȱextensionȱofȱtheȱbasicȱ patternȱ establishedȱ earlyȱonȱ inȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱmonasticismȱinȱ India.ȱTheȱemphasisȱinȱthisȱregardȱhasȱevenȱledȱsomeȱShwegyinȱmonks,ȱ likeȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱtoȱclaimȱthatȱtheirȱeffortsȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱhaveȱaȱ politicalȱagendaȱinȱthem,ȱsinceȱthoseȱeffortsȱinvolve,ȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱrepliȬ catesȱ classicȱ modelsȱ ofȱ monasticȬlayȱ interaction,ȱ aȱ symbioticȱ relationȬ shipȱbetweenȱreligionȱandȱgovernment.92ȱȱ Therefore,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ particularȱ interestsȱ thatȱ renunciantsȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ mayȱ haveȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ powerȱ andȱ prestige—whetherȱ individuallyȱ orȱ collectively,ȱ orȱ withinȱ andȱ acrossȱ careȱ groups—theȱ recordsȱandȱsimilarȱmaterialsȱalsoȱpointȱtoȱsomethingȱlargerȱatȱwork,ȱonȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ culture.ȱ Theȱ 1999ȱrecordȱandȱ theȱ activiȬ tiesȱ itȱ representsȱ areȱ theȱ endȱ productȱ ofȱ theȱ collectiveȱ effortsȱ ofȱ bothȱ renunciantȱandȱlayȱcareȱgroupsȱasȱtheyȱcomeȱtogetherȱandȱtryȱtoȱgenerȬ ateȱcontinuingȱsupportȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheyȱareȱanȱexpressionȱofȱaȱveryȱ powerfulȱ andȱ communallyȱ widespreadȱ ethosȱ amongȱ theȱ Burmese,ȱ reȬ nunciantȱorȱlay,ȱexemplaryȱorȱordinary:ȱaȱcareȱforȱtheȱS¬sana’sȱcontinuiȬ ty,ȱevenȱandȱperhapsȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱmidstȱofȱanȱenvironmentȱwhereȱaȱ givenȱ governmentȱ isȱ bothȱ supportiveȱ andȱ suspiciousȱ ofȱ renunciantsȱ andȱtheirȱreligiousȱefforts.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 90ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ176.ȱ 91ȱ RecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ83–84.ȱ 92ȱ TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱtracesȱthisȱinteractionȱnotȱtoȱAïokaȱperȱse,ȱbutȱtoȱtheȱBurmeseȱ kingȱandȱmonkȱwhoȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱreallyȱsetȱtheȱprocessȱinȱmotionȱinȱMyanȬ mar:ȱKingȱAnawyathaȱandȱtheȱmonkȱShinȱArahan.ȱSeeȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱp.ȱ346.ȱ

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TheȱWorkȱofȱLeadersȱandȱAdministratorsȱ Theȱreaderȱshouldȱnotȱcomeȱawayȱfromȱthisȱdiscussionȱthinkingȱthatȱallȱ ShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadministratorsȱrevelȱinȱtheȱbanalitiesȱofȱadminisȬ trativeȱ meetingsȱ andȱ decisions.ȱ Anyoneȱ familiarȱ withȱ administrativeȱ workȱ knowsȱ thereȱ isȱ allȱ tooȱ oftenȱ muchȱ talkȱ andȱ littleȱ achieved.ȱ Evenȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ grumbledȱ alongȱ theseȱ lines,ȱ andȱ afterȱ threeȱ stintsȱ asȱmeetingȱsecretary,ȱheȱturnedȱdownȱsubsequentȱworkȱasȱsuch.93ȱNevȬ ertheless,ȱ readersȱ shouldȱ comeȱ awayȱ fromȱ thisȱ discussionȱ withȱ anȱ understandingȱofȱsomeȱaspectsȱofȱhowȱShwegyinȱleadersȱandȱadminisȬ tratorsȱtryȱtoȱfosterȱtheȱcommunalȱconditionsȱthroughȱwhichȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱtraditionȱasȱaȱnik¬yaȱcanȱremain,ȱasȱstatedȱinȱtheȱDhammapada,ȱsuȬ kha.ȱForȱthingsȱtoȱbeȱsukha,ȱlayȱpeople,ȱeliteȱandȱordinary,ȱandȱperhapsȱ evenȱtheȱgods,ȱplayȱtheirȱmostȱpositiveȱrolesȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱsupportiveȱ butȱ doȱ notȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ structuresȱ ofȱ governanceȱ thatȱ formȱ theȱ bedrockȱofȱtheȱnik¬ya.ȱ Severalȱyearsȱago,ȱFergusonȱsuggestedȱthatȱinȱtheirȱleadershipȱandȱ administration,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱrepresentȱ“aȱtraditionalistȱdefenseȱofȱtheȱ oldȱ legitimateȱ cultureȱ againstȱ colonialism,ȱ modernȱ notionsȱ ofȱ governȬ ment,ȱ andȱ aȱ heathenȱ outsideȱ world.”94ȱ Thisȱ isȱ quiteȱ helpful,ȱ butȱ weȱ mustȱ adjustȱ theȱ argument,ȱ especiallyȱ sinceȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ cultureȱ inȱ whichȱtheȱShwegyinȱpredominantlyȱoperateȱtheseȱdaysȱisȱhardlyȱ“heaȬ then,”ȱ andȱ alsoȱ sinceȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ haveȱ madeȱ concessionsȱ toȱ MyanȬ mar’sȱ modernȱ governmentsȱ (e.g.,ȱ theȱ registrationȱ card).ȱ Inȱ lightȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱevidenceȱexploredȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱasȱwellȱasȱideasȱexpressedȱ byȱ Ferguson,ȱ Mendelson,ȱ Thanȱ Tun,ȱ andȱ others,ȱ weȱ canȱ noteȱ that,ȱ beȬ ginningȱ asȱ aȱ reformȬorientedȱ monasticȱ movementȱ toȱ defendȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ lifeȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱbothȱcolonialȱdisruptionȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱorderȱandȱ indigenousȱ reactionsȱ toȱ thatȱ disruption,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ haveȱ becomeȱ aȱ nik¬yaȱwhereinȱtheȱthreatȱofȱruptureȱofȱtheȱnik¬yaȱitselfȱhasȱbeenȱimpliȬ citlyȱandȱexplicitlyȱarticulatedȱintoȱtheȱroutinesȱofȱShwegyinȱtraditionaȬ lismȱoverȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱnik¬ya’sȱhistory.ȱItȱhasȱalsoȱbecomeȱaȱnik¬yaȱ whereȱ theȱ threatȱ ofȱ ruptureȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ fromȱ deviantȱ monksȱ withinȱ itsȱ ownȱ ranksȱ hasȱ beenȱ systematizedȱ asȱ well.ȱ Indeed,ȱ sukhaȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ cannotȱ beȱ fosteredȱ inȱ anȱ environmentȱ whereȱ kulaȬdĀsakaȱ monksȱ prevail,ȱ orȱ whereȱ widerȱ socialȱ forcesȱ andȱ conditionsȱinhibitȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱspecificȱmonasteriesȱorȱmonksȱwithȬ inȱtheȱnik¬ya.ȱInȱregardȱtoȱthis,ȱitȱisȱinterestingȱandȱrelevantȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱ onȱaȱsubsequentȱtripȱbackȱtoȱMyanmar,ȱaȱyearȱafterȱtheȱdebacleȱofȱmyȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 93ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱp.ȱ243,ȱThanȱTun,ȱtrans.,ȱ2000ȱp.ȱ43.ȱ 94ȱ Fergusonȱ1978ȱp.ȱ81.ȱ

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firstȱresearchȱstint,ȱIȱwasȱinformedȱbyȱaȱShwegyinȱmonkȱthat,ȱinȱlightȱofȱ myȱ effortsȱ toȱ doȱ theȱ intendedȱ fieldȱ workȱ theȱ yearȱ earlier,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ hadȱ establishedȱ new,ȱ stricter,ȱ andȱ moreȱ specificȱregulationsȱforȱadmittingȱforeignȱresearchersȱforȱextendedȱstaysȱ inȱtheirȱmonasteries.ȱ ȱ

ȱ

ChapterȱThree:ȱClassicȱRitualȱPermutationsȱ ȱ Ifȱleadershipȱandȱadministrationȱmayȱbeȱsaidȱtoȱfocusȱfirstȱandȱforemostȱonȱtheȱ systematizationȱ ofȱ defendingȱ againstȱ ruptureȱ ofȱ theȱ nik¬ya,ȱ andȱ secondarilyȱ onȱdefendingȱagainstȱtheȱruptureȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱritualȱcomȬ ponentsȱofȱShwegyinȱmonasticȱlifeȱthat,ȱthoughȱalsoȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱdefenseȱ ofȱtheȱnik¬ya,ȱstartȱnotȱfromȱtheȱpremiseȱofȱtheȱdefenseȱofȱtheȱnik¬ya,ȱbutȱfromȱ theȱdualȱandȱsimultaneousȱattemptsȱofȱ(1)ȱpreventingȱorȱslowingȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱ theȱS¬sanaȱandȱ(2)ȱmakingȱaȱtypeȱofȱsocialȱruptureȱthatȱmustȱusuallyȱbeȱmadeȱ inȱorderȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱmetaphysicalȱruptureȱofȱnibb¬na.ȱByȱhighlightingȱandȱ expandingȱ uponȱ theseȱ points,ȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ then,ȱ exploresȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ classicȱritualȱpermutationsȱofȱmonasticȱcontinuityȱtoȱ theȱShwegyinȱtradition.ȱ Theȱ chapterȱ alsoȱ raisesȱ theȱ pointȱ that,ȱ inȱ someȱ situations,ȱ evenȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ itselfȱwhereȱpoliticalȱ disruptionȱ alwaysȱseemsȱ toȱ beȱ primary,ȱpoliticalȱ disrupȬ tionȱmayȱnotȱfactorȱintoȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱsuchȱrituals.ȱ

MilitatingȱagainstȱS¬sanaȱDeclineȱandȱSocialȱDisruptionȱ Asȱwithȱanyȱreligiousȱtradition,ȱtheȱflowȱofȱBuddhistȱmonasticȱlifeȱinȱSriȱ LankaȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱisȱpunctuatedȱbyȱaȱseriesȱofȱrituals.ȱSomeȱofȱ theseȱritualsȱhaveȱbeenȱbrieflyȱmentionedȱearlierȱinȱthisȱstudy:ȱtheȱupoȬ satha,ȱinȱwhichȱmonksȱcomeȱtogetherȱandȱconfessȱtheirȱfaultsȱandȱthenȱ reciteȱtheȱp¬Ξimokkha;ȱandȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱ(P.ȱupasampad¬,ȱB.ȱmraΤеȇȱ mratеȱ soȱ rahanеɇȱ khaΚ,ȱ `mc\.`mt\eqa rhn\;KM).ȱ Othersȱ includeȱ theȱ invitationȱ (P.ȱ pav¬raΦ¬)ȱ heldȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ periodȱ ofȱ theȱ rainsȱretreatȱ andȱ duringȱ whichȱmonksȱareȱinvitedȱtoȱconfessȱtheirȱfaultsȱagainstȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱ code;ȱtheȱrobesȱceremonyȱ(P.ȱkaΞhina),ȱalsoȱheldȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱrainsȱ retreatȱ andȱ duringȱ whichȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ formallyȱ receivesȱ robesȱandȱotherȱgiftsȱfromȱlayȱpeople;ȱandȱmattersȱofȱdiscipline,ȱprobaȬ tion,ȱ schism,ȱ andȱ inheritance.1ȱ Suchȱ rituals,ȱ fallingȱ underȱ theȱ categoryȱ ofȱ communityȱ transactionsȱ (P.ȱ saΤghaȬkamma),ȱ playȱ distinctiveȱ rolesȱ inȱ theȱlifeȱofȱtheȱBuddhistȱcommunityȱandȱinȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱparticuȬ larȱBuddhistȱidentities,ȱbothȱmonasticȱandȱlay.2ȱForȱexample,ȱpresentingȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ 2ȱ

SeeȱThanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱch.ȱ12–22.ȱ SeeȱalsoȱtheȱdiscussionȱbyȱHoltȱ1981ȱpp.ȱ133–134,ȱwhichȱcomparesȱtextualȱrepresenȬ tationsȱofȱp¬Ξimokkhaȱandȱpav¬raΦ¬.ȱȱ

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robesȱtoȱtheȱsaΤghaȱwillȱmakeȱaȱlayȱpersonȱaȱ“patronȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ d¬yak¬,ȱ qaqnadfyka,ȱ S¬san¬ȱ d¬yik¬ma,ȱ qannadfyikam)ȱ butȱ not,ȱ asȱ suggestedȱatȱtheȱoutsetȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱoneȱwhoȱacquiresȱtheȱ“heritageȱofȱ theȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱamwe,ȱqaqna.AemQ).ȱAndȱtheȱ“invitation”ȱfunctionsȱ likeȱ“aȱtypeȱofȱcourtȱofȱlaw.”3ȱ ThisȱchapterȱaddressesȱinȱsomeȱdetailȱtheȱritualȱthatȱmakesȱaȱsponȬ sorȱacquireȱtheȱheritageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana:ȱtheȱhigherȱordination.ȱOfȱparticuȬ larȱ interestȱ forȱ meȱ hereȱ isȱ thatȱ thatȱ ritualȱ isȱ aȱ communityȱ transactionȱ thatȱisȱimportantȱforȱallȱmonksȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱpreȬ servingȱtheȱpurityȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱofȱtheȱlineagesȱofȱmonksȱitself,ȱandȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ ritualȱ thatȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ giveȱ theȱ parents,ȱ andȱ especiallyȱ theȱ mother,ȱofȱtheȱordained,ȱhighȱlevelsȱofȱpositiveȱmerit.ȱNoȱtreatmentȱofȱ continuitiesȱandȱrupturesȱinȱaȱBuddhistȱmonasticȱtraditionȱisȱcompleteȱ withoutȱsomeȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱculturalȱinflectionsȱofȱthisȱritualȱ asȱperformedȱinȱthatȱtradition.ȱInȱtheȱcontextȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱtoȱpassȱoverȱ aȱcloseȱexaminationȱofȱatȱleastȱoneȱillustrativeȱcaseȱisȱtoȱmissȱsomethingȱ aboutȱtheȱstructureȱandȱcontentȱofȱordination,ȱaboutȱS¬sanaȬbasedȱtheoȬ riesȱ ofȱ theȱ ritualȱ processesȱ thatȱ connectȱ peopleȱ toȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ andȱ aboutȱtheȱcommunalȱembodimentȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Theȱhigherȱordinationȱisȱtheȱcommunityȱtransactionȱthatȱproducesȱaȱ newȱmonk,ȱknownȱinȱBurmeseȱasȱrahanеɇȱ(rhn\;,ȱpronouncedȱyahan)ȱandȱ inȱ Paliȱ asȱ bhikkhu.ȱ Derivedȱ fromȱ Paliȱ arahantȱ (worthyȱ one),ȱ theȱ termȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 3ȱ

Holtȱ1981ȱp.ȱ132.ȱAlso,ȱThanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱp.ȱ243ȱnotes:ȱ theȱuposathaȱobservanceȱregularlyȱprovidesȱanȱopportunityȱforȱbhikkhusȱtoȱacȬ cuseȱ theirȱ fellowsȱ ofȱ anyȱ offensesȱ thatȱ theȱ latterȱmayȱ haveȱ committedȱ withoutȱ makingȱamends.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱareȱmanyȱfactorsȱthatȱmightȱdissuadeȱaȱbhikȬ khuȱfromȱtakingȱadvantageȱofȱtheseȱregularȱmeetingsȱtoȱmakeȱsuchȱanȱaccusaȬ tion.ȱTheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱP¬ҁimokkhaȱmayȱbeȱsoȱtimeȬconsumingȱthatȱheȱisȱreȬ luctantȱ toȱ prolongȱ theȱ meeting.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ monthsȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ Rainsȱ theȱ compositionȱofȱtheȱCommunityȱmayȱbeȱsoȱvariableȱfromȱweekȱtoȱweekȱthatȱheȱisȱ uncertainȱofȱtheirȱabilityȱorȱwillingnessȱtoȱjudgeȱtheȱissueȱfairly,ȱandȱtheyȱthemȬ selvesȱmayȱbeȱinȱaȱpoorȱpositionȱtoȱjudgeȱtheȱreliabilityȱofȱtheȱaccusedȱandȱhisȱ accuser.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ monthsȱ ofȱ theȱ RainsȬresidence,ȱ however,ȱ whenȱ theȱ ComȬ munityȱisȱmoreȱstable,ȱhisȱreluctanceȱtoȱbreakȱhisȱRainsȱmayȱpreventȱhimȱfromȱ bringingȱupȱtheȱissueȱifȱheȱsensesȱthatȱtheȱpersonȱheȱwantsȱtoȱaccuse,ȱorȱtheȱacȬ cusedȇsȱcohorts,ȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱretaliate.ȱThisȱbeingȱtheȱcase,ȱheȱmightȱfeelȱtemptedȱ toȱputȱhisȱpersonalȱconvenienceȱandȱcomfortȱaheadȱofȱtheȱVinaya,ȱandȱtheȱaccuȬ sationȱ wouldȱ neverȱ getȱ aȱ hearing.ȱ Forȱ thisȱ reason,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ allowedȱ that,ȱ onceȱaȱyearȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱRainsȱresidence,ȱbhikkhusȱwhoȱhaveȱobservedȱtheȱ Rainsȱ withoutȱ breakȱ mayȱ replaceȱ oneȱ uposathaȱ observanceȱ withȱ anȱ Invitationȱ (pav¬raΦ¬),ȱatȱwhichȱeachȱgivesȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱhisȱfellowsȱtoȱaccuseȱhimȱofȱ anyȱoffenseȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱhaveȱseen,ȱheard,ȱorȱsuspectedȱhimȱofȱcommitting.ȱIfȱ theȱ Invitationȱ proceedsȱ withoutȱ accusation,ȱ theȱ bhikkhusȱ areȱ thenȱ freeȱ toȱ goȱ theirȱseparateȱways,ȱeachȱwithȱaȱcleanȱreputation.ȱIfȱthereȱisȱanȱaccusation,ȱthisȱ isȱtheȱtimeȱtoȱsettleȱitȱonceȱandȱforȱall.ȱ

ȱ

MilitatingȱagainstȱS¬sanaȱDeclineȱandȱSocialȱDisruptionȱ

109ȱ

yahanȱ affordsȱ someȱ insightȱ intoȱ theȱ spiritualȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ amongȱ monks.ȱ Theȱ termȱ arahantȱ isȱ reservedȱ forȱ peopleȱ likeȱ theȱBuddhaȱandȱhisȱmostȱreveredȱdisciples,ȱwhoȱareȱdeservingȱofȱdevoȬ tionȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱextremelyȱhighȱlevelȱofȱspiritualȱadvancementȱtheyȱ haveȱ achieved.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ context,ȱ yahansȱ areȱ notȱ consideredȱ araȬ hants.ȱHowever,ȱonȱanȱinterpretiveȱlevel,ȱyahansȱcanȱbeȱconsideredȱaraȬ hantsȬinȬtraining.ȱ Whetherȱ identifiedȱ asȱ aȱ yahanȱ orȱ aȱ bhikkhu,ȱ anȱ individualȱ whoȱ hasȱ receivedȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ hasȱ beenȱ authoȬ rized—accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ asȱ setȱ forthȱ byȱ theȱ Buddha—toȱ followȱ theȱpathȱtowardȱarahantship.ȱ TheȱhigherȱordinationȱisȱdistinguishedȱfromȱtheȱlowerȱorȱnoviceȱorȬ dinationȱ (P.ȱ s¬maΦeraȬpabbajj¬).ȱ Bothȱ ordinationsȱ haveȱ theirȱ placeȱ inȱ manyȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ theȱ survivalȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ However,ȱwhileȱ interestingȱ andȱimportantȱinȱitsȱownȱ right,ȱ theȱ noviceȱ ordinationȱ doesȱ notȱ occupyȱ myȱ interestȱ here.4ȱ Instead,ȱ Iȱ addressȱ hereȱ theȱtransactionȱthoughȱwhichȱindividualsȱareȱmadeȱintoȱfullȱmonks.ȱ AsȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱanȱimmediate,ȱminimallyȱritualisȬ ticȱhigherȱordinationȱprocedureȱthatȱwasȱusedȱbyȱtheȱBuddhaȱwasȱevenȬ tuallyȱreplacedȱbyȱaȱfarȱmoreȱcomplexȱcommunityȱtransactionȱusedȱbyȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ monasticȱ disciples.ȱ Theȱ typeȱ ofȱ ordinationȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ Buddhaȱisȱsaidȱtoȱbeȱthus:ȱȱ ehiȱ bhikkhĀȱ ’tiȱ bhagav¬ȱ avoca.ȱ sv¬kkh¬toȱ dhammo,ȱ caraȱ brahmacariyaΚȱ samm¬ȱ dukkhassaȱantakiriy¬y¬ȱ’ti.ȱs¬vaȱtassaȱ¬yasmatoȱupasampad¬ȱahosi.5ȱ ’Come,ȱmonk,’ȱtheȱBlessedȱOneȱsaid,ȱ‘wellȱtaughtȱisȱtheȱDhamma;ȱleadȱaȱlifeȱ ofȱpurityȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱtheȱcompleteȱcessationȱofȱsuffering.’ȱThatȱwasȱtheȱ venerableȱone’sȱhigherȱordination.6ȱȱ

Whenȱ itȱ becameȱ inconvenientȱ forȱ theȱ candidatesȱ toȱ comeȱ toȱ theȱ BudȬ dha,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱallowedȱhisȱdisciplesȱtoȱacceptȱthoseȱwishingȱordinaȬ tion.ȱAȱprocedureȱwasȱsetȱupȱconsistingȱofȱshavingȱtheȱhead,ȱputtingȱonȱ ochreȱ robes,ȱ andȱ takingȱ refugeȱ inȱ theȱ Tripleȱ Gemȱ (i.e.,ȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ Dhamma,ȱandȱSaΤgha).ȱTheȱprocedureȱthusȱbecameȱknownȱasȱtheȱ“ordiȬ nationȱ byȱ goingȱ forȱ refugeȱ inȱ theȱ Tripleȱ Gem”ȱ (P.ȱ tisaraΦaȬgamanĀpaȬ sampad¬).ȱ Whenȱ theȱ saΤghaȱ grewȱ large,ȱ theȱ moreȱ complexȱ ordinationȱ usedȱ todayȱ wasȱ established,ȱ theȱ “ordinationȱ throughȱ anȱ actȱ withȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 4ȱ

5ȱ 6ȱ

ForȱaȱShwegyinȱnoviceȱhandbook,ȱseeȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1986.ȱForȱanotherȱdiscussionȱ andȱdescriptionȱofȱaȱBurmeseȱhigherȱordination,ȱseeȱalsoȱSaoȱHtunȱHmatȱWinȱ1986ȱ pp.ȱ54–55.ȱ E.g.,ȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ12.ȱȱ RhysȱDavidsȱandȱ Oldenberg,ȱtrans.,ȱ1968,ȱpt.ȱ1,ȱ p.ȱ99ȱ provideȱ“‘Come,ȱ Oȱ Bhikkhu,’ȱ saidȱtheȱBlessedȱOne,ȱ‘wellȱtaughtȱisȱtheȱdoctrine;ȱleadȱaȱholyȱlifeȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱtheȱ completeȱ extinctionȱ ofȱ suffering.’ȱ Thusȱ thisȱ venerableȱ personȱ receivedȱ theȱ upasamȬ padâȱordination.”ȱ

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resolutionȱ asȱ theȱ fourthȱ element”ȱ (P.ȱ ñatticatutthakammaȬupasampad¬).ȱ Whenȱthisȱthirdȱtypeȱofȱordinationȱcameȱin,ȱtheȱsecondȱtypeȱ(usingȱtheȱ Tripleȱ Gem)ȱ becameȱ theȱ procedureȱ forȱ goingȱ forthȱ asȱ aȱ novice.7ȱ Theȱ moreȱcomplexȱprocedureȱwasȱmeantȱtoȱensureȱthatȱaȱcandidateȱseekingȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ hadȱ aȱ preceptorȱ (P.ȱ upajjh¬ya)ȱ toȱ guideȱ him,ȱ theȱ basicȱrequisitesȱ(aȱrobe,ȱalmsȱbowl,ȱseatȱandȱbed,ȱandȱmedicine),ȱandȱaȱ basicȱknowledgeȱofȱhowȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱpath.ȱ TheȱevidenceȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱtheȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ intoȱ theȱ communityȱ transactionȱ thatȱ itȱ becameȱ deȬ rivedȱfromȱcertainȱsociologicalȱconcerns.ȱWithȱanȱexpandingȱcommuniȬ ty,ȱtheȱpotentialȱincreasedȱforȱadmittingȱmoreȱmenȱintoȱtheȱorderȱwhoȱ wouldȱcauseȱinternalȱfriction,ȱcreateȱproblemsȱwithȱtheȱlaity,ȱandȱnotȱbeȱ seriousȱaboutȱfollowingȱtheȱinstructionsȱlaidȱoutȱinȱtheȱVinayaȱorȱengagȬ ingȱ inȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ theȱ path.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ thatȱ exȬ pansion,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱhimselfȱcouldȱnotȱoverseeȱallȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordinaȬ tionsȱ takingȱ place;ȱ thisȱ raisedȱ anotherȱ problemȱ forȱ theȱ community,ȱ sinceȱ spiritualȱ advancementȱ itselfȱ wasȱ perceivedȱ toȱ beȱ moreȱ difficultȱ withoutȱtheȱBuddhaȱtoȱpersonallyȱguideȱeachȱmonk.8ȱTheȱdevelopmentȱ ofȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ intoȱ aȱ transactionȱ withȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ distinctȱ partsȱwasȱthusȱpartȱofȱaȱprocessȱthatȱwasȱintendedȱtoȱhelpȱcompensateȱ forȱ theseȱ kindsȱ ofȱ threatsȱ andȱ issues.ȱ Theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ couldȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ excludeȱ thoseȱ perceivedȱ toȱ beȱ potentiallyȱ ineffectiveȱ orȱ irresȬ ponsibleȱ atȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ andȱ S¬sana.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ itȱ couldȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ tryȱ toȱ helpȱ thoseȱ beingȱ admittedȱintoȱtheȱmonkhoodȱbyȱpointingȱthemȱinȱtheȱproperȱmoralȱandȱ spiritualȱ direction.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ vantageȱ pointȱ ofȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱ then,ȱ theȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱrepresentedȱanȱearlyȱstageȱinȱ aȱ communalȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ declineȱ inȱ theȱ institutionalȱ andȱ spiritualȱ qualitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ community,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ anȱ earlyȱ stageȱ inȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱthatȱ soughtȱtoȱcontrolȱ thoseȱkindsȱ ofȱdeclineȱandȱ disruptionȱthroughȱtheȱcarefulȱuseȱofȱaȱcommunityȱtransaction.ȱ

TheȱHigherȱOrdination:ȱInterpretiveȱIssuesȱ Theȱhigherȱordinationȱis,ȱthen,ȱaȱcommunityȱtransactionȱintrinsicȱtoȱtheȱ textualȱ(i.e.,ȱasȱpreservedȱinȱtexts)ȱandȱbodilyȱ(i.e.,ȱasȱpreservedȱthroughȱ bodilyȱpractice)ȱcontinuityȱofȱaȱmonasticȱtradition.ȱByȱproducingȱaȱnewȱ member,ȱ monksȱ likeȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ andȱ theirȱ supporters,ȱ areȱ inȱ effectȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 7ȱ 8ȱ

Vajirañ¬Ѿavarorasaȱ1969,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ2–4.ȱ Holtȱ1981ȱpp.ȱ113–116.ȱ

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pursuingȱ theirȱ responsibilitiesȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ hisȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theyȱ showȱrespectȱforȱtheȱwishesȱandȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱbyȱfollowingȱ hisȱ mandatesȱ forȱ ordainingȱ aȱ monk.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ ideallyȱ motivatedȱ byȱ aȱ desireȱ toȱ perpetuateȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ andȱ theȱ widerȱ S¬sanaȬ orientedȱsocietyȱofȱwhichȱitȱisȱaȱpart.ȱAndȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱhigherȱordinaȬ tionȱthatȱgoesȱunchallenged,ȱtheyȱacceptȱtheȱcommunalȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱ decisionȬmakingȱ processȱ amongȱ presidingȱ monksȱ themselvesȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ bringingȱ aȱ newȱ memberȱ intoȱ theȱ S¬sanaȬfoldȱ asȱ aȱ fullȱ monk.ȱ Theȱ unionȱofȱtheseȱissuesȱinȱtheȱindividualȱwhoȱbecomesȱaȱfullȱmonkȱmakesȱ himȱindispensableȱtoȱtheȱcommunity.ȱTheȱhigherȱordinationȱisȱorientedȱ towardȱ theȱ moralȱ andȱ spiritualȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ candidateȱ byȱ initiatingȱhimȱintoȱaȱmonasticȱcommunity;ȱitȱalsoȱultimatelyȱtestifiesȱtoȱ theȱcommunalȱprosperity,ȱhealth,ȱandȱvolitionalȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱpresidȬ ingȱmonksȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱlayȱpeopleȱwhoȱsupportȱtheirȱefforts.ȱ Communityȱtransactionsȱlikeȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱrestȱonȱfiveȱ“acȬ complishments”ȱ(P.ȱsampatti).ȱTheseȱaccomplishmentsȱreferȱtoȱtheȱwaysȱ inȱwhichȱaȱmonasticȱcommunityȱassemblesȱandȱissuesȱ“verbalȱacts”ȱ(P.ȱ kammav¬c¬)ȱ regardingȱ someȱ actionȱ (e.g.,ȱ ordination,ȱ expulsion,ȱ acquirȬ ingȱ newȱrobes)ȱ beingȱtakenȱ byȱ theȱcommunityȱasȱ aȱwhole.ȱ InȱPali,ȱ theȱ fiveȱaccomplishmentsȱareȱsÎm¬ȱ(aȱproperlyȱdedicatedȱboundary),ȱparis¬ȱ (quorum),ȱ vatthuȱ (object),ȱ ñattiȱ (motion),ȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ (proclamaȬ tion).9ȱ Theȱ fiveȱ accomplishmentsȱ constituteȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ theoryȱ aboutȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ processȱ ofȱ successfulȱ communityȱ transactions.ȱ Ifȱ anyȱ oneȱ ofȱ theseȱ accomplishmentsȱ isȱ imperfect,ȱ theȱ validityȱ ofȱ aȱ comȬ munityȱtransactionȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱintoȱquestionȱbecauseȱtheȱmonksȱhaveȱ notȱcorrectlyȱfollowedȱtheȱproceduresȱestablishedȱinȱtheȱVinaya.ȱInȱotherȱ words,ȱ ifȱ anyȱ oneȱ ofȱ theseȱ accomplishmentsȱ isȱ improperlyȱ performed,ȱ theȱvalidityȱofȱanȱentireȱcommunityȱtransactionȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱintoȱquesȬ tionȱ becauseȱ monksȱ haveȱ notȱ properlyȱ embodiedȱ theȱ disciplinaryȱ asȬ pectsȱofȱcommunalȱsuccession.10ȱ Aȱ sÎm¬ȱ isȱ eitherȱ anȱ areaȱ ofȱ landȱ thatȱ hasȱ beenȱ properlyȱ authorizedȱ byȱmonksȱ(P.ȱbaddhaȬsÎm¬,ȱ“aȱboundaryȱthatȱisȱstakedȱout”),ȱorȱanȱareaȱ ofȱ landȱ definedȱ byȱ naturalȱ orȱ politicalȱ boundariesȱ (P.ȱ abaddhaȬsÎm¬,ȱ “aȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 9ȱ

FollowingȱVajirañ¬Ѿavarorasaȱ1992,ȱThanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ 2,ȱp.ȱ478.ȱgivesȱfourȱ accomplishments.ȱÑattiȱ(motion)ȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱ(proclamation)ȱareȱtreatedȱtogetherȱ asȱtheȱaccomplishmentȱorȱ“validity”ȱofȱtheȱtransactionȱstatement.ȱNoteȱthatȱThanisȬ saroȱ doesȱ notȱ provideȱ theȱ volumeȱ orȱ pageȱ numberȱ informationȱ forȱ Vajirañ¬Ѿavarorasaȱ1992ȱ(whichȱisȱinȱThai).ȱHowever,ȱinterestedȱreadersȱcanȱturnȱtoȱ Vajirañ¬Ѿavarorasaȱ1969,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ4–8,ȱwhichȱisȱanȱEnglishȱtranslationȱofȱwhatȱapȬ pearsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdiscussionȱtoȱwhichȱThanissaroȱrefers.ȱ 10ȱ Forȱaȱrepresentativeȱdiscussion,ȱseeȱPhay¬ȱPhyĀȱSayadawȱ1938.ȱ

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boundaryȱthatȱisȱnotȱstakedȱout”).11ȱManyȱsÎm¬sȱusedȱforȱhigherȱordinaȬ tionsȱareȱofȱtheȱboundedȱsortȱandȱenclosedȱbyȱaȱbuilding,ȱforȱexample,ȱ anȱordinationȱhall,ȱwhichȱisȱwhyȱsÎm¬ȱisȱsometimesȱrenderedȱinȱEnglishȱ asȱ“ordinationȱhall.”12ȱForȱaȱsÎm¬ȱtoȱbeȱaccomplishedȱ(P.ȱsÎm¬Ȭsampatti),ȱ twoȱconditionsȱmustȱbeȱmet:ȱ(1)ȱallȱtheȱmonksȱrequiredȱtoȱbeȱpresentȱatȱ theȱcommunityȱtransactionȱtakingȱplaceȱinȱtheȱsÎm¬ȱmustȱbeȱpresent,ȱorȱ theyȱmustȱgiveȱtheirȱconsentȱifȱtheyȱareȱunableȱtoȱattend;13ȱ(2)ȱnoȱmonkȱ qualifiedȱ toȱ doȱ soȱ shouldȱ protestȱ againstȱ theȱ givenȱ transactionȱ takingȱ placeȱinȱtheȱsÎm¬.14ȱ Aȱ paris¬ȱ (quorum)ȱ isȱ theȱ appropriateȱ numberȱ ofȱ qualifiedȱ monksȱ whoȱ participateȱ inȱ communityȱ transactions.ȱ Forȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ aȱ paris¬ȱmustȱ consistȱ ofȱ atȱ leastȱ fiveȱ fullyȱ ordainedȱ monks.ȱ Excludedȱfromȱaȱparis¬ȱareȱpeopleȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱcountȱasȱlegitimateȱbhikȬ khusȱ(e.g.,ȱmonksȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱsuspended,ȱnuns,ȱandȱlayȱpeople).15ȱIfȱ theȱappropriateȱnumberȱofȱlegitimateȱbhikkhusȱcomprisesȱaȱparis¬,ȱthereȱ isȱanȱaccomplishmentȱofȱparis¬ȱ(P.ȱparis¬Ȭsampatti).ȱ Aȱ vatthuȱ isȱ theȱ “object”ȱ thatȱ isȱ theȱ focusȱ ofȱ aȱ givenȱ communityȱ transaction;ȱ theȱ objectȱ mayȱ beȱ aȱ personȱ (e.g.,ȱ aȱ candidateȱ forȱ ordinaȬ tion),ȱaȱphysicalȱitemȱ(e.g.,ȱaȱsiteȱforȱaȱmonasticȱdwelling),ȱorȱbothȱ(e.g.,ȱ presentationȱ ofȱ robesȱ toȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ community).16ȱ Theȱ vatthuȱmustȱpossessȱtheȱqualificationsȱrequiredȱforȱtheȱgivenȱcommuniȬ tyȱtransactionȱtoȱproceed.ȱInȱaȱhigherȱordination,ȱtheȱvatthu—theȱcandiȬ date—mustȱbeȱaȱmaleȱhumanȱbeing,ȱandȱheȱmustȱnotȱpossessȱanyȱofȱtheȱ attributesȱthatȱwouldȱdisqualifyȱhimȱfromȱordination.ȱTheseȱconditionsȱ concernȱphysicalȱhealth,ȱintentions,ȱpreparations,ȱandȱmoralȱcharacter.ȱ Theȱ ñattiȱ (motion)ȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ (proclamation)ȱ areȱ particularȱ statementsȱinȱPaliȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱspecifiedȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬ piΞaka.ȱ Forȱ theȱ ñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ toȱ beȱ valid,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ followȱ theȱ correctȱ patternȱ forȱ theȱ transactionȱ atȱ hand.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ ifȱ theȱ patternȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞakaȱ callsȱ forȱ oneȱ ñattiȱ andȱ threeȱ anuss¬vana,ȱ andȱ theȱ announcingȱbhikkhuȱprovidesȱfourȱñattiȱorȱoneȱñattiȱandȱoneȱanuss¬vana,ȱ thenȱ theȱ transactionȱ isȱ invalid.ȱ Also,ȱ eachȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ ñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱmustȱbeȱgivenȱinȱtheȱproperȱsequentialȱorder.ȱIfȱtheȱpatternȱ callsȱ forȱ oneȱ ñattiȱ followedȱ byȱ oneȱ anuss¬vana,ȱ andȱ ifȱ theȱ announcingȱ bhikkhuȱ givesȱ theȱ anuss¬vanaȱ first,ȱ thenȱ theȱ transactionȱ isȱ alsoȱ invalidȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 11ȱ 12ȱ 13ȱ 14ȱ 15ȱ 16ȱ

Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱp.ȱ171.ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱSaoȱHtunȱHmatȱWinȱ1986ȱp.ȱ52.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱifȱaȱmonkȱisȱill,ȱheȱcanȱconveyȱhisȱconsentȱinȱwriting.ȱȱ Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱp.ȱ148.ȱ Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱpp.ȱ150–151.ȱ Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱpp.ȱ148–149.ȱ

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becauseȱ ofȱ aȱ mistakeȱ whichȱ creates,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ aȱ “semblanceȱ ofȱ theȱ Dhamma.”17ȱ Whileȱ theȱ ñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ areȱ beingȱ recited,ȱ monksȱ signalȱtheirȱsupportȱofȱtheȱtransactionȱatȱhandȱbyȱkeepingȱsilent.ȱIfȱtheyȱ doȱ notȱ supportȱ theȱ transaction,ȱ thenȱ theyȱ canȱ voiceȱ disagreementȱ andȱ theȱcommunityȱtransactionȱmustȱbeȱterminatedȱbecauseȱtheȱunityȱofȱtheȱ communityȱdoesȱnotȱexist.ȱ Theȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬—theȱ kammav¬c¬ȱ thatȱ actuallyȱ confersȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination—consistsȱ ofȱ oneȱ ñattiȱ andȱ threeȱ anuss¬vana.ȱ Asȱ withȱotherȱimportantȱkammav¬c¬,ȱtheȱentireȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬ȱitselfȱ mayȱbeȱrecitedȱseveralȱtimes,ȱwithȱtwoȱmoreȱgroupsȱofȱmonksȱparticiȬ patingȱinȱtheȱrecitation.ȱInȱsuchȱcases,ȱtheȱmultipleȱrecitationsȱareȱmeantȱ toȱensureȱthatȱifȱoneȱmonkȱmakesȱaȱmistakeȱinȱoneȱroundȱofȱrecitation,ȱ itȱ willȱ beȱ correctedȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ roundȱ ofȱ recitation.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ theȱ lengthȱ ofȱ theȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬ȱ isȱ anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ itsȱ imporȬ tance;ȱ theȱ moreȱ recitations,ȱ “theȱ moreȱ timeȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ ComȬ munityȱ haveȱ toȱ deliberate,ȱ andȱ theȱ moreȱ chanceȱ theyȱ haveȱ toȱ speakȱ up.”18ȱInȱaȱhigherȱordination,ȱonceȱtheȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬ȱhasȱbeenȱ recitedȱandȱtheȱdecisionȱtoȱordainȱtheȱcandidateȱhasȱgoneȱuncontested,ȱ theȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱareȱaccomplishedȱ(P.ȱñattiȬsampatti,ȱanuss¬vanaȬ sampatti).ȱ Whileȱ notȱ exhaustiveȱ ofȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ featuresȱ ofȱ aȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ theȱvariousȱaccomplishmentsȱdoȱhelpȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱbasicȱnatureȱ ofȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱasȱaȱritualȱintrinsicȱtoȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱmonksȱ andȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Seenȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ accomplishments,ȱ aȱ validȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ restsȱ onȱ severalȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ aȱ ritualȱ processȱ thatȱ mustȱ beȱ broughtȱtogetherȱtoȱensureȱtheȱcommunalȱharmonyȱandȱintegrityȱessenȬ tialȱ toȱ theȱ perpetuationȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ line.ȱ Theȱ strandsȱ includeȱ theȱ properȱ useȱ ofȱ aȱ sÎm¬ȱ andȱ theȱ willingnessȱ ofȱ aȱ paris¬ȱ (quorum)ȱ toȱ meetȱ andȱconferȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱonȱaȱcandidate.ȱTheyȱalsoȱincludeȱtheȱ abilityȱofȱaȱcandidateȱtoȱmeetȱtheȱeligibilityȱrequirementsȱthatȱareȱnecesȬ sary,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱVinaya,ȱforȱhimȱtoȱsustainȱtheȱlifeȱassociatedȱwithȱ theȱmonasticȱpath.ȱAndȱtheyȱincludeȱrecitationsȱofȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vana.ȱ Inȱotherȱwords,ȱwhenȱtheȱsÎm¬,ȱparis¬,ȱvatthu,ȱñatti,ȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱhaveȱ beenȱ properlyȱ fulfilled,ȱ aȱnewȱmonkȱ isȱmade.ȱ Indeed,ȱitȱ isȱcommonȱ toȱ comeȱacrossȱmonksȱandȱothersȱinȱMyanmarȱwhoȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱBurȬ meseȱwordȱĀɇȱpañjaΤеɇȱ(pronouncedȱ“uȬpaȬzin”)—whichȱisȱanotherȱwordȱ forȱ aȱ fullyȱ ordainedȱ monk—derivesȱ fromȱ Paliȱ pañcaȱ aΤga,ȱ theȱ “fiveȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 17ȱ Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱpp.ȱ149,ȱ162,ȱ165.ȱ 18ȱ Thanissaroȱ2007–2009,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱp.ȱ147.ȱ

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parts”ȱofȱordination:ȱnamely,ȱsÎm¬,ȱparis¬,ȱvatthu,ȱñatti,ȱandȱanuss¬vana.19ȱ Whenȱtheȱfiveȱpartsȱareȱfulfilled,ȱtheȱcandidateȱacquires,ȱideally,ȱaȱmindȱ andȱbodyȱmoreȱintenselyȱorientedȱtowardȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱRegardlessȱofȱtheȱ derivationȱofȱuȬpaȬzin,ȱtheȱfiveȱaccomplishmentsȱhelpȱshowȱtheȱkindȱofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ activityȱ thatȱ underpinȱ aȱ Paliȱ statementȱ thatȱ isȱ oftenȱ inȬ vokedȱbyȱShwegyinȱmonks:ȱ vinayoȱn¬maȱs¬sanassaȱ¬yu;ȱvinayeȱΞhiteȱs¬sanaΚȱΞhitaΚȱn¬maȱhoti.20ȱ Theȱ Vinayaȱ isȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ whenȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ stands,ȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ stands.ȱ

Inȱ addressingȱ howȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ figuresȱ intoȱ theȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ sustainingȱtheȱS¬sanaȱamongȱShwegyinȱ(andȱotherȱmonks),ȱIȱalsoȱdrawȱ onȱtheȱpointsȱdiscussedȱbyȱJohnȱHolt.21ȱHoltȱexploresȱrelationshipsȱbeȬ tweenȱ monasticȱ discipline,ȱ legality,ȱ morality,ȱ andȱ communalȱ lifeȱ thatȱ areȱportrayedȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱHeȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱprimaryȱconcernȱ ofȱ monasticȱ legislationȱ isȱ notȱ moralityȱ perȱ se,ȱ butȱ volition,ȱ theȱ intenȬ tionalȱcharacterȱofȱaction,ȱwhichȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱnotionsȱofȱcommunalȱperȬ petuation.ȱOnȱtheȱlinkȱbetweenȱvolitionȱandȱperpetuationȱasȱdepictedȱinȱ theȱVinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱHoltȱstates:ȱ Theȱ aimȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ disciplineȱ isȱ directedȱ notȱ onlyȱ atȱ theȱ spiritualȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱindividualȱbhikkhu,ȱbutȱalsoȱatȱtheȱgenerationȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱpurityȱ forȱ theȱ entireȱ bhikkhuȱ community.ȱ Weȱ mightȱ sayȱ thatȱ theȱ sumȱ totalȱ ofȱ allȱ bhikkhuȱ actionsȱ reflectsȱ theȱ inwardȱ conditionȱ ofȱ theȱ SaΤghaȱ asȱ aȱ collectiveȱ entity.ȱ And,ȱ weȱ mustȱ notȱ forgetȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ anȱ entity:ȱ thatȱ itsȱ qualityȱ isȱ determinedȱ byȱ itsȱ relationȱ toȱ itsȱ environment.ȱ Membersȱ ofȱ theȱ bhikkhuȬ saΤghaȱareȱdirectlyȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱstatusȱofȱtheirȱcommunityȱsinceȱtheyȱ formȱ itsȱ constituentȱ elements.ȱ Theirȱ attachedȱ orȱ detached,ȱ disciplinedȱ orȱ undisciplinedȱ actionsȱ areȱ directȱ reflectionsȱ uponȱ theȱ spiritualȱ stateȱ ofȱ theȱ community.22ȱ

Asȱ Iȱ readȱ him,ȱ whatȱ Holtȱ isȱ talkingȱ aboutȱ hereȱ isȱ theȱ veryȱ crucibleȱ inȱ whichȱ Buddhistȱ monasticȱ traditionsȱ areȱ forged.ȱ Disciplinedȱ activity— anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ one’sȱ commitmentȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ expressedȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka—isȱbothȱaȱconditionȱforȱandȱaȱproductȱofȱtheȱsustainedȱlifeȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAsȱpartȱofȱthatȱdisciplinedȱactivity,ȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 19ȱ yɇȱpañjaΤеɇȱ(‚; pV©c\;)ȱisȱalsoȱspelledȱĀɇȱpañcaΤеɇȱ(‚; pVŒc\;).ȱThisȱotherȱspellingȱisȱwellȱtestiȬ fiedȱ inȱ toȱ inȱ manyȱ literaryȱ sourcesȱ goingȱ backȱ someȱ time.ȱ F.ȱ K.ȱ Lehmanȱ (privateȱ communication)ȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱderivationȱofȱĀɇȱpañjaΤеɇȱfromȱPaliȱpañcaȱaΤgaȱreflectsȱ aȱwiderȱBurmeseȱculturalȱattemptȱtoȱgiveȱaȱPaliȱoriginȱforȱBurmeseȱwordsȱthatȱmayȱ inȱ factȱhaveȱnoȱ originalȱ relationȱ toȱtheȱPaliȱwordsȱfromȱ whichȱtheyȱareȱ supposedlyȱ derived.ȱ 20ȱ Forȱanȱexample,ȱseeȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ112.ȱ 21ȱ Holtȱ1981.ȱ 22ȱ Holtȱ1981ȱp.ȱ78,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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itselfȱservesȱtoȱscrutinizeȱtheȱvolitionalȱcharacterȱofȱaȱcandidateȱorȱcanȬ didatesȱasȱwellȱasȱofȱtheȱmonksȱwhoȱrepresentȱtheȱcommunityȱinȱquesȬ tionȱ andȱ whoȱ areȱ directlyȱ responsibleȱ forȱ itsȱ continuation.23ȱ Doȱ theȱ monksȱ participatingȱ inȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ agreeȱ aboutȱ theȱ candiȬ date’sȱ capacityȱ toȱ furtherȱ theȱ concernsȱ ofȱ theȱ communityȱ andȱ S¬sana?ȱ Doȱtheȱmonksȱparticipatingȱinȱtheȱordination,ȱandȱespeciallyȱthoseȱpreȬ sidingȱoverȱtheȱordination,ȱproperlyȱembodyȱtheȱS¬sana?ȱAreȱallȱofȱtheȱ monksȱ whoȱ shouldȱ beȱ atȱ theȱ sÎm¬ȱ presentȱ inȱ theȱ sÎm¬?ȱ Haveȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ monksȱwhoȱareȱpresentȱatȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱheardȱtheȱrecitationsȱofȱ theȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vana,ȱandȱdoȱtheyȱagreeȱthatȱ theȱ ordinationȱcanȱgoȱ forward?ȱAreȱtheȱpresidingȱmonksȱharmoniousȱinȱtheirȱworkȱofȱmakingȱ aȱ monk?ȱ Theȱ outwardȱ formȱ ofȱ theȱ ceremony—theȱ structureȱ governedȱ byȱtheȱlegalȱconceptsȱandȱmandatesȱarticulatedȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱandȱ relatedȱliterature—isȱmeantȱtoȱshowȱthatȱtheseȱcomponentsȱofȱmonasticȱ successionȱareȱmetȱatȱanyȱgivenȱordination.ȱ Asȱ addressedȱ inȱ theȱ discussionsȱ byȱ Thanissaroȱ Bhikkhuȱ andȱ Holt,ȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ signalsȱ aȱ transitionȱ inȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ aȱ humanȱ beȬ ing:ȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱbecomesȱaȱyahan/bhikkhu/uȬpaȬzin.ȱButȱwhatȱkindȱofȱ interpretiveȱ metaphorsȱ areȱ mostȱ appropriateȱ toȱ describeȱ theseȱ transiȬ tions?ȱ Oneȱ metaphor,ȱ whichȱ isȱ bothȱ problematicȱ andȱ useful,ȱ isȱ thatȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ rebirth.24ȱ Onȱ theȱ problematicȱ side,ȱ theȱ metaphorȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ rebirthȱdoesȱnotȱquiteȱaccountȱforȱtheȱnatureȱandȱprocessȱofȱtheȱhigherȱ ordinationȱasȱitȱfunctionsȱinȱMyanmar.ȱForȱinstance,ȱinȱaȱculturalȱworldȱ whereȱ aȱ considerableȱ numberȱ ofȱ menȱ spendȱ atȱ leastȱ someȱ timeȱ inȱ theȱ robesȱasȱmonks,ȱdoȱtheyȱallȱundergoȱ“spiritualȱrebirth”ȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱ ordained?ȱ Inȱ aȱ culturalȱ worldȱ whereȱ menȱ areȱ admittedȱ toȱ aȱ monasticȱ community,ȱoftenȱreleasedȱfromȱit,ȱandȱpossiblyȱreȬadmittedȱupȱtoȱsevȬ eralȱ timesȱ duringȱ theirȱ lives,ȱ doesȱ theȱ imageryȱ ofȱ “spiritualȱ rebirth”ȱ captureȱ whatȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ isȱ about?ȱ Haveȱ peopleȱ whoȱhaveȱundergoneȱseveralȱdifferentȱordinations,ȱsomeȱperhapsȱevenȱ inȱ differentȱ monasticȱ nik¬yasȱ orȱ gaings,ȱ experiencedȱ differentȱ spiritualȱ “rebirths”?25ȱFromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱMonasticȱLaw,ȱtheȱimageȱofȱ“spirȬ itualȱrebirth”ȱsimplyȱdoesȱnotȱquiteȱcaptureȱwhatȱhappensȱinȱaȱhigherȱ ordination.ȱLegally,ȱtheȱbasicȱstructureȱandȱcontentȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordiȬ nationȱisȱnotȱnecessarilyȱaȱ“spiritualȱrebirth,”ȱbutȱratherȱaȱcommunallyȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 23ȱ Holtȱ1981ȱch.ȱ7.ȱ 24ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱHoltȱ1981ȱp.ȱ124.ȱ 25ȱ Williamȱ Pruittȱ (privateȱ communication)ȱ writes,ȱ “Onȱ ordainingȱ moreȱ thanȱ once,ȱ whenȱourȱgroupȱhadȱaȱpilgrimageȱinȱIndiaȱandȱheldȱaȱoneȬweekȱordinationȱmeditaȬ tionȱ courseȱatȱBuddhagaya,ȱtheȱmonksȱwhoȱ hadȱ comeȱfromȱ Myanmarȱ toȱ ordainȱ usȱ reordainedȱthemselvesȱasȱitȱwasȱanȱhonorȱtoȱtakeȱordinationȱinȱtheȱplaceȱwhereȱtheȱ Buddhaȱattainedȱawakening.”ȱȱ

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acceptedȱ transitionȱ inȱ theȱ categoryȱ ofȱ theȱ humanȱ being26—aȱ transitionȱ predicatedȱonȱaȱradicalȱbreakȱfromȱone’sȱordinaryȱsocialȱworldȱandȱanȱ intensificationȱ ofȱ theȱ questȱ forȱ arahantship.ȱ Inȱ effectingȱ thisȱ shift,ȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ carriesȱ (B.ȱ puiȇȱ choΤе,ȱ pui>eSac\)ȱ theȱ candidateȱ orȱ candiȬ datesȱtoȱanȱenhancedȱreligiousȱstatus,ȱbutȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱinvolveȱanyȱ kindȱofȱ“spiritualȱrebirth.”ȱ Fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ Monasticȱ Law,ȱ theȱ imageȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ reȬ birthȱ doesȱ notȱ fitȱ wellȱ withȱ theȱ transitionȱ effectedȱ inȱ aȱ higherȱ ordinaȬ tion.ȱ However,ȱ fromȱ aȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ ethosȱ ofȱ monasticȱ life,ȱ theȱ imageȱofȱspiritualȱrebirthȱisȱrightȱonȱtheȱmark.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱhigherȱorȬ dinationȱ isȱ theȱ ceremonialȱ occasionȱ thatȱ producesȱ aȱ newȱ fullȬfledgedȱ discipleȬsonȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ whoȱ isȱ noȱ longerȱ aȱ layȱ personȱ orȱ aȱ noviceȱ butȱ isȱ aȱ newȱ kindȱ ofȱ spirituallyȱ orientedȱ humanȱ being.ȱ Indeed,ȱ inȱ beȬ comingȱaȱyahan/bhikkhu/uȬpaȬzin,ȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱacquiresȱaȱnewȱkindȱofȱ monasticȱbodyȱandȱmind,ȱoneȱwhichȱisȱconstitutedȱthroughȱtheȱactionsȱ ofȱaȱparis¬ȱinȱaȱsÎm¬ȱatȱaȱhigherȱordination.ȱThatȱtransformationȱisȱaȱkindȱ ofȱ “spiritualȱ rebirth,”ȱ aȱ steppingȱ stoneȱ toȱ spiritualȱ ruptureȱ outȱ ofȱ saΚs¬raȱandȱanȱinherentȱcomponentȱofȱShwegyinȱtraditionalism.ȱ

AȱShwegyinȱHigherȱOrdinationȱ Theȱ remainderȱ ofȱ thisȱ chapterȱ isȱ devotedȱ toȱ describingȱ oneȱ particularȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ performedȱ atȱ aȱ veryȱ largeȱ Shwegyinȱ monastery,ȱ Mah¬gandh¬yon,ȱ inȱ AmarapĀraȱ onȱ Aprilȱ 11,ȱ 2001.27ȱ Itȱ wasȱ performedȱ forȱthreeȱcandidatesȱwhoȱwouldȱbecomeȱtemporaryȱmonksȱandȱwhoseȱ parentsȱ wouldȱ acquireȱ theȱ heritageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Inȱ Myanmar,ȱ someȱ peopleȱremainȱinȱtheȱrobesȱasȱfullyȱordainedȱmonksȱforȱasȱlittleȱasȱtwoȱ orȱ threeȱ weeks,ȱ someȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ theirȱ entireȱ adultȱ life,ȱ andȱ someȱ evenȱ receiveȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱmoreȱ thanȱ once,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱareȱpermaȬ nentȱmonks.ȱSometimes,ȱpermanentȱmonksȱmayȱreceiveȱaȱnewȱordinaȬ tionȱ soȱ thatȱ layȱ peopleȱ canȱ acquireȱ moreȱ merit,ȱ orȱ theyȱ mayȱ receiveȱ aȱ newȱordinationȱtoȱmakeȱupȱforȱpotentialȱmistakesȱinȱaȱpreviousȱordinaȬ tion.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱlatter,ȱtheȱissueȱisȱensuringȱthatȱaȱmonkȱhasȱbeenȱ properlyȱ constitutedȱ asȱ aȱ monk.ȱ Iȱ personallyȱ knowȱ ofȱ twoȱ Shwegyinȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 26ȱ SeeȱCarrithers,ȱCollins,ȱandȱLukes,ȱeds.,ȱ1985.ȱ 27ȱ TheȱordinationȱwasȱrecordedȱonȱaudioȱtapeȱbyȱAshinȱKel¬sa.ȱTheȱBurmeseȱportionsȱ ofȱ theȱ tapeȱ wereȱ initiallyȱ transcribedȱ byȱ Thanȱ Thanȱ Win.ȱ Johnȱ Okell,ȱ andȱ severalȱ monksȱ insideȱ andȱ outsideȱ Myanmar,ȱ assistedȱ withȱ additionalȱ transcriptionȱ issues.ȱ Okellȱ providedȱ extensiveȱ feedbackȱ onȱ translationȱ issues.ȱ Transcriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ Paliȱ portionsȱ ofȱ theȱ tapeȱ wereȱ completedȱ byȱ me,ȱ withȱ crossȬchecksȱ ofȱ differentȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱVinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱȱ

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monksȱwhoȱhaveȱ beenȱ ordainedȱsixȱtimesȱorȱ more,ȱnotȱforȱtheȱsakeȱ ofȱ correctingȱmistakesȱinȱaȱpreviousȱordinationȱbutȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱincreasȬ ingȱmeritȱforȱlayȱpeople.ȱ Withoutȱextendedȱinterviewȱtimeȱwithȱtheȱfamiliesȱwhoȱsupportedȱ theȱ ordination,ȱ orȱ withȱ thoseȱ ordainedȱ duringȱ theȱ ritual,ȱ itȱ isȱ hardȱ toȱ knowȱtheȱpreciseȱmotivationsȱforȱtheȱordination,ȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȬ contextȱ inȱ whichȱ itȱ wasȱ framedȱ (e.g.,ȱ supportingȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ acquiringȱ theȱ heritageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ generatingȱ meritȱ forȱ parents).28ȱ Thatȱ is,ȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ functionedȱ asȱ aȱ ritualȱ mitigatingȱ theȱmidȬlifeȱexperiencesȱofȱparentsȱseekingȱsomeȱsolaceȱatȱmidȬlife,29ȱorȱ asȱaȱritualȱforȱyoungȱmenȱseekingȱsomeȱretreatȱfromȱtheirȱfamilyȱlife,ȱorȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ bothȱ familyȱ andȱ candidatesȱ toȱ dealȱ withȱ widerȱ issuesȱ ofȱ sociopoliticalȱ lifeȱ remainsȱ obscure.ȱ Thisȱ contrastsȱ withȱ higherȱ ordinaȬ tionsȱ thatȱ Iȱ haveȱ seenȱ whereinȱ itȱ wasȱ quiteȱ explicitlyȱ statedȱ thatȱ theȱ participantsȱbecameȱordainedȱasȱaȱwayȱtoȱcommemorateȱmonks,ȱnuns,ȱ men,ȱ andȱ womenȱ killedȱ orȱ injuredȱ inȱ theȱ eventsȱ ofȱ 1988ȱ andȱ 2007.ȱ Inȱ thoseȱordinations,ȱtheȱbasicȱstructureȱandȱcontentȱwasȱtheȱsameȱasȱdisȬ cussedȱ below,ȱ butȱ layȱ participantsȱ deliberatelyȱ woreȱ variationsȱ ofȱ redȱ clothingȱtoȱsimultaneouslyȱexpressȱsolidarityȱwithȱmonksȱandȱwithȱtheȱ deceased.ȱ Thisȱ didȱ notȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ caseȱ withȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ higherȱ ordinationȱfocusedȱonȱforȱmyȱanalysisȱhere,ȱwhichȱdidȱnotȱinvolveȱthisȱ kindȱofȱsymbolism.ȱ Theȱ structureȱ ofȱ aȱ Shwegyinȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ likeȱ ordinationsȱ inȱ otherȱ groups,ȱ isȱ basicallyȱ theȱ sameȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ whetherȱ theȱ candiȬ date(s)ȱwillȱbeȱordainedȱforȱaȱshortȱorȱlengthyȱperiodȱ(seeȱappendixȱB,ȱ tableȱ 6).30ȱ Theȱ sequentialȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ specifiedȱ hereȱ followȱveryȱcloselyȱtheȱversionȱofȱordinationȱdepictedȱinȱfourȱconsecuȬ tiveȱsectionsȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱPartsȱ 1–11ȱfollowȱ aȱ sectionȱ inȱ theȱViȬ nayaȬpiΞakaȱ dealingȱ withȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ “methodȱ ofȱ higherȱ ordination”ȱ (P.ȱupasampad¬Ȭvidhi).ȱPartsȱ12–13ȱfollowȱaȱsecondȱsectionȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬ piΞakaȱ concerningȱ “theȱ fourȱ foundations”ȱ (P.ȱ catt¬roȱ nissay¬).ȱ Partȱ 14ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 28ȱ Ofȱcourse,ȱevenȱwithȱsuchȱinterviewȱtime,ȱpeopleȱareȱnotȱalwaysȱwillingȱtoȱreveal— notȱ toȱ mentionȱ areȱ notȱ alwaysȱ awareȱ themselvesȱ about—theirȱ motivations.ȱ Iȱ amȱ thankfulȱtoȱKatherineȱUlrichȱforȱremindingȱmeȱaboutȱthis.ȱ 29ȱ SeeȱEberhardtȱ2006ȱforȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheseȱsortsȱofȱtopics.ȱ 30ȱ However,ȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱhigherȱordinationsȱforȱtemporaryȱmonks,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱ hand,ȱandȱforȱpermanentȱmonks,ȱonȱtheȱother,ȱmayȱbeȱnotedȱduringȱtheȱordinationȱ itself.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱShwegyinȱordinationȱexploredȱhere,ȱtheȱtemporaryȱmonksȱ wereȱinformedȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱnotȱreceiveȱregistrationȱcards—theȱmonasticȱequivaȬ lentȱ toȱ layȱ identityȱ cards.ȱ Williamȱ Pruittȱ (privateȱ communication)ȱ remarksȱ thatȱ “aȱ particularȱorderȱofȱmonksȱcanȱprobablyȱtellȱtheȱgovernmentȱwhetherȱtheyȱwantȱtemȬ poraryȱ monksȱ toȱ haveȱ cardsȱ orȱ not.ȱ I’veȱ beenȱ givenȱ cardsȱ whenȱ I’veȱ ordainedȱ inȱ Burma.”ȱȱ

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followsȱaȱ thirdȱ sectionȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞakaȱ regardingȱ “theȱ fourȱ actionsȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ done”ȱ (P.ȱ catt¬riȱ akaraΦiy¬ni).ȱ Additionally,ȱ partȱ 15ȱ corresȬ pondsȱ toȱ aȱ fourthȱ sectionȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱ oneȱ thatȱ dealsȱ withȱ theȱ reinstatingȱofȱaȱmonkȱwhoȱhasȱcommittedȱanȱoffenseȱagainstȱtheȱcodeȱofȱ monasticȱdisciplineȱ(P.ȱ¬patti).31ȱ Mostȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ performedȱ atȱ Mah¬Ȭ gandh¬yonȱwasȱconductedȱinȱBurmeseȱratherȱthanȱinȱPali.ȱInȱMyanmar,ȱ ifȱtheȱcandidatesȱdoȱnotȱknowȱPali,ȱmostȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱmayȱ beȱinȱBurmese,ȱbutȱtheȱvariousȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱareȱalwaysȱinȱPali.ȱ Theseȱ areȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ veryȱ wordsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himselfȱ reȬ gardingȱtheȱdecisionȬmakingȱprocessȱentailedȱinȱtheȱhigherȱordination,ȱ andȱ soȱ theyȱ mustȱ beȱ recitedȱ withȱ precisionȱ inȱ Pali.ȱ Ritualȱ continuityȱ withȱtheȱteachingsȱandȱpracticesȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱisȱthusȱpredicatedȱuponȱ certainȱtypesȱofȱlinguisticȱfidelityȱtoȱhim.ȱTheȱritualȱprocessȱallowsȱforȱ deviationȱfromȱdirectȱusageȱofȱtheȱPali,ȱbutȱonlyȱupȱtoȱaȱpoint.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ ordinationȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ isȱ attentiveȱtoȱtheȱsequentialȱstructureȱoutlinedȱabove,ȱbutȱdoesȱnotȱfollowȱ thatȱ structureȱ inȱ aȱ strictȱ way.ȱ Rather,ȱ itȱ followsȱ aȱ thematicȱ approachȱ dealingȱ withȱ theȱ fiveȱ accomplishmentsȱ (sÎm¬,ȱ paris¬,ȱ vatthu,ȱ ñatti,ȱ andȱ anuss¬vana)ȱasȱwellȱasȱwithȱactivityȱafterȱtheȱfiveȱaccomplishments.ȱByȱ followingȱ aȱ thematicȱ approach,ȱ whichȱ isȱ sensitiveȱ toȱ theȱ sequentialȱ orderȱofȱtheȱordinationȱbutȱnotȱrigidlyȱboundȱbyȱit,ȱIȱhopeȱtoȱhighlightȱ theȱpatternsȱofȱactivityȱthatȱmonksȱbringȱtogetherȱinȱtheȱhigherȱordinaȬ tionȱasȱaȱmodeȱofȱcontinuityȱamongȱShwegyinȱandȱotherȱmonks.ȱ

SÎm¬ȱandȱParis¬:ȱTheȱHarmonyȱandȱUnityȱofȱtheȱCommunityȱ Most,ȱ ifȱ notȱ all,ȱ Burmeseȱ monasteriesȱ houseȱ sÎm¬sȱ thatȱ haveȱ beenȱ boundedȱ offȱ (P.ȱ baddha)ȱ throughȱ anȱ authorizationȱ processȱ forȱ theȱ purȬ poseȱ ofȱ performingȱ communityȱ transactionsȱ likeȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinaȬ tion.32ȱTheȱsÎm¬ȱatȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱisȱclassifiedȱasȱaȱsubsidiaryȱsÎm¬ȱ(P.ȱ khaΦΠaȬsÎm¬)ȱ andȱ isȱ enclosedȱ inȱ aȱ largeȱ hall.ȱ Theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ inȱ aȱ subsidiaryȱ sÎm¬ȱ reducesȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ monksȱ requiredȱtoȱbeȱpresentȱatȱtheȱceremony;ȱthisȱmakesȱitȱeasierȱtoȱhaveȱanȱ accomplishmentȱ ofȱ sÎm¬ȱ (P.ȱ sÎm¬Ȭsampatti).ȱAsȱ oneȱ Shwegyinȱ monkȱexȬ plained,ȱifȱtheȱordinationȱwereȱperformedȱinȱaȱlargeȱsÎm¬ȱ(P.ȱmah¬sÎm¬)ȱ thatȱ coversȱ anȱ areaȱ ofȱ landȱ muchȱ largerȱ thanȱ theȱ subsidiaryȱ sÎm¬,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ hardȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ manyȱ communityȱ transactions.ȱ Distanceȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 31ȱ Forȱdetails,ȱseeȱVinȱIȱpp.ȱ93–98.ȱ 32ȱ Forȱaȱfewȱrelevantȱdetails,ȱseeȱPhay¬ȱPhyĀȱSayadawȱ1938.ȱ

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andȱobligations,ȱIȱwasȱtold,ȱwouldȱraiseȱtooȱmanyȱdifficultiesȱinȱbringȬ ingȱ togetherȱ allȱ thoseȱ required.ȱ Evenȱ so,ȱ theȱ paris¬ȱ itselfȱ includedȱ theȱ preceptor,ȱwhoȱisȱtheȱmasterȱofȱceremoniesȱandȱprimaryȱauthorityȱfigȬ ureȱforȱtheȱcandidates.ȱItȱalsoȱincludedȱaȱspecialistȱcalledȱtheȱKammav¬c¬ȱ Sayadaw,ȱwhoȱledȱtheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vana.ȱ Withoutȱ aȱ properȱ boundaryȱ (P.ȱ sÎm¬)ȱ andȱ quorumȱ (P.ȱ paris¬),ȱ theȱ monksȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ performȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination.ȱTheyȱwouldȱfallȱshortȱonȱtheȱcommunalȱharmonyȱandȱunityȱ necessaryȱforȱtheȱcommunityȱtoȱproceedȱwithȱtheȱmakingȱofȱnew,ȱfullyȱ ordainedȱdisciplesȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱSufficeȱitȱtoȱsay,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱmonksȱ presidingȱ overȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ wereȱ confiȬ dentȱthatȱtheirȱsÎm¬ȱandȱparis¬ȱwereȱvalid.ȱSinceȱnoȱoneȱchallengedȱtheirȱ position,ȱtheyȱcouldȱproceedȱwithȱtheȱhigherȱordination.ȱ

