Society, the Classroom, and Instructional Practice: Perspectives on Issues Affecting the Secondary Classroom in the 21st Century 9781607090908, 9781607090885

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SOCIETY, THE CLASSROOM, AND INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE Perspectives on Issues Affecting the Secondary Classroom in the Twenty-First Century

Edited by Ervin F. Sparapani

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD EDUCATION A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2009 by Ervin F. Sparapani All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Society, the classroom, and instructional practice : perspectives on issues affecting the secondary classroom in the twenty-first century / edited by Ervin F. Sparapani. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60709-088-5 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-089-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-090-8 (electronic) 1. Education, Secondary—United States. 2. Education, Secondary—United States— Sociological aspects 3. Education, Secondary—United States—Curricula. I. Sparapani, Ervin F. LA222.S615 2009 373.72—dc22 2009013655 Printed in the United States of America

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

This book is dedicated to my wife, Carol, for her unconditional love and support in everything I’ve wanted to do.

Contents

Acknowledgments

vii

Introduction Ervin F. Sparapani

ix

Part I: Perspectives on Issues in Society 1

2 3 4

Understanding Society: A Framework for Thinking about Adolescents and Education Brian J. Smith TBK 101: Teaching Black Kids for Beginners Pamela L. Ross McClain Sexual Minority Students in School and Society Barbara D. Garii, Renay M. Scott, and Jennifer J. Fager Eating Disorders in Middle Grades Females and Males Jennifer E. Ellero

3 15 27 41

Part II: Perspectives on Issues in the Classroom 5 6

7

The Classroom as a Democratic Place Kelli M. Clemmensen, Ervin F. Sparapani, and Suzanne M. Booth Understanding the Needs and Characteristics of the Adolescent Learner Renay M. Scott Technology Issues in the Classroom Jonathon A. Gould

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75 87

vi

8

9

Contents

Beyond Management: Creating a Classroom Climate for Engagement Deborah L. Smith Parental Involvement in the Middle School and High School Classroom LaCreta M. Clark

99

113

Part III: Perspectives on Instructional Practice Issues 10 11 12 13

14

The Nature of Instruction Ervin F. Sparapani Literacy Practices in the Secondary Content Area Classroom Deborah L. Smith and Byung-In Seo Differentiating Instruction in the Secondary Classroom Ervin F. Sparapani, Ryan H. Walker, and Marie E. VanTiflin Cooperation in the Classroom: Preparing Adolescents to Work Together Productively Patricia A. Salemi Using Assessment for Data-Based Decision-Making Natalie A. Haupt and Paul J. Voydanoff

129 147 169

183 197

Index

211

About the Contributors

219

Acknowledgments

F

ROM START TO FINISH WRITING A BOOK IS A JOURNEY,

an adventure; and the end of the journey is often not what was originally envisioned. I had a vision for this book, and was fascinated as the book took form and shape and personality. The idea for this book was mine, and the “form” and “shape” of the book is influenced by my personality. The book also has the “form” and “shape,” the “personality” of those who contributed chapters. Their participation made it possible for me to actually “do” this book. With that in mind, I want to thank the colleagues in the Department of Middle/Secondary Education (my department) in the College of Education at Saginaw Valley State University for their enthusiastic support of this book project. I especially want to thank Pamela L. Ross McClain, Deborah L. Smith, Patricia Salemi, Jonathon Gould (all members of my department), ByungIn Seo (now at Chicago State University), Jennifer J. Fager (now at Xavier University), and LaCreta M. Clark (a member of the Educational Leadership Department at Saginaw Valley) for contributing chapters. I also want to thank Brian J. Smith (Central Michigan University), Barbara Garii (SUNY-Oswego), and Renay M. Scott (Owens Community College, Toledo Campus) for sharing their knowledge and expertise by contributing chapters. A special thanks, too, goes to the teachers who were students in several of my graduate courses for their excitement about this book and their willingness to contribute chapters. This group includes Suzanne M. Booth, Kelli M. Clemmensen, Jennifer E. Ellero, Natalie A. Haupt, Marie E. VanTiflin, Paul J. Voydanoff, and Ryan H. Walker.

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Acknowledgments

There was also a large group who had little to do with the actual writing of the book, but who were very instrumental in its completion. I thank Dennis Strobel, faculty assistant for my department, who gave me technical (computer) assistance when I needed it. I thank Patti Belcher, my editor at Rowman & Littlefield Education, who helped me think through each section of the book and provided much needed assistance with editing initial drafts of chapters from contributors. I thank my good friends Mark and Connie Oswald, Kurt Aven, Michael Basner, Ronald Schmidt, Dennis Hoppe, Dale Myers, Al Todd, and Joel Grumm for helping me, along the journey, to stay focused. Thanks, again, to my wife, Carol, for her support. Thanks to each of you, the book got done. Thanks to each of you, the “stuff” of life did not get too overwhelming. Most importantly, thanks to each of you, there was joy in the journey.

Introduction Ervin F. Sparapani

I

SSUES!

EVERY SOCIETY IN EVERY AGE AND TIME HAS ISSUES. The United States is no exception. Every individual in a society has issues. The United States is no exception. Every profession in a society has issues. The United States is no exception. The profession of education is no exception. Teachers know that a society’s issues are brought into classrooms every day, and teachers are expected to deal with those issues. The United States is no exception. Everyone grows up in some society and takes on the mores and values of some cultural group (or groups) in that society. Every young person who shows up at a classroom door comes from a society, and once they cross the threshold into the classroom, they walk into another society. Sometimes the society they walk into is like the society from which they come. Given the nature of today’s society, though, quite often the classroom society the young person walks into is quite different than the society from which they come. Adolescents, indeed all people entering U.S. classrooms in the twenty-first century, bring the issues of the world in along with them. Teachers and the adolescents they teach come from a society into a society. Here in the twenty-first century United States, societal issues faced each day by adolescents and teachers are probably the most complex of any age in history. The caring teacher expends a lot of time and energy trying to address those issues and trying to help young people understand the issues, but often, because of the mores or ethical blindness of the society, teachers (even the caring teachers) either cannot or do not make much progress. It is a difficult century for middle level and high school teachers.

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Introduction

Growing up in the 1940s and 1950s, according to some, and depending on where you lived, was supposed to be a simpler time. The Depression had ended. World War II was over; and even though there was fighting in Korea, it was not the same as the world war. The United States had introduced the world to the nuclear age, was emerging as a world power, and was learning how to share the hegemony with the other “big three” world powers: England, France, and the former Soviet Union. Through the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the United States strengthened its position in the world, vying for primacy with the Soviet Union. During this time, the world began moving from a group of isolated countries to a global society. Also, during this time, the United States was seen as one of the good guys. Then, in 1990, with the breakup of the Soviet Union, the United States suddenly found itself as the premier power in the world. Other countries still had a great deal of influence, naturally, but the United States was pretty much alone at the top. During this time (the 1960s to 1980s), life was still “simple,” and, despite the 1960s war in Viet Nam or the 1980s claim that the United States was “a nation at risk,” societal issues that affected adolescents and teachers in middle schools and high schools were not as critical, or did not seem as critical. Some people (perhaps many people) will disagree that life in any time is “simple,” however, now that the United States is a major player on the global stage, and in the aftermath of September 11, 2001, life is anything but “simple.” Now, in the twenty-first century, the United States truly has become a country of major influence and is trying to understand its role on the world stage. Decisions made by the U.S. government are no longer supported as readily as they once were. Suddenly, the United States is not viewed in many areas of the world as the “good guy.” The world has indeed become a global society. The education of young people is instrumental to understanding that global society, and the role of the United States in that society. The question for education becomes what young people should be expected to learn in order to understand and be successful in a global society. Listening in on a group of middle level or high school teachers conversing, the listener may expect to hear a discussion surrounding the important issues of the day. Issues such as what it means to live in a global society and the U.S. role in that society; the HIV pandemic, especially in Africa; abortion issues; violence in the media; issues regarding gender diversity, extended families, cultural diversity, or stem-cell research; the kinds of jobs available in the future and how to prepare students for those jobs; fossil fuels, the Middle East, and a “green” society; the media’s influence on society; the flood of technology (computers, the Internet, cell phones, text messaging, iPods) into

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classrooms and its effect on learning. Teachers enjoy these discussions. Such discussions are passionate, and certainly conversations like this are heard. More often than not the listener hears other discussions, equally passionate, and equally important to the teacher but not directly connected to the major societal issues of the day. More often, as a result of “No Child Left Behind,” discussions among groups of teachers in teachers’ lounges, in teachers’ meetings, in PLC’s (Professional Learning Communities), teacher professional development programs, or graduate-level education courses are concentrated on alignment of the disciplines in the core curriculum (English, mathematics, science, social studies) to the curriculum standards set by state departments of education. Frequently, discussions focus on the high-stakes tests selected by the state departments of education to show AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) under No Child Left Behind, and how the teachers are going to keep adolescents in school so that “no child will be left behind,” when “leaving no child behind” is basically impossible. In the best of all possible worlds, the discussions of aligning school curricula to standards will also include major societal issues. Such, however, is most likely not the case. Teachers are so stretched to “cover” the curriculum so that their students do well on the high-stakes tests, it is difficult for them to come up for air long enough to determine how to infuse real-life issues into the learning that adolescents experience in the classroom. This book has been written to help teachers, particularly secondary teachers (middle level and high school teachers), speak to the difficult twenty-first century issues in a rational, thoughtful manner. This book is written to give secondary teachers a perspective on societal issues, classroom issues, and instructional practice issues to encourage an informed discussion about adolescent teaching and learning. A perspective, by definition, presents an insight or a point of view. The authors of each chapter give a perspective on a societal issue. The reader may or may not agree with the perspective. Agreeing or not agreeing happens when someone gives a perspective, and that’s okay. The intent of the authors is not to present a solution but to give a point of view to spark discussion, to begin an understanding of the issues and, perhaps, help teachers make the issue a viable part of the curriculum that adolescents experience. Not all societal issues are presented here. Attempting to address every issue imaginable would be impractical and unfeasible. There are, however, enough issues represented to help teachers begin the conversation and move them to a dialogue about additional issues. The book addresses three groups of issues already mentioned above, that is, issues in society, issues in the classroom, and instructional practice issues.

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Part I addresses societal issues. Chapter 1 provides a perspective of society and the effect of society on adolescence and education. Chapter 2 examines cultural diversity with an emphasis on how to teach black adolescents. Chapter 3 provides thoughtful insights about sexual minority students in society and their treatment in an educational setting. Chapter 4, the last chapter in part I, looks at eating disorders (specifically anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) in the middle grades and the effect of eating disorders on learning and the general health of the adolescent. Part II offers a perspective on issues affecting life in the secondary classroom. As mentioned previously, adolescents come from a society into a society. The classroom is its own society. Chapter 5, the first chapter in part II, examines the classroom itself and provides suggestions on how a secondary teacher can provide experiences that mirror society and assist the adolescent to become a responsible member of society. Chapter 6 discusses adolescent learners and their physical, social, emotional, and intellectual needs and characteristics. Chapter 7 addresses the many technology issues that the adolescent brings into the classroom and the effect of technology on educating the adolescent. Chapter 8 looks at managing a classroom so that the secondary teacher provides a classroom climate that is comfortable, engaging, and inviting, but at the same time, a place of order and stability. Chapter 9, the last chapter in part II, examines a major issue in secondary schools, parental involvement, and gives suggestions for what middle school and high school teachers can do to get more parents involved in their child’s education, while still allowing for the independence adolescents seek. Part III discusses instructional practice and issues surrounding instructional practice with the intent of helping teachers see how they can include relevant real-world topics while still teaching the school’s established curriculum. Chapter 10, the first chapter in part III, looks at the nature of instruction so that the secondary teacher understands that instruction is more than “teaching.” Chapter 11 considers literacy practices in the secondary classroom. Central to the chapter are examples of how the secondary teacher can structure lessons in any content area that promote higher-level thinking and make the learning relevant to the real world of the adolescent. Chapter 12 provides an in-depth understanding of differentiated instruction and gives suggestions for how the secondary teacher can differentiate instruction while maintaining a focus on state-required standards, benchmarks, and assessments. Chapter 13 explains a learning structure that many secondary teachers do not care for, cooperative learning. In addition to explaining cooperative learning, the chapter presents several cooperative-learning practices that allow the adolescent learner to socialize while at the same time focusing on what needs to be learned. Chapter 14, the last chapter in part III, looks at the

Introduction

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types of assessment and gives suggestions on how assessment can be used by a teacher and a school district to make appropriate data-based curriculum decisions and to accurately communicate those decisions to a target audience, for example, parents or members of school boards. It is doubtful that a book like this can resolve the issues of society. It is also doubtful that education in and of itself will resolve the issues of society, even though teachers are willing to try. This book, and others like it, though, may begin a movement in education toward facing the issues in society and how they may be resolved. After all, what more is there?

I PERSPECTIVES ON ISSUES IN SOCIETY

1 Understanding Society: A Framework for Thinking about Adolescents and Education Brian J. Smith

Introduction

A

in our social world. Striving to leave childhood behind and looking forward to an uncertain adulthood, adolescents are searching for individual identities while at the same time being strongly shaped by a myriad of social forces. Being an adolescent means being an individual who is embedded within a certain life stage and who is uniquely influenced by the social world. And it seems that being an adolescent today is oftentimes anything but easy; contemporary U.S. society is characterized by numerous social problems which affect many adolescents: poverty, racism, drug/alcohol use, inadequate schools, unsafe communities, and broken and dysfunctional families (Davis, 1998). In order to adequately understand adolescents’ behaviors and perspectives, it is necessary to understand them in the aggregate, as a social group who occupy a particular location in society. In order to understand them as a social group, it is necessary to understand the society which surrounds them. This chapter presents the fundamental elements of our social world in order to further understanding of adolescents as individuals who are shaped by the social forces which surround them. Throughout the chapter the examination of society and its components is connected to adolescence as a life stage, adolescents as a social group, and education as a social institution. First, a general overview of the key elements of our social world is provided; following this overview is a focus on adolescents specifically and an examination DOLESCENTS OCCUPY A PARTICULAR PLACE

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Brian J. Smith

of how specific social structures are especially important for understanding contemporary adolescents. The general overview covers the following topics: (1) defining society, (2) social structure and its various elements (culture, social class, social institutions, social groups), (3) social interaction, (4) defining adolescence, and, (5) education as a social institution. The second part of the chapter emphasizes the following issues: (1) subcultures and peer groups, (2) the education system, (4) the family, and (5) gender status and roles.

The Social World Generally, scholars define a “society” as the following: people who live in the “same geographical territory” and share a “common” identity, culture, and government (Kendall, 2004; Newman, 2006; Scott & Schwartz, 2006). Understanding the meaning and power of society involves conceptualizing the notion that there are “social facts,” facts which are external to individuals (Henslin, 2007; Kendall, 2004). The pioneering sociologist Emile Durkheim (1964) is the first to put forth this term, which refers to the idea that there are “patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of any one individual but that exert control over that individual” (Kendall, 2004, p. 12). Thus, there are structures that are social, that surround us, that help create our individual lives. This realization (that there is a patterned social world which exists and influences individuals’ lives) is the starting point for understanding the numerous components of society. These components are sometimes referred to as social structure and include the following: culture, social class, social institutions, social status, roles, and groups (Henslin, 2007). These elements form the “whole” that we call society and shape individuals’ behaviors and perspectives. Components of Society Many social science scholars consider culture to be the broadest element of society. Generally, culture can be understood as “shared ways of living”; more specifically culture refers to “the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to the next” (Henslin, 2007, p. 36; Newman, 2006; Scott & Schwartz, 2006). Culture can be considered the “glue” that holds society together (Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum 2006). We learn culture as we grow up, and cultural expectations (e.g., how to act, what to believe, what to wear) shape and control our everyday lives; this internalization of culture can be understood as

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culture being “within us” (Henslin, 2007). The process of internalizing societal norms and values is referred to as socialization. According to sociologists, it is through socialization and social interaction that we become conforming, functioning, thinking social beings. It is easy to notice culture when we are abroad; when we are in a foreign country, we are exposed to how people are different from us. We notice differences in their language, their ideas, their dress, and their behaviors. It is much more difficult, however, to become fully aware of our own culture as it is an integral part of who we are; indeed, for us our own culture is like “water to a fish” (Henslin, 2007, p. 37). Culture includes things we learn as we grow up, such as norms (behavioral expectations) and values. Ironically, one of the main values we learn via socialization in the United States is individualism, that people are responsible for themselves and their lives as individuals. While this perspective certainly has merit, at times it can function to obscure the influence of social forces on individuals’ lives. Perhaps especially important for this chapter is not only the importance of general U.S. culture for influencing adolescents’ lives, but also the existence of adolescent subcultures, groups in society with their own cultural prescriptions. Understanding these subcultures, which revolve around peer groups, is central to understanding the social world and socialization of adolescents and will be examined in more detail later in the chapter. Social Class Another fundamental component of United States society is social class. Indeed, the significance of social class for understanding U.S. society and adolescents probably cannot be overstated. Social class refers to an individual’s or group’s structural location within society (Anderson & Taylor, 2005; Kendall, 2004). Social class is often defined as a “large group of people who rank close to one another in wealth, power, and prestige” (Henslin, 2007, p. 260). Social class is most commonly conceptualized and understood as an economic location in society, referring to one’s income and wealth. The United States can be understood as a society with a social class stratification (inequality) system (Beeghley, 2005; Hurst, 2004; Schaefer, 2004). One useful way to conceptualize social class stratification/inequality is to picture a ladder. At the top of the social class ladder are the “super rich/ wealthy,” and at the bottom, or literally underneath the ladder, is the “underclass,” those stuck in extreme, generational poverty characterized by chronic unemployment and welfare assistance. In the middle of the ladder would be, obviously, the middle-class. Importantly, “[p]eople’s positions in the class system affect virtually every aspect of their lives” (Newman, 2006, p. 146).

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Social class location shapes individuals’ lives in a multitude of ways. Distinct patterns of beliefs and behaviors can be linked with social class location. One’s life chances, life expectancy, health and fitness, religious affiliation, political opinions, and racial attitudes are all shaped by social class location. Youth growing up in poverty often experience significant disadvantages throughout their life. Regarding child rearing, research illustrates that people in the lower social classes are less likely to closely supervise their children and more likely to support corporal punishment/spanking as a form of discipline (Siegel & Welsh, 2009; Schmalleger & Bartollas, 2008; Henslin, 2007). Understanding the significance of social class for shaping life in the United States can help us understand differences among adolescents. Adolescents coming from a variety of social class locations will often have been raised by and living in families who have been taught a variety of beliefs and perspectives. Adolescents coming from the families in the lower social classes simply do not have the same types of life experiences or opportunities as those in the upper classes. Social Institutions Social institutions are, in many ways, the foundation of society. These institutions perform such tasks as raising children, educating youth, enforcing laws, and caring for the sick. Kendall (2004) states that a social institution is “a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs” (p. 120). Such institutions include the education system, religion, the economic system, the legal system, politics/government, the military, medicine/health care, and the family. As the importance of the media grows and expands (e.g., online video such as “YouTube”) it is being viewed by many as an “emerging” social institution. These institutions serve different purposes in society which enable society to reproduce itself over time. So, for example, families socialize children about the norms and values of society so they will become conforming, able human beings; schools formally educate youth so they will become useful, knowledgeable workers in our economic system. Adolescents are bombarded with cultural messages via media technologies. Importantly, it should be noted that within sociology there are two competing perspectives on social institutions. Many sociologists adhere to the functionalism perspective which is stated above, that social institutions form to meet our basic needs. According to a conflict perspective, social institutions also operate in ways which reproduce existing social inequalities in society. From this perspective, family socialization processes often reproduce

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gendered inequalities; the legal system focuses on those living in disadvantaged, poor communities and thus reproduces socioeconomic inequalities; the education system privileges youth from middle/upper class backgrounds and thus perpetuates class inequalities. Given the focus of this text (educating adolescents in high schools and middle schools) the education system as a social institution will be examined in more detail later in the chapter. Groups, Status, and Roles Groups, status, and roles are also fundamental aspects of a society’s social structure. Like all aspects of social structure, groups, status, and roles are social forces that influence and constrain individuals’ behavior. A social group can be understood as a “collection of people who share a common identity and regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations concerning behavior” (Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006, p. 104). Social scientists have created basic typologies of groups; primary groups are those which are most significant to our daily lives, our sense of self, and our identities (Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006; Cooley, 1964). These groups are meaningful for an individual’s life, for example, one can be a “friend,” a “son,” or a “wife.” Typical primary groups include the family, friends, and peer groups; secondary groups are considered to be the larger, less intimate groups in which we are engaged in specific tasks; thus secondary groups can include a classroom, a sports team, or work employees. Status and role, two interrelated aspects of social structure, are very useful for understanding how social forces shape our individual lives. As individuals living in a social world, we occupy particular status locations. Individuals occupy a large number of statuses, such as woman, employee, friend, mother, wife, daughter, white, middle class, coach, and neighbor. Importantly, there is a role attached to a particular status. A role involves behavioral expectations (norms) which are linked with a status. An individual occupies a status, and plays a role (Henslin, 2007). So, one “is” an employee, and as an employee, is supposed to act in certain ways. Adolescents occupy a particular status (or social location) within the social world and social institutions. Adolescence itself can be understood as a life stage; it is a status within society. In addition, adolescents occupy a vast number of particular statuses within social structures and social institutions. These might include a gender status as young man or young woman, an education status as a student, an employee status as a worker, a classmate status as a fellow student, a family status as son/daughter, a peer status as a friend, a sports team status as a teammate, and a sibling status as a brother/sister. There are roles (behavioral expectations) that accompany each of these statuses. So, for

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example, an adolescent is “supposed” to act a certain way as a student; they are supposed to act a certain way as a “young man” or “young woman.” When society, a social institution, or a social group reacts to an individual who does not conform to their prescribed roles, this makes the nonconforming behavior deviant. Social Interaction Intricately related to the more macro level social structures discussed above, another fundamental component of society and the social world are daily interactions, that is, how we behave, speak, and communicate with one another on a personal level; sociologists refer to this type of social interaction as the “micro” level. The micro level involves “everyday behavior in situations of face-to-face interactions” (Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006, p. 18; Newman, 2006; Anderson & Taylor, 2005). This level of analysis emphasizes people’s daily social activities with one another. Importantly, these interactions are shaped by social structures but also help create and maintain them (Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006). An awareness of how the micro level is connected with the macro level is extremely helpful when looking at adolescents’ daily interactions in the school setting. We can begin to understand their behaviors and activities within the context of social structures. It should be noted that social scientists recognize the notion of human agency, that individuals have the capacity to make individual choices. While the sociological perspective certainly privileges the power and influence of social forces, it does not necessarily suggest that people’s lives are completely socially determined. While socialization processes enable us to become functioning social beings, as individuals we are able to consider options, make choices, resist social structures, and indeed, even change such structures.

Adolescents and Their Social World Adolescence is commonly thought of as the time period between childhood and adulthood (Schmalleger & Bartollas, 2008; Kendall, 2004). While there is some disagreement among scholars, adolescence is typically characterized as a social creation of the postindustrial revolution society (Henslin, 2007; Kendall, 2004; Fasick, 1994). The rise of compulsory formal schooling is viewed by many as a key aspect of creating the adolescent life stage (Fasick, 1994). Prior to the industrial revolution children generally transitioned into adult

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roles once they became physically able to perform required tasks, for example, farming, hunting, and cooking. In our industrial (and postindustrial) world, adolescence is a life stage that is crucial for the development of one’s self-concept and identity (Kinney, 1993). Given that this is a particular life stage, those who occupy it are linked with and shaped by their social world in unique ways. In this section of the chapter, some of the social forces especially important for understanding adolescents will be examined. The Family Researchers (e.g., Newman, 2006; Brym & Lie, 2005) believe that the primary agent of socialization for children is the family. It is largely within the family, through social interaction, that children learn how to act, how to talk, how to think, the difference between right and wrong, and how to behave as a conforming member of society. This is especially true for young children. Overall, a large body of research illustrates that the family in which one is raised has a tremendous influence on the type of person we become (Siegel & Welsh, 2009; Henslin, 2007; Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006; Kendall, 2004). Quite simply, well-functioning families are likely to produce well-adjusted, socially competent kids. And, of course, the opposite holds as well. For youth, living in a conflict-ridden family increases the likelihood they will have problems at school and with peer groups. Furthermore, “good” families are especially important in disadvantaged communities. A good family, one that consists of appropriate socialization and supervision, can “trump” negative community influences. If youth living in disorganized communities lack good functioning families they are at a heightened risk for social problems (Siegel & Welsh, 2009). As the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century draws near, the American family is under stress and is changing in fundamental ways; in 2007, 30 percent of children do not live with both parents, 26 percent live with a single parent, and another 4 percent with another relative/nonrelative or foster parent (Siegel & Welsh, 2009). Furthermore, with the mobility that characterizes society, family units often lack the extended helping/support networks of the past. As children begin their formal school and spend more time at school and in extracurricular activities, the family as the primary agent of socialization becomes less important. As youth begin to spend a large portion of the day in formal education, the school and peer groups become especially important in their socialization and development.

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Education Research suggests that during the adolescent years, the school, as a social institution, becomes more important than the family in relative importance for adolescents. From a traditional functionalism perspective, the school is a social institution that prepares and educates youth for their adult roles in society. School failure is linked with numerous antisocial behaviors, such as substance abuse and delinquency. Success in school clearly increases one’s chances for material success and a better quality of life overall. Schools and students should not be thought of as existing in a vacuum, but rather as social institutions which are a component of large communities. A conflict perspective on schooling suggests that the education system, through both its manifest and latent content, operates in ways that reproduce existent social inequalities (MacLeod, 1995; Bourdieu, 1977; Willis, 1977). A student’s social world, the family and community from which they come, has an impact on how well they do in school. Students coming from situations where they have not learned the behaviors and attitudes that are valued by the school are less likely to do well in school (MacLeod, 1995; Willis, 1977; Cohen, 1955). Furthermore, regarding race/ethnicity, some research suggests that in certain contexts, minority youth culture views doing well at school as “acting white” (Carter, 2006; Ogbu, 2004). Research illustrates a social class pattern, that is, kids from lower-class families and communities are less likely to do well in school (Siegel & Welsh, 2009; MacLeod, 1995; Willis, 1977). Importantly, students may actively resist a school’s attempts to teach if students believe that their own culture, values, and occupational futures (e.g., language, a “tough” masculinity, manual labor work) are in conflict with the school curriculum (MacLeod, 1995; Willis, 1977).

Peer Groups and Subcultures Scholars have investigated and documented the significance of peer groups and subcultures for understanding adolescents’ socialization, perspectives, identities, and behaviors (Carter, 2006; Fasick, 1994; Kinney, 1993). When an individual is a member of a group, their behavior is constrained through adherence to the group’s norms (Henslin, 2007). Groups often define themselves through conceptualizing and differentiating themselves from others, for example, “jocks” are not “burnouts,” burnouts are not jocks. Schools are stratified by peer groups; that is, some peer groups are at the top of a hierarchy of popularity (Kinney, 1993).

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As schools attempt to educate students in order to prepare them for the future, the students themselves are embedded within peer groups and subcultures, which are especially important for how they think about themselves and their daily lives. And, having a good, supportive peer group enables one, ultimately, to feel “happy” about their status in the adolescent social world (Kinney, 1993). Generally, adolescents’ behaviors, attitudes, appearance, vocabulary, interests, and self-concepts are (partly) shaped by their peer groups. Ueno’s (2004) research finds that adolescents with “friendship networks” have better overall mental health. Gender Understanding gender as a social concept is very useful for understanding contemporary adolescents. Indeed, the power of gender for influencing human behavior cannot be overstated. Our social identity as a male or female helps shape our careers, our perspectives, our behaviors, our interactions, and our overall presentation of self. Every society in the world is stratified by gender (Henslin, 2007). For sociologists, gender does not refer to “sex,” which is meant to define the biological differences between men and women (Barak, Leighton, & Flavin, 2007; Giddens, Duneier, & Appelbaum, 2006; Hurst, 2004). Gender can be understood as the “images, roles, and behaviors society assigns to men and women” (Hurst, 2004, p. 9). Gender refers to “whatever behaviors and attitudes a group considers proper for its males and females” (Henslin, 2007, p. 292). First learned in the family, adolescents are further socialized into gender roles at school and in peer groups; some recent research also suggests that adolescents’ ideas about appropriate gender roles can be shaped via media/ television viewing (Rivadeneyra & Lebo, 2008). Given that adolescence is a time of physical/biological/hormonal changes for men and women, and also a time of developing sexuality, understanding the power of gender as a social force is especially important. Traditionally accepted ways of “being male” (or masculine) in the United States include being tough, strong, aggressive, independent, and heterosexual (Messerschmidt, 2000). Mainstream U.S. cultural values also expect heterosexuality from women; however, in contrast with men, women are also often taught to be dependent on others, passive, and emotionally fragile. Furthermore, young women are supposed to be attractive to and available to men (Schaffner, 2007). Feeling pressure to perform very well at one’s prescribed gender role can have negative consequences; for example, recent research suggests that adolescent women who believe they need to “do it all,”

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(e.g., be attractive, do well in school, and be “successful” dating) are more likely to suffer from eating disorders (Mensinger, Bonifazi, & LaRosa, 2007). Youth who do not conform to dominant gender norms can be harassed, discriminated against, and become victims of violence. In many contexts, a thin, physically weak, nonathletic, adolescent male will often be seen as a lesser “man” by others. Being aware of the needs of and providing a supporting environment for LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and queer) adolescents is crucial. There is no doubt that it is important to understand students as individuals, with their own particular experiences, concerns, and needs. As adolescents struggle to find their own unique identity during an increasingly difficult life stage, it is paramount that educators recognize this struggle. Yet, at the same time, paradoxically, teachers can perhaps better understand adolescents and educate them if teachers have an awareness of the myriad of social forces which are shaping adolescents’ attitudes and behaviors. As teachers plan classroom activities and lesson plans, they can take into consideration the importance of social structures such as gender and peer groups.

Conclusion Understanding United States society provides a framework for understanding adolescents and education. Recognizing the social structures that create society helps us see adolescents not simply as individuals, but also as group members passing through a particular life stage; adolescents occupy a unique location within our social world. They are young men and women, sons and daughters, friends and significant others, and classmates and teammates. They are living in a society characterized by social and economic inequalities, which have a dramatic effect on their life chances. They have been shaped by their families and their communities; they and their families are lower class, middle class, or upper class. They are living within a cultural framework which influences how they view the world and, to a large degree, dictates to them their “place” in that world. When they are in school, they are especially concerned with their group’s members, what their peers think about them, and their identity as a “young man” or “young woman.” These social structures and statuses, and the behavioral expectations which accompany them, provide a framework for thinking about adolescents and schooling. Ultimately, an awareness of these social forces can enable teachers to better understand and teach adolescents. Such awareness can help create productive learning environments and can help teachers and parents support and guide adolescents as they move through the teenage years.

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References Anderson, M., & Taylor, H. (2005). Sociology: The essentials. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Barak, G., Leighton, P., & Flavin, J. (2007). Class, race, gender and crime (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Beeghley, L. (2005). The structure of social stratification in the United States (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In J. Karabel and A. H. Hasley (Eds.), Power and ideology in education (pp. 473–486). New York: Oxford University Press. Brym, R., & Lie, J. (2005). Sociology: Your compass for a new world. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Carter, P. (2006). Straddling boundaries: Identity, culture and school. Sociology of Education, 79, 304–328. Cohen, A. (1955). Delinquent boys. New York: Free Press. Cooley, C. (1964). Human nature and the social order. Originally published 1902. New York: Schocken Books. Davis, N. (1998). Youth crisis: Growing up in the high-risk society. New York: Praeger. Durkheim, E. (1964). The rules of sociological method. Trans. by S. Solovay and J. Mueller. New York: Free Press (orig. pub. 1895). Fasick, F. (1994). On the ‘invention’ of adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 6–23. Giddens, A., Duneier, M., & Appelbaum, R. (2006). Essentials of sociology. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Henslin, J. (2007). Sociology: A down-to-earth approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Hurst, C. (2004). Social inequality: Forms, causes, and consequences (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kendall, D. (2004). Sociology in our times. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kinney, D. (1993). From nerds to normals: The recovery of identity among adolescents from middle school to high school. Sociology of Education, 66, 21–40. MacLeod J. (1995). Ain’t no makin’ it: Aspiration and attainment in a low income neighborhood. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Mensinger J., Bonifazi, D., & LaRosa, J. (2007). Perceived gender role prescriptions in schools, the superwoman ideal, and disordered eating among adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 57, 557–568. Messerschmidt, J. (2000). Nine lives: Adolescent masculinities, the body and violence. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Newman, D. (2006). Sociology: Exploring the architecture of everyday life (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ogbu, J. (2004). Collective identity and the burden of acting white. Urban Review, 36, 1–35. Rivadeneyra, R., & Lebo, M. (2008). The association between television-viewing behaviors and adolescent dating role attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 291–305.

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Schaefer, R. (2004). Sociology matters. Boston: McGraw Hill. Schaffner, L. (2007). Girls in trouble with the law. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Schmalleger, F., & Bartollas, C. (2008). Juvenile delinquency. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Scott, B., & Schwartz, M. (2006). Sociology: Making sense of the social world (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Siegel, L., & Welsh, B. (2009). Juvenile delinquency: Theory, practice and law (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Ueno, K. (2004). The effects of friendship networks on adolescent depressive symptoms. Social Science Research, 34, 484–510. Willis, P. (1977). Learning to labour: How working class kids get working class jobs. New York: Columbia University Press.

2 TBK 101: Teaching Black Kids for Beginners Pamela L. Ross McClain

Introduction

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EW NOVICE TEACHERS WHO BEGIN THEIR CAREERS in urban school settings can boast that on day one they know exactly what they are doing and can be characterized as an exemplary teacher. Unfortunately, this is seldom the case. Teachers who choose to teach in settings where their students do not share their race, culture, or social class face many challenges that may be less prominent when cultural discontinuity is not at play. These teachers must figure out how to communicate with their students, make the curriculum culturally relevant, project authority, and earn the respect and trust of their students. Suffice it to say, this is a daunting task! This chapter is born out of a desire to make sense of lessons learned about teaching Black students and share that wisdom with beginning teachers. There is an old adage that states, “Experience is the best teacher.” While there may be some truth in the viewpoint, the experience of learning to teach should not be a “sink or swim” induction process. This baptism by fire has left too many urban teachers of Black students drowning in a sea of frustration and hopelessness. There is no time for whining about being under-prepared for the realities of urban schools. There is no sense in complaining that the majority of students are performing below grade level expectations. There is nothing to be gained from becoming frustrated with the limited resources available. Resilient teachers are not defeated by insurmountable odds, instead they look in the mirror and own their capabilities and shortcomings because those are the things they can work on.

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Novice teachers of Black students need not toil in isolation to reinvent the wheel when others have already hurdled many of the challenges that will face them and are willing to share their insights. Perhaps this chapter will serve as a life-preserver to help keep beginning teachers afloat as they build relationships with students in spite of cultural differences. With proper support and guidance, novice teachers may find teaching in urban schools to be an immensely gratifying experience. Culturally competent teachers who want to teach in urban settings are urgently needed to provide expertise on the complex institutional interconnections among the classroom, family, and community. There are far too many teachers in urban schools who feel trapped by their financial commitments and consequently they show up for work as a matter of their own survival rather than as a means to ensure the survival of their students.

Theoretical Framework When teachers enter the workforce, their education is far from complete. The first years of teaching are powerful instructors as teachers gain familiarity with the students, materials, and content they teach (Hill, 2007, p. 112).

Smart teachers know that they will never know enough to know everything, but they are smart enough to learn in practice. This chapter cannot provide the recipe for a magical potion that will cure the problems endemic to teaching underprivileged African-American youth in urban school settings. No pretense is made to suggest that all the solutions to the complex undertaking of teaching in predominantly Black schools are encapsulated herein. This chapter is a practical guide to teaching and learning in schools that serve primarily Black student populations in urban school settings. It is written specifically for teachers who experience difficulty translating contemporary educational theory into successful practice, in light of the mitigating circumstances common in urban public schools. The theoretical framework that frames this chapter is the Teacher as Culturally Responsive Decision Maker (TCRDM), which argues the position that analytical self-examination and continuous change and improvement are essential for teachers, particularly those who teach in urban school districts. The TCRDM encourages educators to be informed decision-makers. It places emphasis on the necessity for teachers to be aware of their life history, cultural roots, and socially constructed identity. The framework also suggests that teachers should be reflective and responsive practitioners who strive to proactively promote equity. In short, the Teacher as Culturally Responsive Decision Maker model theorizes that a teacher should factor in

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variables from the culture of their school and community, the characteristics of their students, their knowledge of their content and strategies to teach it, and their individual identity/experiences when attempting to make informed decisions regarding instruction. Teachers need a firm grounding in the intellectual and methodological sophistication necessary for successful urban teaching.

The Challenge of Teaching Black Students in Urban Schools When asked to describe preconceived notions about urban schools, novice teachers often conjure up images of “overcrowded classrooms, old buildings, violence, weapons, metal detectors, minority kids, poverty, apathy, and uninvolved parents.” Even without having any significant experience in urban schools, many novice teachers paint a most disturbing picture of what they believe they will encounter. Unfortunately, many of them will witness exactly what is described. This comes as no surprise because it is easy to find something if one is looking for it. Novice teachers must look beyond the less than desirable surface variables in urban schools to see the inherent positives that enrich these school environments. Nonetheless, the fact must be acknowledged that urban schools face a particular set of challenges that may not be characteristic of other school settings, which may make them unsuitable job assignments for many teachers. Teaching in an environment that does not require teaching across racial, cultural, or class differences is probably simpler than having to negotiate cultural mismatches. Urban schools combine the variables of race, poverty, and access to resources such that these school settings are challenging to work within successfully. Many teachers are not up for the challenge so they gain their initial teaching experience in urban schools until they can transfer to other districts where they feel more comfortable. Kronowitz (1999) mentions several reasons for this high percentage of departures, including: “unrealistic expectations, lack of physical and mental conditioning, isolation from other teachers, psychological fatigue and discrepancy between beliefs about teaching and the reality of daily challenges” (p. 3). Whatever the reason for leaving, the outcomes are the same, a revolving door effect where the students with the greatest needs for exemplary teachers are constantly taught by novice teachers who are cycled through their schools until they can secure employment elsewhere. The United States will only see meaningful gains in urban schools when the majority of teachers who teach in urban schools truly want to be there. Prospective urban teachers need to ask themselves a series of questions that

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call for introspection; a sampling of such introspective questions includes the following: • How do my personal, familial, and cultural beliefs affect my personality, preferences, and perceptions of others? To what extent do I understand that my own cultural experiences and beliefs may be inappropriate for many other Americans? • How comfortable am I with seeking information from cultural informants who can assist me to better understand my students and their families? • What are some ways that others learn that are different from my learning style? • How persistent am I at working with students who may resist my efforts to teach them? • Am I good at conflict resolution? • Can I work comfortably under conditions that present a considerable degree of ambiguity? • Do I adapt well to new situations? • How much extra time, effort, and patience am I willing to exert to become a successful teacher? • Am I forgiving, resilient, persevering, and committed to teaching Black students? • Am I willing to be transformed by the urban school culture in such a way that I reflect the cultural norms of my teaching setting? These questions are just suggestions for how to begin the internal dialogue essential to making an informed decision regarding whether or not teaching in an urban school setting is a viable career option. Unearthing Cultural Roots/Developing a Cultural Diversity Philosophy The culture into which an individual is born stresses the certainty of his potentialities and suppresses others, and it acts selectively, favoring the individuals who are best endowed with the potentialities preferred in the culture and discriminating against those with alien tendencies (Bateson, 1958, p. 22).

Many nonminority teachers are quick to say that they do not have a culture. They see culture as something that characterizes racial and ethnic minorities. This state of denial with regard to culture is not limited to white teachers. Minority teachers can be equally blind to how their middle-class status creates a cultural divide between themselves and students of color who live in poverty.

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Gloria Ladson-Billings argues that “if teachers pretend not to see students’ racial and ethnic differences, they really do not see the students at all and are limited in their ability to meet their educational needs” (Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. 33). It is imperative for teachers to uncover their cultural roots; otherwise, they may unwittingly penalize their students for not being like them and unjustifiably reward those students who reflect their culture. Teachers often avoid acknowledging culture in several ways. Many members of the dominant culture believe that an acknowledgment of their race or class suggests feelings of supremacy. Rather than be seen as an elitist, teachers often opt to close their eyes to differences; or so they claim. Typical denial philosophies include the colorblind creed, the melting pot metaphor, the meritocracy myth, and the golden rule principle. The color-blind creed suggests we ignore our differences. The basic premise underlying the “color-blind” strategy is to ignore differences and to treat everyone in the same way. The melting pot metaphor maintains that U.S. culture is one homogeneous culture that reflects an assimilation of all cultures; therefore we are all the same. The theory of meritocracy suggests that we are all equally rewarded for our initiative and hard work and consequently blames the underprivileged for their lack of success. The golden rule principle suggests that social problems will cease to exist if people simply treat others like they want to be treated (Stockdale & Crosby, 2004). All of these approaches (to varying degrees) ignore differences that can appropriately justify differential treatment/expectations. In the case of teachers they become means to deny their culturally cloaked self-concepts as well as ignore a valuable aspect of their students’ identities. If teachers want to build healthy relationships with their students, they must appreciate them holistically. This means paying attention to the small details. Teachers are likely to encounter students that vary in intellect, emotional maturity, physical development, temperament, and personality. It is important not to ignore a major part of a student’s identity, that being their race/culture. In a thought-provoking book entitled The 10 Lenses: Your Guide to Living and Working in a Multicultural World, Williams (2001) offers the theory that reality is experienced differently depending on a person’s life experiences. He suggests that perceptions are shaped by ten lenses that he defines saying, “We look at the world through our own set of ‘spectacles’ or perceptual filters, comprising what we have been taught and what we have seen, heard, and experienced. These perceptual filters are the lenses through which we look at differences such as race, culture, ethnicity, and nationality” (Williams, 2001, pp. 4–5). Williams identifies ten lenses: Assimilationist, Integrationist, Colorblind, Culturalcentrist, Elitist, Meritocratist, Multiculturalist, Seclusionist, Transcendent, and Victim/Caretaker. These lenses illuminate how individuals’

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worldview is affected by their cultural vantage point. Teachers especially must unearth what is at the heart of their belief system, as it provides a compass for their interactions with their students.

