Sojourners in the Sun: Scottish Migrants in Jamaica and the Chesapeake, 1740-1800 9781501736858

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Sojourners in the Sun

Francis Danby, gouache, “Sunset over the Sea,” ca. 1850. Reproduced by permission of the Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery, San Marino, California.

Sojourners in the Sun Scottish Migrants in Jamaica and the Chesapeake, 1/40-1800

Alan L. Karras

Cornell University Press Ithaca and London

Copyright © 1992 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, 124 Roberts Place, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 1992 by Cornell University Press. International Standard Book Number 0-8014-269i-X Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 92-52763 Printed in the United States of America Librarians: Library of Congress cataloging information appears on the last page of the book.

© The paper in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Mate¬ rials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

For Aunt Bea

who taught me to lave learning

Contents

List of Illustrations, Tables, Maps, and Charts

viii

Preface

xi

Abbreviations

xv

Introduction 1

i

Transatlantic Transiency: The Character and Context of the Sojourning Movement

9

2

The Caribbean Connection: Scots in Jamaica

46

3

Tobacco Transients: Scots in the Chesapeake

81

4

Webs of Patronage: Scottish Networks in Jamaica

5

and the Chesapeake

118

The Paradox of Success: Lucrative Careers and Failed Goals

170

Afterword: The Scots and Changing Notions of Independence

211

Bibliography

217

Index

227

Illustrations

Francis Danby, “Sunset over the Sea”

Frontis

“The Caledonian Voyage to Moneyland,” from The British Antidote to Caledonian Poison

16

“The Caledonians’ Arrival in Moneyland,” from The British Antidote to Caledonian Poison

17

Robert Johnston, “Drawing of the Quarter Deck of the Lime”

30

C. Hamilton Smith, “View of Leith and Edinburgh, from Inchkillan”

37

Robert Johnston, “Sketch of Bridgetown in Barbados, 1813”

119

Robert Johnston, “View of Loch Awe”