Vatthu:ȱEligibilityȱtoȱLiveȱinȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ Asȱtheȱvatthuȱ(theȱ“object,”ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱcandidate)ȱforȱtheȱhigherȱordination,ȱ theȱ threeȱ candidatesȱ neededȱ toȱ meetȱ theȱ eligibilityȱ requirementsȱ deemedȱ necessaryȱ byȱ theȱ rulesȱ laidȱ downȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞakaȱ toȱ preȬ pareȱthemȱforȱlifeȱinsideȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱSpecifically,ȱtheȱeligibilityȱrequireȬ mentsȱ consistȱ ofȱ havingȱ aȱ preceptor;ȱ havingȱ anȱ almsȱ bowlȱ andȱ robes;ȱ beingȱ freeȱ ofȱ certainȱ diseases;ȱ beingȱ aȱ humanȱ male;ȱ beingȱ theȱ properȱ age;ȱ havingȱ theȱ properȱ intentions;ȱ havingȱ goodȱ character;ȱ andȱ beingȱ freeȱ fromȱ certainȱ socialȱ constraintsȱ likeȱ beingȱ inȱ debtȱ (ifȱ anȱ individualȱ doesȱ haveȱ debt,ȱ theȱ debtȱ burdenȱ mustȱ beȱ takenȱ onȱ byȱ layȱ supportersȱ whileȱtheȱindividualȱisȱinȱrobes;ȱifȱaȱwillingȱlayȱsupporterȱisȱnotȱavailaȬ ble,ȱ theȱ individualȱ mayȱ beȱ turnedȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination).ȱ Priorȱtoȱtheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬,ȱtheȱmonksȱcomprisȬ ingȱtheȱparis¬ȱmakeȱsureȱthatȱallȱofȱtheseȱaspectsȱofȱeligibilityȱhaveȱbeenȱ metȱ byȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ candidates.ȱ Again,ȱ ifȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ conditionsȱ areȱ met,ȱ thereȱisȱanȱ“accomplishmentȱofȱvatthu”ȱ(P.ȱvatthuȬsampatti).ȱ Theȱappointmentȱofȱtheȱpreceptorȱbeginsȱonceȱtheȱcandidatesȱenterȱ theȱsÎm¬ȱandȱpositionȱthemselvesȱwithinȱaȱhatthap¬saȱ(“closeȱtoȱhand,”ȱaȱ distanceȱ equalȱ toȱ aboutȱ 1.25ȱ meters)ȱ fromȱ oneȱ anotherȱ andȱ theȱ monksȱ performingȱ theȱ ordination.ȱ Thisȱ hatthap¬saȱ distanceȱ makesȱ monksȱ sitȱ closeȱtogetherȱwhileȱkeepingȱthemȱorderlyȱandȱfocusedȱuponȱtheȱhigherȱ ordinationȱproceedings.33ȱTheȱcandidatesȱplaceȱanȱalmsȱbowlȱandȱouterȱ robeȱonȱtheȱfloorȱinȱfrontȱofȱthemȱandȱbowȱrespectfullyȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱ fiveȱ presidingȱ monks.ȱ Theyȱ thenȱ sitȱ facingȱ theȱ presidingȱ monksȱ withȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 33ȱ Theyȱalsoȱareȱtoȱkeepȱcloseȱtogetherȱtoȱkeepȱoutȱthoseȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱbelong.ȱ

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theirȱ handsȱ pressedȱ togetherȱ inȱ reverence.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ monksȱ asksȱ theȱ candidatesȱtoȱrepeatȱafterȱhimȱasȱheȱchantsȱaȱrequestȱinȱPali.ȱ upajjh¬yoȱmeȱbhanteȱhohi.ȱ upajjh¬yoȱmeȱbhanteȱhohi.ȱ upajjh¬yoȱmeȱbhanteȱhohi.ȱ

ToȱmakeȱitȱclearȱtoȱtheȱcandidatesȱwhatȱtheyȱareȱaskingȱofȱtheȱprecepȬ tor,ȱ theȱ presidingȱ monkȱ leadsȱ aȱ secondȱ recitation,ȱ inȱ Burmese,ȱ whichȱ offersȱaȱwordȬbyȬwordȱexplanationȱofȱtheȱrequestȱjustȱmade.34ȱ bhante ' ArHc\Bura;' me ' tpv.\eta\%' upajjh¬yo ' A`ps\cy\A`ps\~kI; AqI;AqI;kiu AnI;KjV\;kp\ ~kv\.R: qQn\qc\tt\eqa VpzZay\

qv\' hohiȱ' `Ps\eta\mUpf ArHc\Bura;"ȱ bhanteȱ=ȱashinȱphay¬.35ȱ meȱ=ȱofȱ[your]ȱstudent.ȱ upajjh¬yoȱ=ȱtheȱpreceptorȱwhoȱisȱableȱtoȱinstructȱaboutȱandȱcloselyȱlookȱafterȱ eachȱandȱeveryȱminorȱandȱmajorȱmisdeed.ȱ hohiȱ=ȱpleaseȱbe,ȱashinȱphay¬.ȱ

Inȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱcandidatesȱareȱsaying,ȱ“Reverendȱsir,ȱpleaseȱbeȱmyȱ preceptor.”ȱ Theȱ Burmeseȱ explanationȱ itselfȱ emphasizesȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ theȱ preceptorȱ isȱ toȱ careȱ forȱ hisȱ students.ȱ Heȱ isȱ theȱ primaryȱ auȬ thorityȱ figureȱ whoȱ isȱ responsibleȱ forȱ monitoringȱ theirȱ progressȱ onȱ theȱ pathȱandȱforȱensuringȱthatȱtheyȱpracticeȱproperly.ȱ Theȱ preceptorȱ respondsȱ toȱ theȱ requestȱ inȱ Pali,ȱ withȱ theȱ wordsȱ p¬s¬dikenaȱsamp¬detha,ȱwhichȱareȱfromȱtheȱVinaya.36ȱHeȱexplainsȱtheseȱinȱ Burmese:ȱ p¬s¬dikena ' ~kv\“iu`Kc\;kiu `Ps\estt\eqa kuiy\AmUAra N:t\AmUAramgCla`Pc\." samp¬detha ' qIl qmaDi pva quM;pf;qikˆaeta\NHc\. `pv\.suM~kkun\ela." p¬s¬dikenaȱ=ȱwithȱphysicalȱandȱverbalȱbehaviorȱthatȱisȱableȱtoȱarouseȱreveȬ rence.ȱ samp¬dethaȱ =ȱ beȱ fullyȱ endowedȱ withȱ theȱ threefoldȱ trainingȱ practicesȱ (P.ȱ sikkh¬):ȱ conductȱ (P.ȱ sÎla),ȱ concentrationȱ (P.ȱ sam¬dhi),ȱ andȱ wisdomȱ (P.ȱ paññ¬).ȱ

Here,ȱsÎla,ȱsam¬dhi,ȱandȱpaññ¬ȱareȱtheȱthreefoldȱdivisionsȱofȱtheȱeightfoldȱ pathȱ(P.ȱmagga)ȱleadingȱtoȱnibb¬na.ȱInȱthisȱcontext,ȱsÎlaȱconsistsȱofȱrightȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 34ȱ TheȱpreceptorȱisȱBhaddantaȱMahinda.ȱ 35ȱ Ashinȱphay¬ȱisȱaȱtermȱofȱrespectȱforȱmonks.ȱ 36ȱ VinȱIȱp.ȱ45.ȱ

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speech,ȱ rightȱ action,ȱ andȱ rightȱ livelihood;ȱ sam¬dhiȱ consistsȱ ofȱ rightȱ efȬ fort,ȱrightȱmindfulness,ȱandȱrightȱmentalȱcontrol;ȱandȱpaññ¬ȱconsistsȱofȱ rightȱunderstandingȱandȱrightȱthought.ȱByȱhisȱadmonition,ȱtheȱprecepȬ torȱisȱtellingȱhisȱnewȱdisciplesȱtoȱconductȱthemselvesȱinȱwaysȱthatȱwillȱ beȱpleasingȱtoȱotherȱmonksȱandȱtoȱtheȱBuddha.ȱMoreover,ȱheȱisȱtellingȱ themȱthatȱtheyȱareȱtoȱactȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱtoȱincreaseȱtheȱfaithȱ(P.ȱsaddh¬)ȱ ofȱ layȱ people,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ things.ȱ Byȱ replyingȱ “Yes,ȱ reveredȱ sir,”ȱ theȱ threeȱ novicesȱ signalȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ lostȱ onȱ themȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ toȱ striveȱ hardȱ onȱ theȱ monasticȱ path,ȱ whichȱ consistsȱ ofȱ sÎla,ȱ sam¬dhi,ȱ andȱ paññ¬.ȱ TheȱBuddhaȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱestablishedȱthisȱpathȱasȱthatȱwhichȱcanȱ mostȱ effectivelyȱ helpȱ monksȱ quellȱ theȱ karmicȱ forcesȱ thatȱ keepȱ themȱ embeddedȱinȱsaΚs¬ra.ȱ Theȱ preceptorȬdiscipleȱ relationshipȱ isȱ analogousȱ toȱ theȱ BuddhaȬ discipleȱ relationship.ȱ Likeȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ theȱ preceptorȱ isȱ aȱ fatherȱ figureȱ deeplyȱ involvedȱ inȱ theȱ careȱ ofȱ hisȱ discipleȬsons.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himselfȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱsaid:ȱ anuj¬n¬mi,ȱ bhikkhave,ȱ upajjh¬yaΚ.ȱ upajjh¬yo,ȱ bhikkhave,ȱ saddhivih¬rikamhiȱ puttacittaΚȱ upaΞΞh¬pessatiȱ saddhivih¬rikoȱ upajjh¬yamhiȱ pitucittaΚȱ upaΞΞh¬Ȭ pessati.ȱ evaΚȱ teȱ aññamaññaΚȱ sag¬rav¬ȱ sappatiss¬ȱ sabh¬gavuttinoȱ viharant¬ȱ imasmiΚȱdhammavinayeȱvuΠΠhiΚȱviruΖhiΚȱvepullaΚȱ¬pajjissanti.37ȱ Iȱpermit,ȱOȱmonks,ȱ[aȱpupilȱtoȱtake]ȱaȱpreceptor.ȱTheȱpreceptor,ȱOȱmonks,ȱ willȱ considerȱ hisȱ pupilȱ asȱ aȱ sonȱ (P.ȱ putta),ȱ andȱ theȱ pupilȱ willȱ considerȱ hisȱ preceptorȱ asȱ aȱ fatherȱ (P.ȱ pitu).ȱ Thus,ȱ they,ȱ dwellingȱ withȱ mutualȱ respect,ȱ reverence,ȱandȱcommonȱlivelihood,ȱwillȱmeetȱwithȱabundance,ȱgrowth,ȱandȱ increaseȱinȱthisȱDhammaȱandȱVinaya.38ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 37ȱ VinȱIȱp.ȱ45.ȱȱ 38ȱȱ Rhysȱ Davidsȱ andȱ Oldenberg,ȱ trans.,ȱ 1968,ȱ pt.ȱ 1,ȱ p.ȱ 154ȱ provideȱ theȱ following:ȱ “Iȱ prescribe,ȱ Oȱ Bhikkhus,ȱ (thatȱ youngȱ Bhikkhusȱ choose)ȱ anȱ upagghâyaȱ (orȱ preceptor).ȱ Theȱ upagghâya,ȱ Oȱ Bhikkhus,ȱ oughtȱ toȱ considerȱ theȱ saddhivihârikaȱ (i.e.,ȱ pupil)ȱ asȱ aȱ son;ȱtheȱsaddhivihârikaȱoughtȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱupagghâyaȱasȱaȱfather.ȱThusȱtheseȱtwo,ȱ unitedȱ byȱ mutualȱ reverence,ȱ confidence,ȱ andȱ communionȱ ofȱ life,ȱ willȱ progress,ȱ adȬ vance,ȱandȱreachȱaȱhighȱstageȱinȱthisȱdoctrineȱandȱdiscipline.”ȱOnȱpp.ȱ178–179ȱn.ȱ2,ȱ theyȱalertȱtheȱreaderȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱformulaȱisȱrepeatedȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱrelationsȱ betweenȱ anȱ ¬cariyaȱ (“teacher,”ȱ “preceptor”)ȱ andȱ anȱ antev¬sikaȱ (“pupil,”ȱ ”disciple”).ȱ Onȱ theȱ correspondenceȱ betweenȱ theseȱ twoȱ setsȱ ofȱ relationsȱ (i.e.,ȱ upajjh¬ya/ȱ saddhivih¬rikaȱandȱ¬cariya/antev¬sika),ȱtheyȱremark:ȱ ȱÂkariyaȱasȱwellȱasȱupagghâyaȱmeansȱ‘teacher,‘ȱorȱ‘preceptor.‘ȱItȱisȱveryȱdifficultȱ orȱ ratherȱ impossibleȱ toȱ drawȱ aȱ sharpȱ lineȱ ofȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ âkariyaȱ andȱ upagghâya.ȱTheȱdutiesȱofȱanȱâkariyaȱtowardsȱhisȱantevâsika,ȱandȱofȱanȱantevâsiȬ kaȱtowardsȱhisȱâkariya,ȱasȱindicatedȱinȱchaps.ȱ32,ȱ33ȱ(ȱ=ȱKullavaggaȱVIII,ȱ13,ȱ14),ȱ areȱexactlyȱtheȱsameȱasȱthoseȱofȱanȱupagghâyaȱtowardsȱhisȱsaddhivihârikaȱandȱ viceȱ versaȱ (chaps.ȱ 25,ȱ 26ȱ =ȱ Kullavaggaȱ VIII,ȱ 11,ȱ 12).ȱ Theȱ positionȱ ofȱ anȱ upagghâya,ȱhowever,ȱ wasȱ consideredȱasȱtheȱmoreȱimportantȱofȱtheȱtwo;ȱatȱtheȱ upasampadâȱ serviceȱ theȱ upagghâyaȱ hadȱ aȱ moreȱ prominentȱ partȱ thanȱ theȱ âkaȬ

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Theȱhigherȱordinationȱthusȱbeginsȱbyȱplacingȱtheȱcandidatesȱunderȱtheȱ tutelageȱofȱaȱpreceptorȱwhoȱisȱaȱfatherȱfigureȱresponsibleȱforȱtheirȱcare.ȱ Theȱsignificanceȱofȱthisȱpointȱinȱtheȱmonasticȱimaginationȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱ overlooked,ȱ forȱ hereinȱ layȱ theȱ heartȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ notionsȱ ofȱ unbrokenȱ successionȱ (P.ȱ parampar¬,ȱ i.e.,ȱ anȱunbrokenȱ lineageȱ fromȱ teacherȱ toȱ puȬ pil).ȱLikeȱallȱotherȱmonks,ȱtheȱpreceptorȱwasȱhimselfȱonceȱplaced,ȱasȱaȱ student,ȱ underȱ theȱ tutelageȱ ofȱ anotherȱ preceptor,ȱ whoȱ wasȱ himselfȱ placedȱunderȱtheȱtutelageȱofȱanotherȱpreceptor,ȱandȱsoȱon,ȱitȱisȱbelieved,ȱ allȱtheȱwayȱbackȱtoȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ candidatesȱ haveȱ beenȱ givenȱ aȱ preceptor,ȱ theȱ officiatingȱ monksȱ recognizeȱ that,ȱ asȱ theȱ nextȱ componentȱ ofȱ candidateȱ eligibility,ȱ theȱ candidatesȱ haveȱ theirȱ ownȱ almsȱ bowlȱ andȱ robes.ȱ Theȱ presidingȱ monkȱsays:ȱ VpzZay\yUes`pI;enak\ qpit\qkCn\;tiu>kiue`pa`prmv\hu min\>eta\mUeqae~kac\. cf.rHc\tiu>%erH>mHa rHieqa ^qpit\mja;qv\ cf.rHc\tiu>% AqI;qI;eqa kiuy\piuc\qpit\mja;`Ps\~kqv\" qpit\epFmHa tc\Ta;Ap\eqa NHs\Tp\qkCn\;~kI;qv\ cf.rHc\tiu>% AqI;qI;kiuy\piuc\ NHs\Tp\qkCn\;~kI;mja;`Ps\ ~kqv\" cf.rHc\tiu>% ATk\piuc\;kiuy\mHa rn\;Ta;eqa ^ƒkqIqv\ cf.rHc\tiu>% kiuy\piuc\ ƒkqIqv\ mja; `Ps\~kqv\" cf.rHc\tiu>% eAak\piuc\;kiuy\mHa wt\Ta;Ap\eqa ^qc\;piuc\mja;qv\ cf.rHc\tiu>% kiuyp\ uci \qc\;picu m\ ja;`Ps\~kqv\" Becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ ruleȱ [madeȱ byȱ theȱ Buddha]ȱ thatȱ weȱ haveȱ toȱ pointȱ outȱ theȱ almsȱbowlȱandȱrobesȱafterȱweȱmakeȱyouȱtakeȱyourȱpreceptor,ȱ[weȱnowȱdoȱ so]:ȱThisȱalmsȱbowlȱinȱfrontȱofȱyouȱisȱyourȱownȱindividualȱalmsȱbowl.ȱThisȱ largeȱouterȱrobeȱplacedȱonȱtopȱofȱyourȱalmsȱbowlȱisȱyourȱownȱlargeȱouterȱ robe.ȱThisȱupperȱrobeȱthatȱyouȱwearȱonȱtheȱupperȱpartȱofȱyourȱbodyȱisȱyourȱ ownȱupperȱrobe.ȱThisȱlowerȱrobeȱthatȱyouȱwearȱonȱtheȱlowerȱpartȱofȱyourȱ bodyȱisȱyourȱownȱlowerȱrobe.ȱ

Byȱpointingȱoutȱandȱrecognizingȱtheȱalmsȱbowlsȱandȱrobes,ȱtheȱofficiatȬ ingȱ monksȱ confirmȱ thatȱ theȱ candidatesȱ possessȱ theȱ materialȱ requisitesȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ riya,ȱasȱweȱmayȱinferȱfromȱchaps.ȱ28,ȱ29,ȱandȱfromȱtheȱexplanationsȱonȱtheȱ65thȱ pâkittiyaȱruleȱwhichȱareȱgivenȱinȱtheȱSuttaȱVibhaѼga.ȱThereȱitȱisȱsaidȱthat,ȱifȱtheȱ upasampadâȱordinationȱhadȱbeenȱconferred,ȱagainstȱtheȱrule,ȱonȱaȱpersonȱthatȱ hasȱnotȱyetȱattainedȱhisȱtwentiethȱyear,ȱtheȱupagghâyaȱhasȱmadeȱhimselfȱguiltyȱ ofȱaȱpâkittiyaȱoffence,ȱtheȱâkariyaȱandȱtheȱotherȱpresentȱBhikkhusȱonlyȱofȱaȱdukȬ kataȱ offence.ȱ Weȱ mayȱ addȱ thatȱ theȱ successionȱ ofȱ Vinayaȱ teachersȱ fromȱ Upâliȱ downȱtoȱMahinda,ȱwhichȱisȱgivenȱinȱtheȱDîpavamsaȱ(BhânavârasȱIVȱandȱV),ȱisȱaȱ successionȱ ofȱ upagghâyasȱ andȱ saddhivihârikasȱ (seeȱ IV,ȱ 36,ȱ 42,ȱ 43,ȱ &c.),ȱ notȱ ofȱ âkariyasȱandȱantevâsikas;ȱtheȱdutyȱofȱinstructingȱtheȱyoungȱBhikkhusȱinȱtheȱhoȬ lyȱdoctrinesȱandȱordinancesȱseems,ȱtherefore,ȱtoȱbelongȱtoȱtheȱupagghâyaȱratherȱ thanȱtoȱtheȱâkariya;ȱcompareȱalsoȱDîpavamsaȱVII,ȱ26.ȱSoȱamongȱtheȱBrâhmanas,ȱ onȱtheȱcontrary,ȱ theȱâkâryaȱisȱestimatedȱhigherȱthanȱtheȱupâdhyâya;ȱseeȱManuȱ II,ȱ145;ȱYâgñavalkyaȱI,ȱ35.ȱCompareȱalsoȱchap.ȱ36.ȱ1ȱ(endȱofȱtheȱparagraph),ȱandȱ Buddhaghosaȇsȱexplanationȱofȱthatȱpassage.ȱ

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thatȱwillȱallowȱthemȱtoȱdress,ȱcollectȱalms,ȱandȱeatȱinȱaȱmannerȱthatȱisȱ appropriateȱ toȱ livingȱ insideȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ seemsȱ toȱ meȱ thatȱ byȱ pointingȱoutȱandȱrecognizingȱtheȱalmsȱbowlsȱandȱrobes,ȱtheȱofficiatingȱ monksȱ implicitlyȱ acknowledgeȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ layȱ peopleȱ inȱ creatingȱ theȱ conditionsȱ forȱ thrivingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ layȱ peopleȱ themselvesȱ whoȱhaveȱprovidedȱtheȱcandidatesȱwithȱtheirȱalmsȱbowlsȱandȱrobes.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ presidingȱ monksȱ provideȱ theȱ candidatesȱ withȱ theirȱ preȬ ceptor,ȱ andȱ onceȱ theyȱ haveȱ pointedȱ outȱ theȱ almsȱ bowlsȱ andȱ robes,ȱ anȱ instructorȱ(P.ȱanus¬saka)ȱtellsȱtheȱcandidatesȱthatȱtheyȱareȱreleasedȱfromȱ theȱ hatthap¬saȬconstraint.ȱ Atȱ thisȱ point,ȱ theȱ candidatesȱ needȱ toȱ removeȱ themselvesȱtoȱaȱdesignatedȱsideȱarea,ȱstillȱinȱtheȱsÎm¬,ȱwhereȱtheyȱareȱtoȱ receiveȱ furtherȱ instructionȱ aboutȱ theirȱ eligibility.ȱ Asȱ heȱ begins,ȱ theȱ inȬ structorȱremarks:ȱ cf.rHc\tiu>kiu qMGa. Aly\| em;ss\eS;lim\.my\" ena\" em;ss\eS;tE.AKf rQM>tI;rQM>tQn\> melJak\wM. m`Ps\~kNHc\." mjk\NHa mqamya m`Ps\~kNHc\." ena\" cf.rHc\tiu>kiu dIliuem;lim\.my\" Youȱwillȱbeȱaskedȱ[certainȱquestions]ȱinȱtheȱmidstȱofȱtheȱmonasticȱcommuȬ nity.ȱUnderstand?ȱWhenȱyouȱareȱasked,ȱdoȱnotȱrespondȱtimidly.ȱDoȱnotȱbeȱ puzzled.ȱUnderstand?ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱaskedȱasȱfollows.ȱ

Heȱcontinues:ȱ c.frHc\tiu>% qN–an\mHa NUnarHiqla;liu> em;lim\.my\" ena\" rHilJc\ rHipfBura;' mrHilJc\ mrHipfBura;' AmHn\Atiuc\; elJak\Ta;" ena\" `mc\;PuAnaAiuc\;AgCfmjoi;eka rHipfqla;liu> em;lim\.my\" rHilJc\ rHipfBura;' mrHilJc\ mrHipfBura;' AmHn\Atiuc\;elJak\Ta;" KN™akiuy\kiu ya;yMestt\eqa epQ;~kI;wE~kI;sQEeqa eragfmjoi;eka rHiqla;liu> em;lim.\my\" rHilJc\ rHipfBura;' mrHilJc\ mrHipfBura;' AmHn\ Atiuc\;elJak\Ta;" Aqa;eqQ;tiu>kiu Kn\;e`Kak\estt\eqa KyRup\ eKjac\;Siu; `ms\e`Kak\ tIBI eragfmjoi;eka rHiqla;liu> em;lim\.my\" rHilJc\ rHipf Bura;' mrHilJc\ mrHipfBura;' AmHn\Atiuc\;elJak\ Ta;" wk\RU;~kk\RU;AsrHieqa ARU;eragfmjoi;eka rHiqla;liu> em;lim.\my\" rHilJc\ rHipfBura;' mrHilJc\ mrHipfBura;' AmHn\Atiuc\;elJak\Ta;~k" Youȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Doȱyouȱhaveȱleprosy?”ȱUnderstand?ȱIfȱyouȱhaveȱit,ȱanȬ swerȱ“Iȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱIfȱnot,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱSpeakȱacȬ cordingȱtoȱwhatȱisȱtrue.ȱUnderstand?ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“DoȱyouȱhaveȱtuȬ mors,ȱwounds,ȱorȱopenȱsores?”ȱIfȱyouȱhaveȱit,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱIfȱ not,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱSpeakȱaccordingȱtoȱwhatȱisȱtrue.ȱYouȱ willȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Doȱyouȱhaveȱillnessesȱthatȱafflictȱ[youȱwith]ȱringwormȱandȱ mangeȱ thatȱ causeȱ theȱ bodyȱ toȱ itch?”ȱ Ifȱ youȱ haveȱ it,ȱ answerȱ “Iȱ haveȱ it,ȱ phay¬.”ȱIfȱnot,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱSpeakȱaccordingȱtoȱwhatȱisȱ true.ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Doȱyouȱhaveȱtuberculosisȱthatȱcausesȱflesh,ȱblood,ȱ etc.,ȱtoȱdryȱup?”ȱIfȱyouȱhaveȱit,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱIfȱnot,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱ doȱnotȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱSpeakȱaccordingȱtoȱwhatȱisȱtrue.ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ “Doȱyouȱhaveȱtheȱkindsȱofȱillnessȱsuchȱasȱepilepsy?”ȱIfȱyouȱhaveȱthem,ȱanȬ

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swerȱ“Iȱhaveȱthem,ȱphay¬.”ȱIfȱnot,ȱanswerȱ“Iȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱit,ȱphay¬.”ȱSpeakȱ accordingȱtoȱwhatȱisȱtrue.ȱ

Ifȱ theȱ candidatesȱ possessȱ anyȱ ofȱ theseȱ ailments,ȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ excludedȱ fromȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination.ȱ Theȱ exclusionȱ isȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ strongȱ emȬ phasisȱ thatȱ isȱ placedȱ inȱ theȱ VinayaȬpiΞakaȱ andȱ otherȱ monasticȱ sourcesȱ uponȱindividualȱcapacityȱtoȱembodyȱtheȱVinayaȱitself.ȱThatȱis,ȱtheȱactualȱ effortȱtoȱembodyȱtheȱVinayaȱasȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱexpressionȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ mustȱ ultimatelyȱ restȱ onȱ theȱ physicalȱabilitiesȱ ofȱ individualȱ candidates.ȱ “Asȱeachȱindividualȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱhisȱownȱspiritualȱprogress,ȱsoȱheȱ mustȱ beȱ ableȱtoȱtakeȱ careȱofȱhisȱ ownȱphysicalȱbody.”39ȱOnȱyetȱ anotherȱ level,ȱtheȱexclusionȱagainstȱindividualsȱwithȱcertainȱkindsȱofȱinfirmityȱisȱ meantȱtoȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱabusingȱtheȱorderȱbyȱtakingȱadvantageȱofȱ theȱ goodȱhealthȱ careȱtheyȱ couldȱ receiveȱasȱmonksȱ (andȱ thenȱ disrobingȱ onceȱcured).40ȱ Theȱnextȱpointȱofȱinstructionȱaboutȱeligibilityȱisȱthis:ȱ lUqa;sc\ss\eka hut\rE.la;liu>em;lim\.my\" hut\lJc\ hut\pfBura;' mhut\lJc\ mhut\pfBura; elJak\Ta;ena\" Youȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Areȱyouȱreallyȱaȱhumanȱbeing?”ȱIfȱitȱisȱtheȱcase,ȱsayȱ“Iȱ am,ȱphay¬.”ȱIfȱitȱisȱnotȱtheȱcase,ȱsayȱ“Iȱamȱnot,ȱphay¬.”ȱ

Theȱ exclusionȱ hereȱ isȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ aȱ snakeȱ (P.ȱ n¬ga)ȱ whoȱ wishedȱ toȱ beȱ ordainedȱ soȱ thatȱ heȱ couldȱ beȱ releasedȱ fromȱ hisȱ serpentȱ birthȱ andȱ becomeȱ human.ȱ Heȱ assumesȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ aȱ youthȱ andȱ isȱ orȬ dained.ȱHowever,ȱwhenȱheȱfallsȱasleepȱheȱassumesȱhisȱtrueȱformȱandȱisȱ foundȱout.ȱTheȱBuddhaȱtellsȱtheȱsnakeȱthatȱitȱisȱincapableȱofȱgrowthȱinȱ theȱ Dhammaȱ andȱ Vinaya,ȱ exhortsȱ itȱ toȱ observeȱ uposathaȱ toȱ attainȱ hisȱ goals,ȱandȱinstitutesȱaȱprohibitionȱagainstȱordainingȱanimals.41ȱ Theȱinstructorȱcontinues:ȱ eyakja;sc\ss\eka hut\rE>la;liu> em;lim\.my\" hut\pf ArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta;pfena\" Youȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Areȱyouȱ reallyȱaȱmale?”ȱAnswer,ȱ“Iȱam,ȱashinȱphay¬.”ȱ Understand?”ȱ

Thereȱ mayȱ beȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ concernsȱ here.ȱ First,ȱ canonicallyȱ speaking,ȱ fullyȱ ordainedȱ nunsȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ undergoȱ aȱ differentȱ ordinationȱ processȱandȱtoȱadhereȱtoȱmoreȱVinayaȱrulesȱthanȱmonks.ȱSecond,ȱlegitiȬ mateȱlinesȱofȱfullyȱordainedȱnunsȱareȱconsideredȱtoȱhaveȱdiedȱoutȱcenȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 39ȱ Holtȱ1981ȱp.ȱ121.ȱȱ 40ȱ VinȱIȱpp.ȱ71–73.ȱ 41ȱ VinȱIȱpp.ȱ86–88.ȱ

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turiesȱago.42ȱThus,ȱevenȱifȱaȱwomanȱdidȱwantȱtoȱbeȱordained,ȱsheȱwouldȱ notȱbeȱ ableȱtoȱreceiveȱ aȱhigherȱ ordinationȱ thatȱwouldȱ conferȱ uponȱherȱ theȱstatusȱofȱaȱfullyȱordainedȱ“daughterȱofȱtheȱBuddha.”43ȱ Aȱ subsequentȱ setȱ ofȱ instructionsȱ aboutȱ eligibilityȱ concernsȱ certainȱ socialȱconstraintsȱonȱtheȱcandidates.ȱ qU>kYn\A`Ps\mHkc\;lQt\qUeramHn\rE>la;liu> em;lim\.my\" mHn\pfArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta;epf.ena\" na;lv\la;" qUtpf;e~kQ;`mImH kc\;sc\qUera mHn\rE>la;liu> em;lim\.my\" mHn\pfArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\ Ta;epf.ena\" eA;tky\liu> rHiliu>rHirc\lv\; kiuy\.rE> tka~kI;etQ tkam~kI;etQk Sp\lim\.my\ena\" mc\;m:Tm\; lsa; Ksa; mhut\qUera mHn\rE>la;liu> em;lim\.my\" mHn\pf ArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta; ena\" tky\liu> mimitiu>k Asiu;r Am:Tm\;sa; Siuliu>rHirc\ lKsa;Siuliu>rHirc\ KQc\.yUTa;liu>rHirc\ rty\ ena\" cf.rHc\tiu>qv\ rhn\;#pPiu>rn\ my\eta\rc\; Kmv\;eta\rc\;mja;k ekjekjnp\np\ KQc\.#pAp\qUeka hut\rE>la;liu> em;lim\.my\" hut\pf ArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta;" ena\" Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Isȱ itȱ trueȱ thatȱ youȱ areȱ freeȱ fromȱ beingȱ aȱ slave?”ȱ ReȬ spond,ȱ“Itȱisȱtrue,ȱashinȱphay¬.”ȱUnderstand?ȱDoȱyouȱunderstand?ȱYouȱwillȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Isȱ itȱ trueȱ thatȱ youȱ areȱ freeȱ fromȱ debts?”ȱ Respond,ȱ “Itȱ isȱ true,ȱ ashinȱphay¬.”ȱNowȱinȱcaseȱyouȱhaveȱthem,ȱyourȱownȱlayȱdonorsȱwillȱrepayȱ them.ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“IsȱitȱtrueȱthatȱyouȱareȱnotȱworkingȱforȱtheȱgovȬ ernment?”ȱRespond,ȱ“Itȱisȱtrue,ȱashinȱphay¬,”ȱok?ȱIfȱinȱfactȱyouȱdoȱworkȱforȱ theȱgovernment,ȱinȱcaseȱyouȱareȱemployedȱ[byȱtheȱgovernment],ȱthenȱitȱisȱ okȱtoȱ becomeȱaȱ monkȱ ifȱ youȱ getȱ permission,ȱ ok?ȱ Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Isȱitȱ correctȱ thatȱ youȱ haveȱ yourȱ parents’ȱ completeȱ permissionȱ toȱ becomeȱ aȱ monk?”ȱRespond,ȱ“Itȱisȱcorrect,ȱashinȱphay¬.”ȱ

Inȱ aȱ mannerȱ notȱ unlikeȱ theirȱ earlyȱ monasticȱ counterparts,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ wantȱ toȱ makeȱ sureȱ thatȱ theȱ ebbȱ andȱ flowȱ ofȱ monasticȱ lifeȱ willȱ notȱbeȱdisruptedȱbyȱsuchȱmattersȱasȱparentsȱcomingȱafterȱtheirȱsons,ȱtheȱ governmentȱ lookingȱ forȱ workersȱ whoȱ haveȱ runȱ offȱ toȱ theȱ monasteriesȱ withoutȱtheirȱknowledge,ȱbillȱcollectorsȱlookingȱforȱtheirȱpayments,ȱandȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 42ȱ Theseȱ concernsȱ wereȱ expressedȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ Iȱ spokeȱ withȱ aboutȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱbutȱtheyȱcouldȱbeȱhighlyȱidiosyncraticȱinterpretations.ȱGyatsoȱ2003ȱanaȬ lyzesȱ theȱ exclusionȱ ofȱ peopleȱ (classedȱ asȱ paΦΠakaȱ orȱ asȱ Gyatsoȱ glossesȱ “peopleȱ whoȱ areȱnotȱdefinable”)ȱfromȱmaleȱordinationȱonȱsexualȱgrounds.ȱSheȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱexȬ clusionȱ layȱ inȱ theȱ challengeȱ suchȱ peopleȱ posedȱ toȱ “monasticȱ legalists,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ veryȱ projectȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ dependsȱ onȱ exactȱ definition,ȱ andȱ decision,ȱ andȱ vowȬ taking,ȱandȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱpurityȱandȱdefilement.ȱTheȱoneȱwhoseȱprincipalȱ definingȱfeatureȱisȱtoȱbeȱ‘whatever‘ȱinȱthisȱwayȱhadȱtoȱbeȱexcludedȱfromȱtheȱmonasticȱ order”ȱ (p.ȱ 108,ȱ emphasisȱ inȱ theȱ original).ȱ Sheȱ alsoȱ suggestsȱ thatȱtheȱ categoryȱ ofȱ theȱ paΦΠakaȱ wasȱ importantȱ toȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ “normal“ȱ womenȱ inȱ theȱ monasticȱ order,ȱ evenȱifȱsuchȱwomenȱ“remainedȱhobbledȱbyȱtheȱEightȱHeavyȱrules“ȱconcerningȱdefeȬ renceȱtoȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱallȱmonksȱ(p.ȱ114).ȱ 43ȱ ContemporaryȱBurmeseȱnunsȱareȱcalledȱthÎlaȱshinȱ(B.ȱsÎlaȱrhaΤ‘,ȱqIlrHc)\ ,ȱaȱtermȱwhichȱ designatesȱthemȱasȱupholdersȱofȱvariousȱformsȱofȱsÎla,ȱbutȱnotȱasȱrecipientsȱofȱaȱfullȱ ordination.ȱ

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soȱ on.ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ haveȱ littleȱ interestȱ inȱ supportingȱ thoseȱ menȱ whoȱareȱtryingȱtoȱshunȱtheirȱsocialȱobligations,ȱwhichȱtheyȱshouldȱhaveȱ setȱ inȱ orderȱ beforeȱ theyȱ becomeȱ monksȱ (forȱ example,ȱ layȱ donorsȱ areȱ availableȱwhoȱcanȱassumeȱresponsibilityȱforȱdebtȱburdens).44ȱ Inȱaȱfinalȱsetȱofȱpointsȱofȱinstructionȱaboutȱeligibility,ȱtheȱinstructorȱ tellsȱtheȱcandidatesȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱneedȱtoȱaffirmȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱcertainȱ formalȱ preparationsȱ thatȱ qualifyȱ themȱ forȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱheȱstates:ȱ cf.rHc\tiu>qv\ Aqk\ 20 `pv\.`pI;`pIla;liu> em;lim.\my\" `pv\.`pI;pfArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta;epf.ena\" Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Areȱ youȱ overȱ 20ȱ yearsȱ old?”45ȱ Respond,ȱ “Iȱ am,ȱ ashinȱ phay¬.”ȱ

Atȱissueȱhereȱisȱtheȱageȱatȱwhichȱmenȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱhandleȱ theȱrigorsȱofȱtheȱpath.ȱTheȱinstructorȱcontinues:ȱ cf.rHc\tiu>qv\ qpit\qkCn\;eka `pv\.suM`pIla;liu> em;lim\.my\" `pv\.suMpf ArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta; ena\" Kun Kun e`pa`pI;pf`pI" df cf.rHc\tiu>rE> kiuy\piuc\ qpit\etQ`Ps\ty\" kiuy\piuc\qkCn\;etQ`Ps\ty\liu> e`pa`pI;qQa;`pIena\" AEeta. cf.rHc\tiu>qv\ kiuy\piuc\ qpit\qkCn\;`pv\.suM`pIla;liu> em;lim\.my\" `pv\.suMpf ArHc\Bura;liu> elJak\Ta;ena\" cf.rHc\tiu>% BQE>namv\ By\liueKFqlEliu> em;lim\.my\" kiuy\.BQE> kiuy\AqI;qI; elJak\ ena\" By\liuelJak\rmtuM;" rHc\quN˜r ena\" hut\la;" pevaBaq' IN˜k' kiuy\.BQE>kiuy\AqI;qI;elJak\ epf.ena\" na;lv\qla;" AEeta. cf.rHc\tiu>% BQE>namv\ By\liu eKFqlEliu> em;lim\.my\" By\liuelJak\mtuM;" quN˜rpf ArHc\Bura;" --- cf.rHc\ VpzZay\ Sra~kI; BQE>namv\ By\liueKFqlEliu>em;lim\.my\" ArHc\ti§pf ArHc\Bura;" ena\" cf.rHc\tiu>% VpzZay\ Kunep; liuk\ty\ena\" AEdI VpzZay\Sra~kI;BQE>namv\ By\liueKFlEliu> em;lim\. my\" By\liuelJak\mtuM;" ArHc\ ti§pf ArHc\Bura;" --Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Doȱ youȱ haveȱ [yourȱ ownȱ individual]ȱ almsȱ bowlȱ andȱ robes?”ȱ Respond,ȱ “Weȱ have,ȱ ashinȱ phay¬,”ȱ understand?ȱ Justȱ nowȱ weȱ pointedȱ themȱ out.ȱ Weȱ said,ȱ “Thereȱ areȱ yourȱ ownȱ almsȱ bowls.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ yourȱ ownȱ robes.”ȱ Therefore,ȱ youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Doȱ youȱ haveȱ yourȱ ownȱ almsȱ bowlȱ andȱ robes?”ȱ Respond,ȱ “Weȱ have,ȱ ashinȱ phay¬.”ȱ Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Whatȱ isȱ yourȱ ecclesiasticalȱ name?”ȱRespondȱ withȱ yourȱ individualȱ ecclesiasticalȱ names.ȱ Howȱ willȱ youȱ haveȱ toȱ answer?ȱ “Shinȱ Sundara,”ȱ unȬ derstand?ȱRight?ȱ“Paññobh¬sa.”ȱ“Indaka.”ȱRespondȱwithȱyourȱownȱeccleȬ siasticalȱnames.ȱDoȱyouȱunderstand?ȱSo,ȱyouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“Whatȱisȱyourȱ ecclesiasticalȱ name?”ȱ Howȱ shouldȱ youȱ respond?ȱ “Sundaraȱ b¬,46ȱ ashinȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 44ȱȱ SeeȱalsoȱHoltȱ1981ȱp.ȱ120.ȱ 45ȱ Thatȱis,ȱtwentyȱyearsȱoldȱfromȱconception.ȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ93.ȱ 46ȱ Theȱwordȱb¬ȱisȱaȱpoliteȱmarker.ȱ

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phay¬.”ȱ ȬȬȬȱ 47ȱ Youȱ willȱ beȱ asked,ȱ “Whatȱ isȱ theȱ ecclesiasticalȱ nameȱ ofȱ yourȱ preceptor?”ȱ[Respondȱwith]ȱ“AshinȱTissaȱb¬,ȱashinȱphay¬.”ȱUnderstand?ȱJustȱ nowȱweȱassignedȱyourȱpreceptor.ȱYouȱwillȱbeȱasked,ȱ“WhatȱisȱtheȱecclesiasȬ ticalȱ nameȱ ofȱ thisȱ preceptor?”ȱ [Respondȱ with]ȱ “Ashinȱ Tissaȱ b¬,ȱ ashinȱ phay¬.”ȬȬȬ.ȱ

Here,ȱ Tissaȱ isȱ anȱ honorificȱ nameȱ thatȱ hasȱ beenȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ preceptor.ȱ Sundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱareȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱnamesȱthatȱhaveȱ beenȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ candidatesȱ forȱ ordination.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ realȱ examinaȬ tionȱperiodȱthatȱfollowsȱtheȱinstructions,ȱfailuresȱtoȱanswerȱeachȱquesȬ tionȱ withȱ aȱ clearȱ andȱ appropriateȱ responseȱ couldȱ signalȱ that,ȱ forȱ anyȱ oneȱofȱseveralȱdifferentȱreasons,ȱaȱparticularȱcandidateȱisȱnotȱeligibleȱtoȱ beȱaȱmonkȱlivingȱinȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Followingȱ theȱ instructions,ȱ theȱ candidatesȱ areȱ permittedȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ hatthap¬saȱ areaȱ andȱareȱ questionedȱ byȱ anotherȱofficiatingȱ monk.ȱ Withȱ theȱ examinationȱ (whichȱ consistsȱ ofȱ anȱ almostȱ wordȬforȬwordȱ reȬ petitionȱ ofȱ theȱ pointsȱ ofȱ instruction)ȱ successfullyȱ completed,ȱ theȱ comȬ munityȱverifiesȱthatȱtheȱcandidatesȱareȱfreeȱfromȱtheȱbasicȱimpedimentsȱ thatȱ wouldȱ haveȱ preventedȱ themȱ fromȱ livingȱ inȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Atȱ thatȱ point,ȱtheirȱstatusȱasȱvatthuȱhasȱbeenȱaccomplished.ȱ

ÑattiȱandȱAnuss¬vana:ȱVerbalȱConcordȱwithȱtheȱBuddhaȱ TheȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱordinationȱisȱinterlacedȱwithȱaȱseriesȱofȱPaliȱñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vana.ȱ Eachȱ ñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ signalsȱ aȱ differentȱ stageȱ inȱ theȱ ordinationȱ process.ȱ Toȱ understandȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vana,ȱattentionȱcanȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱtheirȱplaceȱwithȬ inȱtheȱoverallȱsequentialȱorderȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordination.ȱ Afterȱ pointingȱ outȱ theȱ almsȱ bowlsȱ andȱ robes,ȱ theȱ instructorȱ proceedsȱwithȱtheȱ“theȱmotionȱauthorizingȱaȱmonkȱtoȱinstructȱtheȱcanȬ didates”ȱ(P.ȱanus¬sanaȬsammutiȬñatti),ȱalsoȱcalledȱtheȱ“instructionȱstateȬ ment”ȱ(P.ȱanus¬sanÎȬkammav¬c¬).ȱThroughȱthisȱñatti,ȱwhichȱisȱinȱPali,ȱanȱ instructorȱisȱauthorizedȱtoȱadviseȱtheȱcandidatesȱaboutȱtheȱquestionsȱofȱ eligibilityȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱasked.ȱ suΦ¬tuȱ meȱ bhanteȱ saΤgho.ȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkh¬.ȱ yadiȱ saΤghassaȱ pattaȬkallaΚȱ ahaΚȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬ indakeȱanus¬seyyaΚ.48ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 47ȱȱ Sinceȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ instructor’sȱ dutyȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ novicesȱ respondȱ withȱ clarityȱ andȱ confidence,ȱheȱmakesȱtheȱnovicesȱrepeatȱsomeȱanswersȱ(indicatedȱwithȱaȱ“ȬȬȬ”)ȱuntilȱ heȱisȱsatisfiedȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱlearnedȱtheȱresponse.ȱ 48ȱ TheȱformulaȱisȱgivenȱatȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ94.ȱ

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Reverendȱ Sirs,ȱ mayȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ listenȱ toȱ me.ȱ Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱ Indakaȱ desireȱ ordinationȱunderȱtheȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ VeneraȬ bleȱTissa.ȱIfȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱisȱprepared,ȱIȱshouldȱinstructȱSundaȬ ra,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndaka.ȱ

Theȱ instructorȱ recitesȱ theȱ ñattiȱ once,ȱ withȱ slowȱ andȱ deliberateȱ speech,ȱ beingȱattentiveȱtoȱcontent,ȱgrammaticalȱform,ȱandȱintonation.ȱSinceȱnoȱ monkȱvoicesȱdisagreementȱafterȱheȱrecitesȱtheȱmotion,ȱheȱmovesȱahead,ȱ asȱenumeratedȱ above.ȱ Afterȱ hisȱ instruction,ȱ heȱ tellsȱ themȱ thatȱ itȱisȱ imȬ properȱforȱthemȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱcommunityȱwithoutȱbeingȱaskedȱtoȱdoȱ so.ȱ Onlyȱ whenȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ called,ȱ heȱ says,ȱ shouldȱ theyȱ comeȱ inȱ reverenceȱ withȱ theirȱ palmsȱ pressedȱ together.ȱ Beforeȱ callingȱ theȱ candiȬ datesȱback,ȱtheȱheȱplacesȱhimselfȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱotherȱpresidingȱmonksȱ andȱ recitesȱ theȱ secondȱ ñatti,ȱ “theȱ motionȱ permittingȱ theȱ returnȱ ofȱ theȱ candidates”ȱ(P.ȱos¬raΦaȬñatti).ȱ suΦ¬tuȱ meȱ bhanteȱ saΤgho.ȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkh¬.ȱ anusiΞΞh¬ȱ teȱ may¬.ȱ yadiȱ saΤghassaȱ pattaȬkallaΚȱ sundaraȬ paññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ¬gaccheyyuΚ.49ȱ Reverendȱ Sirs,ȱ mayȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ listenȱ toȱ me.ȱ Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱ Indakaȱ desireȱ ordinationȱunderȱtheȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ VeneraȬ bleȱTissa.ȱTheyȱhaveȱbeenȱinstructedȱbyȱme.ȱIfȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱisȱ prepared,ȱSundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱshouldȱreturnȱ[toȱtheȱcommuȬ nity].ȱ

Thisȱñattiȱisȱrecitedȱonce,ȱandȱagainȱwithȱprecision.ȱSinceȱnoȱmonkȱvoicȬ esȱdisagreement,ȱtheȱcandidatesȱareȱcalledȱtoȱreturn.ȱ Whenȱtheȱcandidatesȱreturn,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱpresidingȱmonksȱleadsȱthemȱ inȱaȱrequestȱinȱBurmese,ȱrepeatedȱthrice.ȱTheȱrequestȱis:ȱ ArHc\Bura;tiu> qMGaeta\kiu `mc\.`mt\eqarhn\;A`Ps\kiu etac\;pf% " ArHc\Bura;tiu> qMGaeta\ qv\ tpv\.eta\kiu qna;esac\.erHak\ KjI;e`mHak\eqaAa;`Pc\. nim\.kjeqa qamenA`Ps\mH `mc\.`mt\ eqa rhn\; A`Ps\qiu>erak\eAac\ piu>eSac\eta\mUpf ArHc\Bura" Weȱrequestȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱtoȱconferȱtheȱhigherȱordination.ȱMayȱ theȱmonasticȱcommunity,ȱoutȱofȱcompassionȱandȱprotection,ȱcarryȱusȱfromȱ theȱlowȱordinationȱasȱnovicesȱtoȱtheȱhighȱordinationȱasȱyahans.ȱ

Afterȱ theyȱ haveȱ madeȱ thisȱ request,ȱ anȱ examinerȱ recitesȱ “theȱ motionȱ authorizingȱ aȱ monkȱ toȱ examineȱ theȱ candidates”ȱ (P.ȱ pucchanaȬsammutiȬ ñatti),ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱñattiȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱcandidatesȱaboutȱtheirȱeligibilityȱ forȱordination.ȱ suΦ¬tuȱ meȱ bhanteȱ saΤgho.ȱ imeȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkh¬.ȱ yadiȱ saΤghassaȱ pattaȬkallaΚȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindakeȱ antar¬yikeȱdhammeȱpuccheyyaΚ.50ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 49ȱ TheȱformulaȱisȱgivenȱatȱVinȱIȱpp.ȱ94–95.ȱ

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Reverendȱ Sirs,ȱ mayȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ listenȱ toȱ me.ȱ Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱ Indakaȱ desireȱ ordinationȱunderȱtheȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ VeneraȬ bleȱTissa.ȱIfȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱisȱprepared,ȱIȱshouldȱquestionȱSundaȬ ra,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱaboutȱtheȱconditionsȱthatȱposeȱaȱhindranceȱtoȱ monasticȱlife.ȱ

Thisȱ ñattiȱ isȱ notȱ consideredȱ byȱ Shwegyinȱ monksȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ kammav¬c¬.ȱ AmongȱtheȱvariousȱPaliȱstatementsȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱBuddha,ȱthoseȱthatȱ areȱcalledȱkammav¬c¬ȱinvolveȱaȱcollectiveȱdecisionȱmadeȱbyȱtheȱmonasȬ ticȱcommunity.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱforȱsuchȱcollectiveȱdecisions,ȱtheȱassemȬ bledȱcommunityȱasȱaȱwholeȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱanythingȱdone,ȱwhetherȱ rightȱ orȱ wrong;ȱ evidently,ȱ thisȱ levelȱ ofȱ collectiveȱ responsibilityȱ isȱ asȬ sumedȱtoȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱ“theȱmotionȱauthorizingȱaȱmonkȱtoȱinstructȱtheȱ candidates”ȱ (P.ȱ anus¬sanaȬsammutiȬñatti)ȱ andȱ “theȱ motionȱ permittingȱ theȱ returnȱ ofȱ theȱ candidates”ȱ(P.ȱos¬raΦaȬñatti)ȱbutȱnotȱtheȱ“theȱmotionȱ authorizingȱ aȱ monkȱ toȱ examineȱ theȱ candidates”ȱ (P.ȱ pucchanaȬsammutiȬ ñatti).ȱInȱtheȱlatterȱcase,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱexaminerȱisȱauthorizedȱbyȱtheȱ communityȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱcandidates,ȱtheȱexaminerȱaloneȱisȱresponsiȬ bleȱforȱanyȱmistakesȱmadeȱinȱtheȱquestioningȱprocess.ȱFurthermore,ȱitȱisȱ hisȱdecisionȱalone,ȱafterȱheȱhasȱexaminedȱtheȱcandidates,ȱtoȱmoveȱaheadȱ withȱ theȱ formalȱ applicationȱ forȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ itself.51ȱ Ifȱ heȱ isȱ notȱ satisfiedȱwithȱtheȱeligibilityȱofȱtheȱcandidates,ȱheȱhasȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱstopȱ theȱproceedings.ȱ Sinceȱtheȱexaminerȱisȱsatisfiedȱwithȱtheȱeligibilityȱofȱtheȱcandidates,ȱ heȱandȱ twoȱ otherȱpresidingȱmonksȱmoveȱaheadȱ withȱ“theȱmotionȱ andȱ threeȱproclamationsȱthatȱconferȱtheȱhigherȱordination”ȱ(P.ȱupasampad¬Ȭ kammav¬c¬).ȱJustȱbeforeȱrecitingȱtheȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬,ȱtheȱofficiatȬ ingȱmonksȱreciteȱaȱshortȱPaliȱlineȱthatȱisȱcommonlyȱrecitedȱinȱBuddhistȱ ritualsȱandȱthatȱrecognizesȱthatȱtheȱBuddhaȱisȱtheȱmodelȱarahant.ȱ namoȱtassaȱbhagavatoȱarahatoȱsamm¬sambuddhassa.ȱ HomageȱtoȱtheȱBlessedȱOne,ȱtheȱarahant,ȱtheȱPerfectlyȱEnlightenedȱBuddha.ȱ

Inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordination,ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱcommuȬ nityȱ areȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ definingȱ theȱ candidatesȱ asȱ peopleȱ whoȱ willȱ pursueȱtheȱpathȱtoȱarahantshipȱinȱaȱway,ȱideally,ȱfarȱmoreȱintenseȱthanȱ ordinaryȱlayȱpeople.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ homageȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ theȱ arahantȱ hasȱ beenȱ recited,ȱ theȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬ȱbegins.ȱToȱensureȱthatȱitȱisȱrecitedȱproperly,ȱtheȱ threeȱmonksȱreciteȱitȱtogetherȱinȱunison.ȱTheȱfirstȱpartȱconsistsȱofȱaȱsinȬ gleȱñattiȱthatȱassertsȱthatȱtheȱcandidatesȱareȱfreeȱofȱtheȱimpedimentsȱtoȱ monasticȱlife,ȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱrequisites,ȱandȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱaȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 50ȱ TheȱformulaȱisȱgivenȱatȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ95.ȱ 51ȱ Ven.ȱKhammaiȱDhammasamiȱ(privateȱcommunication).ȱ

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preceptor.ȱTheȱopeningȱñattiȱalsoȱpetitionsȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱtoȱ ordainȱtheȱcandidates.ȱ suΦ¬tuȱ meȱ bhanteȱ saΤgho.ȱ imeȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkh¬.ȱparisuddh¬ȱantar¬yikehiȱdhammehi.ȱparipuΦΦ¬ȱimesaΚȱpattaȬ cÎvaraΚ.ȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ saΤghamȱ upasampadaΚȱ y¬cantiȱ ¬yasmat¬ȱ tissenaȱ upajjh¬yena.ȱ yadiȱ saΤghassaȱ pattaȬkallaΚȱ saΤghoȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬ indakeȱupasamp¬deyyaȱ¬yasmat¬ȱtissenaȱupajjh¬yena.ȱes¬ȱñatti.52ȱ Reverendȱ Sirs,ȱ mayȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ listenȱ toȱ me.ȱ Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱ Indakaȱ desireȱ ordinationȱunderȱtheȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ VeneraȬ bleȱTissa.ȱTheyȱareȱpureȱfromȱtheȱconditionsȱthatȱhinderȱmonasticȱlife.ȱTheyȱ haveȱtheirȱownȱalmsȱbowlȱandȱrobes.ȱSundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱreȬ questȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱforȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱwithȱtheȱVeneraȬ bleȱ Tissaȱ asȱ preceptor.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ isȱ prepared,ȱ itȱ shouldȱ ordainȱSundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱwithȱtheȱVenerableȱTissaȱasȱpreȬ ceptor.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱmotion.ȱ

Thisȱñattiȱisȱfollowedȱbyȱtheȱthreeȱanuss¬vanaȱwhichȱstateȱthatȱtheȱmoȬ nasticȱ communityȱ hasȱ madeȱ theȱ decisionȱ toȱ conferȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinaȬ tionȱuponȱtheȱcandidates.ȱTheseȱanuss¬vanaȱconstituteȱaȱlastȱchanceȱforȱ anyȱmonksȱpresentȱatȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱtoȱvoiceȱreservations.ȱ suΦ¬tuȱ meȱ bhanteȱ saΤgho.ȱ imeȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkh¬.ȱparisuddh¬ȱantar¬yikehiȱdhammehi.ȱparipuΦΦ¬ȱimesaΚȱpattaȬ cÎvaraΚ.ȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ saΤghamȱ upasampadaΚȱ y¬cantiȱ ¬yasmat¬ȱ tissenaȱ upajjh¬yena.ȱ saΤghoȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindakeȱ upasamp¬detiȱ ¬yasmat¬ȱ tissenaȱ upajjh¬yena.ȱ yass¬yasmatoȱ khamatiȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬naΚȱ upasampad¬ȱ ¬yasmat¬ȱ tissenaȱ upajjh¬yenaȱ soȱ tuΦhassa.ȱ yassaȱ nakkhamatiȱ soȱ bh¬seyya.53ȱ Reverendȱ Sirs,ȱ mayȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ listenȱ toȱ me.ȱ Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱdesireȱordinationȱunderȱtheȱguidanceȱofȱvenerableȱ Tissa.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ pureȱ fromȱ theȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ hinderȱ monasticȱ life.ȱ Theyȱ haveȱtheirȱownȱalmsȱbowlȱandȱrobes.ȱSundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱreȬ questȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱforȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱwithȱtheȱvenerableȱ Tissaȱ asȱ preceptor.ȱ Theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ ordainsȱ Sundara,ȱ PaññoȬ bh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱwithȱtheȱvenerableȱTissaȱasȱpreceptor.ȱHeȱwhoȱagreesȱtoȱ theȱordinationȱofȱSundara,ȱPaññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱwithȱtheȱvenerableȱTisȬ saȱasȱpreceptorȱshouldȱremainȱsilent.ȱHeȱwhoȱdoesȱnotȱagreeȱshouldȱspeak.ȱ

Theȱ anuss¬vanaȱ isȱ repeatedȱ forȱ aȱ secondȱ andȱ thirdȱ time.ȱ Becauseȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ monksȱ presentȱ atȱ thisȱ particularȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ areȱ silent,ȱ theȱ threeȱmonksȱrecitingȱtheȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬ȱareȱpermittedȱtoȱcloseȱitȱ byȱ affirmingȱ theȱ consentȱ ofȱ theȱ community.ȱ Withȱ theȱ closingȱ ofȱ theȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬,ȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ accomplishmentȱ ofȱ bothȱ ñattiȱ andȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 52ȱ TheȱformulaȱisȱgivenȱatȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ95.ȱ 53ȱ TheȱformulaȱisȱgivenȱatȱVinȱIȱp.ȱ95.ȱȱ

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anuss¬vana.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ demandsȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinaya,ȱ theȱ assembledȱ monksȱ haveȱ communallyȱ recognizedȱ andȱ authorizedȱ theȱ categoricalȱ shiftȱeachȱcandidateȱhasȱundergone.ȱ Itȱ isȱ crucialȱ toȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ theȱ transitionȱ inȱ theȱ categoryȱ ofȱ theȱ personȱeffectedȱinȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱ(i.e.,ȱfromȱnovicesȱtoȱyahans)ȱisȱ predicatedȱuponȱwhetherȱtheȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱareȱproperlyȱrecited.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱbecauseȱthereȱareȱthreeȱpeopleȱreceivingȱtheȱhigherȱordiȬ nation,ȱ andȱ becauseȱ Paliȱ isȱ anȱ inflectedȱ language,ȱ theȱ grammarȱ ofȱ theȱ ñattiȱ andȱ anuss¬vanaȱ mustȱ beȱ changedȱ soȱ thatȱ certainȱ adjectivesȱ reflectȱ theȱproperȱnumberȱofȱpeopleȱbeingȱordained.ȱ Theȱ“theȱmotionȱauthorizingȱaȱmonkȱtoȱinstructȱtheȱcandidates”ȱ(P.ȱ anus¬sanaȬsammutiȬñatti)ȱ itselfȱ providesȱ aȱ convenientȱ example.ȱ Theȱ ViȬ nayaȬpiΞakaȱ givesȱ theȱ formulaȱ “suchȱ aȱ personȱ desiresȱ ordinationȱ atȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ suchȱ aȱ venerableȱ one”ȱ (P.ȱ itthann¬moȱ itthann¬massaȱ ¬yasmatoȱ upasampad¬Ȭpekkho).ȱTheȱordinationȱatȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱgivesȱ“Sundara,ȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱIndakaȱdesireȱordinationȱatȱtheȱhandsȱofȱtheȱvenerableȱ Tissa”ȱ (P.ȱ sundaraȬpaññobh¬saȬindak¬ȱ ¬yasmatoȱ tissassaȱ upasampad¬Ȭ pekkh¬).ȱ Additionally,ȱthroughoutȱallȱofȱtheȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vana,ȱtheȱlistenerȱ willȱ hearȱ theȱ recitingȱ monksȱ placeȱ particularȱ stressȱ onȱ wordsȱ suchȱ asȱ saΤgho,ȱwhichȱcontainsȱanȱaspiratedȱgȱ(i.e.,ȱgho),ȱupajjh¬yena,ȱwhichȱconȬ tainsȱanȱaspiratedȱjȱ(i.e.,ȱjh¬),ȱandȱBuddha,ȱwhichȱcontainsȱanȱaspiratedȱ dȱ(i.e.,ȱdha).ȱTheseȱsoundsȱareȱnotȱpresentȱinȱBurmese.ȱAsȱassertedȱtoȱmeȱ byȱseveralȱmonks,ȱpreventingȱerrorsȱinȱgrammaticalȱform,ȱcontent,ȱandȱ intonationȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱmonasticȱpride.ȱHowever,ȱbyȱpreventingȱsuchȱ errors,ȱmonksȱalsoȱtryȱtoȱpreventȱdeviations,ȱhoweverȱminute,ȱfromȱtheȱ expressȱwillȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱasȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Sinceȱtheȱñattiȱandȱanuss¬vanaȱareȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱtheȱveryȱwordsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himselfȱ regardingȱ theȱ communalȱ decisionȬmakingȱ processȱ entailedȱ inȱ theȱ higherȱ ordination,ȱ theȱ officiatingȱ monksȱ reciteȱ themȱ slowlyȱ andȱ deliberatelyȱ andȱ sometimesȱ theyȱ repeatȱ them.ȱ Byȱ reȬ citingȱ theȱ motionsȱ andȱ proclamationsȱ withȱ precision,ȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ displaysȱ inȱ aȱ verbalȱ wayȱ itsȱ dedicationȱ toȱ preservingȱ itsȱ concordȱ withȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ ownȱ words,ȱ includingȱ evenȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ grammaticalȱ formsȱ andȱ intonationsȱ heȱ supposedlyȱ used.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ monksȱ followȱ toȱ theȱ letterȱ theȱ effortȱ toȱ maintainȱ theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ VinayaȬbasedȱlineȱofȱsuccessionȱderivingȱfromȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ

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PostȬAccomplishments:ȱExplainingȱLifeȱinȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ Afterȱ theȱ threeȱ monksȱ reciteȱ theȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬,ȱ severalȱ activiȬ tiesȱremain.ȱFirstȱandȱforemost,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱdirectivesȱofȱtheȱBudȬ dha,ȱtheȱpresidingȱmonksȱmustȱverifyȱtheȱparticularsȱofȱtheȱordination.ȱ Alsoȱ requiredȱ areȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ instructionalȱ pointsȱ concerningȱ monasticȱ livelihoodȱ andȱ conduct,ȱ andȱ theseȱ includeȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ hierarchy,ȱaccessȱtoȱcommunalȱproperty,ȱwhatȱkindsȱofȱmaterialȱthingsȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ supportȱ one’sȱ lifeȱ asȱ aȱ monk,ȱ theȱ fourȱ kindsȱ ofȱ actionȱ thatȱwillȱcauseȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱtoȱpermanentlyȱexpelȱanȱindiȬ vidualȱ fromȱ theȱ monkhood,ȱ andȱ theȱ mannerȱ ofȱ leavingȱ theȱ sÎm¬ȱ onceȱ theȱhigherȱordinationȱisȱfinished.ȱ Records,ȱHierarchy,ȱandȱPropertyȱ Aȱ presidingȱ monkȱ addressesȱ theȱ newlyȱ ordainedȱ monks,ȱ andȱ thenȱ heȱ proceedsȱ withȱ anȱ interchangeȱ withȱ anotherȱ monkȱ regardingȱ theȱ date,ȱ time,ȱandȱplaceȱofȱordination.ȱTheȱpresidingȱmonkȱasksȱanotherȱmonkȱ toȱ tellȱ him,ȱ inȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ theȱ pointsȱ areȱ beingȱ collectedȱ togetherȱ andȱ notedȱ down,ȱ theȱ time,ȱ theȱ season,ȱ andȱ date.ȱ Anotherȱ monkȱ respondsȱ withȱclearȱandȱslowȱspeech:ȱ rHc\quN˜r' rHc\pevaBa' rHc\ IN˜ktiu>% rhn\;`Ps\Kjin\mHt\tm\;pf ArHc\Bura;" qaqnaeta\ qk‡raz\ 2543 KuNHs\' ekaza qk‡raz\ 1362 Kuns\' eNQVtu eNHac\;tn\KU;lSut\ 4 rk\ bud™hU;en> nMnk\ 8 narI 16 mins\AKjin\tQc\ rHcq \ amen rHc\quN˜r' rHc\pevaBa' rHc\ IN˜ktiu>qv\ AmrpUr#mi>mHa mhagN™aRuM ekjac\;tiuk\ pQEkun\;Kzqim\| AmrpUr#mi>mHa mhagN™aRuMSraeta\ Bd˜N –mhiN˜kiu VpzZay\ #p& rHc\qamenA`Ps\mH `mc\.`mt\eqarhn\;A`Ps\kiu erak\pfqv\ ArHc\Bura;" Thisȱ isȱ theȱ recordȱ forȱ theȱ ordinationȱ timeȱ ofȱ Shinȱ Sundara,ȱ Shinȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱ andȱ Shinȱ Indaka,ȱ ashinȱ phay¬.ȱ Inȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ yearȱ 2543,ȱ inȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ yearȱ1362,ȱ atȱ 8:16ȱinȱ theȱ morning,ȱ Wednesday,ȱ theȱfourthȱ dayȱ ofȱ HnauѼȬtanȬkuȱ laȬzoatȱ[i.e.,ȱAprilȱ11,ȱ2001],ȱtheȱnovicesȱShinȱSundara,ȱShinȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱandȱShinȱIndakaȱwentȱfromȱbeingȱnovicesȱtoȱbeingȱnobleȱyaȬ hans,ȱbeingȱordainedȱinȱaȱsubsidiaryȱsÎm¬ȱatȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱmonasteryȱinȱ AmarapĀra,ȱhavingȱtakenȱBhaddantaȱMahinda,ȱtheȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱSayaȬ dawȱinȱAmarapĀra,ȱasȱtheirȱpreceptor.ȱ

Theȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱdate,ȱtime,ȱandȱplaceȱofȱordinationȱbearsȱaȱspecificȱ kindȱofȱweight.ȱKnowingȱ theȱ particularsȱofȱordination—howȱ longȱ oneȱ hasȱbeenȱaȱmonk,ȱwhereȱoneȱwasȱmadeȱaȱmonk,ȱwhichȱmonkȱactedȱasȱ preceptor,ȱandȱsoȱon—isȱimportantȱbecauseȱtheȱdateȱandȱtimeȱofȱordiȬ nationȱdetermineȱallȱissuesȱofȱmonasticȱseniority.ȱ AfterȱtheirȱordinationsȱhaveȱbeenȱconfirmedȱinȱwritingȱbyȱtheȱpreȬ sidingȱmonks,ȱbasicȱinstructionsȱonȱtheȱVinayaȱimmediatelyȱfollow.ȱTheȱ

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instructionsȱbeginȱwithȱcommentsȱonȱtheȱmonasticȱhierarchyȱandȱaccessȱ toȱ communalȱ propertyȱ which,ȱ asȱ justȱ pointedȱ out,ȱ areȱ determinedȱ byȱ theȱ dateȱ andȱ timeȱ ofȱ ordination.ȱ Aȱ presidingȱ monkȱ tellsȱ theȱ monksȱ toȱ keepȱ aȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ timeȱ theyȱ becameȱ monks,ȱ firstȱ andȱ foremostȱ beȬ causeȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ saidȱ thatȱ whenȱ monksȱ meetȱ withȱ otherȱ monksȱ theyȱ mustȱpayȱrespectsȱtoȱoneȱanotherȱbasedȱuponȱseniority.ȱ AKucf.rHc\tiu> quM;pf;TEkpE pTmSuM;namv\eKFliuk\tE. quN˜r' AEdIquN˜rk kjn\tE. 2 pf;Tk\~kI;ty\" enak\ dutiy pevaBaq" pevaBaqk cy\qQa;`pI" quN˜rTk\cy\qQa;`pI" AEpevaBaq quN˜rkiu ARiuAeqep;rmy\" hut\la;" enak\ttiyk IN˜k" IN˜kk Acy\SMu;`Ps\eneta. A@kI; 2pf;`Ps\tE. quN˜rtiu> pevaBaqtiu> kiu ARiuAeqep; rHiKiu;rmy\tE." na;lv\la;" Amongȱ youȱ threeȱ now,ȱ Sundara,ȱ whoȱ hasȱ beenȱ calledȱ byȱ hisȱ nameȱ first,ȱ thisȱ Sundaraȱ isȱ moreȱ seniorȱ thanȱ theȱ otherȱ two.ȱ Next,ȱ secondȱ isȱ Paññobh¬sa.ȱ Paññobh¬saȱ isȱ junior.ȱ Heȱ isȱ juniorȱ toȱ Sundara.ȱ Thisȱ Paññobh¬saȱhasȱtoȱpayȱrespectsȱtoȱSundara.ȱDoȱyouȱunderstand?ȱNext,ȱtheȱ thirdȱisȱIndaka.ȱOurȱruleȱisȱthatȱIndaka,ȱbeingȱtheȱmostȱjunior,ȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱ payȱ respectsȱ andȱ reverenceȱ towardsȱ Sundara,ȱ etc.,ȱ andȱ Paññobh¬sa,ȱ etc.,ȱ whoȱareȱtheȱmoreȱseniorȱ[monks].ȱDoȱyouȱunderstand?ȱ