Exposing the Culture of Power There are many people who are adamant that Black youth in urban schools are doomed for failure without more African-American teachers. These people suggest that white, middle-class female teachers do not possess the cultural capital, internal fortitude, or sense of urgency needed to relate to students with whom they have little or nothing in common, and sometimes outright fear. It is absurd to assert that white, middle-class female teachers have nothing to offer Black students in urban schools. This position would be one of hopelessness because for whatever reason Black students are not overwhelmingly choosing careers in teaching. There is no mythical group of “wannabe” Black educators on the horizon waiting to save urban schools. Instead, what we have is well-intentioned white, middle-class female teachers who are in desperate need of support and mentoring if they are ever going to survive in urban schools. Even if white, middle-class female teachers who teach in urban settings know nothing about Black culture, they know a lot about the culture of white mainstream society. Their students need to be taught about the standards, norms, and codes of the dominant culture. Delpit (1988) presents a theory that addresses white mainstream society, the “culture of power.” Her theory states that there is a culture of power, and the culture of power is a reflection of those in power; issues of power are enacted in the classroom; and those with power are most often unaware or least willing to admit its existence. Delpit further suggests that those without power need to be explicitly taught the rules of the culture of power. White, middle-class female teachers, while they are in the process of becoming knowledgeable of the culture of their students, can teach their students the rules of the culture of power so that the students can participate if they so choose. Exposing the culture of power serves a dual purpose in that it deters teachers from penalizing students for not acquiescing to unknown expectations, and teachers are less likely to assume that students share their cultural norms.

Building Community in the Classroom The task of creating a classroom atmosphere in which students are cooperative and respectful presents the single most challenging responsibility for teachers . . .

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Regardless of where you choose to teach, no excuses are permitted for failing to establish a comfortable place to learn . . . Building a classroom atmosphere in which trust is the foundation takes time; but it begins with learning about each student’s life . . . by genuinely knowing students (Brown, 2002, pp. 64–67).

When building a community, it takes surveyors to painstakingly map out the boundaries of each plot. Similarly, when building community in the classroom, teachers have to be clear about where the boundaries are so that students do not cross lines that would be disrespectful, and likewise, teachers should not trespass into certain aspects of their students’ private lives. Similarly, when building a community, an infrastructure is needed. In the classroom, the infrastructure is based on the rules and expectations set forth by the teacher. In a community, neighbors need to get to know one another to feel a sense of belonging. Likewise, in a classroom, students need interpersonal interactions in order to gain a sense of interconnectedness. Every community should have individual homes. These homes represent the individuality of every student in the classroom because while they may share the same race, they are still individuals. On a related note, behaviors that are appropriate inside one’s home may not be suitable for the public arena. Teachers are challenged to forge a classroom climate that validates their students’ home culture but at the same time prepares them to fully participate in the larger society. One of the strategies that teachers can use is to teach their students how to code switch. Students need to understand that the discourse that is appropriate in their home culture may be viewed as substandard in the dominant culture.

Teaching a Discipline Curriculum Students can’t be expected to meet your behavioral expectations if they don’t know what those expectations are . . . When you take the time to teach a difficult student appropriate behavior, you are not only proactively preventing problems from continuing, but you are also showing the student that you care enough to do what it takes for him/her to succeed (Canter & Canter, 1993, pp. 83–86).

Difficult students exist in every school. Teachers must be at ease with asserting and sharing power. It is important for the teacher to be at the top of the pecking order; otherwise, chaos is inevitable. In urban schools, in order to save face, adolescents are often coerced by their peers to feign bravado and machismo. The odds of getting students to comply with the rules are much better if the students are taught explicitly what is expected of them. The issue of teaching a discipline curriculum is something that requires a lot of planning and cooperation from everyone involved—teachers, parents, and

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administrators. Additionally, teaching a discipline curriculum depends in large part on a teacher’s classroom management philosophy and what they require from students in order to fulfill the teacher’s job responsibilities. Some strategies that teachers may wish to utilize when establishing ground rules include: • • • • •

Own your teacher power; establish teacher authority. Maintain zero tolerance for bullying and ridiculing other students. Involve students in establishing rules and classroom expectations. Insist on student self-governance and accountability. Create rules that are understandable and enforceable that ultimately support the physical, intellectual, and emotional safety of students.

Before a teacher can teach a discipline curriculum, three beliefs must be present. The teacher must first believe that (1) the teacher is deserving of their students’ respect and accept nothing less; (2) the students are capable of acting in a respectful manner; and (3) they have the capacity to forgive infractions of rules, reteach their expectations, and reinforce desired behaviors. Furthermore, teaching a discipline curriculum is an ongoing process, which will need to be revisited and adapted continuously.

Teacher Power: Say What You Mean, Mean What You Say . . . Don’t Ask, Tell! Black children expect an authority figure to act with authority (Delpit, 1995, p. 35).

Perhaps the biggest obstacle that teachers face in teaching in urban schools is communicating in a way that their students will respect them as authority figures. The same communication patterns that are polite in white, middle-class culture may be viewed as signs of weakness in urban schools. “When urban students ignore commands that sound more like questions than directives, teachers may perceive students as uncooperative and insubordinate; whereas students innocently fail to understand what’s expected and why they are being disciplined” (Brown, 2002, p. 73). It is important for teachers to become comfortable code-switching to language patterns that their students will recognize and acknowledge. It is imperative that teachers rid their vocabularies of phrases like, “May I have your attention?” “I need you to quiet down.” “Can we get started?” “Don’t you think we’ve wasted enough time?” “We’ll begin when you’re ready.”

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Teachers need to feel comfortable giving directives. This can be done in a respectful manner. Establishing one’s self as an authority figure does not mean being mean. Simply put, it means not being afraid to assert one’s teacher power. Weiner (1999) warns, “When teachers are intimidated by their students, they’re unable to address behavior straightforwardly because their fear is paralyzing” (p. 76). Teachers must move beyond their fears because they have a professional and ethical responsibility to enforce school rules and manage classrooms that are safe and conducive to learning. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Sometimes school is like a shoe that’s shaped for someone else’s foot (Tomlinson, 2001, p. 10).

All too often schools are places of alienation for Black adolescents. Discourse patterns are different. The people in their textbooks do not look like they look. Teachers underestimate the aptitude of Black students, and the students do not see the relationship between being successful in school and attaining their future ambitions. Schools must become places where Black students feel at home and valued. Teachers must learn to learn from their students what they need to know to honor and increase their knowledge stores. One way to approach this is to utilize pedagogical practices that reflect the students’ culture. It would be wrong to overgeneralize and assume that all Black adolescents learn in the same way, but there are some practices that teachers may want to adopt when planning instruction in predominantly Black schools. For example, teachers can: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Accept and model linguistic code-switching Integrate student’s culture and heritage Engage students in collaborative work Provide authentic assessments Elicit students’ prior knowledge Differentiate instruction Encourage participation Utilize cooperation more often than competition Respect students’ perspectives Showcase students’ work Acknowledge and reward effort and improvement Take on the role of guide/facilitator Adapt and tailor instruction regularly Insist on excellence from self and the students

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There is no way to touch on every possible culturally responsive strategy that teachers can use. A teacher’s repertoire of strategies should continuously be expanded.

Conclusion: Learning in Practice We have come to recognize that urban education is too often failing to prepare students in any meaningful way for their future. Every year cadres of naive, well-intentioned novice teachers go into schools, where they are expected to teach Black students with whom they seemingly have little or nothing in common. Nonetheless they are supposed to break the code of the urban classroom, meet state and national standards, prepare students to pass high-stakes standardized tests, effectively manage the classroom, enforce school rules, and make sure that “no child is left behind.” As if teaching under optimal conditions is not hard enough, when the variable of cultural mismatch is added, the task of teaching is overwhelming to say the least. Unfortunately urban schools seem to be perpetuating inequality because of inept teaching practitioners, discipline problems, lack of resources, and unsupportive parents. Crosby (1999) challenges teacher educators by arguing: Urban schools, especially those in inner cities, are most often staffed by largely newly hired or uncertified teachers. These teachers, who were trained to teach students from middle class families and who often come from middle class families themselves, now find themselves engulfed by minority students, immigrants, and other students from low income families—students whose values and experiences are different from their own. The teacher training institutions have not placed sufficient emphasis in preparing new teachers to work in schools that serve minority students (p. 302).

Systemic educational reform is now by necessity rising to the top of our national political agenda. Reports foretell that in the not-too-distant future those who are once considered minorities in the United States will collectively compose a new majority. Recent decades have witnessed profound changes in urban schools. Dramatic shifts have been seen in the demography of school populations and the emergence of new political and community forces. With this in mind, it becomes increasingly imperative for secondary teachers to become comfortable with creating equitable learning institutions that can provide every youth with equality of educational opportunity. If urban schools are going to level the playing field, upset the status quo, and provide all youth with a quality education, it will take committed teachers who are willing to be the foot soldiers of educational innovation and reform.

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Teachers who learn to teach in urban schools must build relationships with cultural informants. This involves unsilencing critical dialogues, trust building, and open communication. Words not spoken are often just as lethal as spoken words. Unspoken thoughts hide below the surface of a person’s consciousness and permeate their being. In order to create cross-cultural relationships, we must open ourselves up to the vulnerability of having the breakthrough conversations that will allow us to truly become a multicultural society. Tolerance is not enough. We must learn to accept, appreciate, respect, and perhaps even understand the multiplicity of the human experience.

References Bateson, G. (1958). Naven. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Brown, D. F. (2002). Becoming a successful urban teacher. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Canter, L., & Canter, M. (1993). Succeeding with difficult students: New strategies for rethinking your most challenging students. Santa Monica, CA: Lee Canter and Associates. Crosby, E. A. (1999). Urban schools forced to fail. Phi Delta Kappan, 81, 298–303. Delpit, L. (1988). The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other peoples’ children. Harvard Educational Review, 58 (3), 280–298. Delpit, L. (1995). Other peoples’ children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press. Hill, H. C. (2007). Learning in the teaching workforce, Excellence in the classroom. 17 (1), 111–127. Kronowitz, E. L. (1999). Your first year of teaching and beyond (3rd ed.). New York: Longman. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stockdale, M., & Crosby, F. (Eds.). (2004). The psychology and management of workplace diversity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Weiner, L. (1999). Urban teaching: The essentials. New York: Teachers College Press. Williams, M. A. (2001). The 10 lenses: Your guide to living and working in a multicultural world. Sterling, VA: Capital Books, Inc.

3 Sexual Minority Students in School and Society Barbara D. Garii, Renay M. Scott, and Jennifer J. Fager

Introduction

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to help ensure that sexual minority students (often referred to as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and queer—LGBTQ—youth) have opportunities to grow and thrive socially and academically, along with their non–sexual minority peers. Even with societal changes (changes that include greater media, medical, and psychological awareness of and attention to the inclusion of sexual minority peoples as active members of the world), this is still a homophobic society that places adolescent students who are struggling with their sexual identities at great risk. Some sexual minority youth are well supported by family and friends and have access to caring compassionate teachers in progressive, liberal educational environments. Most LGBTQ youth, however, do not have this experience. Homophobia directly affects LGBTQ students as well as students who have yet to self-identify but are perceived as a sexual minority by their peers and teachers. Homophobia also affects non–sexual minority youth with sexual minority parents and/or family members. Since the early 1990s, anecdotal reports and research evidence has shown that LGBTQ youth are targets at school, frequently harassed both by peers and adults. Sexual minority adolescents feel (and often are) culturally stigmatized and marginalized within, and alienated from, the school community (Kahn, 2006; Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; Rivers, 2004; Schrader, 2004; D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Herschberger, 2002). Academic curricula do not incorporate issues and concerns that reflect the lives of LGBTQ youth and/or give them EACHERS ARE THE FRONT LINE OF DEFENSE

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hope that their futures, as sexual minority adults, will be happy, productive, and viable (Kahn, 2006; Blackburn & Buckley, 2005). On top of all this, LGBTQ youth lack peer and adult supports and role models who can help them successfully navigate their experiences as adolescents (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; Russo, 2006). This combination of societal harassment, curricular invisibility, and lack of support for LGBTQ youth is associated with their increased health risks (including depression, excessive alcohol and drug use, physical and sexual abuse) and academic risks, including reduced school performance, truancy, and increased likelihood of becoming a school dropout (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Herschberger, 2002). Yet secondary school students continue to look to teachers and other adults in school settings to provide guidance, support, and help as these students struggle to become adults who are active, respected members of society. As teachers, we need to recognize the challenges that we face as we strive to best support our sexual minority students. Some of these students are “out,” some are closeted, and some are not yet aware of their sexuality. All of them are in our classrooms and in the hallways, cafeterias, and sports teams in our schools. This chapter will put these concerns into focus in the secondary school community. First, we will identify the students, both formally and informally. Next, we will consider what school-based issues are of concern to LGBTQ youth and why these issues have been identified. We will acknowledge issues that impede teachers’ abilities to act responsively and consider what secondary teachers can do to help support all their students, including those who identify or are identified as LGBTQ. Finally, we will explore how teachers who work in homophobic environments are still able to create socially just classrooms, curricula, and professional personae that support the sexual and gender diverse students in their classrooms.

LGBTQ Students While students often begin to self-identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender early in their high school careers, these definitions are often fluid as students explore and experiment with these identities. As sexual minority students begin to come out and become more aware of and more comfortable with these identities, many struggle to find a social community for themselves in school. Thus, the coming out process becomes both a source of strength and a time of questioning and loneliness.

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Formal Definitions Nonheterosexual youth, also known as sexual minority youth, constitute the bulk of young people who identify as lesbian, gay, and bisexual. Identification as lesbian, gay, or bisexual is a marker of sexual orientation or sexual identity, which refers to the gender (male, female) that someone is attracted to. Lesbian and gay youth report that over 75 percent of their sexual attractions are to members of their own sex while bisexual youth report that only 50 percent of their sexual attractions are to members of their own sex (Diamond, 2000). Sexual orientation and sexual identity are separate from gender identity, which refers to the psychological sense and experience of being male or female. Sexual minority youth, who may self-identify as “transgender,” question their gender identity and often describe this feeling as “being born into the wrong body.” Transgender students are not necessarily questioning their sexual orientation, sexual identity, or sexual attractions; instead, they feel that their birth gender does not fit them. Transgender students include females who identify as male (referred to in the vernacular as FTM, Female to Male) and males who identify as female (MTF). Some transgender youth complete hormonal therapy and/or surgery to facilitate a medical transition to the other gender, while others elect to remain in their born body. Many transgender individuals believe that two mutually exclusive gender categories (male, female) are too limiting, and their own gender identity often blurs the edges between male and female. As such, they often self-identify as gender neutral, gender queer, queer, or questioning (gender identity). Simultaneously, they may also identify as straight, gay, lesbian, or bisexual (sexual orientation). Informal Definitions: Issues of Coming Out As young people begin to recognize and acknowledge their sexual orientation and/or gender identity, they begin to “come out.” Coming out is a multistage cyclical process that is often confusing, lonely, and liberating. Sexual minority youth begin by recognizing an orientation towards sexuality and/or acknowledging a mismatch between their born gender and their psychological sense of maleness or femaleness. They then struggle to make sense of what this orientation or identity means in the day-to-day reality of their lives at home, in school, and in their wider communities. Finally, they begin to identify themselves within the LGBTQ paradigm. In other words, first, they come out to themselves and then, usually slowly, they share their orientation and identification with others. This is generally a nonlinear process that often involves same-sex and opposite-sex sexual experimentation.

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As early as ten or eleven years old, youth begin to recognize their sexual orientation and gender identity. This is when adolescents begin to fantasize about potential partners and dating prospects. At this age, orientation and identity is often fluid, especially as students first begin to think about themselves as gendered, sexual beings. Often, young people struggle to make sense of their selfunderstanding and their fantasies, thoughts, and youthful crushes; many deny their feelings, both to themselves and to others (Rosario et al., 2002). As students end their middle school years and begin high school, at about fifteen or sixteen years old, and as their non-LGBTQ peers begin dating, sexual minority youth begin to articulate who they are and self-identify. They may “feel different” and try to “fit in” with their peers, even as they recognize and begin to understand that they do not conform to high school social norms. About half of self-identified LGBTQ students remain “in the closet,” choosing to keep their sexual identity to themselves, and less than 15 percent are “completely out” (D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Herschberger, 2002; NAPNAP [National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners], 2006). Thus, many LGBTQ students are unable to recognize each other for support and struggle with self-acceptance, even as they identify as sexual minority and/or LGBTQ. As students struggle with questions of sexual orientation, many experience feelings of depression and worthlessness as they try to reconcile their sexual orientation within a heterosexist culture. Similarly, transgender youth struggle with how to dress and act in a culture that does not recognize or understand their gender discomfort. As adolescents become more comfortable with their self-identification within the LGBTQ community, they begin the process of consolidating and integrating that identity into their own personae. During this stage of the coming out process, they begin to accept their own LGBTQ identity by becoming involved in LGBTQ social activities, they adopt more comfortable attitudes towards homosexuality and transgenderism in society, and they disclose their LGBTQ identity to others. Simultaneously during high school, as all students begin to create their own adult identities, their relationships with peers and families are changing. The added burden of coming out, with its additional stresses and questions that often cannot be addressed with friends and family, creates additional challenges for youth grappling with a new sexual identity, even if that identity is accepted and acceptable within the students’ home and school communities.

School Concerns Both social support structures and academic content are important aspects of the high school experience. Teachers have a responsibility to ensure that

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what is explicitly and implicitly taught in the classroom will help all students participate appropriately and effectively in the greater communities outside of school (Hadjioannou, 2007; Nairn & Smith, 2003). Rarely, however, do teachers create environments that are overtly supportive of the LGBTQ students— perhaps because these teachers do not recognize the hidden homophobia of schools. Similarly, only infrequently does academic content incorporate discussion of issues of concern to LGBTQ students. Issues Raised by LGBTQ Students Sexual minority students face a variety of classroom challenges to their sexual identity. Some of these challenges are associated with their own invisibility, a choice made by some sexual minority students because they are still in the questioning stage of identity formation. This type of invisibility raises the specter of self-stigmatization as they struggle with identity and identity politics. This self-stigmatization is referred to as “internalized homophobia” or (less commonly) “internalized transgenderphobia” (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; NAPNAP, 2006). Other LGBTQ students choose to be invisible for reasons of safety; many non–sexual minority (“straight”) students are uncomfortable discussing LGBTQ issues in the classroom and make ill-informed, prejudicial, and mean comments that are ignored by the teacher. LGBTQ students’ invisibility is heightened because many teachers do not recognize or comprehend the issues that face students who are dealing with the coming-out process or learning to live with their LGBTQ identities. Straight teachers often do not recognize the implicit threats made by non–sexual minority students, and thus the teachers take no action to limit such negative comments and/or stereotyping. Therefore, LGBTQ students feel marginalized and threatened during classroom discussion and are less likely to reveal themselves to themselves and to others, thereby maintaining their invisible status and, potentially, increasing their feelings of internalized homophobia. Non–sexual minority students with sexual minority parents or family members often choose invisibility for similar reasons as LGBTQ youth. With fears of marginalization, harassment, and discriminatory labeling by their friends, these non–sexual minority students may withdraw from participation in school academic and social activities for fear of “discovery.” Consequently, homophobia affects everyone. Adolescents who report that they are “gender atypical” as children (e.g., “tomboys” or “sissy boys”) or who come out of the closet early face more intense sanctions at school, including victimization, harassment, and bullying than LGBTQ students who are more closeted. Girls who question their sexual

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identity report more fluidity in their sexual identification from fourth grade through their early twenties, which may be associated with less victimization during their high school years than their male peers (D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Herschberger, 2002; Diamond, 2000). This may be because there are many curricular mandates to encourage girls to be more assertive in their classroom and social behaviors and, thus, girls who are questioning their identity may be able to practice different self-identities within the realm of supported school behaviors. This limited support for girls who question their sexual orientation, however, has its own consequences. Girls who identify exclusively as lesbians may be implicitly encouraged to deny or downplay their sexuality in favor of a more fluid bisexuality, which may be associated with more sexual experimentation. Thus, the message given to all sexual minority students becomes “hide your true self if your true self does not even nominally mirror community expectations.” Other challenges to full participation by LGBTQ students are associated with curriculum that ignores the specific population of sexual minority students or pedagogical stances that fail to recognize how culture, identity, and social reality interact in students’ lives. One role of the school experience is to give students the knowledge and skills with which to negotiate in the world outside of school. For example, students learn how to participate in formal discussions and conversations during which specific historical, scientific, and/or political knowledge is assumed. Students learn to question, listen, reassess, and reanalyze their own perspectives. When schools and teachers limit opportunities for LGBTQ students to actively incorporate their specific concerns, realities, and lives into classroom learning environments, however, LGBTQ students are less able to learn and internalize strategies that can help them deal with societal prejudice and discrimination in potentially hostile environments. The struggles and strengths of LGBTQ students are minimized or ignored in schools and classrooms, and sexual minority students are not given access to the supports needed to function successfully in society. Additionally, the struggles of homosexual families are minimized or ignored in schools as schools fail to recognize that such family structures exist. Limits to Teachers’ Responsive Actions For many teachers, knowledge of LGBTQ issues is limited to recognizing homophobic bullying and harassment faced by many students, often regardless of students’ actual sexual orientation or identity. Relatively few teachers, however, intervene even when such events are acknowledged. Additionally,

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school personnel as well as district administrators often fail to acknowledge the seriousness of the bullying and harassment issues, partly because homophobia and, by extension, “transgenderphobia,” are acceptable oppressions in U.S. society. When bullying behaviors towards sexual minority students are minimized or ignored by school personnel, administrators are unlikely to initiate, implement, or enforce clearly designed policies that would allow LGBTQ students to feel safe in school common areas and classrooms. Thus, even teachers who recognize these issues often do not have the institutional support needed to implement change in their schools or classrooms. While some teachers do attempt to include discussions of homosexuality into a variety of content areas, many LGBTQ students do not find these discussions helpful because these issues are not integrated into the academic content and material. Instead, LGBTQ topics become stand-alone matters to discuss, similar to classroom discussions of abortion, sexism, and gender equality that are not tied to the broader academic content under investigation (Blackburn & Buckley, 2005). These debates are not contextualized, and students—both LGBTQ and non–sexual minority—report that these discussions are often confrontational and divisive. For example, in an attempt to let students “share their opinions” about sexual orientation and homosexuality, conservative students are given a platform to espouse the “evils” of a “homosexual lifestyle.” Often, teachers do not question students’ evidence and support for their beliefs because of a prevailing belief that everyone is entitled to his or her own opinion (Kahn, 2006). Effectively, freedom of speech for individual students, regardless of evidence to support students’ perspectives, is prioritized above all students’ opportunities for emotional and physical safety in schools. By not challenging the discomforting positions of conservative students (and, at times, by not challenging their own conservative positions), teachers encourage rifts in the classroom community. In fact, ensuring that all sides and perspectives of controversial issues receive equal weight in classroom discussion guarantees that sexual minority students and their allies are marginalized and threatened by the words (and, at times, actions) of more conservative members of the classroom community. When teachers use a “balanced framework approach” to give room to all students to air their views, teachers have (perhaps unintentionally) created an environment that is explicitly at odds with the emotional and physical safety of LGBTQ students. Sexual minority students and students with sexual minority family members are silenced, minimized, and (perhaps) victimized by the unrestricted comments of their peers. In contrast, “balanced discussions” of slavery and anti-Semitism, for example, are not tolerated in classrooms,

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and teachers articulate to their students the social injustices that arise from “balanced discussion” of these topics. In many schools, homophobia is tacitly supported because it remains acceptable practice to portray LGBTQ lives in the most negative light (Nairn & Smith, 2003). Classroom discussions that give credence to prejudicial political perspectives and religions that support unfavorable and/or unflattering views of LGBTQ concerns are at cross-purposes with curricula that strive to create and support a socially just and educationally inclusive environment for all, including, but not limited to, LGBTQ students. Although many teachers do incorporate social justice pedagogy and diversity-driven content into their classrooms, LGBTQ issues are often presented with a more “objective” stance. This “objectivity” reduces the social justice impact that such discussions could engender, thereby relegating the realities of sexual minority students to abstract discussion. For some teachers, discussions of LGBTQ issues in the classroom may lead to professional repercussions, such as sanctions that explicitly limit what can be taught in the classroom and, at the extreme, loss of one’s job. Due to these professional concerns, classroom debate becomes focused on the least controversial material, even if issues of sexual orientation and gender identity would be meaningful, productive, and relevant to the classroom content. When teachers limit such discussions, they ensure that they themselves do not become the focus of school and/or district-wide witch hunts. On the other hand, by protecting their jobs, teachers give the students the message that LGBTQ issues, including students’ questions and concerns about self-esteem, personal growth, and sexual and gender identities, are not to be raised in any meaningful way during school time. Sexual minority teachers recognize that while they may be in the best position to act as quiet supporters for LGBTQ students, they often must limit their responses because teachers themselves are not safe due to a variety of possible personal and professional repercussions. Consequences include marginalization by colleagues, anger from parents, and, at the extreme, loss of a teacher’s job itself. Non–sexual minority teachers who support LGBTQ students are important allies, and their voices are important, encouraging, and helpful. These teachers, however, often have limited understanding of the specific issues associated with the coming-out process. And when these non–sexual minority teachers work in an environment that is hostile to LGBTQ issues, they may also be subject to the same personal and professional repercussions. Evidence of Teachers’ Support Schools strive to increase their multicultural offerings in all areas to ensure that academic content is understood to be relevant and important to all com-

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munities, and to help all students “see themselves” as potential writers, scientists, mathematicians, and athletes. There has been a push to include discussion of various cultural and ethnic figures into all content areas and to infuse authentic community concerns into academic content. Yet LGBTQ issues are often excluded from these curricular additions, and many sexual minority students do not see themselves, their needs, and their questions and issues as part of the greater fabric of schools and society. Thus, LGBTQ culture and concerns are invisible within most curricula in secondary schools. One way to restructure the classroom conversation to better support sexual minority students calls for teachers to take a proactive approach to developing their own curriculum and lessons. In English language arts and social studies courses, this may be relatively straightforward, as teachers look to expose students to the interconnections among sexuality, identity, literature, history, and political movements. Such discussions also address a broader social justice agenda that asks all students to contextualize learning into the realities of their lives and communities, thereby challenging them to consider how to create local and national communities that actively support all members of those communities. While it is advantageous for teachers to integrate lessons that better support sexual minority students, it must be acknowledged that teachers are often illequipped with knowledge and understanding of sexual minority youth, the concerns these youth grapple with, and the issues these youth face. Preparing teachers to better address the needs of their sexual minority students indicates a need for professional development for in-service teachers and inclusion of such issues in preservice teacher preparation programs. Other recommendations that support teachers’ inclusive practices include identifying issues of concern within the students’ lived communities and incorporating these problems into classroom practice. For example, a geographical analysis of specific disease clusters in the United States would illustrate where different diseases (e.g., various cancers, AIDS) are prevalent. Further analysis would allow students to address issues of gender, sexuality, aging, health care policy, and disease transmission in the context of modern U.S. history, mathematics, biology, statistics, sociology, and health education. Using this approach, LGBTQ populations are identified as part of the broader fabric of society, and all students are encouraged to explore how different populations influence and are impacted by community, political, and policy decision-making practices. Classrooms are influenced by (1) the home communities of the students and teachers, (2) the professional education of the teacher, (3) the professional communities of the teachers and administrators, and (4) the limitations imposed by state and federal testing mandates (Delpit, 2006; Kennedy,

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2006; Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; Kumashiro, 2004). Thus, all too often, teachers find it less controversial to avoid and, at times, actively exclude discussion of LGBTQ communities and concerns within any meaningful context because these classroom discussions raise the ire of the greater community. It needs to be acknowledged that for teachers who want to incorporate LGBTQ issues in the classroom, there are many articles, books, and support materials that address concerns of lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents and young adults. There is an increasing body of literature and resources that addresses a variety of content-specific and interdisciplinary topics relevant to lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. There are, however, very few curricular support materials that address issues specific to transgender youth. While there is literature that addresses the specific social, psychological, and community issues that support transgender youth, there are few (if any) curricular materials to help teachers include appropriate content into their classroom discussions.

Creating Supportive Environments In order to effectively teach LGBTQ students (whether they are out to the community, out to themselves, or still struggling with their sexual orientation and gender identity), teachers need to recognize, acknowledge, and address the issues that confront sexual minority students as they transition from childhood to young adulthood. Sexual minority students, by dint of their orientation and identity, are entering a new culture, a culture that forces them to expand their understanding of sexuality, gender, and their place in society. LGBTQ culture is hidden, especially from the view of non–sexual minority students, teachers, and other school personnel. Teachers and schools privilege students who mirror the cultural expectations of the surrounding community, students who appear to be straight and who do not seem to be questioning their sexuality. These allegedly straight students understand and participate in the cultural, social, and academic norms that surround schools. The presence and participation of LGBTQ students in schools calls these norms into question because their presence challenges cultural assumptions about what is “normal.” In fact, the presence of sexual minority students encourages discussion that discriminates between “normal” (i.e., average, most common) and “typical,” that is, a viable representation of some aspect of the broader population. The uncomfortable and discomforting questions that are raised are particularly apparent when LGBTQ students build friendships inside and outside the LGBTQ community, bring dates to school dances and other events, and

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question academic content that minimizes, negates, or ignores the needs and expectations of sexual minority communities, thereby attempting to “normalize” their sexual minority status. Additionally, school communities are often ill-equipped to recognize and invite participation from non–sexual minority students’ sexual minority families. Thus, uncomfortable issues are raised when non-LGBTQ youth with sexual minority parents bring their parents to school events or invite their school friends to their homes.

Becoming a Transformational Teacher Teachers want all their students to feel safe, supported, and part of the classroom and school community. Thus, it is incumbent on teachers to expand the cultural boundaries of their own pedagogy, moving from good intentions to hands-on practice. In order to make these changes and ensure that LGBTQ students are fully included in all aspects of their own education, teachers need to incorporate two elements into their routines in order to become transformational teachers. The First Element Is Self-Reflection First, teachers must actively include self-reflection into their planning and preparation. Many teachers come into the profession with limited knowledge of and reluctance to learn about LGBTQ issues that pertain to their students. Including active self-reflection into teachers’ practice suggests that they take time on a regular basis to explore, respond, and reconsider how to create classroom communities and develop curriculum that is responsive to the social and academic needs of sexual minority students. Teachers must get to know their students as individuals who are transitioning into adulthood and grappling with who they are as sexual beings. At the same time, teachers need to confront their own fears, prejudices and stereotypes about their sexual minority students. These fears are often based on inadequate knowledge and information about student sexuality, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Once teachers recognize where their lack of knowledge intersects with their biases and preconceptions, they can take action to gather information, expand their understanding, and create a classroom that is supportive to all their students at all times. The Second Element Is Knowledge The second element of transformational teaching is the gathering of knowledge. Knowledge is power, and once teachers have knowledge about LGBTQ

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history, culture, and concerns, they are in a position to strengthen their own classroom practices to be more inclusive, both in terms of curricular content and teacher-student interactions. As teachers become more familiar with LGBTQ cultural understandings, they will be able to more accurately identify the sexual questioning and diversity that students bring into the classroom. Teachers, however, cannot and should not make assumptions about students’ orientations or preferences and, under no circumstances, should a teacher “out” a student, either publicly (e.g., in the classroom) or privately, for example, during student-teacher meetings and/or conferences. Not only can the teacher be wrong in his or her assumption, but “outing” anyone crosses the boundaries of confidentiality and privacy that are important elements of safe and supportive schools and classrooms. Much information about LGBTQ issues is available online. Start by contacting the local Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Educators Network (GLSEN) for curriculum ideas, community workshops, and literature. Many teachers are not comfortable even thinking about how to incorporate issues of sexuality into their classrooms. GLSEN offers resources and support networks that help teachers structure their questions and develop some answers that will work in their classrooms. Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs) are school-based social and political organizations that support both sexual minority and straight students as they work together to build friendships and ensure that schools are just, equitable, and comfortable for everyone. A teacher can act as a faculty advisor to such an organization. Both GSAs and GLSEN support teachers and students in this process.

Concluding Thoughts It is important to remember that secondary students are developing their sense of self. Identifying one’s sexual orientation and gender identity is a process, and many secondary students will question their identities periodically during their high school careers. In this context, both students and teachers grow together. As teachers include content-relevant curriculum that supports students as they strive to understand themselves, students become more comfortable with their sexual and gender identification and make personal choices that are safe and appropriate.

References Blackburn, M. V., & Buckley, J. F. (2005). Teaching queer-inclusive English language arts. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 49 (3), 202–212.

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D’Augelli, A. R., Pilkington, N. W., & Herschberger, S. L. (2002). Incidence and mental health impact of sexual orientation victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in high school. School Psychology Quarterly, 17 (2), 148–167. Delpit, L. (2006). Lessons from teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 57 (3), 220–231. Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity, attractions, and behavior among sexual minority women over a 2-year period. Developmental Psychology, 36 (2), 241–250. Hadjioannou, X. (2007). Bringing the background to the foreground: What do classroom environments that support authentic discussion look like? American Educational Research Journal, 44 (2), 370–399. Kahn, M. M. (2006). Conservative Christian teachers: Possible consequences for lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Intercultural Education, 17 (4), 359–371. Kennedy, M. M. (2006). Knowledge and vision in teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 57 (3), 205–211. Kosciw, J. G., & Diaz, E. M. (2006). The 2005 national school climate survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN (Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network). Kumashiro, K. K. (2004). Against common sense: Teaching and learning toward social justice. New York: Routledge Palmer. Nairn, K., & Smith, A. B. (2003). Taking students seriously: Their rights to be safe at school. Gender and Education, 15 (2), 133–149. NAPNAP [National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners]. (2006). Health risks and needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 20, 20A–30A. Rivers, I. (2004). Recollections of bullying at school and their long-term implications for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 25 (4), 169–175. Rosario, M., Scrimshaw, E. W., Hunter, J., & Gwadz, M. (2002). Gay-related stress and emotional distress among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: A longitudinal examination. Journal of Community and Clinical Psychology, 70 (4), 967–975. Russo, R. G. (2006). The extent of public education nondiscrimination policy protections for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students: A national study. Urban Education, 41 (2), 115–150. Schrader, D. (2004). Moral development and bystander behavior: Why adolescent girls don’t stand up to bullies. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Conference of the Association of Moral Education, Dana Point, CA.

4 Eating Disorders in Middle Grades Females and Males Jennifer E. Ellero

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(GRADES 5–9) ARE A turbulent time marked by intense internal and external transformations. Biologically, emotionally, and mentally, emerging adolescents are changing dramatically. These changes are often accompanied by intense anxiety about body size and social acceptance. It is also during this time of maturation when social acceptance within a peer group is of the utmost importance for most emerging adolescents: those young people in the middle grades (Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Presnell, Bearman, & Madeley, 2007; Jones & Crawford, 2006). Social peer groups create an appearance culture with their peers, which is governed by norms and expectations (Sinton & Birch, 2006). These peer group norms and expectations are modeled and reinforced within the peer society (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). HE MIDDLE GRADES

Introduction Social groups can have a tremendous effect on how an emerging adolescent thinks or feels about themselves in comparison to peers. This can become especially dangerous when behavior changes as a result of peer group norms and expectations (Jones & Crawford, 2006). In particular for middle-grade females, these norms and expectations relate to the acceptable, and glorified, “thin” body image (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002; Morrison, Kalin & Morrison, 2004; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007). For young middle-grade males, a muscular build is — 41 —

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more desirable (Ricciardelli et al., 2006; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Research shows that the desire for a body frame that is thin is relatively rare in boys, unless such a body frame is necessary for a recreational purpose, such as swimming or wrestling (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Indeed, the most desired body frame for young men is that of muscle mass, or what some researchers refer to as muscular mesomorph (Mishkind et al., 1986; Ricciardelli et al., 2006). Once internalized, the negative message that only a “thin” body size for females or muscular body size for males is acceptable within a peer group, it can begin to drive behavior, such as extreme eating or dieting tactics (McCreary & Sasse, 2000).

Female and Male Body Image Since peer groups can have such an immense impact on emerging adolescents, many may feel overwhelmed with the emphasis on body image. The term “body image” refers to one’s internal thoughts, beliefs, and judgments of how the person physically appears on the outside (Presnell, Bearman, & Madeley, 2007). Dissatisfaction with body image is a persistent problem experienced by a large population of middle-grade females. The desire for thinness is so prevalent among young females that it is considered as “normative discontent” (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Tiggemann, 2001). Coupled with the image of a “thin” body size perpetrated by the media and social pressure, many young females turn to dieting tactics as a means of controlling weight fluctuations (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Research shows that, in fact, dieting is so common that what is now considered “normal” eating by many emerging adolescent females may actually border on what has been traditionally considered to be eating-disordered (Polivy & Herman, 1987; Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002). Middle-grade females are not alone in experiencing dissatisfaction with body image. The desire to gain a more muscular figure can lead some middlegrade males to adopt extreme measures, both in eating habits and exercise (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Ricciardelli et al., 2006). Nor are females alone in experiencing pressure to conform to a certain body size. The media’s increasing emphasis on a muscular male body as the ideal form can pressure young men to become dissatisfied with their own body size. Sadly, it is during the middle grades that eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, often first become apparent for both females and males (Pryor & Wiederman, 1998; Beaumont & Touyz, 1985; Tiggemann, 2001).

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Research shows that eating disorders tend to be far more prevalent for females than males (Ray, 2004; Eliot & Baker, 2001). This may be due, however, to the underreporting of males afflicted by the disorders as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are often recognized as being female disorders (Ray, 2004; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Keel et al., 1998; Patel, Pratt & Greydanus, 2003; Reijonen et al., 2003; Schneider, 1991). In fact, this popular societal belief may cause many young males to be misdiagnosed, further delaying acknowledgment and treatment of the disorder (Eliot & Baker, 2001; Anderson, 1990). Neither anorexia nor bulimia, however, is exclusive to one gender (Steiner & Lock, 1998). Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders, Inc. (ANRED) (2008) says that 1 percent of female adolescents have anorexia. This means that approximately one out of every one hundred young women between the ages of ten and twenty are regularly starving themselves, sometimes to death. Lifetime prevalence estimates for women with eating disorders are approximately .6 percent for anorexia nervosa and approximately 1 percent for bulimia nervosa. ANRED also says that approximately 10 percent of people with anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa are male and that more than 10 percent of adolescent girls and 3 percent of adolescent boys binge eat or purge at least once a week.

Effects of Anorexia and Bulimia Victims of anorexia tend to develop such an intense fear of food, as well as an obsessive desire to control intake, that they often cause serious health problems, some of which can result in death (Ray, 2004; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Steiner & Lock, 1998). Although an overwhelming majority of sufferers are females, young men make up approximately 10 percent to 15 percent of sufferers (Ray, 2004). Medical complications can include, but are not limited to, growth retardation, delay or interruption of puberty, and bone mass reduction (Steiner & Lock, 1998). Long-term health effects can include extremely low body weight, metabolic changes, thyroid problems, heart abnormalities, and, for roughly 15 percent, even death (Reijonen et al., 2003; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Phelps & Bajorek, 1991; Schneider, 1991). Bulimic victims, on the other hand, suffer from a self-distorted body image that leads them to binging and purging (Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002). Sufferers of bulimia tend to eat a large quantity of food in a limited period of time and follow this behavior with excessive vomiting (Ray, 2004: American

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Psychiatric Association, 2000). It is not uncommon for some bulimic victims to experiment with pathogenic practices that include using laxatives, dieting pills, or intentional vomiting. Unlike anorexic victims, bulimic sufferers are often of normal body weight, which better enables the victims to hide the physical attributes of the disease (Ray, 2004; Steiner & Lock, 1998). Medical complications can include, but are not limited to, dehydration, blood pressure changes, and gastric disturbances (Kreipe, Golden, & Katzman, 1995; Steiner & Lock, 1998). The onset of these two diseases typically occurs early in the middle grades (grades 5, 6, or 7) or in early adulthood when most adolescents are not only prone to cultural pressure, but are also likely to be heavily influenced by the mass media (Smolak & Streigel-Moore, 1996; Heatherton et al., 1997; Polivy & Herman, 1987; Arnett, 1995; Arnett, Larson, & Offer, 1995; Steele & Brown, 1995; Levine, Smolak, & Hayden, 1994; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Ricciardelli et al., 2006).

Forces behind the Development of Eating Disorders Several studies review the motivating forces behind the development of eating disorders in emerging adolescents. Common themes throughout many pieces of research show that social acceptance, media influences, and the drive to conform to peer group norms have a tremendous impact on both males and females in the middle grades (Pesa, 1999; Smolak & Streigel-Moore, 1996; Heatherton et al., 1997; Polivy & Herman, 1987; Jones & Crawford, 2006; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Ricciardelli et al., 2006; Ray, 2004). Exact triggers, however, for why an emerging adolescent, whether male or female, develops an eating disorder are unknown (Steiner & Lock, 1998). Yet, body dissatisfaction is consistently shown to place emerging adolescents at increased risk for the development and maintenance of eating disorders (Stice & Shaw, 2002; Presnell, Bearman, and Madeley, 2007). Social pressure to maintain an ideal body shape plays a major role in the development of self-esteem, and middle-grade females are particularly vulnerable (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Harter, 1999; Tiggemann, 2001). The extent of body dissatisfaction among emerging adolescent girls is frequently explained by the cultural emphasis upon physical attractiveness for women and a “culture of thinness” (Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002; Jones & Crawford, 2006; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). This ideal body image strains the development of positive self-image for young girls that are experiencing weight gain as a part of the natural maturational process.

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Additionally, social pressure can lead some middle-grade females to experience high levels of body dissatisfaction and, thus, encourage young females to experiment with weight maintenance techniques. Comprehensive research implicates young female adolescent body dissatisfaction as a risk factor for lower self-esteem, decreased psychological well-being, and increased eating disorder symptoms, that is, dieting behaviors, obesity, and depression (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Jones & Crawford, 2006). These young females experimenting with dieting tactics are significantly more likely to participate in health-compromising behaviors and more likely to develop an eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa (Grigg, Bowman, & Redman, 1996; Lowe et al., 1996). Likewise, research shows young male adolescents can also suffer from body dissatisfaction. Similar to females, young males feel tremendous pressure from peers to conform to an ideal body image (Presnell, Bearman, and Madeley, 2007; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Ricciardelli et al., 2006). Yet unlike with young females, males are more likely to engage in behaviors to increase weight and muscularity, and evidence shows that boys may be divided between those who desire to lose weight and those who wish to gain weight and muscularity (Ricciardelli et al., 2006; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). This is a distinction from females since generally most females suffering from body dissatisfaction want to attain a thin physique.