183

Tables

i. i

Occupations of Jamaican Scots

11

1.2

Occupations of Chesapeake Scots

12

1.3

Analysis of story content

24

1.4

Glasgow ships, as advertised, to Jamaica and the Chesapeake

32

1.5

Advertised Edinburgh ships to Jamaica and the Chesapeake

33

1.6

Ships from city to colony: Combined totals for Chesapeake and Jamaica

34

1.7

Glasgow ships to all destinations, as advertised

35

1.8

Edinburgh ships to all destinations, as advertised

35

4.1

Scottish landowners in Jamaica, 1754

125

4.2

Scots v. non-Scots, 1761

127

4.3

Scots v. non-Scots, 1804

129

4.4

Jamaican Scots’ places of residence, 1740-1800

130

4.5

Scots as percent of renters in Northern Neck Counties

133

4.6

Chesapeake Scots’ places of residence, 1740-1800

134

4.7

Jamaican Letters Testamentary

138

5.1

Scottish estate inventories in Jamaica

175

5.2

Slave registration returns, 1817

178

5.3

Chesapeake temporary support claims

204

5.4

Chesapeake Loyalist compensation claims

206

Maps 1

Scottish residences in Jamaica, 1761

128

2

Scottish residences in Jamaica, 1804

129

3

Addresses of Scottish correspondents, 1750-1790

135

4

The realm of Francis Grant

140

5

The realm of Alexander Johnston

150

Charts 1

Francis Grant’s patronage web

148

2

Alexander Johnston’s patronage web

151

Maps 1

Scottish residences in Jamaica, 1761

128

2

Scottish residences in Jamaica, 1804

129

3

Addresses of Scottish correspondents, 1750-1790

135

4

The realm of Francis Grant

140

5

The realm of Alexander Johnston

150

Charts 1

Francis Grant’s patronage web

148

2

Alexander Johnston’s patronage web

151

Preface

Alexander Johnston came of age in the mid-eighteenth century along Scotland’s blustery northeastern coast. With hopes of making his fortune as a physician, he traveled south, stopping first in Edinburgh and later in Brit¬ ain’s Caribbean colonies. Though Johnston did not much like life in the West Indies, he spent twenty-four years in St. Ann’s Parish, Jamaica. As I read through his surviving letters, journals, and accounts, a whole field of un¬ answered questions sprouted. The most obvious was whether Alexander Johnston’s records, now located in Philadelphia, could represent anyone or anything other than himself. Did his behavior and ideas typify a group, or was he an isolated case? To answer these questions, I began to explore one of the broadest characteristics of Johnston’s existence—his ethnicity. Beginning in the winter of 1985-86 and continuing over the course of the next several years, I discovered substantial caches of unmined manuscripts in Jamaica, the United States, and (especially) Britain. These collections consisted principally of letters and accounts that Scots resident in the Amer¬ ican colonies sent to their correspondents in Britain. As I read these docu¬ ments, it became clear to me that for a period, Scottish ethnicity combined with a professional education to produce a group of people with a uniformly strong desire to leave Scotland temporarily. These Scottish migrants chose to voyage to certain colonies because they expected they could earn a fortune quickly. Borrowing a sociological term I dubbed them “sojourners”; the behavioral patterns that the documents revealed among the Scots form this book’s principal subject. Migration history has usually been written in ways that make it easy to exclude transient migrants. Their numbers never seemed to be very great, at least as far as we knew, so their functions within both their host and their home societies have gone relatively unnoticed. Still, as this book has pro-

Preface ~ xii gressed, I have become convinced that the Scots were only one of several groups of sojourners which dotted the American historical landscape. We know so little about sojourning in American history that questions about other groups of transients are nearly impossible to answer without much additional research. We need, in general, to discover whence sojourners came, where they went, what they did after they arrived, and how they fared. Did some ethnic groups tend to be sojourners more than others? What precise socioeconomic and cultural conditions spawned the transient migrant in each generation? What treatment did sojourners receive from their host communities, and what perceptions did native-born residents of the communities exhibit? Alexander Johnston’s small career, in the 1770s and 1780s, has thus suggested a whole range of questions about other peoples at other times and in other places. Here I have, for the most part, worked only on Johnston’s eighteenth-century contemporaries. It is my hope that the texture of sojour¬ ners’ lives in three British colonies, which this book provides, will provoke others to explore sojourning in other contexts. A project such as this one is like a tree with many branches. If I were to recognize properly all the help I received along the way, I would most likely present readers with a book shorter than its acknowledgments. Rather than do so, I apologize here to anyone who has been omitted. I am grateful to the following, both for permission to quote from the rich sources they superintend and for making my days as a researcher pleasant ones: the Trustees of the National Library of Scotland, Scottish Record Office, Strathclyde Regional Archives, Aberdeen University Library, Edin¬ burgh University Library, Glasgow University Archives, Library of Con¬ gress, Liverpool Record Office, Lloyd House at the Alexandria Library, the Huntington Library, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Virginia Historical Society, and the Virginia State Library. Mr. Oliver Tweedie-Stodart, Lord MoncreifF, Lord Seafield, and Mr. Archibald Stirling have generously provided permission to quote from letters in their care. Staff at the Public Record Office at Kew and the Jamaica Archives in Spanish Town were of great assistance as I perused masses of documents in their possession. I also used documents belonging to Marion Campbell of Kilberry and Mrs. E. Hanbury-Tenison. While they are not quoted here, they have informed the arguments presented. Early on, James Munson, Jean Russo, and Adele Hast all pointed me to sources that I might otherwise have overlooked. My colleagues and students at Georgetown University have generally been tremendously supportive over the last four years. I am particularly

Preface ~ xiii grateful to Richard Duncan and Marcus Rediker for reading various parts of the manuscript and offering helpful suggestions. Graduate students Roger Haughey, Eileen Scully, and Stephen Manaker have also contributed to the version of the argument which appears here. Timothy Lane read the manu¬ script in its semi-final form and provided insightful and detailed criticisms. John McNeill has not only been a terrific reader, friend, and source of inspiration; he has also suffered through many team-taught classes that always seemed to end on the subject of Scots sojourners. Georgetown University’s publication fund and a generous grant from the Huntington Library allowed me the time needed to complete the research and begin final revisions. Cornell University Press has been supportive of the project since first hearing about it. I am indebted to Roger Haydon for his efforts on my behalf. Lisa Turner, who copy-edited the book, did much to clarify my prose. I am also grateful to Ned Landsman and Richard Sheridan, who provided crit¬ icisms that helped to make this a more articulate book. Friends across the world have helped me in one form or another when Eve been “in town” researching and writing. I know they will forgive me for only listing them here: Andy Bell and Angela Frain, Trevor Burnard, Kirsty Wark and Alan Clements, Saul Cornell and Susan Selleck, Allan Little, Steve Pahides, Loren Ratner, Alan Schoen, Ian Sherwood, Gigi Sohn, and Kevin Traynor. Finally, I owe Richard S. Dunn, Roy F. and Jeanette P. Nichols Professor of American History at the University of Pennsylvania, a tremendous intel¬ lectual debt—not only for reading many versions of the manuscript but for always having new insights and suggestions for improvement. I simply could not have studied under anyone better. Along the way, Michael Zuckerman and Richard Beeman also provided much useful assistance and encourage¬ ment. Alan L. Karras

Washington, D.C.