Theȱpresidingȱmonkȱcontinues:ȱ enak\tKjk\keta. qMGik psŒv\;kiu ewPn\ tE.enramHa wf@kI;wfcy\ erQ;Kjy\`pI;eta. ewPn\ rty\tE." kiuy\qMu;Kjc\qliu qMu;liu>mrBU;" qMGik psŒv\;Siuta" pug‰lik psŒv\;keta. kisŒmrHiBU;" kiuy\qMu;Kjc\qliu qMu;liu> rty\" qMGik psŒv\;keta. wf@kI;tE. pug‰iol\ ekac\;`mt\tE. qMGik psŒv\; kiu ewPn\ rty\" wfcy\tE. pug‰iol\ vM.tE. qMGik psŒv\;epf." Nowȱ anotherȱ keyȱ point:ȱ whenȱ itȱ comesȱ toȱ distributingȱ communalȱ goods,ȱ [theȱBuddhaȱtoldȱusȱthat]ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱdistributeȱthemȱaccordingȱtoȱwhoȱisȱ seniorȱandȱjunior.ȱYouȱcannotȱuseȱ[things]ȱtheȱwayȱyouȱwantȱtoȱuseȱthemȱ yourself.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱIndividualȱgoodsȱareȱnotȱaȱproblem.ȱYouȱcanȱuseȱthemȱasȱyouȱ need.ȱ[But]ȱcommunalȱgoodsȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱdistributedȱsoȱthatȱtheȱseniorȱindiȬ vidualȱ getsȱ theȱ betterȱ communalȱ goods.ȱ Theȱ individualȱ withȱ fewerȱ yearsȱ sinceȱordinationȱgetsȱtheȱinferiorȱgoods.ȱ

WhatȱisȱemphasizedȱhereȱisȱanȱegalitarianȱemphasisȱtemperedȱbyȱdefeȬ renceȱ toȱ thoseȱ inȱ positionsȱ ofȱ seniorityȱ andȱ authority.ȱ Thisȱ deferenceȱ consistsȱespeciallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱaccessȱtoȱcommunalȱproperty.ȱ TheȱFourȱFoundationsȱ Onceȱ theȱ presidingȱ monkȱ hasȱ finishedȱ withȱ hisȱ discussionȱ aboutȱ theȱ monasticȱhierarchyȱandȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱcommunalȱproperty,ȱ heȱcontinuesȱ withȱinstructionȱonȱtheȱfourȱmaterialȱfoundationsȱofȱmonasticȱlife:ȱfood,ȱ clothing,ȱaccommodation,ȱandȱmedicine.ȱHeȱnotesȱthatȱtheȱBuddhaȱwasȱ concernedȱ thatȱ newlyȱ ordainedȱ monksȱ wouldȱ worryȱ aboutȱ obtainingȱ

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theȱ materialȱitemsȱthatȱ wouldȱenableȱ themȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱtheirȱdutiesȱasȱ monks.ȱThusȱheȱlaidȱdownȱaȱruleȱthatȱtheȱmannerȱofȱacquiringȱtheȱfourȱ foundationsȱ shouldȱ beȱ explainedȱ toȱ theȱ newȱ monksȱ beforeȱ theyȱ leaveȱ theȱ sÎm¬ȱ withinȱ whichȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ hasȱ takenȱ place.ȱ Abidingȱ byȱ thisȱ rule,ȱ theȱ presidingȱmonkȱ explainsȱ eachȱ foundation,ȱ withȱ referȬ encesȱ toȱ theȱ instructionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ alongȱ withȱ otherȱ referencesȱ toȱ theȱpracticesȱatȱMah¬gandh¬yon.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱconsiderȱtheȱpresidingȱmonk’sȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱfood.ȱ Theȱmonkȱhighlightsȱtheȱruleȱaboutȱcollectingȱalmsȱwhich,ȱinȱadditionȱ toȱ beingȱ anȱ expressionȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ path,ȱ providesȱ anȱ opportunityȱ forȱtheȱlaityȱtoȱacquireȱmerit.ȱ AEeta. pTmSMu; mHIKiurmHak sa;er;" sa;er; AtQk\ By\liu e`PrHc\;rmHalESiueta. SQm\;Siuc\qQa;wy\Piu> mliuBU;" wy\msa;rBU;tE." By\liulup\rmlE Siueta. AKu rhn\;tka rhn\; tkametQk lLliuk\tE. qpit\kiu lQy\' qkCn\;kiu RMu`pI;eta. #mi>TE rQaTEmHa lHv\.lv\liu> rtE.SQm\;kiu Bun\;ep;pftE." Soȱ then,ȱ theȱ firstȱ foundationȱ isȱ food.ȱ Asȱ forȱ howȱ weȱ shouldȱ provideȱ forȱ food,ȱ ourȱ ruleȱisȱ thatȱ youȱ doȱ notȱ needȱtoȱ goȱ andȱbuyȱ foodȱ atȱaȱ shop;ȱthatȱ youȱ shouldȱ notȱ eatȱ [having]ȱ purchasedȱ [yourȱ food].ȱ Asȱ forȱ howȱ monksȱ shouldȱpractice,ȱweȱareȱtoldȱthatȱyouȱshouldȱeatȱtheȱalmsȱfoodȱthatȱyouȱgetȱ asȱyouȱwalkȱaroundȱinȱtownsȱandȱvillagesȱwhileȱwearingȱtheȱrobeȱandȱcarȬ ryingȱtheȱbowlȱthatȱyourȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱdonorsȱhaveȱgivenȱtoȱyouȱnow.ȱ

However,ȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ isȱ aȱ wellȬendowedȱ monastery:ȱ monasticȱ fundsȱandȱresourcesȱhaveȱbeenȱsetȱupȱbyȱlayȱdonorsȱandȱleadingȱmonksȱ soȱthatȱtheȱmonksȱatȱtheȱmonasteryȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱcollectȱalmsȱ(thoughȱ onȱ occasionȱ someȱ do).ȱ Soȱ theȱ presidingȱ monkȱ shiftsȱ theȱ explanatoryȱ focus,ȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ wayȱ inȱ whichȱ foodȱ isȱ acquiredȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yon.ȱ SQm\;KMsa;my\lui> ADi±an\ Ta;tE." hut\la;" cf.rHc\tiu> entE. AKiuk\kel; kuqiul\ reAac\ SQm\;KMsa; tE." Aky\& erH;Bun\; erH;kMrHiliu> SQm\;lLmy\. SQm\;kp\my\. tka tkametQ rHiliu> rHirc\lv\;tE. SQm\;KMenPiu> mliupfBU;tE." qUtiu>kp\tE. qMGakiu kp\tE. SQm\;etQ' qMGak vWn\~ka;liu> rtE. SQm\;etQ' AEdI SQm\; 7 mjio;rHieq;ty\" AEdI SQm\; 7 mjio;kiu sa;ekac\;ty\tE." na;lv\la;" dIen>sV\ tiuk\qMGakiu SQm\;kp\mHa `Ps\eneta. AEdI tiuk\ qMGakiu kp\tE. SQm\;kiu Bun\;ep;ekac\;ty\tE." SQm\;KMTQk\Piu> mliuBU;tE." Ourȱ ruleȱ tellsȱ usȱ toȱ makeȱ aȱ vow:ȱ Iȱ willȱ collectȱ alms.ȱ Doȱ youȱ understand?ȱ Ourȱruleȱsays,ȱtheȱshortȱtimeȱyouȱareȱinȱtheȱmonkhood,ȱcollectȱalmsȱsoȱthatȱ [people]ȱgetȱmerit.ȱButȱourȱruleȱalsoȱsays,ȱifȱthereȱareȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱlayȱ donorsȱ whoȱ offerȱ alms,ȱ whoȱ donateȱ alms,ȱ becauseȱ ofȱ yourȱ accumulatedȱ merit,ȱ[then]ȱyouȱdoȱnotȱneedȱtoȱcollectȱalms.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱtheȱsevenȱkindsȱ ofȱ almsȱ food,ȱ [including]ȱ almsȱ foodȱ thatȱ peopleȱ offer,ȱ [i.e.,]ȱ almsȱ foodȱ ofȬ

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feredȱtoȱtheȱsaΤghaȱandȱalmsȱfoodȱobtainedȱonȱtheȱinstructionsȱofȱtheȱsaΤgha.ȱ Theȱ ruleȱ isȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ legitimateȱ toȱ eatȱ thoseȱ sevenȱ kinds.54ȱ Doȱ youȱ underȬ stand?ȱSinceȱthereȱisȱalmsȱfoodȱofferedȱdailyȱhereȱtoȱtheȱmonks,ȱtheȱruleȱisȱ thatȱitȱisȱacceptableȱtoȱeatȱtheȱalmsȱfoodȱofferedȱtoȱtheȱmonks.ȱYouȱdoȱnotȱ haveȱtoȱgoȱoutȱandȱseekȱit.ȱ

Theȱ presidingȱ monkȱ closesȱ withȱ aȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ toȱ aȱ kindȱofȱmeditationȱthatȱmonksȱshouldȱpracticeȱwhileȱtheyȱeat.ȱ psŒewkˆ%aSc\`Kc\sa;" AEdf Siuc\ra Sraqma;etQk e`pa`pep;lim\.my\" AEdf" sa;er;AtQk\ AEliu e`PrHc\;tE." Whenȱyouȱeat,ȱdoȱsoȱwithȱ“wiseȱconsideration”ȱ(P.ȱpaccavekkhaΦ¬).ȱInȱregardȱ toȱthis,ȱyourȱteachersȱwillȱexplainȱit.ȱThatȱisȱall.ȱOurȱruleȱtellsȱusȱtoȱprovideȱ forȱfoodȱlikeȱthis.ȱ

Theȱ referenceȱ toȱ “wiseȱ consideration”ȱ (P.ȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬)ȱ deservesȱ exȬ planation.ȱ Theȱ useȱ ofȱ thisȱ termȱ isȱ notȱ attributedȱ toȱ anyȱ specificȱ monkȱ butȱisȱtakenȱtoȱbeȱpartȱofȱShwegyinȱandȱS¬sanaȱpracticeȱmoreȱgenerally.ȱ Inȱthisȱcontext,ȱtheȱreferenceȱisȱtoȱfoodȱbeingȱtakenȱnotȱforȱpleasure,ȱnorȱ toȱ makeȱ oneȱ beautiful,ȱ butȱ onlyȱ forȱ nourishmentȱ ofȱ theȱ bodyȱ andȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.55ȱ Eatingȱ withȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬ȱ bespeaksȱ theȱ importanceȱofȱlivingȱinȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱOnceȱanȱindividualȱisȱinitiatedȱintoȱ theȱShwegyinȱcommunity,ȱhisȱthoughtsȱandȱpracticesȱareȱtoȱbeȱguidedȱ byȱtheȱthoughtsȱandȱpracticesȱespeciallyȱofȱmonksȱwhoȱhaveȱcomeȱbeȬ foreȱ himȱinȱ theȱ community.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ mandatesȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ toȱ cerȬ tainȱ phrasesȱ forȱ monasticȱ practiceȱ (likeȱ eatingȱ withȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬)ȱ handedȱdownȱbyȱmonasticȱteachersȱandȱleaders,ȱ theȱguidanceȱofȱone’sȱ predecessorsȱisȱ toȱ standȱatȱ theȱ forefrontȱ ofȱ aȱmonk’sȱunderstandingȱ ofȱ whoȱ heȱ isȱ andȱ whatȱ heȱ isȱ toȱ do,ȱ evenȱ downȱ toȱ theȱ mannerȱ ofȱ eatingȱ food.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ andȱtheȱS¬sanaȱextendsȱevenȱtoȱmomentsȱofȱbodilyȱsatiation.ȱ TheȱFourȱActionsȱNotȱToȱBeȱDoneȱ AccordingȱtoȱtheȱVinaya,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱalsoȱtellsȱhisȱdisciplesȱthat,ȱbeforeȱ theyȱ departȱ fromȱ theȱ sÎm¬,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ informȱ newȱ monksȱ ofȱ theȱ “fourȱ actionsȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ done.”ȱ Theȱ fourȱ actionsȱ consistȱ ofȱ notȱ engagingȱ inȱ sexualȱ activity,ȱ notȱ stealing,ȱ notȱ killingȱ aȱ humanȱ being,ȱ andȱ notȱ lyingȱ aboutȱ one’sȱ spiritualȱ progress.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ BudȬ dha’sȱruleȱagainstȱsexualȱactivity,ȱtheȱpresidingȱmonkȱstates:ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 54ȱ Forȱtheȱsevenȱkinds,ȱseeȱObh¬s¬bhivaѴsaȱ1955ȱp.ȱ223.ȱ 55ȱ Thereȱ areȱ actuallyȱ fourȱ typesȱ ofȱ “purityȱ ofȱ wiseȱ consideration”ȱ (P.ȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬Ȭ suddhi)ȱ toȱ whichȱ monksȱ areȱ toȱ adhere;ȱ theseȱ pertainȱ toȱ food,ȱ robes,ȱ dwelling,ȱ andȱ medicine.ȱSeeȱSaoȱHtunȱHmatȱWinȱ1986ȱpp.ȱ45–47ȱforȱaȱdistillation.ȱ

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nMpft\ 1 AennE> rhn\;Bw erak\laliu>rHirc\ emTunqMwfq emTun\m:kiu m#ppfnE>tE." na;lv\la;" AE Aky\&mja; emTun\m:kiu #pmimy'\ #pmHa;mimy\Siuliu>rHirc\ AEdIrhn\;ha rhn\;mhut\eta.BU;" AKu qMGaeta\etQk wiuc\;`pI;eta. tc\ep;liuk\tE. qikˆaetQ mrHieta.BU;tE." qikˆaetQkj qQa;`pItE." lU>BwRM;: qQa;`pItE." rhn\;Bw mhut\eta.BU;tE." rhn\;Bw SMu;R:M;qQa;`pItE." df.e~kac\. cf.rHc\tiu> rhn\; Bwkiu erak\laliu>rHirc\ AEdI pTmSMu; emTunqMwfq emTun\mHIwEm:kiu erHac\~kV\pftE." na;lv\ ty\ena\" Accordingȱtoȱtheȱfirstȱrule,ȱifȱsomeoneȱhasȱbeenȱordainedȱasȱaȱyahan,ȱheȱisȱ notȱtoȱengageȱinȱsexualȱactivity.ȱDoȱyouȱunderstand?ȱNowȱthen,ȱifȱ[aȱyahan]ȱ happensȱtoȱengageȱinȱsexualȱactivity,ȱthenȱheȱisȱnoȱlongerȱaȱyahan.ȱOurȱruleȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ statusȱ thatȱ hasȱ beenȱ bestowedȱ uponȱ himȱ hereȱ noȱ longerȱ exists.ȱ Heȱwillȱbeȱdeprivedȱofȱhisȱstatusȱasȱaȱyahan.ȱHeȱwillȱhaveȱfailedȱinȱlife.ȱHeȱ willȱ noȱlongerȱbeȱ aȱ yahan.ȱ Hisȱ lifeȱ asȱ aȱyahanȱ isȱ fruitless.ȱ Therefore,ȱ ifȱ youȱ becomeȱ aȱ yahan,ȱ thisȱ firstȱ [rule]ȱ saysȱ abstainȱ fromȱ sexualȱ activity.ȱ Doȱ youȱ understand?ȱ

Similarly,ȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ interdictionȱ againstȱ killing,ȱ theȱ presidingȱ monkȱremarks:ȱ By\qU>Aqk\ mqt\rBU;lE" eA; lU>Aqk\kiu mqt\pfnE>tE." lU>Aqk\Siuta KN™akiuy\ Tc\Tc\ rHa;rHa;mH mhut\BU;tE." KN™akiuy\mTc\rHa;eq;tE. miKc\rE. wm\;mHarHientE. kiuy\wn\ qUcy\pjk\kjestE. eS;etac\. mep;ekac\;BU;tE." dfe~kac\. rhn\;rHc\tiu> rhn\;BwnE>enqmJ lU>Aqk\kiu mqt\mieAac\ erHac\enpf" miKc\wm\;mHa rHitE. kiuy\wn\qUcy\el; pjk\kjestt\tE. eS;etac.\ mep;mieAac\ erHac\ ~kV\pftE." tirisan\el;etQrE>Aqk\kiu mimie~kac\. pjk\sI;qQa;ty\Siurc\eta. Aapt\e`Pliu>rty\" A`ps\e`Pliu>rty\" lU>Aqk\kiu qt\mirc\eta. A`ps\e`Pliu>mrBU;" Aapt\e`Pliu> mrBU;tE." rhn\;qikˆapud\etQ mrHieta.BU;tE." eljakjqQa;`pItE." qaqnaeta\mHa rhn\;BwnE> menekac\; eta.BU;tE." dfe~kac\. cf.rHc\tiu> rhn\;BwnE> enqmJ dIttiy qikˆapud\kiu lU>Aqk\qt\`Kc\;mH erHac\ ~kV\m: qikˆapud\kiu Tin\;qim\;pftE." Whatȱ kindȱ ofȱ beingȱ shouldȱ youȱ notȱ kill?ȱ Right,ȱ weȱ areȱ instructedȱ [byȱ theȱ Buddha]ȱ toȱ notȱ killȱ aȱ humanȱ being.ȱ Weȱ areȱ instructedȱ thatȱ aȱ “humanȱ beȬ ing”ȱ meansȱ notȱ justȱ [aȱ personȱ whoȱ has]ȱ aȱ visibleȱ body.ȱ Weȱ areȱ instructedȱ notȱ toȱ giveȱ medicineȱ thatȱ causesȱ theȱ terminationȱ ofȱ anȱ unseenȱ fetusȱ inȱ aȱ mother’sȱwomb.ȱTherefore,ȱyahans,ȱwhileȱyouȱareȱyahans,ȱrefrainȱfromȱkillȬ ingȱ aȱ humanȱ being.ȱ And,ȱ weȱ areȱinstructed,ȱ refrainȱ fromȱ givingȱ medicineȱ thatȱ causesȱ theȱ terminationȱ ofȱ aȱ fetusȱ inȱ aȱ mother’sȱ womb.ȱ Nowȱ ifȱ youȱ causeȱlossȱofȱlifeȱtoȱanȱanimal,ȱyouȱcanȱdoȱaȱpenanceȱforȱbreakingȱtheȱrulesȱ ofȱtheȱmonasticȱdiscipline.ȱYouȱcanȱabsolveȱyourȱmisdeed.ȱHowever,ȱifȱyouȱ killȱaȱhumanȱbeing,ȱyouȱcannotȱabsolveȱyourȱmisdeed.ȱYouȱcannotȱdoȱpenȬ ance.ȱ[Ourȱruleȱsaysȱthat]ȱyourȱstatusȱasȱaȱyahanȱisȱgone,ȱyourȱstatusȱhasȱfalȬ len,ȱyouȱareȱnoȱlongerȱaȱgoodȱstandingȱyahanȱinȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTherefore,ȱyouȱ areȱinstructed,ȱallȱtheȱwhileȱyouȱareȱaȱyahan,ȱtoȱobeyȱtheȱthirdȱruleȱ[thatȱtellsȱ youȱto]ȱabstainȱfromȱkillingȱaȱhumanȱbeing.ȱ

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TheȱpresidingȱmonkȱisȱforcefulȱandȱclearȱasȱheȱstatesȱtheseȱandȱtheȱothȬ erȱinjunctions,ȱandȱforȱgoodȱreason.ȱAsȱaȱpointedȱoutȱbyȱHolt,ȱtheȱ“fourȱ actionsȱnotȱtoȱbeȱdone”ȱcorrespondȱtoȱtheȱ fourȱcardinalȱpreceptsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱofȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱcodeȱelucidatedȱinȱtheȱSuttaȬ vibhaΤgaȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinaya.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ highlyȱ significantȱ becauseȱ theȱ [fourȱ actions]ȱrepresentȱtheȱtypesȱofȱprohibitedȱbehaviorȱthatȱcanȱresultȱinȱexpulȬ sionȱfromȱtheȱcommunity.ȱTheȱbreakingȱofȱtheȱ[cardinalȱprecepts]ȱsymboȬ lizesȱthatȱtheȱindividualȱisȱreallyȱunfitȱtoȱproceedȱfurtherȱalongȱhisȱpathȱtoȱ arahanshipȱ [arahantship]ȱ becauseȱ heȱ lacksȱ theȱ disciplinedȱ volitionȱ necesȬ saryȱforȱitsȱperfection.56ȱ

Asȱpointedȱoutȱinȱchapterȱtwo,ȱtheȱpathȱtoȱarahantshipȱconsistsȱofȱfreeȬ ingȱoneselfȱfromȱtheȱkilesasȱthatȱkeepȱoneȱembroiledȱinȱtheȱcycleȱofȱreȬ birth.ȱItȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱnowȱunderstandȱthisȱpathȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱfourȱacȬ tionsȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ done,ȱ whichȱ areȱ designedȱ toȱ helpȱ monksȱ dispelȱ thoseȱ kilesas.ȱEachȱruleȱreflectsȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱovercomingȱtheȱproblemȱofȱ attachmentȱ toȱ theȱ selfȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ problemȱ ofȱ desireȱ forȱ selfȬ satisfaction.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ ifȱ aȱ monkȱ engagesȱ inȱ sexualȱ activity,ȱ heȱ hasȱ notȱovercomeȱtheȱproblemȱofȱlust.ȱIfȱaȱmonkȱstealsȱsomething,ȱhoweverȱ minor,ȱheȱhasȱnotȱovercomeȱtheȱproblemȱofȱcovetingȱtheȱbelongingsȱofȱ anotherȱperson.ȱIfȱaȱmonkȱintentionallyȱkillsȱanotherȱperson,ȱheȱhasȱnotȱ overcomeȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱpassions,ȱsuchȱasȱangerȱorȱhatred,ȱthatȱledȱ toȱtheȱkilling.ȱIfȱaȱmonkȱbragsȱorȱliesȱaboutȱhimselfȱsoȱthatȱpeopleȱthinkȱ highlyȱ ofȱ him,ȱ heȱ hasȱ notȱ overcomeȱ theȱ problemȱ ofȱ pride.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ ShwegyinȱperspectiveȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱmonasticȱperspectiveȱmoreȱgenerȬ ally,ȱifȱtheȱmonkȱcannotȱkeepȱtheseȱactivitiesȱinȱcheck,ȱheȱhasȱnoȱplaceȱ beingȱaȱdiscipleȬsonȱofȱtheȱBuddha.57ȱ TakingȱLeaveȱ Theȱfinalȱpartȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordinationȱconsistsȱofȱthankingȱtheȱvariousȱ Shwegyinȱteachers—theȱpreceptor,ȱtheȱKammav¬c¬ȱSayadaw,ȱandȱotherȱ participatingȱShwegyinȱmonks—whoȱhaveȱconferredȱtheȱordination.ȱAȱ presidingȱmonkȱexplainsȱtoȱtheȱnewȱmonksȱthatȱtheseȱteachersȱareȱtheȱ individualsȱtoȱwhomȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱinȱaȱteacherȬdiscipleȱrelationship.ȱHeȱ explainsȱ thatȱ theyȱ cannotȱ continueȱ asȱ beforeȱ inȱ layȱ life.ȱ Notȱ onlyȱ willȱ theȱ teachersȱ haveȱ toȱ lookȱ afterȱ theirȱ studentsȱ toȱ fulfillȱ theirȱ dutiesȱ asȱ teachers,ȱ butȱ theȱ studentsȱ willȱ haveȱ toȱ attendȱ uponȱ theirȱ teachersȱ toȱ fulfillȱtheirȱdutiesȱasȱdisciples.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 56ȱ Holtȱ1981ȱp.ȱ123,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ 57ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱMah¬visuddh¬yonȱSayadawȱ1985ȱpp.ȱ484–487,ȱwhichȱcommentsȱonȱ VinȱIȱpp.ȱ96–97.ȱ

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Afterȱ thisȱ hasȱ beenȱ explained,ȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ newlyȱ ordainedȱ monksȱ bowsȱasȱ aȱsignȱ ofȱ reverenceȱ andȱleavesȱtheȱsÎm¬ȱaccompaniedȱ byȱaȱseȬ niorȱ monk.ȱ Leavingȱ withȱaȱ seniorȱmonkȱ isȱ aȱ practiceȱ rootedȱ inȱ theȱ ViȬ naya.ȱTheȱcustomȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱderiveȱfromȱtimeȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱwhenȱaȱ newlyȱ ordainedȱ monkȱ wasȱ allowedȱ toȱleaveȱ aȱ sÎm¬ȱaloneȱ andȱ encounȬ teredȱhisȱwife,ȱwhoȱwasȱwaitingȱforȱhim.58ȱThisȱpracticeȱisȱthusȱmeantȱtoȱ preventȱ anyȱ lastȬminute,ȱ andȱ improper,ȱ physicalȱ contactȱ withȱ layȱ peopleȱ(especiallyȱwomen)ȱthatȱmightȱcauseȱaȱbreakȱinȱtheȱmonk’sȱstaȬ tusȱ asȱ aȱ monk.ȱ VinayaȬorientedȱ untilȱ theȱ end,ȱ Shwegyinȱ leadersȱ insistȱ thatȱdisciplineȱbeȱconstantlyȱenforced,ȱforȱthisȱisȱaȱcentralȱpartȱofȱwhatȱ makesȱitȱpossibleȱforȱmonksȱtoȱkeepȱtheirȱmindsȱandȱbodiesȱfocusedȱonȱ livingȱinsideȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

ArahantsȱinȱTrainingȱ Fromȱ theȱ momentȱ theȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ beginsȱ withȱ theȱ requestȱ forȱ aȱ preceptor,ȱ toȱ theȱ momentȱ whenȱ theȱ newȱ monksȱ areȱ permittedȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱsÎm¬,ȱeachȱandȱeveryȱmomentȱofȱtheȱhigherȱordiȬ nation,ȱdrawingȱuponȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱitself,ȱisȱgearedȱtowardȱproducȬ ingȱ newȱ yahans.ȱ Forgedȱ inȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ ownȱ wordsȱ andȱ guidance,ȱ theȱ newȱ yahansȱ areȱ instructedȱ toȱ beȱ pursuersȱ ofȱ theȱ path,ȱ upholdersȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ positionedȱ asȱ vitalȱ humanȱ compoȬ nentsȱ inȱ theȱ locallyȱ constitutedȱ tacticsȱ ofȱ constructingȱ theȱ continuedȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Asȱ aȱ productȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalism,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ becomeȱ arahantsȬinȬtraining,ȱ tryingȱ toȱ followȱ inȱ anȱ intenseȱ andȱ responsibleȱ wayȱ theȱ pathȱ toȱ nibb¬na.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ higherȱ ordinationȱ makesȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ monksȱ willȱ beȱ molded,ȱ crafted,ȱ pushed,ȱ andȱ caredȱ forȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱmonasticȱlife,ȱencouragedȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱopportuniȬ tiesȱaffordedȱtoȱthemȱasȱrituallyȱmadeȱdescendantsȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱTheirȱ bodiesȱandȱmindsȱhaveȱbecomeȱsitesȱforȱtheȱinstantiationȱofȱVinayaȱand,ȱ ideally,ȱ theȱ cultivationȱ ofȱ theȱ karmicȱ seedsȱ leadingȱ toȱ theȱ joysȱ ofȱ exisȬ tentialȱrupture.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 58ȱ TheȱversionȱofȱthisȱstoryȱinȱtheȱVinayaȬpiΞakaȱappearsȱjustȱbeforeȱtheȱBuddhaȱinstructsȱ hisȱdisciplesȱtoȱinformȱnewlyȱordainedȱmonksȱaboutȱtheȱfourȱactionsȱnotȱtoȱbeȱdone.ȱ VinȱIȱp.ȱ96.ȱ

ȱ

ChapterȱFour:ȱExistentialȱRuminationsȱ ȱ Itȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱconveyȱthroughȱtheseȱwrittenȱpagesȱtheȱfullȱnatureȱof,ȱandȱ significanceȱ attributedȱ to,ȱ theȱ wordsȱ (e.g.,ȱ recitationsȱ andȱ expositions)ȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ However,ȱ effortsȱ canȱ beȱ made,ȱ asȱ theyȱ wereȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱ chapterȱ withȱ attentionȱtoȱtheȱPaliȱandȱBurmeseȱflowȱofȱtheȱriteȱofȱhigherȱordination,ȱandȱasȱ theyȱareȱinȱthisȱchapterȱwithȱattentionȱtoȱsermonsȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱConditionalȱ Relationsȱ (P.ȱ Paҁҁh¬na).ȱ Throughȱ theseȱ sermonsȱ andȱ relatedȱ materials,ȱ thisȱ chapterȱinvestigatesȱtheȱinherentȱdecayȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱtheȱtemporalȱcontextȱ thatȱunderpinsȱtheȱdefenseȱofȱtheȱConditionalȱRelationsȱasȱtheȱS¬sana’sȱ“frontȬ lineȱ fortress.”ȱ Thisȱ chapterȱ alsoȱ investigatesȱ theȱ disruptiveȱ continuityȱ ofȱ reȬ birthȱmoreȱgenerally,ȱwhichȱmakesȱitȱchallengingȱforȱoneȱtoȱreplicateȱtheȱexpeȬ rienceȱ ofȱ light,ȱ joy,ȱ andȱ existentialȱ ruptureȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ experiencedȱ byȱtheȱBuddha.ȱNevertheless,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱexperienceȱallȱofȱthoseȱstates,ȱviaȱ theȱS¬sana’sȱ“frontȬlineȱfortress”ȱandȱsermonsȱonȱit.ȱThroughȱsuchȱsermons,ȱ whichȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱpartȱofȱanȱ“oceanȱofȱmethod,”ȱtheȱvastnessȱofȱtheȱ“oceanȱ ofȱsuffering”ȱbecomesȱanȱ“oceanȱofȱjoy.”ȱTheȱexperienceȱofȱthatȱjoyȱinȱbodyȱandȱ mindȱ isȱ aȱ majorȱ steppingȬstoneȱ toȱ finalȱ nibb¬nicȱ ruptureȱ andȱ departingȱ theȱ systemȱofȱrebirthȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱconstructionsȱevenȱofȱS¬sana,ȱaltogether.ȱ

Oceans,ȱEverywhereȱ Eachȱofȱtheȱpreviousȱchaptersȱofȱthisȱstudyȱhas,ȱasȱpartȱofȱitsȱanalysis,ȱ investigatedȱ variousȱ specialistsȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ activelyȱ involvedȱ inȱ particularȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱtextualȱandȱembodiedȱlifeȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱwithinȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition.ȱ Chapterȱ oneȱ addressedȱ theȱ productsȱ ofȱ histoȬ riansȱ andȱ biographers,ȱ bothȱ monasticȱ andȱ lay,ȱ andȱ theirȱ depictionsȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ life.ȱ Chapterȱ twoȱ highlightedȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ monasticȱ leadersȱ andȱ administratorsȱ inȱ developingȱ andȱ maintainingȱ theȱ institutionalȱ foundationsȱ ofȱ beingȱ sukha.ȱ Chapterȱ threeȱ exploredȱ theȱ disciplinary,ȱ ritual,ȱ andȱ linguisticȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ Vinayaȱ specialistsȱ (e.g.,ȱ preceptors,ȱ Kammav¬c¬ȱ Sayadaws)ȱ andȱ theirȱeffortsȱ toȱ keepȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ aliveȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱthroughȱtheȱordinationȱofȱnewȱmonks.ȱByȱexaminingȱtheseȱkindsȱ ofȱspecialization,ȱthisȱstudyȱsoȱfarȱhasȱexploredȱvariousȱcomponentsȱofȱ theȱcollectiveȱeffortsȱthatȱareȱmadeȱbyȱShwegyinȱmonksȱtoȱdoȱtheȱworkȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱThisȱchapterȱturnsȱtoȱyetȱanotherȱareaȱofȱspecialization,ȱanȱ areaȱthatȱhasȱhistoricallyȱbeenȱimportantȱinȱtheȱBuddhistȱmonasticȱtraȬ

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ditionsȱofȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia,ȱandȱparticularlyȱinȱBurmeseȱconȬ texts:ȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ materialsȱ andȱ practicesȱ concerningȱ theȱ AbhiȬ dhammaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Atȱ theȱ heartȱ ofȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ thisȱ chapterȱ isȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ AbhiȬ dhammaȱ sermonsȱ concerningȱ theȱ Conditionalȱ Relationsȱ (P.ȱ PaΞΞh¬na)ȱ givenȱbyȱtheȱShwegyinȱmonkȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ(1900–1977;ȱappendixȱA,ȱ figureȱ 4)ȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yonȱ monasteryȱ inȱ AmarapĀra.ȱ Asȱ weȱ haveȱ seenȱ inȱ thisȱ study,ȱ throughoutȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ hisȱ illustriousȱ andȱ someȬ timesȱ controversialȱ career,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ wasȱ activeȱ inȱ manyȱ areasȱofȱS¬sanaȱlife,ȱbothȱinȱandȱbeyondȱShwegyinȱcontexts.ȱForȱexamȬ ple,ȱheȱauthoredȱmanyȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱS¬sanaȬrelatedȱtexts,ȱconcernȬ ingȱsubjectsȱlikeȱtheȱPaliȱlanguage,ȱmonasticȱpracticeȱinȱgeneral,ȱandȱtheȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka.1ȱHisȱideasȱandȱapproachesȱtoȱdoctrineȱandȱpracticeȱ becameȱimportantȱforȱmany,ȱandȱhaveȱalsoȱbeenȱadoptedȱwithinȱparticȬ ularȱ contextsȱ ofȱ meditationalȱ teachingȱ andȱ practice.2ȱ Withȱ hisȱ copiousȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

2ȱȱ

Manyȱ ofȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ worksȱ areȱ widelyȱ availableȱ bothȱ inȱ andȱ outsideȱ ofȱ Myanmar.ȱ Forȱ anȱ accessibleȱ bibliographyȱ ofȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ work,ȱ seeȱ Thanȱ Tun,ȱtrans.,ȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ129–165.ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱpp.ȱ70–71ȱ(http://vmc128.8m.com/onelifesjourney/page70.htmlȱandȱ http://vmc128.8m.com/onelifesjourney/page71.html)ȱ ofȱ Thârmanayȱ Kyaw’sȱ biogȬ raphyȱofȱSayadawȱUȱPaѾ҃ita:ȱ whenȱSayadawȱ[UȱPaѾ҃ita]ȱspeaksȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱkamma,ȱbothȱatȱhomeȱandȱ abroad,ȱ heȱ oftenȱ usesȱ excerptsȱ fromȱ theȱ Practicalȱ Abhidhammaȱ [Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1999]ȱwrittenȱbyȱtheȱMahâgandâyoneȱSayadawȱandȱtheȱBasicȱ Patthanaȱ [Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ 1997]ȱ whichȱ heȱ composedȱ asȱ Dhammaȱ talks.ȱ SayaȬ dawȱhasȱthemȱcopiedȱandȱreducedȱinȱsizeȱonȱaȱphotocopier.ȱThenȱheȱusesȱtheseȱ papersȱ whenȱ heȱ givesȱ aȱ Dhammaȱ talk.ȱ Itȱ isȱ veryȱ difficult,ȱ bothȱ forȱ foreignersȱ andȱBurmese,ȱtoȱunderstandȱkammaȱasȱaccuratelyȱasȱtheyȱneedȱto.ȱUndoubtedȬ ly,ȱitȱisȱbecauseȱheȱwantsȱhisȱaudienceȱtoȱgainȱaȱfullȱandȱaccurateȱunderstandingȱ thatȱSayadawȱtalksȱ[from]ȱnoteȱcardsȱthisȱway.ȱOneȱcanȱseeȱhowȱSayadawȱusesȱ materialȱfromȱtheȱMahâgandâyoneȱSayadawȇsȱwritingsȱnotȱonlyȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱ ofȱ kamma,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ onȱ manyȱ otherȱ subjects.ȱ Itȱ mustȱ beȱ becauseȱ heȱ hasȱ foundȱ greatȱbenefitȱinȱusingȱthemȱthisȱwayȱbothȱatȱhomeȱandȱabroad.ȱDoubtless,ȱitȱisȱ becauseȱofȱthisȱgreatȱbenefitȱthatȱSayadawȱcherishesȱandȱvaluesȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheseȱ soȱmuch.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHeȱusesȱMahâgandâyoneȱSayadaw‘sȱwritingsȱsoȱmuchȱthatȱwhenȱ Sayadawȱwasȱlivingȱatȱ theȱMahasiȱ SâsanaȱYeiktha,ȱsomeȱ ofȱ theȱSanghaȱ wouldȱ evenȱsay,ȱ“HeȱisȱconvertingȱtheȱMahasiȱSâsanaȱYeikthaȱintoȱaȱShwegyinȱMonasȬ tery.“ȱ (Theȱ Mahâgandâyoneȱ Sayadawȱ belongedȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ sect,ȱ asȱ doesȱ Sayadawȱ Uȱ Panditâbhivamsa).ȱ Sayadawȱ hasȱ establishedȱ aȱ Buddhistȱ Cultureȱ Courseȱ inȱ whichȱ childrenȱ comeȱ toȱ studyȱ forȱ aȱ monthȱ duringȱ theirȱ hotȱ seasonȱ vacation.ȱInȱtheȱBuddhistȱCultureȱCourse,ȱthereȱareȱfourȱclasses.ȱTheȱcurriculumȱ ofȱ allȱ fourȱ classesȱ consistsȱ mainlyȱ ofȱ theȱ Mahâgandâyoneȱ Sayadawȇsȱ writings.ȱ SomeȱofȱtheȱgreatȱMahasiȱSayadawȇsȱworkȱisȱalsoȱincluded.ȱTheȱwritingsȱofȱreȬ nownedȱ elderȱ Sayadawsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Lediȱ Sayadaw,ȱ theȱ Mahâvisuddhayounȱ Sayadaw,ȱ theȱ Thapyekanȱ Sayadaw,ȱ andȱ theȱ Singajâȱ Sayadawȱ areȱ includedȱ asȱ well.ȱItȱisȱonlyȱbecauseȱnoneȱofȱtheȱgreatȱMahasiȱSayadawȇsȱworkȱisȱwrittenȱesȬ

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publications,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ withȱ theȱ posthumousȱ publicationsȱ ofȱ hisȱ serȬ monsȱandȱotherȱmaterials,ȱheȱhasȱbeenȱanȱimportantȱfigureȱinȱtheȱconȬ temporaryȱretextualizationȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ Inȱadditionȱtoȱspecializingȱinȱtextualȱandȱpedagogicalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ wasȱ alsoȱ famousȱ forȱ beingȱ aȱ vivaciousȱ leader,ȱatȱhisȱhomeȱmonasteryȱandȱamongȱShwegyinȱandȱotherȱmonksȱ moreȱ generally.3ȱ Atȱ theȱ Eleventhȱ Meetingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ (1975),ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱwasȱappointedȱtoȱtheȱpositionȱofȱAssociateȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱBeyondȱtheȱShwegyinȱcontext,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ participatedȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱleadershipȱandȱorganizationalȱactivities;ȱforȱ instance,ȱatȱtheȱSixthȱBuddhistȱCouncil,ȱbegunȱinȱ1954,ȱheȱservedȱasȱanȱ advisorȱ (P.ȱ ov¬d¬cariya)ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ anȱ editorȱ andȱ readerȱ ofȱ texts.ȱ Heȱ calledȱforȱallȱmonksȱtoȱuniteȱunderȱtheȱnameȱ“sonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha”ȱasȱaȱ wayȱtoȱovercomeȱsectarianȱdivisionsȱandȱengageȱmoreȱharmoniouslyȱinȱ theȱcollectiveȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱHeȱwasȱalsoȱnotȱoneȱtoȱshyȱawayȱfromȱ criticizingȱ problemsȱ inȱ theȱ monasticȱ community,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ bribingȱ thatȱtookȱplaceȱduringȱmonasticȱexams.4ȱAndȱheȱtookȱactiveȱinterestȱinȱ theȱlearningȱofȱnuns,ȱevenȱatȱoneȱpointȱfindingȱaȱwayȱtoȱworkȱaroundȱaȱ ruleȱwhichȱprohibitedȱhimȱfromȱteachingȱtoȱthem.5ȱ Theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ sharedȱ withȱ manyȱ ofȱ hisȱ contemporariesȱ aȱ veryȱ strongȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ jointȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana’sȱ careȱ groupsȱ inȱ providingȱanȱappropriateȱsocialȱcontextȱforȱtheȱexistenceȱandȱcontinuedȱ transmissionȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱOneȱcanȱseeȱthisȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱhe,ȱwithȱtheȱ helpȱofȱmanyȱpeople,ȱtransformedȱtheȱMah¬gandh¬yonȱmonasteryȱintoȱ theȱ famousȱ teachingȱ establishmentȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ today.ȱ Inȱ theȱ monasteryȱ “thereȱareȱmoreȱthanȱoneȱhundredȱbuildings,ȱeachȱoneȱbuiltȱbyȱanȱindiȬ vidualȱdonor,ȱandȱtheȱdonorsȱareȱfromȱallȱoverȱtheȱcountry.”6ȱOneȱcanȱ alsoȱ seeȱ thisȱ emphasisȱ inȱ hisȱ sermonsȱ andȱ books,ȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ highȬ lightedȱthisȱagendaȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱways.ȱForȱexample,ȱlateȱinȱhisȱlife,ȱheȱ offeredȱ aȱ fifteenȬpointȱ distillationȱ ofȱ hisȱ visionȱ ofȱ whatȱ heȱ hopedȱ toȱ accomplishȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheȱpointsȱincluded:ȱdispensingȱwithȱexpenȬ siveȱ religiousȱ eventsȱ andȱ customs;ȱ usingȱ villageȱ monasteriesȱ toȱ teachȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ

6ȱ

peciallyȱforȱchildrenȱthatȱtheȱcurriculumȱconsistsȱmainlyȱofȱtheȱMahâgandâyoneȱ Sayadawȇsȱwritings.ȱ Biographicalȱ sketchesȱ aboutȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ appearȱ inȱ manyȱ ofȱ hisȱ books.ȱ See,ȱ forȱexample,ȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002aȱpp.ȱka–kha.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ176–177,ȱThanȱTun,ȱtrans.,ȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ35–36.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ169–171.ȱTheȱruleȱwasȱ“katȬsaȬhto”ȱorȱB.ȱkp\-sa-Tui;.ȱAsȱgivenȱ byȱThanȱTun,ȱtrans.,ȱ2000ȱp.ȱ34,ȱkatȱ“meansȱneverȱtoȱuseȱnunsȱtoȱprepareȱtheȱfoodȱforȱ you,ȱatȱyourȱmonastery.“ȱSaȱ“meansȱneverȱtoȱteachȱ‘literature’ȱtoȱfemalesȱ(includingȱ nuns).”ȱHtoȱ“meansȱneverȱtoȱtryȱalchemy.”ȱ Dhammasamiȱ2004ȱp.ȱ312.ȱSeeȱalsoȱMendelsonȱ1975.ȱ

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youngȱboysȱandȱgirls;ȱhavingȱvillageȱmonksȱtakeȱleadingȱrolesȱinȱshapȬ ingȱtheȱmoralȱcharacterȱofȱvillagers;ȱdispensingȱwithȱmonksȱandȱmonasȬ teriesȱ thatȱ areȱ notȱ engagedȱ inȱ helpingȱ villagersȱ likeȱ this,ȱ inȱ study,ȱ inȱ meditation,ȱandȱinȱappropriateȱbehavior;ȱusingȱmeditationȱtoȱhelpȱteachȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ usingȱ theȱ symbioticȱ relationȱ betweenȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ theȱ govȬ ernmentȱtoȱimproveȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱshort,ȱasȱpresentedȱinȱhisȱautobioȬ graphy,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ agendaȱ isȱ political,ȱ involvingȱ variousȱ typesȱ ofȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ interactionsȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ educationȱ andȱ polity,ȱandȱconcernedȱnotȱonlyȱwithȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱbutȱalsoȱofȱ societyȱmoreȱgenerally.7ȱ OtherȱcommentsȱbyȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱresonateȱwithȱtheseȱpoints.ȱ Inȱ aȱ collectionȱ entitledȱ Sermonsȱ aboutȱ Doingȱ theȱ Workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ heȱ identifiedȱ Myanmarȱ asȱ aȱ paΞirĀpadesa,ȱ byȱ whichȱ heȱ meantȱ aȱ placeȱ thatȱ wasȱ conduciveȱ forȱ meetingȱ virtuousȱ peopleȱ (e.g.,ȱ one’sȱ parentsȱ andȱ friends),ȱ forȱ developingȱ merit,ȱ andȱ forȱ learningȱ aboutȱ theȱ S¬sana.8ȱ Forȱ anotherȱ example,ȱ heȱ wasȱ quiteȱ clearȱ aboutȱ hisȱ hopesȱ thatȱ postȬ independenceȱ Myanmarȱ wouldȱ beȱ aȱ placeȱ forȱ theȱ flourishingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ andȱ aboutȱ hisȱ understandingȱ thatȱ thatȱ kindȱ ofȱ flourishingȱ wouldȱ requireȱ theȱ effortsȱ ofȱ many.ȱ Hisȱ bookȱ aboutȱ “theȱ affairsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ inȱ theȱ future”ȱ (B.ȱ an¬gatеȱ S¬san¬ȱ reɇ,ȱ Anagt\qaqnaer;),ȱ completedȱ onȱ theȱ eveȱ ofȱ Myanmar’sȱ independence,ȱ expressesȱ thisȱ quiteȱ clearly.ȱ Writtenȱ forȱ modernȱ Burmeseȱ monks,ȱ politicians,ȱ writers,ȱ monasticȱ leadersȱ inȱ villages,ȱ andȱ others,ȱ theȱ bookȱ calledȱ uponȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ alikeȱ toȱ preventȱ theȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ makeȱ itȱ shine.9ȱ Thisȱisȱnotȱsurprising,ȱgivenȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱreligiopoliticalȱrupturesȱ instantiatedȱbyȱBritishȱrule.ȱ IȱseeȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱAbhidhammaȱsermonsȱasȱanȱextensionȱofȱ hisȱ particularȱ monasticȱ roleȱ inȱ theseȱ jointȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ efforts.ȱ Inȱ keepingȱ withȱ commonȱ practiceȱ atȱ Mah¬gandh¬yon,ȱ theȱ sermonsȱ wereȱ givenȱ atȱ morningȱ sermonȱ timeȱ followingȱ theȱ dawnȬbreakȱ morningȱ meal,ȱ fromȱ Aprilȱ 9ȱ toȱ Aprilȱ 25,ȱ 1973,ȱ toȱ aȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ audience,ȱ thoughȱ itȱ isȱ unclearȱ howȱ manyȱ peopleȱ wereȱ present.ȱ Theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱisȱreportedȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱrepeatedlyȱsoughtȱoutȱbyȱlayȱ supportersȱ (B.ȱ dak¬ȱ raΤеɇȱ my¬ɇ,ȱ dkarc\;mja;)ȱ toȱ giveȱ theȱ sermons.ȱ Heȱ hadȱ givenȱ variousȱ sermonsȱ previously,ȱ concerningȱ suchȱ topicsȱ asȱ theȱ Dhammacakkaȱ Suttaȱ (theȱ Buddha’sȱ firstȱ discourseȱ afterȱ hisȱ enlightenȬ ment,ȱ whichȱ setȱ inȱ motionȱ theȱ wheelȱ ofȱ Dhamma)ȱ andȱ AnattalakkhaΦaȱ Suttaȱ (theȱ Buddha’sȱ secondȱ discourseȱ afterȱ hisȱ enlightenment,ȱ whichȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 7ȱ 8ȱ 9ȱ

Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ345–346.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱca.ȱ1983ȱpp.ȱ171–176.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1975ȱpp.ȱ1–10.ȱ

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analyzedȱ theȱ bodyȱ andȱ mindȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ impermanenceȱ [P.ȱ anicca],ȱ sufferingȱ[P.ȱdukkha],ȱandȱnotȬselfȱ[P.ȱanatta]).ȱTheȱsermonsȱonȱtheȱConȬ ditionalȱRelationsȱwouldȱbeȱaȱwayȱforȱpeopleȱtoȱrevereȱbothȱtheȱBuddhaȱ andȱhisȱ“omniscientȱwisdom”ȱ(P.ȱsabbaññutaȬñ¬na).10ȱ Withȱ theȱ helpȱ ofȱ Majorȱ Aungȱ Thein,ȱ aȱtrusteeȱ andȱ treasurerȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwedagonȱ pagoda,ȱ theȱ sermonsȱ wereȱ recordedȱ onȱ tape;ȱ theyȱ wereȱ laterȱ transcribedȱ andȱ publishedȱ withȱ theȱ helpȱ ofȱ anȱ engineerȱ andȱ anȱ Abhidhammaȱ specialist.11ȱ Theȱ publishedȱ bookȱ includedȱ anȱ introductionȱ byȱUȱHtunȱHlaing,ȱaȱformerȱmonkȱofȱconsiderableȱlearning.12ȱThus,ȱtheȱ sermons,ȱ inȱ theirȱ printedȱ form,ȱ exemplifyȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ textsȱ Iȱ haveȱ inȱ mindȱ whenȱ Iȱ speakȱ ofȱ theȱ “retextualization”ȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalismȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ Shwegyin.ȱ Asȱ aȱ printedȱ book,ȱ theyȱ areȱ aȱ productȱ ofȱ yearsȱ ofȱ intenseȱ studyȱ andȱ internalizationȱ byȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ ofȱ narratives,ȱ concepts,ȱ andȱ textsȱ fromȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱTheyȱareȱalsoȱtheȱproductȱofȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱlayȱpeopleȱofȱvariȬ ousȱkinds,ȱpartȱofȱtheȱS¬sana’sȱcareȱgroups,ȱinȱtappingȱintoȱhisȱstoreȱofȱ pariyatti,ȱpaΞipatti,ȱandȱpaΞivedhaȱandȱpreservingȱaȱversionȱofȱhisȱinsightsȱ andȱexperiencesȱforȱtheȱfuture.ȱ Analytically,ȱwhatȱthisȱchapterȱdoesȱisȱlookȱatȱaȱparticularȱstageȱinȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ theȱ retextualizationȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana:ȱ theȱ speakingȱ ofȱ theȱ sermonsȱ themselves,ȱ basedȱ primarilyȱ onȱ theȱ recordings.ȱ Specifically,ȱ drawingȱonȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermonsȱandȱtheirȱintroductionȱbyȱUȱ HtunȱHlaing,ȱthisȱchapterȱdiscussesȱsomeȱspecificȱphilosophicalȱaspectsȱ ofȱ transmittingȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Afterȱ situatingȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ serȬ monsȱ inȱ theirȱ widerȱ Abhidhammaȱ context,ȱ theȱ chapterȱ illustratesȱ howȱ theȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱasȱanȱAbhidhammaȱspecialist,ȱandȱasȱaȱPaΞΞh¬naȱspeȬ cialistȱ atȱ that,ȱ triesȱ toȱ helpȱ hisȱ listenersȱ moveȱ alongȱ theȱ pathȱ towardȱ arahantshipȱ andȱ thusȱ nibb¬nicȱ rupture.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ toȱ adoptȱ theȱ terminologyȱ ofȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎȱ (aȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ firstȱ bookȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka),ȱhisȱgoalȱisȱtoȱshowȱhowȱheȱattemptsȱtoȱhelpȱpeopleȱ toȱcrossȱtheȱvastȱ“oceanȱofȱrepeatedȱrebirth”ȱ(P.ȱsaΚs¬raȬs¬gara)ȱwithȱtheȱ “oceanȱofȱmethod”ȱ(P.ȱnayaȬs¬gara),ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱultimatelyȱrejoiceȱ inȱ theȱ “oceanȱ ofȱ knowledge”ȱ (P.ȱ ñ¬ΦaȬs¬gara),ȱ andȱ thusȱ toȱ attainȱ theȱ omniscienceȱofȱnibb¬na.13ȱInȱmanyȱBuddhistȱcontexts,ȱtheȱoceanȱisȱcomȬ monlyȱusedȱtoȱhelpȱexpressȱbothȱtheȱvastȱphenomenalȱworldȱofȱsufferȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 10ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱgaѴ.ȱ 11ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ 1997ȱ p.ȱ Ѽa.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ recordingsȱ areȱ availableȱ forȱ listeningȱ atȱ http://www.eDhamma.com.ȱ 12ȱ SeeȱHtunȱHlaingȱ1997ȱp.ȱgai.ȱIȱwasȱunableȱtoȱverifyȱthatȱHtunȱHlaingȱwasȱaȱformerȱ monk;ȱhowever,ȱAshinȱSilacaraȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱhisȱscholarlyȱaccomplishmentsȱindiȬ catedȱasȱsuchȱandȱmyȱremarkȱhereȱisȱbasedȱonȱthat.ȱ 13ȱ Asȱpp.ȱ10–11.ȱ

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ingȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱdepthȱofȱtheȱwisdomȱthatȱleadsȱtoȱliberationȱfromȱit.14ȱ Theȱsheerȱvastnessȱofȱopenȱoceanȱwaterȱmakesȱitȱanȱexcellentȱanalogueȱ forȱ bothȱ sufferingȱ andȱ realization,ȱ andȱ theȱ risingȱ andȱ fallingȱ ofȱ itsȱ wavesȱ providesȱ aȱ perfectȱ chanceȱ toȱ reflectȱ onȱ theȱ risingȱ andȱ fallingȱ ofȱ theȱmentalȱandȱphysicalȱconstituentsȱofȱreality.ȱ

TheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱandȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ InȱorderȱtoȱprofitablyȱexploreȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermons,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ Uȱ Htunȱ Hlaing’sȱ introductionȱ toȱ thoseȱ sermons,ȱ initialȱ considerationȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ givenȱ toȱ basicȱ detailsȱ aboutȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱ andȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱcenterpieceȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱtraȬ ditionȱ isȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka,ȱ theȱ philosophicalȱ basketȱ ofȱ theȱ Paliȱ canon,ȱwhichȱcontainsȱaȱvastȱcollectionȱofȱmaterialȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱnaȬ ture,ȱ flow,ȱ andȱ relationsȱ ofȱ impersonalȱ phenomenaȱ orȱ existentsȱ (P.ȱ dhammas).15ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ S¬sanaȱ narratives,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ atȱ oneȱ timeȱ preachedȱ theȱ entireȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱ toȱ hisȱ motherȱ andȱ assembledȱ godsȱ inȱ theȱ T¬vatiѴsaȱ heaven.ȱ Eachȱ day,ȱ however,ȱ heȱ wouldȱ throughȱ hisȱextraordinaryȱpowersȱcreateȱaȱsemblanceȱofȱhimselfȱtoȱcarryȱonȱhisȱ teachingsȱasȱ heȱ venturedȱintoȱ theȱ humanȱ worldȱ toȱ collectȱ almsȱ andȱ toȱ eat.ȱWhenȱheȱdidȱso,ȱheȱwouldȱmeetȱwithȱS¬riputta,ȱhisȱdiscipleȱchiefȱinȱ wisdom,ȱandȱprovideȱhimȱwithȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱteachingȱgivenȱinȱtheȱ T¬vatiѴsaȱheavenȱonȱthatȱday.ȱInȱturn,ȱS¬riputtaȱtransmittedȱtheȱAbhiȬ dhammaȱtoȱfiveȱhundredȱofȱhisȱownȱdisciples,ȱinȱaȱwayȱneitherȱtooȱwideȱ norȱtooȱnarrow,ȱthusȱbeginningȱtheȱoralȱandȱtextualȱtransmissionȱofȱtheȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱamongȱhumanȱbeings.16ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Abhidhammaȱ expositionsȱ containedȱ inȱ theȱ AbhidhamȬ maȬpiΞakaȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka’sȱ manyȱ commentaries,ȱ subȬ commentaries,ȱ andȱ relatedȱ literature,ȱ allȱ existentsȱ atȱ theirȱ mostȱ basicȱ levelȱmayȱbeȱclassifiedȱinȱtermsȱofȱfourȱultimatesȱ(P.ȱparamattha).ȱThreeȱ ofȱ theseȱ ultimatesȱ areȱ saidȱ toȱ beȱ conditionedȱ (P.ȱ saΤkata):ȱ mindȱ orȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 14ȱ InȱtheȱAtthas¬linÎ,ȱBuddhaghosaȱactuallyȱdistinguishesȱfourȱoceansȱ(thoseȱofȱrepeatedȱ rebirths,ȱofȱwaters,ȱofȱmethod,ȱandȱofȱknowledge),ȱandȱaddsȱthatȱ“itȱisȱnotȱpossibleȱtoȱ distinguishȱtheȱ(different)ȱoceansȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱexceptȱbyȱomniscience”ȱ(PeȱMaungȱTin,ȱtrans.,ȱ 1976ȱp.ȱ15).ȱ 15ȱ Thereȱareȱmanyȱresourcesȱforȱreadersȱwhoȱwishȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱmetaphysicalȱworldȱofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱ orȱ theȱ variationȱ ofȱ systemsȱ ofȱ Abhidhammaȱ (S.ȱ Abhidharma)ȱ acrossȱ differentȱ Buddhistȱ cultures.ȱ Gethinȱ 1998ȱ providesȱ anȱ accessibleȱ introductionȱ toȱtheȱAbhidhamma.ȱȱ 16ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱAsȱpp.ȱ15–17ȱandȱHtunȱHlaingȱ1997ȱp.ȱgĀ.ȱ

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awarenessȱ (P.ȱ citta),ȱ whichȱ inȱ andȱ ofȱ itselfȱ isȱ neitherȱ goodȱ norȱ bad;17ȱ mentalȱ concomitantsȱ (P.ȱ cetasika),ȱ whichȱ playȱ particularȱ rolesȱ inȱ theȱ variousȱ processesȱ ofȱ cognition;18ȱ andȱ materialityȱ (P.ȱ rĀpa),ȱ whichȱ comȬ prisesȱ theȱ visibleȱ formsȱ involvedȱ inȱ cognitiveȱ andȱ otherȱ acts.19ȱ Theȱ fourthȱ ultimateȱ isȱ nibb¬na,ȱ whichȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ beȱ unconditionedȱ (P.ȱ asaΤkata).ȱ Whenȱ assembledȱ together,ȱ theȱ threeȱ classesȱ ofȱ conditionedȱ ultimatesȱcompriseȱbeingsȱwhoȱbelieveȱthatȱtheyȱhaveȱaȱpermanentȱselfȱ orȱ soul.ȱ However,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Abhidhammaȱ thought,ȱ allȱ beingsȱ areȱ inȱ actualityȱ onlyȱ passing,ȱ conditionedȱ phenomena,ȱ particularȱ combinaȬ tionsȱ ofȱ awareness,ȱ mentalȱ concomitants,ȱ andȱ physicalȱ formȱ atȱ anyȱ givenȱpointȱinȱtime.ȱ Significantly,ȱmonksȱinȱMyanmarȱandȱelsewhereȱoftenȱdrawȱaȱbasicȱ distinctionȱbetweenȱtwoȱmethodsȱforȱexplainingȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱworldȱ andȱ cosmos.ȱ Theȱ twoȱ methodsȱ areȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ methodȱ andȱ theȱ Suttaȱ method,ȱ whichȱ areȱ characteristicȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱ andȱ SuttaȬpiΞakaȱ respectively.20ȱ Bothȱ ofȱ theseȱ methodsȱ areȱ relatedȱ toȱ anȱ imȬ portantȱsetȱofȱimagesȱconcerningȱrebirthȱ(P.ȱsaΚs¬ra)ȱandȱreleaseȱfromȱit.ȱ Indeed,ȱ whenȱ oneȱ wantsȱ toȱ crossȱ theȱ vastȱ “oceanȱ ofȱ repeatedȱ rebirth”ȱ (P.ȱsaΚs¬raȬs¬gara)ȱinȱorderȱtoȱarriveȱatȱ“theȱoceanȱofȱwisdom”ȱ(P.ȱñ¬ΦaȬ s¬gara),ȱ andȱ thusȱ toȱ attainȱ nibb¬na,21ȱ oneȱ mustȱ useȱ “theȱ oceanȱ ofȱ meȬ thod”ȱ (P.ȱ nayaȬs¬gara).ȱ Theȱ “oceanȱ ofȱ method”ȱ involves,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȱmethodȱandȱtheȱSuttaȱmethod.ȱ WhenȱtheyȱuseȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱmethodȱofȱexpositionȱandȱanalysis,ȱ BuddhistsȱfollowȱtheȱexampleȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱsetȱbyȱtheȱBuddhaȱ inȱ hisȱ ownȱ Abhidhammaȱ teachingsȱ andȱ tendȱ toȱ relyȱ onȱ languageȱ consiȬ deredȱtoȱbeȱ absoluteȱorȱ ultimateȱ inȱ nature.ȱTheyȱ useȱ abstractȱ conceptsȱ andȱ principlesȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ structured,ȱ causeȬandȬeffectȱ flowȱ ofȱ imȬ personalȱ phenomena.ȱ Whenȱ theyȱ useȱ theȱ Suttaȱ methodȱ ofȱ exposition,ȱ Buddhistsȱ followȱ anotherȱ exampleȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ setȱ byȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ inȱ hisȱ Suttaȱ discourses.ȱ Theyȱ tendȱ toȱ relyȱ onȱ languageȱ consiȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 17ȱ Eachȱ momentȱ ofȱ awarenessȱ hasȱ onlyȱ oneȱ discreteȱ objectȱ andȱ theȱ successiveȱ arisingȱ andȱfallingȱofȱmomentsȱofȱawarenessȱhappensȱveryȱfast—soȱfastȱinȱfactȱthatȱmostȱbeȬ ingsȱ areȱ generallyȱ unawareȱ thatȱtheȱ processȱ occursȱ atȱ all.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ 1999ȱ pp.ȱ 3–4.ȱ 18ȱ Forȱexample,ȱlikeȱdyesȱaddedȱtoȱwater,ȱmentalȱconcomitantsȱcombineȱwithȱmindȱorȱ awareness,ȱmakingȱitȱbadȱ(P.ȱakusala)ȱorȱgoodȱ(P.ȱkusala).ȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1999ȱp.ȱ12.ȱ 19ȱ Moreȱ specifically,ȱ materialityȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ fourȱ primaryȱ physicalȱ elementsȱ andȱ theȱ secondaryȱphenomena—likeȱhumanȱbodiesȱandȱrocks—derivedȱfromȱthem.ȱ 20ȱ Thereȱ areȱ exceptionsȱ toȱ thisȱ characterization.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ someȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ SuttaȬ piΞakaȱcontainȱveryȱAbhidhammaȬlikeȱdiscourses,ȱandȱsomeȱpartsȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬ piΞakaȱ containȱ veryȱ SuttaȬlikeȱ discourses.ȱ Erikȱ Braun,ȱ privateȱ communication,ȱ notesȱ thatȱtheȱsuttasȱhaveȱmuchȱmoreȱAbhidhammaȬlikeȱmaterialȱthanȱtheȱreverse.ȱ 21ȱ SeeȱAsȱp.ȱ11ȱandȱN¬rada,ȱtrans.,ȱ1997–1998,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱc–cii.ȱ

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deredȱtoȱbeȱconventionalȱinȱnature,ȱembellishingȱtheȱpointȱatȱhandȱwithȱ similes,ȱmetaphors,ȱandȱinspiringȱstoriesȱaboutȱexemplars.ȱ TheȱlastȱandȱmostȱvoluminousȱbookȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱisȱtheȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ whichȱ contributesȱ toȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka,ȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ AbhiȬ dhammaȱ moreȱ generally,ȱ aȱdistinctiveȱ kindȱ ofȱ analysisȱ or,ȱ moreȱapproȬ priately,ȱaȱdistinctiveȱkindȱofȱsynthesis.22ȱInȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na,ȱtheȱphenomeȬ naȱ identifiedȱ inȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ matrixȱ (i.e.,ȱ aȱ listȱ ofȱ conceptualȱ termsȱ thatȱ beginsȱ theȱ firstȱ bookȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka)23ȱ areȱ analyzedȱ inȱ termsȱofȱtwentyȬfourȱconditionsȱ(P.ȱpaccaya),ȱsuchȱasȱrootȱconditionȱ(P.ȱ hetuȬpaccaya),ȱ objectȱ conditionȱ (P.ȱ ¬rammaΦaȬpaccaya),ȱ predominanceȱ conditionȱ (P.ȱ adhipatiȬpaccaya),ȱ andȱ soȱ forth,24ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ showȱ howȱ phenomenaȱareȱrelatedȱandȱconditioned.ȱTheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱis,ȱultimately,ȱsoȱ deepȱ andȱ complexȱ thatȱ Buddhistsȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ andȱ elsewhereȱ haveȱ identifiedȱitȱasȱaȱbookȱofȱlimitlessȱmethod.25ȱ

TheȱWorkȱofȱAbhidhammaȱSpecialistsȱ ThereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱlongȬestablishedȱeffortȱwithinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ inȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia—andȱ especiallyȱ withinȱ Myanmar,ȱ whichȱ hasȱlongȱbeenȱrecognizedȱasȱaȱcenterȱofȱAbhidhammaȱstudies—ofȱmonksȱ whoȱhaveȱservedȱasȱAbhidhammaȱspecialists.ȱTheȱworkȱofȱtheseȱspecialȬ istsȱhasȱinvolvedȱextensiveȱcommentarialȱwritingȱandȱdebate,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ recitation,ȱ memorization,ȱ andȱ preaching.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ commentariesȱonȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱincludeȱtheȱworksȱattributedȱtoȱ theȱmedievalȱmonkȱBuddhaghosa,ȱwhoȱworkedȱinȱSriȱLankaȱinȱtheȱfifthȱ century.ȱ Theseȱ worksȱ includeȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎȱ (Expositor),26ȱ whichȱ isȱ aȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ DhammasaΤgaΦÎȱ (Enumerationȱ ofȱ Phenomena,ȱ theȱ firstȱbookȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞaka),ȱtheȱSammohavinodanÎȱ(Dispellerȱofȱ Delusion)27ȱ whichȱ isȱ aȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ VibhaΤgaȱ (Analysis,ȱ theȱ secondȱbookȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞaka),ȱandȱtheȱPañcappakaraΦaΞΞhakath¬ȱ (CommentaryȱonȱtheȱFiveȱTreatises)ȱwhichȱisȱaȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱlastȱ fiveȱ booksȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka.28ȱ Theȱ worksȱ attributedȱ toȱ BudȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 22ȱ 23ȱ 24ȱ 25ȱ

See,ȱforȱexample,ȱNyanatilokaȱ1983ȱpp.ȱ12,ȱ114–151.ȱ Forȱtheȱmatrix,ȱseeȱNyanatilokaȱ1983ȱpp.ȱ6–10.ȱ Forȱtheȱcompleteȱlist,ȱseeȱN¬rada,ȱtrans.,ȱ1997–1998,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱp.ȱ1.ȱ Forȱ anȱ overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ veryȱ complexȱ structureȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ seeȱ N¬rada,ȱ trans.,ȱ 1997–1998,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱxi–cviiȱandȱNyanatilokaȱ1983ȱpp.ȱ114–151.ȱ 26ȱ As.ȱ 27ȱ VibhȬa.ȱSeeȱalsoȱѬѾamoli,ȱtrans.,ȱ1987–1991.ȱ 28ȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱp.ȱ13.ȱSeeȱbelowȱforȱtheȱnamesȱofȱtheȱotherȱbooksȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬ piΞaka.ȱ

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dhaghosaȱwereȱprobablyȱcompiledȱandȱeditedȱbyȱmanyȱmonks,ȱandȱinȱ thisȱsenseȱitȱmightȱbeȱmoreȱappropriateȱtoȱthinkȱinȱtermsȱofȱgroupsȱorȱ committeesȱ ofȱ monksȱ ratherȱ thanȱ aȱ singleȱ commentatorȱ namedȱ BudȬ dhaghosa.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ Buddhaghosaȱ isȱ aȱ monkȱ whomȱ laterȱ S¬sanaȱ traditionsȱ haveȱ reveredȱ asȱ oneȱ whoȱ accomplishedȱ greatȱ thingsȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱincludingȱtheȱAbhidhamma.ȱ Fromȱ aboutȱ theȱ fifthȱ centuryȱ onward,ȱ aȱ smallerȱ classȱ ofȱ manualsȱ wasȱdeveloped;ȱtheyȱconcernȱtheȱAbhidhamma.29ȱAmongȱthese,ȱtheȱmostȱ importantȱisȱtheȱAbhidhammatthasaΤgahaȱ(CompendiumȱofȱAbhidhamma),ȱ attributedȱ toȱ theȱ monkȱ Anuruddhaȱ (tenth/eleventhȱ centuries).ȱ Theȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgahaȱ itselfȱ isȱ exceptionallyȱ importantȱ inȱ contempoȬ raryȱ Myanmar;ȱ youngȱ monksȱ andȱ novicesȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ learnȱ itȱ byȱ heart,ȱasȱanȱentryȱpointȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱandȱitsȱ commentaries.30ȱ Theȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgahaȱitselfȱ hasȱatȱ leastȱ nineteenȱ commentariesȱinȱPaliȱaloneȱandȱmanyȱmoreȱinȱotherȱSouthȱandȱSouthȬ eastȱ Asianȱ languages.ȱ Anȱ importantȱ Paliȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgahaȱ wasȱ composedȱ byȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ monkȱ Lediȱ Sayadawȱ(1846–1923);ȱhisȱParamatthadÎpanÎΞÎk¬ȱ(ElucidationȱofȱUltimateȱ Meaning)ȱattackedȱanotherȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱAbhidhammatthasaΤgaha,ȱ creatingȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱcontroversyȱduringȱhisȱtime.31ȱ PresentȬdayȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ Buddhistsȱ whoȱ study,ȱ write,ȱ andȱ preachȱonȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱandȱitsȱcommentariesȱbelieveȱthatȱtheyȱ upholdȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱAbhidhammaȱtransmissionȱasȱitȱwasȱinitiatedȱbyȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ asȱ itȱ wasȱ carriedȱ onȱ byȱ monksȱ likeȱ S¬riputta,ȱ BudȬ dhaghosa,ȱ Anuruddha,ȱ andȱ theȱ Lediȱ Sayadaw.ȱ TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱisȱ noȱ exceptionȱ inȱ thisȱ regard.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ heȱ compiledȱ Burmeseȱ comȬ mentariesȱ onȱ worksȱ attributedȱ toȱ Buddhaghosa,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎ;32ȱ heȱ helpedȱ bringȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgahaȱ intoȱ Burmese;33ȱ andȱ inȱ hisȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ sermonsȱ themselves,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ explicitlyȱ highlightsȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ Lediȱ Sayadawȱ andȱothersȱforȱtheȱtransmissionȱofȱAbhidhammaȱinȱMyanmar.34ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 29ȱ 30ȱ 31ȱ 32ȱ 33ȱ 34ȱ

InȱBurmese,ȱtheseȱmanualsȱareȱcalledȱtheȱ“littleȱfingerȱmanuals.”ȱȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱp.ȱ16.ȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ17–18.ȱForȱaȱstudyȱofȱLediȱSayadaw,ȱseeȱBraunȱ2008.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002b.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002a.ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ81.ȱ

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TheȱAbhidhammaȱandȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱContemporaryȱMyanmarȱ InȱworkingȱforȱtheȱpersistenceȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱthroughȱtheȱtransmissionȱofȱ theȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ haveȱ playedȱ variousȱrolesȱinȱfosteringȱtheȱvibrancyȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱinȱcontempoȬ raryȱ Myanmar.ȱ Manyȱ peopleȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ haveȱ spentȱ aȱ greatȱ dealȱ ofȱ timeȱ studying,ȱ translating,ȱ andȱ composingȱ Abhidhammaȱ material.ȱ MonksȱroutinelyȱgiveȱsermonsȱandȱotherȱformsȱofȱinstructionȱonȱdifferȬ entȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ studyȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ throughȱ materialsȱ likeȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎȱ andȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgaha.ȱBurmeseȱpeopleȱlearnȱasȱchildrenȱtoȱreciteȱpartsȱ ofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȬpiΞakaȱalongȱwithȱotherȱpartsȱofȱtheȱTipiΞakaȱforȱproȬ tectiveȱpurposes.ȱAndȱsomeȱAbhidhammaȱconcepts—suchȱasȱthoseȱconȬ cerningȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na—trulyȱpervadeȱtheȱreligiousȱsceneȱinȱMyanmar.ȱ Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ thatȱ religiousȱ scene,ȱ manyȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ concepts—forȱ exȬ ample,ȱ rootȱ conditionȱ (P.ȱ hetuȬpaccaya)ȱ andȱ objectȱ conditionȱ (P.ȱ ¬rammaΦaȬpaccaya)—canȱ beȱ foundȱ printedȱ onȱ theȱ fansȱ ofȱ monks,ȱ onȱ calendars,ȱ onȱ posters,ȱ andȱ nowȱ evenȱ onȱ CDȬRomȱ prayerȱ discsȱ (whichȱ areȱ notȱ playableȱ butȱ areȱ meantȱ toȱ beȱ hungȱ upȱ orȱ displayed).35ȱ Whenȱ makingȱtheȱveryȱlongȱandȱarduousȱbusȱtripȱfromȱYangonȱtoȱMandalay,ȱ orȱtoȱandȱfromȱotherȱareasȱrequiringȱaȱlongȱbusȱtrek,ȱdriversȱmayȱplayȱ tapeȱrecordingsȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱbeingȱrecitedȱbyȱanȱindividualȱmonkȱorȱ groupȱofȱpeopleȱtoȱhelpȱensureȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱtheȱjourney.36ȱWhileȱwalkȬ ingȱaroundȱplacesȱlikeȱSagaing,ȱaȱhillȱregionȱnearȱMandalayȱfamousȱforȱ itsȱ Buddhistȱ monasteriesȱ andȱ nunneries,ȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ recitationsȱ canȱ beȱ heardȱ overȱ loudspeakersȱ comingȱ fromȱ nunneries.ȱ Ifȱ layȱ peopleȱ hearȱ monksȱ teachingȱ orȱ preachingȱ onȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ inȱ anȱ openȱ setting,ȱ theyȱ mayȱbeȱinclinedȱtoȱstop,ȱsitȱdown,ȱandȱlisten.ȱAndȱatȱPaΞΞh¬naȱfestivalsȱ (aȱnewȱtypeȱofȱceremonyȱinvolvingȱtheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na),37ȱitȱisȱ commonȱtoȱhearȱpeopleȱspeakȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱasȱaȱ“frontȬlineȱfortress”ȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theseȱ areȱ onlyȱ aȱ fewȱ ofȱ theȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ Burmeseȱ peopleȱ takeȱ partȱ inȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ andȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ butȱ theyȱ areȱ enoughȱ toȱ suggestȱ thatȱ muchȱ researchȱ remainsȱ toȱ beȱ carȬ riedȱoutȱbyȱscholarsȱinterestedȱinȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱinȱMyanmar.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 35ȱ BasedȱonȱfieldȱobservationsȱandȱtheȱaccountȱgivenȱbyȱBischoffȱ1995ȱp.ȱ47.ȱ 36ȱ Onȱ oneȱ busȱ tripȱ fromȱ Yangonȱ toȱ Mandalayȱ andȱ back,ȱ busȱ driversȱ claimedȱ toȱ beȱ playingȱPaΞΞh¬naȱrecitationsȱbyȱtheȱSitaguȱSayadaw,ȱtheȱmonkȱwhoȱfoundedȱtheȱfamȬ ousȱSagaingȱSitaguȱBuddhistȱAcademy.ȱ 37ȱ TheȱBurmeseȱpeopleȱwhomȱIȱhaveȱaskedȱaboutȱtheseȱceremoniesȱhaveȱsuggestedȱthatȱ theyȱhaveȱbeenȱinȱvogueȱsinceȱaboutȱ1980.ȱHowever,ȱasȱtheȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ inȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermonsȱthemselvesȱshow,ȱsuchȱrecitationsȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na— andȱotherȱpartsȱofȱtheȱAbhidhamma—haveȱbeenȱaroundȱsinceȱearlierȱtimes.ȱ

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TheȱBuddha’sȱContemplationȱofȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ textsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ asȱ humansȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ it,ȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ deriveȱ fromȱ theȱ highest,ȱ mostȱ joyfullyȱ subȬ limeȱ meditativeȱ achievementsȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ himself.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ notesȱ thatȱ afterȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ becameȱ awakened,ȱ heȱ continuedȱ toȱ meditate,ȱ andȱ finallyȱ hisȱ “omniscientȱ wisdom”ȱ (P.ȱ sabȬ baññutaȬñ¬na)ȱachievedȱitsȱopportunityȱtoȱ“grazeȱin”ȱ(B.ȱkyakеȱc¬ɇ,ȱkjk\sa;)ȱ theȱ vastȱ expanseȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ itself.ȱ Whenȱ thatȱ happened,ȱ magnifiȬ centȱ raysȱ ofȱ multicoloredȱ lightȱ emanatedȱ fromȱ hisȱ bodyȱ andȱ mind,ȱ permeatingȱ theȱ entireȱ cosmos:ȱ “[e]venȱ theȱ Greatȱ Godȱ Brahm¬,ȱ ableȱ toȱ diffuseȱ lightȱ throughoutȱ aȱ billionȱ worldȱ systems,ȱ becameȱ likeȱ aȱ glowȬ wormȱatȱsunrise.”38ȱ Drawingȱ fromȱ aȱ wellȬestablishedȱ commentarialȱ traditionȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ participatesȱ asȱ anȱ Abhidhammaȱ specialist,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ exȬ plainsȱ thatȱ whenȱ Gotamaȱ becameȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ getȱ upȱ fromȱ hisȱ seat.ȱ Followingȱ introductoryȱ materialȱ toȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎ,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ remarksȱ thatȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ satȱ crossȬleggedȱ forȱ sevenȱ days,ȱ afterȱ whichȱ timeȱ heȱ roseȱ fromȱ hisȱ seatȱ andȱ lookedȱ backȱ atȱ theȱ placeȱ whereȱ heȱ meditatedȱ andȱ reflectedȱ onȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ heȱ hadȱ deȬ stroyedȱallȱtheȱkilesasȱ(defilements,ȱonȱwhichȱseeȱchapterȱone)ȱandȱhadȱ acquiredȱ“theȱgreatȱomniscience”ȱ(B.ȱñ¬ΦеȱtoеȱkrÎɇ,ȱ‘a%\eta\@kI;).ȱWhileȱconȬ templatingȱ inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ lookedȱ atȱ theȱ spotȱ whereȱ heȱ atȬ tainedȱawakeningȱwithȱeyesȱthatȱdidȱnotȱcloseȱorȱswerveȱforȱaȱfullȱsevenȱ days.ȱ Inȱ theȱ fourthȱ week,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ continues,ȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ attainedȱcontemplationȱofȱtheȱfirstȱsixȱbooksȱofȱtheȱAbhidhamma,ȱnamelyȱ theȱ DhammasaΤgaΦÎȱ (Enumerationȱ ofȱ Phenomena),ȱ VibhaΤgaȱ (Analysis),ȱ Dh¬tukath¬ȱ (Discourseȱ onȱ Elements),ȱ Puggalapaññattiȱ (Designationȱ ofȱ Persons),ȱ Kath¬vatthuȱ (Pointsȱ ofȱ Discussion),ȱ andȱ Yamakaȱ (Pairs).39ȱ However,ȱ whenȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ contemplatedȱ theȱ phenomenaȱ (P.ȱ dhamȬ mas)ȱ containedȱ therein,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ notȱ sufficientȱ forȱ hisȱ wisdomȱ (P.ȱ ñ¬Φa)ȱtoȱemitȱraysȱofȱlightȱbecauseȱtheyȱwereȱbeneathȱtheȱbreadthȱofȱhisȱ greatȱwisdom.ȱButȱsomethingȱextraordinaryȱhappenedȱwhenȱheȱarrivedȱ atȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na—hisȱgreatȱwisdomȱrejoicedȱandȱradiatedȱdazzlingȱcolorsȱ ofȱmulticoloredȱlight.ȱ BanE> tUtuM;lui>Suieta. yUzna 500-elak\ Alja;rHv\tE. cf;@kI;etQ qmud˜raTEmHarHity\' pc\ly\@kI;TEmHa rHity\' AEdIcf;@kI;etQha km\;puic\;elak\ erak\eta. BamH BamH mkjk\sa; ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 38ȱ ThisȱcolorfulȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱPaliȱisȱprovidedȱbyȱPeȱMaungȱTin,ȱtrans.,ȱ1976ȱp.ȱ18ȱ (bracketsȱmine).ȱ 39ȱ ForȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱbooksȱofȱtheȱAbhidhamma,ȱseeȱNyanatilokaȱ1983.ȱ

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elak\BU;' eta\eta\kel; **** nk\ qQa; mkjk\sa;elak\BU;' AE qmud˜ra Aly\elak\ kjeta. rHs\eqac\;el;eTac\ nk\takui;' yUznaepfc\;k AEqelak\nk\tE. qmud˜raer`pc\ kj eta. cf;@kI;etQ epja\luik\tatE.' epja\luik\tatE.' `mO;Pui>epja\Pui> AKQc\.rty\' Ba#plui>tuM;' erk Ac\mtn\ nk\takui;' erk Ac\mtn\ kjy\takui;' AEdIluipfpE bud™`mt\sQarE. ‘a%\eta\ha ABiDm¥atra; erH>puic\;elak\mja; AaRuM#p`pI;eta. kjk\sa;eta\mUeta. mkjk\sa;elak\pfBU;' Kunk ertim\enqluiBE' enak\eta. p±an\;tra; eta\@kI;erak\eta.mH Amjio;mjio;lHv.\`pI;eta. {dIluilE`Ps\ty\' dIluilE`Ps\ty\} nE> AEqlui lHv\.`pI; R:sa;eta\mUeta. ‘a%\eta\@kI;hael p±an\;tra;eta\nE> luik\luik\ta' luik\luik\ta' tktv\; p±an\;tra;eta\lE erak\era bud™rE. ‘a%\eta\@kI;ha Ac\mtn\mH rWc\pjeta\mUty\ tE.'40 Hereȱisȱaȱparallel:ȱThereȱareȱgreatȱfish,ȱaboutȱ500ȱyĀjan¬41ȱinȱlength,ȱinȱtheȱ ocean.ȱTheseȱgreatȱfish:ȱwhenȱtheyȱcomeȱnearȱtheȱshore,ȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱ enoughȱroomȱtoȱfeed.ȱAndȱgoingȱintoȱmoderatelyȱdeepȱ[water],ȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱ haveȱenoughȱroomȱtoȱfeed.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[But]ȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱoceanȱisȱaboutȱ84,000ȱ [yĀjan¬]ȱ deep.ȱ Weȱ areȱ toldȱ thatȱ theȱ greatȱ fishȱ canȱ enjoyȱ themselvesȱ inȱ anȱ expanseȱofȱwaterȱthatȱdeep.ȱWeȱareȱtoldȱthatȱtheyȱenjoyȱthemselvesȱ[inȱwaȬ terȱ thatȱ deep].ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ anȱ opportunityȱ toȱ frolicȱ andȱ enjoyȱ themselves.ȱ Why?ȱ Theȱ waterȱ isȱ extremelyȱ deep.ȱ Justȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ way,ȱ whenȱ theȱ BudȬ dha’sȱwisdomȱcontemplatedȱtheȱfirstȱ[sixȱbooksȱofȱthe]ȱAbhidhamma,ȱwhenȱ itȱ[tried]ȱtoȱgraze,ȱitȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱenoughȱroomȱtoȱgraze.ȱItȱwasȱjustȱlikeȱtheȱ shallowȱ waterȱ Iȱ mentionedȱ justȱ now.ȱ Then,ȱ onlyȱ whenȱ heȱ arrivedȱ atȱ theȱ GreatȱPaΞΞh¬naȱDhamma,ȱwhenȱheȱcouldȱmoveȱaboutȱinȱvariousȱways,ȱwhenȱ heȱmovedȱandȱsearchedȱaboutȱ[onȱtheȱphenomena],ȱwithȱtheȱthoughtsȱ“itȱisȱ alsoȱlikeȱthisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱitȱisȱalsoȱlikeȱthis,”ȱhisȱgreatȱwisdomȱfollowedȱalongȱwithȱ theȱPaΞΞh¬na.ȱItȱpursuedȱ[it].ȱOurȱtraditionȱtellsȱusȱthatȱtheȱBuddha’sȱgreatȱ wisdomȱwasȱveryȱjoyfulȱwhenȱitȱarrivedȱatȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na.42ȱ

Grazingȱ on,ȱ movingȱ aroundȱ in,ȱ pursuing,ȱ followingȱ alongȱ withȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na:ȱtheseȱimagesȱareȱallȱusedȱtoȱemphasizeȱtheȱideaȱthatȱtheȱBudȬ dha’sȱ omniscientȱ wisdomȱ finallyȱ hadȱ roomȱ toȱ fullyȱ enjoyȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ depthȱ ofȱ itsȱ comprehension.ȱ Whileȱ monksȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ mayȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 40ȱ Here,ȱ inȱ theȱ placeȱ markedȱ byȱ Ȉ****,Ȉȱ theȱ recordingȱ isȱ inaudible.ȱ Pleaseȱ noteȱ thatȱ unlessȱindicatedȱotherwise,ȱmyȱtranslationsȱofȱsermonȱpassagesȱareȱbasedȱonȱtheȱreȬ cordingsȱmadeȱavailableȱatȱhttp://www.eDhamma.com.ȱInȱusingȱtheseȱrecordings,ȱ Iȱ haveȱbeenȱgreatlyȱassistedȱbyȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997,ȱparticularlyȱpp.ȱ1–40.ȱHowever,ȱ whenȱ theȱ recordingsȱ andȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ 1997ȱ haveȱ diverged,ȱ myȱ preferenceȱ hasȱ beenȱtoȱ goȱwithȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱwordsȱasȱ preservedȱ inȱ theȱrecordings,ȱratherȱ thanȱinȱtheȱprintedȱtext.ȱForȱinterestedȱreaders,ȱIȱdoȱsupplyȱtheȱrelevantȱpageȱnumȬ bersȱinȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱthisȱpassage,ȱseeȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ 13.ȱ 41ȱ Theȱ sizeȱ ofȱ oneȱ yĀjan¬ȱ (P.ȱ yojana)ȱ asȱ understoodȱ byȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ remainsȱ unclear.ȱ 42ȱ ForȱtheȱpassagesȱinȱtheȱAtthas¬linÎ,ȱseeȱAsȱp.ȱ13.ȱ

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haveȱ aȱ veryȱ longȱ wayȱ toȱ goȱ beforeȱ theyȱ reachȱ suchȱ anȱ experience,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱasȱanȱAbhidhammaȱandȱPaΞΞh¬naȱspecialist,ȱtriesȱtoȱhelpȱ themȱtakeȱtheirȱinitialȱsteps.ȱ

Nibb¬na,ȱSaΚs¬ra,ȱandȱAbhidhammaȱ Finally,ȱbeforeȱengagingȱcertainȱpointsȱfromȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱserȬ monsȱ andȱ theirȱ introductionȱ byȱ Uȱ Htunȱ Hlaing,ȱ briefȱ attentionȱ canȱ beȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ nibb¬na.ȱ Exactlyȱ whatȱ nibb¬naȱ isȱ hasȱ beenȱ deȬ batedȱbothȱinȱandȱoutsideȱofȱMyanmar.43ȱAsȱputȱinȱaȱshortȱaccountȱbyȱ theȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa:ȱ nib£an\tra;kui {Rup\wieqq' nam\wieqq}hulv\;ekac\;' {KN™akuiy\tQc\;| ANHs\AmetAla; `mEKuic\eqa nisŒtra;rHi%" rup\tra; nam\tra; Kjop\epjak\eqaAKf TuiANHs\A#metqa APt\ tc\rs\%" TuiANHs\AmetA`Ps\`Pc\. tv\enr`Kc\;qv\pc\ nib£an\tv\;} hulv\;ekac\;' {nib£an\| Rup\nam\mrHi& KMsa;KQc\.mrlJc\ ABy\mHa Kjm\;qahu SuiNiuc\pfAM.nv\;} hu lv\;ekac\; mimitui>Tc\ra`mc\rae`paSui~k%"44ȱ Peopleȱ talkȱ differentlyȱ aboutȱ Nibbanaȱ [inȱ theseȱ passages,ȱ theȱ translator,ȱ Uȱ KoȱLay,ȱusesȱNibbanaȱinsteadȱofȱnibb¬na].ȱSomeȱsayȱthatȱNibbanaȱisȱaȱspecialȱ kindȱofȱmindȱandȱmatterȱ[hereȱandȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱquotation,ȱmindȱrefersȱ toȱ bothȱ consciousnessȱ andȱ mentalȱ factors].ȱ Othersȱ sayȱ thatȱ inȱ mindȱ andȱ matterȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ eternalȱ qualityȱ likeȱ theȱ perpetualȱ core;ȱwhenȱ mindȱ andȱ matterȱcomeȱtoȱcessation,ȱthatȱeternalȱqualityȱorȱperpetualȱcoreȱremainsȱandȱ continuesȱ toȱ exist;ȱ Nibbanaȱ isȱ justȱ existingȱ asȱ thatȱ eternalȱ core.ȱ Stillȱ othersȱ say,ȱ“HowȱcanȱNibbanaȱbeȱsaidȱtoȱbeȱblissfulȱifȱyouȱdoȱnotȱgetȱtoȱenjoyȱ[it]ȱ sinceȱthereȱareȱnoȱmindȱandȱmatterȱinȱNibbana?”45ȱ

However,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ explainsȱ hisȱ “orthodox”ȱ positionȱ onȱ nibb¬na,ȱevenȱquotingȱanȱAbhidhammaȱtext,ȱtheȱDhammasaΤgaΦÎȱ(EnumeȬ rationȱofȱPhenomena),ȱtoȱsupportȱhisȱpoint:ȱ {nib£an\} huqv\ sit\, sit\tqik\, Rup\, prmt\tui>mH qI;`Ka; prmt—tra;ts\pf;tv\;" Tui>e~kac\. Rup\nam\ qKCfrNHc\.luM;wSk\qQy\`Kc\;mrHirka; Rup\wieqq nam\wieqqmhut\Nuic\" AzŒjt— bhiD™ 2 mjio;tQc\; {bhid™aDm¥a} hUeqa matikapud\ArtQc\ pfwc\eqa bhid™tra;`Ps\eqae~kac\.pc\ KN™akuiy\AtQc\;| A#metA`Ps\`Pc\. tv\rHieneqa Dat\ts\mjio;lv\;mhut\Nuic\" nib£an\qv\ pug‰iol\qt–wfmja;kE.qui> KMsa;tt\eqatra;lv\; mhut\" RUp qD™sqv\AarM kamgu%\tui>kE.qui>

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 43ȱ Forȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱnibb¬naȱinȱtheȱ“Paliȱimaginaire”ȱseeȱCollinsȱ1998.ȱ 44ȱȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1999ȱp.ȱ328.ȱ 45ȱ KoȱLay,ȱtrans.,ȱ1999ȱpp.ȱ296–297,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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KMsa;Ap\eqa tra;lv\;mhut\rka; nib£an\| ewdyitquKmrHiBE qN–iquKqa rHiqv\mHa AmHn\ pc\tv\;"46 Nibbanaȱ isȱ oneȱ ultimateȱ truthȱ distinctȱ fromȱ otherȱ ultimateȱ truths,ȱ namely,ȱ consciousness,ȱmentalȱfactors,ȱandȱ matter.ȱSinceȱitȱhasȱnothingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱ mindȱandȱmatterȱwhichȱareȱconditionedȱstates,ȱitȱcannotȱbeȱaȱspecialȱkindȱ ofȱmindȱorȱmatter.ȱNeitherȱisȱitȱsomeȱkindȱofȱelementȱthatȱexistsȱinsideȱtheȱ bodyȱ asȱ anȱ eternalȱ core,ȱ because,ȱ amongȱ internalȱ andȱ externalȱ states,ȱ itȱ isȱ includedȱinȱtheȱexternalȱstatesȱasȱevidencedȱbyȱtheȱstatementȱ“[Bahiddha]ȱ Dhamma”ȱ inȱ theȱ Matrixȱ (Matika)ȱ Textȱ ofȱ theȱ firstȱ bookȱ ofȱ Abhidhammaȱ [i.e.,ȱ inȱ theȱ DhammasaΤgaΦÎ].ȱ Unlikeȱ personsȱ orȱ beings,ȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ somethingȱ thatȱ experiencesȱ orȱ enjoysȱ theȱ objects,ȱ norȱ isȱ itȱ somethingȱ thatȱ isȱ expeȬ riencedȱ orȱ enjoyedȱ likeȱ theȱ desirableȱ senseȱ objectsȱ suchȱ asȱ visibleȱ object,ȱ audibleȱobject,ȱetc.ȱTherefore,ȱitȱisȱtrueȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱenjoymentȬfeelingȱ[aȱ kindȱofȱenjoymentȱassociatedȱwithȱmindȱandȱmatter]ȱbutȱonlyȱtheȱ“peaceȬ fulȬbliss”ȱinȱNibbana.47ȱ

Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱ andȱ accordingȱ toȱ manyȱ othersȱ whoȱ thinkȱlikeȱhim,ȱattainingȱtheȱpeacefulȬblissȱofȱnibb¬naȱrestsȱonȱcuttingȱoffȱ one’sȱflowȱasȱaȱcompositeȱofȱmindȱandȱmatterȱinȱsaΚs¬ra.ȱWeȱmayȱrecallȱ thatȱ someȱ Buddhistȱ traditions,ȱ monasticȱ andȱ lay,ȱ areȱ famousȱ forȱ colȬ lapsingȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ saΚs¬raȱ andȱ nibb¬na,ȱ andȱ forȱ (re)articulatingȱtheȱ pathȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱandȱbodhisattvaȱ(aȱ beingȱ onȱ theȱ pathȱtoȱenlightenment)ȱinȱlightȱofȱaȱunityȱofȱratherȱthanȱradicalȱruptureȱ betweenȱ saΚs¬raȱ andȱ nibb¬na.ȱ Butȱ monksȱ whoȱ thinkȱ likeȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱhaveȱnotȱmadeȱthisȱmove.ȱInȱfact,ȱforȱthem,ȱaȱgoalȱhasȱ oftenȱ beenȱ toȱ prohibitȱ orȱ inhibitȱ theȱ misuseȱ ofȱ metaphysicalȱ doctrineȱ thatȱcould,ȱinȱtheirȱview,ȱnotȱonlyȱundermineȱmetaphysicalȱcorrectness,ȱ butȱalsoȱchipȱawayȱatȱtheȱhealthȱandȱvitalityȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

PaΞΞh¬naȱSermons:ȱ“Introduction”ȱbyȱUȱHtunȱHlaingȱ Asȱpointedȱoutȱearlierȱinȱthisȱbook,ȱthereȱareȱaȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱnarraȬ tivesȱthatȱtalkȱaboutȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱTheȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱdeȬ clineȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱderivesȱinȱpartȱfromȱBuddhistȱviewsȱaboutȱtheȱnatureȱ ofȱ conditionedȱ phenomena:ȱ allȱ compoundedȱ things,ȱ includingȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ areȱ subjectȱ toȱ decay.ȱ Moreover,ȱ withoutȱ theȱ collectiveȱ effortȱ ofȱ continuallyȱreconstructingȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱitsȱvariousȱcompoȬ nents—bothȱembodiedȱandȱtextual—couldȱdecayȱextremelyȱquickly.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 46ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1999ȱpp.ȱ328–329.ȱ 47ȱ KoȱLay,ȱtrans.,ȱ1999ȱpp.ȱ297,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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Popularizedȱ inȱ materialȱ attributedȱ toȱ Buddhaghosaȱ andȱ others,ȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ narrativesȱ aboutȱ theȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ focusȱ onȱ fiveȱ disappearances,ȱ namelyȱ aȱ disappearanceȱ ofȱ certainȱ attainmentsȱ assoȬ ciatedȱ withȱ theȱ pathȱ toȱ arahantship,ȱ theȱ paΞipattiȬS¬sana,ȱ theȱ pariyattiȬ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ signsȱ orȱ marksȱ ofȱ monasticismȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ robes,ȱ andȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱrelicsȱthemselves.48ȱAndȱsomeȱofȱtheȱnarrativesȱofȱtheȱdeclineȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfocusȱespeciallyȱonȱtheȱthreefoldȱdisappearanceȱofȱpariyatȬ ti,ȱpaΞipatti,ȱandȱpaΞivedha.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱbetterȱunderstandȱtheȱimportanceȱ ofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱandȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱcontemporaryȱMyanmar,ȱitȱisȱcrucialȱ toȱkeepȱinȱmindȱthatȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheseȱnarrativesȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱpaȬ riyattiȬS¬sanaȱbeginsȱwithȱtheȱlossȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱandȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ beginsȱ withȱ theȱ lossȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.49ȱ Thus,ȱ asȱ interȬ pretedȱ here,ȱ manyȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ andȱ manyȱ Burmeseȱ peopleȱ moreȱ generallyȱ areȱ activelyȱ tryingȱ toȱ resistȱ theȱ declineȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱthroughȱaȱparticularȱkindȱofȱactivity:ȱtheȱtransmisȬ sionȱ ofȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ inȱ generalȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ inȱ particular,ȱ sinceȱtheseȱareȱprimaryȱconduitsȱforȱmovingȱpeopleȱtoȱpossibleȱrealizaȬ tionȱofȱnibb¬na.ȱ Uȱ Htunȱ Hlaing’sȱ introductionȱ toȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ sermonsȱ providesȱ anȱ exampleȱ ofȱ howȱ Burmeseȱ peopleȱ haveȱenvisionedȱ theȱ deȬ fenseȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱvisȬàȬvisȱtheȱdefenseȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na.ȱUȱHtunȱHlaingȱ explicitlyȱdrawsȱonȱoneȱnarrativeȱofȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱfoundȱinȱaȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ DÎghaȬnik¬yaȱ ofȱ theȱ SuttaȬpiΞaka.50ȱ Heȱ beginsȱ hisȱ accountȱwithȱanȱimageȱthatȱisȱnotȱfoundȱinȱtheȱPaliȱcommentaryȱitself:ȱ anȱ imageȱ ofȱ aȱ “frontȬlineȱ fortress”ȱ (B.ȱ rheȇȱ tanеɇȱ khaΚȱ tapе,ȱ erH>tn\;KMtp\)ȱ setȱ upȱ toȱ preventȱ enemiesȱ fromȱ invadingȱ one’sȱ country.ȱ Heȱ drawsȱ attenȬ tionȱtoȱhowȱpeople,ȱforȱtheȱsecurityȱofȱtheirȱcountry,ȱmustȱbuildȱaȱfrontȬ lineȱfortressȱatȱtheȱpointȱnearestȱtoȱanȱenemy’sȱterritory.ȱHeȱproceedsȱtoȱ remarkȱthat,ȱifȱtheȱfrontȬlineȱfortressȱsuffersȱaȱbreachȱandȱenemiesȱenterȱ intoȱtheȱcountry,ȱthenȱtheȱenemiesȱcanȱseizeȱtheȱentireȱcountry,ȱattackȬ ingȱandȱdestroyingȱitȱatȱwill.ȱHeȱsaysȱthat,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱinhabitantsȱreturnȱ toȱ militaryȱ strengthȱ atȱ aȱ laterȱ timeȱ andȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ defendȱ themselves,ȱ theyȱ willȱ loseȱ andȱ sufferȱ muchȱ becauseȱ theirȱ countryȱ hadȱ becomeȱ aȱ battlefieldȱ (B.ȱ cacеȱ taȱ laΤеɇ,ȱ ss\tlc\;).ȱ Withoutȱ question,ȱ then,ȱ aȱ frontȬlineȱ fortressȱisȱcrucialȱforȱtheȱsecurityȱofȱeachȱcountry.ȱIndeed,ȱknowingȱthis,ȱ heȱ asserts,ȱ peopleȱ whoȱ loveȱ theirȱ countryȱ makeȱ theȱ fortressȱ strong,ȱ wellȬsupported,ȱandȱdurable.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 48ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱMohȱpp.ȱ201–203ȱandȱMpȱIȱpp.ȱ87–92.ȱ 49ȱ See,ȱforȱexample,ȱPsȱIVȱpp.ȱ115–116,ȱSvȱIIIȱpp.ȱ898–899,ȱandȱVibhȬaȱpp.ȱ431–432.ȱ 50ȱ SvȱpartȱIIIȱpp.ȱ898–899.ȱ

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Applyingȱ thisȱ militaristicȱ andȱ patrioticȱ metaphorȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ Uȱ Htunȱ Hlaingȱ makesȱ anȱ explicitȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ theȱ imageȱ ofȱ aȱ frontȬlineȱfortressȱandȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na.ȱ ^qaqnaeta\| p±an\;tra;eta\qv\ erH>tn\;KMtp\@kI; `Ps\epqv\" Tc\rHa;esrn\ Anv\;cy\ K.Ej`ppfAM." `mt\bud™rcH \eta\Bura;% qaqnaeta\@kI; kQy\epjak\mv\ SuilJc\ mv\qui> kQy\epjak\ mv\kui pfTikwg‰A±kTa| eAak\pfAtuic\; `pSuiTa;qv\"51ȱ InȱthisȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱisȱaȱgreatȱfrontȬlineȱfortress.ȱIȱwillȱelaborateȱaȱlitȬ tleȱtoȱmakeȱthisȱclear.ȱTheȱBuddha’sȱGreatȱS¬sanaȱisȱtoȱvanish,ȱandȱtheȱwayȱ inȱwhichȱitȱisȱgoingȱtoȱvanishȱisȱexplainedȱinȱtheȱP¬thikavaggaȱcommentary,ȱ asȱsetȱoutȱbelow.ȱ

Followingȱ theȱ commentarialȱ narrative,ȱ heȱ notesȱ thatȱ theȱ entireȱ S¬sanaȱ vanishesȱstepȱbyȱstepȱbeginningȱwithȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱasȱtheȱsummitȱofȱtheȱ pariyattiȬS¬sanaȱ andȱ thenȱ proceedingȱ withȱ theȱ paΞipattiȬS¬sanaȱ andȱ paΞivedhaȬS¬sana.ȱThenȱheȱstatesȱthisȱpoint:ȱ yc\;qaqnakQy\puM AsIAsV\kui `pSuira| Tip\SuM;mH p±an\;tra;eta\ks& kQy\mv\`Ps\e~kac\;kui ATU;qtiTa; qc\.epqv\' yc\;qui> `Ps\lJc\ p±an\;tra;eta\qv\ qaqnaeta\ny\e`m| erH>tn\;KMtp\@kI;`Ps\enepqv\" qaqnaeta\ mkQy\epjak\er;AtQk\ p±an\;tra;eta\ tv\tM. sv\pc\eneAac\ #psuesac\.erHak\rmy\" Tin\;qim\;rmv\' Aa;ep; KjI;e`mHak\rmv\"52ȱ InȱtheȱexplanationȱofȱtheȱorderȱofȱeventsȱinȱtheȱdisappearanceȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱ itȱisȱappropriateȱtoȱgiveȱparticularȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱitȱisȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ thatȱisȱtoȱbeȱtheȱfirstȱtoȱgo.ȱGivenȱthis,ȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱisȱaȱgreatȱfrontȬlineȱforȬ tressȱ inȱ theȱ territoryȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Soȱ thatȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ willȱ notȱ vanish,ȱ weȱ mustȱ actȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ remainȱ steadfastȱ andȱ prosperous.ȱ Weȱmustȱpreserveȱit.ȱWeȱmustȱmakeȱitȱstrongȱandȱexaltȱit.ȱ

Inȱ otherȱwords,ȱ whenȱ theȱ greatȱ frontȬlineȱfortressȱofȱtheȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ falls,ȱ theȱterritoryȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱcanȱbeȱinvaded,ȱusheringȱinȱtheȱveryȱdeclineȱ andȱ destructionȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ thatȱ goodȱ Buddhists,ȱ bothȱ humanȱ andȱ nonȬhuman,ȱshouldȱlaborȱtoȱprevent.ȱ Indeed,ȱoneȱwayȱinȱwhichȱUȱHtunȱHlaingȱenvisionsȱtheȱprotectionȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ andȱ ofȱ humanȱ beingsȱ whoȱ protectȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ isȱ throughȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱwellȬmindedȱnonȬhumanȱbeings.ȱ ^AKjk\kiu lU>`pv\mH lUqa; bud™Baqawc\ pvarHiqUeta\sc\mja; qi`mc\qkE.q>uipc\ nt\`pv\ `bh¥a`pv\tui>mH `mt\bud™rHc\eta\Bura;% qaqnaeta\kui ~kv\vio `mt\Nui;kun\eqa qUeta\ekac\; nt\`bh¥a Amja;A`pa; qirHi~klim\.mv\" yc\; qUeta\ekac\; nt\`bh¥atui>klv\; qaqnaeta\ tv\tM. `pn\>pQf;er;AtQk\ erH>tn\;KMtp\~kI;`Ps\qv\. p±an\;tra;eta\kui kuiy\tuic\lv\; eSac\rQk\ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 51ȱ HtunȱHlaingȱ1997ȱp.ȱg¬.ȱȱ 52ȱ HtunȱHlaingȱ1997ȱp.ȱgi.ȱ

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qc\yU rQt\Pt\ qrzZay\ ~keplim\.mv\" p±an\;tra;eta\kui eSac\rQk\ qc\yU rQt\Pt\ qrzZay\ ~krn\ nt\AKjc\;Kjc\; `bh¥aAKjc\;Kjc\;kuilv\; tuik\tQn\; N:i;eSa\~keplim\.mv\" p±an\;tra;eta\kui eSac\rQk\ qc\yU rQt\Pt\ qrzZay\qU lU>`pv\rHi lUqa; mja;kuilv\; eB;rn\AN–ray\ mekac\; kjio;mja; epjak\`cim\; kc\;ew;esrn\ esac\.erHak\& ekac\;kjio; Kjm\;qa rrHieAac\ kUvI esac\m ~keplim\.mv\" yc\;qui> esac\.erHak\ kUvIm:kuirrHieqa p±an\; pfrmIrHc\mja;kui etQ>r$kMrepfc\; mja;laeqaAKf erH;pvarHc\~kI;mja;qv\ {p±an\;tra;eta\qv\ tn\Kui;@kI;%}hU& AsV\ASk\ mHt\tm\;tc\KE.`Kc\; `Ps\epqv\"53ȱ Justȱasȱsaintly,ȱwiseȱBuddhistsȱinȱtheȱhumanȱrealmȱcomprehendȱthisȱmatterȱ [aboutȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱbeingȱaȱfrontȬlineȱfortress],ȱmanyȱgoodȱnatsȱandȱbrahm¬ȱ deitiesȱ inȱ theȱ Natȱ andȱ Brahm¬ȱ realms,ȱ reverentȱ towardȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ S¬sana,ȱwillȱsurelyȱcomprehendȱit.ȱJustȱasȱtheseȱgoodȱnatȱandȱbrahm¬ȱdeitiesȱ willȱ surelyȱ themselvesȱ carry,ȱ learn,ȱ readȱ aloud,ȱ andȱ chantȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ Dhamma,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱfrontȬlineȱfortressȱ[forȱtheȱS¬sana],ȱsoȱasȱtoȱensureȱtheȱ continuingȱexistenceȱandȱproliferationȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtheyȱwillȱalsoȱnoȱdoubtȱ urgeȱ andȱ remindȱ eachȱ otherȱ toȱ carry,ȱ learn,ȱ readȱ aloud,ȱ andȱ chantȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ Dhamma.ȱ Theyȱwillȱ alsoȱ aidȱ andȱ giveȱ succorȱ toȱpeopleȱ inȱ theȱ huȬ manȱ realmȱ whoȱ carry,ȱ learn,ȱ readȱ aloud,ȱ andȱ chantȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ Dhamma,ȱ causingȱthemȱtoȱbeȱfreeȱofȱvariousȱdangersȱandȱbadȱeffects,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱareȱ protected,ȱhaveȱgoodȱconsequences,ȱandȱeaseȱinȱlife.ȱItȱwasȱwhenȱsagesȱofȱ daysȱgoneȱbyȱobservedȱhowȱoftenȱthoseȱaccomplishedȱinȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱhadȱ obtainedȱ protectionȱ andȱ helpȱ inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ thatȱ theyȱ statedȱ andȱ reȬstatedȱ “theȱPaΞΞh¬naȱDhammaȱisȱindeedȱpowerful.”ȱ

Atȱ issueȱ hereȱ isȱ aȱ beliefȱ thatȱ wellȬmindedȱ natsȱ andȱ brahm¬sȱ (classesȱ ofȱ beingsȱ whoȱ populateȱ nonȬhumanȱ realms)ȱ alsoȱ striveȱ toȱ preserveȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ inȱ andȱ amongȱ theirȱ ownȱ abodesȱ andȱ willȱ comeȱ toȱ theȱ aidȱ ofȱ thoseȱhumanȱbeingsȱwhoȱhaveȱalsoȱdedicatedȱthemselvesȱtoȱpreservingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱ Theȱ strugglesȱ againstȱ theȱ discontinuityȱofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ theȱ strugglesȱ toȱ ensureȱ individualȱandȱ communalȱwellȬbeingȱ areȱ thus,ȱ forȱUȱHtunȱHlaingȱandȱforȱmanyȱwhoȱshareȱhisȱworldȬview,ȱstrugglesȱ inȱ whichȱ differentȱ kindsȱ ofȱ beingsȱ takeȱ partȱ inȱ manyȱ ways.ȱ Weȱ haveȱ hereȱaȱstrikingȱportrayalȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱbeȬ lievedȱtoȱinvolveȱnotȱonlyȱcollectiveȱeffortsȱconnectedȱtoȱShwegyinȱandȱ otherȱ monasticȱ traditionalisms;ȱ itȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ alsoȱ involveȱ collectiveȱ effortsȱofȱotherȱbeingsȱinȱotherȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcosmos.ȱ InȱUȱHtunȱHlaing’sȱview,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermonsȱexemplifyȱ humanȱeffortsȱtoȱprotectȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱ Theȱ availableȱ evidenceȱsuggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ himselfȱ didȱ notȱ useȱ theȱ termȱ “frontȬlineȱ forȬ tress”ȱinȱhisȱPaΞΞh¬naȱsermons.ȱHowever,ȱheȱisȱknownȱtoȱhaveȱusedȱtheȱ phraseȱ inȱ someȱ ofȱ hisȱ otherȱ sermonsȱ whenȱ speakingȱ aboutȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 53ȱ HtunȱHlaingȱ1997ȱp.ȱgi–gÎ.ȱ

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PaΞΞh¬na.54ȱ Inȱ hisȱ sermons,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ promotesȱ exactlyȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ thatȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhists,ȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ nonȬShwegyin,ȱ monasticȱ andȱ lay,ȱ haveȱ calledȱ for:ȱ protectingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ safeguardingȱ it,ȱ andȱ caringȱ forȱ it.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ heȱ triesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱmonksȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱcanȱcontinueȱtoȱlearnȱaboutȱitȱsoȱthatȱbothȱitȱ andȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ willȱ remainȱ (forȱ someȱ additionalȱ timeȱ atȱ least)ȱavailableȱforȱthoseȱwhoȱstriveȱforȱtheȱinsightȱandȱjoyfulȱradianceȱ thatȱitȱcanȱbring.ȱ

PaΞΞh¬naȱSermonsȱbyȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱPaΞΞh¬naȱsermonsȱtypifyȱhisȱattemptsȱtoȱspecialȬ izeȱinȱtransmittingȱtheȱAbhidhamma.ȱHeȱattemptsȱinȱhisȱsermonsȱtoȱhelpȱ hisȱ audienceȱ bringȱ togetherȱ severalȱ componentsȱ ofȱ practice:ȱ faithȱ (P.ȱ saddh¬)ȱ inȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ asȱ theȱ exemplaryȱ arahant,ȱ understandingȱ theȱ specialȱplaceȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱtheȱquestȱforȱarahantship,ȱcomprehendȬ ingȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na,ȱandȱcultivatingȱrapturousȱjoyȱ(P.ȱpÎti)ȱasȱaȱproductȱofȱ comprehendingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱ Asȱ weȱ willȱ see,ȱ byȱ unitingȱ theseȱ fourȱ componentsȱofȱpracticeȱinȱhisȱsermons,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱattemptsȱtoȱ propelȱmembersȱofȱhisȱaudienceȱalongȱtheȱpathȱtowardȱarahantship.ȱInȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ arahantshipȱ andȱ theȱ pathȱ toȱ itsȱ attainment,ȱ whichȱterminatesȱaȱbeing’sȱflowȱinȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱsitȱatȱtheȱcoreȱofȱtheȱworkȱinȱ whichȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ andȱ otherȱ Abhidhammaȱ specialistsȱ areȱ enȬ gagedȱasȱcarriersȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ InȱhisȱPaΞΞh¬naȱsermons,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱproceedsȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱ unitesȱ theȱ “Abhidhammaȱ method”ȱ withȱ theȱ “Suttaȱ method”ȱ ofȱ exposiȬ tion.ȱ Heȱ placesȱ theȱ ultimateȱ languageȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ squarelyȱ inȱ theȱ landȱ ofȱ theȱ conventionalȱ andȱ theȱ conventionalȱ languageȱ ofȱ theȱ everyȬ dayȱ inȱ theȱ landȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ byȱ givingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ someȱ everydayȱ flavorȱandȱtheȱeverydayȱsomeȱPaΞΞh¬naȱflavor.ȱForȱexample,ȱasȱweȱwillȱ see,ȱheȱembellishesȱtheȱabstractȱworldȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱwithȱstoriesȱfromȱ theȱpreviousȱlivesȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱwithȱmetaphorsȱforȱtheȱworkingsȱ andȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱ conditionsȱ (P.ȱ paccaya).ȱ Heȱ developsȱ aȱ devotionalȱbackdropȱtoȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱbyȱdeployingȱversesȱthatȱpraiseȱtheȱ Buddha’sȱqualities.ȱAndȱheȱdrawsȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱotherȱmonksȱwithȱtheȱ hopesȱofȱshowingȱpeopleȱhowȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱrelatesȱtoȱtheirȱownȱacquisiȬ tionȱofȱarahantship.ȱWhenȱheȱembellishesȱinȱtheseȱways,ȱheȱis,ȱasȱnoted,ȱ followingȱtheȱmodelȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱwhoȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱusedȱsimiȬ larȱkindsȱofȱstratagems,ȱevenȱwhenȱheȱpreachedȱinȱtheȱT¬vatiѴsaȱheaȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 54ȱ MoȱMoȱThantȱinformedȱmeȱaboutȱthis.ȱ

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ven.55ȱOnȱtheirȱown,ȱtheȱVinayaȱandȱ“pure”ȱAbhidhammaȱareȱnotȱterriblyȱ wellȱsuitedȱforȱbringingȱaboutȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱarahantship.ȱHowever,ȱ theȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ messagedȱ intoȱ theȱ mindsȱ ofȱ listenersȱ throughȱ aȱ Suttaȱ method,ȱcanȱbeȱpowerfulȱindeed.ȱ

FaithȱinȱtheȱBuddhaȱtheȱArahantȱ Toȱmoreȱeffectivelyȱlaunchȱhisȱreflectionsȱonȱtheȱdifferentȱconditionsȱ(P.ȱ paccaya)ȱ discussedȱ inȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ firstȱ seeksȱ toȱ evokeȱorȱtapȱintoȱhisȱlisteners’ȱsenseȱofȱfaithȱ(P.ȱsaddh¬)ȱinȱtheȱBuddha.ȱ Heȱ doesȱ thisȱ inȱ numerousȱ ways;ȱ indeed,ȱ muchȱ ofȱ hisȱ sermonȱ onȱ theȱ firstȱdayȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱBuddha,ȱhisȱmanyȱcultivationsȱandȱperfectionsȱ developedȱ overȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ hisȱmanyȱlives,ȱandȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ heȱ isȱ farȱ beyondȱ theȱ capabilitiesȱ ofȱ mostȱ people,ȱ includingȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ himself.ȱ Asȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ poeticȱ shorthandȱ forȱ theȱ devoȬ tionalȱ attitudeȱ heȱ triesȱ toȱ fosterȱ inȱ hisȱ audience,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ recitesȱ onȱ theȱ firstȱ dayȱ ofȱ hisȱ sermonsȱ thisȱ verse,ȱ whichȱ isȱ anȱ excerptȱ fromȱoneȱofȱhisȱownȱtexts,ȱRecollectingȱtheȱBuddha.56ȱ lkˆ%aeta\~kI;cy\, AqQy\qQy\`Pc\.' qp¡fy\lHsQa, kuiy\AgCfwy\' pfrmIeta\Ahun\, kuiy\luM;#KM&' mWm\;TuMqc\;~kO, qym¤Ohu' ‘a%\tUkc\;lt\, Arht\`Pc\.' qt\`Pt\Kpc\;, kielrHc\;qa;' ‘a%\rc\;mha, kRu%aNHc\.' qm¥aqem£aDi, AsrHilt\' ‘a%\eta\`mt\%' kin\;wp\sMepja\, KN™aepFwy\' BQE>eta\bud™' tc\pfrqv\' elakTQt\Ta; `mt\Bura;'57ȱ Withȱ variousȱ kindsȱ ofȱ majorȱ andȱ minorȱ characteristicsȱ (P.ȱ lakkhaΦ¬)ȱ heȱ isȱ sublimeȱ lookingȱ inȱ allȱ theȱ partsȱ ofȱ hisȱ body,ȱ andȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ hisȱ perfecȬ tionsȱ(P.ȱp¬ramÎ)ȱcoversȱhisȱentireȱbody,ȱenhancingȱitȱjustȱasȱwhenȱaȱbodyȱisȱ daubedȱwithȱfragrantȱscent.ȱ Theȱ peerlessȱ wisdomȱ (P.ȱ ñ¬Φa)ȱ ofȱ arahantship,ȱ acquiredȱ withoutȱ help,ȱ whichȱtotallyȱeliminatesȱallȱtheȱkilesas;ȱtheȱgreatȱcompassionȱ(P.ȱmah¬karuΦ¬)ȱ whichȱ isȱ aȱ basisȱ forȱ [all]ȱ wisdom;ȱ andȱ omniscienceȱ (P.ȱ samm¬sambodhi):ȱ theseȱgradationsȱofȱwisdomȱresideȱandȱenjoyȱallȱoverȱhisȱbody.ȱ OnlyȱaȱpersonȱsuchȱasȱthisȱmayȱbeȱgivenȱtheȱtitleȱBuddha,ȱtheȱBuddhaȱwhoȱ isȱtheȱsupremeȱbeingȱinȱtheȱworld.58ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 55ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ490,ȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2000ȱp.ȱ341.ȱ 56ȱ SeeȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1979ȱp.ȱ3.ȱ 57ȱ Whenȱ recitingȱ theȱ verse,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ correctsȱ himself;ȱ Iȱ giveȱ hisȱ correctedȱ versionȱhereȱandȱtheȱtranslationȱisȱbasedȱuponȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1979ȱpp.ȱ3–10.ȱSeeȱalȬ soȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ2.ȱ 58ȱȱ IȱamȱparticularlyȱthankfulȱtoȱJohnȱOkellȱforȱhelpingȱwithȱthisȱtranslation.ȱ

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Thisȱ passageȱ suggestsȱ theȱ breadthȱ ofȱ themesȱ thatȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ exploresȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ evokeȱ orȱ tapȱ intoȱ theȱ faithȱ ofȱ theȱ audienceȱ inȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱTheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱemphasizesȱtheȱBuddha’sȱsublimeȱbody,ȱ coveredȱ withȱ hisȱ perfectionsȱ likeȱ fragrantȱ perfume.ȱ Heȱ highlightsȱ hisȱ destructionȱofȱtheȱkilesas,ȱwhichȱisȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱattainmentȱofȱarahantȬ ship.ȱ Andȱ heȱ callsȱ toȱ mindȱ theȱ Buddha’sȱ greatȱ compassionȱ (P.ȱ mah¬karuΦ¬),ȱ whichȱ isȱ aȱ basisȱ forȱ wisdomȱ andȱ evenȱ omniscienceȱ itself.ȱ Soȱ highlyȱ cultivated,ȱ soȱ perfectedȱ inȱ body,ȱ speech,ȱ andȱ mind,ȱ soȱ comȬ passionateȱandȱfilledȱwithȱwisdomȱisȱtheȱBuddhaȱthatȱheȱisȱtheȱsupremeȱ beingȱinȱtheȱworld,ȱwithoutȱanyȱcomparison,ȱexceptȱtoȱotherȱBuddhas.ȱ

TheȱPlaceȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱinȱtheȱQuestȱforȱArahantshipȱ Givenȱtheȱsplendorȱofȱtheȱ Buddhaȱandȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱhisȱspiritualȱ attainments,ȱ listenersȱ toȱ (orȱ readersȱ of)ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ sermonsȱ mayȱ alsoȱ beȱ promptedȱ toȱ ask:ȱ howȱ canȱ peopleȱ becomeȱ enlightened?ȱ Howȱcanȱpeopleȱbecomeȱarahantsȱandȱattainȱliberationȱfromȱtheȱworld?ȱ Howȱ doesȱ theȱ questȱ forȱ arahantshipȱ relateȱ toȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ whichȱ theȱ Buddhaȱhimselfȱdidȱnotȱfullyȱperceiveȱandȱmeditateȱuponȱuntilȱafterȱhisȱ ownȱ acquisitionȱ ofȱ arahantship?ȱ Inȱ dealingȱ withȱ theseȱ issues,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ tellsȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Mah¬gatigamiya,ȱ aȱ famousȱ monkȱ whoȱ isȱ featuredȱ inȱ theȱ Atthas¬linÎ.59ȱ Inȱ tellingȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Mah¬gatigamiya,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ seeksȱtoȱdemonstrateȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱ Theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ isȱ aȱbodyȱ ofȱ wisȬ domȱ thatȱ canȱ causeȱ peopleȱ whoȱ reflectȱ uponȱ it—or,ȱ moreȱ precisely,ȱ whoȱreflectȱuponȱitȱandȱcomprehendȱit—toȱattainȱarahantship.60ȱ Beforeȱ startingȱ toȱ tellȱ hisȱ audienceȱ aboutȱ Mah¬gatigamiya,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱnotesȱthatȱitȱisȱextremelyȱgoodȱforȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱ reflectȱ onȱ andȱ discriminateȱ theȱ truthȱ ofȱcauseȱ andȱeffect,ȱ theȱ continualȱ processȱinȱwhichȱimpersonalȱphenomenaȱaloneȱariseȱandȱareȱdestroyed,ȱ theȱprocessȱthatȱisȱtheȱfocusȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na.ȱ“Howȱgoodȱisȱit?”ȱheȱasks,ȱ andȱthenȱsuppliesȱanȱanswer.ȱ Bun\;@kI;tui>erH>k Bun\;@kI;tui>rE.enac\eta\ Kmv\;eta\ Bui;eta\ Suipfeta.' AEqlui pug‰iol\etQ dIluipE @kMsv\`pI;eta. qQa;~kty\' dIlui@kMsv\rc\;k tra;etQepfk\`pI;eta. rhN–a`Ps\~kty\'61ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 59ȱ Asȱpp.ȱ11–12.ȱ 60ȱ Mah¬gatigamiya’sȱ fullȱ nameȱ isȱ Mah¬gatigamiyatissadattatheraȱ orȱ Mah¬gatimbayaȬ tissadattatthera.ȱ 61ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ16.ȱ

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Letȱ usȱ considerȱ ourȱ elderȱ brothers,ȱ fathers,ȱ andȱ grandfathers.ȱ Peopleȱ likeȱ theseȱ thinkȱ alongȱ theseȱ linesȱ [ofȱ reflectingȱ onȱ theȱ flowȱ ofȱ phenomena].ȱ Whileȱ thinkingȱ likeȱ this,ȱ theyȱ attainȱ insightȱ intoȱ dhammasȱ andȱ attainȱ araȬ hantship.ȱ

Heȱgoesȱonȱtoȱexplainȱthatȱatȱoneȱtime,ȱMah¬gatigamiyaȱwasȱtravelingȱ byȱshipȱfromȱSriȱLankaȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱworshippingȱtheȱBodhiȱtreeȱ inȱ India.ȱ Asȱ heȱ wasȱ standingȱ highȱ atopȱ theȱ ship,ȱ heȱ reflectedȱ onȱ theȱ oceanȱthatȱwasȱsoȱvastȱthatȱheȱcouldȱnotȱseeȱtheȱfurtherȱshore.ȱHeȱsawȱ onlyȱ theȱ risingȱ wavesȱ andȱ waterȱ sprayȱ andȱ thoughtȱ theȱ oceanȱ toȱ beȱ extremelyȱdeep.ȱHowever,ȱafterȱthinkingȱaboutȱtheȱgreatȱmagnitudeȱofȱ theȱ water,ȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱ turnedȱ away,ȱ madeȱ aȱ cognitiveȱ shift,ȱ andȱ beganȱ toȱ thinkȱ inȱ theȱ termsȱ providedȱ byȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na.ȱ Turningȱ toȱ theȱ vastȱoceanȱitself,ȱMah¬gatigamiyaȱreflectedȱasȱfollows.ȱ AE qmud˜rak m`mc\rBU;SuiepmE. km\;ASuM;rHi' AerH>mHa AerH>km\;ASuM;rHity\' pt\pt\lv\mHalE qU>km\;ASuM;rHity\' m`mc\rBU;lui>SuiepmE. ASuM;rHieq;ty\' luik\rc\ ASuM; etQ>nuic\eq;ty\' eAak\mHalEpE e`m~kI;ha By\elak\ nk\nk\ nk\Kjc\qelak\nk\epmE. e`m@kI;ha qmud˜raSuM; taBE' ATk\kjeta.lE ekac\;kc\`pc\nE> qmud˜raSuM;entaBE' qmud˜ra@kI;ASuM;mrHiBU;SuiepmE. ASuM;rHalui> req;ty\'62ȱ Ahȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱAlthoughȱIȱcannotȱseeȱitȱfromȱtheȱocean,ȱthereȱisȱstillȱtheȱlimitȱofȱtheȱ shore.ȱInȱfront,ȱthereȱisȱaȱlimit.ȱAllȱaroundȱit,ȱitȱhasȱaȱlimit.ȱAlthoughȱitȱisȱ trueȱthatȱIȱcannotȱseeȱit,ȱthereȱisȱstillȱaȱlimit.ȱIfȱIȱtry,ȱIȱcanȱcomeȱacrossȱaȱlimȬ it.ȱTheȱgreatȱearthȱbelowȱtheȱwaterȱisȱaȱlimitȱofȱtheȱocean.ȱAndȱabove,ȱtheȱ oceanȱisȱlimitedȱbyȱtheȱsky.ȱAlthoughȱoneȱmayȱsayȱtheȱgreatȱoceanȱdoesȱnotȱ haveȱaȱlimit,ȱitȱisȱstillȱpossibleȱtoȱfindȱaȱlimit.ȱ

Theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ goesȱ onȱ toȱ tellȱ hisȱ listenersȱ thatȱ theȱ moreȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱ exploredȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ thingsȱ usingȱ hisȱ wisdomȱ (P.ȱ ñ¬Φa)ȱembeddedȱinȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na,ȱtheȱmoreȱextensiveȱthatȱnatureȱbecame.ȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱrealizedȱthatȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱitselfȱwasȱwithoutȱend.63ȱAsȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱthoughtȱstillȱfurther,ȱheȱrealized:ȱ Rup\nE>nam\qa rHity\' pug‰iol\ qt–wf qU cf mrHi' pug‰iol\ qt–wf qU cf mrHiepmE. Akun\luM;Ae~kac\;Akjio; etQnE> `Ps\lui> pjk\lui> `Ps\lui> pjk\lui> pug‰iol\ qt–wf qU cf Tc\relak\eAac\ Aekac\ATv\epFlui> dIlui`Ps\enpfla;' Aa;luM;eta. pug‰iol\ qt–wf qU cf mrHipEnE> tra;qeBaetQ `Ps\pjk\enpfla;'64ȱ Thereȱisȱonlyȱphysicalȱmatterȱ(P.ȱrĀpa)ȱandȱmindȱ(P.ȱn¬ma).65ȱPersons,ȱcreaȬ tures,ȱhe,ȱandȱI:ȱtheyȱhaveȱnothingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱitȱ[theȱprocessȱofȱbecomingȱinȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 62ȱ 63ȱ 64ȱ 65ȱ

Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ16.ȱȱ SeeȱalsoȱAsȱp.ȱ12ȱandȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002b,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ68–69.ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ17.ȱ Mindȱ (P.ȱ n¬ma)ȱ typicallyȱ refersȱ toȱ fourȱ mentalȱ groupsȱ orȱ aggregates:ȱ feelingȱ (P.ȱ vedan¬),ȱperceptionȱ(P.ȱsaññ¬),ȱmentalȱformationsȱ(P.ȱsankh¬ra),ȱandȱconsciousnessȱ(P.ȱ

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saΚs¬ra].ȱAlthoughȱpersons,ȱcreatures,ȱhe,ȱandȱIȱhaveȱnothingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱit,ȱ thereȱ isȱ arisingȱ andȱ decaying,ȱ drivenȱ byȱ causeȱ andȱ effect,ȱ soȱ beingsȱ haveȱ theȱillusionȱthatȱtheyȱareȱentitiesȱsuchȱasȱpersons,ȱcreatures,ȱhe,ȱandȱI.ȱThatȱ isȱtheȱwayȱitȱis!ȱWithoutȱanyȱpersons,ȱcreatures,ȱhe,ȱorȱI,ȱdhammasȱcomeȱintoȱ existenceȱandȱdisappearȱ[accordingȱtoȱtheirȱownȱnature].ȱ

Whileȱ thinkingȱ alongȱ theseȱ lines,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ informsȱ hisȱ auȬ dienceȱ thatȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱ wasȱ ledȱ toȱ identifyȱ threeȱ basicȱ truths— namelyȱtheȱtruthȱofȱimpermanenceȱ(P.ȱanicca),ȱtheȱtruthȱofȱsufferingȱ(P.ȱ dukkha),ȱandȱtheȱtruthȱofȱnoȬselfȱ(P.ȱanatta).ȱThisȱleadsȱhimȱintoȱaȱstateȱofȱ greatȱjoy,ȱwhichȱspursȱhimȱonȱtoȱfurtherȱrealizationȱandȱtheȱattainmentȱ ofȱarahantship.ȱ etQ;rc\; etQ;rc\; qeBCaepFmHa etQ;rc\; etQ;rc\; pItietQ `Ps\`pI;eta. tkuiy\luM; sim\.`pI;eta. larak AEdIpItikui AnisŒ dukˆ Ant–lui> R:luik\ta' dIenramHapE rhN–a`Ps\qQa;ty\ tE.'66ȱ Whileȱthinking,ȱwhileȱthinking,ȱwhileȱthinkingȱonȱtopȱofȱtheȱship,ȱheȱexpeȬ riencedȱjoyȱ(P.ȱpÎti)ȱandȱitȱpermeatedȱhisȱentireȱbody.ȱHeȱmeditatedȱonȱhisȱ joyȱwithȱtheȱthoughtsȱ“impermanence,ȱsuffering,ȱandȱnoȬself.”ȱWeȱareȱtoldȱ thatȱheȱobtainedȱarahantshipȱrightȱonȱtheȱspot.ȱ

Throughȱ theȱ exampleȱ ofȱ Mah¬gatigamiya,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ highȬ lightsȱ aȱ processȱ throughȱ whichȱ comprehendingȱ theȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ leadsȱ oneȱ toȱ anȱ experienceȱ ofȱ joyȱ (P.ȱ pÎti).ȱ Thisȱ experienceȱ compelsȱ aȱ driveȱ toȱ delveȱ stillȱ deeperȱ intoȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ reality,ȱ thusȱ pavingȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ furtherȱ comprehensionȱ andȱ attainment.67ȱ Unfortunately,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ doesȱ notȱ goȱ intoȱ hisȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ Mah¬gatigamiya’sȱPaΞΞh¬naȱrealizations,ȱnorȱintoȱtheȱdynamicsȱofȱjoyȱasȱ theyȱ pertainȱ toȱ specificȱ meditativeȱ states.68ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ forȱ himȱ andȱ S¬sanaȱtraditionsȱmoreȱgenerally,ȱjoyȱisȱcharacteristicȱofȱparticularȱstagȬ esȱ ofȱ reflectiveȱ andȱmeditativeȱinsightȱ associatedȱ withȱtheȱpathȱ toȱ araȬ hantship.ȱ Clearly,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ Mah¬gatigamiyaȱ isȱ intendedȱ toȱ demonstrateȱ toȱ hisȱ hearersȱ thatȱ comȬ prehendingȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱcanȱbeȱaȱlinchpinȱinȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱthatȱjoyȱ andȱinȱtheȱmeditationsȱwhichȱcanȱleadȱoneȱtoȱattainȱarahantshipȱ“rightȱ onȱtheȱspot.”ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ viññ¬na).ȱTogether,ȱmindȱandȱphysicalȱformȱ(P.ȱrĀpa)ȱcompriseȱtheȱfiveȱgroupsȱorȱagȬ gregatesȱofȱexistence.ȱSeeȱNyanatilokaȱ1998ȱpp.ȱ82–86ȱforȱaȱhelpfulȱsummary.ȱ 66ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ17.ȱ 67ȱ Asȱp.ȱ12,ȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ2002b,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ68–69.ȱ 68ȱ Forȱexample,ȱseeȱNyanatilokaȱ1998ȱpp.ȱ70–72,ȱ142–143.ȱ

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ComprehendingȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ Asȱ partȱ ofȱ theirȱ philosophicalȱ andȱ devotionalȱ backdrop,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermonsȱareȱframedȱbyȱaȱrecitationȱinȱPaliȱofȱPaΞΞh¬naȱ materialȱ fromȱ theȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka.ȱ Judgingȱ fromȱ theȱ actualȱ tapeȱ reȬ cordingsȱ ofȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ recitation,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ people—atȱ leastȱ monksȱ andȱ perhapsȱ layȱ peopleȱ asȱ well—whoȱ tookȱ part.ȱTheȱPaliȱrecitationȱofȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬naȱconsistsȱofȱtwoȱparts:ȱanȱenumeȬ rationȱ ofȱ conditionsȱ (P.ȱ paccayuddesa)ȱ andȱ anȱ analyticalȱ expositionȱ ofȱ conditionsȱ (P.ȱ paccayaȬniddesa).ȱ Theȱ enumerationȱ ofȱ theȱ twentyȬfourȱ conditionsȱisȱaȱlist,ȱandȱitȱbegins:ȱ rootȱconditionȱ(P.ȱhetuȬpaccaya)ȱ objectȱconditionȱ(P.ȱ¬rammaΦaȬpaccaya)ȱ predominanceȱconditionȱ(P.ȱadhipatiȬpaccaya)ȱ proximityȱconditionȱ(P.ȱanantaraȬpaccaya)ȱ contiguityȱconditionȱ(P.ȱsamanantaraȬpaccaya)ȱ conascenceȱconditionȱ(P.ȱsahaj¬taȬpaccaya)ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.69ȱ

Theȱ analyticalȱ expositionȱ ofȱ theȱ conditionsȱ providesȱ condensedȱ philoȬ sophicalȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheseȱconditionsȱexistȱandȱfuncȬ tion.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ followingȱ statementȱ fromȱ theȱ Paliȱ canonȱ aboutȱ rootȱconditionȱoffersȱoneȱsuchȱaccount:ȱ hetupaccayotiȱhetusampayuttak¬naΚȱdhamm¬naΚȱtaΚsamuΞΞh¬n¬nañcaȱrĀp¬naΚȱ hetupaccayenaȱpaccayo.ȱ Rootȱcondition:ȱtheȱrootsȱareȱsupportsȱforȱmentalȱstatesȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱ rootsȱandȱforȱtheȱphysicalȱmanifestationsȱthatȱariseȱbecauseȱofȱthoseȱstatesȱ byȱmeansȱofȱrootȬcondition.70ȱ

TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱtakesȱitȱasȱhisȱtaskȱinȱhisȱPaΞΞh¬naȱsermonsȱtoȱhelpȱ hisȱfellowȱdisciplesȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱcomprehendȱthisȱsortȱofȱveryȱdenseȱ philosophicalȱdiscourse.ȱ RootȱConditionȱ Inȱ orderȱtoȱproperlyȱ comprehendȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱasȱ itȱisȱ explainedȱinȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ itȱ isȱ necessaryȱ forȱ readersȱ toȱ understandȱ thatȱ inȱ anyȱ parȬ ticularȱ conditionalȱ relationȱ thereȱ areȱ conditioningȱ statesȱ (P.ȱ paccayaȬ dhamma),ȱ whichȱ areȱ statesȱ thatȱ functionȱ asȱ conditionsȱ orȱ supportsȱ forȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 69ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ18,ȱN¬rada,ȱtrans.,ȱ1997–1998,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱp.ȱ1.ȱSeeȱalsoȱNyanatiȬ lokaȱ1983ȱp.ȱ117.ȱ 70ȱ Myȱ translationȱ isȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ commentsȱ inȱ hisȱ sermonsȱ andȱ onȱ explanationsȱgivenȱtoȱmeȱbyȱtheȱKyaȱKhetȱWainȱSayadaw.ȱN¬rada,ȱtrans.,ȱ1997–1998,ȱ vol.ȱ 1,ȱ p.ȱ 2ȱ provides:ȱ “Theȱ rootsȱ areȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ statesȱ whichȱ areȱ associatedȱ withȱ roots,ȱandȱtheȱmatterȱproducedȱthereby,ȱbyȱrootȱcondition.”ȱ