Body Image and Peer Group Acceptance The drive to conform to group norms can place a lot of pressure on young females and males. Emerging adolescents are very aware of their peers and the factors that set them apart from the norm. Peer groups contribute to the development of body image and body change strategies (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Thus, the judgment within a peer group can consume thoughts of trying to maintain acceptable standing within the group. The constant worry about others’ opinions can drive some males and females in the middle grades to partake in unhealthy eating habits, especially if low body satisfaction is present (Tiggemann, 2001; Jones & Crawford, 2006; Ricciardelli et al., 2006; Presnell, Bearman, & Madeley, 2007). Consistent exposure to body image messages within peer relationships may become the basis for an emerging adolescent’s idea of worth and self-schema development (Sinton & Birch, 2006: Stout & Wiggins, 2004). For example, how attractive a young female feels is most likely in comparison to her fellow peers. Likewise, how masculine a male feels is most likely in comparison to

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how muscular he looks in comparison to fellow males (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Additionally, attempts to understand the complexity of children’s social lives are incomplete without the consideration of the social network in which children are embedded (Cairns, Xie, & Leung, 1998; Haynie, 2001; Kindermann, 1998; Ryan, 2001; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007). Research on children’s peer relations suggests that children’s peer experiences at different levels of the peer system make special contributions to their overall social and emotional well-being (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007). The development of appearance schemas within emerging adolescents is heavily influenced by the desire for social acceptance within a peer group. Appearance schemas echo a cognitive component of body image and refer to the importance and meaning placed on appearance (Sinton & Birch, 2006). More recently, researchers suggest that these messages are embedded in the young adolescent’s social network (Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; Cairns, Xie, & Leung, 1998; Haynie, 2001; Kindermann, 1998; Ryan, 2001). In the middle grades, in particular, peers congregate into social groups, or cliques (Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; Crockett, Losoff, & Petersen, 1984). Cliques are exclusively connected networks in which clique members are often friends with each other (Hallinan, 1980). The reputation of a social clique and the manner in which peers perceive a member, in turn, contributes to how the member views him or herself (Kyongboon & Lease, 2007). Consequently, not only are young people subject to judgment from opposite-sex peers, but same-sex peers, as well (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001). The desire to conform to the norms of a peer group can convince the emerging adolescent that appearance, particularly body image and size, is of utmost importance (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Thus, this reinforces the negative behavior for emerging adolescent males and females using extreme dieting and eating tactics. For example, past research shows that girls who report more frequent conversations with their friends about appearance also report greater internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Jones, Vigfusdottir, & Lee, 2004). As a result, reversing negative habits becomes very difficult to break. Research also shows that peer groups create distinction between peers who fit acceptable group norms and peers who do not (Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Jones & Crawford, 2006). Not only do young adolescent females have to adjust to maturational body changes, but some females experience ridicule for these changes, as well. This is especially daunting when female weight fluctuates as

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a result of maturation (O’Dea & Abraham, 1999; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; McCabe & Ricciardelii, 2001). These changes are also a possible source for teasing or bullying. Emerging adolescents are learning that physical characteristics are subject to explicit and critical teasing by peers (Jones & Crawford, 2006). Being a target to teasing due to being overweight can trigger unhealthy dieting habits, especially for young, impressionable females. Even observing the criticism of overweight peers is enough for some young adolescents to begin, or continue, extreme dieting tactics (Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; Jones & Crawford, 2006; Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Additionally, if a young female with a high body mass index cannot conform to group expectations, she risks becoming a social outcast (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001). Even some females with low-to-normal body mass indexes may begin to use extreme dieting tactics due to the fear of becoming fat and, thus, losing social acceptance among peers (Kater, Rohwer, & Londre, 2002; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Likewise for males, the threat of becoming a social outcast due to an undesired body physique can encourage destructive behavior. Since young males are bombarded with the ideal male body image in society, they also are more proficient at identifying these physical shortcomings in themselves and in others (Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Painful teasing and bullying are not uncommon. The false belief that the “right” appearance can be achieved by anyone with the willpower creates the assumption that those who do not conform to the desired look are lazy and deserve negative judgment. This prejudicial judgment, however, does not take into account the range of body size during the middle grades (Kater, Rohwer, & Londre, 2002; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; O’Dea & Abraham, 1999; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001).

The Influence of the Media With a media market aimed directly at a middle grades audience, it is understandable that the media heavily influence emerging adolescents (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Stout & Wiggins, 2004). These media messages shape how young adolescents view one another. Teenagers are believed to be among the heaviest users of many forms of mass media, particularly specialized magazines and television (Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Researchers acknowledge the negative impact the media can have on emerging adolescents, but effectively pinpointing exactly what pathogenic

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practices are triggered by the media is far more challenging (Levine, Piran, & Stoddard, 1999; Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002). Although other factors, such as family values, play a role in deterring extreme dieting tactics, the impact of the media on the development of peer group norms cannot be underestimated (Jones & Crawford, 2006; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). Some young adolescents may experience consistent body dissatisfaction due to constant exposure to media images (Sinton & Birch, 2006; Tiggemann, 2001; Jones & Crawford, 2006; Smolak & Streigel-Moore, 1996; Heatherton et al., 1997; Polivy & Herman, 1987; Arnett, 1995; Arnett, Larson, & Offer, 1995; Steele & Brown, 1995; Levine, Smolak & Hayden, 1994; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Presnell, Bearman, & Madeley, 2004). When body size is used as a judgment feature, it places tremendous stress on maintaining an acceptable body size. For young, impressionable adolescents, the perception that happiness and success are tied to physical appearance can encourage some to take extreme measures in trying to adapt to this ideal body image (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Ricciardelli et al., 2006). As images of the ideal shape for females progressively become thinner, real women actually are becoming heavier (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Research shows that TV actresses, magazine models, and beauty pageant contestants are significantly less curvaceous than average women in the population (Garner et al., 1980; Kaufman, 1980; Silverstein et al., 1986; Wiseman et al., 1992; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The media, however, make very little adjustment to reflect this societal change. Rather, the ideal “thin” image is even more glorified for young females (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Jones & Crawford, 2006). Media, such as fashion magazines, that display only thin females reinforces the idea that attaining such a body size is necessary. Many young females internalize and embrace the “thin” ideal and become motivated to attain it, even if it means extreme dieting methods (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Thomsen et al., 2002). Not only do the media repeatedly present images of an unrealistically “thin” ideal, but the media also provide information on ways to accomplish this body size (Field et al., 1999; Tiggemann, 2001; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004). Similarly, popular magazines that appeal to a large young adolescent male population, like Sports Illustrated, continuously bombard their young, male audience with the male icon as strong and muscular (Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Male-oriented magazines that convey messages on how men can become more popular with women by becoming more muscular leave an impression on their young readers (Silverstein et al., 1986; Anderson & DiDomenico, 1992; Mishkind et al., 1986: McCreary & Sasse, 2000).

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Even action figures display unattainable physical attributes. Recent models of the action figure G.I. Joe, a toy specifically marketed to young males, have significantly decreased the waist size from previous models (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Stout & Wiggins, 2004). The newer action figure models now sport a defined “six-pack,” twenty-nine inch waistline, and almost seventeeninch bicep (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000: Stout & Wiggins, 2004).

Age and Body Image Similar to the difficulty of discovering what exact pathogenic practices the media trigger, the exact age at which the thin ideal becomes a focus is unknown. Considerable research, however, has established that the primary age of eating disorders, for both males and females, falls between twelve and twenty-six, with a peak between the ages of fourteen to eighteen (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Phelps & Bajorek, 1991; Ray, 2004). Sadly, research also shows that preadolescents (approximately eight to eleven years of age) are also becoming dissatisfied with their bodies and wish to be thinner (Cusumano & Thompson, 2001; Field, et al., 1999; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2005). More recently, studies show that girls as young as six years of age are both aware of dieting tactics and are beginning to engage in eating disordered tactics (Flannery-Schroeder & Chrisler, 1996; Dohnt and Tiggemann, 2004, 2005; Lowes and Tiggemann, 2003; Tanofsky-Kraff et al., 2004). Thus, many females enter the middle grades with the impression that for social acceptance, the “thin” body size must be maintained. Additionally, with young boys constantly exposed to unrealistic muscular male images through toys, it is no wonder that many become worried about body size at an early age (Stout & Wiggins, 2004). If a young child is set on a destructive path of body dissatisfaction prior to the middle grades and the onset of puberty, it is likely that he or she will be at an increased risk for the disease to continue into adulthood (Sinton & Birch, 2006; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Ricciardelli, et al., 2006).

Concluding Thoughts Although more information is becoming available about the impact of social acceptance on the development of eating disorders, current prevention programs are not successful in completely eliminating negative dieting tactics (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2003; Sinton & Birch, 2006). Perhaps this is due to the inability to change media images that are aimed at emerging adolescents.

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Additionally, grasping the tremendous impact social acceptance plays in the lives of young adolescents is often underestimated (Sinton & Birch, 2006; Tiggemann, 2001; Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004; Kyongboon & Lease, 2007). Since physical developments and the importance of social groups begin primarily during middle grades, programs directed at females and males are needed (Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Austin et al., 2005; Dalgas-Pelish, 2006; Kater, Rohwer, & Londre, 2002). Elements of an effective intervention program need to address the multitude of issues that young adolescents face. School counselors are in a unique position of serving as a valuable resource in aiding emerging adolescents (Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Providing individual counseling can help middlegrade males and females feel a trusted relationship with a knowledgeable adult, who will not judge them. Even group counseling can have a strong, positive effect on an emerging adolescent’s self-concept (Stout & Wiggins, 2004). Hearing how others share similar vulnerabilities can help to make such eating disorders less taboo and enable more victims to seek help, particularly males (Stout & Wiggins, 2004; Ray, 2004). Since parents and teachers have a considerable amount of influence on young adolescents, it is especially important to inform them of disordered eating symptoms, as well. In some cases, school counselors may need to refer treatment to outside locations that can provide more support than what the school may be able to offer.

References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. text rev.). Washington, DC: Author. Anderson, A. (1990). Diagnosis and treatment of males with eating disorders, In A. Anderson (Ed.), Males with eating disorders (pp. 133–162). New York: Brunner/ Mazel. Anderson, A. E., & DiDomenico, L. (1992). Diet vs. shape content of popular male and females magazines: A dose-response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 282–287. Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders, Inc. (ANRED). (2008). Statistics: How many people have eating disorders? Available at www.anred.com/stats.html. Arnett, J. J. (1995). Adolescents’ uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 519–533. Arnett, J. J., Larson, R., & Offer, D. (1995). Beyond effects: Adolescents as active media users. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 511–518. Austin, S. B., Field, A. E., Wiecha, J., Peterson, K. E., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2005). The impact of a school-based obesity prevention trial on disordered weight-control

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behaviors in early adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159 (3), 225–230. Beaumont, P. J. V., & Touyz, S. W. (1985). Eating disorders: Prevalence and treatment. Sydney, Australia: Williams & Watkins. Cairns, R., Xie, H., & Leung, M. C. (1998). The popularity of friendship and the neglect of social networks: Toward a new balance. In W. M. Bukowski & A. H. Cillessen (Eds.), Sociometry then and now: Building on six decades of measuring children’s experiences with the peer group (pp. 25–53). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Crockett, L., Losoff, M., & Petersen, A. C. (1984). Perceptions of the peer group and friendship in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 4 (12), 155–181. Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (2001). Media influence and body image in 8–11-year-old boys and girls: A preliminary report on the multidimensional media influence scale. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29 (1), 37–44. Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2006). Effects of a self-esteem intervention program on school-age children. Pediatric Nursing, 32 (4), 341–348. Dohnt, H. K., & Tiggemann, M. (2004). The development of perceived body size and dieting awareness in young girls. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99 (3), 780–792. Dohnt, H. K., & Tiggemann, M. (2005). Peer influences on body image and dieting awareness in young girls. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23 (1), 103–116. Dohnt, H. K., & Tiggemann, M. (2006). Body image concerns in young girls: The role of peers and media prior to adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35 (2), 141–151. Eliot, A. O., & Baker, C. W. (2001). Eating disordered adolescent males. Adolescence, 36 (143), 35–543. Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Relation of peer and media influences in the development of purging behaviors among preadolescent and adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153 (11), 1184–1189. Flannery-Schroeder, E. C., & Chrisler, J. C. (1996). Body esteem, eating attitudes, and gender-role orientation in three age groups of children. Current Psychology, 15 (3), 235–248. Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Schwartz, D., & Thomsen, M. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 47, 483–491. Grigg, M., Bowman, J., & Redman, S. (1996). Disordered eating and unhealthy weight reduction practices among adolescent females. Preventative Medicine, 25 (6), 748–756. Hallinan, M. T. (1980). Patterns of cliquing among youth. In H. C. Foot & A. J. Chapman (Eds.), Friendship and social relations in children (pp. 321–342). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Hargreaves, D., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). The effect of “thin ideal” television commercials on body dissatisfaction and schema activation during early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32 (5), 367–373. Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford.

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Haynie, D. L. (2001). Delinquent peer revisited: Does network structure matter? American Journal of Sociology, 106 (4), 1013–1057. Heatherton, T. F., Mahamedi, F., Striepe, M., Field, A. E., & Keel, P. (1997). A ten year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106 (1), 117–125. Jones, D. C., & Crawford, J. K. (2006). The peer appearance culture during adolescence: Gender and body mass variations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35 (2), 257–269. Jones, D. C., Vigfusdottir, T. H., & Lee, Y. (2004). Body image and the appearance culture among adolescent girls and boys: An examination of friend conversations, peer criticism, appearance magazines, and the internalization of appearance ideal. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19 (3), 323–339. Kater, K. J., Rohwer, J., & Londre, K. (2002). Evaluation of an upper elementary school program to prevent body image, eating, and weight concerns. Journal of School Health, 72 (5), 199–204. Kaufman, L. (1980). Prime-time nutrition. Journal of Communication, 30 (3), 37–46. Keel, P., Klump, K., Leon, G., & Fulkerson, J. (1998). Disordered eating in adolescent males from a school-based sample. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23 (2), 125–132. Kindermann, T. A. (1998). Children’s development within peer groups: Using composite social maps to identify peer networks and to study their influences. In W. M. Bukowski & A. H. Cillessen (Eds.), Sociometry then and now: Building on six decades of measuring children’s experiences within the peer group (pp. 55–82). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kreipe, R. E., Golden, N. H., & Katzman, D. K. (1995). Eating disorders in adolescents: A position paper of the society for adolescent medicine. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16, 476–479. Kyongboon, K. A., & Lease, M. (2007). Clique membership and social adjustment in children’s same-gender cliques. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53 (2), 216–242. Levine, M., Piran, N., & Stoddard, C. (1999). Mission more probable: Media literacy, activism, and advocacy as primary prevention. In N. Piran, M. Levine, & C. SteinerAdair (Eds.), Preventing eating disorders (pp. 1–25). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Hayden, H. (1994). The relation of sociocultural factors to eating attitudes and behaviors among middle school girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14 (4), 471–490. Lowe, M. R., Gleaves, D. H., DiSimone-Weiss, R. T., Furgeson, C., Gayda, C. A., Kolsky, P. A., Neal-Walden, T., Nelson, L. A., & McKinney, S. (1996). Restraints, dieting, and the continuum model of bulimia nervosa. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105 (4), 508–517. Lowes, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Body dissatisfaction, dieting awareness and the impact of parental influence in young children. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8 (2), 135–147. McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2001). Parent, peer, and media influences on body image and strategies to both increase and decrease body size among adolescent boys and girls. Adolescence, 36 (142), 225–240.

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McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. D. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48 (6), 297–304. Mishkind, M. E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Streigel-Moore, R. H. (1986). The embodiment of masculinity: Cultural, psychological, and behavioral dimensions. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 545–562. Morrison, T. G., Kalin, R., & Morrison, M. A. (2004). Body-image evaluation and body-image investment among adolescents: A test of socio-cultural and social comparison theories. Adolescence, 39 (155), 571–592. O’Dea, J. A., & Abraham, S. (1999). Onset of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in early adolescence: Interplay of pubertal status, gender, weight, and age. Adolescence, 34 (136), 671–679. Patel, D. R., Pratt, H. D., & Greydanus, D. E. (2003). Treatment of adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 244–260. Pesa, J. (1999). Psychological factors associated with dieting behaviors among female adolescents. Journal of School Health, 69 (5), 196–201. Phelps, L., & Bajorek, E. (1991). Eating disorders of the adolescent: Current issues in etiology, assessment, and treatment. School Psychology Review, 20, 9–23. Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1987). Diagnosis and treatment of abnormal eating. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55 (5), 635–644. Pope, H. G., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: Free Press. Presnell, K., Bearman, S. K., & Madeley, M. C. (2007). Body dissatisfaction in adolescent females and males: Risk and resilience. Prevention Researcher, 14 (3), 3–6. Pryor, T., & Wiederman, M. W. (1998). Personality features and expressed concerns of adolescents with eating disorders. Adolescence, 33 (130), 291–300. Ray, S. L. (2004). Eating disorders in adolescent males. Professional School Counseling, 8 (1), 98–101. Reijonen, J. H., Pratt, H. D., Patel, D. R., & Greydanus, D. E. (2003). Eating disorders in the adolescent population: An overview. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18 209–222. Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. D., Lillis, J., & Thomas, K. (2006). A longitudinal investigation of the development of weight and muscle concerns among preadolescent boys. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2, 177–187. Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W., & Parker, J. G. (1998). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon & N. Eisenburg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 619–700). New York: Wiley. Ryan, A. M. (2001). The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and achievement. Child Development, 72 (4), 1135–1150. Schneider, J. A. (1991). Gender identity issues in male bulimia nervosa. In C. Johnson (Ed.), Psychodynamic treatment of anorexia nervosa and bulimia (pp. 194–222). New York: Guilford. Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14, 519–532.

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Sinton, M. M., & Birch, L. L. (2006). Individual and sociocultural influences on preadolescent girls’ appearance schemas and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35 (2), 165–175. Smolak, M., & Streigel-Moore, R. (1996). The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Steele, J. R., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Adolescent room culture: Studying media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 551–576. Steiner, H., & Lock, J. (1998). Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in children and adolescents: A review of the past ten years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolscent Psychiatry, 37 (4), 352–359. Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E. (2002). Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: A synthesis of research findings. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 985–993. Stout, E. J., & Wiggins, M. (2004). Body image disorder in adolescent males: Strategies for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 8 (1), 176–181. Tanofsky-Kraff, M., Yanovski, S. Z., Wilfley, J. E., Marmarosh, C., Morgan, C. M., & Yanovski, J. A. (2004). Eating-disordered behaviors, body fat, and psychopathology in overweight and normal-weight children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72 (1), 53–61. Thomsen, S. R., Weber, M. M., & Brown, L. B. (2002). The relationship between reading beauty and fashion magazines and the use of pathogenic dieting methods among adolescent females. Adolescence, 37, 1–18. Tiggemann, M. (2001). The impact of adolescent girls’ life concerns and leisure activities on body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and self-esteem. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162 (2), 133–42. Wiseman, C.V., Gray, J. J., Mosimann, J. E., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 85–89.

II PERSPECTIVES ON ISSUES IN THE CLASSROOM

5 The Classroom as a Democratic Place Kelli M. Clemmensen, Ervin F. Sparapani, and Suzanne M. Booth

Introduction

C

LASSROOMS ARE UNIQUE, MULTIFACETED PLACES. Classrooms are places where teaching happens. Classrooms are places where learning happens. Above all, classrooms are places of social interaction, where young people learn the behavior of “being” in school as well as the mores of society. Good and Brophy (2008, p. 2) observe that in classrooms, “. . . teachers and students must deal with crowds, complexity, and power.” The social interactions that occur in classrooms, in fact, may be more important to students, particularly in middle and high schools, than teaching and learning. Indeed, research by Pierce (2005/2006) suggests that classrooms are used by many high school students to plan their social activities for the day. In this chapter, we look at the classroom becoming a social place in a social world. Most people, including teachers, see the classroom as the place where learning happens, that is, learning the curriculum established by the school district. The classroom of today, though, needs to be more than that. In addition to learning the curriculum, classrooms of today must also increase knowledge of the self and others as cultural beings. Classrooms of today must address diversity. Classrooms of today must nurture the sensitive and caring attitudes necessary to promote equity in schools and society. With that understanding, we have divided the chapter into three main sections, Education in Society, Developing Democratic Classrooms, and Suggestions for Instructional Practice. The first section, obviously, examines education in society and builds on the first four chapters where a framework

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is developed for understanding adolescents in society. The second section presents ideas for student-focused, democratic classrooms. The third section gives three instructional practice suggestions that provide opportunities for adolescents to practice “being” democratic.

Education in Society Background We live in a social world. We also live in a global world. Although not the only place, the classroom is the primary place in which that social, global world comes into the environment of the school and affects students’ lives. Further, with technological advances, immediate media coverage of every issue possible, faster travel, and endless television programming, the world seemingly grows smaller every minute. We have a global society, and that global society comes into our classrooms each day through television, the Internet, cell phones, the clothes we wear, and the vehicles we drive. In this global society, it is imperative that young people are raised with a deep understanding of what it means to live in a democracy, where all people—regardless of race, color, or religion—are treated as equals, and, according to our core democratic values, have equal access to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It may seem trite to say, but, as Neumann (2008) maintains, understanding what it means to be a citizen in such a democracy is more important today than ever before. We also live in a time where educational systems are held accountable for what teachers teach and students learn, and that no child shall be “left behind.” In the push to raise achievement scores, educational systems are missing the point (Eisner, 2003/2004). Understanding what it means to live in a democracy is being forgotten. “Democratic classrooms are student-focused environments in which an educator has come to the realization that schools are for students” (Brown, 2008, p. 1). The focus on students, not test scores, is what is important. In a student-focused environment, it is imperative that educational systems have schools and classrooms where young people not only learn about living in a democracy, but experience that democracy daily as well. In such a place, students are able to witness the powerful effects of working for change and seeing the results. Students also learn about the importance of defending/protecting personal rights, all while not infringing on the rights of those around them. They too are able to experience the power of their vote, their voice, and their choice. In such a place, classrooms are centered on the students (Willis, 2007).

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Schools should be exciting, challenging, engaging places where learning is relevant to life in the world outside the classroom (Pierce, 2005/2006; Dewey, 1938); and where students are preparing to interact not only as workers, but, more importantly, as citizens in the public sphere of our diverse society. Americans believe that schools ought to be developing democratic, responsible, and knowledgeable citizens (Parker, 2005). If supported by the proper democratic conditions, middle schools and high schools can help adolescents develop the habits of thinking and caring necessary for succeeding in adult life. To prepare adolescents for the real world, classrooms should be dynamic public spaces where the occurrence of daily democracy is an essential part of the everyday school experience (ZygmutFillwalk & Clark, 2007). The Responsibility of Education in a Democracy A school is not a private place, but a public, civic place with a community of diverse students. Compared to home life, schools are like village squares, cities, crossroads, meeting places, community centers, and market places. The curriculum (official, taught, learned, and tested, hidden and otherwise) is the total environment teachers create in which students live. In all of its many aspects, this environment is a learning environment, distinct from home and distinct from “the street.” What is common among schools and distinct from that which is not school is that schools are purposefully constructed learning environments. The educational system in the United States has the responsibility for preparing the nation’s young people to be active citizens in a democracy. In fact, the main goal of education must be to produce people who have the intellect to participate fully in that democracy (Dewey, 1935). We live in a world that is becoming smaller and smaller, and yet constantly more diverse. Educational systems are part of that world. Teachers, as part of the educational system, have three primary roles. One role is to help students understand and make sense of their world (Garrison, 2008; Gallagher, 2008; Neumann, 2008). The second is to encourage students to become self-directed learners and inspire in them a motivation to learn. The third role is to help them gain access to the tools to better themselves and the world around them (Garrison, 2008; Sizer & Sizer, 1999). If this is going to happen, classrooms, which are at the hub of the educational system, need to provide for experiences that enable students to become active citizens of a diverse, global, and democratic society (Noddings, 2005; Guild & Chock-Eng, 1998). In order to accomplish these goals, educational systems must provide students with the skills necessary to become fully functioning members of

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society, while paying attention to the students’ cultural, physical, social, emotional, and academic lives (Garrison, 2008; Guild & Chock-Eng, 1998). The educational system has the responsibility to spark student curiosity and provide learning experiences that foster self-efficacy and lifelong learning, which are important skills needed to become democratically engaged citizens. For educational systems to allow students to develop self-efficacy and lifelong learning, they must cultivate an environment that promotes a sense of belongingness and success (Schunk, 2004). Designing this type of environment requires the inhabitants of schools be passionate and concerned about each other and have positive personal beliefs about the human race and the nature of learning (Bowman, 2007). If this can be accomplished inside the walls of a classroom, students will undoubtedly take it outside of the classroom walls, at which time schools may begin to affect society, as society has always affected schools (Dewey, 1935). The classroom reflects a society’s value of knowledge and even what kinds of knowledge are valued. In the United States, knowledge, the value of that knowledge, and the organization of schools as societies, have their roots in the industrial revolution and a factory model of education (Suarez-Orozco, 2005; Hart, 2002; Caine & Caine, 1991). Each classroom with its own shared space and governance mirrors the rules and regulations set forth by the school district and other leaders of the broader community. Even though connected to the larger community, each classroom reflects the values, rules, and regulations held by the societal groups that send their young people to that classroom (Brown & Kysilka, 2003). Each classroom (or society) governs itself according to the rules and regulations of the school district but also has its own set of shared values, beliefs, and rules. Sense of Belonging and Society In a society people need to figure out where they belong academically, socially and emotionally, physically, and spiritually. In the same way, all people who inhabit schools (teachers, administrators, support staff, as well as students) need to figure out where they belong in the school society academically, socially and emotionally, physically, and spiritually. In the greater society, each individual needs to feel like they “fit” somewhere in order to make sense of their world; similarly, each individual also must find their “fit” in order to make sense of the school society. All humans have an innate need to feel welcomed, wanted, protected, safe, and secure. Without a sense of belonging, people feel isolated and scared, and then function in a state of fear, which lowers their ability to think critically and absorb and process information (Goleman, 2005).

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A sense of not belonging is particularly harmful to students in the society called classroom. Sometimes students come to a classroom with a learned fear or an unrealistic fear, and they isolate themselves from others in an attempt to protect themselves from what it is they fear. A society’s responsibility is to help its citizens overcome any fears and give them a strong sense of belonging (Roland, 2008). In the school society, in order to avoid student isolation and to help students feel welcomed, wanted, protected, safe, and secure, schools try to promote a spiritual climate that cultivates a sense of “community as family.” All people who inhabit a school must feel comfortable and welcome. Regarding this Given (2002, p. 44) comments, “A school must be a community of learners with well-established cultural patterns, moral consensus, and rituals designed to embrace each student into group membership.” The climate that a person is aware of intuitively when they walk into a school or into each classroom is “community as family.” Such a climate “refers to the emotional tones associated with students’ interactions, their attitudinal reactions to the class, as well as to students’ self-concept and their motivational satisfactions and frustrations” (Answers.com, 2007, p. 1). The Classroom “Community as Family” Schools nurture a sense of “community as family” (creating a safe, nurturing, welcoming environment) for people by providing (1) clear consequences and responsibilities and (2) rules that build interdependence and open communication and allow for experimentation, forgiveness, positive reinforcement and feedback, appropriate humor, openness, and honesty (Payne, 2008). In turn, the environment and atmosphere (the “community as family”) that teachers encourage in classrooms provides opportunities for students to become involved, take risks, and feel safe, secure, and welcomed (Silver, 1976). Every teacher must work diligently to make the classroom a welcoming and open place. “Allowing students to have a voice in their education helps them become an integral part of the community and practice democracy in the classroom” (Brown, 2008, p. 2). Creating such an environment has a strong possibility of translating into a sense of belonging, which also has a strong possibility of translating to increased student self-efficacy. One way teachers can promote self-efficacy in their students is by setting high but achievable standards (Schunk, 2004). Setting high standards allows students to develop pride in their accomplishments, which encourages them to celebrate their achievements with peers and within themselves. This type of collaboration allows students to organize and construct meaningful

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experiences with peers and teachers (Bowman, 2007; Sherman, 2004). Teachers can further promote self-efficacy by creating a sense of belongingness in the classroom. When students feel valued and appreciated there is a higher possibility that they will develop a sense of self-worth and success. The classroom is not the only place where a student needs to feel a sense of belonging. Students also need to feel like they belong to the school and that they are an important part of the school. If they get lost in the crowd, especially in a big school, they become disconnected from the school and any responsibility they may hold to it. It is important for schools to offer a variety of extracurricular activities and tap into the many interests of students, as interests are often what bring people together and make them connect and be “community as family.” The Diversity of Learners As stated previously, our communities are becoming more global (Banks, 2008; Jackson, Sewell, & Waters, 2007; Brown & Kysilka, 2003). Even within small communities, the demographics are diversifying. Understanding other cultures and becoming tolerant of others different from oneself are important qualities for building “community as family” and establishing a learning environment for all students. Every child is a person who has feelings, beliefs, and values, and must receive respect no matter their race, culture, religion, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic background (Villegas & Lucas, 2007; ZygmutFillwalk & Clark, 2007). Classrooms are filled with a diversity of learners and a diversity of cultures (Ukpokodu, 2007). With the diverse populations that schools serve, it is imperative that students become aware of and be sensitive to others’ backgrounds, beliefs, and values (Britzman, 2005). People of different cultures and backgrounds have varied beliefs. It is important to take diversity into account and not impose values on students, which are not appropriate to their beliefs. The teacher’s responsibility is to unify these differences and create one cohesive unit where students can find a sense of belonging in their school society. The following section (Developing Democratic Classrooms) and three subsections (Educating the Whole Child, The Multi-level Classroom, and Character Education in the Classroom) offers ideas that teachers can use to create classrooms that build a community of learners (i.e., “classroom as family”) where diversity is seen as positive and is the accepted norm rather than the exception.

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Developing Democratic Classrooms Schools today operate under the pretext of teaching core democratic values. Nice sayings on classroom walls must be translated into instruction that actually instills these professed values in students. Educating the whole child, the multi-level classroom, and character education are three possibilities teachers can use to transition to the kinds of classrooms discussed in this chapter. Educating the Whole Child In order to produce functional members of a democratic society, teachers need to have a curriculum that allows students to develop character and social conscience while critically thinking and problem solving within the subject curriculum (Gallagher, 2008; Neumann, 2008; Noddings, 2005). To reach these democratic norms, teachers need to educate the whole child. This type of education allows students to understand the qualities and traits good citizens must possess to create a successful democratic society (Gallagher, 2008; Noddings, 2005). These qualities include self-restraint, civility, honesty, trust, courage, compassion, open-mindedness, self-control, determination, as well as respect for the worth and dignity of individuals (Bellamy & Goodlad, 2008; Gallagher, 2008; Noddings, 2005). Teachers need to provide a sense of community and trust (a “community as family”) that allows students to feel safe (Noddings, 2005), but in order to feel safe the environment needs to be free of all stereotyping, bullying, and fear (Shollenberger, 2007; Manning, 1994). Teachers can begin to develop this “community as family” and teaching to the whole child by discussing controversial issues, including issues about sexual orientation, race, and gender identity with students and other teachers. This conversation can help eliminate stereotypes students may have and allow students to feel accepted and appreciated instead of alienated and alone (Shollenberger, 2007). A classroom in which the whole child is educated requires acceptance of diversity (Gallagher, 2008; Neumann, 2008; Garrison, 2008). Having an environment that accepts diversity allows students to realize the world is a diverse place and each individual brings their own views and beliefs to the classroom (Kommer, 2006; Guild & Chock-Eng, 1998). If classrooms and schools are to embrace diversity, then they must also realize and embrace the idea that all individuals are created as equals (Bowman, 2007; Sizer & Sizer, 1999). As Pringle (2002, pp. 1–2) suggests: The concept of building “communities of learners” is based on democratic ideals of learning processes and products. . . . such communities are built on principles of co-participation while challenging traditional modes of teacher-student

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relationships. Here, co-participation implies a shared language that becomes accessed by all as they engage in the activities of the community with a goal of facilitating meaningful learning.

Teachers need to develop a classroom community (“community as family”) where they bring out the best in each student. Four keys to developing such a community are to (1) create a community that supports and challenges, (2) encourage self-study, (3) promote other study, and (4) provide opportunities for public performance and presentation (Davidson & Lickona, 2007). Teaching the whole child means providing a safe and comfortable learning environment, planning lessons for academic, emotional, and social wellbeing, and giving students ownership of their learning. The Multi-level Classroom Issues that affect education are all too often overlooked because of a certain unspoken comfort level with the status quo (Hess, 2007; Van Winkle, 2005). As mentioned previously, the mid-nineteenth century idea of the factory model of education is still in place today and, although society has changed, little has changed in education (Trowbridge, 2007). Grades, grade levels based on age, and learning based on a prescribed time schedule are just a few customs that have endured from the nineteenth century (Trowbridge, 2007). Because grade levels are based on age, a student’s specific developmental needs are forgotten as they are pushed along the standard educational route according to social promotional practices (Greene & Winters, 2004; Ediger, 2001). An option other than the factory model of pushing students along the widely accepted factory model route exists. This option is multi-level classes patterned after the concept of multi-age classrooms. Multi-age classes can accommodate students of many ages and ability levels and can avoid issues of retention and social promotion (Di Maria, 1999). Multi-age/multi-grade classes used to be the norm in the United States until the beginning of the twentieth century (Reinisch, 1996); singlegrade classrooms are currently the norm (Mason & Stimpson, 1996; Craig & Mclellan, 1987). In the United States today the multi-age classroom is overlooked and underused, whereas in other countries, multi-age classrooms are very common. The Netherlands, Finland, Portugal, and Australia (especially Western Australia), for example, use multi-age groupings in more than half of their classrooms, and other countries (e.g., Canada and Germany) use multi-age classrooms frequently (Russel, Rowe, & Hill, 1998; Veenman, 1995). Teaching in a single grade, multi-level classroom patterned after the multiage classroom is different from other teaching experiences (Gaustad, 1996).

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Designing classroom activities around the multi-age classroom concept actually allows teachers more freedom with curriculum, classroom organization, and classroom management (Gutierrez & Slavin, 1992). The multi-age concept creates opportunities for teachers to adapt instruction to the needs of particular students (Guskey & Lindle, 1997). Teachers can be more creative with their lessons and are often less restricted to books (Day & Yarbrough, 1998) because so much learning takes place between the students’ interactions with one another. The environment of a classroom patterned after the multi-age concept is truly remarkable (Hopping, 2000; Reinisch, 1996). The classes function more like the family communities discussed earlier. The teachers serve as guides, and because it is essential to create understanding in an environment of difference, a strong relationship is built between the teachers and the students, which fosters learning (Devries, 1997, 2000). A strength of the multi-age classroom concept has to do with the interactions of the students. The higher-ability students serve as role models and confidantes to the lower-ability students, while the lower-ability students have something to work toward and receive good support to get there (Carter, 2005). Lower-ability students often use higher-ability students to develop skills and acquire knowledge, and higher-ability students enjoy the responsibility of teaching the lower-ability students (Feldman & Gray, 1999). The competition within the classroom decreases because everyone holds their own place. The students are aware that there are different levels of work being done but are not being compared to their peers by the teacher or even the school. Expectations can remain high for everyone, yet different for different students. Each student is allowed to develop at their own pace, which is accepted by the students as the norm (Bozzone, 1995). The multi-age model reflects the real world more accurately than the current model of education (Katz, Evangelou, & Hartman, 1990). Children have always interacted with children of different ages (Gerard, 2005). The diversity of a classroom multiplies as differences are compounded. In a multi-age model a student’s world expands and becomes more complex. When the world expands, learning is inevitably enhanced (Cole, 2007), and gains are often seen in many areas including achievement (Anderson & Pavan, 1993). It is understood, however, that the concept of multi-age classrooms can be controversial, and achievement gains are often hard to measure. This is attested to by the research of Gorrell (1998), Britt (1997), Smith (1993), Russell, Rowe, and Hill (1998), Burns and Mason (2002), and Lazarus and Quinlan (2003). Despite the conflicting research, though, the multi-age classroom concept provides an excellent model for developing a classroom “community as family.”

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The Classroom and Character Education The development of a strong character has become an integral part of the educational curriculum. Character education is the effort to promote a person’s social and emotional development by teaching virtues (Howard, 2005). Teaching the whole child means providing a safe and comfortable learning environment; planning lessons for academic, emotional, and social wellbeing; and giving students ownership of their learning. Higher-level problem skills and positive interaction among diverse groups of learners are imperative to get students ready to compete in a global society. The current educational system has accepted the challenge of teaching both academics and character development; however, all teachers have not. It is imperative that teachers understand that the development of emotional and social intelligence is just as important as academic intelligence (Goleman, 2005; Bencivenga & Elias, 2003; Given, 2002). Such emotional and social character traits include honesty, respect, following the rules, being kind, and serving the community. Character is developed through all aspects of life. With character education, teachers model good character as well as incorporate it into their lessons (Crawford & Clarke, 2006). The educational system, community, and family collaborate on building character in students. In a curriculum that addresses character, students take more responsibility for their learning and behavior. After character goals have been set, it is important to provide students with goal-setting, decisionmaking, and problem-solving skills, and opportunities to practice those skills both in and out of the classroom. Students can run the school bookstore or Web site, or perform structured community service projects to develop character. Current events may be used as a springboard for character development lessons in the subject areas. With collaboration, goals, and opportunities to practice character education, students may also begin to take more responsibility for their learning and behavior. Character education teaches moral character by way of virtues (Joseph & Efron, 2005). Honesty, respect, playing fair, being kind to others, and contributing to the classroom and broader community are all part of the development of a strong character (Lickona, 1998). Creating a safe and comfortable environment for learning is crucial for emotional and social growth. Students should have a sense of home when at school. If they do not feel safe, they will not take risks to achieve what they are truly capable of. Service projects can foster interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences for students, creating an inviting and friendly atmosphere. Social action can give students a sense of purpose and trust between peers.

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Students need to be able to consider others when making decisions and channel energy into socially constructive activities that promote the common good (Etzioni, 2004). Volunteering in the community is one way to promote these values (Joseph & Efron, 2005). Another way to build character is to participate in sporting activities and clubs sponsored by schools or the community. Communication is crucial for character education to be successful (Holloway, 2006). Teachers must listen to students and take their concerns seriously. Teachers who communicate effectively understand the concerns of students and teach lessons based on the students’ individual needs (Smith, 2006; Silver, 1976). It is important to keep open lines of communication with parents. Parents can be an important resource to understanding the needs of the students (Benninga, Berkowitz, & Kuehn, 2006; McGrath, 2004). The four steps to good character education include modeling, dialogue, practice, and application of skills (Howard, 2005). All students have the ability to learn and practice good character traits in and out of the classroom. Ethical issues can enter into any content area at all ages (Silver, 1976). The teacher has the ability to modify the character lessons and discussion of ethical issues based on the age and interests of the students (Boyd, 2004; Cahill, 2006). Character development needs to become an integral part of the educational curriculum.

Suggestions for Instructional Practice Discussing the development of democratic classrooms and recommending that secondary teachers structure their classrooms so that students learn about “being democratic” by living in multi-level classrooms and building a strong character is a captivating idea. The typical secondary teacher will probably agree, but say, however, that this all sounds good in theory, but putting the theory into practice is a different story. Following are three suggestions for taking the theory and putting it into practice. In addition to the following, for other insights, the reader can also refer to chapters 2, 3, 8, and 10. Differentiated Instruction An excellent way to teach to the “whole child” while having adolescents experience multi-level classrooms in a democratic manner is through differentiated instruction. When a teacher uses differentiated instructional practices,

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students are engaged and motivated. With differentiated instruction, students not only learn the curriculum, they learn it in a manner that is challenging and focused at their ability levels. A thorough discussion of differentiated instruction, with suggestions for practice, can be found in chapter 12. Cooperative Learning A second way to structure a democratic classroom and meet the multilevel needs of learners is through cooperative learning. Secondary teachers often stay away from cooperative learning because classrooms are “noisy,” or students “do not learn the required information thoroughly enough,” or students are “off task,” or “only the brightest student does the work while the rest of the group sits around and does nothing.” All this can be true; however, when cooperative learning is planned and implemented appropriately, it can be quite successful. A thorough discussion of cooperative learning, with suggestions for practice, can be found in chapter 13. Content Area Literacy Strategies A third suggestion for providing opportunities for adolescents to practice “being” democratic that addresses multi-level needs is through appropriately designed content area literacy strategies. This may seem like a strange recommendation; however, when appropriate content area literacy strategies are used, middle school and high school students in any discipline can investigate a variety of issues that involve character building and democratic practice. A thorough discussion of content area literacy strategies, with suggestions for practice, can be found in chapter 11.

Concluding Thoughts Teaching and learning are not cut-and-dry issues that happen in isolation. Young people spend much of their time at school, inside classrooms. It is imperative then that teachers use the time spent there efficiently, effectively, and wisely. Teachers are responsible for fully understanding the society in which they live and modeling their classrooms to reflect that society and the challenges their students will face in said society. Teachers are responsible for recognizing how to use the atmosphere and environment created in the classroom to advance students academically, socially, and emotionally. Beyond that, teachers must remain unbiased, flexible, democratic, and student-centered.