Abbreviations

AUL BL

Aberdeen University Library British Library

EHR

Economic History Review

EUL GUA HL HSP JA

Edinburgh University Library Glasgow University Archives Henry E. Huntington Library Historical Society of Pennsylvania Jamaica Archives

JAH

Journal of American History

jfEH

Journal of Economic History

LC LRO LT NLS NRA(S) NYPL PRO SRA SRO VHS VSL

Library of Congress Liverpool Record Office Loyalist Transcripts National Library of Scotland National Register of Archives (Scotland) New York Public Library Public Record Office Strathclyde Regional Archives Scottish Record Office Virginia Historical Society Virginia State Library

WMQ

William and Mary Quarterly

Sojourners in the Sun

Introduction

But what comes here? Methinks I see A walking University. See how they press to cross the Tweed, And strain their Limbs with eager speed! While Scotland from her fertile shore, Cries, On My Sons, return no more. Hither they haste, with willing mind, Nor cast one longing look behind; On ten-toe carriage to salute, The K-g, and Q_-n, and Earl of B-e.

These two stanzas lampoon Caledonian migration to London.1 Written by an Englishman who objected to the earl of Bute’s regular appointments of Scots to positions in the British government, the verse could also charac¬ terize the general exodus of educated people from Scotland to Britain’s American colonies in the mid-eighteenth century. But the poem has got it only partly correct. The poet, like more modern historical scholars, did not seem to realize that these people usually left Scotland intending to return to their homeland with increased wealth. Though the Scots operated in two worlds (separated by the Tweed in the poem), they did not wholly belong to either. It is, then, only natural that a book about such people straddles rigid historiographical boundaries. Mono1 Untitled poem, in The British Antidote to Caledonian Poison: Consisting of the most humourous Satirical Political Prints, for the Year 1762 (London, 1762).

Sojourners in the Sun ~ 2 g^phs in c of Complex Societies, pp. 1—22, ed. Michael Banton. London, 1966. Zuckerman, Michael. “Fate, Flux, and Good Fellowship: An Early Virginia Design for the Dilemma of American Business.” In Business and Its Environment: Essays for Thomas C. Cochran, ed. Harold Sharlin, 161—84. Westport, Conn., 1983-

-

Index

Aberdeen, 38, 39n, 44 Aberdeen Journal, 38, 39n Absenteeism: and condemnation of greed, 6 and law careers, 49, 61, 88 and slavery, 47n and success, 170, 182, 187 See also Estate managers Aitchison, William, 157, 158 Allason, William, 98n, 2ion American Revolution, 89, i73n and meaning of independence, i89n, 211-15 and patronage webs, 159, 161, 164 peace treaties, 8, i98n, i99n, 202 and Scottish financial success, 172, 18899 and shipping, 3 m, 38 and tobacco trade, 3m, 33, 38, 88, 89, 92 See also Loyalism; Scottish conflicts with other setders Amerindians, 24-25 Artisans, 49 Attorneys, 49, 60-65, 88. See also Estate managers

Caledonian Mercury, 24-25, 27, 28 Callendar, Elizabeth, 1580 Camic, Charles, 14m Campbell, Archibald, 59 Campbell, James, i66n Campbell, John, hi, 201 Campbell, R. H., 20-21 Canada, 48 Caribbean colonies, 4, 6, 202. See also Ja¬ maica Carter, Landon, 87 Carter, Robert, 89 Certificates of Importation, ion Chesapeake: frequency as destination, 39-40, 45 grain economy in, 87-88, 92, 189 interpersonal webs in, 154-66, 167, 168, 169 negative images of, 6, 7, 23-29 racial balance in, 81, 174 Scottish population in, 39, 88-89,