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otherȱstates,ȱandȱconditionallyȱarisenȱstatesȱ(P.ȱpaccayuppannaȬdhamma),ȱ whichȱ areȱ theȱ statesȱ thatȱ areȱ supportedȱ byȱ theȱ conditioningȱ states.ȱ Moreover,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ commentarialȱ traditions,ȱ thereȱ areȱ alsoȱ condiȬ tioningȱforcesȱ(P.ȱpaccayaȬsatti),ȱwhichȱareȱtheȱparticularȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱ conditioningȱstatesȱsupportȱparticularȱconditionallyȱarisenȱstates.71ȱTheȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱ conventionalȱ explanationȱ ofȱ rootȱ conditionȱ (P.ȱ hetuȬ paccaya)ȱ canȱ beȱ interpretedȱ withȱ referenceȱ toȱ notionsȱ ofȱ conditioningȱ state,ȱconditionedȱstate,ȱandȱconditioningȱforce.ȱ TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱbeginsȱhisȱcommentsȱonȱrootȱconditionȱbyȱnotȬ ingȱthatȱwhenȱtheȱBuddhaȱbeganȱtoȱpreachȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na,ȱheȱdidȱsoȱwithȱ theȱ wordsȱ “rootȱ condition.”ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ phraseȱ “rootȱ condition”ȱ isȱ veryȱ short,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ remarks,ȱ itsȱ meaningȱ isȱ veryȱ wide.ȱ DrawingȱonȱtheȱworkȱofȱotherȱAbhidhammaȱspecialists,ȱheȱthenȱoffersȱaȱ comparisonȱtoȱaȱtreeȱandȱitsȱ“taproot.”ȱ dIehtupsŒv\;kui erH;Sraeta\mja;k - Suipfeta. A±kTa Sraeta\mja;k - BanE> Vpma e`pa qlESuieta. ereqak\`ms\nE> tUty\lui> ' ereqak\`ms\ha ereqak\`ms\ ekac\;qelak\ qs\pc\ Kuic\maty\' ereqak\`ms\AtQc\;Asuik\ nk\qelak\ qs\pc\Kuic\maty\' ereqak\`ms\k eAak\ k Dat\e`metQ e`metQ eretQkui sup\yUNuic\qelak\ qs\pc\ha qn\>rHc\; qn\ma`pI;eta. ~kI;TQa;`pIeta. sim\;sui`pI;eta. lapfty\'72 Whatȱ didȱ previousȱ Sayadaws—thatȱ isȱ toȱ say,ȱ Commentaryȱ Sayadaws— offerȱasȱaȱcomparisonȱforȱthisȱrootȱcondition?ȱTheyȱsaidȱrootȱconditionȱwasȱ similarȱtoȱaȱtaproot.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱaȱtaproot,ȱaȱtreeȱisȱstrongȱtoȱtheȱdegreeȱthatȱ itsȱ taprootȱ isȱ good.ȱ Aȱ treeȱ isȱ strongȱ toȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ itsȱ rootȱ peneȬ tratesȱintoȱtheȱground.ȱAȱtreeȱbecomesȱpure,ȱstrong,ȱdeveloped,ȱandȱlushlyȱ greenȱ toȱ theȱ degreeȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ ableȱ toȱ soakȱ upȱ nutrients,ȱ earth,ȱ andȱ waterȱ fromȱbelow,ȱfromȱitsȱroot.ȱ

TheȱreferenceȱhereȱtoȱCommentaryȱSayadawsȱisȱtoȱmonksȱlikeȱtheȱLediȱ SayadawȱandȱtheȱMah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱSayadawȱ(ShwegyinȱHeadȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana,ȱ 1894–1916),ȱ whoȱ includedȱ inȱ theirȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ maȬ terialȱthisȱkindȱofȱcomparisonȱbetweenȱrootȱconditionȱandȱaȱtaproot.ȱInȱ thisȱcomparison,ȱaȱtaproot,ȱbyȱpassingȱnutrientsȱtoȱtheȱtree,ȱcontributesȱ toȱtheȱtree’sȱstrengthȱandȱstability,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱitsȱflourishingȱwithȱlushȱ greenȱleaves.ȱTheȱbasicȱpointȱofȱtheȱcomparisonȱisȱthatȱaȱrootȱconditionȱ isȱaȱconditionȱwhereinȱaȱconditioningȱstateȱfunctionsȱlikeȱaȱrootȱofȱaȱtreeȱ “byȱimpartingȱfirmnessȱandȱfixityȱtoȱtheȱconditionedȱstates.”73ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 71ȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ293–294,ȱ303–304.ȱSeeȱalsoȱN¬rada,ȱtrans.,ȱ1997–1998,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ xi–xii.ȱ 72ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ38.ȱ 73ȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱp.ȱ307.ȱ

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TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱbeginsȱtoȱclarifyȱtheȱcomparisonȱbyȱnotingȱthatȱ rootȱconditionȱconsistsȱofȱgreedȱ(P.ȱlobha),ȱhatredȱ(P.ȱdosa),ȱandȱdelusionȱ (P.ȱmoha),ȱwhichȱareȱtheȱthreeȱkindsȱofȱbadȱroots,ȱasȱwellȱasȱnonȬgreedȱ (P.ȱ alobha),ȱ nonȬhatredȱ (P.ȱ adosa),ȱ andȱ nonȬdelusionȱ (P.ȱ amoha),ȱ whichȱ areȱtheȱthreeȱkindsȱofȱgoodȱroots.ȱHeȱoffersȱfurtherȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱ threeȱbadȱroots,ȱespeciallyȱgreed:ȱ luirc\;eta. mekac\; A`ms\quM;qQy\ rHity\' AEdI mekac\;A`ms\quM;qQy\ elaB edfq emah A`ms\etQk qUnE>Suic\tE. AtU`Ps\Pk\ tra;etQkui qUkpE ekj;zU;#pTa;lui> elaB~kI;qelak\ elaBNHc\.AtU`Ps\tE. sit\ estqik\etQ elaB AluiAtuic\; {luiKjc\ luuiKjc\ luiKjc\ luiKjc\} dIlui`Ps\rty\' elaB~kI;qelak\ dIsit\ e~kac\.`Ps\tE. Rup\etQklE elaBpc\suik\`pI;eta. {luiKjc\ luiKjc\ luiKjc\ luiKjc\}'74 Whenȱ oneȱ covetsȱ something,ȱ thereȱ areȱ theseȱ threeȱ badȱ roots.ȱ Theseȱ threeȱ badȱrootsȱ[i.e.,]ȱgreed,ȱhatred,ȱandȱdelusion,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱeachȱsupportsȱitsȱownȱspeȬ cificȱstates,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[forȱexample,]ȱmindȱandȱmentalȱconcomitantsȱcomeȱintoȱbeȬ ingȱalongȱwithȱgreed,ȱmatchingȱtheȱintensityȱofȱgreed,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱaccordingȱtheȱreȬ quirementsȱofȱtheȱgreed,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ“Iȱwant,ȱIȱwant,ȱIȱwant,ȱIȱwant”...thatȱisȱhowȱ theyȱgo.ȱAndȱmatchingȱtheȱintensityȱofȱgreed,ȱphysicalȱmanifestations,ȱthatȱ areȱ broughtȱ aboutȱ byȱ thisȱ typeȱ ofȱ mind,ȱ onceȱ theȱ treeȱ [root]ȱ ofȱ greedȱ hasȱ beenȱplanted,ȱindicateȱ“Iȱwant,ȱIȱwant,ȱIȱwant,ȱIȱwant.”ȱ

Inȱotherȱwords,ȱjustȱasȱtheȱtaprootȱofȱaȱtreeȱstimulatesȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱ wholeȱtree,ȱequallyȱsoȱtheȱrootȱofȱgreed,ȱaȱconditioningȱstate,ȱstimulatesȱ throughȱ itsȱ conditioningȱ forceȱ ofȱ greedȱ aȱ person’sȱ mindȱ andȱ body,ȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ personȱ conductsȱ himselfȱ orȱ herselfȱ withȱ conditionallyȱ arisenȱ thoughtsȱandȱbodilyȱactionsȱalongȱtheȱlinesȱof,ȱforȱinstance,ȱgreed.75ȱ Afterȱ establishingȱ anȱ initialȱ understandingȱ aboutȱ rootȱ condition,ȱ andȱtheȱbadȱrootsȱsuchȱasȱgreed,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱturnsȱtoȱaȱdiscusȬ sionȱspecificallyȱaboutȱtheȱkindsȱofȱrootsȱthatȱplayȱaȱpositiveȱroleȱinȱtheȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ arahantshipȱ itself.ȱ Theȱ focusȱ ofȱ hisȱ expositionȱ isȱ theȱ futureȱ Buddhaȱ(P.ȱbodhisatta),ȱwhenȱheȱwasȱbornȱasȱPrinceȱUdayabhadda.ȱTheȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ recountsȱ that,ȱ beingȱ aȱ prince,ȱ theȱ futureȱ Buddha’sȱ motherȱ andȱ fatherȱ wantedȱ toȱ giveȱ himȱ theȱ throne,ȱ andȱ soȱ theyȱ urgedȱ himȱtoȱmarry.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱprinceȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtheȱthroneȱorȱaȱqueen.ȱ ~kv\.sm\; elaB m`Ps\pfBU;' t%Ha m`Ps\pf;BU;' TI;nn\;mluiKjc\pfBU;. AEdf AelaB AelaBhit\' AelaBhit\k A`ms\tQy\enluik\ta TI;nn\;mluiKjc\pfBU;' miPura;rtna mluiKjc\pfBU;"76 Justȱthinkȱofȱthat!ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱgreedȱ(P.ȱlobha).ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱthirstȱ (P.ȱ taΦh¬).ȱ Heȱ didȱ notȱ wantȱ theȱ throne.ȱ NonȬgreed,ȱ theȱ rootȱ ofȱ nonȬgreedȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 74ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ38.ȱ 75ȱ Bodhi,ȱed.,ȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ307–312ȱandȱNyana,ȱtrans.,ȱ1986ȱp.ȱ4.ȱ 76ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ39.ȱȱ

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hadȱtakenȱholdȱforȱhim,ȱandȱheȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtheȱthrone.ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱwantȱaȱ queenȬgem.ȱ

TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱgoesȱonȱtoȱtellȱhisȱaudienceȱthatȱtheȱfutureȱBuddhaȱ resolvedȱ thatȱ afterȱ hisȱ parent’sȱ deathȱ heȱ wouldȱ goȱ toȱ theȱ forestȱ andȱ practiceȱ theȱ Dhamma.ȱ Heȱ wouldȱ practiceȱ theȱ Dhammaȱ withoutȱ desire,ȱ hatred,ȱandȱdelusion.ȱ ts\Kf dIBura;Aelac\;tui>luipE etaTQk\`pI;eta. enluik\ta {qt–wfetQ Kjm\;qa~kpfes'} Aedfq Aedfq emt–a nE> {qt–wfetQ Kjm\;qa ~kpfes}nE> ts\Kjin\tQc\ mhut\BU;' AKjin\rHiqerQ> ' enak\eta. AEdI emt–a tui;tk\`pI;eta. Zan\kuirlui> enak\ts\Kjin\ `bh¥a.`pv\ erak\tapE'77 Then,ȱjustȱlikeȱotherȱfutureȱBuddhas,ȱheȱwentȱandȱlivedȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱthinkȬ ingȱ “mayȱ allȱ beingsȱ beȱ happy.”ȱ Withȱ nonȬhatred,ȱ i.e.,ȱ withȱ affectionȱ (P.ȱ mett¬),ȱheȱthoughtȱwithȱtheȱwordsȱ“mayȱallȱbeingsȱbeȱhappy”ȱallȱtheȱtime.ȱ Later,ȱhisȱaffectionȱmatured,ȱandȱheȱwasȱableȱtoȱattainȱtheȱmeditativeȱstates,ȱ dueȱtoȱwhichȱheȱarrived,ȱatȱaȱlaterȱtime,ȱinȱtheȱBrahm¬ȱrealm.ȱ

InȱfocusingȱonȱPrinceȱUdayabhadda,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱillustratesȱtheȱ natureȱandȱsignificanceȱofȱplantingȱtheȱrootsȱofȱnonȬgreed,ȱnonȬhatred,ȱ andȱ nonȬdelusion.ȱ Becauseȱ heȱ hadȱ plantedȱ theȱ rootȱ ofȱ nonȬgreedȱ (aȱ conditioningȱstate),ȱtheȱfutureȱBuddhaȱwasȱableȱtoȱbecomeȱpredisposedȱ toȱ certainȱ kindsȱ ofȱ activity,ȱ namelyȱ “leavingȱ forȱ theȱ forest,”ȱ practicingȱ theȱ Dhamma,ȱ andȱ “notȱ wanting”ȱ (conditionallyȱ arisenȱ states).ȱ Inȱ thatȱ context,ȱ heȱ wasȱ ableȱ toȱ cultivateȱ hisȱ mindȱ inȱ positiveȱ waysȱ connectedȱ withȱ careȱforȱotherȱ beings.ȱ Indeed,ȱthroughȱtheȱmaturationȱ ofȱ theȱrootȱ ofȱnonȬhatredȱorȱaffection,ȱheȱultimatelyȱattainedȱparticularȱmeditativeȱ statesȱassociatedȱwithȱaȱspirituallyȱadvancedȱstateȱofȱmindȱandȱrebirthȱ inȱtheȱrealmȱofȱbrahm¬ȱdeities.ȱToȱapplyȱtheȱmetaphorȱofȱaȱrootȱofȱaȱtree,ȱ theȱfutureȱBuddha’sȱrootȱofȱnonȬgreed,ȱ firmlyȱplanted,ȱledȱtoȱtheȱ flouȬ rishingȱofȱhisȱownȱlush,ȱgreenȱleaves,ȱnamelyȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱDhamȬ maȱandȱtheȱexaltedȱattainmentsȱassociatedȱwithȱit.ȱ Drawingȱ againȱ fromȱ theȱ Commentaryȱ Sayadaws,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱclosesȱhisȱcommentsȱonȱtheȱthemeȱofȱrootȱconditionȱbyȱrecitingȱaȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ Paliȱ wordsȱ hetupaccayoȱ atthÎȱ tiȱ bodhentaΚȱ vand¬mi.ȱ Theȱcommentaryȱis:ȱ hetupaccayoȱ ' ereqak\`ms\lJc\ Tuiqs\pc\kui sim\;rWc\ vQn\>ew sv\pc\esqui> meqQ`Ps\hn\ Rup\NHc\.nam\kui sQm\;eSac\esm: ekj;zU;#pqa ehtuqt–i A`mErHieqa hit\e`Kak\pf; psŒv\; tra;qv\" atthiȱ' pug‰iol\ qt–wf qU cf meNHa tra;qeBaqa Tc\rHa;rHipfepqv\tka;" itiȱ' ^qui> " ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 77ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ40.ȱ

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bodhentaΚȱ ' qb£vot‘a%\eta\qa`Pc\. VI;sQakjn qi`pI;mHlJc\ mja;lH ewen qieseta\mUeqa

`mt\sQaBura;kui" vand¬mi ' gu%\eta\ TuMmQm\; puMeta\mHn\;ljk\ KjI;mQm\; eTamna p%aRuikjio; lk\suMmui;& rHiKui; kn\eta.pf% Bura;"78ȱ InȱproseȱEnglish,ȱthisȱgives:ȱ Placingȱmyȱpalmsȱtogether,ȱhumblingȱmyself,ȱextollingȱhim,ȱpraisingȱhim,ȱ callingȱ toȱ mindȱ hisȱ imageȱ permeatedȱ withȱ virtues,ȱ Iȱ venerateȱ theȱ nobleȱ Lordȱwhoȱfirstȱdiscoveredȱbyȱhisȱomniscienceȱ(P.ȱsabbaññutaȬñ¬na)ȱandȱthenȱ enabledȱ manyȱ beingsȱ toȱ knowȱ thatȱ theȱ phenomenonȱ consistingȱ ofȱ theȱ sixȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ root79ȱ alwaysȱ hasȱ theȱ conditioningȱ forceȱ ofȱ aȱ rootȱ [which]ȱ enablesȱphysicalȱformȱ(P.ȱrĀpa)ȱandȱmindȱ(P.ȱn¬ma)ȱtoȱoperate,ȱjustȱasȱaȱtapȬ rootȱ allowsȱ aȱ treeȱ toȱ flourish;ȱ itȱ doesȱ inȱ factȱ exist,ȱ [being]ȱ pureȱ dhammaȱ alone,ȱ workingȱ independentlyȱ fromȱ theȱ controlȱ ofȱ people,ȱ creatures,ȱ aȱ he,ȱ orȱanȱI.ȱ

HereȱonceȱagainȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱcorrelatesȱvenerationȱofȱtheȱBudȬ dhaȱ withȱ aȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ theȱ soteriologicalȱ potencyȱ ofȱ theȱ teachingȱ containedȱinȱtheȱPaΞΞh¬na.80ȱ

RapturousȱJoyȱandȱtheȱWorkȱofȱanȱAbhidhammaȱSpecialistȱ AtȱtheȱveryȱstartȱofȱhisȱPaΞΞh¬naȱsermons,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱrecitesȱaȱ shortȱPaliȱverseȱandȱBurmeseȱcommentaryȱconcerningȱtheȱrelationshipȱ betweenȱ comprehendingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ handȱ andȱ theȱ expeȬ rienceȱ ofȱ joyȱ onȱ theȱ other.ȱ Theȱ Paliȱ verseȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ commentaryȱ distillȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ pointsȱ discussedȱ inȱ thisȱ chapterȱ aboutȱ hisȱ workȱ asȱ anȱ Abhidhammaȱ specialist,ȱ andȱ soȱ itȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ closeȱ theȱ analysisȱ whereȱheȱbegins.ȱTheȱPaliȱverseȱreadsȱasȱfollows.ȱ sayaΚȱBuddhoȱsambodhesiȱdhammeȱpiȱdhammasattiyo,ȱ ahoȱnoȱtassaȱsutattaΚȱahoȱnoȱdhammacintanaΚ.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 78ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ40.ȱȱ 79ȱ Thatȱis,ȱgreed,ȱhatred,ȱdelusion,ȱandȱnonȬgreed,ȱnonȬhatred,ȱnonȬdelusion.ȱ 80ȱ ThereȱareȱmanyȱlevelsȱofȱcomplexityȱthatȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱdoesȱnotȱgoȱintoȱhere.ȱ Indeed,ȱ asȱ remarkedȱ byȱ N¬rada,ȱ trans.,ȱ 1997–1998,ȱ vol.ȱ 1,ȱ pp.ȱ xii–xiii,ȱ “Itȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ remembered,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ aȱ stateȱ canȱ possessȱ manyȱ conditioningȱ forces.ȱ Forȱ inȬ stance,ȱtheȱroot,ȱnonȬdelusion,ȱaȱ conditioningȱstateȱofȱ rootȱ condition,ȱpossesses,ȱ beȬ sideȱ theȱ conditioningȱ forceȱ ofȱ root,ȱ thoseȱ ofȱ predominance,ȱ conascence,ȱ mutuality,ȱ dependence,ȱ resultant,ȱ faculty,ȱ path,ȱ association,ȱ dissociation,ȱ presenceȱ andȱ nonȬ disappearance.”ȱ

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ChapterȱFour:ȱExistentialȱRuminationsȱȱ

TheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱoffersȱaȱBurmeseȱcommentarialȱtranslationȱonȱthisȱ verse.ȱHeȱtreatsȱtheȱwordsȱsayaΚȱBuddhoȱsambodhesiȱdhammeȱpiȱdhammaȬ sattiyoȱasȱfollows:ȱ yoȱ jinoȱ ' mkui«\erac\lJM VeqJac\pjMwy\ eAac\lMsQc\.sQc\. lWc\.tlUlU A~kc\eAac\eta\mU `mt\Bura;qv\" dhammepi ' erH>enak\sV\ljk\ `Ps\tuic\;pjk\& Sk\Sk\meNHa tra;qeBatui> kui»" dhammasattiyopiȱ' tra;tuic\;% Dat\KM`pv\.ljk\ qt–i Ac\Aa; sQm\;pka;tui> kui»" sayaΚȱBuddho ' ebaDimzioc\ rip\qa#mic\wy\ kuiy\tuic\stc\ qi`mc\eta\mU`pI;qv\`Ps\&" sambodhesi ' qitn\qmJ ewenyjkui `mQk\hlHs\ePa\ qieseta\mUKE.ep`pI"81

InȱproseȱEnglish,ȱthisȱprovides:ȱ [He]ȱwhoȱisȱtheȱvictoriousȱBuddha,ȱhavingȱvictoryȱflagsȱwavingȱinȱtheȱairȱ aroundȱtheȱtopȱofȱhisȱglitteringȱcrown,ȱbeingȱoneȱwhoȱperceivedȱ[trueȱrealiȬ ty]ȱ withȱ hisȱ ownȱ understandingȱ [while]ȱ deepȱ inȱ aȱ peacefulȱ forest,ȱ [whileȱ meditating]ȱ inȱ theȱ environsȱofȱ aȱ Bodhiȱtree,ȱ expoundedȱandȱ causedȱ everyȱ being,ȱwhoȱdeservedȱtoȱknow,ȱtoȱcomprehendȱdhammas,ȱimpermanent,ȱconȬ tinuallyȱbeingȱdestroyedȱwheneverȱtheyȱarise,ȱandȱtheȱsattis,ȱtheȱforces,ȱbeȬ ingȱtheȱconditioningȱpredispositionsȱofȱeveryȱdhamma.ȱ

AndȱheȱtreatsȱahoȱnoȱtassaȱsutattaΚȱahoȱnoȱdhammacintanaΚȱasȱfollows:ȱ tassaȱ jinassaȱ ' eAac\e`mnk\qn\ ebaDim%\wy\ eAac\lMsQc\.sQc\. lWc\.tlUlU Tui eAac\eta\mU `mt\Bura;%" sutattaΚ ' tra;Dm¥ ~qwfdkui ~ka;r rWc\epja\ qa;eta\ qmI;eta\ `Ps\r`Kc\;qv\" ahoȱnoȱ' kuiy\.tQk\kuiy\.ta kuiy\kjoi;pfq`Pc\. kuiy\.mHaKuNHy\ eAa\ wm\;e`mak\PQy\ ~kI;pftka;" dhammacintanaΚȱ ' tra;qk\qk\ erH>enak\Sk\& `Ps\pjk\enhn\ e~kac\;kjoi;mHn\kui Pn\Pn\KQEew

~kMsv\& enr`Kc\;qv\" ahoȱno ' kuiy\.qN–an\tQc\; ‘a%\erac\lc\;& rHc\;karHc\;ka eAa\ Aa;rPQy\~kI;pftka;"82ȱ InȱproseȱEnglish,ȱthisȱprovides:ȱ Beingȱ ableȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ sonȱ andȱ daughterȱ joyfullyȱ listeningȱ toȱ theȱ DhammaȬ instructionȱofȱthatȱvictoriousȱBuddha,ȱflankedȱbyȱvictoryȱflagsȱinȱtheȱenviȬ ronsȱ ofȱ aȱ Bodhiȱ tree,ȱ [the]ȱ victoryȱ groundȱ blessedȱ withȱ auspiciousȱ signs:ȱ howȱmuchȱrapturousȱjoyȱitȱisȱinȱthisȱlifeȱbecauseȱoccasionsȱlikeȱthisȱareȱforȱ one’sȱ ownȱ welfare.ȱ Beingȱ ableȱ toȱ reflectȱ onȱ andȱ discriminateȱ theȱ truthȱ ofȱ causeȱandȱeffect,ȱtheȱcontinualȱprocessȱ[inȱwhich]ȱdhammasȱaloneȱariseȱandȱ areȱdestroyed:ȱhowȱmuchȱsatisfactionȱthatȱaȱlightȱofȱwisdomȱshinesȱbrightȱ inȱone’sȱownȱcontinuum.ȱ

Theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ peppersȱ hisȱ entireȱ sermonȱ onȱ theȱ firstȱ dayȱ itselfȱ withȱ snippetsȱ fromȱ theȱ verseȱ andȱ itsȱ commentary;ȱ heȱ evenȱ usesȱ oneȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 81ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ1.ȱ 82ȱ Fromȱtheȱtapeȱrecordings;ȱseeȱalsoȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ1997ȱp.ȱ1.ȱȱ

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RapturousȱJoyȱandȱtheȱWorkȱofȱanȱAbhidhammaȱSpecialistȱ

167ȱ

snippetȱ toȱ closeȱ hisȱ narrativeȱ onȱ Mah¬gatigamiya.ȱ Byȱ openingȱ hisȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ sermonsȱ withȱ theȱ verseȱ andȱ commentary,ȱ andȱ byȱ usingȱ snipȬ petsȱfromȱitȱtoȱpunctuateȱsomeȱofȱhisȱmajorȱpoints,ȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsaȱ rendersȱinȱanȱexplicitȱwayȱhisȱviewȱthatȱsonsȱandȱdaughtersȱofȱtheȱBudȬ dhaȱ(hereȱinȱthisȱcontext,ȱdisciplesȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱofȱvariousȱsorts,ȱmoȬ nasticȱandȱnonȬmonastic)ȱhaveȱtheȱcapacityȱtoȱfollowȱinȱtheȱfootstepsȱofȱ theȱ Buddhaȱ andȱ monksȱ likeȱ Mah¬gatigamiya.ȱ Indeed,ȱ specialistsȱ likeȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ andȱ traditionsȱ likeȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ areȱ toȱ serveȱ asȱ mediators.ȱ Inȱ providingȱ thatȱ mediation,ȱ theȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsaȱ wantsȱ peopleȱtoȱexperienceȱaȱ“lightȱofȱwisdom,”ȱandȱheȱwantsȱthemȱtoȱcomeȱ toȱaȱstateȱofȱrapturousȱjoyȱandȱsatisfaction.ȱHeȱwantsȱwisdom,ȱjoy,ȱandȱ satisfactionȱ toȱ growȱ inȱ theȱ continuumȱ ofȱ sonsȱ andȱ daughtersȱ ofȱ theȱ BuddhaȱasȱtheirȱmindsȱincreasinglyȱcomprehendȱwhyȱandȱhowȱimperȬ sonalȱ phenomenaȱ areȱ conditionallyȱ related.ȱ Sometimeȱ inȱ theȱ future,ȱ manyȱlivesȱawayȱperhaps,ȱhisȱownȱeffortsȱasȱaȱmonasticȱsonȱofȱtheȱBudȬ dhaȱspecializingȱinȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱmayȱpayȱoff,ȱwhenȱtheȱlightȱofȱwisȬ domȱ reallyȱ shinesȱ brightȱ inȱ theȱ mentalȱ continuitiesȱ ofȱ thoseȱ whomȱ heȱ onceȱ taught.ȱ Regardless,ȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ thereȱ areȱ beingsȱ flowingȱ inȱ theȱ whirlpoolȱofȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱasȱlongȱasȱthereȱareȱbeingsȱwhoȱfailȱtoȱreallyȱcomȬ prehendȱ andȱ perceiveȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ transmittingȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ andȱtryingȱtoȱfacilitateȱ theȱsoteriologicalȱadvancementȱ ofȱothȬ ersȱmustȱcontinue.ȱItȱwouldȱseem,ȱthen,ȱthatȱweȱhaveȱcomeȱfullȱcircleȱinȱ ourȱ considerationȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ itsȱ traditionalism:ȱ theȱ instituȬ tionalȱ foundationsȱ forȱ beingȱ sukhaȱ doubleȱ asȱ foundationsȱ forȱ theȱ tasksȱ ofȱsafeguardingȱtheȱ“fort”ȱandȱofȱexperiencingȱjoyȱandȱwisdom.ȱ Itȱ isȱ worthȱ pointingȱ outȱ hereȱ thatȱ theȱ religiousȱ emotionȱ (i.e.,ȱ joy)ȱ emphasizedȱinȱtheȱJanak¬bhivaѴsa’sȱsermonsȱisȱdifferentȱthanȱanotherȱ typeȱ ofȱ religiousȱ emotionȱ thatȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ andȱ othersȱ mayȱ tryȱ toȱ cultivateȱ inȱ otherȱ contexts.83ȱ Thatȱ otherȱ typeȱ ofȱ religiousȱ emotionȱ isȱ “existentialȱangst”ȱ(P.ȱsaΚvega)ȱatȱtheȱprospectȱofȱrebirthȱandȱsuffering.ȱ Forȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱrecitationȱofȱsaΚvegaȱpoemsȱatȱfuneralsȱforȱmonasticȱ exemplars,ȱoneȱmayȱfindȱatȱleastȱtwoȱ“emotional”ȱdynamicsȱatȱwork.ȱInȱ oneȱ dynamic,ȱ peopleȱ areȱ givenȱ theȱ publicȱ opportunityȱ toȱ expressȱ theȱ sorrowȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱfeelȱwhenȱaȱreveredȱandȱbelovedȱteacherȱpassesȱ away.ȱIdeally,ȱjustȱasȱpeopleȱgrievedȱatȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱsoȱtooȱ theyȱgrieveȱatȱtheȱdeathȱofȱanȱexemplar;ȱifȱpeopleȱdidȱnotȱexpressȱsuchȱ grief,ȱitȱcouldȱpossiblyȱmeanȱthatȱtheyȱreallyȱdidȱnotȱcareȱforȱtheȱexemȬ plarȱand/orȱtheȱS¬sanaȱatȱall.ȱAsȱwithȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱaȱpublicȱ expressionȱofȱsorrowȱbecomesȱaȱmomentȱthatȱaffirmsȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱsocialȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 83ȱ Theȱ pointsȱ inȱ thisȱ andȱ theȱ nextȱ twoȱ paragraphsȱ areȱ adaptedȱ fromȱ Carbineȱ 2007ȱ p.ȱ 448–449.ȱ

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importanceȱofȱBuddhismȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱrealȱsenseȱofȱlossȱthatȱpeopleȱmayȱ feelȱatȱtheȱdeathȱofȱaȱreveredȱteacher.ȱ Inȱ aȱ secondȱ dynamic,ȱ anȱ intenseȱ stateȱ ofȱ agitationȱ ideallyȱ compelsȱ peopleȱ toȱ pursueȱ theirȱ religiousȱ development,ȱ andȱ oneȱ wayȱ ofȱ underȬ standingȱthisȱprocessȱisȱasȱfollows.ȱTheȱsorrowȱfeltȱatȱtheȱlossȱofȱaȱgreatȱ heroȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ channeledȱ intoȱ aȱ stateȱ ofȱ emotionalȱ agitation.ȱ Aȱ mindȱsoȱencompassedȱbyȱagitationȱisȱripeȱforȱreligiousȱattainment,ȱbeȬ causeȱ theȱ attachmentsȱ thatȱ peopleȱ haveȱ toȱ life,ȱ toȱ theȱ worldȱ asȱ theyȱ knowȱit,ȱhaveȱbeenȱexposedȱinȱaȱdirectȱway,ȱandȱareȱthusȱmoreȱsusceptȬ ibleȱ toȱ beingȱ reflectedȱ uponȱ andȱ perhapsȱ overcome.ȱ Theȱ emotionalȱ tormentsȱthatȱpeopleȱfeelȱareȱshownȱtoȱbeȱanȱintegralȱpartȱofȱtheȱprobȬ lemȱ ofȱ beingȱ consumedȱ byȱ theȱ firesȱ ofȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ rebirthȱ inȱ whichȱ peopleȱebbȱandȱflow.ȱ Thus,ȱwhileȱbothȱcontexts—PaΞΞh¬naȱsermonsȱandȱsaΚvegaȱpoemsȱatȱ funeralsȱ forȱ exemplars—ofȱ emotionalȱ cultivationȱ areȱ correlatedȱ withȱ movingȱ aheadȱ onȱ theȱ path,ȱ theyȱ doȱ soȱ fromȱ aȱ veryȱ differentȱ typeȱ ofȱ approach.ȱ Theȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱ sermons,ȱ comingȱ atȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ liberationȱ fromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱacquisitionȱofȱnibb¬na,ȱstressȱtheȱemotionȱofȱ joy;ȱsomeȱsaΚvegaȱpoems,ȱcomingȱatȱtheȱquestionȱofȱliberationȱfromȱtheȱ perspectiveȱofȱrebirth,ȱstressȱemotionalȱangst.ȱYetȱinȱbothȱcasesȱS¬sanaȬ orientedȱ peopleȱ careȱ forȱ themselvesȱ inȱ aȱ specificallyȱ religiousȱ wayȱ byȱ offeringȱ themselvesȱ occasionsȱ forȱ reflectionȱ onȱ cosmologicalȱ truthȱ andȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ existentialȱ rupture.ȱ Theȱ S¬sana’sȱ careȱ groups,ȱ hardlyȱ limitedȱtoȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱbeginȱandȱendȱwithȱtheȱcultivationȱofȱdifferentȱ typesȱofȱemotionȱcouchedȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱnibb¬nicȱrupture.ȱ

ȱ

Conclusion:ȱContinuitiesȱandȱRupturesȱ BurmeseȱReligiousȱCultureȱandȱBeyondȱ Inȱthisȱstudy,ȱIȱhaveȱsoughtȱtoȱillustrateȱsomethingȱofȱtheȱhumanȱeffortȱ thatȱgoesȱintoȱmakingȱtheȱShwegyinȱtradition.ȱIȱhaveȱdoneȱthisȱbecauseȱ Iȱbelieveȱthatȱitȱisȱoneȱofȱourȱbasicȱtasksȱasȱinterpretersȱofȱreligiousȱlifeȱ toȱunderstandȱtheȱspecificȱculturalȱinflectionsȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱdisrupȬ tion/ruptureȱ inȱ aȱ givenȱ religiousȱ tradition.ȱ Asȱ aȱ nik¬yaȱ andȱ asȱ aȱ linealȱ embodimentȱofȱtheȱBuddha’sȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱemergedȱfromȱpatȬ ternsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱpracticeȱ thatȱ predatedȱcolonialȱandȱ militaryȱ rule,ȱ thatȱ wereȱ honedȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Sayadaw,ȱ otherȱ Shwegyinȱ leaders,ȱ andȱtheirȱdisciples,ȱandȱthatȱwereȱsystematizedȱthroughoutȱtheȱcolonialȱ andȱ postcolonialȱ periodsȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ leadershipȱ andȱ administrationȱ byȱfirstȱabsorbingȱandȱthenȱreplicatingȱforȱthemselvesȱtheȱAïokaȬbasedȱ royalȱ traditionȱ ofȱ purificationȱ ofȱ theȱ saΤgha.ȱ Constructedȱ administraȬ tively,ȱ ritually,ȱ andȱ doctrinallyȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ anȱ evolvingȱ leaȬ dershipȱ structure,ȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalism,ȱ ideally,ȱ preventsȱ bothȱ nik¬yaȬȱandȱS¬sanaȬruptureȱfromȱrulingȱtheȱday.ȱInȱregardȱtoȱtheȱcondiȬ tionedȱflowȱofȱbeingsȱinȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱsuchȱtraditionalism,ȱideally,ȱraisesȱtheȱ chancesȱthatȱatȱleastȱsomeȱmay,ȱifȱnotȱnowȱthenȱinȱfutureȱlives,ȱbeȱableȱ toȱfollowȱtheȱBuddhaȱinȱmakingȱtheȱradicalȱbreakthroughȱtoȱtheȱsereneȱ blissȱofȱnibb¬na.ȱFromȱtheȱbanalȱbutȱessentialȱcomponentsȱofȱleadershipȱ andȱadministrationȱtoȱtheȱdeepȱoceanȱofȱmethodȱthatȱleadsȱtowardȱexisȬ tentialȱrupture,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱshowȱusȱaȱtraditionȱsuffusedȱwithȱreflecȬ tionsȱon,ȱandȱreactionsȱto,ȱcontinuitiesȱandȱrupturesȱofȱvariousȱsorts.ȱ BeforeȱturningȱmoreȱspecificallyȱtoȱwhatȱtheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱtoȱofferȱ usȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ understandingȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ letȱ meȱ firstȱ abstractȱfromȱtheȱdiscussionsȱinȱtheȱprecedingȱchaptersȱaȱvisionȱofȱtheirȱ religiousȱculture.ȱTheȱvisionȱmayȱbeȱdistilledȱasȱfollows,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱexpandȱ uponȱ theȱ statementȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ andȱ traditionalismȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ dualȱrupturesȱ ofȱ nibb¬naȱ andȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ onȱ corresȬ pondingȱandȱdualȱcontinuities,ȱnamelyȱofȱsaΚs¬raȱandȱS¬sana.ȱ Existentiallyȱ speaking,ȱ theȱ inherentlyȱ disruptiveȱ continuityȱ ofȱ saΚs¬raȱprovidesȱtheȱcontextȱforȱtheȱnibb¬nicȱquestȱforȱtheȱlightȱofȱwisȬ dom,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ forȱ theȱinitiationȱ ofȱaȱS¬sana.ȱ Thatȱis,ȱnibb¬nicȱ rupture,ȱ anȱabsoluteȱbreakȱfromȱtheȱconditionedȱmindȱandȱbody,ȱisȱnecessaryȱforȱ

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initiatingȱtheȱonsetȱofȱaȱS¬sana,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱbothȱtextsȱthatȱpointȱtheȱwayȱ toȱ nibb¬nicȱ ruptureȱ andȱ theȱ lineages/nik¬yas/gaingsȱ thatȱ tryȱ toȱ embodyȱ theȱ teachingsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ texts.ȱ Inȱ becomingȱ aȱ fullyȱ enlightenedȱ Buddhaȱ (i.e.,ȱoneȱwhoȱhasȱdoneȱwhatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱinȱbothȱmindȱandȱbody)ȱ oneȱisȱableȱtoȱstartȱaȱS¬sana.1ȱ Theȱ continuityȱ ofȱ aȱ Buddha’sȱ S¬sana,ȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ nik¬yaȬȱ orȱ liȬ neageȬspecificȱ renditionsȱ ofȱ suchȱ aȱ S¬sanaȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ “Shwegyinȱ S¬sana,”ȱ textuallyȱ andȱ communally,ȱ canȱ promoteȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ nibb¬nicȱ rupture,ȱ forȱ allȱ peopleȱ whoȱ comeȱ inȱ contactȱ withȱ it,ȱ providedȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ willingȱ toȱ engageȱ withȱ itȱ inȱ waysȱ thatȱ enhanceȱ theirȱ unȬ derstandingsȱ ofȱ theȱ moralȱ (karmic)ȱ andȱ cosmologicalȱ (saΚs¬ric)ȱ condiȬ tionsȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ embedded.ȱ Whileȱ itȱ mayȱ beȱ trueȱ thatȱ suchȱ nibb¬nicȱ ruptureȱ mayȱturnȱ outȱ toȱ beȱanȱ actualityȱ forȱ anȱ extremelyȱ limȬ itedȱ numberȱ ofȱ peopleȱ andȱ otherȱ beingsȱ embeddedȱ inȱ theȱ cycleȱ ofȱ reȬ birth,ȱandȱequallyȱtrueȱthatȱtheȱactualȱattainmentȱofȱthatȱruptureȱmayȱbeȱ farȱoffȱinȱsomeȱfutureȱlife,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱS¬sanaȱprovidesȱtheȱbedrockȱ forȱsuchȱruptureȱisȱaȱpowerfulȱimpetusȱforȱpreservingȱitȱinȱtheȱpresent.ȱ TheȱcontinuityȱofȱaȱS¬sanaȱcanȱenhanceȱtheȱqualityȱofȱone’sȱcontinȬ uedȱrebirthȱinȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱsinceȱaȱS¬sanaȱilluminatesȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱactionȱ conduciveȱ toȱ betterȱ rebirthȱ (ratherȱ thanȱ justȱ enlightenment).ȱ Andȱ theȱ continuityȱofȱ beingsȱinȱsaΚs¬raȱcanȱenhanceȱtheȱcontinuityȱofȱaȱS¬sana,ȱ especiallyȱ whenȱ suchȱ beingsȱ (godsȱ included)ȱ areȱ predisposedȱ toȱ aȱ S¬sana.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ belief,ȱ then,ȱ slowingȱ theȱ declineȱ andȱ eventualȱruptureȱofȱaȱS¬sanaȱisȱanȱeffortȱthatȱshould,ȱideally,ȱinvolveȱtheȱ effortsȱ ofȱ manyȱ beingsȱ acrossȱ theȱ social,ȱ political,ȱ andȱ cosmologicalȱ spectrum:ȱgods,ȱmilitaryȱrulers,ȱlayȱpeople,ȱmonks,ȱnovices,ȱandȱnuns.ȱ TheȱcontinuityȱofȱbeingsȱinȱsaΚs¬raȱcanȱpromoteȱaȱspeedierȱdeclineȱ ofȱaȱS¬sanaȱasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱimproperȱtransmissionȱ(e.g.,ȱaȱfaultyȱmonasȬ ticȱ teaching),ȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ peopleȱ whoȱ areȱ illȬdisposedȱ towardȱ aȱ S¬sanaȱ(e.g.,ȱtheȱBritish)ȱorȱtowardȱoneȱanother.ȱInȱtheseȱkindsȱofȱcases,ȱ thereȱ mayȱ beȱ muchȱ concernȱ aboutȱ theȱ variousȱ kindsȱ ofȱ socialȱ disrupȬ tionsȱthatȱcanȱsubvertȱtheȱstabilityȱofȱtheȱcommunalȱconditionsȱthatȱareȱ believedȱtoȱbeȱneededȱtoȱenableȱaȱS¬sanaȱtoȱsurvive.ȱ TheȱdeclineȱandȱruptureȱofȱaȱS¬sanaȱcanȱdetractȱfromȱtheȱqualityȱofȱ one’sȱrebirth,ȱsinceȱknowledgeȱofȱcertainȱtypesȱofȱmoralityȱandȱpracticeȱ areȱlost.ȱAndȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱruptureȱofȱaȱS¬sanaȱinhibitsȱtheȱabilityȱofȱ beingsȱ toȱ attainȱ nibb¬nicȱ rupture,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ knowledgeȱ leadingȱ toȱ nibb¬naȱisȱlost.ȱTherefore,ȱsinceȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱruptureȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱ inevitable,ȱ andȱ sinceȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ becomesȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ difficultȱ toȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

ThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱclaimȱthatȱallȱBuddhasȱpreachȱaȱS¬sanaȱinȱtheȱsameȱway.ȱSee,ȱforȱexamȬ ple,ȱtheȱstatementȱmadeȱinȱtheȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ129.ȱ

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understandȱ andȱ transmitȱ asȱ historyȱ progresses,ȱ fosteringȱ theȱ embodiȬ mentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ producingȱ textsȱ (ofȱ variousȱ kinds,ȱ includingȱ administrativeȱrecords)ȱrelatedȱtoȱitȱneedȱtoȱbeȱthatȱmuchȱmoreȱvigilantȱ asȱtimeȱprogresses.ȱ Theȱ facetsȱ ofȱ thisȱ “vision”ȱ (seeȱ appendixȱ A,ȱ figureȱ 5)ȱ provideȱ theȱ basicȱsocialȱandȱcosmologicalȱorientationsȱthatȱunderpinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱ purifyingȱ (B.ȱ sanеȇȱ rhaΤеɇ,ȱ qn\>r¨c\;),ȱ maintainingȱ (B.ȱ taññеȱ taΚȇ,ȱ tv\tM.),ȱ andȱ spreadingȱ (B.ȱ pranеȇȱ pv¬ɇ,ȱ `pn\p> aQ ;)ȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ amongȱ theȱ Shwegyin.ȱ Noteȱ thatȱthisȱvision,ȱinȱitsȱvariousȱfacets,ȱisȱnotȱfocusedȱonȱBuddhistȱnotionsȱ pertainingȱ toȱ wealth,ȱ nonȬattachment,ȱ andȱ givingȱ (P.ȱ d¬na),2ȱ evenȱ thoughȱtheseȱnotionsȱenterȱintoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱnavigatingȱtheȱwatersȱofȱ continuityȱandȱrupture.ȱTheȱvisionȱdoesȱnotȱofferȱanȱexplicitȱconcernȱforȱ socialȱandȱpoliticalȱactivism,3ȱthoughȱitȱisȱpossibleȱthatȱcertainȱformsȱofȱ activismȱ couldȱ beȱ seenȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ it,ȱ suchȱ asȱ whenȱ aȱ defenseȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ mayȱ beȱ necessaryȱ toȱ offsetȱ theȱ actionsȱ ofȱ disruptiveȱ politicalȱ orders.ȱItȱdoesȱnotȱfocusȱprimarilyȱonȱ“principles”ȱorȱ“virtues”ȱofȱmoȬ ralityȱ andȱ humanȱ flourishing,4ȱ althoughȱ manyȱ principles,ȱ virtues,ȱ andȱ notionsȱofȱflourishingȱareȱkeyȱpartsȱofȱit.ȱItȱdoesȱnotȱcenterȱonȱrelationȬ shipsȱbetweenȱnarrativesȱandȱtheȱconstructionȱofȱ“communitiesȱofȱchaȬ racter,”5ȱalthoughȱBuddhistȱnarrativesȱandȱissuesȱofȱcharacterȱdoȱplayȱaȱ largeȱ roleȱ inȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ worldview.ȱ Itȱ doesȱ notȱ focusȱ onȱ “reason”ȱ andȱ “rationality,”6ȱ althoughȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ haveȱ aȱ veryȱ sophisticatedȱ systemȱofȱreasonȱandȱrationalityȱ(e.g.,ȱasȱevidencedȱinȱtheȱvariousȱtextsȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱitself)ȱthatȱisȱanȱinherentȱpartȱofȱtheirȱideasȱaboutȱcontinuiȬ tyȱandȱrupture.ȱItȱdoesȱnotȱemphasizeȱcertainȱmoralȱissuesȱsuchȱasȱaborȬ tion,7ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ thereȱ isȱ Shwegyinȱ materialȱ whichȱ relatesȱ toȱ theseȱ issuesȱ(e.g.,ȱtheȱVinayaȱprohibitionsȱagainstȱmonksȱcausingȱanȱabortion).ȱ Itȱ doesȱ notȱ representȱ aȱ demythologizedȱ Buddhistȱ modernismȱ thatȱ hasȱ assimilatedȱWesternȱideasȱandȱideals,ȱthoughȱitȱdoesȱexpressȱaȱtypeȱofȱ modernȱBuddhistȱworldviewȱinȱasȱmuchȱasȱtheȱShwegyinȱare,ȱinȱpart,ȱaȱ productȱofȱtheȱmodernȱworld.8ȱRather,ȱtheȱvisionȱemphasizesȱaȱfocusȱonȱ cultivatingȱ inȱ societyȱ theȱ longȬtermȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ persistenceȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱandȱtheȱformsȱofȱindividualȱandȱcommunalȱthoughtȱandȱactivityȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2ȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ 6ȱ 7ȱ 8ȱ

See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱSizemoreȱandȱSwearer,ȱeds.,ȱ1990.ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱKraft,ȱed.,ȱ1992ȱandȱTuckerȱandȱWilliams,ȱeds.,ȱ1997.ȱ See,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ Keownȱ 1992,ȱ Payuttoȱ 1995,ȱ andȱ O’Connellȱ 1990.ȱ O’Connell’sȱ disȬ cussionȱisȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱaȱCatholicȱparallelȱtoȱPayutto’sȱBuddhistȱtreatment.ȱȱ Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ aȱ narrativeȱ approachȱ toȱ Christianȱ socialȱ ethics,ȱ seeȱ Hauerwasȱ 1981.ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱGreenȱ1978.ȱ See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱLaFleurȱ1992ȱandȱSteffenȱ1996.ȱȱ ForȱaȱrecentȱstudyȱofȱBuddhistȱmodernismȱseeȱMcMahanȱ2008.ȱ

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connectedȱwithȱit.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱinȱthisȱvision,ȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱsimplyȱput,ȱ isȱanȱendȱinȱandȱofȱitself.ȱ Ifȱthisȱstudyȱisȱrevealingȱabout,ȱfromȱaȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ tradition,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱanȱendȱinȱandȱofȱitself,ȱthereȱremainȱsomeȱdetailsȱ toȱtieȱtogether.ȱForȱexample,ȱwhatȱdoesȱitȱreallyȱmeanȱforȱtheȱS¬sanaȱtoȱ beȱanȱendȱinȱandȱofȱitself?ȱAndȱtoȱwhatȱdegreeȱdoesȱtheȱShwegyinȱviewȱ correspondȱtoȱorȱreplicateȱideasȱandȱidealsȱofȱreligiosityȱinȱwiderȱBudȬ dhistȱcultureȱinȱandȱbeyondȱMyanmar?ȱOneȱwayȱofȱapproachingȱtheseȱ questionsȱisȱinȱtermsȱofȱplacingȱtheȱShwegyinȱmaterialȱinȱconversationȱ withȱanyȱgroupȱthatȱclaimsȱaȱconservative,ȱ“orthodox”ȱtransmissionȱofȱ Paliȱtexts.ȱWeȱmightȱexpectȱtheȱShwegyinȱviewȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱdualȱ formsȱ ofȱ continuityȱ andȱ rupture,ȱ andȱ theȱ cultivationȱ ofȱ whatȱ Iȱ haveȱ termedȱtheȱS¬sana’sȱcareȱgroups,ȱtoȱbeȱ explicitlyȱorȱimplicitlyȱaffirmedȱ inȱ otherȱ suchȱ groups—whetherȱ theyȱ beȱ monastic,ȱ lay,ȱ orȱ someȱ combiȬ nationȱthereof.ȱThisȱlevelȱofȱgeneralizationȱhelpsȱusȱtoȱseeȱanȱimportantȱ commonalityȱ acrossȱ certainȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ fieldȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ andȱmainlandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱHowever,ȱletȱusȱshiftȱgears,ȱforȱtheȱmoȬ ment,ȱ toȱ theȱ particularitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ andȱ thenȱ toȱ Myanmarȱ itȬ self.ȱ Byȱ doingȱ that,ȱ weȱ canȱ ultimatelyȱ seeȱ somethingȱ distinctiveȱ aboutȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ inȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ itȱ relatesȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ anȱ “endȱinȱandȱofȱitself.”ȱ TheȱhistoricalȱinstitutionalizationȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱtraditionȱhasȱinȬ volvedȱ atȱ leastȱ fiveȱ typesȱ ofȱ systematization,ȱ whichȱ thoughȱ notȱ necesȬ sarilyȱ distinguishedȱ atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ practiceȱ canȱ beȱ deliȬ neatedȱforȱanalyticalȱpurposes.ȱOneȱtypeȱofȱsystematizationȱconsistsȱofȱ theȱpowerȱandȱauthorityȱassociatedȱwithȱaȱkeyȱBuddhaȬrelated,ȱfoundȬ ingȱfigureȱ(i.e.,ȱtheȱFirstȱShwegyinȱSayadaw).ȱAȱsecondȱtypeȱconsistsȱofȱ locallyȱ constitutedȱ defensesȱ againstȱ theȱ rupturesȱ ofȱ aȱ locallyȱ createdȱ andȱentrenchedȱnik¬ya,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱgeneral,ȱonȱ theȱother.ȱTheȱthirdȱtypeȱisȱcomprisedȱofȱaȱspecificȱsetȱofȱideasȱrelatingȱ toȱtheȱexistentialȱcontinuityȱofȱsaΚs¬raȱandȱitsȱtranscendence.ȱTheȱfourthȱ typeȱ concernsȱ specificȱ narratives,ȱ rituals,ȱ andȱ metaphysicalȱ positionsȱ thatȱ defineȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ thatȱ transcendence.ȱ Theȱ fifthȱ typeȱ entailsȱ anȱ effortȱtoȱdistanceȱtheȱShwegyinȱfromȱlayȱregulationȱandȱcontrol.ȱ Differentȱ Burmeseȱ monasticȱ groupsȱ exhibitȱ varyingȱ degreesȱ ofȱ commonalityȱwithȱtheseȱtypesȱofȱsystematization.ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱsmaller,ȱ reformȬorientedȱ monasticȱ groups,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ areȱ closeȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ inȱ theseȱ variousȱ systematizations,ȱ whileȱ Myanmar’sȱ largestȱ monasticȱ group,ȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬,ȱ isȱ not.ȱ Thatȱ is,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Thudhamm¬ȱfurnishesȱstrongȱevidenceȱforȱtheȱthirdȱandȱfourthȱtypesȱofȱ systematization,ȱ theȱ evidenceȱ theyȱ furnishȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ typeȱ (aȱ singleȱ foundingȱfigure)ȱandȱsecondȱtypeȱ(anȱentrenchedȱnik¬ya)ȱisȱlessȱstrong.ȱ

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Theȱ evidenceȱ forȱ theȱ fifthȱ type,ȱ concerningȱ freedomȱ fromȱ layȱ regulaȬ tion,ȱ alsoȱ appearsȱ weaker.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ asȱ notedȱ earlierȱ inȱ thisȱ study,ȱ theirȱnameȱderivesȱfromȱaȱroyallyȱbackedȱmonasticȱcouncilȱestablishedȱ byȱkings.ȱInȱshort,ȱthoughȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtheȱThudhamm¬ȱ haveȱ neverȱ attainedȱ separate,ȱ nik¬yaȱ statusȱ likeȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ perhapsȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱaȱmuchȱlargerȱmonasticȱaffiliationȱinȱwhichȱaȱ ShwegyinȬlikeȱ reformistȱ impulseȱ wouldȱ beȱ hardȱ ifȱ notȱ impossibleȱ toȱ enforce.ȱ Specificȱ reactionsȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ toȱ theȱ colonialȱ disestabȬ lishmentȱ ofȱ Buddhism,ȱ andȱ theȱ continuationȱ ofȱ thoseȱ reactionsȱ overȱ timeȱwithinȱaȱlimitedȱbutȱstrongȱShwegyinȱleadershipȱandȱadministraȬ tion,ȱhelpȱtoȱexplainȱtheȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱthemȱandȱtheȱThudhamm¬.ȱ However,ȱ furtherȱ explanationȱ awaitsȱ moreȱ research,ȱ especiallyȱ fromȱ Thudhamm¬ȱperspectives.ȱ Anotherȱ possibleȱ wayȱ toȱ answerȱ questionsȱ aboutȱ theȱ resonanceȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ withȱ otherȱ currentsȱ ofȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ isȱ toȱ lookȱ atȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱmoreȱgenerally.ȱWhenȱweȱdoȱthat,ȱasȱtheȱShwegyinȱtradiȬ tionȱ encouragesȱ usȱ toȱ do,ȱ weȱ findȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ aȱ massiveȱ arrayȱ ofȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ practicesȱ whichȱ revolveȱ aroundȱ theȱ topic.ȱ Fromȱ meditaȬ tionȱcentersȱtoȱpagodaȱrenovations,ȱtoȱdisplayingȱmummifiedȱbodiesȱofȱ monks,ȱ toȱ writtenȱ andȱ oralȱ effortsȱ thatȱ inculcateȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ nibb¬na,ȱtoȱsettledȱmonasticȱtraditionsȱ(bothȱmaleȱandȱfemale)ȱandȱevenȱ toȱmysticalȱtraditions,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱaȱfocalȱpointȱofȱactionȱisȱaȱdominantȱ themeȱofȱBurmeseȱreligiousȱculture.ȱThatȱis,ȱmuchȱofȱtheȱcultureȱisȱenȬ gagedȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ betweenȱ theȱ continuitiesȱ (e.g.,ȱ ofȱ lineages,ȱgaings,ȱnik¬yas)ȱandȱrupturesȱ(e.g.,ȱofȱlineages,ȱgaings,ȱnik¬yas)ȱ associatedȱwithȱtheȱdynamicȱrelationsȱofȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱnibb¬na,ȱandȱS¬sana.ȱ Doesȱ thisȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ fieldȱ isȱ unȬ dergoingȱ aȱ focusingȱ andȱ expansionȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱinȱlightȱ ofȱ theȱS¬sana,ȱaȱprocessȱofȱS¬sanaȬization?ȱThisȱstudyȱdealsȱwithȱsuchȱeviȬ denceȱasȱcareȱgroupsȱandȱtheirȱfocusȱonȱtheȱS¬sana;ȱtheȱspecificȱpermuȬ tationsȱ ofȱ careȱ groupsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ Shwegyin;ȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ higherȱordinationȱinȱasȱmuchȱasȱitȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱbeȱaȱriteȱofȱpassageȱforȱ mostȱ ifȱ notȱ allȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ menȱ andȱ thusȱ aȱ riteȱ throughȱ whichȱ mostȱ ifȱ notȱ allȱ Buddhistȱ parentsȱ acquireȱ aȱ heritageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ theȱ givingȱofȱextendedȱsermonsȱonȱcomplexȱtopicsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAbhidhamma;ȱ theȱembodimentȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱtermsȱofȱbothȱbodilyȱcontrolȱandȱcultiȬ vationȱofȱaȱlightȱofȱwisdom;ȱandȱaȱheavyȱemphasisȱonȱretextualizingȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱviaȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱpublications.ȱWhenȱtheseȱfacetsȱofȱtraditionȬ makingȱareȱcombinedȱwithȱevidenceȱfurnishedȱbyȱothers,ȱtheyȱsuggestȱ thatȱtheȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱfieldȱisȱundergoingȱaȱS¬sanaȬization.ȱSpecificȱ

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Conclusion:ȱContinuitiesȱandȱRupturesȱȱ

referenceȱcanȱbeȱmadeȱhereȱtoȱsomeȱofȱtheȱworkȱofȱIngridȱJordt,ȱJulianeȱ Schober,ȱandȱGustaafȱHoutman.ȱ InȱherȱworkȱonȱtheȱBurmeseȱmassȱlayȱmeditationȱmovement,ȱJordtȱ drawsȱtheȱfollowingȱconclusion.ȱ Theȱ beliefȱ inȱ theȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ s¬sanaȱ configures,ȱ inȱ itsȱ counteraction,ȱ anȱ essentialȱ featureȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ practiceȱ inȱ contemporaryȱ Burma:ȱ theȱ preocȬ cupationȱwithȱpreservingȱtheȱBuddha’sȱteachingsȱinȱasȱexactȱaȱwayȱasȱpossȬ ibleȱ isȱ evidentȱ everywhere.ȱ Thisȱ emphasisȱ colorsȱ theȱ expressionȱ ofȱ everyȱ aspectȱ ofȱ practice,ȱ fromȱ donationsȱ (d¬na)ȱ toȱ theȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ enlightenmentȱ (nibb¬na)ȱ throughȱ meditationȱ (bh¬van¬).ȱ Further,ȱ theȱ beliefȱ inȱ theȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ s¬sanaȱ alsoȱ resultsȱ inȱ aȱ preoccupationȱ withȱ individualȱ soteriology,ȱ whichȱinȱturnȱcharacterizesȱtheȱNewȱLaity.9ȱ

Aȱ similarȱ sortȱ ofȱ conclusionȱ wasȱ reachedȱ byȱ Schoberȱ inȱ herȱ studyȱ ofȱ variousȱpathsȱtoȱenlightenment:ȱ“theȱconceptȱofȱ[‘doingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana,’ȱS¬san¬ȱpruȱsaññе,ȱqaqna#pqv\]ȱisȱsalientȱthroughoutȱallȱreligiousȱ domainsȱ inȱ Burma.”10ȱ Theȱ Shwegyinȱ evidence,ȱ whenȱ correlatedȱ withȱ theȱworkȱofȱJordtȱandȱSchober,ȱandȱwhenȱseenȱagainstȱtheȱbackdropȱofȱ widerȱ Burmeseȱ culturalȱ patterns,ȱ doesȱ suggestȱ thatȱ somethingȱ quiteȱ interestingȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱBuddhismȱisȱafootȱinȱMyanmar.ȱ Toȱ helpȱ theȱ readerȱ seeȱ this,ȱ theȱ discussionȱ ofȱ Burmeseȱ termsȱ andȱ phrasesȱ forȱ “Buddhist”ȱ identity—highlightedȱ atȱ theȱ outsetȱ ofȱ thisȱ study,ȱ andȱ alsoȱ integratedȱ andȱ expandedȱ atȱ variousȱ pointsȱ throughȬ out—canȱ beȱ recalledȱ here.ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ “doingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,”ȱ suchȱ termsȱandȱ phrasesȱ includeȱ butȱ areȱ hardlyȱ exhaustedȱ by:ȱ increasingȱtheȱ“gloryȱandȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱguΦеȱarhinеȱ aw¬,ȱ qaqna. gu%\ArHin\Awf);ȱ beingȱ aȱ “Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ puiΤе,ȱ qaqnapuic\);ȱ supportingȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ “fromȱ beingȱ atȱ theȱ insideȱ ofȱ it”ȱ (B.ȱ atvaΤеɇȱkaȱne,ȱAtQc\;ken);ȱsustainingȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ“fromȱbeingȱatȱtheȱoutsideȱ ofȱ it”ȱ (B.ȱ apraΤеȱ bhakеȱ kaȱ ne,ȱ A`pc\Bk\ken);ȱ beingȱ “aȱ goodȱ personȱ inȱ aȱ liȬ neageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱnvayеȱvaΤеȱsĀȱtoеȱcaΤе,ȱqaqna. NQy\wc\qUeta\sc\);ȱ beingȱ aȱ “patronȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ d¬yak¬,ȱ qaqna dfyka,ȱ S¬san¬ȱ d¬yik¬ma,ȱqannadfyikam);ȱacquiringȱtheȱ“heritageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”(B.ȱS¬san¬ȇȱ amwe,ȱqaqna.AemQ);ȱsupportingȱsuchȱthingsȱasȱtheȱ“ShwegyinȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱS¬san¬,ȱerWkjc\qaqna);ȱparticipatingȱinȱorȱfacilitatingȱeventsȱlikeȱ “Meetingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ Concerningȱ theȱ S¬sana”ȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ toеȱ luΚɇȱ chuiΤеɇȱ r¬ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱ nik¬yaȱ guiΦеɇȱ luΚɇȱ kyvatеȱ saΤghaеȱ acaññеɇȱ aveɇȱ krÎɇ,ȱqaqnaeta\luM;Suic\ra erWkjc\nikay gui%\;luM;kYt\ qMGa. Asv\;Aew;@kI;);ȱassistingȱinȱ theȱvariousȱ“affairsȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱS¬sana”ȱ(B.ȱS¬san¬ȱreɇ,ȱqaqnaer;);ȱandȱbecomingȱ“sonsȱandȱdaughtersȱofȱtheȱBuddha”ȱ(B.ȱmratеȱcv¬ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 9ȱ Jordtȱ2007ȱp.ȱ34.ȱȱ 10ȱ Schoberȱ1989ȱp.ȱ324ȱn.ȱ74.ȱSeeȱalsoȱSchoberȱ1988ȱp.ȱ23.ȱ

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bhur¬ɇȱ s¬ɇȱ toеȱ saȱ mÎɇȱ toе,ȱ `mt\sQa Bura; qa;eta\ qmI;eta\)ȱ inȱ whomȱ theȱ lightȱ ofȱ wisdomȱshinesȱ(especiallyȱbecauseȱofȱinteractionȱwithȱtheȱS¬sana).ȱ Basedȱonȱanalysisȱofȱtheseȱkindsȱofȱtermsȱandȱphrases,ȱandȱtheȱBudȬ dhistȱ practicesȱ associatedȱ withȱ them,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ reliȬ giousȱdomainȱofȱmeditation,ȱHoutmanȱwentȱonȱtoȱargueȱtheȱfollowing.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ beenȱ remarkedȱ inȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ literatureȱ onȱ “modernȱ Buddhism”ȱ acrossȱ Theravadaȱ Southeastȱ Asiaȱ thatȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ “laicization”ȱ hasȱ takenȱ place,ȱ wherebyȱ theȱ laymanȱ hasȱ comeȱ toȱ playȱ aȱ centralȱ roleȱ inȱ Buddhism.ȱ Consideringȱ theȱ wayȱ someȱ unordainedȱ meditatorsȱ haveȱ aȱ tendencyȱ toȱ markȱinȱ languageȱtheirȱ statusȱ asȱ “core”ȱ Buddhistsȱ byȱ usingȱ monasticȱ lanȬ guageȱandȱbyȱdescribingȱthemselvesȱasȱmonksȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ,ȱoneȱwouldȱbeȱbetterȱoffȱ suggestingȱtheȱreverse,ȱnamelyȱthatȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱ“monasticization”ȱofȱ theȱunordained.ȱTheȱemphasisȱcontemporaryȱmeditatorsȱputȱonȱbeingȱpartȱ ofȱ theȱ [S¬sana]ȱ doesȱ notȱ suggestȱ theȱ radicalȱ displacementȱ ofȱ oldȱ rolesȱ byȱ newȱrolesȱandȱoldȱinstitutionsȱbyȱnewȱonesȱ(evenȱtheȱterminologyȱofȱmediȬ tationȱ centresȱ hasȱ largelyȱ beenȱ derivedȱ fromȱ theȱ monasticȱ terminology).ȱ Theȱ centralityȱ ofȱ theȱ monkhoodȱ (andȱ theȱ monastery)ȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ chalȬ lengedȱ inȱ theȱ idealȱ and,ȱ byȱ aspiringȱ toȱ aȱ Buddhismȱ ofȱ theȱ monastery,ȱ theȱ meditatorȱinȱfactȱperpetuatesȱanȱoldȱorderȱofȱBuddhism.11ȱ

Importantȱ hereȱ isȱ Houtman’sȱ argumentȱ aboutȱ theȱ “monasticizationȱ ofȱ theȱ unordained,”ȱ whichȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ increasedȱ religiousȱ attentionȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱtakingȱplaceȱinȱcertainȱlayȱquartersȱasȱwell.ȱ Ifȱ thisȱ isȱ true,ȱthenȱ givenȱ theȱrangeȱofȱ S¬sanaȬrelatedȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ actionsȱinȱMyanmarȱamongȱtheȱS¬sana’sȱcareȱgroups,ȱwhichȱincludeȱbutȱ transcendȱtheȱkindȱofȱevidenceȱfurnishedȱinȱthisȱstudy,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱ suggestȱanȱevenȱmoreȱspecificȱpoint:ȱMyanmarȱisȱundergoingȱaȱprocessȱ ofȱ culturalȱ S¬sanaȬization,ȱ byȱ whichȱ Iȱ mean,ȱ again,ȱ bothȱ aȱ honingȱ andȱ expansionȱofȱBuddhistȱreligiousȱpracticeȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱsuchȱthatȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ asȱ aȱ whole,ȱ hasȱ becomeȱ aȱ socioreligiousȱ “end”ȱ inȱ andȱ ofȱ itself.ȱ Asȱ aȱ highȱ scholasticȱ andȱ disciplinarianȱ tradition,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ representȱ aȱ veryȱ extremeȱ formȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȬization,ȱ butȱ anȱ orientationȱ towardȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱhardlyȱuniqueȱtoȱthem.ȱTheȱactivitiesȱofȱtheȱSPDCȱ generals,ȱwhoȱareȱgreatlyȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱareȱcasesȱinȱpoint.ȱ NoteȱthatȱmyȱclaimȱaboutȱtheȱincreasinglyȱS¬sanaȬcenteredȱworldȱofȱ BurmeseȱBuddhismȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱallȱinvolvedȱshareȱtheȱsameȱsortȱ ofȱperspectiveȱonȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱhowȱitȱisȱtoȱbeȱtransmitted,ȱorȱ howȱitȱisȱtoȱbeȱ realizedȱexperientially.12ȱThus,ȱ thoughȱ aboveȱIȱ assertedȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 11ȱ Houtmanȱ1990aȱp.ȱ125.ȱ 12ȱ Gatewoodȱ 1985ȱ takesȱ onȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ howȱ toȱ accountȱ forȱ evenȱ modestȱ amountsȱ ofȱ stability/continuityȱ inȱ culturalȱ andȱ socialȱ systems.ȱ Followingȱ hisȱ discussion,ȱ whichȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ coordinationȱ ofȱ workȱ sequences,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ onȱ sharedȱ understandȬ ing,ȱ Iȱ holdȱ itȱ toȱ beȱ trueȱ thatȱ theȱ collectiveȱ effortȱ ofȱ embodyingȱ andȱ textualzingȱ theȱ