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Greene, J. P., & Winters, M. A. (2004). An evaluation of Florida’s program to end social promotion. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 483340) Guild, P. B., & Chock-Eng, S. (1998). Multiple intelligence, learning styles, brainbased education: Where do the messages overlap? Schools in the Middle, 7 (4), 38–40. Guskey, T. R., & Lindle, J. C. (1997). Research on multi-age/multi-grade classes: Report to the teaching and learning issue group. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 420915) Gutierrez, R., & Slavin, R. E. (1992). Achievement effects of the nongraded elementary school: A best evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 62 (4), 333–376. Hart, L. A. (2002). Human brain & human learning (3rd ed.). Covington, WA: Books for Educators. Hess, F. M. (2007). The case for entrepreneurship: Hard truths about risk, reform, and reinvention. Phi Delta Kappan, 89, 21–30. Holloway, J. (2006). Model behavior. Principal Leadership (Middle School Edition), 6 (5), 44–48. Hopping, L. (2000). Multi-age teaming: A real life approach to the middle school. Phi Delta Kappan, 82, 270–272. Howard, R. (2005). Preparing moral educators in an era of standards-based reform. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32 (4), 43–58. Jackson, H. V., Sewell, K. L., & Waters, C. (2007). Having our say about multicultural education. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43 (4), 174–181. Joseph, P., & Efron, S. (2005). Seven worlds of moral education. Phi Delta Kappan 86, 525–533. Katz, L. G., Evangelou, D., & Hartman, J. A. (1990). The case for mixed-age grouping in early education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Kommer, D. (2006). Boys and girls together: A case for creating gender-friendly middle school classrooms. Clearing House, 79, 247–251. Lazarus, S., & Quinlan, J. (2003). How do students with disabilities in ungraded programs participate in large-scale assessments? Results of a survey of school district administrators. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 480290) Lickona, T. (1998). Character education: Seven crucial issues. Action in Teacher Education, 20 (4), 77–83. Manning, M. L. (1994). Celebrating diversity: Multicultural education in middle schools. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. Mason, D. A., & Stimpson, J. (1996). Combination and nongraded classes: Definition and frequency in twelve states. Elementary School Journal, 96 (4), 439–452. McGrath, R. (2004). Forming character and teaching values: Who is accountable? Momentum, 35 (4), 16–19. Neumann, R. (2008). American democracy at risk. Phi Delta Kappan, 89, 328–339.

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Noddings, N. (2005). What does it mean to educate the whole child? Educational Leadership, 63 (1), 8–13. Parker, W. C. (2005). Teaching against idiocy. Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 344–351. Payne, R. (2008). Nine powerful practices. Educational Leadership, 65 (7), 48–52. Pierce, K. M. (2005/2006). Posing, pretending, waiting for the bell: Life in high school classrooms. High School Journal, 89 (2), 1–15. Pringle, R. M. (2002). Developing a community of learners: Potentials and possibilities in web mediated discourse. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [Online serial), 2 (2), 1–14. Available at www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss2/ currentpractice/article2.cfm. Reinisch, S. (1996). Multi-age classrooms: One school’s experience. Lutheran Education, 131, 201–204. Roland, K. A. (2008). Educating for inclusion: Community building through mentorship and citizenship. Journal of Educational Thought, 42 (1), 53–67. Russell, J. V., Rowe, K. J., & Hill. P. W. (1998). Effects of multi-grade classes on student progress in literacy and numeracy: Quantitative evidence and perceptions of teachers and school leaders. Arlington,VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 444122) Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Sherman, S. (2004). Responsiveness in teaching: Responsibility in its most particular sense. Educational Forum, 68 (2), 115–125. Shollenberger, K. (2007). Student theater confronts controversy to create safer middle school communities. Middle School Journal, 38 (5), 32–40. Silver, M. (1976). Values education. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Sizer, T. R., & Sizer, N. F. (1999). Grappling. Phi Delta Kappan, 81, 184–190. Smith, K. (1993). Attitudes toward multiple aged classrooms of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 361088) Smith, M. (2006). Contemporary character education. Principal Leadership (Middle School Edition), 6 (5), 16–20. Suarez-Orozco, M. M. (2005). Rethinking education in the global era. Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 209–212. Trowbridge, S. (2007). Educational rituals: Questioning how we educate our children. Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 395–398. Ukpokodu, O. N. (2007). Preparing socially conscious teachers: A social justice– oriented teacher education. Multicultural Education, 15 (1), 8–15. Van Winkle, D. (2005). Inferior blueberries and other excuses I’ve heard. School Administrator, 62 (7), 43. Veenman, S. (1995). Cognitive and noncognitive effects of multigrade and multiage classes: A best evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research. 65 (4), 319–381. Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2007). The culturally responsive teacher. Educational Leadership, 64 (6), 28–33.

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Willis, J. (2007). Teachable moments build relational memories. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43, 106–109. Zygmut-Fillwalk, E., & Clark, P. (2007). Becoming multicultural: Raising awareness and supporting change in teacher education. Childhood Education, 84, 288–293.

6 Understanding the Needs and Characteristics of the Adolescent Learner Renay M. Scott

Introduction

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AURA WAS WALKING DOWN THE HALLWAY talking to her two friends when she saw him. Marcus, a tall dark-haired boy, was the running back on the freshman football team. He was very popular. Laura stopped suddenly, dropping her books. After bending over to pick them up, she turned to her friends and exclaimed, “Oh! Great! Now Marcus thinks I’m a klutz.” “No way! He didn’t even notice,” replied Rachel. Marcus began walking toward the girls as the warning bell sounded. The girls giggled silently. “Hey, Laura!” Marcus said. Laura was speechless but smiled back. As Marcus passed, the girls headed toward their next class. Laura selected her seat as the bell rang. As the teacher began to review the homework, Laura was lost in her thoughts of Marcus.

A Time of Storm and Stress Adolescence, a period beginning as early as age nine and lasting until at least eighteen, is frequently referred to as a period of storm and stress. Beginning with the onset of puberty, adolescents encounter dramatic physical changes, complex social experiences, intense emotions, and growing independence. During this awkward period, adolescents seek acceptance by peers and independence from parents. As adolescents seek to develop their own identity,

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they face new challenges, often, for the first time, experimenting with sexual roles, sexual identity, and independence. Teachers of adolescents need a thorough understanding of adolescent development in order to provide the types of learning experiences and advocacy necessary to support them through this period of development. Schools unwittingly provide the context within which adolescents navigate this time of storm and stress. This chapter will provide an overview of the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and moral development of adolescents, and the implications of such on schools. Additionally, the chapter will look at recent curriculum trends affecting the educational experience of adolescents.

The Period of Adolescence Adolescence is the period between childhood and adulthood most notably defined by the physical changes that occur. Adolescence begins at puberty, which marks the beginning of sexual maturation in girls and boys. Between the ages of twelve and eighteen, young people experience rapid physical changes such as growth spurts, voice changes, hair growth, skin problems, and the development of sex organs as the body prepares for its role in reproduction. Adolescents also experience intense and volatile emotions as they search for their identity. Tremendous diversity exists between each adolescent’s maturity level, behavior, and self-esteem. Other than the first year of life, this period of development is characterized by the most dramatic changes an individual experiences, but unlike the first year of life, the changes occur on a very public stage where the opinions of one’s peers matter.

Adolescent Physical Development The beginning of adolescence is more exact than the end of adolescence. As mentioned, puberty marks the beginning of the adolescent years. Puberty is associated with the physical changes that the body undergoes when preparing the body for reproduction. The end of adolescence is fairly fluid since physical maturation varies widely from person to person. There is no rite of passage that clearly closes adolescence, and the close of adolescence even varies by country and culture. Some countries mark the close of adolescence as consisting of marrying, working, military service, or schooling. In the United States, many people accept graduation from high school as the clearest marker ending the period of adolescence.

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The Beginning of Puberty Puberty begins when the hypothalamus begins to secrete a substance called gondadotropin, which triggers the release of a hormone, which stimulates the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland then secretes hormones that trigger the production of male sex hormones (like testosterone) and the production of the female sex hormones (like estrogens). Once secreted, these hormones result in growth and change in the brain, bones, muscles, breasts, and reproductive organs in both girls and boys. Puberty strictly refers to the physical changes associated with adolescents, but it is these physical changes that affect the cognitive, emotional, and social developments that make adolescence a unique period. Physical Development Is Relatively Unpredictable Physical development is relatively unpredictable, and happens rather unevenly during adolescence. If you walk down a hallway of a middle school, for example, you see adolescents that are quite tall and some that are very short. You may also see boys with facial hair and other boys with smooth complexions. Further, you will notice girls with fully formed breasts and girls with no hint of breasts. These dramatic differences in physical development can cause tremendous challenges and concerns for adolescents. Growth spurts, common among adolescents, lead to awkwardness, clumsiness, and worry. One paradox of adolescence is the growing independence from their family and their growing need to fit in with peers. Adolescents often compare themselves to their peers. Subsequently, the variance in physical development demonstrates vast differences, resulting in the discovery that they are unique individuals. This uniqueness can trigger feelings of aloneness during a time when the importance of peers and peer acceptance is at its highest. All of these physical changes cause adolescents to be preoccupied with their bodies. Often they are embarrassed by these changes. From rapid growth spurts, to changing voices, to breast development in girls, adolescents are acutely aware of their bodies. Their physical appearance becomes a big deal, especially as they place more importance on what their peers think. Self-consciousness about physical appearance can result in tremendous pressure and a feeling that everyone is “looking at me.” Physical Development and Sleep Sleep is an important aspect of physical development. Often the sleep cycle shifts dramatically during adolescence. Families and educators often attribute

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the change in the sleep cycle to the need for more sleep due to the tremendous physical changes. This is partially true, but more precisely, the sleep cycle changes because of developments in the adolescent brain. The sleep cycle is governed by one’s circadian rhythms. In adults, the circadian rhythms are in tune with the rising and setting of the sun. Consequently, as daylight decreases, an adult’s circadian rhythms trigger a melatonin surge during periods of darkness, aiding the onset of the sleep cycle. An adolescent’s circadian rhythms react more slowly to the onset of darkness and their melatonin surges occur slower and later in response to darkness, thereby resulting in delays in the onset of the sleep cycle. Consequently, teens are alert later into the evening and sleep longer than the average adult. Adolescents typically need nine hours of sleep at night. The differing sleep cycle and the need for more sleep has implications for adolescent learning. Schools for adolescents (both middle schools and high schools) often begin early in the day when adolescents are still sleepy. Consequently, adolescents often perform less well in the early hours of the school day. Additionally, since adolescents naturally fall asleep later but need to rise early for school, they can become sleep-deprived resulting in impaired memory function. Schools for adolescents need to be developmentally responsive and consider this phenomenon when designing the school day.

Adolescent Cognitive Development While adolescents are experiencing rapid physical changes which are visible to their peers and family, they are also experiencing cognitive changes which may be less visible. Early cognitive development theory assumes that the adolescent brain has fully developed prior to the onset of puberty. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget (1950) advanced a linear stage theory to explain cognitive development. According to Piaget, from birth to age two, children learned through what he referred to as a sensorimotor exploration of their world. From ages two to seven, children were in what Piaget called a preoperational stage of thinking. Children between the ages of seven to eleven experienced what Piaget called the concrete operational stage, during which adolescents could begin to be logical in their thinking but at the same time very concrete in their thinking.

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Piaget’s fourth cognitive stage, the formal operational stage, is entered after age eleven. For most people, formal operational thinking begins as they enter middle school and high school. Formal operational thinking is characterized by more complex, abstract thinking. Adolescents begin to gain the cognitive skills of hypothesis formation, abstract thinking, reflection, and moral reasoning. Piaget’s stage theory implies that when an adolescent reaches eleven or twelve years old, their brain has fully developed. Recent research calls this assumption into question. Blossoming and Brain Organization During childhood and into adolescence, the brain organizes and wires itself through a process of blossoming in which neurons make connections with other neurons through the formation of synapses. As synapses blossom and more connections are made, the brain “prunes” the little-used synapses. This process begins both before and after birth and continues into adolescents. While the brain organizes itself, blossoming is an important function. Blossoming is dependent upon rich stimulation that triggers growth by connecting neurons to other neurons. Neurons create far more synapses with other neurons than can be used by the mature brain. Pruning is the process by which unused synapses are eliminated. One example of this process is how language is acquired and develops in the brain. Researchers (Given, 2002; Sprenger, 1999; Jensen, 1995) suggest that the brain is wired for language development during the early years of life. As a child progresses into adolescence, speech becomes solidified through the programming of the synapses dedicated to language development. Unused synapses that are originally wired for language development, which are not utilized during early development, are then pruned away because they are underutilized or rewired to be dedicated to other memory functions. Consequently, the learning of abstract skills (like the learning of a foreign language during adolescence) is more difficult than it could be during the elementary school years. The brain develops by region. Sensory regions of the brain that control taste, touch, smell, sight, sound, hearing, and other innate senses experience the most growth early in life. The prefrontal cortex region of the brain that governs emotional development and thinking continues developing into early adolescence. Since the prefrontal cortex, which is the seat of emotional control, is still developing during adolescence, teens experience intense emotions that can result in emotional outbursts.

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Adolescent Emotional Development Mood swings and irritability are two common traits often associated with adolescents. These behaviors periodically lead adults to label adolescents as “troubled.” Variations in emotions, however, are further evidence of adolescent brain development. Walsh (2004) has hypothesized that the adolescent brain develops from back to front. If so, the prefrontal cortex, the emotional control center, develops last. With the late development of the prefrontal cortex, it is natural for a teen to experience strong emotions and lack the impulse control to avoid mood swings and irritability The late development of the prefrontal cortex is only one explanation for the mood swings and irritability exhibited by adolescents. Another explanation involves hormones. As puberty triggers a number of hormones, including testosterone in males and estrogens in females, adolescents experience a new range of emotions linked to their sexual development. Emotional urges and impulses triggered by these sex hormones, unchecked by a late developing prefrontal cortex, add to the complexity of moods exhibited by an adolescent. Girls are prone to depression. Estrogen and progesterone levels can affect a girl’s mood. During these mood swings, girls often exhibit varying levels of depression. Because of the social nature of girls and their strong verbal skills, they have the tendency to influence one another and even talk themselves into feelings of depression. Because mood swings and various levels of depression are common for girls, it is often hard for educators to determine whether or not a girl’s depressed mood is normal or if it is something unusual and concerning. Another factor contributing to emotional swings in adolescents is their difficulty in reading other people’s moods and emotions. Misreading other’s emotions can lead to “blow-ups” and overreactions. Since emotions are processed in the prefrontal cortex still under development during adolescence, adolescents are not as adept with emotional management. Consequently, their reactions are often elevated. This can account for the periodic overreactions typical of adolescents. New and unfamiliar emotions are another factor contributing to the various emotional swings and outbursts experienced by adolescents. For example, sexual desires and jealousy are two new emotions that adolescents must learn to manage. Without a fully mature prefrontal cortex to aid in the management of these strong emotions, adolescents often demonstrate volatility and ambivalence. Significant adults can play a vital role during this time in helping adolescents talk through these new emotions. Educators need to be aware that

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such strong emotions may affect concentration and focus, often contributing to fluctuations in school performance.

Adolescent Social Development Adolescent emotional development is closely linked with social development. An adolescent is no longer a child but is not yet an adult. They can have adult conversations one minute and childlike emotional outbursts the next. One minute their family or parents are important; the next moment they are embarrassed to be seen with parents or family members. Adolescents enter a period that psychologist Erik Erikson terms identity formation. Identity formation involves determining who one is and what role one plays both within one’s peer group and the widening world. Consequently, the period of adolescence is a time of exploration. Having a rich environment that provides opportunities for adolescents to try different activities (from sports to theater, from music to debate, from student government to drawing) is important for this exploration. While adolescents are searching for a sense of themselves, they need to fit into their social network. Adolescents begin to move away from their parents and families and move closer to their peers. This process demonstrates an adolescent’s exploration with independence and further identity formation. The growing independence of adolescents and the growing need to fit into their social network can be uncomfortable for significant adults in an adolescent’s life. As adults watch adolescents experiment with roles and independence, they may grow concerned about an adolescent’s behavior. Some experimental behaviors may appear to be defiant acts or foolish risk-taking. Finding the balance point between allowing for experimentation and intervening in potentially destructive behavior can become a source of conflict between adolescents and adults. While wanting to be independent from their family and parents, but not quite wanting to be on their own, some adolescents during this time of experimentation may turn to their teachers for advice and support. At times during this period it may appear that adolescents are rebelling from the values and norms of their families. Typically, adolescents are more influenced by their peers with respect to temporary values such as music, clothes, and social activities. Likewise, teachers may notice the influence of peers on academic performance. For example, an adolescent who is an outstanding student in elementary school may suddenly be performing at average achievement levels simply to fit in with his or her group. It must be understood,

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though, that adolescents appear to embrace, at least to some degree, the more deeply held values and morals of their families. During this period of growing peer importance and sexual development, adolescents begin to discover sex and love. It is common for teens to experience their first crush during adolescence. It is equally as common for them to experience their first breakup. To adults, adolescent cycles from crushes to love to breakups, progress rather quickly. This social-emotional cycle can also be linked to developments occurring within the adolescent brain. Falling in love stimulates the brain. Being in love or even infatuation can elevate dopamine levels leading to feelings of euphoria. This euphoria is felt intensely but is short-lived. This is one possible explanation for short crushes and deep hurts, quickly followed by another crush.

Adolescent Moral Development Risk-taking behaviors and experimentation by adolescents often raise questions of adolescent moral development and character formation. Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg consider moral development from a cognitive perspective. As adolescents enter more formal operational ways of thinking, their thinking about moral situations matures from a reward-punishment orientation to a conventional orientation that considers interpersonal relationships and social order. According to Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning (Muth & Alvermann, 1992; Kohlberg, 1981), someone reasoning at the conventional level, most closely associated with adolescence, considers moral decisions based on other’s feelings and intentions at the lower stage of conventional thinking. Adolescents who think at the upper stage of conventional thinking consider society as a whole and the importance of performance within that society. As mentioned above, adolescents have difficulty reading other’s emotions and feelings. Consequently, adolescents’ moral reasoning can be influenced by their ability or inability to read the feelings and emotions of others. Also, adolescents’ thinking is idealistic, which can affect their consideration of moral situations based upon societal norms.. Another psychologist, Carol Gilligan questioned whether or not moral development differed by gender. Gilligan (1993) concluded that females, when reasoning through moral dilemmas, considered several other variables in addition to the variable of justice identified by Kohlberg. Her conclusions resulted in a view of morality development for females based upon care.

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Moral Development in Females Gilligan, like Kohlberg, identifies three moral stages of development. In stage one, female children consider morality from a selfish orientation. At this stage of development, Gilligan identifies a female’s orientation to be focused upon individual survival (Belknap, 2000). At this level, females are primarily concerned with themselves. As females move from the first level to the second level, they gain a greater sense of being responsible. In stage two, female moral development is considered more conventional. At this level, a female’s orientation is concerned with self-sacrifice (Belknap, 2000). Level two is most closely associated with adolescence and appears to be influenced by cognitive idealism also typical of an adolescent’s cognitive thinking. As an adolescent female matures in her moral development, she embraces truth (Belknap, 2000). In the third stage, female moral development progresses toward a postconventional orientation in which a female considers the consequences of her actions to others and herself. Facilitating Emotional and Moral Growth Adults and teachers working with adolescents have the opportunity to facilitate the emotional and moral growth of teens. Focusing upon adolescents’ emotional intelligence can enhance their ability to consider the perspectives, feelings, and emotions of other people, which in turn can lead to more reliable moral reasoning based upon those feelings. Each aspect of adolescent development (physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral) is important and should be considered holistically. The physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral aspects of adolescent development are intrinsically linked. Consequently, middle schools and high schools that emphasize one aspect, say cognitive and academic development to the exclusion of emotional development, may be missing a vital link necessary for optimal academic achievement. Consequently, it is important for teachers to consider the characteristics of developmentally appropriate secondary schools.

Developmentally Appropriate Secondary Schools Developmentally appropriate middle schools and high schools provide safe environments to engage students through small learning communities in which they explore an engaging curriculum based upon adolescent interests, including opportunities to explore issues of health and wellness. Additionally, adolescents should find adult advocates ready to assist them as they navigate the middle and high school years. These secondary schools should seek to

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engage an adolescent’s social-emotional growth through involving students in decision-making, providing outlets for appropriate emotional expression, and engaging emotions in learning. According to Thomas Armstrong (2006), recent trends in education that emphasize academic achievement and high-stakes testing are overshadowing consideration of organizing schools that are developmentally responsive. Armstrong raises concerns about the impact an emphasis on academic achievement at the expense of an adolescent’s developmental needs (physical, social, emotional, and moral) can have on students. Armstrong (2006) suggests that viewing education more holistically, balancing both academic and developmental needs, will best serve society by meeting all the needs of developing adolescents.

Concluding Thoughts The period of adolescence, beginning with puberty, interrupts the calm flow a young person experiences during his or her elementary school years. Young people, who have easily moved from one grade to another in elementary school, may find that when they enter the middle school or high school grades that the flow is less tranquil. The dramatic physical changes, the rapidly changing brain, identity exploration, independence from families, and the importance of peers directly affect individuals, and indirectly affect a school community. The complexities of adolescent development in the twenty-first century suggest the need for teachers to be conversant about adolescent development plus knowledgeable about societal issues affecting adolescents. This need plus the challenge of the national call for accountability has left middle school and high school students and educators in a conundrum of trying to meet the developmental needs of adolescents while at the same time addressing the issue of accountability. Creating the schools that society needs to prepare for adolescents to become future employees of global institutions must consider both the developmental needs and the academic needs of all adolescents. The complexities are endless, the challenges mounting, and the hunger for a solution growing.

References Armstrong, T. (2006). The best schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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Belknap, R. A. (2000). One woman’s life viewed through the interpretive lens of Gilligan’s theory. Violence Against Women, 6, 586–605. Gilligan, C. (1993). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Given, B. K. (2002). Teaching to the brain’s natural learning systems. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Jensen, E. (1995). The learning brain. Del Mar, CA: The Brain Story. Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. New York: Harper & Row. Muth, K. D., & Alvermann, D. E. (1992). Teaching and learning in the middle grades. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Piaget, J. (1950). Psychology of intelligence. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning and memory: The brain in action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Walsh, D. (2004). Why do they act that way?: A survival guide to the adolescent brain for you and your teen. New York: Free Press.

7 Technology Issues in the Classroom Jonathon A. Gould

Introduction

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ECHNOLOGY AFFECTS SOCIETY, the secondary classroom, and instructional practice. The impact of technology on current teaching and learning practices knows no bounds. Teachers and students complement one another to bring the world into the classroom, the classroom out to the world, and create a system of transparent walls, through which stakeholders in education offer insight and contribute knowledge, to positively affect learning in the twenty-first century. Behind the success of every classroom is a teacher dedicated to providing students with training, resources, and support, especially in the area of technology. Utilizing current trends in education with the latest technological devices, teachers travel across a state, or across the world, in an instant. Virtual field trips, podcasts, and electronic messaging are a few arrows in the quiver of the twenty-first century educator. The ability to bring the students into direct, real-time contact with experts in core-related fields has become both a blessing and an enormous responsibility for educators as well as for higher-education institutions which are charged with the task of equipping future teachers with the needed abilities in the realm of software and hardware applications. Technology leaders in today’s classroom correlate positively with future leaders in the ever-changing, global society. To develop an effective technology initiative, schools and districts must ensure all stakeholders involved take an active role in implementing and sustaining the technology program. State officials must collaborate to help

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schools with technology initiatives. District leaders must ensure teachers have ample training in using technology to instruct students and assess learning. Teachers must communicate with colleagues to effectively utilize resources in an efficient manner. Students must collaborate with peers to sustain communication lines between home and the learning community. Instructional workshops can complement a technology initiative when teachers begin to work together in technology-study groups, experimenting with software programs and/or hardware devices, to determine how instruction in the classroom is influenced. Focus groups can also complement a technology initiative when parents collaborate to support action plans for classrooms. Students who are empowered to become technologically literate can bring the technology initiative to higher levels of commitment and accountability.

The Extant Literature Over the last twenty years, researchers have been increasingly interested in understanding students’ motivation and finding ways to predict and improve academic performance. Research reveals how motivation is related to students’ initiation of the task, the amount of effort expended on the task, and their persistence in completing the task (Wigfield, 1994; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993; Brophy, 1988; Maehr, 1984). Using technology to understand and assess student motivation levels fosters an atmosphere of respect and increases student academic achievement. Students’ motivation affects their actions and academic achievement. The social cognitive motivation theories of self-efficacy and goal orientation offer insight into student academic achievement levels. Self-efficacy describes how a student’s belief about her or his capabilities to complete a task has an effect on the outcome. Goal orientation validates student reasoning for completing a task (Schunk, 2008). Technology used effectively in the classroom can increase student levels of self-efficacy and orient students towards goal statements of the district’s technology initiative. Bandura (1997) maintains people’s actions and behaviors are guided by their beliefs about how successful they can be in performing a task, another form of self-efficacy. Students need to possess the prerequisite skills and knowledge to successfully execute a task. In addition, each student must possess a level of anticipation of success before she or he begins an assignment. Research reveals individuals with high self-efficacy levels correlate positively with task completion (Jackson, 2002; Pajares, 2003). Motivation researchers, particularly those taking a social cognitive perspective, suggest students’ goals

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and beliefs are also shaped by their perceptions of the learning environment. Therefore, it is essential to examine how students’ goals and beliefs are formed and maintained in different learning environments. Technology is used to administer interest inventories, in a private and anonymous forum, to provide information about motivation levels of students for teachers, parents, and stakeholders in school districts. Out with the Old-Old, and in with the New-New In the early days of humankind, the walls of caves are used to record thoughts, to share messages, and possibly to teach the youth of the time period. The cave wall is eventually replaced by a piece of slate and chalk and is followed by the familiar green chalkboard of many of our childhood memories. Whiteboards follow the chalkboards and remain in many classrooms today. The overhead projector, with its colorful, yet still pictures is being replaced by the digital projector, teamed with moving illustrations, and filled with sound and/or streamed video vignettes. A potential problem with each of these applications is they represent the practice of doing an old thing in new ways, all of which represent teacher-facilitated instruction. Classrooms of the twenty-first century need to embrace the philosophy of doing a new thing in new ways, with student-facilitated instruction at its core. When teachers move from “Sage on the Stage” to “Guide on the Side,” they begin this new practice of putting technology directly into the hands of the students, allowing the students to facilitate instruction surrounding classroom content, concepts, and focus. Dale’s (1969) Cone of Learning makes reference to remembering only 10 percent of what you read, 20 percent of what you hear, 30 percent of what you see, and so on. He believes students remember almost 90 percent of what they teach someone else. The philosophy of doing a new thing in new ways will ensure a competitive position in the global society for our students. Applications Computers in the Classroom Computers in the classroom have increased over the years. It is common to find one or more desktop computers in classrooms today. The connection to the outside world brings current research and information into the classroom and affords a level of rich discourse, not available two decades ago. Although

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desktop computers embrace a myriad of hardware and software applications, the lack of mobility is both a blessing and a curse. The inability to move a desktop computer from one location to another is beneficial because it protects vital internal components from the elements, vibration, and accidental damage. The lack of mobility, however, presents problems when asking students to collaborate outside of the walls of the school. Laptop computers help to fill the void in the lines of communication between students, content, and stakeholders in their education. Laptop Computers Laptop computers are increasing in numbers each year. The mobility offers students the ability to research classroom content, explore connections between concepts and practical applications, and collaborate with peers to solve problems. Successfully implementing a one-to-one laptop program, however, requires a large financial investment to use technology to meet educational goals. Using laptops, as a learning tool to increase comprehension of subject matter, is an increasing component in technology initiatives in education. Statistics from the National Center for Education Statistics reveal 91 percent of students in kindergarten through grade twelve use a computer and 59 percent make use of the Internet. One study, by the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers, reveals 89 percent of all educators believe technology is essential for effective teaching and learning (National Education Association, 2008). Laptop computers are a powerful tool in the pursuit of knowledge. To access information and pursue knowledge, students can research a topic and begin electronic discussions in the classroom, continue to investigate findings and collaborate during the bus ride home (even if the student is on a different bus due to wireless interfaces), and assemble data and conclude conversations from the privacy of their home, all on a single, laptop computer. This process illustrates bringing the classroom out into the world. The process of presenting information can now begin in the student’s home, culminating in an electronic presentation created by the people (students) for the people (students). This process illustrates bringing the world into the classroom and is an excellent example of doing a new thing in a new way, with students facilitating the instruction. PowerPoint Presentations Using an electronic presentation forum (such as Microsoft’s PowerPoint Presentation Software) provides an outlet for student learning and com-

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prehension. Using PowerPoint, students showcase skills learned, achievements earned, and knowledge acquired through the discovery process. The collaboration between peers is illustrated by an effective PowerPoint presentation, filled with text, pictures, sounds, streaming video, and interactive assessment procedures. Students prepare presentations at home, peer review their work during lunch, and present findings both in class and on classroom Web sites, increasing the levels of transparency for classroom walls. This process enables the use of the World Wide Web, also known as the Internet. The Internet The World Wide Web has increased in both popularity and use over the last decade, especially in the academic and personal lives of students. The Internet has become a necessary ally in the education of adolescents. As with any new thing, the process of utilizing strengths, while remaining cognizant of its weaknesses, becomes the challenge. The Internet has opened the door to the world for students in the classroom. The ability to research and gather data is now only a “mouse click” away. With this resource, however, comes a great responsibility, that is, keeping the outside world from coming, uninvited, into the classroom. School districts are charged with the task of keeping the evils of the world out, while maintaining the innocence of the classroom through filtering mechanisms. An effective way for teachers to navigate to a safe place for students is by using one popular vehicle known as the virtual field trip. An added bonus to the virtual field trip is the fuel-efficient manner for this type of transportation. Virtual Classrooms, Virtual Field Trips, and Online Classrooms Virtual environments are used to supplement traditional components of education. This environment allows users to explore the real world by traveling throughout the virtual world. This can be accomplished by attending presentations, networking with peers and/or experts in core-related fields, playing games, or conducting experiments. The insight afforded and engagement in rich discourse with peers makes the virtual world a reality for teachers in the twenty-first century. The ability to teach students in and/or from remote locations, known as “distance learning” is becoming more popular. Highereducation institutions have embraced the concept of online classrooms, in which the teacher and students may be in different locations, communicating electronically through webcam displays and microphones. This realtime communication is one of many forums for electronic communication.

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Another form is communication occurring in small “bits” of conversation, known as electronic messaging or “e-mail.” Electronic Messaging Electronic mail or “e-mail” is replacing the standard mail system, known affectionately as “snail mail.” The messages are sent from computer to computer, phone to phone, or a combination of each. The influence on instructional practice is increasing, both in positive and negative ways. Benefits to instructional practices, caused by increasing uses of e-mails and/or electronic text messaging, include advanced abilities to collaborate with students and parents regarding assignment expectations. Students using e-mail can receive insight from the teacher or from other students regarding an assignment’s directions, expectations, or presentation. Parents can obtain information about students’ grades, assignments, or projects from the comfort of their home. The ability to access information from remote locations, however, has advantages and disadvantages for teaching and learning. Through the use of text messaging, students can relay information to other students about exam questions during or after the examination. Students can also receive assistance by tapping into the Internet during an assessment procedure. With this in mind, teachers need to remain cognizant of testing environments and the use of cell phones, personal data assistants, or personal digital assistants (PDAs) during an assessment procedure. Cell Phones and Personal Data Assistants Students use cellular phones and PDAs to communicate to one another. The options include talking, texting, sending and receiving pictures, and surfing the World Wide Web. Students in Japan use cellular phones to complete homework assignments. Although it is popular to communicate publicly after school, it is possible to communicate privately during school hours by texting other students without making a single sound. Cell phones and PDAs now possess miniature keyboards and cameras, allowing students to type messages or send pictures to other students. The messages are a distraction to the learning process and can relay answers during an exam. Teachers need to remain diligent about the use of physical proximity during instruction and assessment procedures. The technology applications available for students are increasing each day. The ability for teachers, students, and parents to communicate is easier now than in the past. Students’ rights to learn are regulated by a responsibility to

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teach, using technology when and where it is appropriate. Teachers willing to undertake the necessary training in technology benefits students and school districts alike. Current Implications for Students Barriers to Using Technology One barrier for students who embrace technology is a lack of the basic knowledge and/or skill needed to use existing technology in the classroom. It is unsafe to assume all students possess prerequisite skills to utilize technology in the secondary classrooms effectively. Some students do not have a computer or the Internet in their home and therefore may not be connected to the Internet or to other students via a cell phone. Another barrier is if the student has a physical or mental inability to complete an activity using existing classroom technology. The fine motor skills necessary to type may be deficient for some students. The ability to complete a homework assignment may be hindered by the inability to understand the intricate procedures needed to download or upload files or data. A third barrier to technology integration is the technology present in a classroom. Equity issues impact classrooms across the county. Technologyrich districts often reside in affluent communities. The bottom line is some districts simply do not possess the financial and personnel resources for a strong technology initiative to flourish. Another barrier to effective integration of technology is an inherent lack of understanding that surrounds expectations of classroom assignments using classroom technology. This miscommunication occurs when the teacher provides instruction and/or examples that are interpreted by the student in a context different than what is intended. If the student is able to receive additional feedback from her or his teacher, the problem may be remedied. If not, the student may come to school ill-prepared for the following day’s lesson. This breakdown in the lines of communication is a concern for many school districts, regardless of the presence of sufficient resources. Concerns about Technology Concerns exist for district leaders attempting to launch an effective technology initiative. Teachers too are concerned about gaps in equity and unbalanced funding for technology practices in the classroom. Parents with knowledge of practical applications for proper technology integration are an asset to a school system, but all parents possessing such knowledge are not

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connected with the system or are unavailable or unwilling to assist during the school day. The strengths of each community often outweigh its weaknesses, especially in the areas of technology and teamwork. Strengths of Technology Empowering students to be leaders in a technology initiative requires a balanced approach. Strengths include the autonomy afforded teachers in their classroom. The use of direct instruction and inquiry lessons in the classroom can bring a technology initiative to life. Technology can assist in creating and maintaining balance between the two. Technology can make a difference if students take pride in the school and the activities they create. The process of reciprocal teaching is illustrated when students bring new technologies to the attention of their teachers and administrators, amplifying the use of technology in the classroom. The barriers, concerns, and strengths students embrace are an integral component in the creation and maintenance of an effective technology initiative. Teachers also possess these attributes, and continue the conversation towards a greater tomorrow, one filled with classrooms laden with technology-enhanced discourse.

Current Implications for Teachers Barriers to Using Technology Although computers and technology are prevalent throughout society, all teachers do not incorporate technology into their regular instructional practice. A potential barrier to technology integration is the lack of knowledge teachers possess on how technology can be integrated into current instructional practice. Additionally, school districts have not been trained to fully support integration. A paradigm shift away from classical behaviorist approaches to teaching and learning towards constructivist teaching methods will better align with technology integration (Schunk, 2008). Recent trends in teacher professional development efforts are moving away from an emphasis on technical skills to an increased focus on student-centered pedagogy. Additional barriers include lack of knowledge and skills for teachers and support staff, insufficient feedback from administrators, and a general lack of vision surrounding the technology initiative for all.

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Concerns about Technology Access to technology varies from district to district, building to building, and classroom to classroom. The foundation allowance (the amount of money school districts receive for each student enrolled) is not the same in all districts. The lack of financial resources negatively impacts technology initiatives at varying degrees. Schools located in affluent regions have increased per-pupil spending, and therefore have increased access to computers, the Internet, and additional equipment such as document cameras and PDAs for students to take home. Nonaffluent schools struggle to provide their students with current advances in technology. The access to technology affects the levels of information and knowledge available to teachers and students. Strengths of Technology Technology increases the amount of contact between teacher and parents. Conferences can now take place, using video conferencing equipment, to bring all stakeholders “to the table.” A parent who is out of town can join the teacher and other participants to make informed decisions about her or his student. The use of e-mail keeps parents and teachers connected at all hours of the day. Teacher-created Web sites offer parents the latest information regarding student assignments and academic performance. Although all teachers do not currently use technology, professional development sessions encourage teachers to learn more about effective technology uses. Attendance at professional development (PD) sessions is required of all teachers. Many PDs offer teachers insight into how to create Web sites, upload documents or information, and communicate with parents electronically. The teachers benefit from the ease at which they can communicate with parents to maintain academic rigor in the classrooms. The students and parents benefit from proactive forms of communication regarding assignments and grades. Gone are the days of surprised feelings associated with the grades on a student’s report card. Mentors are also an effective way to enhance technology usage for teachers. A technology-literate teacher can open the doors to the technological world for many people. Teachers who receive additional training in a new software program are often encouraged to share insights with other teachers at team meetings, staff meetings, and at professional development sessions within the district. This collaboration among teachers increases the likelihood a technology initiative will flourish.

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Future Implications Technology enhances collaboration between students, communication between teachers, and cooperation between stakeholders of education in the pursuit of knowledge. Students of the twenty-first century will undoubtedly use technology in their quest for knowledge, employing new and improved means to work together. Teachers of the twenty-first century will certainly face challenges in the attainment and refinement of best-teaching practices, especially those embracing the use of technology. Teachers are on the front lines of the implementation of technology initiatives. School districts have the daunting task of remaining current on methods of accessing information, best teaching practices, and effective learning strategies.

Conclusion Technology impacts society, the secondary classroom, and instructional practice. The effect technology has on current teaching and learning practices is immeasurable. Teachers and students working together can complement one another in many ways. Collaboration can bring outside experiences into the classroom. Communication can bring the voices of the classroom out into the world. Cooperation can remove barriers to knowledge to positively effect learning in the twenty-first century.

References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Brophy, J. E. (1988). Research linking teacher behavior to student achievement: Potential implications for instruction of Chapter 1 students. Educational Psychologist, 23 (3), 235–286. Dale, E. (1969). Audio-visual methods in teaching (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Jackson, J. W. (2002). Enhancing self-efficacy and learning performance. Journal of Experimental Education, 70 (3), 243–255. Maehr, M. L. (1984). Meaning and motivation: Toward a theory of personal investment. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. National Education Association. (2008). Access, adequacy, and equity in education technology: Results of a survey of America’s teachers and support professionals on technology in public schools and classrooms. Available at www.nea.org/research/ images/08gainsandgapsedtech.pdf. Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19 (2), 139–158.

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Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63 (2), 167–199. Schunk, D. H. (2008). Learning theories: An educational perspective (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6 (1), 49–78.

8 Beyond Management: Creating a Classroom Climate for Engagement Deborah L. Smith

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influence learning; thus, it is no wonder that the scope of the classroom climate is extensive. There is so much to consider, concepts such as “self-esteem, physical surroundings, emotional environment, sense of purpose, attitude toward learning, social conditions, self-determination, self-regulation, activation of interests, engagement in the learning process, and motivation” (Kane, 2007, p. 25) to name a few. This comprehensive issue has its roots in classroom management and includes psychological and sociological aspects of the classroom that impact learning. The fact that the concept of classroom climate has continued to expand is a tribute to educators’ understanding of the complicated functions of a classroom. Classroom climate involves a teacher’s daily responses to individual situations but also a teacher’s deeper understanding of each situation. It includes our philosophy of how a classroom should operate and a teacher’s role in the classroom. It involves the power of social interactions and collaborative opportunities for learning in the classroom. Ideally, classroom climate consists of democratic values and engagement. Classroom climate is too important to set aside or ignore until a teacher is faced with classroom decisions. Learning is essential for schooling to be considered successful, and learning is largely dependent on classroom climate; with so much at stake, it is essential to reflect upon the classroom environment and, to take steps to ensure that a classroom atmosphere is created that promotes learning. This can be done, in HERE ARE INNUMERABLE FACTORS THAT

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part, by answering the two questions that most students have when they enter a teacher’s classrooms: • Does this teacher really care about me? • Is this teacher really in charge of the classroom? Caring One way to answer the first question is to be what West (2000) called a “prophetic thinker.” West’s prophetic thinker is one who lives in multiple realities and understands the complexities of this life and uses that knowledge to build a better tomorrow. The four basic components of West’s concept are: • • • •

Discernment Connection Tracking Hypocrisy Hope

Discernment is the idea that teachers must make decisions based on past experiences. Teachers must look closely at what has worked and what has not and create a vision for the classroom by “extend[ing] the best that the past and present have to offer” (Reed & Johnson, 2000, p. 173). The second concept (connection) concerns the need to empathize with students. Teachers must find a way to connect with students that emphasizes the individual relationship that forms when two people respect each other. Tracking hypocrisy refers to the need for self-critique. In relation to classroom climate, this means that teachers ask what they can do to improve classroom climate rather than blaming students when learning does not occur in their classrooms. The final component (hope) is essential to creating a positive and engaging climate where students truly understand that the teacher cares about them. “Even when confronted with numerous atrocities and multiple failures at creating community, the prophetic thinker must keep foremost in mind the notion that history is incomplete, that the world is unfinished, that the future is open-ended and that what we think and what we do can make a difference” (West, 2000, p. 174). Secondary teachers must use all of the components of prophetic thought as outlined by West if they are to show students that they really care. It is not enough to be warm and welcoming. It is not enough to tell students that you care. A trusting environment can be created through the elements of discern-

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ment, connection, tracking hypocrisy, and hope, where students know educators care not just about them in the present, but also about their futures. Control The second question relating to classroom climate that many students have upon entering a classroom relates to students’ needs for security and trust. When a student asks “is this teacher really in charge of the classroom?” the student is really wondering about whether or not they will feel safe and supported enough to fully engage in that classroom. The emotional environment of the classroom depends on the level of trust established between the teacher and students. Students need to feel safe and supported so that they are willing to take risks and truly engage in the processes that will lead to learning. For this to occur, students must feel valued and feel like they are treated fairly. This positive climate can be built through consistent reinforcement of rules and routines. Students must know that a teacher will treat them fairly and that the teacher will enforce rules so that the student’s classmates treat them fairly in order to feel comfortable taking the risks necessary to advance their learning. The correlation between learning and classroom climate is clear. The need to answer both questions with a resounding “yes!” is evident. Students must know that teachers care about them and their futures and that the teacher is in charge of the classroom. What might seem like a simple task is actually quite complex; which is why this important component must be studied and educators must be prepared for building a classroom climate that is emergent and participatory. The students we teach will be continually changing, so teachers must have ideas and concepts that can adapt to the myriad changes a teacher will encounter as classrooms continue to evolve.

The Research on Classroom Climate Classroom climate, as one of those “all inclusive” terms that covers multiple aspects of any classroom, has been examined through multiple lenses. The term encompasses teacher expectations, student motivation, the role of the teacher in learning, the relevance of the curriculum in the lives of the students, and classroom management. Yet, when classroom climate is mentioned, many educators immediately think first of classroom management. Classroom management is actually a broad subject as well, composed of “maximized allocation of time for instruction, arrangement of instructional

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activities to maximize academic engagement and achievement, and proactive behavioral management practices” (Simonsen et al., 2008, p. 351). Classroom management is an area of great importance to current and future teachers. Thus, this is an area of extensive research and, as a result, many theories, models, and systems have been developed. A brief overview of some of the main contributors provides a foundation of where classroom management has come from and where it is heading.