Bailyn, Bernard, 4, 10, 19-20, 22n, 43, 44n Bartlett, James, 156, 169 Berthoff, Rowland, 3 Bodnar, John, 3 Bonacich, Edna, 121, i37n, 152, 192 Boston Tea Party, 193, 209 Brathwaite, Edward, i25n British Empire, 6, 8, 2in

t.3I737 social institutions in, 81-82 success of sojourners in, 8, 188-99, 20310 See also Occupations of sojourners; Scot¬ tish conflicts with other settlers; So¬ journers; Tobacco trade Church of England, 82n Church of Scotland, 7n, 22n

Brock, William, 19, 20, 890, 200 Bryant, William, 58 Bumsted, J. M., 15, 18 Bute, Lord, 1, 16, 17

Index ~ 228 Clark, Alexander, 144 Clergy, 64n, 82, ioyn Coercive Acts, 193 Convicts, 3n Corruption. See Greed, condemnation of Craig, Mary Elizabeth, 23n Craton, Michael, 470 Credit. See Jamaica; Scottish conflicts with other settlers; Tobacco trade Cringan, John, i6on Cunninghame, William, i04n Currie, James, 111-13, t8i “Deficiency laws,” 48-49 Devine, Thomas M., 850, 890, 1570, i8on Diack, Alexander, 162 Donaldson, Robert, 92 Drescher, Seymour, 173 Duff, David, 390, 4cm, 115-16 Dunlop, James, 198, 209 Dwyer, John, 23n, 28n, 29n Edinburgh, 9, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 44 Edinburgh Advertiser, 25-26 Edwards, Bryan, 184 Ellegood, Margaret, 157 Ellegood, Rebecca, 157 Elmslie, Ann, i59n, i6on England, 2on, 83, 173. See also American Revolution; Scottish conflicts with other settlers; Seven Years’ War (1756-63); Tobacco trade; Union of Parliaments Estate managers, 49, 65-71, 102-3, !79n Ewart, Robert, 56, 57-58, 60 Factors, 12, 65, 83, 85-86, 93-106, 189, I95n Fithian, Philip, 89, 114 France, 47-48, 189 Fraser, Daniel, 208 Fraser, James, 183, 185-86 French and Indian War, 189 Fullerton, Alexander, 147, 149 Gillespie, James, 46, 62-63 Glasgow, 31-33, 35, 36, 37-38, 39n, 44. See also Tobacco trade Glasgow, Robert, 51 Glasgow Journal, 25, 26 Gordon, Charles, 66-71, 139, 143 Gordon, Thomas, 61, 62 Gordon, William, 27, 63, 154 Graham, Ann, 153 Graham, Henry, 18, 2on Graham, James, 153

Graham, William, 144 Grant, Alexander, 154, 182, 184 Grant, Archibald, 62, i58n Grant, David, 56 Grant, Francis, 66-71, 77, 79, 117 and patronage webs, 139-41, 142, 143, I44~47> 148, 153. 167, 168 success of, 70-71, 95, 182, 187 Grant, John, 64-65, 66, 67, 145, 182, 187 Grant, Lewis, 46, 141 Grant, Walter, 52-53 Grave, Adam, 205 Grave, George, 205 Greed, condemnation of, 6, 7, 59-60 and Church of Scotland, 7n, 22n and remigration goals, 21-22, 28, 29n, 62, 73 Grenada, 202 Guadeloupe, 48 Hamilton, .Alexander, 95, I35n, 197 Hamilton, Henry, i8on Hamilton, Robert, 53, 59-60, 184-85, 188 Harford, Henry, 2o6n Harrow'er, John, 114-15, 116 Hast, Adele, 198, 199, 200 Haws, Charles, 890 Henderson, Alexander, 100-103, 104, 106, I55n Henderson, .Archibald, 100 Higham, John, 2 Higman, Barry, 124-25 Hook, John, 209-10 Houston, R. A., 5m Indentured servants, 10 Independence, meaning of, 8, i89n, 21115. See also Motivations for sojourning; Scotland; Success India, 202 Industrialization, 13 Jacobite uprising (1745), 18 Jamaica consignment system in, 83n credit dependence in, 51-53, 58-60, 67, 72-80 economic class of sojourners in, 49-50 economic growth of, 47-49, 51-52, Son, *73 frequency as destination, 41-43, 45 interpersonal webs in, 137-54, 167-68, 169 lack of social institutions in, 47, 82 loyalist migration to, 56, 197, 202

Index ~ 229 Jamaica (cont.) meaning of independence in, 215 negative popular images of, 6, 7, 23-29,