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thatȱ weȱ mightȱ expectȱ toȱ findȱ anȱ ideologicalȱ emphasisȱ similarȱ toȱ theȱ ShwegyinȱtraditionȱinȱthoseȱmonasticȱorȱlayȱtraditionsȱespousingȱaȱconȬ servativeȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ Paliȱ texts,ȱ weȱ shouldȱ notȱ expectȱ toȱ findȱ thatȱ conservativeȱ ethosȱ reproducedȱ amongȱ allȱ groupsȱ interestedȱ inȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱIndeed,ȱturningȱagainȱtoȱSchoberȱandȱherȱdiscussionȱofȱBurmeseȱ Buddhistȱmysticalȱtraditions,ȱitȱcanȱbeȱobservedȱthatȱ“agendaȱofȱmobiliȬ zation”ȱunderȱtheȱaegisȱofȱdoingȱtheȱworkȱofȱ theȱS¬sanaȱ“entailsȱaȱdifȬ ferentȱsetȱofȱpurposesȱinȱeachȱdomain,ȱnamelyȱpropagating”ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ theȱ variousȱ conceptualȱ andȱ practicalȱ orientationsȱ “ofȱ theȱ particularȱgroupȱorȱdomainȱconcerned.”13ȱ AlsoȱnoteȱthatȱmyȱclaimȱaboutȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱinȱBurȬ meseȱ religiousȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ thatȱ Iȱ advocateȱ orȱ assumeȱanȱautomaticȱbifurcationȱorȱseparationȱbetweenȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱ otherȱformsȱofȱreligiousȱthoughtȱandȱpractice,ȱsuchȱasȱ“magic”ȱandȱtheȱ “spiritȱ cults.”14ȱ Again,ȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ generalsȱ andȱ theȱ widerȱ Burmeseȱ population,ȱ whileȱ dedicatingȱ muchȱ toȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ areȱ involvedȱ inȱ suchȱ activitiesȱ isȱ enoughȱ toȱ avoidȱ suchȱ aȱ bifurcation.ȱ Andȱ evenȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ visionȱ addressedȱ hereȱ isȱ concernedȱ withȱ theȱ supportȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱbyȱtheȱnats.15ȱ WhatȱareȱtheȱrootsȱofȱthisȱapparentȱS¬sanaȬization,ȱthisȱfocusȱonȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱasȱanȱend,ȱaȱgoodȱthing,ȱinȱandȱofȱitself?ȱPartȱofȱtheȱanswerȱsureȬ lyȱlayȱinȱtheȱclosureȱofȱMyanmarȱunderȱmilitaryȱrule.ȱAlthoughȱinitiallyȱ eitherȱ opposedȱ toȱ orȱ indifferentȱ towardȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ theȱ Neȱ Winȱ govȬ ernment,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ postȬNeȱ Winȱ governmentsȱ ofȱ Myanmar,ȱ increasȬ inglyȱ turnedȱ towardȱ supportȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ byȱ funnelingȱ moneyȱ andȱ resourcesȱintoȱmonasticȱinstitutions,ȱtextualȱproduction,ȱandȱrenovationȱ ofȱsitesȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱBuddhaȱandȱS¬sana.ȱTheȱlevelȱofȱsupportȱforȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ hasȱ becomeȱ especiallyȱ strongȱ underȱ theȱ SLORCȱ andȱ SPDCȱ governments,ȱasȱtheyȱhaveȱattemptedȱtoȱfillȱaȱveryȱimportantȱroleȱwithȬ inȱtheȱcosmologicalȱworldȱofȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱnibb¬na,ȱandȱS¬sanaȱbyȱcontributȬ ingȱtoȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱRecallȱthatȱbyȱdoingȱthat,ȱtheyȱhaveȱtriedȱ toȱ show,ȱ inȱ part,ȱ thatȱ thereȱ reallyȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ crisis,ȱ sinceȱ theyȱ areȱ doingȱ whatȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱdoingȱasȱaȱgoodȱgovernment.ȱTheyȱareȱalsoȱtryingȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ S¬sanaȱdoesȱnotȱrequireȱthatȱallȱofȱtheȱindividualsȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱprocessȱshareȱtheȱ sameȱunderstandingsȱofȱwhatȱisȱhappening.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱShwegyinȱnoviceȱorȱanyȱ otherȱnoviceȱmayȱhaveȱnoȱideaȱwhyȱaȱpreceptorȱ(P.ȱupajjh¬ya)ȱtellsȱhim,ȱasȱpartȱofȱhisȱ lifeȱinsideȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱtoȱdoȱsomething.ȱ 13ȱ Schoberȱ1989ȱp.ȱ324,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱSeeȱalsoȱSchoberȱ1988ȱp.ȱ23.ȱ 14ȱ Forȱ aȱ relevantȱ recentȱ volumeȱ thatȱ helpsȱ thinkȱ aboutȱ thisȱ topic,ȱ seeȱ Kawanamiȱ andȱ BracȱdeȱlaȱPerrière,ȱeds.,ȱ2009.ȱ 15ȱ TheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱmagicȱorȱspiritȱcultȱpracticesȱareȱmaintainedȱevenȱbyȱShwegyinȱ monksȱisȱaȱsubjectȱforȱfutureȱresearch.ȱ

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toȱ showȱ thatȱ theyȱ haveȱ overcomeȱ theȱ staggeringȱ disruptionsȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱBritishȱcolonialȱexpansionȱandȱrule.ȱ Evenȱ so,ȱ reducingȱ anȱ emergentȱ Burmeseȱ culturalȱ focusȱ onȱ BudȬ dhismȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱtoȱtheȱlaborsȱofȱmilitaryȱrulersȱdoesȱnotȱdoȱ justiceȱ toȱ otherȱ S¬sanaȬorientedȱ developmentsȱ thatȱ tookȱ placeȱ bothȱ beȬ foreȱandȱduringȱmilitaryȱrule.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱworkȱofȱ Mendelson,ȱFerguson,ȱetc.,ȱthisȱstudyȱpointsȱtoȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ traditionȱ asȱ oneȱ exampleȱ ofȱ suchȱ developments,ȱ traceableȱ inȱ partȱ toȱ Burmeseȱreactionsȱtoȱcolonialȱrule,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱimmediateȱcolonialȱconȬ textȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ briefȱ periodȱ beforeȱ theȱ riseȱ ofȱ theȱ military.ȱ However,ȱ evenȱtheȱShwegyinȱreactionsȱtoȱcolonialȱrule,ȱfocusedȱonȱshoringȱupȱtheȱ S¬sana,ȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱpossibleȱifȱtheȱS¬sanaȱdidȱnotȱalreadyȱhaveȱ someȱsalienceȱinȱBurmeseȱreligiousȱcultureȱpriorȱtoȱthatȱtime.ȱ ConsideringȱtheȱintensityȱofȱtheȱpresentȬdayȱBurmeseȱculturalȱfocusȱ (i.e.,ȱnotȱjustȱmonastic,ȱthoughȱthisȱstudyȱhasȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱmonastic)ȱ onȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ twoȱ generalizationsȱ comeȱ toȱ mind.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ generalizaȬ tionȱrelatesȱtoȱS¬sanaȱtraditionsȱlikeȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱandȱhereȱaȱstatementȱ fromȱJohnȱHoltȱservesȱasȱaȱspringboard.ȱ Reifiedȱ textsȱ andȱ finelyȱ articulatedȱ doctrinesȱ areȱ highlyȱ evolvedȱ formsȱ ofȱ religiousȱexpressionȱthatȱareȱmoreȱreflectiveȱofȱaȱformalȱinterpretationȱofȱreȬ ligiousȱcultureȱthanȱtheȱgeneratorsȱofȱreligiousȱcultureȱperȱse.ȱThatȱis,ȱtextȱ andȱ doctrineȱ areȱ highlyȱ derivativeȱ religiousȱ expressions,ȱ notȱ usuallyȱ proȬ genitors.ȱApproachesȱoverlyȱdependentȱuponȱsacredȱtextsȱandȱdoctrineȱalȬ soȱtendȱtoȱbeȱstatic,ȱinsofarȱthatȱtheyȱusuallyȱassumeȱaȱfixedȱunderstandingȱ ofȱ religiousȱ tradition,ȱ whileȱ tradition,ȱ aȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ timeȱ itself,ȱ isȱ alȬ waysȱ dynamicȱ inȱ nature,ȱ evolvingȱ inȱ aȱ constantȱ processȱ ofȱ changeȱ andȱ adaptation.16ȱ

Itȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱtoȱtheȱreaderȱthatȱmyȱapproachȱinȱthisȱstudyȱresonatesȱ withȱ Holt’sȱ remarksȱ aboutȱ theȱ dynamicȱ qualityȱ ofȱ aȱ tradition.ȱ Evenȱ moreȱ important,ȱ though,ȱ whatȱ Iȱ wantȱ toȱ suggestȱ toȱ theȱ readerȱ aboutȱ Myanmarȱisȱthat,ȱunderȱtheȱaegisȱofȱBurmeseȱBuddhistȱcareȱgroupsȱlikeȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ theȱ layȱ peopleȱ whoȱsupportȱ them,ȱ aȱ variantȱ ofȱ preȬ ciselyȱwhatȱHoltȱsuggestsȱisȱnotȱusuallyȱtheȱcaseȱhasȱinȱfactȱhappened,ȱ onȱ aȱ veryȱ deepȱ andȱ vastȱ level.ȱ Oneȱ canȱ haveȱ intelligentȱ conversationsȱ aboutȱ theȱ complexitiesȱ ofȱ Abhidhammaȱ withȱ ordinaryȱ peopleȱ inȱ MyanȬ marȱinȱwaysȱnotȱcommonȱinȱSriȱLanka.17ȱTheȱtexts,ȱdoctrines,ȱpractices,ȱ andȱ careȱ groupsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ haveȱ developedȱ intoȱ aȱ veryȱ distinctiveȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ whereinȱ “reifiedȱ textsȱ andȱ finelyȱ articulatedȱ docȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 16ȱ Holtȱ2009ȱp.ȱ244.ȱ 17ȱȱ Thisȱobservationȱisȱbasedȱinȱpartȱonȱmyȱpreviousȱfieldȱresearchȱandȱotherȱexperienceȱ inȱSriȱLankaȱinȱtheȱ1990s,ȱandȱinȱpartȱonȱinquiringȱwithȱotherȱscholarsȱfamiliarȱwithȱ SriȱLanka.ȱ

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trines,”ȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ andȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ haveȱ becomeȱ majorȱ progenitorsȱasȱmuchȱasȱproductsȱofȱthatȱreligiousȱculture.ȱ Seeingȱ Burmeseȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ inȱ thisȱ wayȱ helpsȱ usȱ toȱ seeȱ oneȱ reasonȱ whyȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱ playsȱ suchȱ anȱ importantȱ roleȱ inȱ someȱ Burmeseȱ S¬sanaȱ traditions.ȱ Ifȱ oneȱ takesȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ inȱ theȱ religiouslyȱ significantȱ wayȱ thatȱ manyȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ theirȱ supportersȱ do,ȱ thereȱ isȱ simplyȱnoȱwayȱforȱoneȱnotȱtoȱdevoteȱconsiderableȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱAbhiȬ dhamma.ȱ Theȱentireȱ S¬sanaȬbasedȱ socioreligiousȱ system,ȱ asȱ exemplifiedȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ tradition,ȱ isȱpredicatedȱonȱ theȱabilityȱofȱbeingsȱtoȱatȬ tainȱAbhidhammicȱcomprehension,ȱeitherȱinȱtheȱhereȱorȱnowȱorȱinȱsomeȱ otherȱkarmicallyȱenhancedȱfutureȱlife.ȱWithoutȱthisȱexistentialȱassumpȬ tion,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱasȱexpressedȱandȱlivedȱbyȱtheȱShwegyinȱmakesȱlittleȱifȱ anyȱsenseȱatȱall.ȱIndeed,ȱwithoutȱthisȱassumption,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱreasonȱforȱ aȱ highlyȱ respectedȱ Shwegyinȱ sayadawȱ toȱ writeȱ extensivelyȱ aboutȱ theȱ Abhidhammaȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱgiveȱextendedȱsermonsȱonȱitȱtoȱlayȱpeople,ȱsoȱ asȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱcultivateȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱlightȱandȱjoyȱdiscoveredȱbyȱ g¬kyamuniȱ soȱ longȱ ago.ȱ Thereȱ wouldȱ beȱ noȱ reasonȱ forȱ Burmeseȱ BudȬ dhistsȱ toȱ holdȱ prolongedȱ ritualȱ recitationsȱ ofȱ suchȱ thingsȱ asȱ theȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ theȱ “frontȬlineȱ fortress.”ȱ Norȱ wouldȱ thereȱ beȱ anyȱ reasonȱ forȱ peopleȱ takeȱ veryȱ seriouslyȱ theȱ relationshipȱ ofȱ theȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱPaΞΞh¬na,ȱtoȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.18ȱ Thisȱ bringsȱ meȱ toȱ aȱ secondȱ generalization:ȱ ifȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ areȱ inȱ factȱ illustrativeȱ ofȱ aȱ widerȱ culturalȱ worldȱ increasinglyȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ thatȱ religiousȱ cultureȱ representsȱ anȱ intensificationȱ ofȱ whatȱ hasȱ happenedȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lanka.ȱ Inȱ Sriȱ Lanka,ȱ theȱ godsȱ haveȱ beenȱ “BudȬ dhacized,”ȱ andȱ karmaȱ andȱ Buddhistȱ soteriologyȱ haveȱ permeatedȱ theȱ religiousȱcultureȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱasȱtoȱhelpȱunderstandȱandȱprocessȱsufȬ fering.19ȱInȱMyanmar,ȱtheȱgodsȱhaveȱbeenȱ“Buddhacized,”ȱandȱkarmaȱisȱ oftenȱinvokedȱ toȱ helpȱdealȱwithȱ suffering,ȱ butȱ theȱ Buddhistȱfieldȱitselfȱ hasȱbeenȱandȱisȱbeingȱS¬sanaȬized.ȱMyanmarȱseemsȱtoȱrepresentȱaȱplaceȱ whereȱBuddhismȱisȱbeingȱBuddhacized,ȱifȱsuchȱaȱthingȱisȱpossible.ȱThatȱ is,ȱ ifȱ Buddhacizationȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ rationalizationȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ andȱ pracȬ ticeȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ suchȱ ideasȱ asȱ merit,ȱ nibb¬na,ȱ Dhamma,ȱ Buddha,ȱ SaΤgha,ȱ d¬na,ȱ pariyattiȬS¬sana,ȱ paΞipattiȬS¬sana,ȱ andȱ paΞivedhaȬS¬sana,20ȱ thenȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱandȱlikeȬmindedȱotherȱBurmeseȱBuddhists,ȱrepresentȱaȱconȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 18ȱ ForȱanotherȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱAbhidhammaȱinȱMyanmar,ȱseeȱBraunȱ2008.ȱȱ 19ȱ E.g.,ȱHoltȱ2009ȱpp.ȱ19,ȱ233.ȱȱ 20ȱȱ ThisȱisȱaȱmodificationȱofȱtheȱkindȱofȱdefinitionȱofȱBuddhacizationȱusedȱbyȱHoltȱ2009ȱ p.ȱ255.ȱIȱhaveȱoptedȱtoȱdrawȱonȱHolt’sȱdiscussionȱbecauseȱheȱisȱaȱrecentȱcommentatorȱ onȱtheȱtopicȱofȱBuddhacizationȱand,ȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱengagingȱwithȱotherȱscholars,ȱ heȱprovidesȱaȱhelpfulȱanalyticalȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱBuddhacizationȱandȱ“inspiritingȱ Buddhism”ȱthatȱisȱusefulȱforȱmyȱreflectionsȱhere.ȱ

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textȱinȱwhichȱtheȱS¬sanaȱitselfȱisȱsupersedingȱtheȱotherȱelementsȱofȱsuchȱ rationalization.ȱ Itȱ isȱ forȱ themȱ theȱ definitiveȱ overarchingȱ categoryȱ throughȱwhichȱallȱBuddhistȱactivityȱisȱunderstood.ȱThisȱsuggestsȱaȱculȬ turalȱ processȱ thatȱ distinguishesȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ likeȬmindedȱ BurmeseȱBuddhistsȱfromȱtheȱLaoȱofȱtheȱLaoȱPDR,ȱforȱwhomȱBuddhismȱ has,ȱinȱHolt’sȱview,ȱbeenȱ“inspirited,”ȱorȱ“interpretedȱandȱpracticedȱbyȱ peopleȱwhoseȱepistemologyȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱtheȱontologyȱofȱtheȱspiritȱ cults.”21ȱ S¬sanaȬizationȱ isȱ theȱ mannerȱ inȱ whichȱ Buddhistȱ thoughtȱ andȱ practiceȱhaveȱbeenȱinterpretedȱbyȱpeopleȱwhoseȱepistemologyȱisȱdomiȬ natedȱbyȱanȱ“ontology”ȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱalongȱtheȱlinesȱofȱ(atȱleastȱforȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ peopleȱ whoȱ thinkȱ likeȱ them)ȱ theȱ summaryȱ providedȱ earlierȱ inȱ thisȱ conclusionȱ andȱ representedȱ inȱ appendixȱ A,ȱ figureȱ 5.ȱ Inȱ sum,ȱ whileȱ futureȱ comparativeȱ researchȱ andȱ substantiationȱ awaits,ȱ Iȱ suggestȱthatȱweȱshouldȱseeȱtheȱShwegyinȱandȱBurmeseȱBuddhistsȱwhoȱ thinkȱ likeȱ themȱ asȱ representingȱ aȱ distinctiveȱ typeȱ ofȱ religiousȱ culturalȱ processȱ(S¬sanaȬization,ȱinȱcomparisonȱtoȱotherȱtypesȱofȱBuddhacizationȱ andȱinspiriting)ȱinȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱInȱthisȱprocess,ȱtexts,ȱdocȬ trines,ȱandȱpracticesȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱhave,ȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱtakenȱonȱaȱdistincȬ tiveȱ kindȱ ofȱ culturalȱ life,ȱ preciselyȱ because,ȱ inȱ aȱ worldȱ structuredȱ byȱ variousȱ kindsȱ ofȱ continuitiesȱ andȱ ruptures,ȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ hasȱ becomeȱ anȱ end,ȱaȱgoodȱthing,ȱinȱandȱofȱitself.ȱ

OtherȱImplicationsȱforȱTheoryȱandȱMethodȱ Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheseȱobservations,ȱthereȱareȱseveralȱimplicationsȱofȱthisȱ locallyȱ constitutedȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionalismȱ forȱ theoreticalȱ consideraȬ tionsȱinȱtheȱstudyȱofȱBuddhistȱsocietiesȱandȱcultures.ȱFirstȱandȱforemost,ȱ theȱShwegyinȱmaterialȱsuggestsȱthatȱweȱcanȱproductivelyȱbringȱtogethȬ erȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱsocietalȱandȱritualȱdimensionsȱofȱBuddhistȱactivityȱ associatedȱwithȱtheȱDhamma,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱconceptual,ȱsoteȬ riologicalȱ dimensionsȱ associatedȱ withȱ nibb¬na,ȱ onȱ theȱ other.ȱ Putȱ diffeȬ rently,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱshownȱhere,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱemphasizesȱtheȱtextual,ȱsocieȬ tal,ȱ conceptual,ȱ andȱ ritualȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ practice,ȱ whileȱ simultaneouslyȱ encompassingȱ notionsȱ ofȱ bothȱ Dhammaȱ andȱ nibb¬naȱ inȱ strikingȱways.ȱ Attentionȱtoȱthatȱkindȱofȱinterpretiveȱpointȱisȱpartȱofȱtheȱanalyticalȱ objectiveȱofȱStevenȱCollinsȱinȱhisȱworkȱonȱnirv¬Φa,ȱbutȱevenȱhisȱaccount,ȱ thoughȱsensitiveȱtoȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱsuchȱthingsȱasȱtheȱritualȱdimenȬ sionsȱofȱBuddhismȱ(commonlyȱassociatedȱwithȱapproachesȱmoreȱheaviȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 21ȱ Holtȱ2009ȱp.ȱ255.ȱ

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lyȱfocusedȱonȱDhamma)ȱdoesȱnotȱdealȱwithȱthemȱinȱaȱsubstantiveȱway.ȱ Thus,ȱ byȱ focusingȱ onȱ whatȱ itȱ meansȱ toȱ transmitȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ inȱ variousȱ contexts,ȱ weȱ mightȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ developȱ furtherȱ insightsȱ intoȱ Buddhistȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ inȱ waysȱ thatȱ openȱ newȱ avenuesȱ ofȱ understanding.ȱ Thatȱis,ȱIȱbelieveȱthereȱisȱmuchȱtoȱbeȱgained,ȱwhenȱandȱwhereȱappropriȬ ate,ȱ byȱ takingȱ aȱ S¬sanaȬasȬcentralȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ Buddhism.ȱ Collinsȱ hasȱ arguedȱ thatȱ “nirvanaȱ hasȱ semanticȱ valueȱ inȱ conceptsȱ andȱ imageryȱ[associatedȱwithȱstatesȱofȱwellȬbeing],ȱandȱsyntacticȱvalueȱinȱitsȱ roleȱ asȱ theȱ concludingȱ periodȱ (fullȱ stop)ȱ inȱ anȱ eternal,ȱ beginninglessȱ andȱendlessȱstory.”22ȱInȱlightȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱtheȱtraditionsȱofȱS¬sana,ȱsuchȱ asȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ S¬sana,ȱ areȱ thatȱ “story”ȱ inȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ theyȱ makeȱ upȱ theȱ “historicallyȱ instantiatedȱ andȱ institutionalizedȱ bod[ies]ȱ ofȱ knowȬ ledgeȱ [andȱ practice]”ȱ derivingȱ fromȱ theȱ earlyȱ Buddhistȱ environmentȱ andȱfosteredȱoverȱtheȱcourseȱofȱbothȱimaginedȱandȱrealȱtime.23ȱ Otherȱ implicationsȱ concernȱ ourȱ analysesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ monasticism,ȱ rituals,ȱandȱethics.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱBuddhistȱmonasticism,ȱthisȱstudyȱmayȱbeȱ placedȱ inȱ conversationȱ withȱ Anneȱ Blackburn’sȱ analysisȱ ofȱ aȱ newlyȱ emergentȱkindȱofȱ“textualȱcommunity”ȱinȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱSriȱLanka.ȱ Sheȱ employsȱ theȱ termȱ textualȱ communityȱ toȱ keepȱ theȱ analyticalȱ gazeȱ focusedȱonȱtheȱrelationsȱbetweenȱwrittenȱtexts,ȱorȱoralȱteachingsȱbasedȱ onȱ writtenȱ texts,ȱ andȱ theȱ groupsȱ ofȱ individualsȱ whoȱ shareȱ them.ȱ Sheȱ arguesȱ thatȱ theȱ newȱ textualȱ communityȱ thatȱ emergedȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lankaȱ atȱ thatȱ timeȱ actuallyȱ includedȱ monasticȱ andȱ lay,ȱ andȱ maleȱ andȱ female,ȱ segmentsȱofȱsocietyȱatȱvariousȱlevelsȱofȱliteracy.24ȱTheȱtextualȱcommuniȬ ty,ȱ guidedȱ inȱ particularȱ byȱ monks,ȱ gaveȱ particularȱ emphasisȱ toȱ aȱ newȱ literaryȱgenreȱthatȱcontributedȱmuch,ȱforȱexample,ȱtoȱBuddhistȱattitudesȱ towardȱtextualȱauthorityȱandȱlearning.ȱ Asȱ aȱ highȱ scholasticȱ tradition,ȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ quiteȱ obviously,ȱ mayȱ beȱ saidȱ toȱ compriseȱ aȱ textualȱ communityȱ inȱ Blackburn’sȱ sense.ȱ Ifȱ forȱnothingȱelse,ȱtheȱS¬sanaȱisȱinȱmajorȱpartȱaȱtextualȱworldȱencompassȬ ingȱ sourcesȱ inȱ Pali,ȱ theȱ transȬregionalȱ andȱ canonicalȱ languageȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ vernacularȱ languages.ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ isȱ somethingȱthatȱwouldȱbeȱsomewhatȱobscuredȱbyȱtreatingȱtheȱShwegyinȱ asȱaȱtextualȱcommunity,ȱandȱthatȱsomethingȱisȱtheȱbody/mindȱasȱaȱsiteȱ ofȱ reflectionȱ for,ȱ andȱ asȱ aȱ siteȱ forȱ theȱ representationȱ andȱ reproductionȱ of,ȱS¬sanaȬorientedȱnotionsȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture.ȱTherefore,ȱratherȱ thanȱemphasizeȱtheȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱtextualȱcommunity,ȱthisȱstudyȱtreatsȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ asȱ aȱ traditionȱ withȱ significantȱ concernsȱ aboutȱ textsȱ asȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 22ȱ Collinsȱ1998ȱp.ȱ283,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ 23ȱ Collinsȱ1998ȱp.ȱ348,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ 24ȱ Blackburnȱ2001ȱpp.ȱ194–195.ȱ

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wellȱasȱtheȱbody/mind.ȱNotionsȱ ofȱ textsȱ andȱ body/mindȱ areȱ pivotalȱtoȱ Shwegyinȱ conceptionsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ soȱ muchȱ thatȱ theȱ ShweȬ gyinȱconsiderȱS¬sanaȱtexts,ȱhumanȱbodies,ȱandȱcommunitiesȱtoȱbeȱautoȬ maticallyȱcongruous;ȱitȱisȱthatȱtheyȱconsiderȱitȱimportantȱtoȱtheȱvitalityȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱifȱthereȱareȱcommunitiesȱwhereinȱsuchȱcongruityȱisȱactiveȬ lyȱfostered,ȱdespiteȱandȱevenȱbecauseȱofȱproblemsȱinȱtheȱwiderȱsociety.ȱ Withȱ itsȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ monasticȱ traditionȱ andȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ thisȱstudyȱadvancesȱaȱveryȱdifferentȱapproachȱthanȱMelfordȱSpiro’sȱstillȱ importantȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ monasticismȱ inȱ Buddhismȱ andȱ Society:ȱ Aȱ Greatȱ Traditionȱ andȱ itsȱ Burmeseȱ Vicissitudes.ȱ Seeingȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ fewȱ lazyȱ monksȱduringȱhisȱfieldȱresearch,ȱSpiroȱargued,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱthatȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ areȱ dominatedȱ byȱ severalȱ personalityȱ traits.ȱ Theseȱ includeȱaȱneedȱtoȱavoidȱpersonalȱresponsibilityȱ(aȱconditionȱSpiroȱcallsȱ “strongȱdependency”),ȱbyȱanȱoverridingȱpreoccupationȱwithȱtheirȱownȱ selvesȱ (aȱ conditionȱ Spiroȱ callsȱ “narcissism”),ȱ andȱ byȱ anȱ emotionallyȱ timidȱpersonality.ȱAsȱpartȱofȱhisȱanalysis,ȱheȱremarks,ȱ theȱmonasticȱroleȱmayȱbeȱviewedȱasȱanȱinstitutionalizedȱandȱsymbolicȱresoȬ lutionȱofȱtheȱOedipusȱcomplex.ȱTheȱmonkȱrenouncesȱanyȱsexualȱclaimȱnotȱ onlyȱonȱhisȱmother,ȱbutȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱdemandsȱofȱtheȱ“father”— monks,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱrecalled,ȱareȱ“SonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha”—onȱallȱotherȱwomenȱ asȱwell.ȱForȱtheȱmonkȱallȱwomenȱareȱ(forbidden)ȱmothers.ȱInȱexchangeȱforȱ thisȱrenunciationȱheȱcanȱevenȱasȱanȱadultȱcontinueȱtoȱenjoyȱtheȱdependencyȱ ofȱearlyȱchildhood.ȱInȱshort,ȱbyȱobeyingȱtheȱcommandsȱofȱtheȱ“father,”ȱinȬ cludingȱtheȱcommandȱofȱnotȱsleepingȱwithȱtheȱ“mother,”ȱtheȱmonkȱcanȱenȬ joyȱ thatȱ stateȱ toȱ whichȱ heȱ (andȱ probablyȱ mostȱ ofȱ mankind)ȱ aspires—theȱ stageȱofȱabsoluteȱsuccorance.25ȱ

Inȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱBuddhistȱmonkȱisȱtheȱsociologicalȱandȱpsychologiȬ calȱequivalentȱofȱaȱchild,ȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱhasȱveryȱfewȱifȱanyȱresponsibiliȬ ties.ȱIndeed,ȱ“theȱmonkȱcanȱregressȱandȱreenactȱtheȱroleȱappropriateȱtoȱ [the]ȱinfantileȱperiod.”26ȱ BeforeȱoneȱisȱtemptedȱtoȱrejectȱSpiro’sȱanalysisȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱdisȬ agreementȱwithȱhisȱpsychoanalyticalȱcategories,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱnoteȱ thatȱ thereȱ areȱ someȱmonksȱ andȱ layȱ peopleȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ whoȱ haveȱ criȬ tiquedȱ certainȱ monksȱ inȱ waysȱ consistentȱ withȱ him.ȱ Someȱ monksȱ inȱ MyanmarȱandȱinȱotherȱcountriesȱinȱSouthȱandȱSoutheastȱAsiaȱdoȱwishȱ forȱreleaseȱfromȱmonasticȱandȱotherȱobligationsȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱpursueȱ theȱ questȱ forȱ wisdomȱ inȱ aȱ highlyȱ individualisticȱ wayȱ withoutȱ beingȱ encumberedȱbyȱentanglementsȱorȱintrusions,ȱwhetherȱfromȱlayȱpeople,ȱ nuns,ȱorȱotherȱmonks.ȱInȱshort,ȱmenȱbecomeȱmonksȱforȱvariousȱreasonsȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 25ȱ Spiroȱ1982ȱpp.ȱ342–343.ȱ 26ȱ Spiroȱ1982ȱp.ȱ342.ȱ

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andȱ motives.ȱ Thus,ȱ oneȱ canȱ easilyȱ findȱ gradationsȱ inȱ theȱ degreeȱ ofȱ commitmentȱtoȱdoingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱamongȱShwegyinȱmonksȱ justȱasȱamongȱmanyȱotherȱBuddhists.27ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ evidenceȱ doesȱ notȱ inȱ generalȱ supportȱ hisȱanalysis,ȱprimarilyȱbecauseȱtheȱShwegyinȱcompriseȱaȱscholarlyȱmoȬ nasticȱ traditionȱ thatȱ takesȱ itsȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ collectiveȱ transmisȬ sionȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ veryȱ seriously.ȱ Itȱ isȱ impossibleȱ toȱ explainȱ theȱ comȬ munalȱ workȱ thatȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ investȱ inȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ byȱ suchȱ claimsȱ asȱ theȱneedȱtoȱavoidȱresponsibility,ȱforȱexample.ȱCertainly,ȱtheirȱeffortsȱareȱ farȱgreaterȱthanȱanyȱgroupȱofȱchildrenȱcanȱmake.ȱ InȱadditionȱtoȱBuddhistȱmonasticism,ȱthisȱbookȱisȱalsoȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱ topicsȱ ofȱ ritualȱ andȱ Buddhahood,ȱ andȱ hereȱ someȱ ofȱ Donaldȱ Swearer’sȱ commentsȱinȱhisȱBecomingȱtheȱBuddhaȱareȱparticularlyȱrelevant.ȱSwearerȱ arguesȱ thatȱ consecrationȱ ritualsȱ areȱ meantȱ toȱ “enliven”ȱ aȱ devotionalȱ imageȱ withȱ theȱ “presence”ȱ ofȱ theȱ Buddha.ȱ Asȱ partȱ ofȱ hisȱ analysis,ȱ heȱ remarksȱthatȱ theȱBuddha’sȱpresenceȱrituallyȱinfusedȱintoȱtheȱimageȱisȱconstitutedȱbyȱtheȱ jhanicȱpowersȱ[i.e.,ȱpowersȱachievedȱinȱmeditativeȱabsorption]ȱheȱachievedȱ onȱtheȱnightȱofȱhisȱenlightenmentȱandȱhisȱfullȱawakeningȱtoȱtheȱtruthȱofȱtheȱ dhamma.28ȱ

Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theȱ ritualizedȱ abilityȱ toȱ makeȱ anȱ imageȱ intoȱ anȱ objectȱ thatȱcontainsȱtheȱ“presence”ȱofȱtheȱBuddhaȱisȱpredicatedȱuponȱtheȱBudȬ dha’sȱ ownȱ enlightenmentȱ andȱ theȱ powersȱ thatȱ heȱ gainedȱ inȱ thatȱ enȬ lightenment.ȱ Inȱ someȱ ways,ȱ thisȱ studyȱ hasȱ addressedȱ aȱ similarȱ topic.ȱ LikeȱmanyȱotherȱBuddhists,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱsoteriologicalȱ functionȱ ofȱ theȱ ritualȱ consecrationȱ (i.e.,ȱ ordination)ȱ ofȱ aȱ personȱ is,ȱ likeȱ theȱritualȱofȱimageȱconsecration,ȱfundamentallyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱBuddha’sȱ ownȱmeditativeȱachievements.ȱYet,ȱitȱisȱfarȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱtransformȱ peopleȱthanȱimages;ȱsoȱwhileȱaȱritualȱconsecrationȱmayȱbeȱaȱnecessaryȱ firstȱstep,ȱmuchȱmoreȱworkȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdone.ȱItȱisȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱthatȱanȱ ordinationȱmakesȱaȱpersonȱembodyȱtheȱ“presence”ȱofȱtheȱBuddha.ȱItȱisȱ moreȱ that,ȱ likeȱ theȱ Buddha,ȱ peopleȱ canȱ helpȱ themselvesȱ andȱ othersȱ moveȱtowardȱthatȱgoalȱofȱenlightenmentȱbyȱfosteringȱinȱthemselvesȱorȱ othersȱ anȱ experienceȱ ofȱ lightȱ andȱ wisdomȱ (especiallyȱ asȱ discussedȱ inȱ chapterȱfour).ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ conversationsȱ aboutȱ monasticismȱ andȱ Buddhistȱ riȬ tuals,ȱthisȱstudyȱultimatelyȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱShwegyinȱhaveȱsomethingȱ toȱofferȱtheȱstudyȱofȱBuddhistȱethics.ȱToȱunderstandȱthis,ȱbriefȱattentionȱ canȱ beȱ givenȱ toȱ aȱ fewȱ essaysȱ dealingȱ withȱ Buddhistȱ ethics.ȱ Theȱ essaysȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 27ȱ Theseȱcommentsȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱextendedȱtoȱnovicesȱandȱnuns.ȱ 28ȱ Swearerȱ2004ȱp.ȱ115,ȱbracketsȱmine.ȱ

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moveȱ usȱ wellȱ beyondȱ theȱ typologiesȱ ofȱ “thisȬworldly”ȱ andȱ “otherȬ worldly”ȱethicalȱconcern.ȱ Inȱ anȱ importantȱ essayȱ onȱ “particularism”ȱ inȱ Buddhistȱ ethics,ȱ CharlesȱHalliseyȱremarks:ȱ IȱseeȱtheȱeffortsȱbyȱvariousȱscholarsȱofȱBuddhismȱoverȱtheȱyearsȱtoȱdescribeȱ theȱnatureȱofȱBuddhistȱethics—asȱeudemonistic,ȱconsequentialist,ȱintentionȬ alist,ȱaȱvirtueȬethics,ȱorȱwhatever—asȱillustratingȱhowȱmanyȱofȱusȱhaveȱapȬ proachedȱourȱsubjectȱexpectingȱthatȱthereȱisȱaȱmoralȱtheoryȱunderlyingȱorȱ structuringȱ Buddhistȱ ethics,ȱ oneȱ which,ȱ onceȱ identified,ȱ wouldȱ provideȱ aȱ globalȱjustificationȱforȱtheȱspecificȱpartsȱofȱBuddhistȱethics.29ȱ

CitingȱsomeȱofȱtheȱworkȱofȱDamienȱKeownȱasȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint,30ȱHalliseyȱ eventuallyȱgoesȱonȱtoȱargueȱthatȱ Firstȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱstudyȱofȱethicsȱinȱTherav¬daȱBuddhismȱisȱbestȱpursuedȱhistoriȬ cally,ȱ inȱ theȱ senseȱ that,ȱ whenȱ weȱ wishȱ toȱ makeȱ generalizationsȱ aboutȱ theȱ Therav¬da,ȱweȱmustȱacknowledge,ȱevenȱifȱweȱcannotȱtakeȱintoȱaccount,ȱtheȱ fullȱrangeȱofȱevidenceȱavailableȱtoȱusȱandȱnotȱlimitȱourselvesȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱPaȬ liȱcanon.ȱSecond,ȱtheȱfullȱscopeȱofȱtheȱethicalȱheritageȱofȱtheȱTherav¬daȱinȬ cludesȱ manyȱ storiesȱ whichȱ weȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱ seriouslyȱ asȱ sitesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ moralȱreflectionȱandȱreasoning.31ȱ

Thisȱ studyȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ weȱ canȱ expandȱ onȱ theȱ importanceȱ Halliseyȱ givesȱtoȱtheȱ“historical”ȱbyȱconsideringȱtheȱevidenceȱfurnishedȱnotȱjustȱ byȱstoriesȱ(theȱfocusȱofȱHallisey’sȱhistoricalȱapproach)ȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱmanyȱ kindsȱ ofȱ monasticȱ thoughtȱ andȱ activityȱ overȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ history—forȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱhere,ȱnarrativeȱrepresentationsȱ(chapȬ terȱone),ȱinstitutionalȱactivityȱ(chapterȱtwo),ȱordinationȱpatternsȱ(chapȬ terȱthree),ȱandȱAbhidhammaȱsermonsȱ(chapterȱfour).ȱ Inȱanotherȱessay,ȱHalliseyȱstatesȱaȱfurtherȱpointȱaboutȱtheȱnatureȱofȱ collectiveȱ Buddhistȱ workȱ overȱ time,ȱ aȱ pointȱ whichȱ canȱ againȱ beȱ adȬ dressedȱinȱlightȱofȱShwegyinȱeffortsȱforȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱHalliseyȱarguesȱthatȱ preservationȱ amongȱ Buddhistȱ andȱ otherȱ scholarsȱ constitutesȱ aȱ moralȱ imperativeȱforȱphilosophicalȱstudyȱandȱlife.32ȱ Theȱimageȱofȱphilosophyȱ“asȱofȱaȱtreasurer”ȱremindsȱusȱthatȱourȱresponsiȬ bilitiesȱareȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱourselves,ȱbutȱtoȱpastȱandȱfutureȱgenerations,ȱandȱitȱ alsoȱ remindsȱ usȱ thatȱ theseȱ responsibilitiesȱ impressȱ onȱ usȱ certainȱ expectaȬ tionsȱforȱhowȱweȱshouldȱapproachȱourȱexpandingȱintellectualȱinheritance.ȱ AsȱweȱhaveȱlearnedȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱthoseȱWesternȱphilosophicalȱtraditionsȱ whichȱweȱalreadyȱcallȱ”ourȱown,”ȱweȱhaveȱaȱresponsibilityȱtoȱlistenȱandȱtoȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 29ȱ Halliseyȱ1996ȱp.ȱ34.ȱ 30ȱ Cf.ȱKeownȱ1992.ȱ 31ȱ Halliseyȱ1996ȱp.ȱ42.ȱSeeȱalsoȱSchilbrackȱ1997ȱpp.ȱ98–111ȱandȱHalliseyȱ1997ȱpp.ȱ184– 188.ȱ 32ȱ Halliseyȱ1994ȱpp.ȱ121–160.ȱ

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“continueȱtheȱ conversation”ȱofȱtradition,ȱevenȱwhenȱitȱleavesȱusȱconfusedȱ andȱ evenȱ whenȱ weȱ areȱ confidentȱ thatȱ ourȱ reflectionsȱ haveȱ “discovered”ȱ conceptualȱ inadequaciesȱ withinȱ it.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ [The]ȱ incitementȱ toȱ preservationȱ isȱ inherentȱinȱtheȱveryȱnatureȱofȱphilosophicalȱunderstanding,ȱinȱwhichȱideasȱ andȱproblemsȱreceivedȱfromȱtheȱpastȱhaveȱanȱautonomousȱinterestȱbeyondȱ whatȱcanȱbeȱexplainedȱbyȱreferenceȱtoȱtheirȱpreviousȱhistoricalȱcontexts.33ȱ

Ultimately,ȱ asȱ Iȱ readȱ him,ȱ Halliseyȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ Buddhistȱ (andȱ other)ȱ philosophersȱcompriseȱtheȱlineagesȱofȱscholarsȱwhoȱpreserveȱandȱnurȬ tureȱBuddhistȱ(andȱotherȱkindsȱof)ȱdoctrineȱthatȱtheyȱinheritȱasȱwellȱasȱ passȱ onȱ toȱ succeedingȱ generations.ȱ Inȱ keepingȱ withȱ Hallisey’sȱ ideas,ȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ theȱ religiousȱ realizationsȱ associatedȱ withȱ itȱ involvesȱ anȱ intenseȱ effortȱ toȱ studyȱ andȱ transmitȱ theȱ highestȱ reachesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ philosophy,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ Myanmar,ȱ whichȱ is,ȱ asȱ notedȱinȱchapterȱfour,ȱaȱcenterȱofȱAbhidhammaȱstudies.ȱAndȱasȱisȱamplyȱ demonstratedȱ throughoutȱ thisȱ study,ȱ itȱ alsoȱ involvesȱ concernsȱ aboutȱ lineage.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱShwegyinȱmaterialȱactuallyȱencouragesȱaȱsignifiȬ cantȱshiftȱawayȱfromȱtheȱkindȱofȱanalyticalȱfocusȱHalliseyȱoutlines.ȱInȬ deed,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ materialȱ showsȱ usȱ thatȱ weȱ mustȱ considerȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ negotiatingȱ continuityȱ andȱ ruptureȱ fromȱ aȱ perspectiveȱ foȬ cusedȱ onȱ manyȱ differentȱ kindsȱ ofȱ Buddhists,ȱ withinȱ andȱ acrossȱ careȱ groups:ȱ monksȱ (e.g.,ȱ Shwegyinȱ Headsȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ Shwegyinȱ ExecuȬ tiveȱOfficers,ȱSeniorȱAuthorities,ȱVinayaȱspecialists,ȱcandidatesȱforȱordiȬ nation,ȱ Abhidhammaȱ adepts,ȱ andȱ juniorȱ rankȬandȬfileȱ monks)ȱ andȱ nonȬ monksȱ(e.g.,ȱlayȱpeopleȱinȱgeneral,ȱnuns,ȱpoliticalȱelites)ȱwhoȱmutuallyȱ participateȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱdoingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱsoȱthatȱitȱperȬ sistsȱinȱaȱrelativelyȱcontinuousȱway.ȱ Additionally,ȱ thisȱ studyȱ takesȱ aȱ pointȱ ofȱ departureȱ fromȱ aȱ thirdȱ studyȱbyȱHallisey,ȱcoauthoredȱwithȱAnneȱHansen.ȱBuildingȱonȱanȱanaȬ lyticalȱdistinctionȱdevelopedȱbyȱDominickȱLaCapra,ȱHalliseyȱandȱHanȬ senȱmoveȱawayȱfromȱwhatȱtheyȱcallȱaȱ“documentary”ȱapproachȱtoȱBudȬ dhistȱliterature—anȱapproachȱtheyȱfindȱtoȱbeȱcommonȱinȱmanyȱstudiesȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ ethics.ȱ Instead,ȱ theyȱ proposeȱ anȱ approachȱ thatȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ “worklike”ȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ literature.ȱ Thatȱ is,ȱ theyȱ reflectȱ notȱ onȱ howȱ theȱ “‘documentary’ȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ aȱ textȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ situateȱ itȱ withinȱ anȱ empiricalȱrealityȱandȱconveyȱinformationȱaboutȱthatȱreality,”ȱbutȱonȱtheȱ morallyȱtransformativeȱcapacitiesȱofȱBuddhistȱliteratureȱthatȱemergeȱinȱ theȱprocessȱofȱtheirȱculturalȱuse.34ȱInȱmanyȱways,ȱtheȱanalysesȱthroughȬ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 33ȱ Halliseyȱ1994ȱp.ȱ150.ȱ 34ȱ HalliseyȱandȱHansenȱ1996ȱp.ȱ307;ȱLaCapraȱ1983.ȱForȱfurtherȱdiscussionȱofȱLaCapra,ȱ see,ȱforȱinstance,ȱCollinsȱ1998ȱpp.ȱ41–42,ȱ80,ȱandȱBlackburnȱ2001ȱpp.ȱ145–146.ȱInȱaddiȬ tionȱtoȱLaCapra’sȱwork,ȱHalliseyȱandȱHansenȱ drawȱ onȱtheȱcategoryȱ ofȱ“subȬethics“ȱ asȱadoptedȱbyȱHarphamȱ1992ȱp.ȱ2.ȱFollowingȱHarpham,ȱHalliseyȱandȱHansen,ȱp.ȱ308,ȱ

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outȱ thisȱ studyȱareȱdirectlyȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱworklikeȱaspectsȱofȱdifȬ ferentȱ genresȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ literature.ȱ However,ȱ again,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ materialȱoffersȱusȱsomethingȱdifferent,ȱbyȱwayȱofȱencouragingȱaȱdeparȬ tureȱ fromȱ theȱ methodologicalȱ scopeȱ theyȱ suggest.ȱ Asȱ developedȱ here,ȱ theȱworklikeȱaspectsȱofȱBuddhistȱliteratureȱareȱpartȱofȱtheȱlargerȱprocessȱ ofȱdealingȱwithȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture,ȱcenteredȱonȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ InȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱessaysȱwrittenȱorȱcoauthoredȱbyȱHallisey,ȱanȱesȬ sayȱ byȱ Frankȱ Reynolds,ȱ concerningȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ scopeȱ ofȱ Buddhistȱ socialȱ ethics,ȱ isȱ alsoȱ importantȱ toȱ consider.35ȱ Inȱ thatȱ essay,ȱ Reynoldsȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ Therav¬daȱ Buddhismȱ exhibitsȱ severalȱ differentȱ typesȱ ofȱ cosmogonyȱ(anȱaccountȱofȱorigins)ȱthatȱareȱrelatedȱtoȱfourȱethicalȱtypes.ȱ TheȱfourȱkindsȱofȱBuddhistȱcosmogonyȱareȱ(1)ȱaȱsaΚsaricȱcosmogonyȱofȱ rebirthȱfueledȱespeciallyȱbyȱignoranceȱandȱattachment;ȱ(2)ȱaȱrĀpic36ȱcosȬ mogonyȱ concerningȱ theȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ specificȱ worldȱ systemsȱ inȱ theȱ flowȱ ofȱ saΚs¬ra;ȱ (3)ȱ aȱ dhammic37ȱ cosmogonyȱ initiatedȱ byȱ Gotamaȱ andȱ otherȱpreviousȱBuddhas,ȱwhichȱisȱreenactedȱandȱsupportedȱbyȱdevoteesȱ throughȱ ritualȱ andȱ otherȱ activity;ȱ andȱ (4)ȱ aȱ dhammicȱ cosmogonyȱ toȱ beȱ initiatedȱbyȱtheȱfutureȱBuddhaȱMetteya.ȱ Theȱ moralȱ typesȱ thatȱ Reynoldsȱ correlatesȱ withȱ theseȱ cosmogoniesȱ areȱcomplex.ȱOneȱtypeȱofȱmoralȱthoughtȱandȱactivity,ȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱ saΚsaricȱandȱrĀpicȱcosmogonies,ȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱmitigationȱandȱdestrucȬ tionȱofȱvices,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱgreedȱ(P.ȱlobha),ȱhatredȱ(P.ȱdosa),ȱandȱdelusionȱ (P.ȱmoha)ȱthatȱkeepȱbeingsȱembeddedȱinȱsaΚs¬raȱandȱincreaseȱsufferingȱ inȱtheȱworld.ȱAȱsecondȱtypeȱofȱmoralȱthoughtȱandȱactivity,ȱpertainingȱtoȱ theȱrĀpicȱandȱdhammicȱcosmogonies,ȱfocusesȱonȱpreceptsȱandȱrules,ȱsuchȱ asȱtheȱbasicȱpreceptsȱagainstȱkilling,ȱstealing,ȱlying,ȱandȱsexualȱmisconȬ duct,ȱ andȱ theȱ 227ȱ rulesȱ ofȱ theȱ monasticȱ code.ȱ Aȱ thirdȱ typeȱ ofȱ moralȱ thoughtȱ andȱ activity,ȱ pertainingȱ toȱ theȱ dhammicȱ cosmogonies,ȱ centersȱ onȱtheȱcultivationȱofȱvirtues,ȱsuchȱasȱgivingȱ(P.ȱd¬na)ȱandȱsympathyȱ(P.ȱ anukamp¬).ȱ Inȱ Reynolds’sȱ view,ȱ eachȱ ofȱ theseȱ threeȱ typesȱ ofȱ moralȱ thoughtȱ andȱ activityȱ relatesȱ inȱ certainȱ waysȱ toȱ soteriologicalȱ advanceȬ ment,ȱparticularlyȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱpathȱandȱtheȱquestȱ forȱ nibb¬na.ȱ Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ previousȱ threeȱ typesȱ ofȱ moralȱ action,ȱ aȱ fourthȱ typeȱ ofȱ ethic,ȱ concerningȱ rĀpicȱ andȱ dhammicȱ cosmogonies,ȱ isȱ anȱ “ethicȱofȱresponsibility”ȱthatȱ“isȱgroundedȱinȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱactȱinȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ identifyȱtheȱ“subȬethical”ȱasȱ“theȱmostȱbasicȱandȱinevitablyȱunderȬdeterminedȱcondiȬ tionsȱ andȱ characteristicsȱ ofȱ ethicalȱ discourseȱ andȱ moralȱ life.”ȱ Also,ȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ takenȱbyȱHalliseyȱandȱHansenȱisȱconsistentȱwithȱcognitiveȱtheoristsȱwhoȱargueȱthatȱ theȱmeaningsȱofȱtextsȱareȱnotȱindependentȱofȱtheirȱinterpreters.ȱ 35ȱ Reynoldsȱ1985ȱpp.ȱ203–219.ȱ 36ȱ SoȱnamedȱafterȱrĀpaȱorȱmateriality.ȱ 37ȱ SoȱnamedȱafterȱtheȱwordȱDhammaȱorȱteaching.ȱ

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accordanceȱ withȱ dhammicȱ normsȱ andȱ doesȱ notȱ relate,ȱ inȱ anyȱ directȱ orȱ immediateȱway,ȱtoȱtheȱattainmentȱofȱpersonalȱsoteriologicalȱgoals.”38ȱ Seenȱ fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ thisȱ study,ȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ possibleȱ toȱ applyȱ Reynolds’sȱtypology,ȱatȱleastȱinȱpart,ȱtoȱ theȱShwegyinȱtraditionȱandȱtoȱ theȱ Burmeseȱcaseȱmoreȱ generally.39ȱMostȱ significantly,ȱ whileȱ Reynoldsȱ suggestsȱthatȱthereȱareȱdeepȱethicalȱtensions40ȱinȱtheȱBuddhistȱtraditionsȱ ofȱ Southȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asia,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ widerȱ Burmeseȱ eviȬ denceȱdoesȱnotȱsupportȱtheȱbasicȱdisconnectionȱthatȱReynoldsȱsuggestsȱ betweenȱwhatȱheȱcallsȱanȱ“ethicȱofȱresponsibility,”ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱ soteriologicalȱadvancement,ȱonȱtheȱother.ȱAsȱillustratedȱthroughoutȱthisȱ study,ȱ Shwegyinȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ responsibilityȱ areȱ deeplyȱ conȬ cernedȱ withȱ theȱ textualȱ andȱ embodiedȱ continuityȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ alsoȱ directlyȱ connectedȱ toȱ ideasȱ aboutȱ individualȱ andȱ collectiveȱ soteriologicalȱadvancementȱbyȱwayȱofȱtheȱmitigationȱandȱdestructionȱofȱ theȱ vicesȱ thatȱ inhibitȱ thatȱ advancement,ȱ andȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ theȱ rules,ȱ preȬ cepts,ȱ virtues,ȱ andȱ intellectualȱ understandingsȱ thatȱ enhanceȱ thatȱ adȬ vancement.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱeachȱofȱtheȱchaptersȱinȱthisȱstudyȱisȱdirectlyȱ concernedȱwithȱShwegyinȱthoughtsȱandȱpracticesȱthatȱlinkȱresponsibiliȬ tyȱ andȱ soteriologicalȱ advancement,ȱ atȱ variousȱ levelsȱ ofȱ individualȱ andȱ communalȱengagement.ȱ However,ȱ Reynoldsȱ goesȱ onȱ toȱ developȱ hisȱ ideasȱ aboutȱ hisȱ fourthȱ moralȱtypeȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱcorrelatesȱwithȱfurtherȱpossibilitiesȱofȱstudiesȱ ofȱShwegyinȱandȱotherȱBuddhistȱtraditionalism.ȱReynoldsȱremarks:ȱ Atȱ theȱ saΚs¬ric/rĀpicȱ levelȱ thisȱ ethicȱ ofȱ responsibilityȱ involvesȱ theȱ perforȬ manceȱofȱone’sȱproperȱfunctionsȱwithinȱtheȱdhammicȱsocialȱorder,ȱincludingȱ theȱ maintenanceȱ ofȱ aȱ properȱ protectiveȱ andȱ supportiveȱ relationshipȱ withȱ theȱ orderȱ ofȱ monks.ȱ Atȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ theȱ pathȱ symbolicallyȱ representedȱ byȱ theȱmonks,ȱthisȱethicȱofȱresponsibilityȱinvolvesȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱproperȱ monasticȱ functions,ȱ includingȱ theȱ maintenanceȱ ofȱ positiveȱ relationshipsȱ withȱtheȱlaity.41ȱ

TheseȱcommentsȱmayȱbeȱextendedȱtoȱtheȱShwegyinȱandȱotherȱmonasticȱ traditions,ȱinȱthatȱtheirȱworkȱofȱtraditionalismȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱruptureȱ isȱpremisedȱon,ȱevenȱifȱatȱtimesȱveryȱimplicitlyȱso,ȱtheȱproperȱalignmentȱ ofȱ monasticȱ andȱ layȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 38ȱ Reynoldsȱ1985ȱp.ȱ219.ȱ 39ȱ Someȱ scholarsȱ haveȱ arguedȱ thatȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ “cosmogony”ȱ doesȱ notȱ applyȱ toȱ theȱ Buddhistȱcase.ȱHowever,ȱIȱamȱultimatelyȱlessȱinterestedȱinȱtheȱnotionȱofȱcosmogonyȱ perȱ se,ȱ andȱ moreȱ interestedȱ inȱ theȱ implicationsȱ ofȱ Reynolds’sȱ typologyȱ forȱ underȬ standingȱBuddhistȱsocialȱethics,ȱShwegyinȬstyle.ȱȱ 40ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ tensionsȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ understoodȱ asȱ trueȱ logicalȱ paradoxes.ȱ Forȱ aȱ relevantȱdiscussion,ȱseeȱLehmanȱ2005.ȱ 41ȱ Reynoldsȱ1985ȱp.ȱ219.ȱ

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Indeed,ȱinȱtheȱShwegyinȱvisionȱitȱisȱunderstoodȱthatȱifȱlayȱrulers,ȱpolitiȬ calȱelites,ȱandȱlayȱpeopleȱinȱgeneralȱdoȱnotȱtakeȱtheirȱ“ethicȱofȱresponsiȬ bility”ȱseriouslyȱenough,ȱthenȱtheyȱcanȱsubvertȱtheȱentireȱenterpriseȱofȱ negotiatingȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture.ȱTheȱpresentȱBurmeseȱmilitaryȱleadȬ ershipȱ hasȱ beenȱ acutelyȱ attunedȱ toȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ monasticȱ perspective,ȱ andȱhasȱattemptedȱtoȱtapȱintoȱitȱtoȱjustifyȱitsȱsupportȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱasȱaȱ specialȱcareȱgroup.ȱ Itȱ strikesȱ meȱthatȱ thisȱ lastȱ setȱ ofȱ pointsȱ raisesȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ theȱ argumentȱ thatȱ anȱ overlyȱ strongȱ concernȱ withȱ preventingȱ theȱ decayȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana,ȱ viaȱ theȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ practicesȱ ofȱ Shwegyinȱ monks,ȱ otherȱ monks,ȱ andȱ Burmeseȱ layȱ peopleȱ inȱ general,ȱ hasȱ inȱ partȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱinabilityȱofȱBurmeseȱsocietyȱasȱaȱwholeȱtoȱpreventȱtheȱkindȱofȱdecayȱ thatȱitȱhasȱseenȱonȱtheȱpoliticalȱlevelȱsinceȱ1962.ȱOneȱmightȱbeȱtemptedȱ toȱargueȱthatȱaȱfocusȱonȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱwithȱitsȱcosmologyȱandȱcareȱgroup– basedȱnotionsȱofȱmoralȱstructure,ȱshouldȱundermineȱtheȱlongevityȱofȱaȱ repressiveȱreignȱofȱmilitaryȱrule.ȱHowever,ȱ“militaryȱrule”ȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱ normȱforȱmostȱofȱtheȱBuddhistȱhistoryȱofȱMyanmar,ȱandȱinȱotherȱBudȬ dhistȱlandsȱasȱwell,ȱalbeitȱunderȱtheȱguiseȱofȱkingsȱandȱroyaltyȱalignedȱ withȱmonks.ȱThereȱisȱnothingȱinherentȱinȱcertainȱvisionsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱ likeȱthatȱexploredȱinȱthisȱstudy,ȱthatȱcallsȱforȱrevoltȱorȱrebellionȱagainstȱ aȱ governmentȱ orȱ rulingȱ orderȱ thatȱ supportsȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theȱ complexiȬ tiesȱhereȱawaitȱfurtherȱresearch.ȱ

ȱ

Epilogue:ȱAȱCommentȱonȱContinuityȱandȱRupture,ȱ fromȱAfarȱ ȱ Theȱfieldȱresearchȱforȱthisȱstudyȱcameȱtoȱaȱcloseȱinȱ2003,ȱandȱIȱhaveȱnotȱ inȱthisȱbookȱsoughtȱtoȱanalyzeȱdevelopmentsȱinȱMyanmar,ȱShwegyinȱorȱ otherwise,ȱsinceȱthatȱtime.ȱThus,ȱtheȱmonasticȱandȱlayȱuprisingȱinȱ2007,ȱ theȱcontinuingȱsituationȱinȱMyanmar,ȱandȱaȱpotentialȱresolutionȱofȱtheȱ hardshipsȱofȱlifeȱunderȱaȱmilitaryȱdictatorshipȱlayȱoutsideȱtheȱscopeȱofȱ thisȱstudy.1ȱHowever,ȱIȱdoȱthinkȱthatȱtheȱinvestigationsȱentertainedȱhereȱ areȱ relevantȱ toȱ understandingȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ moreȱ recentȱ events,ȱ andȱ inȱ thisȱepilogueȱIȱcommentȱonȱwhyȱIȱthinkȱthisȱisȱso.ȱ Asȱ withȱ allȱ “modern”ȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ traditions,ȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ hasȱ beenȱ forgedȱ inȱ aȱ prolongedȱ historicalȱ periodȱ ofȱ politicalȱ disruptionȱ bracketedȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ endȱ byȱ aȱ colonialȱ powerȱ thatȱ underȬ minedȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱitsȱcareȱgroupsȱandȱonȱtheȱotherȱendȱbyȱaȱrepresȬ siveȱ militaryȱ governmentȱ nowȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ supportingȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Againstȱthisȱbackdrop,ȱ oneȱcanȱaskȱ whetherȱtheȱShwegyinȱrepresentȱ aȱ radicalȱ formȱ ofȱ discontinuityȱ fromȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ pastȱ andȱ present,ȱ inȱ Myanmarȱandȱelsewhere.ȱThatȱis,ȱdoȱtheyȱrepresentȱsomeȱtypeȱofȱnewȱ religiousȱmovementȱunlikeȱanythingȱelse?ȱAnd,ȱdoesȱanȱanswerȱtoȱthisȱ questionȱsuggestȱtoȱusȱanythingȱaboutȱMyanmar’sȱpoliticalȱfuture?ȱ Givenȱtheȱvariousȱtypesȱofȱinstitutionalȱsystemizationȱ(summarizedȱ inȱ theȱ conclusion)ȱ exhibitedȱ byȱ theȱ Shwegyin,ȱ andȱ toȱ varyingȱ degreesȱ byȱ otherȱ monasticȱ traditions,ȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ aȱ radicalȱ breakȱ withȱ theȱ Buddhistȱpastȱandȱpresentȱremainsȱdifficultȱtoȱanswerȱdefinitively.ȱItȱisȱ perhapsȱ bestȱ toȱ thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ asȱ representingȱ oneȱ (extreme)ȱ endȱ ofȱ aȱ spectrumȱ ofȱ institutionalizationȱ presentȱ inȱ theȱ historyȱ andȱ regionalȱspecificityȱofȱBuddhistȱmonasticism,ȱaȱpointȱalsoȱreinforcedȱbyȱ theȱoverviewȱprovidedȱinȱtheȱintroductionȱtoȱthisȱstudy.ȱYetȱinȱanotherȱ senseȱ itȱisȱ possibleȱ toȱ beȱ moreȱ definitive:ȱgivenȱtheȱwaysȱinȱ whichȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ emphasizesȱ theȱ religiousȱ primacyȱ ofȱ g¬kyamuniȱ Buddha,ȱPaliȱasȱaȱsacredȱlanguage,ȱtheȱparticularȱnotionsȱofȱcontinuityȱ andȱruptureȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱPaliȱandȱPaliȬrelatedȱtextualȱcorpus,ȱtheȱ patternsȱ ofȱ ritualȱ lifeȱ associatedȱ withȱ thoseȱ notions,ȱ andȱ soȱ forth,ȱ theȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱȱ

SeeȱSchoberȱ2010ȱforȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱrecentȱdevelopments.ȱ

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answerȱ toȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ aȱ radicalȱ breakȱ withȱ theȱ Buddhistȱ culturalȱ pastȱandȱpresentȱmustȱsurelyȱbeȱno.ȱ Evenȱso,ȱtheȱquestionȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱasȱaȱformȱofȱdiscontinuityȱisȱ perhapsȱnotȱbestȱaddressedȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱpastȱorȱpresent,ȱbutȱinȱtermsȱ ofȱaȱpossibleȱfuture:ȱwhatȱifȱaȱculturalȱpatternȱofȱS¬sanaȬization,ȱwhichȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ traditionȱ exemplifies,ȱ gainsȱ seriousȱ momentumȱ andȱ comesȱ toȱ thoroughlyȱ dominateȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ field?ȱ Letȱ meȱ suggestȱ thatȱ weȱ mightȱ beȱ witnessingȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ aȱ basisȱ forȱ positiveȱpoliticalȱchangeȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱquestionȱofȱ discontinuityȱisȱperhapsȱnotȱmostȱintriguinglyȱconsideredȱbyȱlookingȱatȱ theȱShwegyinȱtraditionȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱpastȱorȱpresent,ȱbutȱbyȱconsiderȬ ingȱaȱpossibleȱfutureȱimplicationȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȬizationȱitȱrepresents.ȱ LetȱmeȱdevelopȱthisȱbyȱlookingȱatȱtheȱsituationȱinȱMyanmarȱfromȱaȱ differentȱvantageȱpoint—aȱvantageȱpointȱsimultaneouslyȱveryȱfarȱfromȱ andȱveryȱcloseȱtoȱcontemporaryȱMyanmar.ȱInȱOctoberȱ2007,ȱinȱtheȱwakeȱ ofȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱMoli,ȱanȱimportantȱinternationalȱorganiȬ zationȱofȱBurmeseȱmonksȱthatȱformedȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱinȱresponseȱ toȱtheȱcrackdownȱonȱtheȱprotestsȱinȱMyanmarȱinȱ2007,ȱaȱletterȱ(seeȱapȬ pendixȱ C)ȱ wasȱ sent,ȱ viaȱ fax,ȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ Affairsȱ toȱ aȱ BurmeseȱmonasteryȱnearȱLosȱAngeles.ȱTheȱletterȱwasȱaddressedȱtoȱtheȱ PenangȱSayadaw,ȱaȱleaderȱofȱtheȱorganization.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱmonasteryȱ toȱwhichȱtheȱletterȱwasȱsentȱisȱhomeȱtoȱaȱShwegyinȱmonkȱwhoȱhasȱbeenȱ livingȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱforȱaȱfewȱyears,ȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱhimselfȱ isȱnotȱShwegyin.ȱ Theȱletterȱisȱcompellingȱtoȱmeȱinȱasȱmuchȱasȱitȱ(a)ȱrepresentsȱsomeȱ ofȱtheȱissuesȱthatȱpermeateȱtheȱcurrentȱBurmeseȱpoliticalȱcrisis,ȱinternalȬ lyȱ andȱ globally,ȱ (b)ȱ contributesȱ toȱ anȱ initialȱ understandingȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ themesȱofȱcontinuityȱandȱruptureȱexploredȱthroughoutȱthisȱstudyȱrelateȱ toȱcurrentȱmanifestationsȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱcrisis,ȱandȱ(c)ȱoffersȱanȱexamȬ pleȱofȱtheȱproblemsȱofȱobtainingȱdataȱaboutȱMyanmarȱthatȱcanȱbeȱreliaȬ blyȱverified.ȱWithȱregardȱtoȱ(c),ȱtheȱletterȱwasȱsentȱwithoutȱanyȱsortȱofȱ contactȱinformationȱandȱname.2ȱAsȱforȱ(a)ȱandȱ(b),ȱsomeȱfurtherȱexplaȬ nationȱisȱrequired.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2ȱ

Aȱ copyȱ ofȱ theȱ documentȱ isȱ availableȱ atȱ http://burmatoday.net/organizations 2005/20071031_regime_response_to_sasana_moli.pdfȱ andȱ Iȱ haveȱ alsoȱ includedȱ theȱ originalȱBurmeseȱinȱappendixȱC.ȱTheȱlowerȱrightȱhandȱofȱtheȱsecondȱpageȱbearsȱtheȱ typedȱwordsȱ“MinistryȱofȱS¬sanaȱAffairs”ȱandȱtoȱthisȱdayȱitȱisȱunknownȱwhoȱsentȱtheȱ letter.ȱhttp://www.hrw.org/en/node/85644/section/11#_ftnref182ȱoffersȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ TheȱMinistryȱofȱReligiousȱAffairsȱinȱBurmaȱsentȱaȱfaxȱtoȱUȱPannyaȱVamsaȱ[i.e.,ȱ theȱ Penangȱ Sayadaw]ȱ theȱ dayȱ afterȱ theȱ formationȱ ofȱ theȱ IBMOȱ onȱ Octoberȱ 27,ȱ 2007ȱsaying,ȱratherȱcuriously,ȱthatȱ“weȱheardȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthatȱtheȱBurmeseȱmonksȱinȱtheȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ haveȱ formedȱ aȱ Sanghaȱ Regency.”ȱ Whetherȱ Burma’sȱ intelligenceȱ