Psychological Foundations and Classroom Climate Reality Theory William Glasser (1965) gave us “Reality Theory” that focused on personal choices, responsibility and transformation, and “Control Theory,” which posited that all behavior was motivated by an attempt to meet one of five basic needs: survival/security, belonging, power, freedom, and fun. Glasser’s work as a psychologist was applied to education, and the result was a model for managing students by providing a classroom climate that met students’ basic needs so that they became high-quality workers in schools. While Glasser’s later work still focused somewhat on students’ behavioral choices, since 1985 there was more of an emphasis on changing the way that classrooms function (Charles, 1999). Assertive Discipline In the mid-1970s Lee Canter (1976) first introduced “Assertive Discipline,” a behavior management system with an emphasis on control. Assertive Discipline is founded on the radical behaviorism theory of B. F. Skinner, centering on reinforcing consequences and understanding behavior as a reflection of environment. When first introduced, Assertive Discipline was an authoritarian approach to behavior management, but it has since evolved into a more cooperative and democratic approach. Teacher Effectiveness Training Also in the mid-1970s, Dr. Thomas Gordon put forth his system called “Teacher Effectiveness Training” (TET), based on the model of psychotherapist Carl Rogers. The TET text of the same name (Gordon, 1974) claims to be “a blueprint of the communication and conflict resolution skills teachers need to have high quality relationships with their students so there will be less conflict and more teaching-learning time” (p. xi).

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The principle focus of the TET model is the need for good communication, listening, and conflict-resolution skills as supported by Carl Rogers’s humanist approach. Carl Rogers provided the foundation for modern student-centered teaching approaches. As can be seen from this sampling, many of the foundations of classroom management lie in the field of psychology. It is also evident that the foundations are prominently focused on the behavioral aspects of classroom management. The inclusion of instructional elements as part of classroom management has been largely ignored until more recently. This new element signifies the acceptance that teaching methods and engagement have a strong effect on student behavior. This brief sampling also demonstrates that classroom management, in theories and models, has consistently moved away from authoritarian, teacher-centered approaches and moved towards a more democratic, learner-centered approach. More recently, educators have also focused much of the discussion on expectations, motivation, and curriculum relevance when discussing classroom climate.

Teacher Expectations and Classroom Climate Teaching students the behavioral expectations in the classroom has a significant positive influence on learning. Simple rules and routines should not only be posted in the classroom, but should also be continuously reinforced and explained so that students see examples of how to behave and what constitutes misbehavior. According to Simonsen et al., (2008), “posting, teaching, and reviewing expectations . . . and providing feedback are associated with (a) decreases in off-task behavior and disruptive behavior, and (b) increases in academic engagement, leadership and conflict resolution” (p. 358). The reinforcement of expectations regularly comes in the form of active supervision. If teachers monitor student behavior and provide gentle guidance in making favorable choices, the classroom climate has a better chance of developing into a supportive environment where students feel safe and understand the nuances behind the posted rules. It is easy to post the rule “Be Respectful” but not always easy for students to interpret that rule and act in accordance without knowing how the individual teacher defines “respect.” In some classrooms being respectful means: • Listen when the teacher is talking. • Listen when another student is talking. • Raise your hand if you have a question or would like to add to a discussion.

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• Use kind words, even in disagreement. • Consider the class when making behavior choices. Each of these “rules” for being respectful should be explained and even modeled for students so that a true understanding of the rule can take hold in the classroom and students will know how to meet the teacher’s expectations. Then, each of these can be reinforced by actively monitoring student behavior and gently correcting students when mistakes are made. Often, the discussion on teacher expectations focuses on academics and the achievement gap. While this is a vital area of research, behavioral expectations can be equally important. Delpit (1995) explains how children in poor urban districts are likely to have a different understanding of authority. Many teachers expect students to implicitly understand that they are the person of authority in the classroom and, based on that, believe that they can make indirect, unassuming requests of students that will be followed because of their inherent authority. The teacher often removes the very explicitness that the child requires to understand the classroom culture and then faults the child for not complying. Explaining, reviewing, and reinforcing the rules particularly helps those students who come to classrooms without “cultural capital” because lowering the behavioral expectations for a student can be as damaging as lowering learning expectations.

Motivation and Classroom Climate Multiple factors influence students’ motivation levels. Some factors are directly related to the classroom environment, and other factors are the result of students’ experiences and attitudes formed over their many years of schooling. Research shows that there is a steady decline in motivation to learn as students move up in grade levels. This trend is often considered a result of the custom of passive learning that is predominant in many secondary classrooms. Many studies show that this trend is further complicated by student resistance. “The classroom atmosphere created by constant teacher direction and student compliance seethes with passive resentment that sometimes bubbles up into overt resistance” (Ayers & Ford, 1996, p 121). Requiring students to be passive learners and failing to set a clear purpose for classroom learning can exacerbate the reproduction of extant inequalities. Resistance theorists view human agency and social interaction—and their links with cultural and structural elements—as central to understanding the social reproduction process. Resistance theorists have proposed that reproduction consists of complex social processes; during these processes marginalized individuals

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may play a role in the reproduction of their own unequal status (MacLeod, 1987; Giroux, 1983; Willis, 1977). This resistance has been unduly complicated by white, liberal teachers who hesitate to exhibit power in the classroom (Delpit, 1995). Student resistance is often interpreted by teachers as a lack of motivation for learning. Students who have had negative learning experiences often choose to disengage and are resistant to efforts from teachers to encourage participatory learning. This can lead to teachers who continue with passive learning methods and who unwittingly help reproduce social inequalities. This resistance is entrenched in opposition to authority and lack of involvement in the process of schooling and leads to the same results as not being able to produce the expected work, failure for the disadvantaged students. This resistance in the classroom is often misinterpreted by teachers. The students who are resistant need teachers who are competent and who understand their situation enough to realize that student resistance can be overcome. Accordingly, while low motivation can be reversed, it is often most difficult with the students who need it the most. One way to increase engagement is with the creation of a highly responsive, interactive learning context. Increasing students’ opportunities to engage in the classroom can occur on many levels.

Engaging Students in the Learning Process The way to minimize resistance in the classroom is to find ways to engage students in the learning process. According to the National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE) (2006), the following are evidence-based ways to promote literacy engagement in the classroom: • Developing goal setting to establish a learning goal orientation that emphasizes using strategies effectively and linking new knowledge to previous experiences; • Making real-world connections to reading and allowing students to have meaningful choices in what, when, and how to read; • Self-monitoring for breaks in comprehension and clarifying new vocabulary and concepts; • Providing interesting texts that are familiar, vivid, important, and relevant, and supplementing textbooks with trade books, multimedia, technology-literacy, journals, Internet, and hands-on experiences; • Assuring social collaboration for learning; and • Ensuring alignment and cohesion in selection of instructional goals and processes (p. 26).

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Engaging students in their own learning does not mean that the teacher turns over the responsibility for learning to students themselves; it simply means that the teacher welcomes students into the process of thinking about their own learning. Students who set their own goals and keep track of their progress are more likely to be engaged in the learning process. The very process of self-monitoring their learning involves higher-level thinking skills that are required for self-directed learning and can prepare students for individual learning. In the same way, providing students with choices helps to engage students in their own learning. Choices provide students with a powerful reason to connect to the learning and help students to feel like they are an important part of their own learning process. Setting a purpose for student learning is crucial for student retention of new material and increases students’ interest. There are many ways to motivate students, and the NASBE provides many of the research-based possibilities. Also, democratic values are encouraged when participatory classrooms are created in which students’ assume responsibility for their own learning.

What This Means for a Teacher’s Classroom The research on classroom climate lends itself to reflection on a teacher’s classroom practice. Because of that, there is a checklist provided at the end of this section that a teacher can consider when reflecting on their classroom practice. Prophetic thinkers should always be looking for ways to improve their practice. There are many recommendations, based on the research, from practical advice on classroom layout and design to more abstract recommendations about situational interest, building a community in the classroom, and maximizing structure in the classroom. Teachers must each find their own way, but there are many evidence-based practices that can help in the quest to engage students and ensure that the climate of the classroom promotes learning.

Activating Interest Getting students to be interested in the subject area can seem like a daunting task, especially if teachers are required to cover content that does not seem to have direct relevance for students’ lives. One way to overcome this is to create “situational interest” which Kane (2007) defines as “an individual’s perception of the appealing characteristics of an activity, generated by certain condi-

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tions and/or concrete objects in the environment” (p. 28). Multiple studies show a positive correlation between situational interest and student learning, attitude, and increases in student effort (Flowerday, Schraw, & Stevens, 2004; Flowerday & Schraw, 2000; Kohn, 1993). Students come to class with their topic or personal interests already in place, and these tend to remain stable, while situational interest can be stimulated by the learning context and is based on natural curiosity. “Modification of teaching materials and strategies, and/or how tasks are presented, can contribute to the development of situational interest in a variety of areas” (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000, p. 152). Conditions that focus students’ attention can create situational interest in the classroom and can include reading for a particular purpose, working with others, and finding ways to increase relevance. All of the subjects that are taught in secondary schools have relevance to students’ lives, but the relationship between some of the daily lessons and the larger picture is not always clear to students. Teachers can increase student interest by continually making the links from what students are learning to the overarching concepts and questions in the various disciplines. Whenever students are engaged with thinking about important questions, learning is taking place. Structure The link between structure and student achievement has been made clear in the educational research (Simonsen et al., 2008; Maxwell, 1996; Weinstein, 1977) and yet can appear to be in opposition to the research on situational interest and motivational theories. Guthrie et al. (2006) find that some of the factors that can increase interest and motivate students are novelty, hands-on projects, and choices. This makes some teachers wonder how to introduce novelty to students and maintain a structured classroom. These are not mutually exclusive concepts. Structure in the classroom goes back to the research on teacher expectations. If students are taught how to behave in classrooms, teachers can lead organized, predictable classrooms where students feel safe taking risks and include novelties and hands-on activities. In fact, structure is even more important if students are to be actively involved. Providing students with clear directions, modeling expected behaviors, and actively supervising students are key factors in creating a structured classroom. Activities that engage students do not have to be large-scale like bringing a snake to school or dissecting owl pellets, although these hands-on experiences can lead to stimulation of students’ interest; anything that makes it so the learners are not passive can lead to increased student learning.

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Physical Layout The learning environment where students are expected to engage is a large part of the classroom climate and is a component of the classroom structure. This context is influenced by factors that the teacher controls as well as outside variables. In terms of the physical setting, the teacher can plan for social engagement with a classroom layout that is geared to student-centered learning. Desks can be clustered for group interaction, and the teacher’s desk can be located in the back of the room to visually represent that the teacher is a facilitator who plays a consultative role rather than the starring role in the classroom. A student-centered classroom is likely to display student work on the walls and bulletin boards and include centers based on students’ interests. In addition, providing students with space can really help cut back on learning distractions (Simonsen et al, 2008). The physical layout of the classroom can promote students’ collaboration and engagement. Community Building The final item in this section is the most difficult to put into practice. Teachers can be engaging and use best practice to motivate students and build situational interest. Teachers can have a structured classroom where daily organization means that little time is wasted and students know what to expect academically and behaviorally and how to meet expectations on a regular basis. Teachers can build connections with their students, helping them to develop a feeling of competence by scaffolding their teaching so that students are challenged appropriately. Teachers can accomplish this and still not have an optimum learning situation unless they have built a community of learners in the classroom. All of these actions help, and a community of learners is not likely to flourish without these foundations, but community-building takes more. Kohn (1996) posits that community is best pursued on four levels: • strengthening the adult’s relationship with each student; • building students’ connections with each other; • providing for numerous classwide and schoolwide activities in which students work together toward a common end; and • weaving the goal of community through academic instruction (p. 111). The goal of community-building is to create an environment where students encourage each other, feel supported, and feel safe. In a classroom that has a sense of community, students do not fear being ridiculed by other students and thus are willing to take risks. Students work

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together to solve problems, both academic and social issues that arise in the classroom. When these items all work together, classroom climate can be positive and promote student learning.

Checklist for Classroom Climate Since there are so many elements involved in classroom climate, this checklist is provided for a teacher to consider when preparing to design a classroom environment that is positive and engaging. Overall _____ Do the students know that you care about them as individuals? _____ Is it clear that you are in charge of the classroom? Teacher Attitude _____ Do you believe that all students can achieve? _____ Do you continually look for ways to improve classroom climate based on past experiences and present situations? _____ Do you create a community where all students feel connected? _____ When a lesson fails and students do not learn, do you reflect on your own practices? _____ Do you try each day to make a difference in the future of your students? Management _____ _____ _____ _____

Do you have the rules/routines posted? Do you teach students how to follow the rules and routines? Are you consistent in your reinforcement of the rules and routines? Do you monitor student behavior and provide guidance when any rules are not followed? _____ Do you try to find ways to ensure that every student feels valued? _____ Do students spend the majority of their time in your classroom learning? Motivation _____ When students resist learning, do you keep trying multiple approaches? _____ Are students involved in the process of learning in your classroom?

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_____ Do students set learning goals and monitor their progress towards those goals? _____ Do you link new information to what students already know? _____ Do you relate learning with students’ lives? _____ Do you set a clear purpose for students’ learning? _____ Do you provide students with choices in the classroom? _____ Do you provide interesting texts and hands-on experiences? _____ Do students get the opportunity to collaborate socially when learning? _____ Are the processes you select for students to engage in research-based? _____ Are your selected learning activities the best ones possible to meet instructional goals? Activation of Interest _____ Do you vary your strategies and materials? _____ Do you continuously link what students are learning to the big questions? _____ Do you provide students with organized opportunities for collaboration? _____ Do you find ways to make each lesson relevant to students? Structure _____ Do your students know what to expect each day in your classroom? _____ Are the directions provided to students clear, and do they include academic and behavioral expectations? _____ Are the classroom routines clearly outlined and actively supervised? _____ Are students given opportunities to respond in your classroom? Physical Layout _____ Is your classroom designed with social interaction in mind? _____ Is student work displayed prominently? _____ Have you allowed students the maximum space possible? Community-Building _____ After learning about students, do you work to strengthen connections to students? _____ Do you work to build connections among your students? _____ Do you engage students in activities with a common goal? _____ Do you consider community building when planning academic instruction?

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_____ Do students feel safe in your classroom? _____ Do students take risks in your classroom? _____ Do students work together to solve problems in your classroom?

Concluding Thoughts This expanding notion of classroom climate is complex but trying to simplify it would be a mistake. The learning environment that is created for students involves many elements; all are uniquely important and worthy of a teacher’s attention. Some teachers mistakenly believe that because they took an adolescent psychology course that they know “adolescents” in some general sense and that that is enough. Others discredit attempts to learn about classroom climate by claiming that it is impossible to know what situations a teacher will face in the classroom from day to day. While it is true that a teacher must remain flexible and get to know each class and each individual student to ensure that a teacher makes the right decisions about classroom processes, the teacher must also prepare and consider all of the elements beforehand. Along the way the teacher can weave all of these elements together to create a classroom climate that is caring, consistent, interesting, structured, and relevant, all at the same time.

References Ayers, W., & Ford, P. (1996). City kids, city teachers: Reports from the front row. New York: New Press. Canter, L. (1976). Assertive discipline: A take-charge approach for today’s educator. Seal Beach, CA: Canter and Associates. Charles, C. M. (1999). Building classroom discipline. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflicts in the classroom. New York: New Press. Flowerday, T., & Schraw, G. (2000). Teachers’ beliefs about instructional choice: A phenomenological study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 634–645. Flowerday, T., Schraw, G., & Stevens, J. (2004). The role of choice and interest in reader engagement. Journal of Experimental Education, 72(2), 93–115. Giroux, H. A. (1983). Theories of reproduction and resistance in the new sociology of education: A critical analysis. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 257–293. Glasser, W. (1965). Reality therapy: A new approach to psychiatry. New York: Harper and Row. Gordon, T. (1974). TET: Teacher effectiveness training. New York: David McKay.

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Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Humenick, N. M., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., & Barbosa, P. (2006). Influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 99 (4), 232–247. Hidi, S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70 (2), 151–179. Kane, S. (2007). Literacy & learning in the content areas. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway. Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Kohn, A. (1993). Choices for children: Why and how to let students decide. Phi Delta Kappan, 75, 8–16. MacLeod, J. (1987). Ain’t no makin’ it: Aspirations and attainment in a low income neighborhood. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Maxwell, L. E. (1996). Multiple effects of home and daycare overcrowding. Environment and Behavior, 28 (4), 494–511. National Association of State Boards of Education. (2006). Reading at risk: The state response to the crisis in adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Boards of Education. Reed, R. F., & Johnson, T. W. (2000). Philosophical documents in education (2nd ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley. Reed, R. F., & Johnson, T. W. (1996). Philosophical documents in education. New York: Addison-Wesley. Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidencebased practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education and Treatment of Children 33 (3), 351–380. Weinstein, C. S. (1977). Modifying student behavior in an open classroom through changes in the physical design. American Educational Research Journal, 14 (3), 249–262. West, C. (2000). Prophetic thought in postmodern times. In R. F. Reed & T. W. Johnson (Eds.), Philosophical documents in education (pp.188–202). New York: Addison-Wesley. Willis, P. (1977). Learning to labour. Farnborough, UK: Saxon House.

9 Parental Involvement in the Middle School and High School Classroom LaCreta M. Clark

Introduction

P

to educators. The concept of parental involvement has been around for as long as public schools have existed. For a long time, parents have often been seen in schools—assisting teachers, students, and administrators in any way needed. The majority of parent volunteers are “at home mothers,” who have the luxury of time to volunteer during the school day, and the majority of schools are populated by families within a two- to five-mile radius of the school building. Today, however, parental involvement has become a very complex issue that asks new questions of educators and presents new challenges and opportunities for all students to be successful. ARENTAL INVOLVEMENT HAS ALWAYS BEEN IMPORTANT

Definition of Parental Involvement For the first time in the history of public education the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) contains a definition of parental involvement. This law defines parental involvement as the participation of parents in regular, two-way, and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities. The National Middle School Association (2003) defines parental involvement as the term “parents” refers to biological parents, adoptive and stepparents, and primary caregivers (e.g., having an awareness of and involvement — 113 —

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in schoolwork, understanding of the interaction between parenting skills and student success in schooling, and a commitment to consistent communication with educators about student progress. The term “parents” refers to biological parents, adoptive and stepparents, and primary caregivers (e.g., grandmother, aunt, brother). This definition reflects the changing family structure and recognizes that “parents” today can be extended family members, older siblings, adoptive parents, foster parents, stepparents, and/or guardians.

What Research Says Over three decades of research and studies show that family involvement has a direct correlation to increased student achievement in school (Henderson & Berla, 1994; U.S. Department of Education, 1994; Eagle, 1989; Ziegler, 1987). When families are involved in their student’s education, students earn higher grades, complete more homework, attend school more frequently, demonstrate better dispositions, graduate from high school at higher rates, and are more likely to attend institutions of higher education than students with less family involvement. Research (e.g., Van Voorhis, 2003; Fan & Chen, 2001; Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997) also shows that parental involvement and support that focuses on the academic learning of students dramatically increases student academic success. While there is an abundance of research on parental involvement at the elementary level, the research declines dramatically at the middle school and high school levels, as does parental involvement. Teachers know that parental involvement makes a difference, but there is still a struggle with how to effectively involve parents and families. This struggle is further compounded by the changing family structure. And at the middle and secondary level, there is also the challenge to determine which practices of family involvement matter most, how to balance family involvement, and, how to honor adolescent autonomy and independence, while simultaneously trying to motivate all students to achieve academic excellence. When done right, parental involvement provides a tremendous opportunity for teachers and parents to build partnerships and work together for student success. Building such partnerships, however, requires classroom teachers to really know the families they serve, to understand the changing dynamics of the family structure, and to integrate family involvement practices into the classroom that meet the needs of all students and families. Parental involvement can be a positive and powerful source of influence for the achievement of adolescents. By encouraging parents to be involved in

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developmentally appropriate ways, teachers can nurture an important alliance with parents in the teacher’s efforts to help all students achieve academic excellence.

Changing Family Structure From the 1950s to the 1980s, traditional families accounted for over 60 percent of all families being served in public schools. Throughout that forty-year span of time, families typically consisted of two parents, a mother and father, and the mother was, for the most part, a stay-at-home mom, who volunteered at the local school her children attended. During this period of time, parents and families were seen as helpers, and for many families and parents, involvement was a way to assist in their child’s education and an opportunity to engage an institution that was not, for some parents, a part of their childhood experience. Families wanted their children to receive an education to improve their lives. Parents assisted with supervising classrooms, volunteering for field trips, and crafts and activities during and after school. These parents were available during the day, and so everything revolved around the traditional school day, and the community occupied the school building in the evening. Schools and families today look very different than they did thirty years ago. There have been dramatic changes in the family structure, especially in the twenty-first century. Millions of children are being raised by single parents, divorced parents, gay and lesbian parents, guardians, interracial parents, blended family parents, extended family members, and foster or adoptive parents. According to the U.S. Census Bureau of Household and Family Statistics (2000), single parents account for 26 percent of households with children under eighteen years of age. During the past decade, the number of same-sex households has risen significantly in ten states for which figures have been released. The number of same-sex households has risen more than 700 percent in Delaware and Nevada; more than 400 percent in Vermont, Indiana, Louisiana, and Nebraska; and more than 200 percent in Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, and Montana. Today, the family is multi-faceted, where parents are traditional, same-sex, foster care parents, grandparent parents, adoptive parents, blended families, and more. Additionally, parents today are more educated, more transient, and more employed. As a result, some families are demanding more of teachers. All of these variables require teachers to reflect on their own perceptions and biases that can impede their ability to fully engage all parents. It requires

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teachers to rethink how parents are to be involved and consider alternative ways to involve less available parents. It also requires teachers to navigate new territory, which includes (1) having a culturally relevant curriculum, (2) having an understanding of and sensitivity to the diversity of families, (3) having an understanding of the home environment of students and the cultural differences that exist between the teacher and students in the classroom, and (4) having an understanding of the biases that may inhibit fostering partnerships with parents and families. Teachers are entrusted with shaping and influencing the lives of students, and it is imperative that teachers reflect on their biases and perceptions because these can be the biggest barriers to fostering positive and meaningful relationships with parents. The goal of parental involvement and partnerships between teacher and family is to positively influence family behavior in ways that support classroom practices, student learning, and student success. Teachers have a great opportunity to positively influence the “behaviors and practices” of parents in ways that help their students succeed, so it is incumbent that teachers challenge their own perceptions and confront their biases. In this manner they are able to shake the hand of every parent no matter who they are because it is not what parents look like, it is what they “do” that matters most to student success.

Traditional School, Family, and Community Partnerships Framework Joyce Epstein (2001) provides foundational research on school, family, and community partnerships that gives teachers a conceptual framework for understanding why school, family, and community are spheres of influence on student success, how parental involvement can positively influence student success, and how teachers can begin to practically involve parents and communities in the educational process. There are six types of involvement that schools can focus on to involve parents and families. The six types are (1) parenting, (2) communicating, (3) volunteering, (4) academic learning, (5) decision-making committees, and (6) collaborating with community. Additionally, when schools tie their partnership and parental involvement initiatives to school goals and ensure that all types of involvement are addressed in a partnership action plan, middle schools and high schools are sure to increase parental involvement and improve student achievement. Research (e.g., Epstein, 1991; Flaxman & Inger, 1992; Hickman, Greenwood & Miller, 1995) shows that schools that have followed this prescription have high parental involvement and evidence of improved student achievement, especially at the elementary level.

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Clark’s Multiple Spheres of Influence Clark’s Multiple Spheres of Influence model integrates Epstein’s (2001) conceptual framework for understanding school, family, and community partnerships; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1962); and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages (Erikson, 1980) to create a model that is useful at the middle school and high school level. Clark’s model • acknowledges peers as a critical sphere of influence that must be represented at the middle school and high school levels. • reflects dynamic spheres of influence that have varying degrees of importance at varying levels of schooling. • assumes that all school, family, community partnership activities and strategies are reflective of student development in ways that positively direct and influence student behavior, peer interactions, and identity development. Spheres of Influence—Elementary Level At the elementary school level, family and school, respectively, will be most important to the development and academic success of the student. Elementary teachers need to encourage parents and families to become partners in education by focusing their efforts on communication and information about school and classroom activities and events, and especially student learning. It is very important to provide opportunities for parents to reinforce academic learning goals at home, specifically reinforcement of the basics: reading, writing, and arithmetic. It is also useful to provide families with information about community resources that expose students to the arts, music, and sports activities. Spheres of Influence—Middle School Level At the middle school level, peers and community, respectively, will be most important to the development of the student. Parental presence in the school environment will naturally decrease, while their assistance with monitoring student progress and ensuring continued learning occurs in the home environment will become extremely important. With this knowledge, middle school teachers can shift the focus of their family and community involvement to focus on (1) affirming adolescent development, (2) creating and sustaining positive peer interactions, and (3) establishing community partnerships that support student learning. Examples of such practices

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include, but are not limited to, (a) celebrating the Month of the Young Adolescent (MOYA), (b) peer tutoring programs that occur during and after school, (c) social peer organizations and activities, and (d) service learning opportunities. Parental involvement practices can include multiple forms of communication and easy access to information regarding student learning and academic progress. Parents can become accountability partners in the home environment when teachers convey the value of their support. Parents and families can also provide an abundance of cultural information that can be used by classroom teachers to integrate into lesson plans and facilitate the emergence of learning communities, where teachers, students, and schools value and celebrate diversity. Spheres of Influence—High School Level At the high school level, peers and community remain the most influential spheres of influence; however, parental involvement and community take on greater degrees of importance. It is important to note that the peer group is predominant in both school and community. This has implications for the way in which high school teachers and schools create positive peer interactions in the classroom, school environment, and community. While parents are still accountability partners to ensure students complete assignments and are prepared for school, there are other ways that parents must be involved. High school teachers must encourage parental styles that support student success, educate parents on ways to assist their student in postsecondary transitions, and utilize culturally relevant curriculum that affirms student diversity. With this knowledge, high school teachers can shift their focus to more appropriately meet the developmental needs of high school students, while simultaneously keeping parents involved in their student’s education. Examples of such practices include Shadow Mentoring Programs, university partnerships, service learning opportunities, vocational training, youth leadership development organizations, and volunteering opportunities. While there is limited research regarding parental involvement at the secondary level, there are some key findings that shed light on the complexity, challenges, and changes of parental involvement at the secondary level. For the purposes of this textbook, the findings discussed in this chapter will be limited to those that have implications for the secondary classroom teacher. Parental Involvement at the Secondary Level Parent involvement is important to the educational success of adolescents and yet generally declines when a child enters the middle grades (Jackson et

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al., 2004; National Middle School Association, 2003; Epstein, 2001; Jackson & Davis, 2000). The inability to “make sense” of the decline in parental involvement at the middle school and high school levels and the simultaneous decline in school partnership initiatives, however, may be due, in large part, to an inaccurate view of the issues. The decrease in parental involvement at the middle school and high school levels seem to be linked to several factors. They are (1) student developmental needs, (2) teacher perceptions and cultural knowledge deficiency regarding parents and families, and (3) lack of knowledge regarding how to involve parents in ways that make a positive contribution to student success.

Student Developmental Needs When looking at middle school and high school students, teachers must consider not only academic needs and changes, but the dramatic developmental changes that the adolescent experiences during this time in their life. Some of the factors to consider are: • Student identity and psychosocial development • Increased need for independence and autonomy • Increased time and involvement with peers/peer groups Adolescence is the second most dramatic developmental change that students experience. Adolescent development is discussed in more detail in chapter 6. Middle school and high school students begin to explore identity issues, desire more independence and autonomy, as well as industry and competence in self. These changes are compounded by the physiological, psychological, social, and emotional changes that occur simultaneously and within a community of their peers. With the development changes of adolescence, parental roles also change. Parental roles change in ways that honor their students’ desire to become independent and responsible individuals whose identity is no longer solely defined by parents and/or family, but rather highly influenced by peers. In order to promote positive peer interactions and positive life choices for the adolescent, secondary school teachers have the primary responsibility to focus school, family, and community partnership activities around community involvement and parental involvement. Parental involvement must be directed toward monitoring student progress, frequent parent-student conversations about postsecondary schooling, and opportunities to educate parents about navigating the future with their students.

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At this developmental stage, adolescents begin getting their first jobs, begin working toward their first driver’s license, begin to affiliate with community organizations, and begin pursuing life options after high school. Filling their time with positive and responsible work and experiences, while also focusing on academics, that are now directly tied to postsecondary school opportunities, is paramount. Lerner’s (2002) theory of adolescent development emphasizes the need to consider development as systemic change. Lerner’s theory requires seeing the adolescent as a dynamic entity, the center of a network of influences involving him or herself. This theory supports Clark’s multiple spheres of influence and suggests that to understand adolescents, teachers must consider the multiple influences that weigh in on adolescent choices and experiences. Several findings from the research are noteworthy for the secondary teacher.

The Responsibility of Secondary Schools and Parental Involvement Peer Group Choice and Influence Research on peer group influence (e.g., Robertson & Symons, 2003; Horvat & Lewis, 2003; Henderson, Mieszkowski, & Sauvageau, 1978) finds that student achievement is strongly related to the educational background and goals of other students in the school. Peer influence is found to be more important than teacher characteristics and other nonacademic aspects of the school environment. These findings suggest that peer groups and peer group choice can have major implications for student success. The findings also suggest that stages of development can be interrupted or challenged when environmental factors make it more difficult for a person to keep growing and developing. Adolescents are especially prone to environmental influences because they are still being formed as persons, and the truth is that many struggle daily for acceptance from their peers. Teachers should be aware of the power of peer groups in order to create classrooms with positive peer interaction. Culturally Relevant Curriculum Research on educational reform inevitably addresses issues of multicultural education, curriculum design, and a culturally responsive curriculum (e.g., Bennet, 1999; Nieto, 1997; Banks, 1997; Banks, 1995; Darling-Hammond, 1995; Delpit, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1994a, b). The findings suggest that an aspect of student motivation for learning is found in the content of the curriculum. “Culturally responsive education must acknowledge the relevance of approaches that incorporate students’ cultures into the curricular and instructional strategies used in schools” (Maddox-Smith, 1998, p. 302). Stu-

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dents are more motivated when the curriculum “speaks” to them and their life experiences. The findings suggest that secondary teachers have a great opportunity to ensure that the curriculum is reflective of the diversity in the middle school and high school classroom along racial, cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic lines, as well as diversity of learning styles and the use of differentiated instruction. Influencing Parenting Styles and Parent-Student Discussions Research (e.g.. Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Wentzel, 1998; Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Baumrind, 1991) reports that the academic achievement of secondary school students is also positively affected by parenting style and the frequency of parent/student discussions regarding school experiences and academic matters.

Promising Practices for the Secondary Classroom Teacher Parental involvement at the secondary level is shaped around several critical factors. These factors are: • • • • • •

continued monitoring of student academic work developing and maintaining good study skills ensuring school attendance parental high expectations for student academic success positive parental messages regarding future expectations for their student advocating and supporting postsecondary educational and job-related opportunities.

Parents with high educational expectations of their children directly influence the quality of achievement and the level of educational attainment. In other words, parents who expect high grades and college pursuit, influence their children’s attainment and achievement of such goals. Secondary classroom teachers want the parents of their students to be involved. This will require a willingness to both learn from parents and families and teach parents and families how to best assist their student in achieving academic success. In secondary schools, four types of involvement take precedence over all others. The four types are: • Provide Parenting Information • Communicate the importance of positive relationships between parents and their children and the value of positive parental messages regarding student’s future directions. Parents who hold high expectations

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for their adolescent, articulate them clearly, and encourage their adolescents to work hard to achieve them, can make a difference in a student’s success. • Reach out to all families, not just those who attend parent meetings/ conferences. • Provide information about parenting styles and parental messages that support student success. • Link parents to programs and resources within the community that provide support services to families. • Maintain Effective Two-Way Communication • Use a variety of communication tools on a regular basis, seeking to facilitate two-way interaction with parents and families through each type of medium. Translate communications to assist non-Englishspeaking parents. • Provide multiple times during the day for parent contacts, so that parents feel welcome to speak with a teacher. • Establish opportunities for parents to share parenting information, such as student strengths and learning preferences. • Provide clear information regarding course expectations and offerings, student placement, school activities, student services, and optional programs. Tailor this information for course content and strategies for success and further study. • Conduct student-led conferences with parents at least twice a year. Students take ownership for their learning by creating portfolios that display the continuum of achievement. Parents are more inclined to be present for their student. These should accommodate the varied schedules of parents, language barriers, and the need for child care. • Encourage immediate contact with parents when concerns arise. • Communicate with parents regarding positive student behavior and achievement, not just regarding misbehavior or failure. • Ask parents what supports they need, and work to find ways to meet those needs. This communicates a clear message to parents, that they are valued and their input is needed. • Inform Parents about Student Learning • Inform parents of the expectations for students in each subject at each grade level. • Provide information regarding how parents can foster learning at home; for example, give appropriate assistance, monitor homework, and give feedback to teachers. • Regularly assign interactive homework that will require students to discuss and interact with their parents about what they are learning in class.

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• Sponsor workshops or distribute information to assist parents in understanding how students can improve skills, get help when needed, meet class expectations, and perform well on assessments. • Involve parents in setting student goals each year and in planning for postsecondary education and careers. Encourage the development of a personalized education plan for each student where parents are full partners. • Provide opportunities for students to explore the various careers/professions where their learning has practical application. Also provide information to families about places in the community where students can “see their learning in real life.” • Collaborate with Community • Create partnerships with universities and plan parent nights where parents can learn about postsecondary opportunities and all of the necessary testing and paperwork that is often time-sensitive. • Develop community partnerships with businesses that will allow shadow-mentoring opportunities for students to spend time in the kind of career setting to which they aspire. • Invite families (who are community) to be a part of the learning process, where they and their students are the conveyors of cultural and ethnic knowledge.

Concluding Thoughts Never before in the history of public education has parental involvement and parental rights been so clearly outlined and articulated. In this era of accountability and high-stakes testing, parental involvement has received national attention in federal legislation that provides school funding for needed programs and instructional resources. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) has clearly outlined parental involvement as a critical and necessary part of school goals and governance. Policymakers have affirmed their commitment to parent involvement by strengthening policies in the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, now called the No Child Left Behind Act. Parental involvement at the secondary level is still a very necessary and powerful aspect of student success. It is clear that those preparing to teach at the secondary level must have a clear understanding of adolescent development, an understanding about the changing focus of parental involvement, and an understanding of their own cultural values, beliefs, and practices that become the lens through which teacher-student interactions are nurtured. Additionally, secondary teachers can benefit from intentionally educating

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themselves about the cultural and contextual factors that impact the lives of their students. Besides parents, teachers are still the next most important person in the lives of students. The more secondary teachers can assist students in achieving excellence and the more secondary teachers involve the parents and families of students in the work of the middle school and high school classrooms, the more successful adolescents will be in middle schools and high schools, and beyond.

References Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1991). Family structure, parental practices, and high school completion. American Sociology Review, 5, 309–320. Banks, J. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York: Teachers College Press. Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice. In J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 3–24). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Baumrind, D. (1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. In J. BrooksGunn, R. Lerner, & A. C. Peterson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of adolescence (pp. 746–758). New York: Garland. Bennet, C. I. (1999). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Darling-Hammond, L. (1995). Inequality and access to knowledge. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 465–483). New York: Macmillan. Delpit, L. D. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press. Eagle, E. (1989). Socioeconomic status, family structure, and parental involvement: The correlates of achievement. In A.T. Henderson & N. Berla (Eds.), A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement (pp. 59–60). Washington, DC: Center for Law and Education. Epstein, J. (1991). Effects on student achievement of teachers’ practices of parent involvement. Advances in Reading Language Research, 5, 261–276. Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S.B. (2002). Present and accounted for: Improving student attendance through family and community involvement. Journal of Educational Research, 95 (5), 308–318. Epstein, J. L., Simon, B. S., & Salinas, K. C. (1997). Involving parents in homework in the middle grades (Rep. No. 18). Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Center for Evaluation, Development, and Research. Erikson, E. (1980). Identity and the life cycle. New York: W. W. Norton.

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Fan, X. T., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 1–22. Flaxman, E., & Inger, M. (1992). Parents and schooling in the 1990s. Principal, 72 (2), 16–18. Henderson, A. T., & Berla, N. (Eds.). (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement. (A report from the National Committee for Citizens in Education). Washington, DC: Center for Law and Education. Henderson, V., Mieszkowski, P., & Sauvageau, Y. (1978). Peer group effects and educational production functions. Journal of Public Economics 10 (1), 97–196. Hickman, C. W., Greenwood, G., & Miller, M. D. (1995). High school parent involvement: Relationships with achievement, grade level, SES, and gender. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 28 (3), 125–134. Horvat, E. M., & Lewis, K. S. (2003). Reassessing the ‘burden of acting white’: The importance of peer groups in managing academic success. Sociology of Education, 76 (4), 265–280. Jackson, A. W., Andrews, P. G., Holland, H., & Pardini, P. (2004). Making the most of middle school: A field guide for parents and others. New York: Teachers College Press. Jackson, A., & Davis, P. G. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994a). The dreamkeepers: Successful teaching for African-American students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994b). Who will teach our children? Preparing teachers to successfully teach African American students. In E. R. Hollis, J. E. King, & W. C. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching diverse populations: Formulating a knowledge base (pp. 129–142). New York: State University of New York Press. Lerner, R. (2002). Adolescent development, diversity, context, and application. New York: Prentice Hall. Maddox-Smith, R. (1998). Defining culture as a dimension of academic achievement: Implications for culturally responsive curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Journal of Negro Education, 67 (3), 302–317. Maslow, A. H. (1962). Some basic propositions of a growth and self-actualization psychology. In A. W. Combs (Ed.), Perceiving, behaving, becoming: A new focus for education (pp. 34–49). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association. Nieto, S. (1997). School reform and student achievement: A multicultural perspective. In J. A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 387–407). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Robertson, D., & Symons, J. (2003). Do peer groups matter? Peer group versus schooling effects on academic attainment. Economica, 70 (277), 31–53. U. S. Census Bureau. (2000). Housing and household economic statistics division: Fertility & family statistics branch. Washington, DC: U. S. Census Bureau.

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U. S. Department of Education. (1994). Strong families, strong schools: Building community partnerships for learning. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education. Van Voorhis, F. L. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement. Journal of Education Research, 96, 323–338. Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Parents’ aspirations for children’s educational attainments: Relations to parental belief systems and social address variables. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 44, 20–37. Ziegler, S. (1987). The effects of parent involvement on children’s achievement: The significance of home/school links. In A. T. Henderson & N. Berla (Eds.), A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement (pp. 151–152). Washington, DC: Center for Law and Education.

III PERSPECTIVES ON INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE ISSUES

10 The Nature of Instruction Ervin F. Sparapani

Introduction

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exists in every facet of life. This chapter on instruction examines what instruction is, how instruction can be delivered, and the relationship between instruction and assessment. Instruction is at the core of what teachers do. It goes without saying that effective instruction results in something being taught and something being learned. In education, this generally means delivery of the curriculum. Delivery of the curriculum is best understood in the context of a discipline. A teacher teaches the content of a curriculum; students learn the content and are assessed on what they know about that content. Delivery of the curriculum, though, needs to be understood as including more than content. Instruction as delivery of the curriculum includes a person’s entire being, mind, body, and spirit.

Definition of Instruction Instruction is a fascinating word, which is used in many ways and can be seen in many forms, from “stand up” teaching, to modeling, to demonstrating, to discussing. In educational settings “stand up” teaching is the most common form of instruction. Outside of an educational setting though (e.g., in the animal kingdom, in families, on the job), modeling, demonstrating, and discussing are more common. Whatever the setting, instruction can be defined — 129 —

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as giving information in such a way that another being not only can learn the information, but understands what they are expected to do in a given situation. As one expects, there are varieties of instruction. Instruction can be directive or explanatory. Instruction can be demonstrating or modeling. Instruction can be discussing. Instruction can be role modeling or mentoring. In a narrow sense, instruction is directive. Directive instruction is generally very specific and more like an order, with the person giving the “directive” expecting that the “order” be followed quite specifically. For example, such directive instruction happens when commands are given as when someone in the military receives a “command” from their superior, or when a person working with a computer gives a “command” to the computer. Another type of directive instruction is explanatory. Explanatory instruction happens when guidelines or procedures are given. A judge in a courtroom, for example, provides such explanations to a jury when they are ready to begin deliberations on a case. Similarly, a teacher in a classroom uses explanatory instruction to provide guidance for completing an assignment or clarification of information. Demonstrating and modeling types of instruction occur when an individual (or group of individuals) display for others (those who are watching and learning) how something can be accomplished. Demonstrating and modeling occur “on the job” or in a laboratory when one person is showing others (demonstrating and modeling) how something is to be done. Demonstrating and modeling is also seen when parents or older siblings demonstrate or model acceptable (or unacceptable) behavior. Demonstrating and modeling is also seen in the animal kingdom when an animal mother demonstrates or models hunting, gathering, and safety behaviors for her young. Discussing as instruction occurs when two or more people have a conversation to understand a task. Demonstrating and modeling also involve conversation. Unlike demonstrating and modeling, in which there is someone considered the “leader,” in discussion all individuals involved participate as equals. In formal discussion, there is a designated leader. The responsibility of the discussion leader, though, is not to provide answers but to keep the discussion focused and moving, and, most importantly, to make sure that all voices are heard in the conversation. Another type of instruction is role modeling or mentoring. In this type of instruction, a person considered to have experience and knowledge with something (an expert) provides another person with advice and counsel when learning or completing a task. Expert role modeling and mentoring are particularly important in circumstances in which a person is new at something and inexperienced, in other words, a novice.

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Providing Information As noted above, in an educational setting, the actual purpose for instruction is providing information through the delivery of the prescribed curriculum. Typically, in an educational setting, all the aspects of instruction mentioned can be observed at one time or another. The most appropriate way to deliver the curriculum is always open for debate. What may work as “best” practice for one teacher is not “best” practice for another. Most teachers agree, however, that the “best” way to deliver the curriculum is by making it meaningful and relevant to the learner. Instruction Is Communication Instruction is a communicative process. Communication implies interaction. To have communication there must be a communicator and a recipient of the information being communicated. There are three important features to communication. One, the communicator must communicate in a manner that is understandable to the recipient; two, the communication must be meaningful and relevant to the recipient; and three, if not meaningful and/or relevant, the recipient eventually “tunes out” the communication. In an educational setting, the best way to make learning meaningful and relevant to a recipient (the student) is to select an instructional process that is interactive, engaging, and student-centered. Interactive Instruction Instruction that is interactive allows for constant and open communication between the teacher and the learner. Instruction that is centered on discussion, using questioning strategies, is where the teacher uses pause/wait time appropriately and students are given time to discuss issues with guidance and focus from the teacher, and limited interruption leads toward active communication between teacher and recipient. Grouping strategies that are open-ended, but task-oriented, also tend toward active communication. Such instruction (using questioning strategies or grouping strategies) actively engages the students (is student-centered) and leads to meaningful, relevant learning. Engaging instruction divides the time available for instruction into fifteento twenty-minute time segments, which means that every fifteen to twenty minutes the students are involved in a different activity focused on the information and the objective(s) for the lesson. Changing activities in this manner keeps the students alert and involved and keeps their interests elevated, which is especially helpful in middle schools and high schools.