46-47 population increases in, 174 racial balance in, 48-49, 81, 174 Scottish population in, 8, 41, 53-54, 123-31 success of sojourners in, 70-71, 172-88 See also Caribbean colonies; Occupations of sojourners; Sojourners Jamieson, Neil, 157, 197 Jay Treaty (1794), i98n Jefferson, Thomas, 159 Johnston, Alexander, 7, 58 and patronage webs, 139, 147, 149-53, 168 success of, 182, 184, i88n Johnston, John, 105 Jones, Alice Hanson, i79n Kammen, Michael, 211 Kinloch, G. O., 68 Laing, Malcolm, 163 Landlords, 18-19 Landsman, Ned, 22n, 54n, 120-21 Law careers, 49, 60-65, 88. See also Estate managers Lawson, James, 93-99 Leith, 37 Lithgow, Alexander, 95 Long, Edward, 54, 55, 87, 124, 173 Loyalism, 8, 161, 172, 199-210 compensation claims, 203-9 and legislatures, 195-96 and migration to Jamaica, 56, 197, 202 and occupations of sojourners, 214 and Scottish conflicts with other setders, 121, 200-201 and tobacco trade, 200, 214 Lynch, Charles, 209 MacFarlane, Andrew, 53 Macknight, James, 164 Maclarty, Alexander, 60, 11 on Maclarty, Colin, 54-60, 142 McLeod, James, 170, 171, 182, 191 McLeod, William, 93, 1950 MacMurdo, George, 107, 160 MacMurdo, Thomas, 156, 198 Main, Jackson Turner, 194 Martin, Jonathan, 204 Martinique, 48 Maryland. See Chesapeake

Mason, George, ion Maxwell, Patrick, 163 Medical careers, 49, 55-60, 107-13 Meinig, D. W., 4n Miller, Alexander, 11, 12, 90-91 Molleson, Alexander, 157-58 Moncreiff, Henry, 162-63, 193, 202 Motivations for sojourning, 2-3, 13-22 Murrin, John, 214 Natural disasters, 26-27 Netherlands, 48 Norton, Mary Beth, 189, 199 Nugent, Lady Maria, 53, 55, 87 Occupations of sojourners, 11-12, 53, 8889 attorneys, 49, 60-65, 88 estate managers, 49, 65-71, 102-3, i79n physicians, 49, 55-60, 107-13 planters, 50, 71-80, 88-89, i79n, 18485, 186-88 and Scottish loyalism, 214 and slavery, 4, 7, 56-57 teachers, 114-16 See also Tobacco trade Oswald, Richard, 1580 Paine, Thomas, 213 Pares, Richard, 1790 Parker, Charles Steuart, 165-66 Parker, James, 157-59, 160, 163, 164-66, 1670, 202 Parker, Margaret, 160 Parker, Patrick (Pate), 164-65, 1670 Patronage webs, 7-8, 167-69 and assimilation, 118-19 Chesapeake interpersonal webs, 131-37, 154-66, 167, 168, 169, 195 functions of, 119-23 Jamaican interpersonal webs, 41, 123-31, *37-54, 167-68, 169, 195 and Scottish conflicts with other settlers, *52, 158-59. 161, 169 and Scottish loyalism, 201 and success, 195 and tobacco trade, 119, 155-57, 170-71 Patterson, Orlando, 470 Perkin, Harold, 212, 213 Physicians, 49, 55-60, 107-13 Plantations. See Estate managers; Planters; Slavery; Tobacco trade Planters, 50, 71-80, 88-89, *79n, 184-85, 186-88 Price, Jacob, ioin