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Toȱunderstandȱtheȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱletterȱsurfaced,ȱandȱtheȱPeȬ nangȱ Sayadaw’sȱ basicȱ positionsȱ onȱ theȱ kindsȱ ofȱ issuesȱ raisedȱ inȱ theȱ letter,ȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱfirstȱknowȱsomethingȱofȱtheȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ Moliȱ whenȱ itȱ firstȱ formed.ȱ Theȱ goalsȱ are:ȱ toȱ propagateȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ toȱ publishȱBuddhistȱliterature;ȱtoȱpreventȱdangerousȱactionsȱthatȱcanȱharmȱ andȱ impairȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ theȱ wellȬbeingȱ ofȱ monks;ȱtoȱcollaborateȱwithȱvariousȱinternationalȱfaithȱorganizationsȱonȱ projectsȱofȱmutualȱinterest;ȱtoȱstriveȱforȱtheȱbenefitȱofȱallȱtheȱcitizensȱofȱ theȱworld;ȱtoȱobtainȱtheȱunconditionalȱreleaseȱofȱmonksȱbeingȱdetainedȱ inȱ orȱ sentȱ toȱ slaveȬlaborȱ camps;ȱ toȱ obtainȱ trueȱ statementsȱ aboutȱ theȱ deathsȱ ofȱ monksȱ (includingȱ namesȱ andȱ theȱ eventsȱ leadingȱ toȱ theȱ deaths);ȱ toȱ stopȱ defamatoryȱ remarksȱ madeȱ towardȱ monks;ȱ toȱ preventȱ harmfulȱ lawsȱ beingȱ proclaimedȱ byȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Sayadaws;ȱ toȱ bringȱ aboutȱ theȱ retreatȱ ofȱ armedȱ forces’ȱ personnelȱ fromȱ pagodasȱ andȱ monasteries;ȱtoȱpromoteȱadherenceȱtoȱtheȱteachingsȱofȱtheȱSayadawsȱbyȱ administrators;ȱ toȱ developȱ peaceȱ andȱ prosperityȱ ofȱ everyȱ townȱ andȱ villageȱ (inȱ Myanmar);ȱ toȱ informȱ youngȱ soldiersȱ andȱ localȱ thugsȱ thatȱ killingȱ monksȱ isȱ anȱ unpardonableȱ crimeȱ leadingȱ toȱ hell;3ȱ toȱ preventȱ harmȱ toȱ monksȱ whoȱ haveȱ participatedȱand/orȱ areȱ stillȱ participatingȱ inȱ theȱ actȱ ofȱ notȱ acceptingȱ almsȱ fromȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ military.4ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱtheȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱorganizationȱexplicitlyȱstrikeȱaȱbalanceȱbetweenȱ theȱhealthȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱandȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱsocialȱcommunity.ȱ Theȱ letterȱ itselfȱ opensȱ byȱ recognizingȱ theȱ Penangȱ Sayadaw’sȱ virȬ tuousȱqualitiesȱofȱconductȱ(P.ȱsÎla),ȱconcentrationȱ(P.ȱsam¬dhi),ȱandȱwisȬ domȱ (P.ȱ paññ¬).ȱ Asȱ seenȱ inȱ thisȱ study,ȱ theseȱ qualitiesȱ areȱ thoroughlyȱ connectedȱnotȱonlyȱwithȱtheȱpathȱtoȱliberationȱbutȱalsoȱwithȱtheȱemboȬ dimentȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Theȱ letterȱ thenȱ highlightsȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ hisȱ religiousȱ worksȱ (e.g.,ȱ theȱ establishmentȱ ofȱ manyȱ Burmeseȱ monasteriesȱ throughoutȱ theȱ world)ȱ forȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ politeȱ greetingȱ andȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ hisȱ religiousȱ works,ȱ theȱ letterȱ shiftsȱ toȱ theȱ recentȱdisturbancesȱinȱMyanmar.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱ 4ȱ

knewȱofȱtheȱLosȱAngelesȱmeetingȱinȱadvanceȱorȱmistakenlyȱwroteȱtheȱfoundingȱ monthȱasȱSeptemberȱinsteadȱofȱOctoberȱ[seeȱappendixȱC],ȱitȱshowsȱhowȱcloselyȱ theȱgovernmentȱwatchesȱtheȱmonks—evenȱthoseȱinȱexileȱinȱNorthȱAmerica.ȱTheȱ faxȱ hadȱ anȱ IDȱ lineȱ toȱ “Myanmarȱ Chevalierȱ Limited,”ȱ whichȱ Uȱ Pannyaȱ Vamsaȱ saidȱwasȱaȱcoverȱoftenȱusedȱbyȱBurma’sȱmilitaryȱintelligenceȱapparatus.ȱNoȱoffiȬ cialȱfromȱtheȱministryȱsignedȱtheȱfax,ȱsuggestingȱthatȱnoȱoneȱwantedȱtoȱtakeȱdiȬ rectȱresponsibilityȱforȱsendingȱaȱletterȱchallengingȱtheȱactionsȱofȱaȱreveredȱsayaȬ dawȱlikeȱUȱPannyaȱVamsa.ȱ InȱtraditionalȱBuddhistȱcosmologyȱthereȱareȱaȱnumberȱofȱhells.ȱ “Statementȱ andȱ Principleȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ Moli“ȱ (http://sasanamoli.blogspot.com/search /label/AboutȱSasanaȱMoli).ȱForȱtheȱsakeȱofȱclarityȱandȱflow,ȱIȱhaveȱrestatedȱtheȱwordȬ ingȱofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱgoals.ȱ

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Theȱ letterȱ claimsȱ thatȱ certainȱ Sayadawsȱ andȱ monks,ȱ previouslyȱ strivingȱforȱtheȱstudyȱofȱtextsȱ(P.ȱganthaȬdhura)ȱandȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱmediȬ tationȱ (P.ȱ vipassan¬Ȭdhura),ȱ hadȱ beenȱ eggedȱ onȱ byȱ politiciansȱ andȱ soȱ turnedȱ fromȱ theirȱ practiceȱ ofȱ theȱ Vinayaȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ demonstrationsȱ againstȱ theȱ government.ȱ Afterȱ notingȱ thatȱ aȱ situationȱ likeȱthatȱofȱ1988ȱhadȱbeenȱbroughtȱaboutȱthroughȱtheȱpoliticalȱexploitaȬ tionȱ ofȱ monks,ȱ theȱ letterȱ entreatsȱ Burmeseȱ abbotsȱ andȱ monksȱ livingȱ abroadȱnotȱtoȱhaveȱaȱwrongȱopinionȱaboutȱtheȱgovernmentȱinȱMyanmarȱ andȱtheȱStateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommittee.ȱ Theȱ letterȱ notesȱ thatȱ theȱ flourishingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ dependsȱ uponȱ monksȱ actingȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ Vinaya.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ notesȱ thatȱ politicsȱ andȱreligiousȱmattersȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱmixed.ȱInȱfact,ȱthroughoutȱtheȱages,ȱ theȱ letterȱ suggests,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ haveȱ notȱ acceptedȱ monksȱ whoȱ participatedȱ inȱ politics.ȱ Theȱ implicationȱ isȱ thatȱ thoseȱ whoȱ doȱsoȱswerveȱfromȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱVinayaȱandȱsoȱsubvertȱtheȱhealthȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ(Thisȱisȱnotȱaȱnewȱclaim.)ȱ Inȱcontrastȱtoȱtheseȱtypesȱofȱpoliticallyȱmotivatedȱmonks,ȱtheȱletterȱ stressesȱ thatȱ theȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Committee,ȱ withȱ theȱ unityȱ ofȱ allȱ monasticȱ groupsȱ asȱ itsȱ foundation,ȱ hadȱ beenȱ workingȱ solelyȱ forȱ religiousȱ affairsȱ andȱ notȱ politics.ȱ Theȱ letterȱ goesȱ onȱ toȱ noteȱ thatȱ alȬ thoughȱtheȱeventsȱofȱSeptemberȱ2007ȱtemporarilyȱdisruptedȱtheȱworkȱofȱ theȱ Committee,ȱ studyȱ andȱ meditationȱ hadȱ returnedȱ toȱ theirȱ regularȱ pattern.ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ letterȱ emphasizes,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ andȱ layȱ people,ȱreverentȱtowardȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱcontinueȱtoȱworkȱforȱitsȱbenefit.ȱ TheȱletterȱclosesȱbyȱsayingȱthatȱnewsȱofȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ Moliȱ(identifiedȱasȱaȱ“SaѼghaȱregency”)ȱmakesȱtheȱauthor(s)ȱofȱtheȱletterȱ unhappy.ȱ Itȱ suggestsȱ that,ȱ inȱ contraveningȱ theȱ classicȱ S¬sanaȱ phraseȱ “theȱ asceticȱ practiceȱ ofȱ thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ inȱ concordȱ isȱ sukha”ȱ (P.ȱ samagg¬naΚȱtapoȱsukho),ȱtheȱmonksȱabroadȱhaveȱformedȱaȱrivalȱorganiȬ zationȱthatȱthreatensȱtheȱunityȱofȱmonksȱandȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱ(recallȱthatȱtheȱPaliȱphraseȱsamagg¬naΚȱtapoȱsukhoȱwasȱdiscussedȱ inȱ chapterȱ two).ȱ Theȱ letterȱ thenȱ asksȱ leadingȱ Sayadawsȱ inȱ generalȱ toȱ preventȱ schismsȱ fromȱ arisingȱ inȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ andȱ reȬ emphasizesȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱSayadawsȱofȱtheȱStateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱ CommitteeȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱFinally,ȱitȱrequestsȱmonksȱtoȱcontinȬ ueȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ onlyȱ outȱ ofȱ religiousȱ concerns,ȱ andȱ notȱ outȱ ofȱ political,ȱeconomic,ȱorȱpersonalȱinterests.ȱ Whatȱisȱstrikingȱaboutȱtheȱletterȱisȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱitȱtapsȱintoȱ theȱkindȱofȱreligiousȱethosȱcenteredȱonȱtheȱS¬sanaȱexploredȱatȱlengthȱinȱ thisȱstudy.ȱReferencesȱtoȱdissensionȱamongȱmonks,ȱsubversionsȱofȱuniȬ ty,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ regardȱ forȱ theȱ Vinaya,ȱ theȱ declineȱ ofȱ theȱ wellȬbeingȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana:ȱtheseȱareȱclassicȱmessagesȱthatȱhaveȱbeenȱsustainedȱforȱyearsȱinȱ

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Myanmar,ȱespeciallyȱbutȱnotȱonlyȱbyȱmonasticȱtraditionsȱlikeȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱdeclineȱandȱruptureȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱAndȱwhatȱtheȱ letterȱ isȱ tryingȱ toȱ sayȱ isȱ thatȱ certainȱ layȱ people,ȱ alliedȱ withȱ certainȱ monks,ȱ areȱ actuallyȱ bringingȱ aboutȱ theȱ communalȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ imȬ pairȱtheȱabilityȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱtoȱflourish.ȱInȱshortȱitȱisȱneitherȱtheȱmilitaryȱ norȱtheȱStateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommitteeȱthatȱisȱcreatingȱproblemsȱ forȱ theȱ S¬sana;ȱitȱ isȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱkindȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱprotestsȱagainstȱ theȱBurmeseȱmilitary.ȱ Amongȱ Shwegyinȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ whoȱ areȱ willingȱ toȱ speakȱ out,ȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ emergingȱ andȱ strongȱ consensusȱ thatȱ theȱ militaryȱ doesȱ notȱ properlyȱunderstandȱtheȱrelationsȱbetweenȱ“politicalȱaffairs”ȱandȱ“reliȬ giousȱaffairs.”ȱTheȱPenangȱSayadawȱhimselfȱmakesȱaȱcaseȱthatȱitȱisȱvirȬ tuallyȱ impossibleȱ toȱ separateȱ “politics”ȱ fromȱ “religion,”ȱ sinceȱ inȱ hisȱ viewȱtheȱflourishingȱofȱtheȱlatterȱdependsȱaȱgreatȱdealȱuponȱtheȱstabilityȱ andȱorderȱofȱtheȱformer.ȱ Nuic\cMer; Suita BalE" Nuic\cM.er;ra" Nuic\cM tKu mekac\;BEnE> qaqnaSuita By\luilup\ ekac\;mlE" Nuic\cMSiuta ±an" Aim\ luipE lui> " qaqnaSuita AEdIAim\epF mHa tk\entE. lU luipE" Aim\~kI;kmH yuiyQc\; pjk\sI;`pI; en m`Ps\eAac\ huienra Aepfk\etQ' dIenra Aepfk\etQ' `Ps\enrc\ AEdIAim\mHa entE.qUk By\luilup\ lm\;elJak\mlE' enmHalE' AEdIeta. qaqnaer;nE> Nuic\cMer;lui> e`paen~k`pI; mlup\qc\.BU;nE> e`paen~ktE.qUetQha qaqnaSuitalv\; BamHn\;mqiBU;' Nuic\cMSuitalv\; BamHn\;mqiBU;' BamHn\; mqipE e`paen~kta" AEdIeta. Bun\;~kI;k e`paty\" AEdfetQkui luik\`pI; men~knE>" Kc\bja;tui> AEdfetQkui luik\naenlui>rHirc\eta. AKuluipE `Ps\enmHapE lui> tuituipE e`paluik\pfty\"5 Whatȱisȱ“politics”?ȱTheȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱWhenȱtheȱcountryȱisȱinȱbadȱ shapeȱhowȱcanȱtheȱthingȱcalledȱ“S¬sana”ȱbeȱinȱgoodȱshape?ȱTheȱ“country”ȱ isȱlikeȱaȱhouseȱandȱtheȱ“S¬sana”ȱisȱlikeȱtheȱpersonȱoccupyingȱit.ȱIfȱtheȱhouseȱ isȱ notȱ fitȱ forȱ residence,ȱ beingȱ brokenȱ downȱ withȱ holesȱ allȱ overȱ theȱ place,ȱ howȱcanȱtheȱpersonȱwalkȱandȱliveȱinȱit?ȱ Therefore,ȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱsayȱ[we]ȱshouldȱnotȱ[mix]ȱS¬sanaȬaffairsȱandȱpoȬ liticalȱ affairsȱ doȱ notȱ reallyȱ knowȱ whatȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ is,ȱ orȱ whatȱ aȱ countryȱ is.ȱ Theyȱspeakȱwithoutȱknowing.ȱDon’tȱbeȱlikeȱthat.ȱInȱshort,ȱifȱyouȱcontinueȱtoȱ followȱthatȱline,ȱyouȱwillȱcontinueȱtoȱarriveȱatȱaȱsituationȱjustȱlikeȱnow.6ȱ

Thisȱisȱaȱparticularȱkindȱofȱarticulationȱofȱtheȱtraditionalismȱexploredȱinȱ thisȱstudy.ȱInȱstatementsȱlikeȱthis,ȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱemphasizesȱtheȱ significanceȱofȱhavingȱwellȬdisposedȱpeopleȱacrossȱtheȱsocialȱspectrumȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 5ȱ 6ȱ

Seeȱhttp://burmatoday.net/interview2005/071114_penang_sayardaw_3.swf.ȱ Aȱ similarȱ translationȱ wasȱ providedȱ byȱ “kyawhtin1”ȱ andȱ postedȱ onȱ www.Click2Ȭ Myanmar.comȱ onȱ Novemberȱ 17,ȱ 2007,ȱ butȱ atȱ leastȱ asȱ ofȱ Februaryȱ 13,ȱ 2011,ȱ theȱ linkȱ wasȱnoȱlongerȱavailable.ȱ

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Epilogue:ȱAȱCommentȱonȱContinuityȱandȱRupture,ȱfromȱAfarȱ

193ȱ

supportȱtheȱS¬sana;ȱthatȱisȱclearlyȱpartȱofȱShwegyinȱtraditionalism.ȱButȱ noteȱ thatȱ heȱ explicitlyȱ emphasizesȱ thatȱ significanceȱ inȱ aȱ wayȱ thatȱ isȱ connectedȱtoȱovercomingȱtheȱsufferingȱofȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱ“house.”ȱWithȱaȱ S¬sanaȱ soȱ understood,ȱ andȱ widelyȱ embracedȱ atȱ allȱ levelsȱ ofȱ layȱ andȱ monasticȱ leadership,ȱ nonȬShwegyinȱ andȱ Shwegyin,ȱ positiveȱ andȱ susȬ tainableȱ changeȱ inȱ aȱ futureȱ discontinuousȱ withȱ theȱ Burmeseȱ politicalȱ presentȱmayȱjustȱbeȱonȱtheȱhorizon.ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱ ȱ Figureȱ1.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱSittingȱforȱanȱExamȱatȱKyaȱKhetȱWainȱMoȬ nastery,ȱPegu,ȱ2003.ȱCourtesyȱJasonȱCarbine.ȱ ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

195ȱ

AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱ

Figureȱ2.ȱBasicȱWorldviewȱofȱaȱLineageȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱinȱtheȱShwegyinȱ Sense.ȱ ȱ ȱ continuityȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

saΚs¬raȱ ȱ ȱ ȣmetaphysicalȱ ȱ ȣultimatelyȱundesirableȱ ȣeasyȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

S¬sanaȱ ȣtextualȱ ȣcommunalȱ ȣdesirableȱ ȣdiĜcultȱ

ȱ

ruptureȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

nibb¬naȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȣmetaphysicalȱ ȱ ȱȱ (i.e.,ȱofȱbeingsȱoutȱofȱsaΚs¬ra)ȱȱ ȣdesirableȱ ȱ ȱ ȣcommunalȱ ȱ ȱ ȣdiĜcultȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

S¬sana:ȱ ȣtextualȱ ȣcommunalȱ ȣeasyȱ ȣundesirableȱbutȱ inevitableȱ ȣdeęnitiveȱotherȱ forȱaȱlineageȱofȱtheȱ S¬sanaȱ

Note:ȱAȱBuddha,ȱoneȱwhoȱhasȱaccomplishedȱnibb¬nicȱrupture,ȱinitiatesȱ aȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ itsȱ attendantȱ monasticȱ lineagesȱ andȱ widerȱ Buddhistȱ communities.ȱ

ȱ

196ȱ

AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱȱ

Figureȱ 3.ȱ Organizationȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱ asȱ ofȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meeting.ȱ ȱ ȱ SeniorȱAuthorities ȱ ȱ ȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana ȱ ȱ AssociateȱHeadsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana ȱ ȱ ȱ ExecutiveȱSecretaries ȱ ȱ ȱ AssociateȱExecutiveȱSecretaries ȱ ȱ ȱ ExecutiveȱOfficers ȱ ȱ ȱ Vinaya Centers Vinaya Centers ȱ ȱ ȱ Monasteriesȱatȱ Monasteriesȱatȱ Monasteriesȱatȱ ȱ variousȱlocalitiesȱ variousȱlocalitiesȱ variousȱlocalitiesȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Notes:ȱTheȱformattingȱisȱslightlyȱdifferentȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱdiagram.ȱAnd,ȱ theȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ isȱ listedȱ asȱ UkkaΞΞhaȱ Sayadawȱ GyÎȱ (“Chairmanȱ Seniorȱ Sayadaw“)ȱ andȱ theȱ Associateȱ Headsȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱ asȱ Tweȱ Hpetȱ UkkaΞΞhaȱ Sayadawȱ GyÎȱ (“Associateȱ Chairmanȱ Seniorȱ Sayadaw“);ȱ theyȱ are,ȱ respectively,ȱ theȱ chairȱ andȱ associateȱ chairs,ȱ ofȱ theȱ committeeȱ ofȱ ExecutiveȱOfficers.ȱSee:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱpp.ȱ155,ȱ157.1ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ

Followingȱ Thanȱ Tunȱ 1980ȱ p.ȱ 50,ȱ whoȱ himselfȱ followsȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ threeȱ monksȱ inȱ Octoberȱ1975,ȱ Moȱ MoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱ p.ȱ100ȱ providesȱaȱ diagramȱ ofȱtheȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱasȱofȱ1948.ȱTheȱaboveȱisȱsimilarȱto,ȱthoughȱlessȱcomplexȱthan,ȱthatȱdiagram.ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱ

197ȱ

Figureȱ 4.ȱ Ashinȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱ inȱ Januaryȱ 1977.ȱ Courtesyȱ Annaȱ AlȬ lott.ȱ ȱ

ȱ ȱ

198ȱ

AppendixȱA:ȱFiguresȱȱ

Figureȱ5.ȱContinuityȱandȱRupture:ȱRelationsȱSummarized.ȱ ȱ

ȱ ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ ȱ Tableȱ1.ȱMonasticȱGroupsȱinȱContemporaryȱMyanmarȱ ȱ ȱ Thudhamm¬ȱ(quDm¥a,ȱ“pureȱteaching”)ȱ Shwegyinȱ(erWkjc\,ȱnameȱofȱtheȱnatalȱvillageȱofȱtheȱfounder)ȱ Dv¬raȱ(dQfr,ȱ“mediatingȱsenseȱfacultiesȱofȱinteraction”)ȱ MĀlaȱDv¬raȱ(mUl dQfr,ȱ“rootȱmedium”)ȱ AnautȱChauѼȱDv¬raȱ(Aenak\ eKjac\; dQfr,ȱ“westernȱstreamȱmedium”)ȱ VeѰuwunȱ(ew¸own\,ȱ“bambooȱgrove”)ȱ HngetwiѼȱ(cHk\tQc\;,ȱ“cavesȱofȱbirds”)1ȱ Gadoȱ(kU;tuȱi> ,ȱaȱnameȱofȱaȱvillage)ȱ Mah¬yiѼȱ(mharc\,ȱaȱnameȱofȱtheȱfounderȱofȱtheȱgroup)ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱȱ

Iȱ doȱ notȱ supplyȱ theȱ differentȱ namesȱ ofȱ eachȱ group;ȱ theȱ HngetwiѼ,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ isȱ knownȱbyȱsixȱdifferentȱnames.ȱ

200ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

ȱ Tableȱ2.ȱMeetingsȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱNik¬ya2ȱ ȱ ȱ No. 16ȱ 15ȱ 14ȱ 13ȱ 12ȱ 11ȱ 10ȱ 9ȱ 8ȱ 7ȱ 6ȱ 5ȱ 4ȱ 3ȱ 2ȱ 1ȱ

ȱ Date Feb.ȱ13–15,ȱ2003 Dec.ȱ14–16,ȱ1999 Feb.ȱ1–2,ȱ1996 Mar.ȱ1–3,ȱ1992 Dec.ȱ6–7,ȱ1980 Nov.ȱ22–24,ȱ1975 Nov.ȱ18–20,ȱ1963 Feb.ȱ18–20,ȱ1957 Feb.ȱ25–27,ȱ1953 Mar.ȱ3–5,ȱ1947 Apr.ȱ15–17,ȱ1935 Jun.ȱ8–10,ȱ1932 Apr.ȱ24–26,ȱ1929 Mar.ȱ5,ȱ1928 Jun.ȱ21,ȱ1923 Jun.ȱ23,ȱ1920

BurmeseȱYear 1364 1361 1357 1353 1342 1337 1325 1318 1314 1308 1297 1294 1291 1289 1285 1282

Place NyaunȱShweȱ NyaunȱShweȱ Yangon Sagaing TaungȱNgu Pegu Mandalay Pegu Sagaing TaungȱGyi Yangon Mandalay Mawlamyaingȱ Mandalay Mandalay Mandalay

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2ȱ

ThisȱchartȱfollowsȱMoȱMoȱThantȱ2001–2002ȱp.ȱ98,ȱbutȱaddsȱinȱtheȱinformationȱforȱtheȱ Sixteenthȱ Meeting.ȱ Beyondȱ theȱ scopeȱ ofȱ thisȱ study,ȱ aȱ meetingȱ wasȱ heldȱ inȱ 2009ȱ inȱ Mandalay.ȱ Theȱ nextȱ areȱ scheduledȱ forȱ 2012,ȱ inȱ Hmawbi,ȱ andȱ forȱ 2015,ȱ inȱ Sagaing.ȱ “Theȱ Hmawbiȱ conferenceȱ isȱ expectedȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ largestȱ inȱ theȱ association’sȱ 150Ȭyearȱ historyȱ andȱ willȱ beȱ organisedȱ byȱ theȱ Dhammadutaȱ Association,ȱ ledȱ byȱ Venerableȱ Chekinda,ȱ aȱ professorȱ fromȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Theravadaȱ Buddhistȱ Missionaryȱ UniȬ versityȱinȱYangon.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱ2015ȱconferenceȱwillȱbeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱorganisedȱbyȱVenerableȱAshinȱ Nyanissara,ȱ theȱ chancellorȱ ofȱ theȱ Sitaguȱ Internationalȱ Buddhistȱ Academyȱ andȱ chairmanȱ ofȱ theȱ Associationȱ ofȱ Theravadaȱ Buddhistȱ Universities.”ȱ Seeȱ http://www.mmtimes.com/no493/n005.htm.ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

Tableȱ3.ȱShwegyinȱLeadersȱandȱAdministrators,ȱpriorȱtoȱ1920ȱ ȱ HeadȱLeadership:ȱ SeniorȱLeadersȱ GuardiansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ ȱ OtherȱLeaders:ȱ LocalȱLeadersȱ DeputyȱLeadersȱ AssistantȱLeadersȱ ȱ Source:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ148.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

201ȱ

202ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

ȱ Tableȱ4.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱandȱMonasteriesȱ(1923)ȱ ȱ Unitsȱ Monasteriesȱ

ȱ

No.ȱofȱ Membersȱ

UpperȱMyanmarȱ

28ȱ

577ȱ

3352ȱ

LowerȱMyanmarȱ

24ȱ

624ȱ

4936ȱ

Thailandȱ ȱ

noȱfigureȱ givenȱ

6ȱ

60ȱ

SriȱLankaȱ ȱ

noȱfigureȱ givenȱ

3ȱ

39ȱ

52ȱ

1210ȱ

8387ȱ

Totalȱ

ȱ Source:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱMeetingȱ1982ȱp.ȱ275.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ

203ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

ȱ

Tableȱ5.ȱShwegyinȱMonksȱandȱMonasteriesȱ(1999)ȱ ȱ Stateȱ/ȱDivisionȱ

Town

MoȬ

Monksȱ

Novicesȱ

Totalȱ

ȱ

Ȭshipȱȱ

nasȬ

ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

55 53 262 2597 3320 356 2169 2066 163 3401 305 1553 16300

45 193 512 4942 4077 666 3520 1387 263 4112 912 1766 22395

100 246 774 7539ȱ 7397ȱ 1022ȱ 5689ȱ 3453ȱ 426 7513ȱ 1217ȱ 3319ȱ 38695ȱ

teriesȱ

KachinȱStateȱ KayahȱStateȱ KayinȱStateȱ SagaingȱDivȱ PeguȱDivȱ MagweȱDivȱ MandalayȱDivȱ MonȱStateȱ RakhineȱStateȱ YangonȱDivȱ ShanȱStateȱ ErawadiȱDivȱ GrandȱTotalȱ ȱ

2 1 5 22 21 12 21 10 10 32 10 22 168

11 4 46 822 420 140 249 242 88 339 41 349 2751

Source:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ300.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

204ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

ȱ Tableȱ6.ȱStructureȱofȱaȱHigherȱOrdinationȱ ȱ ȱ 1.ȱTheȱRequestȱforȱaȱPreceptorȱ 2.ȱTheȱPreceptorȱAcceptsȱtheȱRequestȱ(andȱgivesȱanȱexhorȬ tation)ȱ 3.ȱTheȱPointingȱOutȱofȱtheȱBowlȱandȱRobesȱ 4.ȱTheȱRemovalȱofȱtheȱCandidatesȱ(fromȱtheȱimmediateȱ area)ȱ 5.ȱTheȱMotionȱAuthorizingȱaȱMonkȱtoȱInstructȱtheȱCandiȬ datesȱ(P.ȱanus¬sanaȬsammutiȬñatti)ȱ 6.ȱInstructionsȱGivenȱtoȱCandidatesȱTakenȱtoȱOneȱSideȱ 7.ȱTheȱMotionȱPermittingȱtheȱReturnȱofȱtheȱCandidatesȱ(P.ȱ os¬raΦaȬñatti)ȱ 8.ȱTheȱRequestȱforȱOrdinationȱ 9.ȱTheȱMotionȱAuthorizingȱaȱMonkȱtoȱExamineȱtheȱCanȬ didatesȱ(P.ȱpucchanaȬsammutiȬñatti)ȱ 10.ȱQuestionsȱaboutȱQualificationsȱforȱOrdinationȱ 11.ȱTheȱMotionȱandȱThreeȱProclamationsȱthatȱConferȱtheȱ HigherȱOrdinationȱ(P.ȱupasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬)ȱ 12.ȱMakingȱaȱRecordȱofȱtheȱDateȱandȱTimeȱofȱtheȱOrdinaȬ tionȱ 13.ȱInstructionsȱConcerningȱtheȱFourȱFoundationsȱ 14.ȱInstructionȱConcerningȱonȱtheȱFourȱThingsȱNotȱtoȱbeȱ Doneȱ 15.ȱTheȱClosing:ȱForgivingȱPotentialȱFaultsȱandȱTakingȱ Leaveȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ

205ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

Noteȱ forȱ tablesȱ 7ȱ andȱ 8:ȱ Theȱ tablesȱ belowȱ highlightȱ Shwegyinȱ Seniorȱ Authorities,ȱ Executiveȱ Officers,ȱ andȱ associatedȱ monasteriesȱ andȱ locaȬ tionsȱ asȱ ofȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Meetingȱ ofȱ theȱ Shwegyinȱ Nik¬yaȱ (1999).ȱ DiaȬ criticsȱ haveȱ beenȱ providedȱ forȱ theȱ Paliȱ namesȱ ofȱ theȱ monks,ȱ butȱ haveȱ beenȱdispensedȱwithȱforȱnamesȱofȱmonasteries,ȱandȱsoȱon.ȱTableȱ8ȱalsoȱ indicatesȱ thoseȱ monksȱ who,ȱ atȱ theȱ time,ȱ fulfilledȱ theȱ rolesȱ ofȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ andȱ Associateȱ Headȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sana.ȱ Inȱ mostȱ cases,ȱ hyphensȱ haveȱbeenȱinsertedȱinȱtheȱBurmeseȱnames,ȱandȱsomeȱofȱtheȱPaliȱnames,ȱ toȱhelpȱtheȱinterestedȱreaderȱsoundȱoutȱtheȱwords.ȱ ȱ ȱ

Tableȱ7.ȱSeniorȱAuthorities,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱNik¬yaȱ ȱ #ȱ

Venerable’sȱ Nameȱ

Age/Yearsȱ asȱMonkȱ ȱ 76/56ȱ

Monasteryȱ

Placeȱorȱ Villageȱ

Townȱ ȱ

AbhayaȬ yamikayonȬ kyaunȱ

MyitȬ kyiȬnaȱ

70/51ȱ ȱ 77/57ȱ

ShweȬbhonȬ thaȬkyaun SimaȬkonȬ kyaunȱ

74/54ȱ

BaȬdautȬpinȬ tawȬya KhanȬtawȬ kyaunȬtaik GhositayonȬ kyaun ThinȬpanȬpyaȬ kyaun YanȬkinȬchaunȱ

AȬhmatȱ (503)ȱ LeȬtatȬsaȬ khan SaȬmunȬ ywa HinȬlinȬ myoȬ haung MinȬkonȬȱ ywa KhanȬtawȬ ywa ChaunȬuȬ myo ChonȬywaȱ

1ȱ ȱ

Nandobh¬saȱ

2ȱ

PaññadÎpaȱ

3ȱ

J¬garaȱ

4ȱ 5ȱ

Khemind¬Ȭ dhÎpatiȱ R¬jindaȱ

ȬȬ/52ȱ

6ȱ

NandavaѴsaȱ

73/53ȱ

7ȱ

R¬jaññaȱ

71/51ȱ

8ȱ

DhÎraȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

9ȱ

Yujanaȱ

ȬȬ/70ȱ

10ȱ

Ñanikaȱ

ȬȬ/68ȱ

AbhidhammaȬ sippamȬkyaun KanȬleyȬtawȬ yaȬkyaun

MinȬkonȬ taunȬyoȱ TawȬ kwyehȬin OatȬtwinȬȱ myo

SaȬ gaingȱ WetȬletȱ

WetȬletȱ MyinȬ muȱ ChaunȬ u DiȬ peyinȱ SaȬ gaingȬ myoȱ ȱ OatȬ twinȱ

206ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

11ȱ

%c¬raȱ

ȬȬ/67ȱ

HtupayonȬ kyaun TawȬyaȬleȬ kyaunȱ

12ȱ

Sop¬kaȱ

ȬȬ/60ȱ

13ȱ

Kosallaȱ

ȬȬ/57ȱ

14ȱ

Kovidaȱ

ȬȬ/56ȱ

15ȱ

Devindaȱ

ȬȬ/57ȱ

16ȱ

AggavaѴsaȱ

ȬȬ/52ȱ

17ȱ

CandasirÎȱ

ȬȬ/53ȱ

18ȱ

Ѭnaȱ

ȬȬ/53ȱ

19ȱ

Visuddhaȱ

ȬȬ/60ȱ

20ȱ

IndavaѴsaȱ

ȬȬ/65ȱ

21ȱ

Vicittaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

22ȱ

Uttaraȱ

ȬȬ/57ȱ

23ȱ

Indakaȱ

73/53ȱ

24ȱ

Suj¬taȱ

83/63ȱ

PattaȬpeinȬ kyaunȱ

(10)ȱyatȬȱ kwetȱ

25ȱ

Paññ¬jotaȱ

74/54ȱ

SiȬshinȬkyaun,ȱ MahavisuddȬ haramaȬtaikȬ thit

ȱ

AsokayonȬ kyaun MingalaȬywaȬ uȬkyaun KukȬkainȬ kyaun ThaȬyetȬpinȬ hseitȱkyaunȱ Dakhinayonȱ ShwegyinȬ kyaun Veluwunȱ SatȬthinȬtaik SasanaȬsobaniȱ AȬsheȬshweȬ bhonȬthaȬ kyaunȬtaik KanȬzunȬ htaunȬkyaunȱ TaikȬkyiȬkyaunȱ MahaviȬ suddharamaȬ taik Shwegyinȱ MinȬkinȬtaikȱ

ȱ PuȬzunȬ myaunȬ ywa ȱ InȬwainȬȱ ywa KukȬkainȬȱ ywa ȱ

UnȬnehȬ ywaȱ EȬywaȬleȱ PwyanȬ tanȬsa MaȬuȬywaȱ

KaȬzunȬ htaunȬ ywa ȱ

ȱ

NyaunȬ leȬbinȱ NyaunȬ leȬbinȱ KyautȬ tanȬtaȱ NyaunȬ leȬbinȱ ThaȬyaȬ waȬtiȱ MinȬ hlaȬ myoȱ KavaȬ myoȱ PeguȬ myoȱ PwyanȬ tanȬsaȱ YeȬsaȬ kyoȬ myoȱ HtiȬlinȬ myoȱ ManȬ dalayȬ myoȱ AungȬ myeȬ thaȬzanȱ MyinȬ chanȬ myoȱ MaȬhaȬ aungȬ myeȱ

ȱ

207ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

26ȱ

Vivek¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

VisuddhayonȬȱ meyȬzeyȬtaikȱ

ȱ

27ȱ

Puññaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

ȱ

28ȱ

Sirindaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

29ȱ

Cand¬varaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

30ȱ

Candobh¬saȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

SaddhampariȬ riȬkunȬtayon VeluwunȬ kyaun RatanadevaȬ sabhayonȬ kyaun JotikayonȬ kyaunȱ

31ȱ

Sudhammaȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

32ȱ

Ther¬v¬saȱ

ȬȬ/ȬȬȱ

33ȱ

Sundaraȱ

ȬȬ/57ȱ

34ȱ

SÎl¬caraȱ

ȬȬ/55ȱ

35ȱ

Paññ¬vaѴsaȱ

ȬȬ/50ȱ

36ȱ

Paññ¬s¬miȱ

79/13ȱȱ

37ȱ

%caraȱ

84/2ȱ

38ȱ

Sundaraȱ

72/3ȱ

RatanadevaȬ sabhayonȬ kyaun SasanaȬ jotikayonȬ kyaun MyaȬtheinȬtanȬ hpaȬyaȬkyiȬ kyaun TawȬsanȬ naingȬtawȬyaȬ kyaun MyoȬtaikȬtaunȬ kyaun NyaunȬtonȬ kyaunȱ KyaunȬthitȬ kyaunȱDhamȬ mikaramaȬ ShegyinȬtaik KyaunȬthitȬ kyaunȱ DhamȬ mikaramaȬ ShegyinȬtaik

ȱ KaȬmaȬ wetȱ TaunȬ wainȬkaȬleȱ

ManȬ dalayȬ myoȱ MuȬ dumȱ AȬhlatȬ ywaȱ MuȬ dumȱ

TheinȬzaȬ yatȱ

MawȬ laȬ myaingȱ MawȬ laȬ myaingȱ KyaitȬȱ htoȱ

TheinȬzaȬ yatȱ

KyaitȬ htoȱ

ȱ

KyaitȬ htoȱ

ȱ

KyaitȬ htoȱ YanȬ gonȬ myoȱ KhaȬ yanȱ

TaunȬ wainȬkaȬleȱ

SanȬchaunȱ

ȱ

SanȬchaunȱ

KhaȬ yanȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 3ȱȱ

ForȱVenerablesȱ36–58,ȱtheȱdataȱregardingȱyearsȱordainedȱareȱasȱappearȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱ tableȱ andȱ mayȱ beȱ corruptȱ entries,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ Seniorȱ Authoritiesȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ haveȱ fiftyȱorȱmoreȱyearsȱinȱtheȱrobes.ȱ

208ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

39ȱ

DhammaȬ p¬litaȱ

80/4ȱ

40ȱ

PaѾ҃avaȱ

79/5ȱ

41ȱ

SirÎdhammaȱ

76/6ȱ

42ȱ

Cakkap¬laȱ

76/7ȱ

SiȬtayonȬkyaunȱ

43ȱ

UkkaѴsaȱ

84/8ȱ

ThiȬhoȬkyaunȱ

ȱ

44ȱ

S¬sanaȱ

76/9ȱ

ShwegyinȬtaikȬ thitȱ

ȱ

45ȱ

Tilokaȱ

74/10ȱ

NyaunȬtonȬ kyaunȱ

46ȱ

Paññ¬vaѴsaȱ

70/11ȱ

47ȱ

IndavaѴsaȱ

72/12ȱ

48ȱ

CandavaѴsaȱ

85/13ȱ

SiȬthuȬkyaun,ȱ Thantaȱ manȬaungȬtaik DhammaȬ mandainȬ kyaun NanȬuȬkyaun,ȱ KyaunȬtawȬya,ȱ ShwegyinȬtaikȱ

JambuȬ kyaunȬ taik Maȱ/ȱOkȬ kaȬlaȱ

49ȱ

Rucirañ¬naȱ

74/14ȱ

50ȱ

DhammaȬ tiѾѾaȱ Uttaraȱ

73/15ȱ

51ȱ

87/16ȱ

SaddhammaȬ vamsayonȬ pariyattiȬsaȬ thinȬtaik SiȬtaȬguȬkyaun,ȱ KanȬuȬkyaunȬ taik MahasippamȬ kyaunȱ

PanditaramaȬ shweȬtaungȬ kunȱSasanaȱ yeitȬtha MahasasanaȬ vepullaȬkyaun TaunȬsunȬ dhammikayonȬ kyaun

AȬlonȱ

YanȬ gonȬ myoȱ

Ta/OkkaȬ laȱȱ

YanȬ gonȬ myoȱ ThinȬ ghanȬ junȱ MaȬ yanȬ kunȱ ThinȬ ghanȬ junȱ ThinȬ ghanȬ junȱ ȱ

NgaȬmoȬ yeitȱ(10)ȱ lan AȬhmatȱ (3)ȱyatȱ

Yangonȱ

Maȱ/ȱOkȬ kaȬlaȱ

Yangonȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

ȱ

209ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

52ȱ

Puññaȱ

81/17ȱ

KanȬthaȬ kyaunȬthit KanȬthaȬ kyaunȬthit PadaȬkyaunȱ

53ȱ

Candobh¬saȱ

75/18ȱ

54ȱ

Kesavaȱ

72/19ȱ

55ȱ

V¬sudevaȱ

76/20ȱ

ThaȬpyeȬkonȬ kyaunȱ

56ȱ

AriyavaѴsaȱ

81/21ȱ

57ȱ

UkkaѴsaȱ

ȬȬ/22ȱ

58ȱ

S¬sanaȱ

ȬȬ/23ȱ

59ȱ

IndavaѴsaȱ

81/61ȱ

60ȱ

Vepullaȱ

76/57ȱ

AungȬmyeȬ bhonȬthaȬ kyaun PanyaȬtanȬ khunȱShweȬ gyinȬkyaun KyaitȬkaȬsanȱ ShwegyinȬtaikȬ thit MaȬsoȬyeinȱ ShwegyinȬtaik TawȬyaȬkyaunȬ taikȱ

61ȱ

Tejaȱ

ȬȬ/52ȱ

62ȱ

Kum¬raȱ

91/71ȱ

63ȱ

Kusalaȱ

79/59ȱ

64ȱ

DhammaȬ nandaȱ

79/58ȱ

65ȱ

Sujanaȱ

77/58ȱ

66ȱ

Paññindaȱ

73/53ȱ

67ȱ

Khem¬c¬raȱ

72/52ȱ

NyaunȬwainȬ kyaun KhaȬpanȬniȬ kyaunȬtaik DhammayonȬ kyaun PanyayonȬsiȬ hnitȬkyeitȬshitȬ hsuȬkyaunȱ ManȬkyaunȬ taik KonȬpyanȱ ShwegyinȬȱ kyaunȬkyi SasanapalaȬ kyaunȬtaikȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

BaȬhanȱ

Yangonȱ

TaikȬkyiȱ okȬkam SanȬlyinȱ saȬpyeȬ kan ThonȬkwaȱ

Yangonȱ

ThinȬ ghanȬjunȱ

Yangonȱ

ThinȬ ghanȬjunȱ

Yangonȱ

ȱ

ZaȬlunȱ

ȱ

LaȬ pwutȬ ta EinȬ mehȱ MaȬuȬ pinȱ MaȬuȬ pinȱ MaȬuȬ pinȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

Yangonȱ

Yangonȱ

HtanȬniȬ kyeȬywa AȬlanȬkyeȬ ywaȱ

MaȬuȬ pinȱ MaȬuȬ pinȱ

KaȬwetȬ kinȬkyeȬ ywa

MaȬuȬ pinȱ

210ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

68ȱ

Puññaȱ

75/50ȱ

69ȱ

Aggañ¬naȱ

72/51ȱ

70ȱ

Sutesakaȱ

71/51ȱ

71ȱ

Vepullaȱ

76/57ȱ

72ȱ

N¬gavaѴsaȱ

75/56ȱ

73ȱ

Ѭnikaȱ

71/51ȱ

74ȱ

PaѾ҃avaѴsaȱ

70/50ȱ

75ȱ

TheravaѴsaȱ

72/53ȱ

76ȱ

KulapaѾ҃itaȱ

71/51ȱ

77ȱ

Medh¬s¬raȱ

77/57ȱ

78ȱ

Jotikaȱ

79ȱ

Pubbayonȱ ShwegyinȬȱ kyaun Shwegyinȱ kyaun ShweȬhinȬthaȱ MaȬsoȬyeinȱ Shwegyinȱ Kyaun TawȬyaȬkyaunȬ taikȱ LeȬhtatȬ pariyattiȬsaȬȱ thinȬtaik AungȬbinȬleyȬȱ kyaunȱ TawȬyaȬ ShwegyinȬ kyaunȬtaik PwutȬkhaȬ yaingȬkyaunȱ

PanȬtaunȬ kyeȬywaȱ

MaȬuȬ pinȱ

LinȬwinȬ kyeȬywa MehȬzaȬliȬ autȬkyeȬ ywaȱ

NyaunȬ tonȱ ȱ

NibbanȬ lanȬyatȬ kwet ȱ

LaȬ pwutȬ taȬmyoȱ LaȬ pwutȬ taȬmyoȱ PaȬ theinȬ myoȱ PaȬ theinȬ myoȱ Myaun ȬmyaȬ myoȱ Myaun ȬmyaȬ myoȱ LaȬ pwutȬ taȱmyoȱ InȬgaȬ puȬ myoȬ neyȱ PanȬtaȬ nawȱ PonȬ naȬ kyunȱ ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

ȱ

AungȬmyeȬ bhumȬmiȬ kyaun SantayonȬ kyaunȱ

LuȬhseitȱ ywaȱ

70/51ȱ

JotikayonȬ kyaunȱ

ShanȬbinȬ konȱywaȱ

Sumanaȱ

74/55ȱ

ȱ

80ȱ

Suman¬Ȭ liѼk¬raȱ

ȬȬ/60ȱ

InȬmaȬkantȬ kawȬkyaun YehȬyoȬpyinȬaȬ sheȬkyaunȱ

81ȱ

Tejindaȱ

ȬȬ/56ȱ

KonȬbhaunȬthit kyaunȬtaik

ȱ

ȱ

MyaukȬuȱ myo

ȱ

211ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

82ȱ

Kum¬raȱ

ȬȬ/52ȱ

OatȬhpoȬkyaunȱ

ȱ

83ȱ

Sobhitaȱ

ȬȬ/52ȱ

YeȬmyitȬthitȬ kyaunȱ

84ȱ

Paññajotaȱ

ȬȬ/50ȱ

85ȱ

Paññ¬s¬miȱ

ȬȬ/50ȱ

MahapanyaȬ yanȬsikaramaȬ pariyattiȬsaȬ thinȬtaik KyunȬcheȬ kyaunȱ

YaȬtheȬ taunȱ myoȱ ney ȱ YaȬkainȱ PyiȬneyȱ

PannaȬ kyunȱ myoȱney

ȱ

Source:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ191–194.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

YaȬtheȬ taunȬ myoȱ ȱ

YaȬkainȱ PyiȬneyȱ

212ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

Tableȱ8.ȱExecutiveȱOfficers,ȱasȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱofȱtheȱShweȬ gyinȱNik¬yaȱ #ȱ

ȱ 1ȱ

Venerable’sȱ Nameȱ ȱ KachinȱStateȱ %caraȱ

ȱ ȱ 2ȱ

ȱ KayahȱStateȱ Paññ¬s¬miȱ

ȱ ȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ 5ȱ 6ȱ 7ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 8ȱ ȱ

ȱ KayinȱStateȱ Kittiȱ Ariyaȱ Sundaraȱ Ѭnindaȱ %diccavaѴsaȱ ȱ Sagaingȱ Divisionȱ Supaññind¬Ȭ bhivaѴsaȱ (AssociateȱHeadȱ ofȱtheȱS¬sana)ȱ %ciѾѾaȱ

9ȱ 10ȱ 11ȱ 12ȱ 13ȱ 14ȱ 15ȱ 16ȱ 17ȱ

Nandakaȱ Paññ¬nand¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Dhammap¬laȱ Paññ¬nandaȱ Tejavantaȱ N¬yakaȱ SaѴvaraȱ Sajjan¬bhivaѴsaȱ

18ȱ

SaѴvar¬bhiȬ

Placeȱ ȱ ȱ LetȬpanȬtanȬkyaun,ȱLetȬpanȬtanȬywa,ȱMoȬ hnyaunȬmyoȬney ȱ ȱ ShweȬtaunȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱLwainȬkawȬ myo ȱ ȱ DhammaȬsukhaȬkyaun,ȱKawtȬkaȬyeitȬmyo MoȬkoatȬsetȬwainȬkyaun,ȱMyaȬwaȬtiȬmyo KaȬmaȬkyaun,ȱBhaȬanȬmyo NaȬbhuȬywaȬkyaun,ȱKawtȬkaȬyeitȬmyo ThiȬyiȬmanȬdainȬkyaun,ȱBhaȬanȬmyo ȱ ȱ ȱ PathamaȬgandhayonȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo.ȱ SagaingȬmyoȱ ȱ VijjaȬdappaniȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬ myo MyoȬhlaȬywaȬkyaun,ȱMyoȬhlaȬywa,ȱKaȬleȬmyoȱ MahasantayonȬkyaun,ȱMonȬywaȬmyoȱ DhammayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱKaȬleȬmyo SanȬchaunȬkyaun,ȱThaȬsiȬywa,ȱKaȬleȬmyo VisuddhayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱKaȬleȬmyo ShweȬmaotȬhtaȬkyaun,ȱKaȬleȬwaȬmyo HehȬdaunȬkyaun,ȱHeȬdaunȬywa,ȱKaȬleȬwaȬmyoȱ MahasajjanodayaȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSaȬ gaingȬmyo ShweȬhinȬthaȬtaikȬthit,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSaȬ

ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

19ȱ

vaѴsaȱ N¬radaȱ

20ȱ ȱ 21ȱ

NandavaѴsaȱ ȱ Kesarind¬cariyaȱ

22ȱ 23ȱ

LakkhaѾaȱ ѬѾissaraȱ

24ȱ 25ȱ

Kavis¬raȱ Nayanas¬miȱ

26ȱ ȱ 27ȱ

Nandam¬l¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Nand¬sabhaȱ

28ȱ

LakkhaѾaȱ

29ȱ

Ѭnavaraȱ

30ȱ

Visuddh¬c¬raȱ

31ȱ 32ȱ 33ȱ 34ȱ 35ȱ 36ȱ 37ȱ 38ȱ 39ȱ 40ȱ 41ȱ 42ȱ 43ȱ 44ȱ

%diccavaѴsaȱ AggapaѾ҃itaȱ N¬gavaѴsaȱ Aggas¬raȱ Paññ¬sirÎȱ NandavaѴsaȱ SĀriyaȱ Nandobh¬saȱ Sampajjalitaȱ V¬seҁҁhaȱ V¬seҁҁh¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Visuddh¬c¬raȱ Chand¬dhikaȱ Sajjanaȱ

45ȱ 46ȱ

Javan¬laѼk¬raȱ Kesarind¬bhiȬ

213ȱ

gaingȬmyo MahasubodhayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱ SagaingȬmyo HanȬthaȬgiȬriȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSaȬ gaingȬmyo MahagandhayonȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSaȬ gaingȬmyo KyaȬswaȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬmyoȱ SadhammaȬthiȬtaȬguȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱ SagaingȬmyo VejayantaȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬmyoȱ PaliȬkaȬyiȬthonȬkhwaȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱ SagaingȬmyo MahasubodhayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱ SagaingȬmyo GandhaȬmyainȬsanȬpyaȬkyaun,ȱHsaȬtaunȬywa,ȱ SagaingȬmyo MyaȬsaȬkyaȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSaȬ gaingȬmyo ShweȬuȬminȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬ myo NgweȬtaunȬtawȬyaȬShwegyinȬtaik,ȱMinȬkunȬ taunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬmyo TaunȬpawȬkyaun,ȱHsaȬlinȬkyiȬmyo AsokayonȬtaik,ȱMonȬywaȬmyo PajjotayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMonȬywaȬmyo ShwegyinȬdhammayonȬtaik,ȱMonȬywaȬmyo ShweȬtheinȬtawȬkyiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMonȬywaȬmyoȱ LeȬtaunȬpyinȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱAȬlon,ȱMonȬywaȬmyoȱ VijjasippamȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMonȬywaȬmyo ShweȬtheinȬtawȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMyinȬmuȬmyo SiȬseinȬkyaun,ȱMyinȬmuȬmyo PajjotayonȬtaik,ȱMyinȬmuȬmyo TatȬuȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱKaȬleȬmyoȱ DakkhinayonȬkyaun,ȱHlaȬtawȬywa,ȱWetȬletȬmyoȱ MahayonȬkyaun,ȱSaȬmonȬywa,ȱWetȬletȬmyo SajjanandaȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱAȬsheȬShwegyinȬywa,ȱ WetȬletȬmyo JambuȬyaȬtaȬnaȬkyaun,ȱMinȬywa,ȱWetȬletȬmyoȱ DhammikayonȬkyaun,ȱTinȬteinȬyanȬywa,ȱYeȬuȬ

214ȱ

47ȱ 48ȱ 49ȱ ȱ ȱ 50ȱ 51ȱ 52ȱ 53ȱ 54ȱ 55ȱ 56ȱ 57ȱ 58ȱ 59ȱ 60ȱ 61ȱ 62ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

vaѴsaȱ MaѾ҃alaȱ Agg¬c¬raȱ PaѾ҃itavar¬Ȭ bhivaѴsaȱ ȱ PeguȱDivisionȱ Vis¬radapaѾ҃ita Jotip¬laȱ AggavaѴs¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Tis¬sanaȱ Candim¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ KuѾ҃alaȱ C¬rittaȱ N¬gavaѴsaȱ Khem¬c¬raȱ Nandobh¬s¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Mah¬veravijayaȱ

ȱ ȱ ȱ 64ȱ

Paññ¬sÎhaȱ Sobhit¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Ñeyyadhamm¬Ȭ bhivaѴsaȱ ȱ Magweȱ Divisionȱ Tikkh¬nandaȱ

65ȱ 66ȱ 67ȱ 68ȱ

S¬kiyaȱ VaѴsikaȱ Indobh¬saȱ Kesarindaȱ

69ȱ

Sop¬kaȱ

ȱ

ȱ

63ȱ

myo KyaunȬkyiȬkyaun,ȱHmawȬtawȬywa,ȱAȬyaȬtawȬ myo KanȬtawȬuȬkyaun,ȱKantȬbhaȬluȬmyo MigadaȬwunȬchaun,ȱSagaingȬtaunȬyo,ȱSagaingȬ myo ȱ ȱ LokuttaraȬtheinȬuȬtaik,ȱTaungȬngu KyaȬkhetȬwainȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱPeguȬmyo VinayaramaȬkyaunȬtaik,PeguȬmyoȱ SasanaȬsobhanikayonȬtaik,ȱPywunȬtanȬhsaȬmyoȱ PubbayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱPeguȬmyoȱ VeluwunȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱMinȬhlaȬmyo TapȬkonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱShwegyinȬmyo MaunȬhtaunȬtaik,ȱThonȬhseyȬmyo KanȬkaȬleȬtawȬyaȬtaik,ȱOatȬtwinȬmyo VisuddhayonȬbaȬyaȬnaȬthiȬtaik,ȱPyeyȬmyoȱ AungȬmyinȬbaȬhuȬShwegyinȬtawȬyaȬtaik,ȱPyeyȬ myo SasanaȬmandainȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱPeguȬmyo ShweȬguȬkyaun,ȱNyaunȬkhaȬshey,ȱWaȬmyoȬneyȱ KyaȬkhetȬwainȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱPeguȬmyoȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ KanȬtawȬyaȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱKanȬywa,ȱGantȬgawȬ myo KanȬywaȬkyaun,ȱKanȬywa,ȱGantȬgawȬmyo PatȬtaȬmyaȬkyaun,ȱBehȬkyiȬywa,ȱPaȬkokȬkuȬmyoȱ VisuddhayonȬSasanaȬpyuȬkyaun,ȱAungȬlanȬmyoȱ MahagandhayonȬkyaun,ȱNweyȬpyinȬywa,ȱHtiȬ linȬmyo ShweȬbhonȬthaȬkyaun,ȱPeȬkonȬywa,ȱYeȬsaȬkyoȬ myo

ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

ȱ ȱ 70ȱ

71ȱ 72ȱ 73ȱ 74ȱ

Mandalayȱ Divisionȱ Agghiyaȱ (AssociateȱHeadȱ ofȱS¬sana)ȱ IndavaѴsaȱ

75ȱ

AriyavaѴsaȱ Dhammikaȱ VaѾѾit¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ KuѾ҃alaȱ

76ȱ

[I]ndasirÎȱ

77ȱ

Vil¬saȱ

78ȱ

Tilokaȱ

79ȱ

85ȱ

Paññ¬sirÎbhiȬ vaѴsaȱ KoѾ҃aññ¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ M¬nitasirÎbhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Aggañ¬n¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Candobh¬s¬biȬ vaѴsaȱ Od¬tasirÎbhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Vicittaȱ

86ȱ

Kovidaȱ

87ȱ 88ȱ

Paññ¬jot¬biȬ vaѴsaȱ Candobh¬saȱ

89ȱ

VaѾѾitaȱ

80ȱ 81ȱ 82ȱ 83ȱ 84ȱ

215ȱ

ȱ ȱ MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyoȱ ChaunȬkyaȬsuȬkyaun,ȱChaunȬkyaȬsuȬywa,ȱ KyautȬpanȬtaunȬmyo BaȬhoȬmyoȬmaȬkyaun,ȱPaȬtheinȬkyiȬmyo LeȬmyetȬhnaȬkyaun,ȱMaȬhlaingȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬtaikȬthitȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahadhammikaramaȬShwegyinȬtaikȬmaȱAungȬ myeȬthaȬzan,ȱMandalayȬmyo MahavisuddharamaȬtaikȱAungȬmyeȬthaȬzan,ȱ MandalayȬmyo PatȬtaȬmyaȬtaikȱChanȬeȬthaȬzan,ȱMandalayȬmyoȱ AbhayaramaȬshweȬguȬtaikȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahavisuddharamaȬtaikȱAungȬmyeȬthaȬzan,ȱ MandalayȬmyoȱ

216ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

90ȱ

Kosallaȱ

91ȱ

Kovidaȱ

92ȱ

SumaѼgalaȱ

93ȱ 94ȱ

Khemind¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Suj¬tas¬raȱ

95ȱ

Sajjanas¬raȱ

96ȱ

N¬yak¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ VeѰuriyaȱ Visuddhaȱ

97ȱ 98ȱ 99ȱ 100ȱ 101ȱ

ȱ ȱ 104ȱ 105ȱ 106ȱ 107ȱ

Issar¬bhivaѴsaȱ Mahindaȱ KuѾ҃al¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Indobh¬s¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Vic¬rind¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ ȱ MonȱStateȱ Paññ¬vaѴsaȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ Vimal¬c¬raȱ Kosiyaȱ

108ȱ 109ȱ

Sobhanaȱ KhantÎs¬raȱ

110ȱ 111ȱ 112ȱ ȱ ȱ 113ȱ

Suman¬c¬raȱ Sundaraȱ Tikkhaȱ ȱ Rakhineȱ Stateȱ

102ȱ 103ȱ

VijjaȬlinȬkaȬyaȬtaikȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱMandalayȬ myo MahasantayonȬtaikȱAungȬmyeȬthaȬzan,ȱMandaȬ layȬmyo HmaingȬlonȬShwegyinȬtaikȱAungȬmyeȬthaȬzan,ȱ MandalayȬmyo MahabodhiȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaikȱMahaȬaungȬ mye,ȱMandalayȬmyo DaȬhatȬtawȬkyaunȬtaikȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱMandaȬ layȬmyo MahamyaingȬkyaunȬtaikȱMahaȬaungȬmye,ȱManȬ dalayȬmyo KoȬtaunȬpyiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMyinȬchanȬmyoȱ MinȬkyaunȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱMyitȬthaȬmyo LeȬthaȬkyaun,ȱAungȬchanȬthaȬywa,ȱWunȬtwinȬ myo VisuddhayonȬyeȬuȬtaik,ȱAmarapuraȬmyo MahagandayonȬtaik,ȱAmarapuraȬmyo MahagandayonȬtaik,ȱAmarapuraȬmyoȱ MahagandayonȬtaik,ȱAmarapuraȬmyoȱ MahavijitayonȬtaikȱChanȬeȬthaȬzan,ȱMandalayȬ myo ȱ ȱ NyaunȬleȬpinȬkyaun,ȱThatonȬmyo LeȬthaȬkyaun,ȱKyaikȬhtoȬmyo MahameghaȬwunȬkyaun,ȱKyaikȬhtoȬmyo MinȬgaȬlaȬjeyȬyonȬkyaun,ȱPeinȬnehȬkonȬywa,ȱ KyaikȬmaȬyawȬmyo TawȬyaȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱPaukȬtawȬywa,ȱBiȬlinȬmyoȱ MahamyaingȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMaungȬnganȬyat,ȱ MawlamyaingȬmyo NatȬyeȬtwinȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMawlamyaingȬmyoȱ MuȬdonȬtawȬyaȱMahasiȬkyaun,ȱMuȬdonȬmyoȱ ViȬveȬkaȬvathaȬkyaun,ȱTaungȬsun,ȱBiȬlinȬmyoȱ ȱ ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱ

Nandam¬l¬ȱ 114ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 115ȱ

116ȱ 117ȱ 118ȱ 119ȱ 120ȱ 121ȱ 122ȱ 123ȱ 124ȱ 125ȱ 126ȱ 127ȱ 128ȱ 129ȱ 130ȱ 131ȱ 132ȱ 133ȱ 134ȱ ȱ ȱ 135ȱ

136ȱ 137ȱ 138ȱ

Cand¬laѼk¬raȱ ȱ Yangonȱ Divisionȱ R¬jind¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ (AssociateȱHeadȱ ofȱS¬sana)ȱ Dhammas¬mÎȬ bhivaѴsaȱ Suman¬bhiȬ vaѴsaȱ Sirind¬bhivaѴsa Nimmalañ¬Ѿaȱ Tosanaȱ PaѾ҃itaȱ %ciѾѾaȱ Jotikaȱ Vijjot¬bhivaѴsa SumaѾgal¬Ȭ laѼk¬raȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa Sucitt¬bhivaѴsa PaѾ҃it¬bhivaѴsa Kum¬raȱ Revataȱ SÎridhammaȱ AѼgÎsaȱ GuѾik¬bhivaѴsa GaѾissaraȱ ȱ ShanȱStateȱ Vimal¬bhivaѴsaȱ (Headȱofȱtheȱ S¬sana)ȱ %jeyyaȱ N¬gind¬laѼk¬ra Dhammavaraȱ

217ȱ

SaddhammaȬjotikayonȬkyaun,ȱMinȬpyinȬywa,ȱ ManȬaungȬmyo CandaramaȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱSitȬtweȬmyoȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ SirimantaȬshweȬhinȬthaȬkyaun,ȱBaȬhanȬmyoȱ

KyaunȬtawȬyaȱShwegyinȬtaikȱNigrodhayonȬ kyaun,ȱBaȬhanȬmyo KyaunȬtawȬyaȱShwegyinȬtaikȱThonȬhtatȬkyaun,ȱ BaȬhanȬmyo MahavisuddhayonȬShwegyinȬtaik,ȱBaȬhanȬmyoȱ MaȬsoȬyeinȬShwegyinȬtaik,ȱKunȬchanȬkonȬmyoȱ SinȬkyanȬkyaun,ȱTunȬteȬmyo HsuȬhtuȬpanȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱTaȬmweȬmyoȱ OkȬkamȬhpaȬyaȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱThonȬhseyȬmyo SasanaȬaȬlinȬyaunȬkyaun,ȱDawȬponȬmyo VijjotayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMaȬyanȬkonȬmyo TipitakaȬMahagandhayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMaȬyanȬ konȬmyo ChanȬmyetȬyeitȬthaȬkyaun,ȱMaȬyanȬkonȬmyoȱ ShweȬhinȬthaȬtaikȬthit,ȱYangonȬmyo MahabodhiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱYangonȬmyo SasanaȬwunȬhsuanȬkyaun,ȱHmawȬbiȬmyo YaȬtaȬnaȬsiddhiȬMandalayȬkyaun,ȱMyaukȬokȬkaȬ laȬpaȬmyo MahasippamȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱThinȬghanȬkyunȬmyoȱ PaliȬkaȬyiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱThaȬkeȬtaȬmyo KanȬthonȬhsintȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMinȬgaȬlaȬdonȬmyoȱ KyaikȬkaȬsanȬshweȬhinȬthaȬkyaun,ȱYangonȬmyoȱ ȱ ȱ KanȬgyiȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱNyaunȬshweȬmyoȱ

DhammodayaȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱKyainȬtonȬmyo HpaȬyaȬgyiȬmyaukȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱTaungȬgyiȬmyoȱ InȬlyaȬkyaun,ȱInȬlyaȬywa,ȱNyaunȬshweȬmyo

218ȱ

AppendixȱB:ȱTablesȱȱ

139ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 140ȱ 141ȱ 142ȱ 143ȱ 144ȱ 145ȱ

Candanas¬raȱ ȱ Erawadiȱ Divisionȱ Kusal¬bhivaѴsa VaѾѾitaȱ Mahosadhaȱ Vepullaȱ N¬gavaѴsaȱ R¬jindaȱ

146ȱ

Nandiyaȱ

147ȱ 148ȱ

Kum¬raȱ GuѾissaraȱ

149ȱ 150ȱ 151ȱ 152ȱ

Candavaraȱ Anadhivaraȱ Vil¬saȱ Indakaȱ

ThiȬhoȬpariyattiȬShwegyinȬtaik,ȱKyaukȬmeȬmyoȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ShweȬhinȬthaȬtawȬyaȬtaik,ȱNyaunȬtonȬmyo MyaungȬmyaȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱPaȬtheinȬmyo MaungȬdaunȬpariyattiȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱPaȬtheinȬmyoȱ TawȬyaȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱLaȬputȬtaȬmyo LeȬhtatȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱLaȬputȬtaȬmyo ShweȬpyiȬtanȬsaȬthinȬtaik,ȱMawlamyingȬkyunȬ myoȱ AtulaȬgonȬyaunȬdhammayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱSanȬ kinȬywa,ȱDaȬnuȬphyuȬmyo KhaȬtawȬhmiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱPaȬtheinȬmyo TaikȬthitȬpajjotayonȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMyaunȬmyaȬ myo JeyyamedaniȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMyaunȬmyaȬmyo DhammayonȬShwegyinȬtaik,ȱMaȬuȬpinȬmyo MahabodhiȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMaȬuȬpinȬmyo PajjotayonȬpaliȬtekȬkaȬthoȬkyaunȬtaik,ȱMyaunȬ myaȬmyo

ȱ

Source:ȱRecordȱofȱtheȱFifteenthȱMeetingȱ2000ȱp.ȱ195–200.ȱ ȱ

ȱ

AppendixȱC:ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱ ȱ ȱ ThisȱtranslationȱcompletedȱwithȱassistanceȱfromȱThanȱThanȱWin,ȱconfiȬ dentialȱinputȱfromȱBurmeseȱmonks,ȱandȱalsoȱcomparisonȱtoȱtheȱtranslaȬ tionȱ availableȱ atȱ http://www.hrw.org/en/node/85644/section/16#_ftnȱ 195.ȱTheȱtranslationȱ hereȱisȱparticularlyȱ attentiveȱ toȱ theȱ BuddhistȱcateȬ goriesȱ thatȱ areȱ invokedȱ inȱ theȱ originalȱ letter.ȱ Indentedȱ Burmeseȱ linesȱ representȱ newȱ paragraphsȱ inȱ theȱ originalȱ faxȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ S¬sanaȱAffairs.ȱȱ ruieqel;`mt\sQa elJak\Ta;Ap\pfqv\ pInn\Sraeta\Bura;Respectfullyȱaddressingȱyou,ȱgreatȱPenangȱSayadaw,

Sraeta\@kI;% qIlgu%\' qmaDigu%\' pvagu%\kui yuM~kv\el;sa;ljk\ elJak\Ta;KQc\. #prn\ p%am elJak\Ta;Ap\pfqv\Bura;" Trustingȱandȱrespectingȱyourȱvirtuesȱinȱconductȱ(P.ȱsÎla),ȱconcentrationȱ(P.ȱ sam¬dhi),ȱandȱwisdomȱ(P.ȱpaññ¬),ȱweȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱmakeȱaȱrequestȱtoȱallowȱ usȱtoȱtalkȱtoȱyou.