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Engaging the Passion of the Learner Instruction that is engaging captures the interests and passions of the learner. To engage the passion of the learner, the teacher must be passionate. It is difficult for students to be interested in or be excited about a subject if the teacher does not seem interested or excited. Often teachers are expected to teach material that is not particularly engaging or exciting. The material is in fact, boring, for the teacher to teach and the students to learn. No matter, the teacher still must show passion for teaching and joy in learning. If the teacher shows passion and excitement even for the most tedious material, students will follow the teacher’s lead and show excitement about learning, even though they are not especially interested. Student-Centered instruction Student-centered instruction is differentiated and focused at the ability levels of the learners. Student-centered instruction attempts to nurture the whole child, mind, body, and spirit. Even in activity type classes, instruction concentrates on the mind, which is learning a body of knowledge. Focusing on the mind is appropriate in any educational setting, but for information to be meaningful and relevant (engaging), instruction needs to address the learners’ physical and spiritual needs as well. Students, especially in middle level schools, need movement time. Students also need spiritual time, during which they have opportunities as people to explore the mysteries of learning.

Vicarious and Experiential Learning Exploring the mysteries of learning can be either vicarious or experiential. Vicarious learning happens a lot in the classroom. The teacher expects the students to take the knowledge being presented and somehow see it “living” in the real world. Except for a very few learners, that transition is difficult to accomplish. At these times, students often ask, “Why do we need to know this?” or “What is this good for?” Here is where a teacher’s passion for the topic is important, and the art of teaching needs to be at its highest. Taking vicarious learning and making it experiential requires a great deal of creativity. It is easy for learning to be vicarious. Often that is exactly what learning is. For the teacher to take learning and make it come alive in the classroom, though, takes time and energy. Preparing instruction that lives (is interactive, engaging, and student-centered) does not just happen. It is not impossible to do, but it takes planning, usually a great deal of planning. It is

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easier for the teacher to just leave the learning at the vicarious level and let the learners figure out how to connect the learning to the real world than it is to plan experiential lessons where the learners get an opportunity to live the learning. The latter is probably much more beneficial for the learner than the former, but, unfortunately, vicarious learning is simpler to plan and easier on both student and teacher; some form of vicarious instruction is typically what is found in most middle level schools and high schools.

Didactic Instruction Instruction can be either didactic (traditional) or flexible. Didactic instruction is where the teacher is the “sage on the stage” imparting their knowledge and wisdom to a group of usually passive students. Flexible instruction is brain-based and considers the diverse needs of the students based on the material to be presented, Didactic/Traditional Instruction Didactic/traditional instruction is stand-up lecture/discussion, with the teacher talking most of the time and the students passively listening (Smerdon, Burkham, & Lee, 1999). Although it does not necessarily have to be, typically didactic/traditional instruction is quite formal and structured. The lecture/discussion (didactic/traditional) method of instruction is the most common pedagogical practice in the world, particularly at the secondary level. Central to didactic/traditional instruction is lecture with the focus on a textbook, completing worksheet type assignments, with an objective-type test (multiple choice, true/false, fill in the blanks, matching, short-answer) to measure performance at the end of learning. Students are expected to take notes as a way of keeping a record of their learning, which, again, is passive. Students identified as “at-risk” prefer traditional instruction because it is passive. Few expectations are placed on them other than to sit and quietly pretend they are paying attention. With today’s focus on standards and accountability and “getting through the curriculum,” traditional instruction comprises the vicarious learning that is typical in secondary schools. A point that must be made, though, is that there is nothing inherently wrong with vicarious learning or traditional instruction. There are times when traditional instruction is necessary. When traditional instruction is the only instruction, then there is a problem.

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Explicit Instruction Another form of didactic/traditional instruction is explicit instruction. Explicit instruction has been around since at least the 1960s. Unlike lecture, which can tend to wander and lack focus, explicit instruction is very systematic and structured, textbook/worksheet-oriented, and teacher-centered. Additionally, the explicit instruction process incorporates several of the types of instruction mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, that is, directing, demonstrating, modeling, and discussing. The key, though, is that explicit instruction is teacher-centered, in that the teacher is “in charge.” With today’s push toward literacy in reading and mathematics, explicit instruction is commonly used in the teaching of basic reading and mathematics skills. Because of the perceived need for structure in presentation of information to students with limited skills in reading and mathematics, teachers who work with students identified as learning disabled, “at-risk” learners, or second language learners are especially encouraged to use the explicit instruction format (Hudson, Miller, & Butler, 2006; McCleery & Tindal, 1999; Schmidt, 1993). Also, administrators who want classrooms that are quiet and orderly and seemingly focused at the curriculum, support the use of explicit instruction. Hudson, Miller, and Butler (2006) explain the four phases of explicit instruction. Depending on the complexity of the new information, the four phases are intended to last one to two class periods. Phase one of the explicit instruction process is an advance organizer (this can be a graphic organizer), which presents information that gives the students a foundation for learning the new material to be presented in the lesson. The purpose of the advance organizer is to help students “bridge the gap” from previously learned information to the new information to be learned. Phase two of the explicit instruction process is demonstration. During this phase the teacher models in an overt manner what the students are expected to learn, as well as the metacognitive and cognitive skills necessary to work appropriately with the new material. Specific to the modeling process, the teacher asks questions and engages students in discussion. The discussion not only keeps students attentive, but helps the teacher monitor student understanding. The third phase is guided practice. This phase gives an opportunity for students to practice the new learning with the teacher as the guide. The teacher helps students work with the information that has been modeled. At the beginning of this phase the teacher provides a high level of support, with the support decreasing as students become more and more adept at understanding and working with the new information.

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Phase four, the final phase of the explicit instruction process, is independent practice. This phase uses a variety of formats, including worksheets, peer tutoring, computer software programs, cooperative learning, and self-correcting material. Although very systematic and structured, explicit instruction is a practical instructional system. It gives teachers an organized lesson format to design and implement lessons that moves through the curriculum in an orderly fashion and tends to keep students focused and on task.

Flexible Instruction Flexible instruction is just that—“flexible.” Flexible instruction does not function under the didactic/traditional “one-size-fits-all” umbrella but considers the most appropriate way to deliver information. Flexible instruction attempts to meet the needs of all learners. Flexible instruction can include didactic/traditional means of instruction but does not begin from the didactic/traditional premise. Rather, flexible instruction considers first the specific needs of the learners; second, it considers the information to be learned; and, third, instructional practices are selected that best meet the needs of the learners and the material to be learned. It can be argued that didactic instruction starts from the same premise, but that is inaccurate. Didactic instruction begins with the needs of the teacher and the curriculum. The needs of the learners are secondary. Two flexible instruction practices are brain-based instruction and constructivist instruction. Slavkin (2003) writes, “The nature of cognition, the functioning of the human brain, and the construction of knowledge are tied to one another” (p. 20). Brain-Based Instruction The brain is the center for learning. Everyone knows that. The brain is also very social. It wants to (typically) interact with other brains. It is important, therefore, that teachers understand the way the brain functions as a brain and the manner in which the brain accesses and uses the diverse bits and pieces of information that it encounters. Given (2002) explains that the brain accesses and works with information through the brain’s natural learning systems. According to Given, these learning systems are (1) the emotional learning system, (2) the social learning system, (3) the cognitive learning system, (4) the physical learning system, and (5) the reflective learning system.

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Caine and Caine (1994, pp. 88–95) suggest twelve principles essential to brain-based instruction. These are (1) the brain is a parallel processor; (2) when the brain learns a person’s entire physiology is engaged; (3) the brain wants to learn; the search for meaning is innate; (4) the search for meaning occurs through patterning; the brain attempts to discern and understand patterns and gives expression to creative patterns of its own; the brain resists the imposition of meaningless patterns; (5) what we learn is influenced and organized by emotions; (6) the brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously; in healthy people, both hemispheres of the brain are interactive and both reduce information into parts and perceive and work with information as a whole; (7) learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception; (8) learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes; (9) we have at least two different types of memory, a spatial memory system and a set of systems for rote learning; we have a natural, spatial memory system that does not need rehearsal for “instant” memory of experiences, such as what we had for dinner last night; we also have a set of systems specifically designed for storing relatively unrelated bits of information; (10) we understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory; (11) learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat; (12) each brain is unique. Sylwester (2007), when discussing the adolescent brain (indeed any brain), says that the brain is always active and engaged. The brain is constantly accessing information and interpreting its environment. Price (2005) says that the brain is continuously interacting with its surroundings to “learn” how to function appropriately in the environment in which it finds itself. The brain takes in information through the senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, sound) and translates that information into a response. Sometimes the response is appropriate; sometimes the response is inappropriate. Each brain constructs information that it takes in from its environment in a way that makes sense to that brain only. The curriculum of a “brain-based” classroom, then, should be thematic and integrated, with a great deal of interaction with others. The concept of brain-based learning and brain-based instruction in education has been around for quite some time (at least since the early seventies); the idea has not, however, become part of the day-to-day practice of most teachers. There are several reasons for this. First, it is difficult to explain what brain-based instruction is in terms of how it is different from what teachers “normally” do, in that everything a teacher does in the classroom in some way involves the brain and therefore can be categorized as “brain-based.” Second, if the brain and the concept of brain-based learning is discussed with those who do research about the brain, it is quickly understood that, even though

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more is learned every day about how the brain functions, what is known about the brain is actually limited, particularly when it comes to how a brain learns. There is, however, a great deal of information known about the brain that is useful knowledge for teachers and how teachers need to think about instructional practice. One such piece of information is that each brain is unique (Caine & Caine, 1994; Hart, 2002). This in itself is probably not new information. How a teacher understands the uniqueness of the brain in classroom practice, though, is important. For example, a high school teacher designs a lesson and delivers the lesson in a manner that makes sense to that teacher’s brain, and for the brain of that teacher, it very probably is an excellent lesson. The problem comes in the communication of knowledge from the teacher’s brain to the learner’s brain. As the teacher teaches the lesson, all learners hear and experience the same information; however, the teacher has to remember that each brain is unique, and each learner’s brain understands the information in a manner different from how the teacher understands the same information. When a learner does not seem to understand what the teacher is trying to communicate, both the teacher and the learner become frustrated. The problem comes in reteaching. The teacher uses the same instructional procedures, which both the teacher and learner already know has not worked but is used anyway. A teacher must always remember that each brain receives, understands, and processes information in a manner that makes sense to that brain only. It becomes the responsibility of the teacher to have enough variety in the lesson so that during instruction each “brain” has sufficient opportunity to learn the material being presented. Another piece of information that is helpful for teachers in classrooms has to do with allowing for refreshments or physical movement. Providing time during instruction for a drink of water or some other refreshment (Jenkins, 1995) revitalizes the brain, and, as a result, keeps the learners alert and focused on learning. Physical movement (Given, 2002) is also revitalizing. Intentionally giving time (three to five minutes) during instruction for focused physical movement (through conversation or actually moving) awakens the brain and, again, helps learners stay focused. It is also well known that learning is affected by emotions (Marzano, 2007; Goleman, 2006; Given, 2002; Hart, 2002, Caine & Caine, 1994). Instruction that resonates with learners in a positive manner awakens their emotions and will more than likely be learned and remembered. Learners whose emotions are engaged in a positive manner are generally enthusiastic, highly motivated, and interested in learning the information. This does not mean that a teacher must be an entertainer in the sense of “entertaining the troops.” What it does

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mean is that in some way, through instruction, the teacher’s passion for the subject must come through. Learners need to recognize that the teacher has a strong emotional attachment to the topic, so that regardless of the information presented (e.g., basic grammar or math skills are not particularly exciting or fascinating topics for the teacher or the learner), the learner may also become emotional (passionate) about the topic and motivated to learn. Emotions can also have a negative influence on learning. In a classroom where other learners (or even the teacher), humiliate, degrade, or show disrespect to an individual, that person may not perform well. The learner may become aggressive, or, since they will probably not be able to leave the situation, may shut out all outside activity and find their “safe place” in seclusion. In fact, the only thing the learner may learn is that they need to try to avoid that situation by not showing up for class or being absent from school. Brain-based instruction goes against the traditional roles of the teacher as the information giver and the student being the information receiver. When brain-based instruction is followed, the teacher is still the provider of information and the student is still the recipient of the information, but first and foremost in the instruction is the awareness and recognition of the uniqueness of the brain. Brain-based instruction understands that the brain is flexible in its approach to learning and often uses illogical reasoning to be successful in daily experiences. Brain-based instruction knows that learning is not a result of logical and sequential experiences (Hart, 2002). Teachers who consider brain-based instruction as the core of their teaching understand that learning is not immediate. Learning happens after numerous, random experiences. When instruction is brain-based, learning is facilitated from a variety of trial-and-error approaches. Through these trial-and-error activities, students determine what skills are necessary for success. Generally, the more instructional approaches used, the more learning that takes place. The freedom to learn through discovery and practice fits with the natural ways of the brain; the traditional ways of the classroom do not. Constructivist Instruction A second flexible approach to instruction is constructivist. Constructivism emphasizes the personal environment of the learner and, based on their environmental backgrounds, how knowledge is constructed by the learner. Constructivist learning theory applied to education comes from the writings of Jerome Bruner (1973, 1966, 1960) and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Schunk, 2004). Bruner claims that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current as well

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as past knowledge. To Vygotsky, learning happens as a person interacts with the environment and others in that environment. For Vygotsky, two concepts are fundamental, the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding. The zone of proximal development is the area between what a learner knows and what the teacher wants the learner to know. Scaffolding occurs within the ZPD as the teacher scaffolds (builds on) experiences so the learner gains the necessary knowledge. Marlowe and Page (2005, pp. 7–9) explain that constructivism is “about constructing knowledge, not receiving it . . . ; it’s about thinking and analyzing, not accumulating and memorizing . . . ; it’s about understanding and applying, not repeating back; it’s about being active, not passive.” Constructivism, then, can be defined as “a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own ‘rules’ and ‘mental models,’ which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences” (Funderstanding, 2003, p. 1). Constructivist instruction is a flexible practice that begins with the understanding that all learners live in the world and construct their understanding of the world in a way that makes sense to that learner (Brooks & Brooks, 1999a). Constructivist instruction is not linear. In constructivist practice, information is presented as concepts to be learned in a holistic (Gestalt) manner rather than specific information to be learned in a systematic manner. Patterns of instruction following constructivist practice (problem-based and authentic learning) have been quite popular. Within constructivism, however, there is much controversy and debate surrounding constructivist practice and its applicability to learning in schools (Phillips, 2000). Central to that debate is the belief that learners, whether or not authentic/problembased learning is used, will not be exposed to the essential information and fundamental principles of a discipline. As with brain-based instruction, constructivist instruction is hard to understand, and difficult for teachers to visualize as a viable instructional model. In today’s world of standards and curriculum alignment to standards, the expectation is that teachers make sure what students learn is directly connected to state tests used to determine “adequate yearly progress.” Teachers cannot see how they can get through the assigned curriculum by using a practice that seems to lack a definite goal or purpose (Brooks & Brooks, 1999b). Teachers find constructivist instruction problematic because it allows the learner to lead the teacher, and, as such, the learning can take a variety of directions. Teachers typically want to know where instruction is going to take them and are uneasy when learners are leading the way. Constructivism,

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though, gives the learner the opportunity to take responsibility and direct their learning, which is what teachers want. In essence, when a teacher implements constructivist instructional practices, the teacher becomes the “guide on the side” rather than the “sage on the stage” (Smerdon, Burkam, & Lee, 1999). Taking on the role of “guide on the side” does not mean that in constructivist instructional practice the teacher stands by and watches while the students “do” something. That is not it at all. Implementing constructivist instruction means that the teacher has to be just as actively involved as the learners. The teacher’s role is still guiding and directing, encouraging the learners to an understanding of the information being presented. The guiding and directing happen differently. When using constructivism, the teacher “constructs” and learns along with the students. For many teachers, constructivist instruction is freeing because it gives them the feeling of “teacher” consistent with the way they imagined teaching to be. Perkins (1999) recognizes three distinct roles of the learner in constructivism. He identifies these roles as the “active learner,” the “social learner,” and the “creative learner.” The “active learner” along with the teacher, is fully engaged in the learning process and fully involved in gaining and understanding the information they are expected to learn. Rather than only reading, writing, listening, doing work sheet exercises, and the like, active learners “discuss, debate, hypothesize, and take view points” (Perkins, 1999, p. 7). The “social learner” is not an isolated learner. Constructivism understands that learning is a social process and is constructed by interaction with other learners. In constructivist practice, learning is “co-constructed in dialogue with others” (Perkins, 1999, p. 7). Additionally, the teacher understands the social aspects of learning and builds social learning opportunities into the instructional process. The “creative learner” not only investigates knowledge but sees (or discovers) other possibilities for using the knowledge. In constructivism, learners, with the help of the teacher, are more than active; as they engage in the learning, the learners create or “recreate” their own understandings of the principles being learned. By so doing they begin to take ownership of the knowledge. “Under the theory of constructivism, teachers focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in learners. Teachers shape their teaching strategies to learner responses and encourage learners to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students” (Funderstanding, 2003, p. 2).

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The research literature (e.g., Howard, McGee, & Schwartz, 2000; Tucker & Batchelder, 2000; Cobb, 1999) has shown that learners can be quite successful in learning situations that follow a constructivist design model. The research points out, however, that in order to be successful, constructivist learning situations need knowledgeable subject matter experts as teachers and learners who are motivated, independent, and self-directed. Constructivist learning, constructivist thinking, and constructivist instruction is based on people addressing a common problem (an issue of importance and relevance) and learning from each other, with input from an expert. When people discus, they learn from each other. Each person has an insight that another may not have. Or, if two or three people have the same insight, one person sees the issue in a different way or with more depth.

Perspectives on Instructional Practice Planning for Instruction Appropriately planning for instruction, whether instruction is didactic or flexible, is always important. Probably the most important responsibility of a teacher is planning for instruction. Planning for instruction is a major part of what any teacher experiences in undergraduate or graduate teacher preparation programs. When using didactic/traditional instruction, instruction does not need much planning. With didactic methods, much of the planning is already accomplished, and the kind of planning a teacher learns in their teacher preparation program is not used to its fullest extent. With didactic methods, the teacher becomes a facilitator of canned information rather than using their knowledge and expertise to design their own classroom instruction. Because of the order and structure it provides, the public, many school district administrators, and often teachers, seem to like didactic instruction. Didactic instruction has the school district providing a curriculum (which has been aligned with state standards), providing a textbook, and expecting teachers to “teach” the curriculum as identified by the textbook. A high-stakes test assesses whether teachers have “taught” the curriculum. Ultimately, responsibility for learning is placed with the teacher. Unlike the didactic method, flexible instructional practices place more responsibility for planning with the teacher. A curriculum plan and a textbook are still provided by the school district. Also, the curriculum plan is aligned with state and/or national standards, and student learning is assessed by a high-stakes test that determines whether the teacher has “taught” the

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curriculum. There are two major differences between didactic instruction and flexible instruction. One major difference between didactic and flexible instruction is that with flexible instruction a school district’s curriculum plan serves as a guide for teachers rather than the rule that teachers need to follow. A flexible instruction model expects teachers to know, based on their teacher training and subject matter expertise, (1) how to plan, (2) what students should learn, and (3) the appropriate instructional strategies for helping students learn. The second major difference between didactic and flexible instruction is that with flexible instruction students are more actively involved in determining what information they want to learn and how they want to learn that information. Flexible instruction takes on the character of brain-based and constructivist instruction. As such, responsibility for learning is placed with the student, not the teacher Implementing Instruction The manner by which instruction is implemented is as important as how instruction is planned. Doubtless it is apparent that flexible instructional practice, at least in this book, is considered more appropriate than didactic instruction. One size, however, does not fit all. There are times when didactic instruction is appropriate and serves a purpose. Didactic instruction, though, should not be the guiding pedagogical practice. The secondary teacher should always begin from the perspective of flexible instruction. Flexible instruction, though, demands more of the teacher. Also, flexible instruction demands more of the learner. Further, flexible instruction may take more time to cover the curriculum, which can create problems for the teacher. Teachers, generally, want to be flexible, but they also are expected to “teach” the curriculum in a timely manner. To feel comfortable with what they are expected to do, teachers need a structure, or at least a guide. Understanding by design (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998) and habits of mind (Costa & Kallick, 2000ab) are curriculum design concepts that provide structure for teachers and the kind of instructional variety inherent to brain-based and constructivist practice. In addition, Barell (2007) and Crawford (2007) are valuable resources for helping secondary teachers design problem-based lessons and units. Both “understanding by design” and the “habits of mind” provide coherence for the curriculum. Teachers who want more structure should look to understanding by design. Teachers who want more flexibility should look to the habits of mind.

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Further, the following three chapters (chapter 12 on differentiated instruction, chapter 13 on content area literacy, and chapter 14 on cooperative learning) present further insights about flexible instruction. In addition, the chapters provide instructional strategies that secondary teachers can use to be “flexible” in their classroom instruction.

Assessment and Instruction Instruction is not complete without assessment. Somehow the teachers and the students need to know that the information, which has been delivered, investigated, and experienced, has been “learned.” When learning is considered, assessment enters the picture. Assessment includes evaluation and measurement and refers to the collection and analysis of information and the use of the information to make a decision of or on competent performance of the learner. The “measurement” part of assessment is the data-gathering part; such data gathering is usually accomplished by students taking tests, or completing worksheets, or performing a multitude of possible tasks. Data, then, are gathered through a variety of assigned tasks that show level of performance or change in behavior. The “evaluation” part of assessment takes the measurement data and uses those data to place a value on performance. The typical designator of performance is either a grade level (e.g., an eighth-grade reading level) or a letter grade. The “value” placed on performance is then used by many (teachers, administrators, students, parents/guardians, the public) as a numerical quantity used for comparative purposes. There are two main types of assessments, performance assessments and standardized assessments. Performance assessments can include constructed response items, essays, writing, oral discourse, exhibitions, experiments, and portfolios. Standardized tests are assessments based on some national norm (or standard) for a particular grade level and used by school districts and states to show annual progress of students at each grade level. Scores from standardized tests are also used as one criterion for entry into a college/university or a vocational/technical school. A huge issue among assessment people has to do with validity and reliability of measure. In order to provide an acceptable indicator of performance, assessments need to be appropriately valid and reliable. An appropriately valid and reliable instrument lends credibility to a learner’s performance based on the score on that instrument. Standardized instruments have established validity and reliability; however, items on standardized instruments are general across the nation rather than

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specific to the curriculum of a certain state, school district, or teacher. Also, standardized instruments are often in multiple-choice format, which, if one agrees with information on brain-based learning, does not work well for all learners. Consequently, for some learners, a score on a standardized test, even though the test itself has high validity and reliability, may not be a valid or reliable indicator of performance for that learner. For those who believe in explicit/traditional instruction, however, standardized assessments fit quite well. Performance assessments, on the other hand, are more closely connected to the curriculum of a teacher or a school district. On the face of it, performance assessments are supposed to be connected to the specific objectives of a school district’s or teacher’s curriculum, but often the alignment between curriculum objectives, assessments, and what is actually taught by the teacher or experienced by the student is not very strong. As a result, even if rubrics are used to score a performance assessment, validity and reliability of performance assessments can be suspect. School districts and the public want (and deserve) an annual accounting of student performance. They want to know that students are learning the curriculum the students are expected to learn. Any assessment plan should include a balance of performance assessments and standardized assessments. One type of assessment should not overshadow the other. Performance assessments should be the most powerful indicators of performance. Due to the alignment issues mentioned above, as well as subjectivity in scoring, performance assessments are not always viewed as the best indicators. Additionally, it takes a great deal of resources on the part of states and school districts, and a great deal of time on the part of teachers, to develop quality performance assessments. The publishers of standardized instruments have already invested the time and resources to develop a quality instrument. As a result, even though there are still high costs accrued by a school district, and even though standardized assessments may not be as closely aligned to the curriculum as performance assessments, standardized tests tend to be more efficient. Also, data from standardized tests are often viewed as more accurate measures of year-to-year performance. Additionally, a factor inherent to standardized assessments that is not a factor in performance assessments is that data from a standardized assessment can be compared across a school district, across a state, and across the nation.

Concluding Thoughts Effective instruction in the secondary classroom of the twenty-first century, unlike the past, cannot be folded into a one-size-fits-all format. Society has

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changed. Cultures have changed. What is understood about how people learn has changed. It should be well known by now that there is not one best way to deliver the curriculum. All teachers approach the classroom in a manner that fits their personality and what they believe is the best way to deliver the content of their curriculum. Some teachers believe in explicit instruction; others believe in flexible instruction. Whether instruction begins from an explicit perspective or a flexible perspective, the learners and the content to be learned need to be considered first. The “same-old/same-old” gets “old” in a hurry, for everyone. Teachers want learners to be focused and engaged. To be an effective teacher in the twenty-first century, instruction for all learners needs to start with how instruction will be assessed and always be variable.

References Barell J. (2007). Problem-based learning: An inquiry approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1999a). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Brooks, M. G., & Brooks, J. G. (1999b). The courage to be constructivist. Educational Leadership, 57 (3), 18–24. Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1973). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton Publishers. Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1994). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Menlo Park, CA: Addision-Wesley. Cobb, T. (1999). Applying constructivism: A test for the learner-as-scientist. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47 (3), 15–31. Costa, A., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2000a). Activating & engaging habits of mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Costa, A., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2000b). Discovering & exploring habits of mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Crawford, G. B. (2007). Brain-based teaching with adolescent learning in mind (2nd ed.). Thousands Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Funderstanding. (2003). Constructivism. Available at www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfm. Given, B. K. (2002). Teaching to the brain’s natural learning systems. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books

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Hart, L. A. (2002). Human brain & human leaning (3rd ed.). Covington, WA: Books for Educators. Howard, B. C., McGee, S., & Schwartz, N. (2000). The experience of constructivism: Transforming teacher epistemology. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32 (4), 455–465. Hudson, P., Miller, S. P., & Butler, F. (2006). Adapting and merging explicit instruction within reform based mathematics classrooms. American Secondary Education, 35 (1), 19–32. Jenkins, E. (1995). The learning brain. Del Mar, CA: Brain Store. Marlowe, B. A., & Page, M. L. (2005). Creating and sustaining the constructivist classroom (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework for effective instruction. Arlington, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. McCleery, J. A., & Tindal, G. A. (1999). Teaching the scientific method to at-risk students and students with learning disabilities through concept anchoring and explicit instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 20 (1), 7–18. Perkins, D. (1999). The many faces of constructivism. Educational Leadership, 57 (3), 6–11. Phillips, D. C. (Ed.). (2000). Constructivism in education: Opinions and second opinions on controversial issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Price, L. F. (2005). The biology of risk taking. Educational Leadership, 62 (7), 22–26. Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second-language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13 (1), 129–158. Schunk, D. 2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Slavkin, M. (2003). Engaging the heart, hand, brain. Principal Leadership (Middle School Edition), 3 (9), 20–25. Smerdon, B. A., Burkam, D. T., & Lee, V. E. (1999). Access to constructivist and didactic teaching: Who gets it? Where is it practiced? Teachers College Record, 101 (5), 5–34. Sylwester, R. (2007). The adolescent brain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Tucker, G. R., & Batchelder, A. (2000). The integration of technology into a constructivist curriculum: Beyond PowerPoint. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 444 592) Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

11 Literacy Practices in the Secondary Content Area Classroom Deborah L. Smith and Byung-In Seo

Definition of Content Area Literacy

O

N THE SURFACE, IT MAKES SENSE THAT THE DEFINITION of “content area literacy”

(CAL) is reading and writing in the content areas. CAL, however, cannot be defined that simply. Reading and writing in the content areas at the secondary level is particularly difficult. In its essence, reading and writing is the understanding and manipulation of written text. Written text can be defined as symbols or signs that convey meaning (Rotman, 2000; Harris, 1995). These symbols can take on many forms, such as letters, numbers, mathematical and chemical signs, and musical notes. Effective readers and writers interact with the text in order to make meaning from it, not just decode the symbols (Hirsch, 2006). Many students have a deficit of prior knowledge in many of the subject areas. Content area courses are often textbook-driven. The textbooks that are used in the class dictate the curriculum (Fisher & Frey, 2008; Alvermann, Phelps, & Ridgeway, 2007; Unrau, 2008). Also, textbooks influence the language that is read and used in the class. For example, in an English class, the textbook may be a popular novel. Popular novels often use lexicon, ideas, and images that are familiar to the community of students. Thus, the language that is used is not necessarily unfamiliar. As a result, students would be able to use their prior knowledge to construct meaning from the text. In a mathematics class, however, the textbook’s language is highly technical and subject-specific. Making meaning from the symbols in a content area is complex, involving background knowledge, textbooks, subject-specific skills, and the context of — 147 —

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the reading situation. These must all work together for content area reading to occur.

CAL’s Importance Now that there is a clearer idea of what content area literacy encompasses, the many reasons that it is an important topic for all classroom teachers will be explained. While the majority of elementary teachers join the profession because of a “love” of children, most middle and secondary teachers state their reasons have more to do with a “love” of their major/content-area (Daniels & Zemelman, 2004). Of course there are exceptions, and the best teachers probably have a healthy mix of both, but this distinction speaks to the motivation for many secondary teachers. Secondary teachers generally love the subject they choose to teach and want their students to feel the same. Without reading, however, a teacher’s enthusiasm for their content can only take their students as far as the end of the semester; this is not exactly the lifelong love many secondary teachers hope to instill. It is pure and simple. If students are going to have a keen interest in a teacher’s subject area, then they need to be able to read about it independently to sustain that enthusiasm. Inspiring students to care about a discipline is not a simple task, but it is at the essence of switching the “instructional focus from what must be taught to what kinds of teaching will maximize learning” (Jackson & Cooper, 2007, p. 248). Maximizing learning is why reading instruction in all content areas is imperative. Reading is the most common form of learning; it is often how students succeed in postsecondary endeavors. According to Daniels and Zemelman (2004), “it is right and reasonable to hope that kids can have a lifelong engagement with at least one, hopefully several fields of knowledge—and that they’ll pursue it through reading” (p. 10). This dream can only become a reality if students are given the catalysts to bridge their experiences and relate to the content areas so that meaning-making can occur. A Question to Consider Shakespeare said it first and most eloquently, “To be or not to be, that is the question.” It is a saying so ubiquitous that one does not need to have ever read Shakespeare to be familiar with the saying and the importance of the question. Yet, there is a deep value in reading Shakespeare that cannot be replaced with watching the films based on his works or replacing his works with simplified texts. It is an experience that all should have, whether to struggle

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through and work hard at translating line-by-line or sailing through and pondering the deeper connections. But, according to a report titled “To Read or not to Read” issued by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), the nation is experiencing further declines in reading proficiency, with particularly strong declines for older teens and young adults. The release also reports that 72 percent of high school graduates are deemed “deficient” in writing English by their employers (NEA, 2007). The findings in the NEA’s seminal report, “Reading at Risk,” include data to show that approximately 70 percent of adolescents struggle to read. This report links low reading achievement with high dropout rates, juvenile delinquency, and unemployment rates. The adolescents in America seem to be answering the question with a resounding “no” to reading, so the new question is how teachers can go about changing this scenario and make reading a pursuit that adolescents feel confident and capable about, so that they are more likely to engage in the activity. The Gaps that Persist There are two gaps that persist despite advancements in literacy research. One is the gap between student performance in low-income districts when compared to students in middle- and upper-class districts, and the other gap exists between what research shows is effective practice and what is actually being taught in many schools. Numerous research findings show a gap between the literacy achievements of middle-class suburban students and poor urban students, with the urban students performing significantly lower on achievement tests (Strickland & Alvermann, 2004; Zipperer et al., 2002). Much of this gap can be attributed to the educational experiences of students in poor/disadvantaged urban communities. American schools are failing to meet the needs of inner-city students. In general, students who are racially, economically, and/or socially disadvantaged are more likely to fail in, and/or drop out of school. We are “inundated with stories of inner-city mass failure, student violence, and soaring dropout rates” (Delpit, 1995, p. xiv). Anyon (2001; 1980) notes the differences between poor urban schools and suburban schools in the following areas: conditions and resources, curriculum and instruction, and school climate. What makes this disparity particularly compelling is the magnitude of the injustice when considering the needs of the children. The literature describing inner-city schools examines the dismal conditions brought about by a lack of resources. Anyon (2001) notes that ten times as much money is spent per pupil in suburban districts than is spent in the inner city. The resources available are

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also insufficient because more money is needed for social programs due to the poverty in the communities these schools are serving. The school buildings are deteriorating, fewer computers are available, classes are larger, and there are insufficient materials available (Anyon, 2001; 1980). Kozol (2005; 2000; 1991) reports on the conditions of inner-city schools in New York, East St. Louis, Boston, San Antonio, Chicago, and Camden, New Jersey. He details the appalling conditions in city after city making it clear that filth and poverty continue to be extreme and widespread in urban schools. So, while quite a bit is known about general conditions in urban schools, more needs to be learned about how to help bridge the gap so that struggling readers get the services necessary to make improvements. The widely reported achievement gap is not the only gap in literacy research. According to the NEA, there is also a large gap between the research-based practices that have been proven effective and their adoption at the secondary level. This national trend is even more apparent in urban schools across the nation. The National Association of State Boards of Education reports (2005) “many youth of color attend schools where they receive instruction from a greater number of inexperienced and poorly qualified teachers, exacerbating, if not causing, low literacy skills” (p. 8). So, while the research is clear on what is needed, the steps are not yet in place to help readers who struggle.

The Research Content area literacy instruction is the focus of many university teacher education programs. It has also become a focus of many conference proceedings and journal articles (Misulis, 2000). Many aspects of this topic have been researched. For this chapter, the research on content area literacy instruction focuses on proficient adolescent readers, the use of literacy skills in the content areas, and the views of preservice teachers and beginning teachers in regards to the instruction of content area literacy skills. Proficient Adolescent Readers As stated earlier, reading and writing is the understanding and manipulation of written text, and while the text may come in different forms, the reading process still involves the understanding of symbols and how those symbols are combined. Many middle school and high school teachers believe that their students already have the skills to proficiently read their content area texts. Unfortunately, this scenario is not always true. There are many adolescents who have difficulty negotiating and making meaning from texts.

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By examining the characteristics of adolescents who are proficient readers, however, teachers can have a better understanding of what is needed to help those who do not read as well as their peers. Proficient readers are actively engaged in the reading process, establish their own purposes for reading, are fluent in their understanding of text, and are able to negotiate meaning from different modes of text (Alvermann, Phelps, & Ridgeway, 2007). Since reading involves the understanding of written symbols and the combination of those symbols, it is easy to assume that an emphasis needs to be put on teaching adolescents how to decode those symbols. Savage (2006) studied fifty-six adolescents who were extremely poor readers, focusing on the teens’ decoding skills and their ability to comprehend text. He found that those students who had better verbal abilities and listening comprehension skills were able to better understand and decode the text. His study showed that there was a positive correlation between an adolescent’s verbal abilities and decoding abilities. When we say that proficient readers are actively engaged in the reading process, images of adolescents underlining text or taking notes as they read text come to mind. While these images are true, engagement of text is more than these kinds of behaviors. Proficient readers understand their reasons and purposes for learning. Moore and Cunningham (2006) studied adolescent agency and their literacies. Agency was developed through social experiences and dialogic relationships. Moore and Cunningham learned that literate adolescents were able to actively incorporate their prior knowledge and experiences as they negotiated meaning in the text. Adolescents’ prior knowledge and experiences included their beliefs and social practices. Being actively engaged also meant that the reader applied thinking processes as they accumulated knowledge. Moore and colleagues (2006) identify eight thinking processes: connect, preview and predict, organize, generalize, image, self-monitor, evaluate, and apply (pp. 7–11). While Moore et al. separate the different processes for the convenience of explanation, the researchers explain that these thinking processes are not separate entities. Rather, they overlap, and proficient readers are able to emphasize certain processes at certain times in order to conceptualize what they are reading. Proficient readers are able to establish their own purposes for reading and are fluent in the understanding of text. These adolescents are able to make connections between their own experiences and the text. They are often independent readers and learners, taking on the responsibility of negotiating meaning from the text. These same students are able to activate their learning by generating questions as they are reading the text (National Reading Panel, 2000).

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At the same time, proficient readers are fluent readers. Fluency is the ability “to read…with speed, accuracy, and proper expression” (National Reading Panel, 2000, p. 11). When students are able to recognize words and attach meaning to those words, less time is spent decoding and identifying the word, and more time is available for comprehension (Kuhn & Stahl, 2006). Also, proficient readers are able to negotiate meaning from different modes of text. From the sociocultural perspective, literacy is influenced by language that is used in a society. The culture of the society determines the meaning of language, whether the language is spoken or written (Smagorinsky, 2001; Gee, 1996). Depending on the society, the mode of text can change. For example, the Internet provides different chatrooms, webpages, and blogs for adolescents. Each chatroom, webpage, or blog can be seen as an independent society; each has its particular culture, language, and accepted social practices (Leu et al., 2000). Those adolescents who are able to determine the meanings of their different societal languages have greater abilities to comprehend different kinds of texts. Moje and Dillon (2006) studied adolescent identities and science classrooms and found that the students’ learning context shaped their identities and their roles in the classroom. As a result, the role of literacy changed, and this role was molded by the content and context of the classroom. Students who successfully understood the content area information, whether it was through classroom presentation or reading of the text, were able to adapt to their learning environment. Also, students were able to adapt to the different kinds of texts that were presented.

Use of Literacy Skills in the Content Areas Literacy is often seen as only teaching reading and writing skills of traditional printed materials. When understanding complex content information, however, students need to negotiate the meaning from the text for understanding to take place. At the secondary level, teaching literacy skills is a secondary task, as compared to the learning of content area information, which is often seen as only facts. As a result, literacy skills and content area information are taught separately. In Draper and colleagues’ (2005) study, they find that this dualism is not effective. Literacy skills need to be taught in conjunction with the existing textbook, so that students can see relevance in not only the skills but also the text at hand. Misulis (2000) believes that literacy needs to be a means to content acquisition for the students and the instructor, and each subject area has unique literacy skills that need to be applied.

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A common comment made by content area teachers is that they are not reading teachers. Instead of being reading and writing teachers, content area teachers see themselves as teachers of chemistry, algebra, geography, or a myriad of other content areas. The goal of teaching content area literacy skills to secondary students is not to only focus on reading and writing of text. Rather, it needs to focus on “vocabulary development, comprehension development, acquisition of study skills and study strategies, and writing proficiency . . . [which will result in] a greater level of independence with respect to their own learning” (Misulis, 2000, p. 18). Fisher and Ivey (2005) study secondary mathematics teachers who are resistant to incorporating literacy strategies in their routine classroom instruction. Both the researchers and mathematics teachers learn that literacy skills, specifically reading and writing skills, should be used to co-construct the students’ knowledge of the content area. Instead of teaching the literacy skills as a separate lesson, these skills need to be used as a means of learning the content area information. Literacy in any content area, especially mathematics, is used to create, convey, and negotiate ideas and practices within the discipline. It is the teacher’s responsibility to teach literacy skills so that the students have an easier time understanding and applying these ideas and practices (Draper & Siebert, 2004). Frager (1993) examined the affective aspects of content area reading. He learned that teachers needed to develop their students’ confidence; that the students had enough prior knowledge on the subject, and teachers needed to use different reading strategies to extend their students’ comprehension of the text. Also, Frager learned that when students saw the content area text as a vehicle for learning, instead of an authoritative source of information, the students were more willing to learn to be confident interpreters of the text. This situation is especially true with English Language Learners (ELLs). Meltzer and Hamann (2006) learn that with ELL students, more specific literacy instruction is needed in the content areas; specifically, teachers need to identify the details and nuances of the text. In addition, Meltzer and Hamann learn that ELL students need to be taught the text’s format, the content area discourse, and its vocabulary.

Views of Preservice Teachers and Beginning Teachers As university professors who teach content area literacy strategies, we hope that our students, when they are student teaching or when they begin their teaching careers will incorporate what they learn in our classes into their own lessons. Research shows that before we expect our students to incorporate

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these strategies into their routine classroom instruction, they need to see the relevance of the strategies to their content areas. Misulis (1994) and Loranger (1999) state that university professors need to have activities and tasks that provide opportunities for preservice teachers to have meaningful application of the strategies into their professional experiences. In a sense, education students need to see the relevance of the strategies before they will consider applying them. Lesley (2005) had teacher education students examine and critically question their own literacy practices. Through her findings, Lesley learned that once her students understood the role literacy skills played in their content areas, these students were more apt to use strategies and promote literacy skills with their own secondary students. In the secondary classroom, research shows that preservice education students are not always able to apply the strategies that are learned in their teacher preparation courses. Bean (1997) examines twenty-seven preservice content area teachers during their practicum. In his study, he wants to learn when and how the university students are able to apply the content area reading strategies that they learn in class. Based on his results, Bean finds that his preservice teachers are influenced by the classroom content, student climate, and their host teachers’ perspectives when choosing to use literacy strategies. For example, if a host teacher uses graphic organizers, then the university student is likely to use graphic organizers. He also learns that when his students are in a high-pressure teaching situation, his students cope by being more teacher-centered instead of being student-centered. Once a teacher enters the classroom as a beginning teacher, research shows that there are mixed results regarding the incorporation of content area literacy strategies. Beginning teachers can identify the characteristics of an effective teacher. Sturtevant and Linek (2003) studied the perspectives of nine content area middle school and high school teachers, and they found that these nine teachers understood that effective teachers cared deeply about their students, actively engaged their students in the learning process, and related their (teachers’) personal experiences to the students. As the chief decision-maker in the classroom, Sturtevant and Linek learned that when teachers incorporated literacy strategies in their instruction and showed that there was value in the strategies, the students also saw the value in them. For many beginning teachers, however, the reality is the opposite. Lester (2000) finds that, in general, content area teachers see teaching and incorporating literacy strategies as a low priority or not necessary. In some instances, teachers misunderstand the use of literacy strategies and believe that these

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strategies involve more work for them. Similar to Bean’s (1997) study, Lester finds that new teachers become teacher-centered in their teaching approaches because they are often overwhelmed with the responsibilities of the job. These teachers see the strategies as nice methods to use, but they do not fit into the realities of teaching. Kinney-Sedgwick and Yochum (1996) found that teachers believed that structured activities were necessary for learning to take place. Using content area reading strategies involved a more constructivist approach to teaching and student learning, and teachers in their study believed that a structured top-down, or more traditional, approach to teaching was the best way to promote student learning. The teachers in this study believed that they were responsible to the parents, their principal, and their school board for their students’ learning. Since the traditional approach to teaching was what was expected from these teachers by their students’ parents, the school principal, and the school board, these teachers used the methods to fulfill the expectations of others. Since 2001, the federal government has mandated the No Child Left Behind Act, a set of guidelines and goals for student achievement. Paul (2004) finds, when studying the effect of the No Child Left Behind Act, that, at the secondary levels, even though text becomes more difficult to read, comprehend, and incorporate into the students’ schema, teachers are not teaching the necessary literacy skills to aid the students’ learning. Instead, because of federal mandates, teachers are focusing on basic memorization and rote learning instead of focusing on the overall learning process. Given the large amounts of research that have shown the effectiveness of using literacy skills in the content areas and the research on proficient readers, it is important that all teachers find ways to successfully incorporate literacy in the classroom.