Index ~ 230

Ragatz, Lowell, 47 Ramsay, Mary, 15811 Randolph, Edmund, 159 Ravenscroft, John, 107, 108-11 Remigration, 3 and condemnation of greed, 21-22, 28, 29n, 62, 73 as motivation for sojourning, 21-22, 49, 82-83, 86 and success of sojourners, 171-72, 17988, 193-94, 195 Revolutionary War. See American Revolution Riddell, Henry, i55n Ritchie, Henry, 202, 209 Robinson, James, 103-6, 136-37, 156-57, 191 Ross, George, 142 Ruddach, Charles, 163 Ruddach, Thomas, 161-63, 197 St. Domingue, 48n St. Vincent’s, 202 Schaw, Janet, 44n Scotland: agricultural changes, 13-14 economic conditions, 2n, 14-19, ii5n fortune-seeking in, 19, 20-21 and highlanders, 17-18, 20 and middle class, development of, 14-15, 20 remigration to, 21-22, 49, 82-83, 86 Union of Parliaments, 13, 14 urbanization, 14 younger sons, 20, 50 Scottish conflicts with other settlers, 92-93 and credit crisis, 189, 190-92, 197-98 and motivations for sojourning, 4-5 and patronage webs, 152, 158-59, 161, 169 and Scottish loyalism, 121, 200-201 and success of sojourners, 161, 189, 19192, 195-99 and tobacco trade, 86-87, 107, 116, 121, 159, 197-98 Scrymgeour, Harry, 142-43, 186-87 Semple, John, 93-99 Seven Years’ War (1756-63), 47-48 Sheridan, Richard, 47, 51, 56, i39n, 175, 190-91, 192 Shipping records, 29, 31-45 Sinclair, Archibald, 50, 63, 154 Sinclair, Sir John, 180 Slavery, 4, 47n, 56-57 “deficiency laws,” 48-49 rebellions, 25, 26 sojourners’ perceptions of, 7, 46n

and success of sojourners, 177-79 See also Estate managers; Planters Smout, T. C., 13, 20, 22n Smyth, I. F. D., 204-5 Sojourners caricatures of, 1, 15, 16, 17 destinations of, 4, 6, 32-33, 36, 39-43 education of, 50-51 importance of, 5-6, 116 marital status of, 4, 22 numbers of, 9-13, 29, 31, 43-45 in Scottish newspaper accounts, 24, 2728 transportation, 29, 31-45 See also Chesapeake; Jamaica Sojourning causes of, 2-3, 13-22 vs. immigration, 2, 118 studies of, 3, 4n, 5-6 Soltow, J. H., 850, 89 Stamp Act (1765), 189, 190 Stark, Bolling, 108, 109-10 Statistical Account of Scotland, 180 Stenhouse, Alexander, 208 Steuart, Charles, 158-59, 161, 163-64 Steuart, Jeannie, i6on Steuart, William, 91 Stirling, Archibald, 70, 72-75, 76-78, 145, 185

Stirling, Archibald (II), 79 Stirling, Charles, 153, 167-68 Stirling, James, 71, 74, 75-76, 98-99 Stirling, John, 79-80, 145-46 Stirling, Patrick, 185 Stirling, Robert, 72-75, 97-98, 182, 184, 185 Stirling, Robert (II), 79 Success, 170-71 in the Chesapeake, 8, 188-99, 203~9 definitions of, 171-72 estate values, 174-79 in Jamaica, 70-71, 172-88 loyalist compensation claims, 203-9 and patronage webs, 195 and remigration, 171-72, 179-88, 193— 94, 195 and Scottish conflicts with other settlers, 161, 189, 191-92, 195-99 and Scottish newspaper accounts, 27-28 Sugar and Slavery (Sheridan), 51 Supercargoes, 83, 84, 85 Tacksmen, 18 Teachers, 114-16 Temptation. See Greed, condemnation of Thistlewaite, Frank, 2, 3, 4

Index

Tobacco trade, 6, 9 and American Revolution, 3m, 33, 38, 88, 89, 92 credit crisis in, 86-87, 189, 190-92, 197-98 decline of, 87-88, 92, 188-89 direct trade system, 83-85 factors, 12, 65, 83, 85-86, 93-106, 189, J95n merchant assistants, 89-93 and patronage webs, 119, 155-57, 17071 restrictive nature of, 86, 100-106, 116ll> 155-56, 170, 194-95 and Scottish conflicts with other settlers, 86-87, I07, 116, 121, 159, 197-98 and Scottish loyalism, 200, 214 Townshend Duties (1767), 190

231

Walsh, Lorena, 129-30 Walvin, James, 47n Wealth, accumulation of: as motivation for sojourning, 19, 20-21, 46-47 perceptions of opportunities, 6, 26-27, 28 and remigration, 182 See also Greed, condemnation of; Success Wedderburn, Alexander, 142 Wedderburn, James, 68 Whyte, Ian, 13-14 Williamson, John, 56-57 Wilson, Alexander, 11, 12, 39n, 89-91, 93, 197 and loyalism, 201-2 and patronage webs, 155-57, t68 and Scottish conflicts with other settlers, 196 Withrington, Donald J., 5m

Union of Parliaments, 13, 14, 18, 60-61 Virginia. See Chesapeake

Young, Charles, 144-45, 146-47