Sraeta\@kI;qv\ `pv\tQc\;`pv\pqaqna#pra| ATU;eAac\`mc\ekja\~ka; lUqimja;eqa Sraeta\@kI; `Ps\qkE.qui> qaqnaeta\@kI;ArHv\tv\tM.Kuic\!mEer;mHalv\; ATU;Aer;pf Aa;Ta; reqa Sraeta\@kI; ts\pf;`Ps\pfqv\Bura;" Asȱ youȱ areȱ aȱ successfulȱ andȱ famousȱ Sayadawȱ inȱ doingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ (B.ȱ S¬san¬ȱ pru,ȱ qaqna#p)ȱ insideȱ andȱ outsideȱ theȱ country,ȱ youȱ areȱ someoneȱ whoȱ isȱ especiallyȱ reliedȱ uponȱ forȱ theȱ perpetuationȱ ofȱ theȱ greatȱ S¬sana.

km¤a.bud™Baqalup\cn\;mja;tQc\ eTrwfdbud™Baqawc\ Sraeta\@kI;ts\pf;k ykului TU;KYn\e`pac\e`mak\sQa qaqna#pNuic\qv\kuilv\; `mn\maNuic\cMrHi rhn\; `pv\qUtui>k ATU;gu%\yUlui>mSuM; `Ps\pf qv\Bura;" Theȱmonksȱ andȱ peopleȱ inȱ Myanmarȱ areȱinfinitelyȱ proudȱthatȱ you,ȱ aȱ greatȱ Sayadawȱ ofȱ Therav¬daȱ Buddhismȱ (B.ȱ buddhaȱ bh¬s¬ȱ vaΤе,ȱ bud™Baqawc\),ȱ canȱ soȱ successfullyȱdoȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱlikeȱthis.

km¤a.#mi>@kI;mja;tQc\ `mn\ma Bun\;eta\@kI;ekjac\;mja; tv\eTac\ep;`Kc\;' Nuic\cM`Ka;Baqaska;mja;`Pc\. Nuic\cM `Ka;qa;mja;Aa; tra;Dm¥ehae`pa`pq`Kc\;sqv\. Sraeta\@kI;% eSac\RQk\Kjk\mja;qv\ qaqna. qmuic\;tQc\ AsV\tv\tM.enmv\. lup\eSac\Kjk\mja; `Ps\pfqv\Bura;"

220ȱ

AppendixȱC:ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱȱ

Yourȱ workȱ suchȱ asȱ buildingȱ Burmeseȱ Buddhistȱ monasteriesȱ inȱ citiesȱ aroundȱtheȱworldȱandȱpreachingȱtoȱforeignersȱinȱforeignȱlanguagesȱwillȱlastȱ foreverȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.

m~kamIk `mn\maNuic\cMtQc\`Ps\pQa;KE.eqa Aer;AKc\;mja;NHc\.pt\qk\& Anv\;cy\elJak\Ta;KQc\. #ppfqv\Bura;" Pleaseȱallowȱusȱtoȱtalkȱaȱlittleȱbitȱaboutȱtheȱdisruptiveȱeventsȱthatȱtookȱplaceȱ recentlyȱinȱMyanmar.ȱȱ

gN—DurNHc\. wip§naDur NHs\`Pa;Aa;Tup\ljk\rHieqa Sraeta\qMGaeta\mja;kui Nuic\cMer;qma;mja;k AkQk\Sc\lup\eSac\!pI; winv\;qikˆaNHc\. melja\vIeqa SN˜`ppEQmja;tQc\ pfwc\rn\ lHoM>eSa\KE.pfqv\Bura;" Politiciansȱ hadȱ trickedȱ Sayadawsȱ andȱ otherȱ monksȱ whoȱ wereȱ studyingȱ textsȱ (P.ȱ ganthaȬdhura)ȱ andȱ practicingȱ meditationȱ (P.ȱ vipassan¬Ȭdhura)ȱ andȱ urgedȱ themȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ demonstrations,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ notȱ inȱ accorȬ danceȱwithȱtheirȱdisciplinaryȱcodeȱofȱconductȱ(B.ȱvinaññеɇȱsikkh¬,ȱwinv\;qikˆa).ȱȱ

qMGakuiAquM;Kj!pI; Nuic\cMer;A`mt\Tut\ka 1988KuNHs\Aer;AKc\;mja;kE.qui> Ae`KAenkui Pn\tI;qQa;`Kc\; `Ps\pfqv\Bura;" Theyȱ usedȱ theȱ monasticȱ communityȱ forȱ politicalȱ advantageȱ andȱ triedȱ toȱ createȱaȱsituationȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱdisruptiveȱeventsȱinȱ1988.ȱȱ

`pv\perak\ `mn\maSraeta\ qMGeta\mja;AenNHc\. `mn\maNuic\cMAsui;rNHc\. Nuic\cMeta\mhanaykAPEQ>% lup\eSac\mHomja;kui ATc\A`mc\lEWmHa;mHo mrHiesrn\ elJak\Ta;r`Kc\;`Ps\pfqv\Bura;" WeȱareȱtellingȱyouȱthisȱsoȱthatȱtheȱBurmeseȱSayadawsȱandȱmonksȱabroadȱ wouldȱnotȱmisunderstandȱtheȱactionsȱofȱtheȱMyanmarȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱ StateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommittee.ȱȱ

qaqnaeta\ TQn\;ka;`pn\>pQa;er;qv\ winv\;qikˆaNHc\.vI“Qt\eqa qMGaepF tQc\ ADik tv\enljk\ rHpi fqv\ Bura;" TheȱprominenceȱandȱspreadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱdependsȱmainlyȱuponȱtheȱmonasȬ ticȱcommunityȱthatȱfollowsȱtheȱdisciplinaryȱcodeȱofȱconduct.ȱȱ

Nuic\cMer;NHc\. qaqnaer;qv\ rv\RQy\Kjk\ lup\nv\;lup\hn\mja;mHs& Ae`KKMkQElQEKjk\mja;rHieqae~kac\. mepfc\;sp\Ap\qc\.eqa Ae~kac\;AraNHs\rp\ `Ps\pfqv\Bura;" Inȱtheirȱgoalsȱandȱmethods,ȱthereȱareȱfundamentalȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱpoȬ liticalȱaffairsȱandȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱandȱtheseȱtwoȱthingsȱshouldȱnotȱ mix.ȱȱ

Nuic\cMer;lup\eqa qMGkui eKt\ASk\Sk\ Asui;rNHc\.`pv\qUk lk\mKMKE.~kpfBura;" Governmentsȱ andȱ peopleȱ fromȱ variousȱ erasȱ haveȱ neverȱ acceptedȱ monksȱ whoȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱpolitics.ȱȱ

1980 qMGagui%\;epfc\;suMAsv\;Aew;@kI;mH emQ;Tut\luik\eqa qMGagui%\;epfc\;sMu vI“Qt\er;kui Ae`KKMqv\. Nuic\cMeta\qMGmhanaykAPEQ>@kI;qv\ Nuic\cMer;mPk\ Dm¥er;qk\qk\ eSac\rQk\KE.qv\"

ȱ

AppendixȱC:ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱ

221ȱ

TheȱgreatȱStateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱCommittee,ȱbornȱfromȱaȱconventionȱofȱ variousȱmonasticȱgaingȱinȱ1980,ȱandȱbasedȱonȱtheȱunityȱofȱvariousȱmonasticȱ gaing,ȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ involvedȱ inȱ politicalȱ affairsȱ butȱ onlyȱ doesȱ religiousȱ workȱ(B.ȱdhammaȱreɇȱsakеȱsakе,ȱDm¥er;qk\qk\).ȱȱ

Tui>e~kac\.lv\; Nuic\cMeta\qMGmhanaykAPEQ>@kI;qv\ yKutuic\ Asui;rASk\Sk\ tv\tM.Kuic\!mEljk\riH!pI; enac\tQc\lv\; Sk\lk\tv\rHienVI;mv\ `Ps\pfqv\Bura;" Therefore,ȱ theȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Committeeȱ hasȱ lastedȱ throughȱ variousȱgovernments,ȱisȱstillȱstanding,ȱandȱitȱwillȱcontinueȱtoȱexist.ȱȱ

sk\tc\Bfl Aer;AKc\;mja;e~kac\. qGMa.APEQ>Asv\;ASc\.Sc\.% lup\eSac\ Kjk\mja; AKuik\Atn\> eNHac\.eNH; qQa;eqa\lv\; yKuAKf saqc\tuik\mja;NHc\. km¥±an\;tuik\mja;qv\ puMmHn\lv\pt\ljk\rHi!pI; mUlAtuic\; saqc\mpjk\ km¥¬an\;pQa;mja;mpjk\ eA;Kjm\;sQa Sk\lk\ tv\rHiljk\rHipfqv\Bura;"1ȱȱ AlthoughȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱvariousȱlevelsȱofȱtheȱSaѼghaȱCommitteeȱhadȱbeenȱ delayedȱ forȱ awhileȱ dueȱ toȱ theȱ disruptiveȱ eventsȱ ofȱ September,ȱ atȱ presentȱ theȱ teachingȱ monasteriesȱ andȱ theȱ meditationȱ monasteriesȱ areȱ runningȱ asȱ usual,ȱwithȱnoȱinterruptionȱtoȱteachingȱorȱmeditatingȱinȱpeace.ȱ

bud™Baqakui ~kv\“uiel;sa;mja;`Ps\qv\. Asui;rNHc\.`pv\qUmja;klv\; qd™fmpjk\ psŒv\;el;pf; eTak\pM. lHOdfn\;ljk\ qaqnaAkjio;kui Sk\lk\ eSac\rQk\ljk\ rHipfqv\Bura;" Theȱ governmentȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ whoȱ respectȱ Buddhismȱ (B.ȱ buddhaȱ bh¬s¬,ȱ bud™Baqa)ȱ areȱ alsoȱ donating,ȱ withȱ unceasingȱ faith,ȱ fourȱ things2ȱ andȱ areȱ stillȱ workingȱforȱtheȱbenefitȱofȱtheȱS¬sana.ȱ

2007 KuNHs\' sk\tc\Bal 28-rk\en>k Aemrikn\`pv\eTac\sutQc\ `pv\perak\ `mn\ma qMGeta\ mja;k qMGa.VI;eqJac\APQE>Asv\;ts\rp\kui PQE>sv\;luik\e~kac\; sit\mKjm\;e`m .sQa ~ka;qirpfqv\Bura;" Weȱ areȱ unhappyȱ toȱ hearȱ thatȱ Burmeseȱ monksȱ inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ haveȱ formedȱaȱSaѼghaȱregencyȱonȱtheȱ28thȱofȱSeptember,ȱ2007.3ȱȱ

qmg‰nMtepfqueKf hUeqa eSac\pud\Atuic\; qMGavI“Qt\`Kc\;qv\ Kjm\;qa% hu tpv\.eta\tui> mHt\qa; Ta;pfqv\Bura;" Accordingȱtoȱtheȱsayingȱ“theȱasceticȱpracticeȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱinȱconcordȱisȱ sukha”ȱ(P.ȱsamagganaΚȱtapoȱsukho),4ȱweȱunderstandȱthatȱtheȱunityȱofȱtheȱmoȬ nasticȱcommunityȱisȱjoyful.ȱȱ

yKu`pv\ptQc\ qMGaAPEQ>Asv\;mja; sc\!pioc\PQE>`Kc\;qv\ qaqnaeta\tQc\ qMGa.vI“Wt\er;!piokQE!pI; qaqnaeta\ “:i;NQm\;Nuic\mv\. Ala;Alamja; epF epfk\ laNuic\qv\Bura;" Atȱpresent,ȱformingȱparallelȱmonasticȱorganizationsȱabroadȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱdiȬ videȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunityȱandȱtheȱS¬sanaȱwillȱlikelyȱlanguish.ȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1ȱ 2ȱ 3ȱ 4ȱ

km¥±an\;ȱandȱkm¥¬an\;ȱareȱasȱspelledȱinȱtheȱoriginal.ȱ I.e.,ȱmonasteries,ȱrobes,ȱfood,ȱandȱmedicines.ȱ Thisȱisȱtheȱdateȱasȱgivenȱinȱtheȱletter.ȱItȱshouldȱreadȱOctober.ȱ “SamagganaΚ”ȱisȱasȱspelledȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱdocument.ȱ

222ȱ

AppendixȱC:ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱPenangȱSayadawȱȱ

qMGaTutQc\; qc\;kQEg% ui \;kQEmja; m`Ps\epF esrn\ ~qzatik…m@kI;ma;eqa Sraeta\@kI;mja;k ta;SI; e`Pqim\. ep;pfrn\ elJak\Ta;Ap\pfqv\Bura;" Weȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱrequestȱpowerfulȱ(P.ȱoj¬tikkama)ȱSayadawsȱtoȱpreventȱtheȱ creationȱofȱvariousȱseparateȱgaingȱinȱtheȱmonasticȱcommunity.ȱȱ

`mn\maNuic\cM

Nuic\cMeta\qMGmhanaykSraeta\@kI;mja;qv\

qMGaTuAtQc\;mH

ASc\.Sc\.eRQ;Kjy\

KMreqa Sraeta\@kI;mja;`Ps\`Kc\;e~kac\.qa yKukE.qui> qaqna.tawn\kui tc\e`mHak\`Kc\; eSac\rQk\enr`Kc\; `Ps\!pI; qIlqikˆaqmaDiNHc\.`pv\suMeqa Sraeta\@kI;mja;lv\; `Ps\~kpfqv\Bura;" Preciselyȱ becauseȱ theȱ Myanmarȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱ Sayadawsȱ areȱ Sayadawsȱ whoȱ beenȱ electedȱ inȱ variousȱ stepsȱ fromȱ amongȱ theȱ monasticȱ community,ȱ theyȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ theirȱ S¬sanaȱ dutiesȱ inȱ thisȱ manner;ȱ theyȱareȱalsoȱSayadawsȱfullyȱendowedȱwithȱsÎlaȬsikkh¬Ȭsam¬dhi.5ȱȱ

qaqnaeta\kui Dm¥qk\qk\`Pc\.qa esac\.erHak\eqanv\;lm\;qv\qa tc\.ty\pfqv\Bura;" Itȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ takeȱcareȱofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ throughȱ theȱBuddha’sȱ Dhammaȱ only.ȱȱ

enac\Anagt\tQc\ Nuic\cMer; sIpQa;er; AkJio;mPk\BE Dm¥er;qk\qk\`Pc\. eSac\rQk\ljk\ qaqnaeta\kui rhn\;eta\Apfc\;k Sk\lk\esac\.erHak\ep;eta\mU~kpfrn\ Ruieqel;`mt\sQa elJak\Ta; Ap\pfqv\ Bura;" Inȱtheȱfuture,ȱweȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱrespectfullyȱrequestȱtheȱmonksȱtoȱcontinueȱ toȱ takeȱ careȱ ofȱ theȱ S¬sanaȱ onlyȱ throughȱ Buddha’sȱ Dhammaȱ aloneȱ withoutȱ anyȱinvolvementȱinȱpoliticsȱorȱeconomy.ȱ

ȱ qaqnaer;wn\@kI;¬an MinistryȱofȱS¬sanaȱAffairsȱ

ȱ ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 5ȱ

http://www.hrw.org/en/node/85644/section/16#_ftn195ȱ translatesȱ thisȱ asȱ “theyȱ areȱ alsoȱ moralȱ andȱ dignifiedȱ Sayadaws.”ȱ Iȱ haveȱ decidedȱ toȱ leaveȱ theȱ phraseȱ untranȬ slated.ȱ Inȱ theȱ letter,ȱ itȱ isȱ unclearȱ ifȱ theȱ shiftȱ fromȱ anȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ sÎlaȬsam¬dhiȬ paññ¬ȱ ofȱ theȱ Penangȱ Sayadawȱ toȱ theȱ sÎlaȬsikkh¬Ȭsam¬dhiȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ SaѼghaȱ Mah¬n¬yakaȱSayadawsȱisȱintentional.ȱ

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ȱ

IndexȱofȱAuthorsȱ ȱ Pleaseȱ noteȱ thatȱ theȱ indexingȱ programȱ usedȱ forȱ thisȱ bookȱ didȱ notȱ disȬ tinguishȱ betweenȱ mainȱ textȱ andȱ footnotes.ȱ Therefore,ȱ whenȱ lookingȱ throughȱ theȱ bookȱ forȱ particularȱ words,ȱ interestedȱ readersȱ mayȱ findȱ suchȱwordsȱinȱtheȱfootnotesȱratherȱthanȱinȱtheȱmainȱbodyȱofȱtheȱtext.ȱ ȱ Archer,ȱMargaret,ȱ40ȱ AungȬThwin,ȱMichael,ȱ6,ȱ25,ȱ64ȱ Barry,ȱRandall,ȱxvȱ Bartholomeusz,ȱTessa,ȱ6ȱ Bischoff,ȱRoger,ȱ148ȱ Bizot,ȱFrançois,ȱ6ȱ Blackburn,ȱAnne,ȱ6,ȱ18,ȱ36,ȱ42,ȱ180,ȱ 184ȱ Bodhi,ȱBhikkhu,ȱ146,ȱ147,ȱ162,ȱ163ȱ BracȱdeȱlaȱPerrière,ȱBénédicte,ȱ28,ȱ 176ȱ Braun,ȱErik,ȱ45,ȱ145,ȱ147,ȱ178ȱ Buswell,ȱRobert,ȱ6ȱ Callahan,ȱMary,ȱ23ȱ Carbine,ȱJason,ȱ6,ȱ15,ȱ28,ȱ102,ȱ167ȱ Carrithers,ȱMichael,ȱ116ȱ Cattell,ȱMaria,ȱ40ȱ Charney,ȱMichael,ȱ17,ȱ18,ȱ21,ȱ88ȱ Climo,ȱJacob,ȱ40ȱ Collcutt,ȱMartin,ȱ6ȱ Collins,ȱSteven,ȱ6,ȱ40,ȱ67,ȱ116,ȱ151,ȱ 179,ȱ180,ȱ184ȱ Cone,ȱMargaret,ȱ82ȱ Connerton,ȱPaul,ȱ40,ȱ44ȱ Crosby,ȱKate,ȱ15ȱ Cummings,ȱMark,ȱ6ȱ Dhammasami,ȱVen.ȱKhammai,ȱ18,ȱ 20,ȱ21,ȱ141ȱ Durkheim,ȱEmile,ȱ41ȱ Eberhardt,ȱNancy,ȱ117ȱ

Eliade,ȱMircea,ȱ41ȱ Faure,ȱBernard,ȱ6ȱ Ferguson,ȱJohn,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ21,ȱ22,ȱ24,ȱ 27,ȱ28,ȱ29,ȱ42,ȱ47,ȱ48,ȱ76,ȱ78,ȱ85,ȱ 86,ȱ87,ȱ105,ȱ177ȱ Fink,ȱChristina,ȱ23ȱ Frasch,ȱTilman,ȱ6,ȱ64ȱ Gatewood,ȱJohn,ȱ175ȱ Gethin,ȱRupert,ȱ6,ȱ144ȱ Green,ȱRonald,ȱ171ȱ Grieve,ȱGregory,ȱ38ȱ Gunawardana,ȱR.ȱA.ȱL.ȱH.,ȱ6ȱ Gyatso,ȱJanet,ȱ125ȱ GyÎȱPhe,ȱU,ȱ48ȱ Hallisey,ȱCharles,ȱ34,ȱ183,ȱ184,ȱ185ȱ Hansen,ȱAnne,ȱ184ȱ Harpham,ȱGeoffrey,ȱ184ȱ Hauerwas,ȱStanley,ȱ171ȱ Havnevik,ȱHanna,ȱ6ȱ Henry,ȱPatrick,ȱ6ȱ Hobsbawm,ȱEric,ȱ32,ȱ33,ȱ38,ȱ41ȱ Holt,ȱJohn,ȱ6,ȱ16,ȱ107,ȱ108,ȱ110,ȱ114,ȱ 115,ȱ124,ȱ126,ȱ137,ȱ177,ȱ178,ȱ179ȱ Houtman,ȱGustaaf,ȱ2,ȱ3,ȱ23,ȱ28,ȱ42,ȱ 70,ȱ174,ȱ175ȱ HtunȱHlaing,ȱU,ȱ143,ȱ144,ȱ151,ȱ153,ȱ 154,ȱ155ȱ Huxley,ȱAndrew,ȱ42,ȱ46,ȱ50,ȱ51,ȱ84,ȱ 86ȱ Ikuno,ȱZenno,ȱ77ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱAuthorsȱ

J¬gara,ȱAshin,ȱ51,ȱ99ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱ104,ȱ105,ȱ141,ȱ142,ȱ 143,ȱ145,ȱ147,ȱ150ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱAshin,ȱ109,ȱ151,ȱ 152,ȱ157,ȱ158,ȱ159,ȱ160,ȱ162,ȱ163,ȱ 165,ȱ166ȱ Jay,ȱNancy,ȱ41ȱ Jordt,ȱIngrid,ȱ10,ȱ23,ȱ28,ȱ174ȱ Jotip¬la,ȱAshin,ȱ21ȱ Kawanami,ȱHiroko,ȱ10,ȱ28,ȱ103,ȱ176ȱ Kel¬sa,ȱAshin,ȱ48,ȱ83ȱ Keown,ȱDamien,ȱ171,ȱ183ȱ Keyes,ȱCharles,ȱ40ȱ Kieschnick,ȱJohn,ȱ6ȱ Kitagawa,ȱJoseph,ȱ6ȱ KoȱLay,ȱU,ȱ151,ȱ152ȱ Kraft,ȱKenneth,ȱ171ȱ LaCapra,ȱDominick,ȱ184ȱ LaFleur,ȱWilliam,ȱ171ȱ Lehman,ȱF.ȱK.,ȱ78,ȱ114,ȱ186ȱ LeviȬStrauss,ȱClaude,ȱ41ȱ Lincoln,ȱBruce,ȱ29ȱ Lintner,ȱBertil,ȱxivȱ Lubeigt,ȱGuy,ȱ83ȱ Lukes,ȱSteven,ȱ116ȱ Mah¬dhammathingyan,ȱ48ȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱSayadaw,ȱ51,ȱ 99ȱ Mah¬visuddh¬yonȱSayadaw,ȱ51,ȱ 78,ȱ79,ȱ137ȱ Malandra,ȱGeri,ȱ6ȱ Matthews,ȱBruce,ȱ24,ȱ25,ȱ26,ȱ27ȱ MaungȱMaungȱGyi,ȱ23ȱ MaungȱMaung,ȱU,ȱ77ȱ MaungȱPho,ȱ48ȱ McMahan,ȱDavid,ȱ171ȱ MediȱSayadaw,ȱ48,ȱ65ȱ Mendelson,ȱMichael,ȱ4,ȱ6,ȱ20,ȱ21,ȱ 27,ȱ28,ȱ42,ȱ46,ȱ51,ȱ77,ȱ81,ȱ82,ȱ86,ȱ 88,ȱ100,ȱ105,ȱ141,ȱ177ȱ MoȱMoȱThant,ȱ22,ȱ76,ȱ80,ȱ81,ȱ82,ȱ156ȱ Morris,ȱRosalind,ȱ38,ȱ39,ȱ41ȱ

237ȱ

Mus,ȱPaul,ȱ6ȱ MyintȬU,ȱThant,ȱ18ȱ ѬѾamoli,ȱBhikkhu,ȱ146ȱ N¬rada,ȱU,ȱ145,ȱ146,ȱ161,ȱ162,ȱ165ȱ Nattier,ȱJan,ȱ36ȱ Numrich,ȱPaul,ȱ6ȱ Nyana,ȱSayadawȱU,ȱ163ȱ Nyanatiloka,ȱ146,ȱ149,ȱ160,ȱ161ȱ O’Connell,ȱTimothy,ȱ171ȱ Obeyesekere,ȱGananath,ȱ30ȱ Obh¬s¬bhivaѴsa,ȱAshin,ȱ59,ȱ135ȱ Orzech,ȱCharles,ȱ6,ȱ9ȱ PaѾ҃itatherе,ȱAshin,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ21,ȱ 43,ȱ51,ȱ52,ȱ53,ȱ54,ȱ55,ȱ56,ȱ63,ȱ65,ȱ 69ȱ PeȱMaungȱTin,ȱ144,ȱ149ȱ Phay¬ȱPhyĀȱSayadaw,ȱ50,ȱ85,ȱ111,ȱ 118ȱ PhoȱKy¬,ȱ60,ȱ61,ȱ62,ȱ63,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ66,ȱ 68,ȱ69ȱ Pranke,ȱPatrick,ȱ16,ȱ28,ȱ42,ȱ59,ȱ76ȱ Prebish,ȱCharles,ȱ6ȱ RadcliffeȬBrown,ȱA.ȱR.,ȱ41ȱ Ratnapala,ȱNandasena,ȱ16ȱ Ray,ȱReginald,ȱ6ȱ Reynolds,ȱFrank,ȱ6,ȱ15,ȱ185,ȱ186ȱ Rozenberg,ȱGuillaume,ȱ6,ȱ28ȱ SaoȱHtunȱHmatȱWin,ȱ109,ȱ112,ȱ135ȱ Sarkisyanz,ȱE.,ȱ6,ȱ18,ȱ88ȱ Schilbrack,ȱKevin,ȱ183ȱ Schober,ȱJuliane,ȱ6,ȱ23,ȱ26,ȱ42,ȱ77,ȱ 174,ȱ176ȱ Schopen,ȱGregory,ȱ7ȱ Shils,ȱEdward,ȱ32,ȱ33,ȱ38,ȱ41ȱ Silber,ȱIlana,ȱ7ȱ Silverstein,ȱJosef,ȱ23ȱ Sizemore,ȱRussell,ȱ171ȱ Skilling,ȱPeter,ȱ34ȱ Smith,ȱDonald,ȱ23,ȱ27,ȱ81,ȱ86,ȱ88,ȱ 100ȱ Spiro,ȱMelford,ȱ27,ȱ181ȱ Steffen,ȱLloyd,ȱ171ȱ

238ȱ

IndexȱofȱAuthorsȱȱ

Steinberg,ȱDavid,ȱxiv,ȱ23ȱ Stoller,ȱPaul,ȱ40ȱ Strong,ȱ7ȱ Swearer,ȱDonald,ȱ6,ȱ7,ȱ171,ȱ182ȱ Tambiah,ȱS.ȱJ.,ȱ7,ȱ42,ȱ47ȱ Tanabe,ȱShigeharu,ȱ40ȱ Teiser,ȱStephen,ȱ7ȱ ThanȱTun,ȱ19,ȱ21,ȱ28,ȱ86,ȱ90,ȱ96,ȱ97,ȱ 98,ȱ99,ȱ100,ȱ102,ȱ105,ȱ140,ȱ141ȱ ThanissaroȱBhikkhu,ȱ83,ȱ107,ȱ108,ȱ 111,ȱ112,ȱ113,ȱ115ȱ ThârmanayȱKyaw,ȱ140ȱ TinȱMaungȱMaungȱThan,ȱ25,ȱ77,ȱ83ȱ

ȱ

Tucker,ȱMary,ȱ171ȱ Turner,ȱVictor,ȱ29ȱ Vajirañ¬Ѿavarorasa,ȱKromȱPhray¬,ȱ 110ȱ V¬seҁҁh¬bhivaѴsa,ȱAshin,ȱ92ȱ Veidlinger,ȱDaniel,ȱ7,ȱ49ȱ Weiss,ȱRichard,ȱ38ȱ Welter,ȱAlbert,ȱ42ȱ Wiant,ȱJon,ȱ24ȱ Wijayaratna,ȱMohan,ȱ7ȱ Williams,ȱDuncan,ȱ171ȱ Wilson,ȱLiz,ȱ7ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱBurmeseȱTermsȱ ȱ Leadershipȱ positionsȱwithȱ Burmeseȱnamesȱ areȱ listedȱbelowȱinȱtheȱ“InȬ dexȱofȱSubjects.”ȱ ȱ ¬Φ¬ȱpuiΤе,ȱAa%apuic,\ ȱ95ȱ an¬gatеȱS¬san¬ȱreɇ,ȱAnagt\qaqnaer;,ȱ 142ȱ aññacеȱakreɇ,ȱAvs\Ae~k;,ȱ59ȱ \ Sk\ anvayеȱachakеȱchoΤеȱsĀ, ANQyA eSac\ qU,ȱ46ȱ anvayеȱachakеȱcoΤеȇȱsĀ,ȱ ANQyA \ Sk\esac\q . ,U ȱ54ȱ anvayеȱachakеȱmaȱpyakеȱmaȱcÎɇ,ȱ ANQyA \ Sk\mpjkm\ sI;,ȱ54ȱ apha,ȱAP,ȱ42,ȱ69ȱ apraΤеȱbhakеȱkaȱne,ȱA`pc\Bk\ken,ȱ2ȱ atvaΤеɇȱkaȱne,ȱAtQc\;ken,ȱ2,ȱ22ȱ bhunеɇȱkrÎɇ,ȱBun\;~kI;,ȱ80ȱ buddhaȱbh¬s¬,ȱbud™Baqa,ȱ221ȱ cacеȱtaȱlaΤеɇ,ȱss\tlc\;,ȱ153ȱ caññеɇȱluΚɇȱññÎȱññvatеȱreɇ,ȱ sv\;lu;M vIvt Q \er;,ȱ97ȱ dak¬ȱraΤеɇȱmy¬ɇ,ȱdkarc\;mja;,ȱ142ȱ guiΦеɇȱcitеȱmaȱrhi,ȱgui%;\ sit\mrH,i ȱ79ȱ in-gyin khet-kyain Shwegyin Gaing, Ac\~kc\;Kk\kjioc\;erWkjc\gui%\;,ȱ4ȱ katiȱpru,ȱkti#p,ȱ104ȱ katȬsaȬhto,ȱkp\-sa-Tu;i ,ȱ141ȱ khyacеȱs¬ɇ,ȱKjs\qa;,ȱ43ȱ khyamеɇȱs¬,ȱKjm\;qa,ȱ93ȱ krÎɇȱpv¬ɇȱtuiɇȱtakеȱreɇ,ȱ@kI;pQa;tu;i tk\er;,ȱ 97ȱ kyakеȱc¬ɇ,ȱkjk\sa;,ȱ149ȱ mhatеȱtamеɇ,ȱmHt\tm\;,ȱ84ȱ miȱyoȱphaȱlaȱboddhaȱbhatha,ȱ mir;iu PlabudB ™ aqa,ȱ4ȱ

mraΤеȇȱmratеȱsoȱrahanеɇȱkhaΚ,ȱ `mc\.`mt\eqa rhn\;KM,ȱ107ȱ Mranm¬,ȱ`mn\ma,ȱxivȱ Τaȱrai,ȱcrE,ȱ78ȱ ñ¬ΦеȱtoеȱkrÎɇ,ȱ‘a%\eta\@kI;,ȱ149ȱ pranеȇȱpv¬ɇ,ȱ`pn\p> aQ ;,ȱ83,ȱ171ȱ praññеȱpaȱS¬san¬ȱpruȱsaΤghaȱn¬yaka,ȱ `pv\pqaqna#p qMGnayk,ȱ22ȱ puthujañеȱrahanеɇ,ȱpuTuzV\ rhn\;,ȱ53ȱ rahanеɇ,ȱrhn\;,ȱ43,ȱ92ȱ i ;\ qa;,ȱ80ȱ rhvekyaΤеȱguiΦеɇȱs¬ɇ,ȱerWkjc\ gu% rhvekyaΤеȱS¬san¬,ȱerWkjc\qaqna,ȱ34,ȱ 174ȱ s¬ɇȱkoΤеɇȱratan¬,ȱqa;ekac\;rtna,ȱ61ȱ sanеȇȱrhaΤеɇ,ȱqn\>r¨c\;,ȱ83,ȱ171ȱ S¬san¬ȇȱamwe,ȱqaqna.AemQ,ȱ3,ȱ108,ȱ174ȱ S¬san¬ȱd¬yak¬,ȱqaqnadfyka,ȱ3,ȱ108,ȱ 174ȱ i am,ȱ3,ȱ S¬san¬ȱd¬yik¬ma,ȱqannadfyk 108,ȱ174ȱ S¬san¬ȇȱguΦеȱarhinеȱaw¬,ȱqaqna. gu%A \ rHni A \ wf,ȱ104,ȱ174ȱ S¬san¬ȱpru,ȱqaqna#p,ȱ3,ȱ21,ȱ25,ȱ34,ȱ63,ȱ 91,ȱ219ȱ S¬san¬ȱreɇ,ȱqaqnaer;,ȱ49,ȱ174ȱ S¬san¬ȱtoеȱluΚɇȱchuiΤеɇȱr¬ȱrhvekyaΤеȱ nik¬yaȱguiΦеɇȱluΚɇȱkyvatеȱsaΤghaеȱ acaññеɇȱaveɇȱkrÎɇ,ȱ qaqnaeta\l;Mu Suci r\ a erWkjcn\ ikay gui%;\ lu;M kYt\ qMGa. Asv\;Aew;@kI;,ȱ84,ȱ 174ȱ

240ȱ

IndexȱofȱBurmeseȱTermsȱȱ

S¬san¬ȱvaΤеȱmhatеȱtamеɇ,ȱ qaqnawc\mt H \tm\;,ȱ100ȱ S¬san¬ȇȱwanеȱthamеɇ,ȱqaqna.wn\Tm\;,ȱ2ȱ simеɇȱchaññеɇ,ȱqim\;Sv\;,ȱ91ȱ sveɇȱeaɇ, eqQ;eA;,ȱ101ȱ

ȱ

taññеȱtaΚȇ,ȱtv\t,.M ȱ83,ȱ171ȱ to,ȱeta,ȱ19ȱ vinaññеɇȱsikkh¬,ȱwinv\;qikaˆ ,ȱ220ȱ viv¬daȱmĀlaȱtar¬ɇȱtuiȇ,ȱwiwfdmUltra;tu,i> ȱ 78ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱPaliȱandȱSanskritȱTermsȱ ȱ TextsȱandȱleadershipȱpositionsȱwithȱPaliȱnamesȱareȱlistedȱbelowȱinȱtheȱ “IndexȱofȱSubjects.”ȱ ȱ abaddhaȬsÎm¬,ȱ111ȱ abhiññ¬,ȱ63ȱ ¬cariya,ȱ121ȱ adhipatiȬpaccaya,ȱ146ȱ adosa,ȱ163ȱ ahirika,ȱ58ȱ ¬jivaȬp¬risuddhiȬsÎla,ȱ66ȱ akusala,ȱ145ȱ akusalaȬhetu,ȱ58ȱ alobha,ȱ163ȱ amoha,ȱ163ȱ ¬Φ¬,ȱ69ȱ anatta,ȱ143,ȱ160ȱ anicca,ȱ36,ȱ143,ȱ160ȱ anottappa,ȱ58ȱ antev¬sika,ȱ121ȱ anukamp¬,ȱ185ȱ anus¬saka,ȱ123ȱ anus¬sanaȬsammutiȬñatti,ȱ127,ȱ129,ȱ 131,ȱ204ȱ anus¬sanÎȬkammav¬c¬,ȱ127ȱ anuss¬vana,ȱ111,ȱ112,ȱ115,ȱ118,ȱ119,ȱ 130,ȱ131ȱ anuss¬vanaȬsampatti,ȱ113ȱ ¬patti,ȱ118ȱ arahant,ȱ13ȱ ¬rammaΦaȬpaccaya,ȱ146,ȱ148ȱ asaΤkata,ȱ145ȱ aΞΞhaparikkh¬r¬,ȱ3ȱ ¬yu,ȱ39ȱ baddha,ȱ118ȱ baddhaȬsÎm¬,ȱ111ȱ

bhikΨuΦÎs,ȱ9ȱ bhikΨus,ȱ9ȱ bodhisatta,ȱ163ȱ bodhisattva,ȱ9,ȱ14,ȱ152ȱ byatta,ȱ97ȱ catt¬riȱakaraΦiy¬ni,ȱ118ȱ catt¬roȱnissay¬,ȱ117ȱ cetasika,ȱ35,ȱ145ȱ citta,ȱ35,ȱ145ȱ d¬na,ȱ171,ȱ174,ȱ185ȱ d¬yaka,ȱ52ȱ Dhamma,ȱ178ȱ dhammaȬdhĀta,ȱ93ȱ dhammas,ȱ35,ȱ144,ȱ149,ȱ159,ȱ160,ȱ166ȱ Dharma/Dhamma,ȱ9ȱ dhutaΤga,ȱ65ȱ dosa,ȱ58,ȱ163,ȱ185ȱ dukkha,ȱ143,ȱ160ȱ dv¬ra,ȱ77ȱ gaΦa,ȱ4,ȱ77ȱ gaΦaȬvimutti,ȱ19,ȱ20ȱ gant¬Ȭdhura,ȱ69ȱ ganthaȬdhura,ȱ191,ȱ220ȱ hatthap¬sa,ȱ119,ȱ123,ȱ127ȱ hetuȬpaccaya,ȱ146,ȱ148,ȱ162ȱ indriyaȬsaΚvaraȬsÎla,ȱ66ȱ kammav¬c¬,ȱ82,ȱ129ȱ kaΤkh¬,ȱ58ȱ kaΞhina,ȱ107ȱ katik¬Ȭvatta,ȱ16ȱ khaΦΠaȬsÎm¬,ȱ118ȱ

242ȱ

IndexȱofȱPaliȱandȱSanskritȱTermsȱȱ

kilesas,ȱ46,ȱ56,ȱ57,ȱ58,ȱ59,ȱ60,ȱ71,ȱ137,ȱ 149,ȱ157,ȱ158ȱ kukkucca,ȱ22ȱ kulaȬdĀsaka,ȱ92,ȱ105ȱ kusala,ȱ93,ȱ145ȱ lajjÎȬpesala,ȱ98ȱ lakkhaΦ¬,ȱ157ȱ lobha,ȱ58,ȱ163,ȱ185ȱ lokijh¬na,ȱ63ȱ magga,ȱ35,ȱ120ȱ mah¬karuΦ¬,ȱ157,ȱ158ȱ mah¬sÎm¬,ȱ118ȱ m¬na,ȱ58ȱ mett¬,ȱ164ȱ micch¬ȬdiΞΞhi,ȱ58ȱ moha,ȱ58,ȱ163,ȱ185ȱ n¬ga,ȱ124ȱ n¬ma,ȱ58,ȱ159,ȱ165ȱ ñ¬Φa,ȱ149,ȱ159ȱ ñ¬ΦaȬs¬gara,ȱ143,ȱ145ȱ ñatti,ȱ111,ȱ112,ȱ115,ȱ118,ȱ119,ȱ128,ȱ 129,ȱ130,ȱ131ȱ ñatticatutthakammaȬupasampad¬,ȱ110ȱ ñattiȬsampatti,ȱ113ȱ nayaȬs¬gara,ȱ143,ȱ145ȱ nibb¬na,ȱ5,ȱ35,ȱ36,ȱ40,ȱ41,ȱ42,ȱ67,ȱ69,ȱ 70,ȱ93,ȱ107,ȱ120,ȱ138,ȱ143,ȱ145,ȱ 151,ȱ152,ȱ153,ȱ168,ȱ169,ȱ170,ȱ173,ȱ 174,ȱ176,ȱ178,ȱ179,ȱ185ȱ nik¬ya,ȱ50,ȱ59,ȱ74,ȱ75,ȱ76,ȱ84,ȱ87,ȱ88,ȱ 90,ȱ91,ȱ92,ȱ95,ȱ100,ȱ101,ȱ102,ȱ105,ȱ 107,ȱ169,ȱ170,ȱ172ȱ nirv¬Φa,ȱ5,ȱ13ȱ oj¬tikkama,ȱ222ȱ os¬raΦaȬñatti,ȱ128,ȱ129,ȱ204ȱ ov¬d¬cariya,ȱ141ȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬,ȱ135ȱ paccavekkhaΦ¬Ȭsuddhi,ȱ135ȱ paccaya,ȱ146,ȱ156,ȱ157ȱ paccayaȬdhamma,ȱ161ȱ paccayaȬniddesa,ȱ161ȱ paccayaȬsannissitaȬsÎla,ȱ66ȱ

paccayaȬsatti,ȱ162ȱ paccayuddesa,ȱ161ȱ paccayuppannaȬdhamma,ȱ162ȱ paΦΠaka,ȱ125ȱ paññ¬,ȱ120,ȱ190,ȱ219ȱ paramattha,ȱ144ȱ p¬ramÎ,ȱ68,ȱ157ȱ parampar¬,ȱ122ȱ paris¬,ȱ111,ȱ119ȱ paris¬Ȭsampatti,ȱ112ȱ parisuddhi,ȱ42ȱ pariyatti,ȱ23,ȱ69,ȱ70ȱ pariyattiȬganthaȬdhura,ȱ93ȱ pariyattiȬS¬sana,ȱ14,ȱ22,ȱ69,ȱ178ȱ p¬s¬dikenaȱsamp¬detha,ȱ120ȱ paΞibala,ȱ98ȱ p¬Ξimokkha,ȱ82,ȱ107ȱ p¬ΞimokkhaȬsaΚvaraȬsÎla,ȱ59,ȱ66ȱ paΞipatti,ȱ69,ȱ70ȱ paΞipattiȬS¬sana,ȱ14,ȱ178ȱ paΞipattiȬvipassan¬Ȭdhura,ȱ93ȱ paΞisandhi,ȱ35ȱ paΞivedha,ȱ69ȱ paΞivedhaȬS¬sana,ȱ14,ȱ178ȱ pav¬raΦ¬,ȱ83,ȱ107,ȱ108ȱ pÎti,ȱ156,ȱ160ȱ pitu,ȱ121ȱ poΨadha,ȱ12ȱ prajñ¬,ȱ11ȱ pucchanaȬsammutiȬñatti,ȱ128,ȱ129,ȱ 204ȱ puΦyaȬkΨetra,ȱ11ȱ putta,ȱ121ȱ rĀpa,ȱ35,ȱ58,ȱ145,ȱ159,ȱ160,ȱ165,ȱ185ȱ sabbaññutaȬñ¬na,ȱ59,ȱ143,ȱ149,ȱ165ȱ saddh¬,ȱ121,ȱ156,ȱ157ȱ saddhivih¬rika,ȱ121ȱ sakyaȬputtiya,ȱ23ȱ sam¬dhi,ȱ11,ȱ120,ȱ190,ȱ219ȱ samagg¬naΚȱtapoȱsukho,ȱ93,ȱ191,ȱ221ȱ s¬maΦera,ȱ66ȱ s¬maΦeraȬpabbajj¬,ȱ109ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱPaliȱandȱSanskritȱTermsȱ

samm¬sambodhi,ȱ157ȱ sammuti,ȱ87ȱ sampatti,ȱ111ȱ saΚs¬ra,ȱ5,ȱ7,ȱ14,ȱ35,ȱ37,ȱ58,ȱ67,ȱ121,ȱ 145,ȱ152,ȱ156,ȱ160,ȱ167,ȱ169,ȱ170,ȱ 172,ȱ173,ȱ176,ȱ185ȱ saΚs¬raȬs¬gara,ȱ143,ȱ145ȱ saΚvara,ȱ67ȱ saΚvega,ȱ167,ȱ168ȱ saΤg¬yan¬,ȱ52ȱ saΤgha,ȱ7,ȱ9,ȱ10,ȱ11,ȱ12,ȱ13,ȱ16,ȱ58,ȱ59,ȱ 82,ȱ135,ȱ169ȱ saΤghaȬkamma,ȱ82,ȱ107ȱ saΤghaȬs¬maggÎ,ȱ89ȱ saΤkata,ȱ144ȱ sankh¬ra,ȱ159ȱ saññ¬,ȱ159ȱ santiȬsukha,ȱ35ȱ S¬sanaȬsuddhi,ȱ84ȱ S¬sanaȬvaΚsa,ȱ34,ȱ42,ȱ45ȱ sassata,ȱ85ȱ sekhiya,ȱ66ȱ sikkh¬Ȭindriya,ȱ65ȱ sikkh¬Ȭk¬ma,ȱ98ȱ sÎla,ȱ46,ȱ56,ȱ57,ȱ59,ȱ60,ȱ65,ȱ66,ȱ68,ȱ71,ȱ 120,ȱ190,ȱ219ȱ ïÎla,ȱ11ȱ

ȱ

243ȱ

sÎm¬,ȱ77,ȱ111,ȱ118,ȱ119,ȱ123,ȱ132,ȱ134,ȱ 135,ȱ138ȱ sÎm¬Ȭsampatti,ȱ112,ȱ118ȱ sot¬panna,ȱ52ȱ sukha,ȱ93,ȱ105ȱ taΦh¬,ȱ163ȱ theruppatti,ȱ42,ȱ45,ȱ49ȱ thina,ȱ58ȱ tisaraΦaȬgamanĀpasampad¬,ȱ109ȱ uddhacca,ȱ58ȱ upajjh¬ya,ȱ42,ȱ60,ȱ65,ȱ110,ȱ121,ȱ176ȱ upasampad¬,ȱ82,ȱ107,ȱ127,ȱ128ȱ upasampad¬Ȭkammav¬c¬,ȱ119,ȱ129,ȱ 130,ȱ132,ȱ204ȱ upasampad¬Ȭvidhi,ȱ117ȱ uposatha,ȱ82,ȱ96,ȱ107,ȱ108,ȱ124ȱ vaΚsa,ȱ37ȱ vaΚsaȬdhara,ȱ54ȱ vaΚsaȬdharaȬpuggala,ȱ54ȱ vassa,ȱ99ȱ vatthu,ȱ111,ȱ112,ȱ119ȱ vatthuȬsampatti,ȱ119ȱ vedan¬,ȱ159ȱ vinayaȬgaruka,ȱ98ȱ viññ¬na,ȱ160ȱ vipassan¬,ȱ23,ȱ65ȱ vipassan¬Ȭdhura,ȱ69,ȱ191,ȱ220ȱ yojana,ȱ150ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱ ȱ Theȱsubjectȱindexȱisȱorganizedȱintoȱtheȱfollowingȱtopics:ȱȱ ȱ Buddhasȱ ȱ ConceptualȱOrientationsȱ ȱ Councilsȱ ȱ Kingsȱ ȱ MonasticȱGroupsȱandȱOrganizationsȱ ȱ MonasticȱLeadershipȱ ȱ Monksȱ ȱ Organizationsȱ ȱ Personsȱ ȱ PlacesȱandȱObjectsȱ ȱ S¬sanaȱ ȱ TextsȱandȱTextualȱSystemsȱ ȱ Womenȱ ȱ Buddhasȱ DÎpaѼkar¬,ȱ69ȱ Gotama/g¬kyamuni,ȱ2,ȱ4,ȱ6,ȱ22,ȱ 25,ȱ58,ȱ67,ȱ68,ȱ69,ȱ70,ȱ149,ȱ178,ȱ 185,ȱ188ȱ andȱarahantship,ȱ13ȱ saΚs¬ricȱruptureȱand,ȱ7ȱ Udayabhadda,ȱprinceȱandȱbirthȱ precursorȱtoȱGotama,ȱ163–64ȱ Vessantara,ȱprinceȱandȱbirthȱ precursorȱtoȱGotama,ȱ67–70ȱ conflictsȱofȱvalueȱandȱ (Collins),ȱ67ȱ ConceptualȱOrientations.ȱSeeȱalsoȱ S¬sanaȱ bonding,ȱofȱkingȱandȱmonk,ȱ85ȱ continuitiesȱ dual,ȱ5ȱ continuityȱ andȱhigherȱordination,ȱ113ȱ

andȱlinguisticȱfidelityȱtoȱtheȱ Buddha,ȱ118ȱ biological/blood,ȱ44ȱ inȱsaΚs¬ra,ȱ11,ȱ35ȱ institutional,ȱ74ȱ ritualȱpermutationsȱof,ȱ107ȱ cosmogonyȱandȱBuddhistȱethicalȱ typesȱ(Reynolds),ȱ185ȱ culturalȱsystemȱ(Collins/Archer),ȱ 40ȱ disruption,ȱ10,ȱ18,ȱ32,ȱ33,ȱ71,ȱ74,ȱ 105,ȱ107,ȱ110ȱ defined,ȱ32ȱ emicȱand/orȱetic,ȱ4,ȱ5,ȱ30ȱ emotion,ȱreligious,ȱ167–68ȱ ethicȱofȱresponsibilityȱ (Reynolds),ȱ185,ȱ186ȱ ethics,ȱBuddhist,ȱ182–87ȱ expositionȱ Abhidhammaȱmethodȱof,ȱ145,ȱ 156ȱ Suttaȱmethodȱof,ȱ145,ȱ156ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱ

focusȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱbrieflyȱ contrastedȱwithȱstructuralistȱ andȱfunctionalistȱstudies,ȱ41ȱ lineageȱ threeȱtypesȱof,ȱ58ȱ lineageȱcasesȱ(Huxley),ȱ51,ȱ84ȱ mainȱargumentsȱofȱtheȱbookȱ statedȱinȱbrief,ȱ5ȱ merit,ȱ1,ȱ11,ȱ14,ȱ22,ȱ68,ȱ80,ȱ103,ȱ 108,ȱ134,ȱ142ȱ monasticism,ȱbriefȱhistoricalȱ overviewȱof,ȱ6–17ȱ nik¬yaȱandȱgaingȱ asȱmarkersȱofȱseparation,ȱ83ȱ layȱperceptionsȱof,ȱ80ȱ nik¬ya,ȱdefinitionȱof,ȱ77ȱ ordinationȱ asȱcommemorationȱofȱ1988ȱ andȱ2007,ȱ117ȱ religiousȱculture,ȱ1,ȱ2,ȱ4,ȱ5,ȱ22,ȱ 28,ȱ29,ȱ30,ȱ104,ȱ169,ȱ172,ȱ173,ȱ 177,ȱ178,ȱ180ȱ ruptureȱ completeȱcessationȱvs.ȱdeath,ȱ 37ȱ defined,ȱ32ȱ dual,ȱ5,ȱ35ȱ inȱtheȱreligiopoliticalȱorder,ȱ18ȱ saΤgha,ȱlongȱtermȱsuccessȱof,ȱ8–9ȱ sonsȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱ4,ȱ5,ȱ41,ȱ42,ȱ 44,ȱ46,ȱ67ȱ Spiroȱand,ȱ181ȱ textualȱcommunityȱ(Blackburn),ȱ 180ȱ traditionȱ asȱaȱsocialȱinstitution,ȱ5ȱ atȱoddsȱwithȱitsȱownȱ continuity,ȱ33ȱ defined,ȱ34ȱ fiveȱtypesȱofȱsystematizationȱ of,ȱ172–73ȱ relationȱtoȱcontinuityȱandȱ disruption,ȱ32ȱ

245ȱ

theoreticalȱandȱ methodologicalȱdiscussionȱ of,ȱ32–33,ȱ37–40,ȱ70–72ȱ traditionalismȱ aȱtacticȱforȱconstructingȱ tradition,ȱ39ȱ ofȱcontinuityȱandȱrupture,ȱ29ȱ ofȱtheȱShwegyin,ȱ5,ȱ38,ȱ39,ȱ40,ȱ 41,ȱ42,ȱ45,ȱ51,ȱ105,ȱ138,ȱ169,ȱ 179,ȱ193ȱ traditionalismȱ(Morris),ȱ38ȱ Councilsȱ Fifth,ȱ24ȱ First,ȱ65ȱ Sixth,ȱ24,ȱ141ȱ Third,ȱ63,ȱ64ȱ Kingsȱ Anawyatha,ȱ64,ȱ104ȱ Aïoka,ȱ3,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ14,ȱ15,ȱ25,ȱ62,ȱ74,ȱ 85,ȱ104,ȱ169ȱ Bodawpaya,ȱ75ȱ Dhammaceti,ȱ16,ȱ17,ȱ85ȱ Indra/Thagyaȱ(heavenlyȱking),ȱ 17ȱ Mindon,ȱ4,ȱ17,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ21,ȱ24,ȱ 45,ȱ64,ȱ89ȱ Mongkut,ȱ5ȱ ParakramabahuȱI,ȱ16ȱ Thayawadi,ȱ20ȱ Thibaw,ȱ21,ȱ76,ȱ86,ȱ89ȱ MonasticȱGroupsȱandȱ Organizationsȱ AnautȱChauѼȱDv¬ra,ȱ77,ȱ199ȱ Dv¬ra,ȱ172,ȱ199ȱ Gado,ȱ77,ȱ199ȱ HngetwiѼ,ȱ76,ȱ199ȱ Mah¬vih¬ra,ȱ15,ȱ16ȱ Mah¬yiѼ,ȱ77,ȱ199ȱ Mindonȱsects,ȱ4ȱ MĀlaȱDv¬ra,ȱ77,ȱ199ȱ PaliȱEducationȱBoardȱActȱand,ȱ 24ȱ PaliȱUniversityȱandȱ DhammacariyaȱActȱand,ȱ24ȱ SaѼghaȱS¬maggÎ,ȱ81,ȱ87ȱ

246ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱȱ

S¬sanaȱMoli,ȱ189,ȱ190,ȱ191ȱ goalsȱof,ȱ190ȱ Shwegyin,ȱ199ȱ becomingȱAïokaȱforȱ themselves,ȱ74ȱ becomingȱAïokaȱforȱ themselves,ȱ87ȱ inclusiveȱandȱexclusiveȱ characterȱof,ȱ77–83ȱ meetingsȱandȱkammav¬c¬,ȱ82ȱ recordsȱandȱmeetingsȱof,ȱ83– 102ȱ ShwegyinȱGaing,ȱ93ȱ ShwegyinȱNik¬ya,ȱ55,ȱ75,ȱ80,ȱ88,ȱ 89,ȱ90,ȱ91,ȱ95,ȱ97,ȱ98,ȱ99,ȱ101,ȱ 102,ȱ141,ȱ205ȱ andȱprolongedȱpoliticalȱ disruption,ȱ188ȱ StateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱ Committee,ȱ25,ȱ76,ȱ82,ȱ83,ȱ191,ȱ 192,ȱ220ȱ StateȱSaѼghaȱMah¬n¬yakaȱ Sayadaws,ȱ222ȱ Thammayuttika,ȱ5ȱ Thudhamm¬,ȱ75,ȱ77,ȱ172,ȱ199ȱ Thudhamm¬ȱCouncil,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ 21,ȱ75ȱ Thudhamm¬ȱGaing,ȱ89ȱ Thudhamm¬ȱNik¬ya,ȱ differentiatedȱfromȱtheȱ Shwegyin,ȱ75ȱ VeѰuwun,ȱ77,ȱ199ȱ VinicchayaȱActȱScrutinyȱ Committee,ȱ81ȱ VinicchayaȬHtanaȱActȱand,ȱ24,ȱ 81ȱ MonasticȱLeadershipȱ AssistantȱLeadersȱ(GuiΦеɇȱthokе,ȱ gui%;eTak\),ȱ95,ȱ96,ȱ201ȱ AssociateȱExecutiveȱSecretariesȱ (TvaiȱphakеȱakyuiɇȱchoΤе,ȱ tQEPk\Akjio;eSac\),ȱ91,ȱ97ȱ AssociateȱHeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ (Tvaiȱphak‘ȱS¬san¬ȱpuiΤе,ȱ tQPE t\qaqnapuci \),ȱ91,ȱ97,ȱ141,ȱ205ȱ

CommunityȬkingȱ(SaΤghaȬr¬ja),ȱ 76ȱ consentȱofȱtheȱCommunityȱ (SaΤghaȬsammuti),ȱ76ȱ DeputyȱLeadersȱ(GuiΦеɇȱupе,ȱ gui%;\ Aup\),ȱ95,ȱ96,ȱ201ȱ ExecutiveȱOfficersȱ(GuiΦеɇȱluΚɇȱ van‘ȱchoΤ‘ȱn¬yaka,ȱgui%;\ lu;M wn\eSac\ nayk),ȱ90,ȱ92,ȱ97,ȱ98,ȱ184,ȱ205ȱ ExecutiveȱSecretariesȱ(Akyuiɇȱ choΤе,ȱAkjio;eSac\),ȱ91,ȱ97ȱ GuardiansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ (GaΦap¬la),ȱ96ȱ GuardiansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ (GaΦap¬laka,ȱGaΦarakkhaȱ),ȱ95,ȱ 201ȱ GuardiansȱofȱtheȱGaΦaȱ (GaΦarakkha),ȱ96ȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sanaȱ(S¬san¬ȱpuiΤе,ȱ qaqnapuci )\ ,ȱ2,ȱ10,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ21,ȱ28,ȱ 49,ȱ52,ȱ60,ȱ76,ȱ77,ȱ85,ȱ87,ȱ88,ȱ89,ȱ 91,ȱ95,ȱ96,ȱ97,ȱ98,ȱ99,ȱ162,ȱ174,ȱ 205ȱ HeadȱofȱtheȱS¬sana,ȱ Thudhamm¬,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ89ȱ LocalȱLeadersȱ(GuiΦеɇȱkhyupе,ȱ gui%;\ Kjop)\ ,ȱ95,ȱ96,ȱ201ȱ Nik¬yaȱSupremeȱPresidingȱ AuthorityȱandȱGeneralȱofȱtheȱ Lawȱ(Nik¬y¬dhipatiȱukkaΞΞhaȱ mah¬n¬yakaȱdhammasen¬pati),ȱ 76ȱ Sayadaw,ȱdefined,ȱ4ȱ SeniorȱAuthorityȱ(RattaññĀȱ mah¬n¬yaka),ȱ90,ȱ95,ȱ96,ȱ98,ȱ 184,ȱ205,ȱ207ȱ SeniorȱLeadersȱ(yɇȱcÎɇȱakrÎɇȱ n¬yaka,ȱVI;sI;A@kI;nayk),ȱ95,ȱ201ȱ Monksȱ Arahan,ȱShin,ȱ64,ȱ104ȱ BaȱMeȱSayadaw,ȱ87ȱ Buddhaghosa,ȱ146,ȱ147,ȱ153ȱ By¬nadassÎ/Py¬ѾadassÎ,ȱ63,ȱ64ȱ CandavajjÎ,ȱShin,ȱ63ȱ Candim¬,ȱShin,ȱ19,ȱ64ȱ Devadatta,ȱ12,ȱ79ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱ

DhammadassÎ,ȱShin,ȱ64ȱ Ind¬c¬ra,ȱBhaddanta,ȱ76ȱ J¬gara,ȱAshin,ȱ4,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ42,ȱ45,ȱ 69,ȱ99ȱ Janak¬bhivaѴsa,ȱAshinȱ activities/overviewȱof,ȱ24,ȱ30,ȱ 48,ȱ79,ȱ81,ȱ82,ȱ104,ȱ105,ȱ140– 43,ȱ144,ȱ147,ȱ148,ȱ149,ȱ151,ȱ 153ȱ nibb¬naȱand,ȱ151–52ȱ PaΞΞh¬naȱsermonsȱof,ȱ156–68ȱ Kel¬sa,ȱAshin,ȱ116ȱ KyaȱKhetȱWainȱSayadaw,ȱ161ȱ KyauntawyaȱSayadaw,ȱ52,ȱ60,ȱ 61,ȱ62,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ67,ȱ68,ȱ70,ȱ96ȱ LediȱSayadaw,ȱ140,ȱ147,ȱ162ȱ Mah¬gatigamiya,ȱ158,ȱ159,ȱ167ȱ arahantshipȱof,ȱ160ȱ fullȱnameȱof,ȱ158ȱ MahasiȱSayadaw,ȱ23,ȱ140ȱ Mah¬visuddh¬r¬maȱSayadaw,ȱ 22,ȱ52,ȱ88,ȱ95,ȱ99,ȱ162ȱ Mahinda,ȱBhaddanta,ȱ120ȱ Moggaliputtatissathera,ȱShin,ȱ3,ȱ 63,ȱ64,ȱ85ȱ MyaungȱMyaȱSayadaw,ȱ49,ȱ52ȱ ѬѾaloka,ȱU,ȱ45ȱ Ottama,ȱU,ȱ27,ȱ88ȱ PenangȱSayadaw,ȱ189,ȱ190,ȱ192,ȱ 219,ȱ222ȱ S¬riputta,ȱ99ȱ SecondȱMaungdaungȱSayadaw,ȱ 19ȱ ShwehiѼth¬ȱSayadaw,ȱ60,ȱ61ȱ Siggava,ȱShin,ȱ63ȱ Silacara,ȱAshin,ȱ3,ȱ4,ȱ143ȱ SitaguȱSayadaw,ȱ148ȱ SoѾa,ȱShin,ȱ63,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ85,ȱ86ȱ Thutivara,ȱU,ȱ92ȱ Up¬li,ȱShin,ȱ44,ȱ52,ȱ63,ȱ64,ȱ79,ȱ98ȱ Upasena,ȱ91ȱ Uttara,ȱShin,ȱ63,ȱ64,ȱ85,ȱ86ȱ Uttar¬jÎva,ȱShin,ȱ64,ȱ65ȱ Organizationsȱ

247ȱ

GeneralȱCouncilȱofȱBurmeseȱ Associationsȱ(GCBA),ȱ27,ȱ88ȱ NationalȱLeagueȱforȱDemocracyȱ (NLD),ȱ25,ȱ27ȱ StateȱLawȱandȱOrderȱ RestorationȱCouncilȱ(SLORC),ȱ 26,ȱ176ȱ StateȱPeaceȱandȱDevelopmentȱ Councilȱ(SPDC),ȱ26,ȱ104,ȱ175,ȱ 176ȱ YoungȱMen’sȱBuddhistȱ Associationȱ(YMBA),ȱ27,ȱ88,ȱ 89ȱ Personsȱ AungȱKhin,ȱU,ȱ104ȱ AungȱSan,ȱ23ȱ AungȱSanȱSuuȱKyi,ȱ23,ȱ25,ȱ73ȱ British,ȱ17,ȱ23,ȱ26,ȱ74,ȱ85,ȱ86,ȱ87,ȱ 142,ȱ170,ȱ177ȱ Dhammasami,ȱVen.ȱKhammai,ȱ 129ȱ MaungȱBho,ȱ104ȱ NeȱWin,ȱ24,ȱ25,ȱ26,ȱ27,ȱ75,ȱ83,ȱ89,ȱ 100,ȱ176ȱ Nu,ȱU,ȱ23,ȱ24,ȱ26ȱ Okell,ȱJohn,ȱ116,ȱ157ȱ Pruitt,ȱWilliam,ȱ100,ȱ115,ȱ117ȱ SawȱTun,ȱSayaȱU,ȱ45,ȱ48ȱ ThanȱHtut,ȱSayaȱU,ȱ68ȱ ThanȱThanȱWin,ȱ116,ȱ219ȱ Ulrich,ȱKatherine,ȱ117ȱ PlacesȱandȱObjectsȱ Angkor,ȱ16ȱ Bodhiȱtree,ȱ63,ȱ159,ȱ166ȱ Cambodia,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ16,ȱ17ȱ China,ȱ8ȱ DhĀtiѼtauѼȱtawya,ȱ69ȱ GreatȱCave,ȱ1ȱ HmaiѼlontaik,ȱ69ȱ Htayangataik,ȱ69ȱ India,ȱ1,ȱ2,ȱ6,ȱ15,ȱ16,ȱ23,ȱ52,ȱ62,ȱ 63,ȱ65,ȱ74,ȱ104,ȱ115,ȱ159ȱ Japan,ȱ8,ȱ12,ȱ22ȱ Kaly¬ѾÎȱSÎm¬,ȱ1ȱ Korea,ȱ8ȱ Laos,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ16,ȱ17,ȱ28,ȱ177ȱ

248ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱȱ

LosȱAngeles,ȱ189,ȱ190ȱ LowerȱMyanmar,ȱ50,ȱ52,ȱ88ȱ Mah¬dhammik¬r¬ma,ȱ19,ȱ69,ȱ92ȱ Mah¬gandh¬yon,ȱ24,ȱ30,ȱ50,ȱ132,ȱ 134,ȱ138,ȱ140,ȱ141,ȱ142ȱ Mahamuni,ȱ1ȱ Mandalay,ȱ1,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20,ȱ21,ȱ24,ȱ 73,ȱ84,ȱ90,ȱ97,ȱ99,ȱ100,ȱ148,ȱ200ȱ Mingintaik,ȱ69ȱ Myadaungtaik,ȱ69ȱ Myanmar,ȱxiv,ȱ1,ȱ2,ȱ4,ȱ6,ȱ9,ȱ10,ȱ15,ȱ 16,ȱ17,ȱ18,ȱ21,ȱ22,ȱ24,ȱ25,ȱ27,ȱ28,ȱ 30,ȱ35,ȱ39,ȱ42,ȱ47,ȱ48,ȱ49,ȱ60,ȱ62,ȱ 65,ȱ73,ȱ80,ȱ85,ȱ86,ȱ88,ȱ101,ȱ103,ȱ 104,ȱ105,ȱ107,ȱ115,ȱ116,ȱ140,ȱ 142,ȱ145,ȱ146,ȱ147,ȱ148,ȱ151,ȱ 153,ȱ172,ȱ173,ȱ174,ȱ175,ȱ176,ȱ 177,ȱ178,ȱ181,ȱ184,ȱ187,ȱ188,ȱ 189,ȱ190,ȱ191,ȱ192,ȱ220,ȱ222ȱ Pagan,ȱ1,ȱ28,ȱ62,ȱ64ȱ Shwedagon,ȱ1,ȱ25,ȱ66,ȱ143ȱ skeletonsȱinȱcaves,ȱ84ȱ SriȱLanka,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ10,ȱ13,ȱ14,ȱ15,ȱ16,ȱ 17,ȱ18,ȱ22,ȱ28,ȱ61,ȱ62,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ74,ȱ 85,ȱ107,ȱ146,ȱ159,ȱ172,ȱ177,ȱ178,ȱ 180ȱ Sudhamm¬Ȭsabh¬,ȱ76ȱ SuvaѾѾabhumÎ,ȱ63,ȱ85ȱ T¬vatiѴsa,ȱ2,ȱ76,ȱ144,ȱ156ȱ Thailand,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ15,ȱ16,ȱ17,ȱ22,ȱ38,ȱ 85ȱ Thaton,ȱ62,ȱ63,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ85ȱ Thudhamm¬Ȭzayat,ȱ75ȱ Tibet,ȱ8,ȱ12ȱ TripleȱGem,ȱ77,ȱ109ȱ UpperȱMyanmar,ȱ4,ȱ18,ȱ52,ȱ62,ȱ 64,ȱ77,ȱ88ȱ UruveѰa,ȱ64ȱ Vietnam,ȱ8ȱ Yamathintaik,ȱ69ȱ S¬sana.ȱSeeȱalsoȱConceptualȱ Orientations,ȱandȱTextsȱandȱ TextualȱSystemsȱ andȱfamilyȬorientedȱimagery,ȱ45ȱ andȱhouseȱimagery,ȱ35,ȱ43,ȱ61,ȱ 192ȱ

andȱmonasticȱwork,ȱ36ȱ andȱtheȱBritish,ȱ86ȱ andȱtheȱdisruptiveȱcontinuityȱofȱ rebirth,ȱ169ȱ andȱwoefulȱstatesȱofȱrebirth,ȱ79ȱ asȱanȱend,ȱ5,ȱ27,ȱ32,ȱ172,ȱ176ȱ basicȱdefinitionȱof,ȱ2ȱ careȱgroupsȱof,ȱ30,ȱ75,ȱ102–4,ȱ 141,ȱ143,ȱ168,ȱ172,ȱ173,ȱ175,ȱ 177,ȱ184,ȱ188ȱ continuityȱof,ȱ27ȱ decline/ruptureȱof,ȱ10,ȱ36,ȱ79,ȱ 156,ȱ170ȱ divisionsȱof,ȱ14,ȱ36,ȱ52,ȱ69,ȱ143,ȱ 153,ȱ154ȱ embodimentȱof,ȱ36,ȱ39,ȱ40,ȱ42,ȱ 108,ȱ169,ȱ171,ȱ190ȱ frontȬlineȱfortressȱof,ȱ4,ȱ30,ȱ39,ȱ 139,ȱ148,ȱ153,ȱ154ȱ idealȱcosmologicalȱsituationȱand,ȱ 92ȱ lineageȱof,ȱ3,ȱ34,ȱ41,ȱ42,ȱ46,ȱ53,ȱ 174ȱ ordinationȱasȱheritageȱof,ȱ3,ȱ108,ȱ 173,ȱ174ȱ recordȱofȱentryȱinto,ȱ100ȱ rulesȱandȱcontinuityȱof,ȱ102ȱ S¬sanaȬization,ȱ30,ȱ173,ȱ175,ȱ176,ȱ 189ȱ defined,ȱ5,ȱ179ȱ Shwegyin,ȱ34,ȱ55,ȱ174ȱ textualizationȱof,ȱ39,ȱ40,ȱ41,ȱ42,ȱ 141,ȱ143,ȱ173ȱ TextsȱandȱTextualȱSystems.ȱSeeȱalsoȱ S¬sanaȱ Abhidhamma,ȱ177,ȱ178,ȱ183ȱ AbhidhammaȬpiΞaka,ȱ39,ȱ140,ȱ143,ȱ 144,ȱ145,ȱ146,ȱ147,ȱ148,ȱ161ȱ AbhidhammatthasaΤgaha,ȱ147,ȱ148ȱ Abhidharma,ȱ144ȱ AbridgedȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱShwegyinȱ Nik¬ya,ȱ50,ȱ51,ȱ52,ȱ53,ȱ55,ȱ57,ȱ60ȱ AnattalakkhaΦaȱSutta,ȱ142ȱ Atthas¬linÎ,ȱ144,ȱ146,ȱ147,ȱ148,ȱ 149,ȱ150,ȱ158ȱ

ȱ

IndexȱofȱSubjectsȱ

BiographyȱofȱtheȱKyauntawyaȱ Sayadaw,ȱ50,ȱ51,ȱ60,ȱ61,ȱ62,ȱ65,ȱ 68ȱ DhammacakkaȱSutta,ȱ142ȱ Dhammapada,ȱ93,ȱ94,ȱ105ȱ DhammasaΤgaΦÎ,ȱ146,ȱ149,ȱ151,ȱ 152ȱ Dh¬tukath¬,ȱ149ȱ DÎghaȬnik¬ya,ȱ153ȱ Kath¬vatthu,ȱ149ȱ Mah¬parinibb¬naȱSutta,ȱ93,ȱ94ȱ PañcappakaraΦaΞΞhakath¬,ȱ146ȱ ParamatthadÎpanÎΞÎk¬,ȱ147ȱ PaΞΞh¬na,ȱ39,ȱ139,ȱ140,ȱ143,ȱ144,ȱ 146,ȱ147,ȱ148,ȱ149,ȱ150,ȱ153,ȱ 154,ȱ155,ȱ156,ȱ157,ȱ158,ȱ159,ȱ 160,ȱ161,ȱ162,ȱ165,ȱ167,ȱ168,ȱ 178ȱ Buddhaȱand,ȱ151ȱ onȱtheȱbus,ȱ148ȱ Puggalapaññatti,ȱ149ȱ SammohavinodanÎ,ȱ146ȱ

ȱ

249ȱ

ShwegyinȱNik¬yaȱS¬sanaȱPurityȱ Book,ȱ99ȱ SuttaȬpiΞaka,ȱ145,ȱ153ȱ TipiΞaka/TripiΞaka,ȱ15,ȱ49,ȱ50,ȱ64,ȱ 148ȱ VibhaΤga,ȱ146,ȱ149ȱ VinayaȬpiΞaka,ȱ7,ȱ39,ȱ59,ȱ61,ȱ64,ȱ65,ȱ 79,ȱ91,ȱ109,ȱ110,ȱ112,ȱ114,ȱ116,ȱ 117,ȱ118,ȱ119,ȱ124,ȱ131,ȱ138ȱ Yamaka,ȱ149ȱ Womenȱ andȱ1988ȱandȱ2007,ȱ117ȱ andȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱpaΦΠaka,ȱ125ȱ asȱdaughtersȱofȱtheȱBuddha,ȱ3ȱ causingȱaȱbreakȱinȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱ monk,ȱ138ȱ dependencyȱofȱmonksȱonȱ (Spiro),ȱ181ȱ ordinationȱof,ȱ13ȱ robesȱweavingȱcontests,ȱ1ȱ ruleȱagainstȱteachingȱto,ȱ141ȱ studiesȱof,ȱ10ȱ subordinationȱinȱtheȱmonasticȱ order,ȱ9ȱ