Strategies Based on Research Many educational publishers have books on content area literacy strategies. Some of the books cover only reading strategies, some cover only writing strategies, and others contain both reading and writing strategies. There are a myriad of content area reading methods that preservice teachers are taught, and as the research shows, these preservice teachers will usually employ a few of them during their student teaching experience and their first few years as a classroom teacher. It is unreasonable to include all literacy strategies that exist. Therefore, we have included teaching methods that have been most successful for us.

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The Taco Bell Theory Most people are familiar with Taco Bell and the food that is served in this fast food restaurant. Imagine for a minute all of the menu selections when entering a Taco Bell. There are multiple selections, ranging from the simple nacho chips with cheese to a deluxe quesadilla with all the toppings. When thinking about the basic ingredients that are put into the dishes, however, very few are mixed and matched to make all the various menu items. Whether ordering a taco or a tostada or a burrito, the meat and cheese and tortilla in some form is very similar. It can be a simple meal or a complicated concoction, but the basic ingredients remain the same. The same is true of reading strategies. The research has shown repeatedly what proficient readers do to make sense of text (Tovani, 2004), and these strategies can be taught to all readers to increase comprehension skills. Some reading strategies are very simple, while others are complicated and involve combining multiple elements; either way, the basic ingredients remain the same. For example, using questioning strategies is one simple way to help students practice a skill that proficient readers automatically do. This is like ordering “nacho chips” with no toppings. In another instance, the reciprocal teaching strategy (which combines questioning, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying with a cooperative learning approach) may be a more appropriate strategy to use. This is like ordering the grande deluxe nachos with a side of guacamole. Both of these strategies can be effective (just like both dishes can be satisfying) if modeled and consciously taught to students, which can be decided by the time that is invested in the lesson, the one that fits best with the objectives and the teachers’ preferences. Basic Ingredients for Reading Strategies Eight of the basic ingredients for reading strategies include (1) visualization, (2) questioning, (3) predictions, (4) connections, (5) self-monitoring, (6) organizing/determining importance, (7) inferencing, and (8) summarizing. These ingredients can be used alone or combined in numerous ways to create new recipes that mimic what good readers naturally do when reading. Whole Class Reading Strategies One strategy that models questioning at a variety of levels is called ReQuest: Reciprocal Questioning (Shea, 2006). The steps for this strategy are: 1. Select a text and make sure the teacher and the students each have a copy.

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2. Ask everyone to read a section of the text silently. The length of the section depends upon the complexity of the text. 3. The teacher turns over his or her copy of the text and invites students to ask questions related to the text. 4. The teacher answers student questions to the best of his or her ability, asking for clarification when needed. 5. The students predict what the next section of the text will be about or what will happen. 6. The teacher and students read the next section of the text. 7. This time the students turn over their copy of the text, and the teacher asks questions. The teacher asks questions at various levels and models, through questioning, how a proficient reader connects with other knowledge and determines what is important through questioning. 8. The students answer the teacher’s questions to the best of their abilities, asking for clarification if necessary. 9. The teacher predicts what the next section of text will be about, making sure to explain the process she or he uses to determine the prediction and to demonstrate how the predictions are based on textual evidence. 10. The process repeats with new sections of the reading. Each time the teacher should notice that the students’ questions and predictions become more advanced as the students internalize the questioning strategies modeled by the teacher. This strategy can work wonders for engaging students with the text. Our students enjoy the opportunity to “stump” us with their questions and read with intensity when they are concerned about being asked a difficult question. We end by processing the kinds of questions and the relationship between the questions and the answers. Also, we talk about what questions really make them think as opposed to those that they are able to answer by using their short-term memorization skills. We usually notice an improvement in students’ questions for other activities after using the reciprocal questioning strategy just a few times. Another whole-class reading strategy that is research-based is the Anticipation/Reaction Guide. Steps for this strategy are: 1. The teacher selects a reading related to his or her content area that includes information which students are often misinformed about and writes four to seven statements that students can “agree” or “disagree” with; these statements are carefully selected to represent the students’ possible misinformation, or they are statements that are likely to elicit a lively discussion.

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2. Students are given a sheet with the statements and are asked to “agree” or “disagree” with each as individuals. This is a necessary step to include so that students make their own decisions rather than following along with the “crowd” in the next step. 3. The statements are put on the overhead, and students are asked to move to one side of the room if they “agree” and the other side of the room if they “disagree” with number one. No students are allowed to remain neutral so that all have selected a side. 4. Once students have selected a side, the teacher selects one or two student volunteers from each side to share why they agree or disagree with the statement. As students state their opinions or reasons the teacher remains neutral, thanking students for their participation but not correcting or interjecting at this point. 5. These steps are repeated with each of the anticipation/reaction guide statements. 6. Students are asked to be seated and are given the text that provides information on each of the statements. 7. As students read, they are asked to find evidence that either supports or does not support their reactions to the statements on the anticipation/reaction guide. Students take notes on textual evidence for each of the statements. 8. Students once again select sides for the anticipation/reaction guide statements, based on the author’s input and each statement is supported with textual evidence. Table 11.1 is an example of an Anticipation/Reaction Guide. It is important to have a mix of statements and to fashion at least one of the statements so that the author and the students can still disagree even if the textual evidence supports only one point of view. It is important to remember that when we are asking students to be critical of texts, they can be critical of all texts. If all of the statements can be traced back to facts (e.g., “Woodrow Wilson put anti-war protesters in prison”) then there is less room for discussion or interpretation and students do not work as hard to persuade their classmates. The most common mistake with anticipation/reaction guides is using statements about which students do not yet possess the background knowledge to make a decision. The role of an anticipation/reaction guide is to activate students’ prior knowledge, even if that prior knowledge is often misinformation about the particular content area. To do this, the students must know a little about the subject area; often they know just enough to be dangerous!

Table 11.1.

Anticipation/Reaction Guide for “Unsung Heroes” by Howard Zinn.

Part 1 Directions: Please mark “agree” or “disagree” next to each of the statements below and think about your reasons for your choice. Agree

Disagree 1. Teaching about injustice and discrimination makes students feel alienated and depressed. 2. Those who are thought of as ‘heroes’ in America are generally peaceful people. 3. People who spend time in prison could be seen as heroes. 4. There is no reason to call John McCain a hero; he was only captured during the Vietnam War. 5. If we take away current American heroes, then there will be less patriotism in the United States, and young adults will be less likely to feel they can make a difference.

Part 2 Directions: As you read the text, look for statements that support or negate your prediction about each of the statements above. If you agree with a statement and find it to be true, then you mark ‘supported’ and write down the supporting evidence. If you think a statement is true and find out it is not, then you mark ‘not supported’ and write down the statements from the text that disprove your original prediction. Supported

Not Supported

Textual Evidence from the article 1.

2.

3.

4.

5. Part 3 Directions: Item (from Part 1) which the author and I still disagree upon:

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Cooperative Group Reading Strategies The next strategy (Reciprocal Teaching) is best introduced by modeling the procedure as a whole-class activity before students work in groups of three or four. For this modeling, the teacher can take on the leader role while the students take on the role of the other group members, as follows: 1. One student in the group takes on the leader role and reads a section of text aloud while the others in the group follow along. 2. The leader asks a knowledge-based question that is answered directly in the text, and one of the group members answers the question. 3. The leader summarizes the passage, and the other group members verify this summary. 4. The leader asks if anything in the passage is unclear, and the whole group tries to clarify it if there is confusion for any of the group members. 5. The leader predicts what she or he thinks will be covered in the next section or what will happen next, and the other members agree or suggest alternative predictions. 6. A new member of the group takes on the leader role and steps 1–5 are repeated, making sure that all members of the group get a chance to be the leader. The active/collaborative roles for Reciprocal Teaching ensures that all members of the group are engaged and learning. This small group strategy can help students internalize the thought processes of proficient readers. Many teachers ask students to take notes as well so that after each passage, they write down a brief summary, notes on what needs clarification, and the prediction for the next section. This strategy effectively gets students reading to learn, and participating in discussion of the text. Another strategy that is effective for cooperative groups is Probable Passage (Daniels & Zemelman, 2004). This literacy strategy focuses on activating students’ prior knowledge, making predictions, and setting a purpose for the reading. Proficient reader research shows that these are thinking skills utilized by good readers, and teaching them explicitly can help all readers. In addition, this strategy focuses students on important vocabulary and sets up an organized small group interaction. Steps for Probable Passage: 1. The teacher selects eight to fifteen words from a passage that students will read. 2. In small groups, students place the terms into categories.

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3. Each student creates a “gist statement,” which is a prediction of the main focus for the reading. 4. Each student lists things she or he hopes to discover through reading the text. 5. Students share their gist statements before reading the passage and then write a new gist statement and a list of discoveries as a group after reading. An example of the probable passage strategy can be found in table 11.2.

Table 11.2.

An Example of the Probable Passage Strategy

Title of selection: “A Lesson on the Japanese-American Internment” by Mark Sweeting Word/Phrase Bank: California Nuremberg Trials Executive order 9066 Violation of civil rights

Atomic Bomb Europe relocated farmers

Categories

passive voice euphemisms fascism

Words from the Word Bank that fit into each category

Textbook Bias

Internment of Japanese-Americans Common elements of a WWII unit Most affected areas

Unknown

Gist statement: This article is about . . .

I have to read to discover . . .

Oregon primary documents Washington Hitler

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The emphasis for Probable Passage is on prediction, which is a powerful element for reading to learn. Prediction provides students with a vested interest in reading, that is, to determine whether their predictions are logical/reasonable. In addition, the small group focus on vocabulary provides a tool to activate students’ prior knowledge and build upon this before reading the text. An aspect of this assignment that is always interesting are the items under “I have to read to discover . . .” that are not answered in the passage. These often lead to excellent questions for students to research on their own and then share with the class as an extension activity. Individual Reading Strategies One of our favorite strategies is one called Story Impressions, and it works quite well as an individual activity. It is another activity that activates students’ background knowledge and introduces the key vocabulary before students read the text. The steps are: 1. The teacher selects approximately ten key vocabulary words and phrases from a reading. 2. The teacher lists these terms on the board, and students write a story using all of the words in the order that they appear. Students are encouraged to be creative and to guess if they do not know the meaning of a word or phrase. 3. Students share their stories with either a small group or with the whole class. 4. Students read the selected text and compare how the author used the terms with how they used them in their story. This is a simple strategy but it works on many levels. Once again, the students have a purpose for their reading and a vested interest in comparing their usage with that of the author. In addition, students are focused on the key concepts and use context clues to determine meaning. Another strategy that is based on what proficient readers do as they read is a V?P! Chart. Students stop at set points while reading a text and fill in points on the following chart; instead of making copies, students are given a blank piece of paper, and they fold it into four sections and label the top with each symbol—V?P! Table 11.3 is an example of a V?P! chart. The V?P! chart prompts students to react to a text in the same ways that an adept reader might automatically do. Teaching students to consciously apply these strategies can equip struggling readers with new ways to approach a text

Literacy Practices in the Secondary Content Area Classroom Table 11.3.

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Example of a V?P! Chart

Selected Reading:

V VISUALIZATIONS

? QUESTIONS

P PREDICTIONS

! CONNECTIONS

This column is where you record what you picture in your mind as you read. You may write a description or draw a picture.

This column is where you record any questions or confusion as you read.

This column is where you record any predictions you have about what might happen next or be next in the text.

This column is where you record anything from the text that you relate to your experiences, the world, or other texts.

and can strengthen a strong readers’ ability to understand their own natural processes and therefore transfer the knowledge to new learning situations. These are just a few of the numerous reading strategies available to teachers and students. The challenge comes in selecting the right strategies for a particular group of students and for the particular content area lesson. It is best to start simple, possibly selecting one of the basic ingredients and modeling and practicing until everyone (teacher and students) is comfortable. Then keep adding on until ready to create a few new ones. Employing reading strategies takes some trial and error, but as long as the students are engaged, even the errors can be valuable learning experiences!

Concluding Thoughts Now that we have defined content area literacy, shown why it is important, summarized the major research, and shared a few examples that have been successful for us, you are probably in one of three positions: (1) you agree

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with what you have read but do not feel confident enough to use literacy strategies; (2) you know much of this information and already practice using literacy strategies in the classroom; (3) you feel that you do not have time for literacy strategies because of the demands of your curriculum. If you are the first case, then the next step is to start small—select just one or two of the basics and introduce them in your classroom on a regular basis. You do not need to transform your classroom overnight; instead, you can enhance your usual routine by adding in the opportunity for students to make connections or predictions. Just remember that this is the best way for students to learn and keep trying even if the first few efforts are not stellar. The truth is that students are often resistant to literacy strategies because it means that they actually have to think about and process the material. Using literacy strategies and asking students to make connections, question text, and synthesize information can be a bit messy, but it is always worth it. If you are already using literacy strategies and much of this chapter is review, we want to challenge you to keep finding innovative ways to increase the intensity of the literacy strategies you use. Also, remember that students retain more and transfer their knowledge more readily when the purposes and process of literacy strategies are taught to the students. Using literacy strategies is great; using them and teaching students why and how to transfer their skills to multiple situations is even better. If you do not believe you have time for literacy strategies, we really hope that you will reconsider. These strategies are not any more work for the teacher and lead to true learning for students. If, like many others, you have gone into teaching because you have a passion for your content area, then you want students to truly connect and embrace what they are learning. To do this, students must feel that it relates to their lives. This only happens if we find ways to activate students’ background knowledge and truly involve them in the learning. Literacy strategies are the best way to accomplish this. We can all remember courses where we have been forced to memorize endless facts to do well on tests. Very little of this information stays with us beyond the semester exam. It is when we relate a subject to our own lives and get involved in the process that real learning occurs. We hope that these are the goals of every teacher, and we know through experience and research that using literacy skills is the way to achieve our goals.

References Alvermann, D. E., Phelps, S. F., & Ridgeway, V. G. (2007). Content area reading and literacy. Boston: Pearson.

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Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. Journal of Education, 162 (1), 67–92. Anyon, J. (2001). Inner cities, affluent suburbs, and unequal educational opportunity. In J.A. Banks & C.A. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 85–99). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bean, T. W. (1997). Preservice teachers’ selection and use of content area literacy strategies. Journal of Educational Research, 90, 154–163 Daniels, H., & Zemelman, S. (2004). Subjects matter: Every teacher’s guide to contentarea reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflicts in the classroom. New York: New Press. Draper, R. J., & Siebert, D. (2004). Different goals, similar practices: Making sense of the mathematics and literacy instruction in a standards-based mathematics classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 41 (4), 927–962. Draper, R. J., Smith, L. K., Hall, K. M., & Siebert, D. (2005). What’s more important— Literacy or content? Confronting the literacy-content dualism. Action in Teacher Education, 27 (2), 12–21. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Content area strategies at work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Fisher, D., & Ivey, G. (2005). Literacy and language as learning in content-area classes: A departure from ‘every teacher is a teacher of reading.’ Action in Teacher Education, 27 (2), 3–11. Frager, A. M. (1993). Affective dimensions of content area reading. Journal of Reading, 36 (8), 616–622. Gee, J. P. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies. New York: Routledge/Falmer. Harris, R. (1995). The signs of writing. London, UK: Routledge. Hirsch, E. D. (2006). The knowledge deficit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Jackson, Y., & Cooper, E. (2007). Building academic success with underachieving adolescents. In K. Beers, R. Probst, & L. Rief (Eds.), Adolescent literacy: Turning promise into practice (pp. 243–256). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools. New York: Harper Perennial. Kozol, J. (2000). The dream deferred, again, in San Antonio. In R. Arum & I. R. Beattie (Eds.),The structure of schooling: Readings in the sociology of education (pp. 181–194). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Kozol, J. (2005). American apartheid. NEA Today, November, 32–34. Kinney-Sedgwick, M., & Yochum, N. (1996). Content area literacy instruction: Viewpoints of elementary teachers and literacy professors. Reading Research and Instruction, 35, 298–314. Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2006). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. In R. B. Ruddell & N. J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. 412–453). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Lesley, M. (2005). Looking for critical literacy with postbaccalaureate content area literacy students. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48 (4), 320–334. Lester, J. H. (2000). Secondary instruction: Does literacy fit in? High School Journal, 83 (3), 10–16.

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Leu, Jr., D. J., Kinzer, C. K., Corio, J. L., & Cammack, D. W. (2000). Toward a theory of new literacies emerging from the internet and other information and communication technologies. In R. B. Ruddell & N. J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. 1150–1613). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Loranger, A. L. (1999). The challenge of content area literacy: A middle school case study. Clearing House, 72 (4), 239–243. Meltzer, J., & Hamann, E. T. (2006). Double-duty literacy training. Principal Leadership, 6 (6), 22–27. Misulis, K. (2000). Literacy 2000. Contemporary Education, 71 (3), 17–21. Misulis, K. E. (1994). Nurturing the growth of content teachers in content area reading instruction. Reading Improvement, 31 (2), 125–128. Moje, E. B., & Dillon, D. R. (2006). Adolescent identities as demanded by science classroom discourse communities. In D. E. Alvermann, K. A. Hinchman, D. W. Moore, S. F. Phelps, & D. R. Waff (Eds.), Reconceptualizing the literacies in adolescents lives (pp. 85–106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elrbaum Associates. Moore, D. W., & Cunningham, J. W. (2006) Adolescent agency and literacy. In D. E. Alvermann, K. A. Hinchman, D. W. Moore, S. F. Phelps, & D. R. Waff (Eds.), Reconceptualizing the literacies in adolescents’ lives (pp. 129–146). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elrbaum Associates. Moore, D. W., Moore, S. A., Cunningham, P. M., & Cunningham, J. W. (2006). Developing readers and writers in the content areas. Boston: Pearson. National Association of State Boards of Education. (2005). Reading at risk: The state’s response to the crisis in adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Boards of Education. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. NEA. (2007). To read or not to read: A question of national consequence. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts. Paul, D. G. (2004). The train has left: The No Child Left Behind Act leaves black and Latino literacy learners waiting at the station. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47 (8), 648–656. Rotman, B. (2000). Mathematics as sign. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Savage, R. (2006). Reading comprehension is not always the product of nonsense word decoding and linguistic comprehension: Evidence from teenagers who are extremely poor readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10 (2), 143–164. Shea, M. (2006). Where’s the glitch? How to use running records with older readers, grades 5–8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Smagorinsky, P. (2001). If meaning is constructed, what is it made from? Toward a cultural theory of reading. Review of Educational Research, 71 (1), 133–169. Strickland, D. S., & Alvermann, D. E. (2004). Bridging the literacy achievement gap: Grades 4–12. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Sturtevant, E. G., & Linek, W. M. (2003). The instructional beliefs and decisions of middle and secondary teachers who successfully blend literacy and content. Reading Research and Instruction, 43 (1), 74–90. Tovani, C. (2004). Do I really have to teach reading?: Content comprehension, grades 6–12. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Unrau, N. (2008). Content area reading and writing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Zipperer, F. M. J., Worley, M. T., Sisson, M. W., & Said, R. W. (2002). Literacy education and reading programs in the secondary schools: Status, problems, and solutions. NASSP Bulletin, 86 (632), 3–18.

12 Differentiating Instruction in the Secondary Classroom Ervin F. Sparapani, Ryan H. Walker, and Marie E. VanTiflin

Introduction

T

HE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES LIVE in a diverse society, and that diversity brings a variety of learners to the secondary classroom (Van Sciver, 2005). The challenge to help all students succeed is present for secondary teachers every day in every classroom. Mastering the art of differentiating any curriculum according to the needs of any given set of students is the challenge that diversity can bring. It is our belief that the most appropriate way to address the diverse composition of learners in the classroom is through differentiating instruction, which is the focus of this chapter. Often secondary teachers have the belief that focusing on diversity and attempting to differentiate instruction brings chaos and instability to the classroom. Teachers want order and continuity, not complexity and uncertainty. To begin any kind of differentiation, teachers first need to examine what they truly believe about the learner and what they can learn. Preconceived ideas about particular students or student groups must be addressed. A teacher needs to approach all students with an optimism that encourages them to learn. If teachers believe that students can learn, they will be more apt to set up a positive environment for learning and be more willing to be flexible in their delivery of material. Positive teachers see diversity as a challenge and opportunity instead of a problem. Positive teachers know that their students can succeed and take it upon themselves to make sure they do. Differentiating instruction can be a way to make this happen.

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Background Differentiated instruction is an instructional practice that is gaining momentum, in part, because it connects the tenets of brain-based research to practical learning environments (George & Alexander, 2003; Wolfe, 2001). Differentiated instruction is a possible bridge for all students to experience success in school. Differentiated instruction is one more tool educators can add to their growing knowledge of how students learn (Willis & Mann, 2000). Central to differentiated instruction are three principles. These principles are that (1) students differ in their learning profiles, (2) classrooms in which students are active learners, decision-makers, and problem-solvers are more natural and effective than those in which students are served a “one-size-fitsall” curriculum and treated as passive recipients of information, and (3) making meaning out of important ideas is as important as “covering information” (Tomlinson, 1999b; Sparks-Langer et al., 2004). Traditional methods of teaching in the forms of lecturing and teaching to the test have benefited teachers’ comfort levels by not adapting to change but have hindered students in their learning process. Teachers struggle with doing an adequate job presenting the curriculum that they teach. Where resources and training are not available, teachers revert back to traditional methods of teaching (Vega & Tayler, 2005; Johnston, 2001; Weitz, 1995). Also, most secondary teachers tend to emulate the traditional methods of teaching, having been trained with the instructor being the center of attention. Unfortunately, this does not assist the students in their learning, as it is the least effective way in helping students to both recall and apply new information (Green, 1999). Since the dawn of formal education, educators have sought to implement teaching strategies that would both inspire and motivate their students to learn at the highest levels of their potential. New “best practices” are constantly being introduced, tested, critiqued, and discarded; each having failed to live up to the publicity and hype (Wolfe, 2001). To date, the panacea for effectively educating a classroom of students, each possessing unique individual strengths and weaknesses has not been identified (Armstrong, 2000; Tomlinson, 1999b). As a result, teachers remain frustrated with a lack of student effort, stressed by the pressure to raise standardized test scores, and overwhelmed by the variety of abilities found in their classrooms (Jerald, 2006; Van Sciver, 2005; Posner, 2004). One of the newest and most promising best practices is differentiated instruction, also known as personalized instruction (Keck & Kinney, 2005; Strong et al., 2004; Tomlinson, 1999a). The appeal of differentiated instruction is that through this technique, teachers can tailor instruction to meet the various strengths of each student in a diverse classroom (Van Sciver,

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2005; Strong et al., 2004). Differentiated instruction is not a ready-made kit that will revolutionize classroom activities and student performance (Pettig, 2000). Rather, differentiated instruction describes a wide variety of teaching strategies and practices that seek to recognize and celebrate individual student preferences and strengths. While there are varieties of differentiated instruction, they do share several characteristics in common (Tomlinson, 1999b). First, each variety of differentiated instruction begins by identifying student strengths and weaknesses. Then, through differentiated instruction, teachers develop lesson plans that accentuate the identified student strengths and downplay the identified weaknesses. This ultimately creates an environment in which all students can experience academic success (Van Sciver, 2005; Pettig, 2000). Brain-Based Learning and the Quality of Education The field of education is constantly growing and changing. Society’s expectations for the education of its youth have been increasing for decades (Kovalik & Olsen, 2002). Students are expected to exhibit independent critical thinking skills. The same students are also expected to function as positive, contributing members in group settings (Simpson, 2005; Tomlinson, 2006). Schools have been given the responsibility to teach young people the skills society deems necessary to function. Therefore, educators have sought new methods to increase the quality of students’ educational experiences in relation to society’s expectations (Glasser, 1992). Because educators have explored the options of new methods to increase the quality of education, it has created a boom in educational research (Kovalik & Olsen, 2002). The educational research of today and tomorrow has walked hand-in-hand with the field of neuroscience (Wolfe, 2001; Dreher, 1997). The epiphany that each individual’s brain is wired differently than another’s is the basis for brain-based research. When it comes to learning in school, brain-based research introduces educators to the idea that each individual’s brain operates differently (Wagmeister & Shifrin, 2000). Consequently, the method of instruction used to teach one student may not be effective for teaching all students (Tomlinson, 2006; Willis & Mann, 2000; Armstrong, 2000). Brain-based research led individuals like Howard Gardner to discover that humans contained a combination of eight intelligences (Armstrong, 2000; Strahan, 1996). Those intelligences opened new doors for teachers because the intelligences signified new avenues of learning for students. Gardner’s (1983) research provided hope to teachers that all students could learn. A concern that troubles teachers was how to turn this theory into practice (Tomlinson,

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1998; Moon, Brighton, & Callahan, 2005). The answer came in the form of differentiated instruction. There have been several attempts to explain differentiated instruction in layman’s terms. Essentially, differentiated instruction is based on the premise that teachers should adapt instruction to each student’s individual needs, abilities, and interests (Willis & Mann, 2000). Meeting Individual Student Needs Doctors tailor each diagnosis to each patient’s individual symptoms, mechanics work on automobiles based on targeted problems, and architects design buildings based on the customer’s likes and/or dislikes (Keck & Kinney, 2005). Teachers should design curriculum and classroom methods that are intended to meet all students’ educational demands (Tomlinson, 1998). Current federal legislation (such as the No Child Left Behind Act) expects that schools must develop ways to ensure the academic success of all students (Faulkner & Cook, 2006). It is certain that with No Child Left Behind (NCLB), many teachers are left scrambling to teach to the test because their job is at risk (“The intelligence we never measure,” 2007; Higgins, Miller, & Wegmann, 2006; Odland, 2006; Scott, 2005). Not only are teachers concerned about their jobs, but they are finding that because of standardized tests, they are not able to develop appropriate programs so that students can learn (Rothstein & Jacobsen, 2006). Educators are also not allowed flexibility in the way that they teach, and students are being forced to squelch their creativity and miss out on exploring their own potential (Odland, 2006; Rothstein & Jacobsen, 2006; Brown, 2006). According to brain-based research, in a lecture situation where students are taking notes, it is probable that if students are not focused on the task at hand, none of the lecture is processed into the memory of the brain (Wolfe, 2001; Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). Teachers are conscious of the error in policy and are aware that preparing students for a test limits their abilities on their job and degrades their position (Lewis, 2006; Scott, 2005; Berliner, 2005; Wilson et al., 2004). Brain research proposes that endless hours spent memorizing specifics for a test does not assist memory but hinders it by decreasing the ability to memorize extensive information. It is also noted that a lot of time spent going over information does not necessarily mean that students will remember it unless there is an emotional event surrounding the information (Jones, 2005). The task at hand, then, is that teachers are to create a context-rich environment where students are able to remember specific details and imprint them into their brain’s recollection (Wolfe, 2001; Banikowski & Mehring, 1999).

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In fact, students’ brains are looking to make a connection with the material that is being presented, and if they are not able to, the information is discarded (Wolfe, 2001; Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). It is also known that the physiological basis for memory is connected with an experience that changes the way synaptic connections are made, thus creating a significant impact on the brain’s memory. Therefore, a teacher’s task is to create an environment where students can remember what they have learned. Teachers need to guide and facilitate students in their own learning, so the neural connections can be made on their own (Jones, 2005). Teachers have to vary instruction to provide interesting and new experiences for their students that engage them on an emotional level (Brier & Hall, 2007; Armstrong, 2000; Green, 1999; Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). When they are shown different ways to remember material and are presented with a variety of learning strategies, each student has the capacity to learn. Student Achievement and Learning Teachers used to believe that all students learned the same material in the same manner (Dreher, 1997). Schools focused on the linguistic and logicalmathematical intelligences when determining teaching practices (George & Alexander, 2003; Armstrong, 2000; Tomlinson, 1998). Differentiated instruction has provided an avenue to connect the content of the curriculum to a student’s multiple intelligence strengths (Armstrong, 2000). Differentiated instruction has created a positive effect for students in all content areas (Bishop & Pflaum, 2005). An area of current interest in regards to differentiated instruction is the impact on student achievement (Mithaug & Mithaug, 2003; Dreher, 1997). Schools have been bombarded by demands for measurable increases in student achievement (Noble, 2004). The use of differentiated instruction methods has increased student achievement on standardized tests. In fact, using differentiated instruction has been shown to increase student achievement in all content areas. Additionally, using differentiated instruction practices in classrooms has improved student self-efficacy and effort (Faulkner & Cook, 2006). Education’s Changing Landscape The character of education is changing for a variety of reasons. Economic factors, social issues, technological advancements, and a myriad of other agents of change have drastically altered the face of education (Simpson, 2005). Regardless of the causes, secondary teachers must change the nature

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of their instruction to match the varied learning styles of their students (Tomlinson, 2006; Dreher, 1997). Differentiated instruction has allowed educators to use the agents of change as positive classroom additions, not detrimental obstacles that students must overcome. Society has changed, thus students have changed (Simpson, 2005). Education must follow this pattern and alter the traditional instruction path common to past students (Noble, 2004). Another current trend that is attempting to change the educational landscape is the previously mentioned federal legislation known as No Child Left Behind. This legislation pushes for accountability through higher student achievement scores on standardized tests (Faulkner & Cook, 2006). Differentiated instruction is a concept that can increase student understanding and result in higher student achievement scores on standardized tests (Faulkner & Cook, 2006; Willis & Mann, 2000). Differentiated instruction may serve to revolutionize the standardized testing portion of No Child Left Behind. Students who truly understand concepts, ideas, and information will naturally perform higher on assessments of achievement (Faulkner & Cook, 2006). More important, students will experience academic success, which encourages them to continue to succeed academically (Tomlinson, 2006; Dreher, 1997). The major point of emphasis is that by using differentiated instruction all students can learn.

Instructional Practices that Differentiate Instruction The key to a differentiated classroom is that all students are regularly offered choices, and students are matched with tasks compatible with their individual learner profiles. Tomlinson (1999b) and Willis and Mann (2000) say that the curriculum in such a classroom should be differentiated in three areas: (1) content (the teacher provides multiple options to students for taking in information), (2) process (the teacher provides multiple options to students to make sense out of the ideas being presented), and (3) product (the teacher provides multiple options to students for expressing what they know about what they have learned). In this section of the chapter, three instructional practices (multiple intelligences, the 4MAT, and the Teaching/Learning System) are presented that can assist secondary teachers in differentiating instruction. Each practice provides a different way to differentiate. For more information about differentiated instruction practices, Tomlinson (1999b) gives a somewhat complete list.

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Multiple Intelligences The traditional view of how people display their intelligence is through language and mathematics. Gardner (1983), however, questions this tradition and suggests that people show there are multiple ways people show their intelligence. Gardner initially suggested seven intelligences (linguistic, logicalmathematical, spatial, musical, physical, intra-personal, and inter-personal). He has since added an eighth intelligence (naturalist) and has suggested the possibility of a ninth (existential). Typically, as mentioned earlier, secondary teachers design instruction that focuses at the traditional view of intelligence (linguistic and logical-mathematical), and ignore the other six; however, a teacher who differentiates their instruction begins with the traditional lesson design (linguistic and/or logicalmathematical) and adds two to three of the other intelligences. A differentiated lesson design using the multiple intelligences would be framed around the linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligences. In addition, the lesson would include the spatial intelligence, either the musical, naturalist, or physical intelligences, and either the intra-personal or interpersonal intelligences. Armstrong (2000) contains a wealth of information on the multiple intelligences. He is an excellent source of suggestions in all disciplines for designing multiple intelligence lessons that are differentiated. The 4MAT System The 4MAT System, designed by Bernice McCarthy (1990; 1980), is an excellent, practical tool for implementing differentiated instruction. The 4MAT System differentiates instruction by addressing McCarthy’s four learning styles, that is, imaginative, analytical, common sense, and dynamic. The 4MAT System is divided into four quadrants (corresponding with McCarthy’s four learning styles), which become a cyclical, eight-step unit of instruction. Each quadrant has a minimum of two lessons. In addition to considering the four learning styles, the 4MAT takes into consideration the right/left-mode functioning of the brain. As such, each of the quadrants includes at least one lesson that is designed in a manner that addresses left-brain functions and at least one lesson is designed in a manner that addresses right-brain functions. Units that follow the 4MAT System begin “on the street,” move into “school,” and end back “on the street.” The first step in any 4MAT unit is to simulate a “real-world” experience in the protected environment of the classroom. In this simulated environment, the students encounter the

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information to be learned in the unit in a manner that shows how the information exists in the world. The result is that all students have some prior “real-world” knowledge of the information before learning the information “in school.” Once students experience the topic in a “real-world” manner, the topic is learned in the typical “school” manner. After learning the subject matter “in school,” students develop ownership of their learning by bringing it back “to the street”; in essence, the students take the information back “out to the world.” This time, though, the experience is not simulated. Students design and make a project that shows their understanding of the subject matter learned and bring it out “to the street.” The 4MAT System takes time to learn, but it is a fascinating way to design units and address learner diversity. More information about the 4MAT System and designing lessons based on the 4MAT System can be found at McCarthy’s Web site www.aboutlearning.com. The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System is another high-quality approach to differentiate instruction. The T/L System, designed by Peter Edwards and Ervin F. Sparapani, differentiates instruction by designing lessons that address higher level thinking. The T/L System differentiates instruction by combining specific levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (knowledge, application, analysis, evaluation) with four higher level thinking skills (information gathering, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision making) and left-, right-, and whole-brain modes of brain functioning. Each T/L System lesson includes the four levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, the four higher level thinking skills, and the modes of brain functioning. A T/L System lesson has four sections corresponding to the four thinking skills and the four levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Information gathering is linked with knowledge; critical thinking is linked with analysis; creative thinking is linked with application; decision-making is linked with evaluation. Each section has three activities: an activity that focuses at left-brain functioning; an activity that focuses at right-brain functioning; and an activity that focuses at whole-brain functioning. When a T/L System lesson is designed, then, the teacher has a total of twelve activities from which to choose. The purpose of the T/L System is to provide a mechanism for teachers to provide students with a knowledge base of information and then, by using a variety of activities, moving students to think at higher levels about that information. Additionally, the T/L System is cyclical, not linear, unlike most lessons designs (which are linear). The recommended procedure to teach a T/L System lesson is to do all the information gathering activities (so the students learn the necessary knowl-

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edge base), followed by one of each of the activities from the other thinking skill sections. From the three remaining sections, the teacher selects a leftbrain activity in one section, a right-brain activity in a second section, and a whole-brain activity in the third section. The result is that the students experience six of the twelve possible activities. In effect, the teacher has a differentiated lesson with three year’s worth of activities. As with the 4MAT System, the T/L System takes time to learn, but it is an excellent way of addressing learner diversity and providing students with depth and breadth of knowledge. For more information on the T/L System see Sparapani (2000) or Edwards and Sparapani (1996).

Assessment and Differentiated Instruction For differentiated instruction to be effective, it is important that assessment is done appropriately and consistently. Assessments need to be timely so accurate feedback can be communicated to students to help them adjust their learning and for teachers to understand how information is being processed by their students (Wormeli, 2008). It is important that assessments always focus on the unit and/or lesson objectives. Whenever differentiated instruction is practiced, three methods of assessment are recommended: preassessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment. Each is discussed below. Preassessment Preassessment is used at the beginning of each lesson or unit. Preassessments come in many forms. They can be pretests, in which the teacher administers a brief test (ten to fifteen items long) to determine prior knowledge of the topic. Another type of preassessment is teacher observation. When teachers use observation, the teacher gives the students a task to perform and observes how well the students do the task, which parts of the task the students seem to struggle with, and which parts of the task the students seem to understand. A third preassessment a teacher can use is by simply asking questions about the topic. A fourth type of preassessment is using checklists. When using checklists, the teacher gives the students a list of topics that might be included in a lesson/unit and asks the students to check off what they know and what they do not know. Formative Assessment Formative assessment is important in differentiated instruction because it provides feedback to both students and teacher about student learning.

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Formative assessment serves the purpose of tracking the progress of student learning and checking where students are in their learning. Basically, formative assessment is used to provide an ongoing record of how well each student understands the material they are expected to learn. Formative assessment can include peer evaluations, talk-arounds, exit cards, portfolio checks, and journal entries. Obviously there are other types of formative assessments, but those listed have been selected because they provide a more holistic view of student learning, and include voices other than the teacher. Peer evaluations begin with a specified set of criteria, based on a rubric. Each student submits their work according to the rubric criteria, and then student work is randomly assigned to peers for evaluation based on the rubric. After peers evaluate, it is recommended that the teacher reevaluate each peer-evaluated rubric for accuracy and possible subjectivity. A “talk-around” begins with a specific set of questions that deal with specific lesson objectives. After prereading assigned information, or taking notes from teacher lectures, or after discussion of some topic, the teacher goes around the room, asking questions, and having students name or identify one aspect of the information the question addresses. A key to a successful “talkaround” is that no questions are repeated. Exit cards are used at the end of class to make sure students understand the key aspects of that day’s information. Either 3 × 5 cards or sticky notes can be used. On the 3 × 5 cards or sticky notes, students are asked to write down the three main topics learned that day, plus a topic from the day’s instruction about which they need more information or clarification, and then hand the cards in to the teacher at the end of class. The teacher reviews the exit cards and responds to questions or provides additional information the following day. Portfolio checks include examples of work collected during a specific lesson that demonstrates student knowledge, application, and synthesis of the lesson. A rubric is used to assess competency. Journal entries are similar to exit cards except that students write a paragraph or two about the key points learned in class that day. The teacher checks the journal entries for understanding and provides additional information as necessary.

Summative Assessment Summative assessment is assessment that takes into consideration all a student has done to learn the material being taught. Whereas formative as-

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sessment provides feedback on a particular task, summative assessment takes into account performance on all tasks and provides a comprehensive gauge for determining the totality of learning. Summative assessment is an indicator of cumulative performance over a period of time. Summative assessments include, but are not limited to, unit tests, demonstrations, and performance tasks. Regarding summative assessment and differentiated instruction, it is important to keep in mind that one summative assessment, like just using a unit test, is not a good indicator of student learning. Differentiating instruction in a unit involves students in a variety of learning tasks. With that, it is important that at least two summative assessments are used. More than one summative assessment (e.g., a unit test and a demonstration assignment) provides a more accurate measure of student learning.

Concluding Thoughts Changes in social, economic, and family issues are ensuring that students will come to institutions of education from a wide variety of backgrounds and with vastly different experiences (Simpson, 2005; Armstrong, 2000). Because of this, educational needs, skills, abilities, and interests for students today tend to be more complex than the needs of students in the past (Bishop & Flaum, 2005). Differentiated instruction not only takes this into consideration, it is the basis for its existence (Tomlinson, 1999b; Willis & Mann, 2000). Differentiated instruction is an exciting concept and can be a successful educational tool when administration, teachers, parents and, ultimately, students work in harmony. Schools, from superintendent to teachers to parents, need to work together and support each other. When all constituencies are coordinated in their efforts, differentiated instruction can have a tremendous influence on student interest in and attitude toward their learning.

Reference List Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Banikowski, A., & Mehring, T. (1999). Strategies to enhance memory based on brainresearch. Focus on Exceptional Children, 32 (3), 16–36. Berliner, D. (2005). The near impossibility of testing for teacher quality. Journal of Teacher Education, 56, 205–209. Bishop, P. A., & Pflaum, S. W. (2005). Student perceptions of action, relevance, and pace. Middle School Journal, 36 (4), 4–12.

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Brier, G., & Hall, M. (2007). From frustrating forgetfulness to fabulous forethought. Science Teacher, 77 (1), 24–27. Brown, D. (2006). It’s curriculum, stupid: There’s something wrong with it. Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 777–783. Dreher, S. (1997). Learning styles: Implications for learning & teaching. Rural Educator, 19 (2), 26–29. Edwards, P., & Sparapani, E. F. (1996). The thinking/learning system: A teaching strategy for the management of diverse learning styles and abilities. Educational Studies and Research, 14 (2), 2–12. Faulkner, S., & Cook, C. (2006). Testing vs. teaching: The perceived impact of four assessment demands on middle grades instructional practices. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 29, (7). Available at www.nmsa.org/Publications/RMLE Online/Articles. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: BasicBooks, a division of HarperCollins. George, P. S., & Alexander, W. M. (2003). The exemplary middle school (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Glasser, W. (1992). The quality school: Managing students without coercion (2nd ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. Green, F. (1999). Brain and learning research: Implications for meeting the needs of diverse learners. Education, 119, 682–688. Higgins, B., Miller, M., & Wegmann, S. (2006). Teaching to the test . . . not! Balancing best practice and testing requirements in writing: High-quality, evidence-based instruction need not be sacrificed in preparing students to succeed on standardized writing assessments. Reading Teacher, 60, 310–320. The intelligence we never measure. (2007). Roeper Review, 29 (2), 83–85. Jerald, C. D. (2006). ‘Teach to the test’? Just say no. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 456 087) Johnston, F. (2001). Exploring classroom teachers spelling practices and beliefs. Reading Research and Instruction, 40, 143–156. Jones, W. (2005). Music, the brain, and education. Montessori Life, 17 (3), 40–45. Keck, S., & Kinney, S.C. (2005). Creating a differentiated classroom. Learning & Leading with Technology, 33 (1), 12–15. Kovalik, S., & Olsen, K. (2002). Exceeding expectations: A user’s guide to implementing brain research in the classroom (2nd ed.). Covington, WA: Books for Educators. Lewis, A. (2006). Clean up the test mess. (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001). Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 643–646. McCarthy, B. (1980). The 4MAT system: Teaching to learning styles with right/left mode techniques. Barrington, IL: EXCEL, Inc. McCarthy, B. (1990). Using the 4MAT system to bring learning styles to schools. Educational Leadership, 48 (2), 31–37. Mithaug, D. K., & Mithaug, D. E. (2003). Effects of teacher-directed versus studentdirected instruction on self-management of young children with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36 (1), 133–136.

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Moon, T. R., Brighton, C. M., & Callahan, C. M. (2005). Development of authentic assessment for the middle school classroom. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 16, 119–133. Noble, T. (2004). Integrating the revised Bloom’s taxonomy with multiple intelligences: A planning tool for curriculum differentiation. Teachers College Record, 106 (1), 193–211. Odland, J. (2006). NCLB: Time to reevaluate its effectiveness. Childhood Education, 83, 98–100. Pettig, K. L. (2000). On the road to differentiated practice. Educational Leadership, 58 (1), 14–18. Posner, D. (2004). What’s wrong with teaching to the test? Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 749–751. Rothstein, R., & Jacobsen, R. (2006). The goals of education: In the NCLB era, accountability has focused almost exclusively on basic academic skills. Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 264–270. Scott, T. (2005). Consensus through accountability? The benefits and drawbacks of building community with accountability: Through interview’s and class observations, the author of this article examines the building of community among teachers and students through high-stakes assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 49 (1), 48–60. Simpson, E. (2005). Evolution in the classroom: What teachers need to know about the video game generation. Tech Trends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 49 (5), 17–22. Sparapani, E. F. (2000). The effect of teaching for higher-level thinking: An analysis of teacher reactions. Education, 121 (1), 80–89. Sparks-Langer, G. M., Starko, A. J., Pasch, M., Burke, W., Moody, C. D., & Gardner, T. G. (2004). Teaching as decision-making (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Strahan, D. (1996). Teaching to diversity through multiple intelligences: Student and teacher responses to instructional improvement. Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly, 19 (2), 43–65. Strong, R., Thomas, E., Perini, M., & Silver, H. (2004). Creating a differentiated mathematics classroom. Educational Leadership, 61 (5), 73–78. Tomlinson, C. A. (1998). For integration and differentiation choose concepts over topics. Middle School Journal, 30 (2), 3–8. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999a). Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 57 (1), 12–16. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999b). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A. (2006). An alternative to ability grouping. Principal Leadership, (Middle School Edition), 6 (8), 31–32. Van Sciver, J. H. (2005). Motherhood, apple pie, and differentiated instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 534–535. Vega, Q., & Tayler, M. (2005). Incorporating course content while fostering a more learner-centered environment. College Teaching, 53 (2), 83–86.

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Wagmeister, J., & Shifrin, B. (2000). Thinking differently, learning differently. Educational Leadership, 58 (3), 45–80. Weitz, A. (1995). Change—how to remove the fear, resentment, and resistance. Hospital Material Management Quarterly, 17 (2), 75–80. Willis, S., & Mann, L. (2000). Differentiating instruction: Finding manageable ways to meet individual needs. In Curriculum Update, Winter, pp. 1–8. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wilson, J., Cordry, S., Notar, C., & Friery, K. (2004). Teacher truths: Speaking from the heart of educators. College Student Journal, 38 (2), 163–170. Wolfe, P. (2001) Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Wormeli, R. (2008). Show what you know. Principal Leadership, 9 (1), 48–52.

13 Cooperation in the Classroom: Preparing Adolescents to Work Together Productively Patricia A. Salemi

Introduction

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HE WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION METHOD

has always been a standard mode of delivery in the American secondary classroom. Some teachers wonder if this method is always effective because one problem with whole-class discussions is that all students are not involved or engaged in the discussion. Under the direction of an excellent questioner, discussions can be lively interactions; but, at times, many teachers have conducted whole-class discussions in their classrooms and have been met with either chaos, with everyone trying to speak at once, or the opposite, deadly silence. An excellent way to measure interactions is to have an outside observer monitor a class discussion and actually map out the number of interactions or exchanges that take place between different students and the teacher. When this is done, two patterns usually emerge. One, the discussion is actually dominated by the teacher, or two, the discussion is dominated by a few vocal and eager students. Many shy students are quite willing to let others voice their opinions. One way to prevent this scenario in the secondary classroom is through the use of cooperative learning. Secondary teachers can capitalize on the tendency of young adolescents to gravitate to more social situations by developing strategies that instill cooperation (McCracken, 2005). When teachers look back at some of their training, there may be a view which actually prevents students from helping each other, talking to each other, or even encouraging each other. The educational history of the United — 183 —

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States had been built on a type of competition and isolation survival mentality, that is, throw the fish out and see if it swims. To oppose this tendency of creating competition and isolation in the classroom, teachers can utilize the strategies developed by cooperative learning theory and still maintain the accountability needed for today’s learning.

Background Any meaningful discussion of Cooperative Learning as an instructional technique must begin with considering the history of cooperation. Cooperative learning is not a new idea. The benefits of cooperation go back to the survival of the species. In the field of education, as early as the 1800s, Horace Mann’s Common School Movement had a strong emphasis on cooperative learning (Messerli, 1972). Educational philosopher John Dewey (1938) was known to promote the use of cooperative learning as part of his project method of instruction. Cooperative learning can be an effective way to facilitate student interaction and socialization and to improve learning (Protheroe, 2007). Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1990) have completed an extensive review of the literature and conducted several years of studies in order to build a foundational theory for cooperative learning. From their work, Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec (1990) have learned that when comparing student-tostudent interaction patterns, the research clearly suggests that cooperation among students produces higher achievement, greater motivation to learn, more positive peer relationships, greater acceptance of differences, and higher self-esteem. Johnson and colleagues (1990) have also learned that shifting the emphasis from competition or individual performance to caring if classmates are also able to learn and perform may seem simple in theory but not so simple in practice.

Lesson Design Each and every day teachers need to make important curricular decisions when structuring lessons. Teachers set educational goals, develop a rationale for their instruction, create intended learning outcomes or objectives, decide on the scope and sequence of their subject matter, and establish criteria for assessing their students. Teachers not only need to make these curricular decisions; but also, need to decide which teaching strategies they will use and whether or not:

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• Students are in a win-lose situation to see who is best or knows the most. • Students learn on their own, individually, without interaction with others. • Students work in pairs or small groups to help each other master the assigned material. Unfortunately, many students view school as predominantly a competitive endeavor. If I “win,” you “lose” is a common thread built into past classrooms. The twenty-first century classroom often emphasizes this competition as a healthy dose of reality. The hidden message is those who succeed usually succeed at the expense of others. Further, the teacher tries to legitimize the competition by utilizing the bell curve, which indicates that in a class of thirty students, only one or two people earn an “A” (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1990).

Learning as a Social Activity In the current secondary landscape of curriculum standards, grade level content expectations, and accountability, it is easy to fall into a predominantly competitive, individualistic mode. When looking at standards and criterion referenced goals, many teachers are inclined to assign students to work by themselves to accomplish learning goals unrelated to those of the other students. Rarely, as adults and in the workplace, is learning demonstrated or are problems solved in a vacuum. Additionally, Caine and Caine (1995) suggest that learning is a social activity that is heavily influenced by interaction with the larger social environment. Working in groups can address the human need for interaction and strengthen learning. In addition, each individual’s role in contributing to the group and working toward a common goal can act as a powerful motivator (Jensen, 1996).

Cooperative Learning in the Classroom In his investigation of schools, Goodlad (1984) showed that classes are routinely organized for cooperative activities about 20 percent of the time. Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec (1990), on the other hand, promote the idea that competitive and individualistic situations should each “compose 20% of the classroom time with cooperation being exercised 60% of the time” (p. 16). In an ideal classroom, all students would learn how to work collaboratively with

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others, compete for fun and enjoyment, and work autonomously on their own at times. When designing lessons, the teacher should first decide which goal structure (competitive, individualistic, or cooperative) to employ within each lesson. Then develop routines which will implement the cooperative model. The recommended 60 percent goal cannot be expected when a teacher is first learning cooperative techniques; the teacher should gradually build up to this ratio. Simply placing students in groups and telling them to work together does not mean that they know how to cooperate or that they will do so even if they do know how. Sitting students near each other and telling them they are a group in and of itself does not produce cooperation, or the higher achievement typically found in cooperative learning groups. Cooperation is not having students sit side-by-side at the same table to talk with each other as they do their individual assignments. Cooperation is not assigning a report to a group of students where one student does all the work and the others put their names on the product. Effective cooperative learning occurs when the teacher ensures that the essential components of the methodology are structured within each cooperative lesson. A common mistake made by many teachers is to have students work for weeks at a time in groups of four, five, or even six students before they have the skills to adequately do so. Teachers also need to decide how long groups should stay together, whether students should be allowed to select their own group, or should students be assigned to homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. The best advice in helping teachers make these decisions is that it will depend on the instructional outcome of the lesson, and, at times, teachers may group in various ways. In general, for teachers who are new to cooperative learning, it is better to stay with small heterogeneous groups for a short period of time. As students’ skills grow, they may be able to pick their own members or stay together for a longer period of time. Students need to practice getting in and out of group formations and what constitutes an acceptable voice level when talking to each other. This can all be practiced and modeled prior to beginning group work. Classroom norms should be firmly and overtly demonstrated. Most important, the groups need to look like a group—either at a table or by pulling desks together. Within cooperative lessons, teachers need to maximize the opportunity for students to promote each other’s success by helping, assisting, explaining, supporting, encouraging, and praising each other’s efforts. Also, when students complete their work cooperatively, according to Reeve (1996), they

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get to know each other as persons. This in turn forms the basis for caring, support, and acceptance, rather than feelings of hostility and rejection.

Five Essential Components for Effective Cooperative Learning Lessons Johnson and colleagues (1990) identify five essential components they believe are necessary for effective cooperative learning lessons. These components are (1) positive interdependence, (2) face-to-face interaction, (3) individual accountability/personal responsibility, (4) interpersonal and small-group skills, and (5) group processing. Each is discussed separately below. Positive Interdependence In a positive interdependent situation, the success of one person depends on the success of the other. In a baseball game, a good pitcher needs the catcher. No matter how good the pitcher, if there is no one to catch the pitch, the ball goes astray. The pitcher and catcher sink or swim together. This is the same belief students need. Positive interdependence promotes a situation in which students see that their work benefits the group and vice versa. Students work together to maximize the learning of all members by sharing resources, providing support, and celebrating success. There can be no “free rides” in positive interdependence, and each group member must feel they have a unique contribution to make. In order to ensure this, the teacher must structure a clear group or mutual goal, such as, “learn the assigned material and make sure all group members learn the material.” Teachers may also develop some joint rewards (i.e., if all members score a 90 percent or better on the test, each will receive five bonus points), or teachers may divide the resources (i.e., giving each member only a part of the information needed), or teachers may assign complementary roles, e.g., a reader, a checker, an elaborator. Once the objectives of the lesson are clear, the teacher must decide the size and composition of the groups. Groups tend to range from two to six members in size, but the teacher should consider two things. The more group members there are, the more interactions have to be managed; however, on the other hand, the larger the group the more chance to have someone who has special helpful knowledge for completing the task.

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Face-to-Face Interaction When students explain to each other how the answers are derived, how to solve the problem, discuss the nature of the concept being studied, or show how present learning is connected to past learning, there is cognitive activity that needs to be acknowledged. The teacher could provide the same information, but some students do not really “hear” it. Several researchers (e.g., Antil, Jenkins, & Watkins, 1998; Krashen, 1982; Reeve, 1996; Holroyd, Larsen, & Cohen, 2004) have found that students experience a greater level of understanding of concepts and ideas when they talk, explain, and argue about them with their group, instead of just passively listening to a lecture or reading a text. It is through face-to-face interaction that this cognitive process can emerge. Students in close proximity to each other will improve in motivation, feedback, and modeling. Individual Accountability/Personal Responsibility One purpose of cooperative learning is to make each member a stronger individual. Individual accountability is the key to ensuring that all group members are strengthened by the cooperative activity. The teacher should remain active as a circulating resource and, when necessary, an arbitrator, but students should be capable of carrying out their tasks without constant, direct instruction by the teacher (Willis, 2007). After completing a cooperative lesson, a member should be better equipped to complete a similar task by her/himself. The performance of each individual student should be assessed. Common ways to structure this include giving an individual test, randomly selecting one student’s product to represent the group, having students teach what they have learned to someone else, or having students explain what they know to the group. Some teachers utilize a dual grade, one for group effort and one for individual performance. The shared responsibility also makes each group member personally accountable to the other group members. Students will realize that if they fail to do their fair share of the work, other members will be disappointed. Interpersonal and Small-Group Skills The fourth essential component is the development of interpersonal and small-group skills. Placing socially inexperienced adolescents into a group and telling them to cooperate does not always work well. The skills needed in group cooperation do not magically appear one day. Adolescents must be taught the social skills required for quality collaboration and be motivated to

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use them. Students must exhibit several skills, which include (1) getting to know and trust each other, (2) communicating accurately and clearly, (3) accepting and supporting each other, and (4) resolving conflicts constructively (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1990). As mentioned previously, adolescents are not born instinctively knowing how to cooperate with others. Poor peer relationships have widespread immediate and long-term effects on social development, well-being, happiness, and success. Students who lack appropriate social skills find themselves isolated, alienated, and at a disadvantage. Cooperative skills form the foundation for maintaining a successful career and a stable group of friends. The importance of knowing appropriate cooperative skills cannot be overstated. Cooperative learning skills need to be taught just as reading and mathematics skills need to be taught. Teachers often structure groups in a loose fashion and then claim that “cooperative learning” does not work, or that their students are not mature enough to handle the responsibility, or teachers save group work for their more advanced students, fearing the more “at-risk” students cannot work in this fashion. The central issue is that teaching cooperative skills must become an important prerequisite for academic learning since achievement will improve as students become more effective in learning from each other.

Group Processing The final essential component of cooperative learning is group processing, which exists when group members discuss how well they have achieved their goals and have maintained effective working relationships. The purpose of group processing is to clarify and improve the effectiveness of the group. Groups need to describe what actions were helpful and unhelpful in completing their work and then decide what changes, if any should be considered for future work. One of the keys to successful processing is to allow sufficient time for it to take place. Structuring the available time is crucial to gain the benefit of the meta-cognitive support that processing can provide. To promote this final step, many teachers have decided to lead whole-class processing sessions. In this way, the teacher can provide direct observational feedback to groups on how well they worked together. Group processing will especially help students who have difficulty in appropriately relating to their peers. Students who poke or push others, ridicule their classmates, are too shy to interact, do not do their homework or do not contribute to the group’s success, or otherwise behave in unacceptable ways, can receive considerable benefit from group processing. Through group

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processing, students learn and practice acceptable behavior and may begin moving toward being more socially skilled. Effective group processing promotes this sense of self-efficacy rather than feelings of helplessness. Group processing focuses the group members on positive rather than negative behaviors. The use of checklists or questionnaires can assist students in making mental notes on how they are working so that processing can be more descriptive rather than judgmental or interpretive. These checklists may also help groups who are too vague during their processing. When students just say, “We did a good job,” teachers can help by giving specific statements for students to respond to or by having students document how many times certain behaviors occur.

Three Specific Cooperative Strategies In order to use cooperative learning the majority of the time, teachers must follow the five steps of the model; and yet, identify generic lessons and repetitive course routines that facilitate cooperative learning goals. Cooperative learning strategies or routines are content-free procedures which prescribe student actions step-by-step. There are several standard strategies available. This section presents three such examples: the graffiti structure, the jigsaw strategy, and the academic controversy. The Graffiti Strategy The graffiti strategy is a brainstorming process that is cooperative and can be used at any point in a lesson or unit of instruction to check for understanding, to evaluate process toward objectives, or to complete an informal needs assessment. Students work in groups on previously identified questions or topics and simultaneously record responses on an easel pad during a specified period of time. After that time has lapsed, either groups or sheets of paper move around the room until each group has answered each available question. When a group returns to their original question, they read and summarize all of the class’ responses and make several generalizations representing the fellow classmates’ comments. As in all cooperative models, planning should begin with the template of cooperative learning, which is, identifying objectives and organizing group size and composition (Gunter, Estes, & Mintz, 2007). The graffiti strategy has seven steps. The teacher (1) prepares the graffiti questions, (2) distributes materials, and then the groups (3) answer their questions, (4) exchange question sheets, (5) return to the original question,

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summarize, and make generalizations, (6) share information, and (7) evaluate the group process. Numbered heads or letters will ensure positive independence and face-to-face interaction. Group skills should be taught or reviewed prior to the graffiti activity. Individual accountability can be ensured by having students initial their responses and generalizations to take ownership. An individual assessment can be administered at the end of the lesson. The Jigsaw Strategy Instead of providing each student with all of the necessary materials to study independently, the jigsaw strategy assigns students to teams and gives each team member one piece of the information. To reach the objectives of the lesson, the students are forced to fit their individual pieces together as if they were working on a jigsaw puzzle. The puzzle cannot be completed unless each team share their piece (Aronson et al., 1978). A jigsaw lesson typically divides the class into two different kinds of groups, “expert” groups and “learning” groups. The expert groups can be formed in many ways, but numbered heads is probably the easiest. Each expert group is given the same piece of material; they become expert on the topic and prepare an outline or graphic organizer that summarizes the critical information from the text. As a group, members decide how this information will be shared with their peers. After the expert groups have completed their study, students meet with their learning group composed of a member of each expert group. Then, each “expert” teaches his or her topic to the members of the learning group. Students may be given a quiz, a graphic organizer, or an exit slip to complete at the end of the lesson to ensure individual accountability. It is again essential to review group norms of behavior prior to using this strategy. It is also essential to process social skills after groups have finished. Academic Controversy A final structure, which is actually developed by Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1995), is the academic controversy. The academic controversy is a sophisticated, intellectual cooperative learning lesson that will harness the power of conflicts in classrooms. This approach is based on the belief that intellectual conflict is healthy and that students need to be trained in how to discuss controversial topics. Academic controversies are not debates; academic controversies have all of the key elements of cooperative learning to distinguish them from the individualistic structure of debates.

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In an academic controversy lesson, groups research and prepare a position about a controversial topic (usually assigned by the teacher), prepare and give a persuasive presentation of their position, then refute the persuasive presentation given by their peers on the opposite side of the controversy. Through this activity, students view the issue from a number of perspectives including and even beyond the positions shared in the presentations. Finally, groups (the pro and con sides) create a position about the controversial issue that integrates the opposing view. Ideally, there should be four students to each group, two students assigned to each position, but that number could vary. It is also helpful if the teacher has prepared pro and con packets of material to aid the groups in their research. As in all good cooperative learning lessons, the class should have a discussion about the positive and negative aspects of this experience as well as a discussion regarding the most successful and least successful parts of the assignment.

Preparing for Cooperative Learning Once teachers have mastered the basic conceptual principles of how to use the five essential components to structure their classroom (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1990), they can analyze their current curricula, students, and instructional goals, and design appropriate content-based cooperative lessons. The advantage of conceptual principles is that they can be utilized in any classroom no matter the age, ability, or background of the students. A variety of strategies, lessons, and activities can be generated within any given lesson. Becoming competent in applying the essential elements is the first step. To become an expert in cooperative learning the teacher has to use it long enough to: • Take any lesson in any subject area and structure it cooperatively. • Use cooperative learning as a routine. • Use cooperative learning approximately 60 percent of the time. Additionally, when working with cooperative learning groups, areas that require thoughtful practice are (1) deciding on the size of the groups, (2) assigning students to groups, (3) arranging the room, (4) providing resources, (5) assigning roles, and (6) structuring the task. To develop this expertise can require up to two years or more of practice. Just reading about cooperative learning will not provide the needed procedural knowledge. Teachers must actually perform and practice the procedures

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involved. It would also benefit any teacher to become a member of an ongoing collegial support group.

Implementing Cooperative Learning Implementing cooperative learning into a secondary classroom is not easy, but it is worth the effort. The best advice is to start small and build from success. Take only one subject or one class and use cooperative learning techniques until it feels comfortable, and then expand into other areas or classes. In order to implement cooperative learning successfully, teachers will have to teach students the interpersonal and small-group skills required to collaborate, structure intellectual inquiry within the group, and form relationships with others. Teamwork, communication, effective coordination, and division of labor characterize most real-life settings. Most employers do not expect their employees to sit in rows, compete with colleagues, and never talk to anyone. The heart of most jobs is teamwork, which involves getting others to cooperate, leading others, coping with complex issues, and helping people solve problems. Importantly, teachers are also more effective when they have positive collegial support groups and solve problems together (Goodlad, 1984). Most people want to succeed and achieve to their highest potential, and students are no exception.

Conclusion Nothing we learn is more important than the skills required to work cooperatively with other people. Most human interaction is cooperative. Without some skill in this, it is difficult or, at least more difficult, to maintain a marriage, hold a job, or be part of a community. With cooperative learning, the benefits are most imperative. Because students are engaged actively in the learning process and challenged to facilitate the group’s learning experience, they become more focused on their individual productivity, as well as on the group’s, thus resulting in more time on task. The same principles apply to organizational effectiveness. If teachers consistently view the school and their job from a competitive perspective, they do not engage in thinking about mutual benefits and support in implementing any new strategy. Such conditions encourage teachers to camouflage rather than confront their shortcomings and to exaggerate (at least to themselves)

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what they take to be their accomplishments. As a result, many teachers feel harried, isolated, and alienated. Professional support group meetings provide teachers with the opportunity to share ideas, support each other’s effort to use new techniques, and encourage each other. Such support group meetings should be frequent, organized, focused, co-planned, and reciprocal in nature. Members of professional support groups should frequently observe each other teaching lessons structured cooperatively and then provide each other with useful feedback. Working with others brings with it camaraderie, friendship, warmth, satisfaction, and feelings of success. Students should see teachers modeling the same principles they have learned in their cooperatively structured classroom. This, in turn, will instill students with the motivation to achieve higher standards and to strengthen their views of their potential success in higher education or in their employability.

References Antil, L., Jenkins, J., & Watkins, S. (1998). Cooperative learning: Prevalence, conceptualizations, and the relation between research and practice. American Educational Research Journal, 35 (3), 419–454. Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J., & Snapes, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1995). Reinventing schools through brain-based learning. Educational Leadership, 52 (7), 43–47. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Goodlad, J. (1984). A place called school: Prospects for the future. New York: McGrawHill. Gunter, M. A., Estes, T. H., & Mintz, S. L. (2007). Instruction: A models approach. Boston; Allyn & Bacon. Holroyd, C., Larsen, J., & Cohen, J. (2004). Context dependence of the event-related brain potential associated with reward and punishment. Psychophysiology, 41, 245–253. Jensen, E. (1996). Brain-based learning. Del Mar, CA: Turning Point. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1990). Cooperation in the classroom. Edina, MA: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1995). Creative controversy: Intellectual challenge in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Krashen, S. (1982). Theory versus practice in language training. In R. W. Blair. (Ed.), Innovative approaches to language teaching (pp. 15–30). Rowley, MA: Newbury. McCracken, P. (2005). Cooperative learning as a classroom management strategy. Momentum, 36 (4), 10–12.

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Messerli, J. (1972). Horace Mann, A biography. New York: Knopf. Protheroe, N. (2007). How children learn. Principal, 86 (5), 40–44. Reeve, J. (1996). The interest-enjoyment distinction in intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 13 (1), 83–103. Willis, J. (2007). Cooperative learning is a brain turn-on. Middle School Journal, 38 (4), 4–13.

14 Using Assessment for Data-Based Decision-Making Natalie A. Haupt and Paul J. Voydanoff

Introduction

T

RADITIONALLY, ASSESSMENT HAS BEEN DISCUSSED

as the demonstration of what students are learning or have learned as a result of instruction. The traditional standardized test approach to assessment generates a competitive ranking system of students but does not demonstrate students’ performance competency. Unfortunately, after almost two hundred years of technological advancements and societal changes, the traditional definition of assessment and the role of the teacher have remained the same (Hart, 2002). Assessment needs to equip students of the twenty-first century with relevant learning experiences and skills. Assessment is important because it provides feedback on student learning. The results of a test or the comments on an essay can help students understand what he or she knows. This feedback can then motivate the individual student to succeed (Moon et al., 2002). How the teacher will provide student feedback will be discussed further in the chapter. Authentic assessment studies throughout the eras have emphasized the need to be highly compatible with instructional objectives. Formative and summative assessment tools must be created to meet specific learning goals resulting in the formation of numerous varieties of assessment experiences.

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Formative and Summative Assessment Educational research that strives to incorporate the complexity of individual learning and national expectations, organizes assessments as formative and summative tasks (Stiggins et al., 2007). The ultimate goals of formative and summative assessments are academic skills, critical thinking skills, and effective communication skills (Marzano, 2000). Teachers are responsible for determining which instructional approaches are supported by the assessment data. The teacher uses those data to appropriately determine which assessment techniques align with the primary assessment goals.

Formative Assessment True assessment must look both at the practical implementation of individual student’s learning as well as the instructional techniques utilized during the developmental stages of learning. Formative assessment strategies are essential to develop the detailed knowledge of students’ understandings and misunderstandings necessary to teach with precision (Fisher et al., 2007/2008). Formative assessment strategies take on many shapes, like forced-choice, short-answer, and student-centered assessments. Forced-Choice Assessments Forced-choice assessments consist of true/false format, fill-in-the-blank, and matching. The common misconception about true/false assessments is that they are easy to write. True/false items allow students who do not know the material a 50/50 chance of “guessing” correctly. When writing the false statement, the statement must appear to be valid, so that only students who are knowledgeable of the content will properly identify the error (Marzano, 2000). Two of the most commonly used forced-choice assessments are the fillin-the-blank and matching formats. These assessment approaches save the teacher time when developing test questions. An advantage of the matching format is that the correct choice for one question is a detractor for other questions (Haladyna, 1992). Fill-in-the-blank and matching formats also allow for a greater assessment of informational knowledge. Each item measures what each student knows on a specific topic. The student’s critical thinking skills are assessed when these items are combined on a chapter or unit test (Marzano, 2000). These tests

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require students to demonstrate their critical thinking skills by deciphering which choices are correct. Short-Answer Responses Formative assessment also includes short-answer responses to demonstrate students’ learning. Short-answer responses are usually two to three sentences in length. The items ask students to answer specific topics and generally assess understanding of an informational topic as well as the students’ thinking and reasoning skills (Marzano, 2000). Teachers can help students focus their understanding of a topic in a clear and concise way to provide the best possible answer to a short-response question. Complex texts provide various points of interpretation on a given topic. The use of complex text is a tool that teachers can effectively implement to improve students’ responses. Educational assessment tools must utilize numerous content sources to allow for students to see the patterns that develop within the content area. The use of complex text such as political cartoons, songs, short stories, movies, or letters develops students’ understanding and meaning of the topic (Wilen, 2003). Classrooms that incorporate dialogue and exposure to content within various contexts facilitate students’ judgments, adaptations, and synthesizing of the material (Pattiz, 2004). Short-answer responses require students to draw upon these materials to demonstrate their complex understanding of the question’s topic. Student-Centered Experiences Formative assessment tools for student learning must also focus on student-centered experiences. Experiential learning environments allow for higher order thinking skills to develop. Varying of classroom activities and materials creates an opportunity for every student to become engaged in the learning process (Stiggins et al., 2007). The traditional approach of teacher lecturing and student note taking creates passive rote memorization of factual material. The varying of class groupings allows students to strengthen their ability to work in a variety of settings. Class groupings also provide teachers the opportunity to observe students during the learning process. It is in these groups students learn to communicate with their peers. Observing these activities, the teacher determines when other learning processes need to be incorporated. The observing teacher can advise or redirect a group of students within the formative learning experience.

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There are two forms of teacher observation: informal observations and interviews. In informal observations teachers observe how the student interacts with classroom tasks and other students. Through observation, judgments can be made on how well the student understands the material being taught (Tomlinson, 2008; Armstrong, 2000). A variation of informal observation is called informal interview. In this case the teacher asks direct questions to the student to determine what the student knows. These direct questions probe for student’s deeper content knowledge. The student’s answers allow for more thorough and accurate grading (Marzano, 2000).

Summative Assessment Formative and summative assessment, collectively, assert that true assessment must look both at the practical implementation of individual student’s learning as well as the instructional techniques utilized during the developmental stages of learning. Summative assessment is the ability to effectively gather information and demonstrate the student’s knowledge of the material (Stiggins et al., 2007). Summative assessment tasks include multiple-choice responses, essay questions, and performance tasks such as oral reports and projects. Multiple-Choice Format Since standardized tests utilize the multiple-choice format, it is important to introduce students to multiple-choice assessments. Multiple-choice items include a stem, a number of detractors, and the correct choice. The most difficult part of writing a good multiple-choice item is developing the detractors. The detractor answers must be inaccurate enough to be considered wrong by students who understand the content but plausible enough to be selected by students who are making an “educated guess” (Marzano, 2000). Alternate-Choice Format Alternate-choice formats are like multiple-choice assessments; however, there are two choices to choose from rather than just one correct answer. The variety of response choices requires the student to relate multiple topics to solve the problem. Alternate-choice assessments result in greater content coverage and minimize student guessing by focusing the question towards more complex learning skills (Haladyna, 1992).

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Essay Questions Essays are used for assessing informational topics, thinking and reasoning, and written communication (Marzano, 2000). Informational essays ask the students to communicate what they know in the form of paragraph answers about a specific topic. Thinking and response essays expand the informational essay to ask students to compare and contrast topics. In written communication, teachers are asking students to add their own opinion to the answer, and the students will then be graded on how well they get their point across (Clariana, Koul, & Salehi, 2006). Essay questions are the easiest and quickest assessment items to write, and the most difficult to evaluate. Essay writing is a very authentic experience in that many aspects of professional life rely upon written communication. Essay questions give the students the opportunity to demonstrate mastery over written communication and understanding of the content taught (HillWinstead & Stader, 2002). Essay questions are targeted at higher level information, such as concepts and generalizations within a specific topic. Students struggle with effectively structuring written responses that utilize specific content information to support the general evaluations and judgments within the essay response (HillWinstead & Stader, 2002). Teachers can communicate the specific goals for essay responses through the use of rubrics. Rubrics Rubrics help students to define the learning targets and guide students through the writing process. The teacher as the decision-maker determines the appropriateness of rubrics based upon the learning objectives (Given, 2002). Rubrics should be used regularly, and therefore one rubric should not address a variety of skills. Rubrics also help students to understand the quality standards for different types of work (Stiggins et al., 2007; Marzano, 2000). Engaging students in analyzing samples based upon the rubric categories helps the student to develop appropriate essay responses. Effective rubrics must provide guidance for instructors and students about what is genuinely significant. Good rubrics capture the essential components of the general evaluative criteria. The rubric criteria need to represent key attributes of the skill being assessed. The criteria must articulate levels of quality and avoid negative language (Hill-Winstead & Stader, 2002).

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Oral Reports Oral reports are similar to essays. They require students to demonstrate a higher level of understanding by evaluating or judging the material. Students verbally demonstrate these skills within a class period. Students are required to assess informational topics, thinking and reasoning skills, as well as communication skills. Oral skills evaluate use of content vocabulary, organization of thoughts, and speaking with appropriate authority. As students get better at translating written knowledge to oral reports their overall learning becomes enhanced and allows them to be better suited for the future. Oral reports prepare students for the real world, where on-the-job performance is generally the only gauge of competence. Projects Projects are a good training ground for understanding specific concepts and developing communication skills. Projects require students to be more thorough in their research and more complete in their reports. Projects also require work with the textbook, Internet, the instructor, and other outside sources (Hill-Winstead & Stader, 2002; Madeja, 2004; Moon et al., 2002). Each project is designed to explore a key concept, a body of knowledge, or a method of study and analysis. Projects allow the students to get closer to realworld problem solving and create more “authentic” assessments. Through the use of group projects, teachers can allow for group and student self-assessment. Teachers need to teach students how to self-assess. Teachers can engage students’ reflective learning by verbalizing how choices are determined before acting or how to critique presentations. Student critiques on group projects or class presentations help to engage the reflective learning system (Given, 2002). Portfolios and Journals The use of more authentic assessments such as portfolios and journals creates a place for students to self-reflect. Portfolios are a collection of a student’s work that demonstrates the student’s accomplishments throughout the course. Students who assemble a portfolio defend their body of work to the teacher or a panel of judges. Most portfolios are reviewed and graded by the teacher or a group of faculty who attempt to reach a consensus on the quality of the products contained in the portfolio. Portfolios are usually judged on a pass-fail basis and are accompanied by a narrative by the teacher or the reviewing group as to the student’s success (Madeja, 2004).

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Written journals can be very structured and teacher-directed, or they can be open-ended. The dominant characteristic of the journals is their emphasis on the linguistic base for describing and providing evidence that students are learning the content. The linguistic base also implies that some analysis and interpretation of the content of a course of study is taking place and suggests that students should be introspective and react through language about their attitudes and conceptualization of the course content (Madeja, 2004). Self-Assessment When a student realizes what they learn, the student is the best authority to judge what they know. Teachers can break self-assessment into a few different formats. Students can self-assess individual assignments, make endof-unit assessments, be involved in an assessment conference, or even peer assess (Madeja, 2004; Hill-Winstead & Stader, 2002; Strudler & Wetzel, 2005). Students’ evaluations should be geared towards authentic assessments that require students to demonstrate skills sought after by today’s workplace, that is, communication skills, problem-solving ability, and teamwork. Student self-assessment is important because it provides feedback on understanding. The student’s responses are considered as a set of information by which the teacher can make a judgment about the student’s understanding and skill in that topic. Teachers can use this feedback to model exemplary performance and raise expectations of the class. Teachers use the feedback to determine which forms of assessment should be applied to accomplish the lesson objectives. Teachers convey the results of the assessments to the public. An informed public will feel a sense of ownership and hopefully create a working relationship. There are many ways to keep the public informed, including the Internet, town meetings, assemblies, and report cards (Carr & Harris, 2001). The most relied upon form of school-to-home communication is the report card. The report card tends to be traditionally a vague piece of information. Report cards are supposed to provide feedback about the level of skills and abilities of a particular student. A more comprehensive system of reporting grades will facilitate more accurate reporting of student’s learning (Carr & Harris, 2001). One comprehensive grade reporting system suggests listing out all of the standards and individually grading them in a rubric-style assessment. By using this method, parents can clearly see what it is their child does not know. As educational stakeholders, parents, students, teachers, and administrators can form a plan to help students succeed (Carr & Harris, 2001). The data

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generated within the classroom and high-stakes tests should be the driving force for decision-making in school curriculum.

Data-Based Decision-Making in the Classroom The standards and accountability movement of the 1990s has resulted in the collection of more assessment data about students than ever before. Schools and state governments pick and choose what data are important and what are not to serve their own political purposes, but students and teachers suffer. Data, if looked at in their entirety, can be used quite effectively to improve not only student achievement, but also the overall school and district procedures, policies, and achievement scores (Madeja, 2004). In order for data to merge with decision-making, the school district must follow a process of not only implementing data but also informing the stakeholders. A Data-Influenced Culture The school district must create a data-informed culture. Engaging and informing the school board about the importance of data-informed approaches to district improvements is vital to the process (Marshak, 1995). The school board’s knowledge of sound instructional practices influences their monetary support for these practices. By raising the expectations of the school board to include strategic initiatives and policies strong in the foundations of data can create a district climate and culture that fosters a spirit of inquiry, openness, and transparency to data (Conrad & Eller, 2003). Data-Support Team The school district needs to establish data-support teams in each building. It is critical that the school district puts together a strong staff development program. The school district will need to provide ongoing staff development support for data-support tools, statistical tools, and teaching and learning opportunities to achieve specific district and school strategic goals. The school district needs to provide just-in-time staff development and support for district-level and school-level teams engaged in district- and school-level improvement projects (Louks-Horsley, Styles, & Hewson, 1996). Additionally, the school district will need to develop online opportunities for staff development in the use of data-informed processes for the school and district (Conrad & Eller, 2003).

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Communication Opportunities School districts must plan and implement regular communication opportunities with key stakeholders to share products and results of data-informed school and district initiatives (Louks-Horsley, Styles, & Hewson, 1996). This collaborative effort for sharing information keeps all stakeholders focused on the district goals. Both technology-rich and traditional opportunities to share data-informed district/school improvement results are of importance. Additionally, a process for celebrating and rewarding the successful use of data should be part of the process (Conrad & Eller, 2003). Educational Standards and Policies National educational standards and policies have increased the need for curriculum and teacher accountability. Standards present a different view of scientific understanding; one where students are actively engaged in the learning process. Creating cohesive standards throughout the school system and spiraling these standards throughout the grade levels provides valuable resources for content area curriculum and instructional responsibilities (Carr & Harris, 2001). Standards and curriculum alignment across the grade levels clarify the importance of faculty involvement in the decision-making process. The emphasis on improving alignment between the standards and classroom instruction for the ultimate improvement of student learning can motivate faculty members for curriculum collaboration. Teachers who demonstrate effective instructional assessment approaches that utilize content standards can serve as mentors for other faculty members. Instructional procedures and situations believed to assess high levels of competence and reasoning abilities, such as artifact assessment, are reintroduced and advocated by educational researchers and reformers as being more authentic methods of assessment (Carr & Harris, 2001). The idea that teachers teach toward the test has become part of the conventional wisdom of education but has its roots in research. The common pattern at the secondary level is for teachers to present the topic, test students to assign grades on the achievement pertaining to the content, and continue on to the next topic. In most such classrooms, students do not get to practice their understanding but instead practice “remembering” (Krajcik & Talsma, 2002). The national programs and policies emphasize standardized tests as the approach for demonstrating content learning, perpetuating the “teaching to the test” instructional approach (Horn, Sterling, & Subhan, 2002). State

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educational programs have expanded the influence of standardized tests by making these state tests as graduation requirements (Espin et al., 2008). Since the No Child Left Behind legislation emphasizes content-specific achievement, some educational researchers have emphasized clarifying true academic assessment (Stiggins et al., 2007). As a result, educational research has addressed what students are expected to learn, and which instructional theories effectively assess successful students’ learning. The standards movement rests on content, performance, and opportunity-to-learn standards. The standards movement can formalize high academic expectations for all students and set criteria for more challenging classrooms, more challenging learning, and more authentic assessment. The standards-based criteria are used to create the school district’s curriculum plan. Administration must provide funding for materials, training, and time for teachers to implement this plan. Successful implementation of the plan requires proper teacher training and good leadership to be in place. Districts can accomplish this by providing professional training for its employees. Professional conferences explore the implications of standards. Teachers may deepen their understanding of learning processes and begin to translate standards into classroom teaching strategies. Standards are incorporated into textbooks and curriculum packages (McMillan & Nash, 2000). Supplementary teaching materials influence how teachers present content. These materials provide the basis for the teacher’s strategies for structuring students’ learning. Teachers as decision-makers identify the lesson objectives and determine the instructional methods that are used to engage the students. Teachers implement daily activities that continually reinforce the objectives. The teacher observes the students to determine when the objectives have been practiced and sufficiently reinforced before introducing an appropriate assessment. There are many different strategies teachers put into place to assess their students. Some teachers use pre-assessments to identify student’s prior knowledge (Louks-Horsley, Styles, & Hewson, 1996). The teachers then would use formative and summative assessments to judge how the students are performing during the class. Choosing what types of formative and summative assessments usually depends upon the dynamics of the class. The teacher has options and may choose to bypass the standardized test given to them by the book and make an alternative test to meet the needs of their students (McMillan & Nash, 2000). Teachers have autonomy with regard to assessing students within their classroom. Grading practices for teachers also tend to be very idiosyncratic. Most teachers adopt their own policies. Some give extra credit, some count zeros or

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do not count zeros, and some even use effort to raise grades (Duran, 1985). Most teachers see assessment and grading as an extension of instruction. Teachers also need to consider what the data suggest for generating assessment strategies. It is the outcome of these assessments that dictate student engagement and motivation and in the end, student learning (McMillan & Nash, 2000). As data are generated and gathered about what the student has learned, the teacher can determine areas that need improvement. The school district can then begin looking at individual students by making their assessment scores throughout their school years known to their teachers, so better evaluations can be made. These assessment scores can also be scrutinized for validity. School districts must then evaluate testing methods and decide what tests are important and why, and how to convey that information to the public.

Concluding Thoughts For teachers, assessment allows them to pinpoint specific difficulties like bad test items or misconceptions in a lesson that can be corrected to better teach the individual student. Assessment also allows the teacher to know where the students understand the material and to know when to move on or when to review the material. Teachers record the progress that students gain day-today, weekly, or over a grading period. This process leads to more powerful tools of assessment, like end-of-semester tests or standardized tests. These end-of-semester assessments and standardized assessments reflect the fundamental objectives within the specific content areas. Teachers who make data-based instructional decisions personalize these processes, make them their own, and have the confidence to share these instructional approaches with the educational community. When this happens, everyone benefits, especially the students. The knowledge that the students gain makes them accountable for the information. These students can take this knowledge with them to college or whatever career they pursue. Most educators agree that summative assessments are important parts of the educational process. Student learning or success in an academic program is too important to restrict the assessment process to standardized tests. Assessment programs, directed towards standardized test skills, have a significant effect on the content of curriculum and instructional time in the school day. School systems want to perform well on the standardized tests to ease the political pressure that they face in today’s educational environment. Assessment for the twenty-first century must consider both formative and summative assessments when determining which technique is applicable

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for a given classroom lesson. These assessments collectively should provide the foundation for the curriculum. Curriculum should not be a regimented step-by-step sequence but rather allow for the teacher to determine when to implement the fundamental standards. All in all, the more students, teachers, and school districts learn to use assessments—and parents and stakeholders understand the purpose of assessments—the better the educational environment will become. As educational policy-makers seek more precise ways of describing student achievement and measuring the effectiveness of school policies and practices, they may revise assessment instruments to reflect more closely the underlying orientation of new standards.

References Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd ed.) Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Carr, J. F., & Harris, D. E. (2001). Succeeding with standards linking curriculum, assessment, and action planning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Clariana, R. B., Koul, R., & Salehi, R. (2006). The criterion-related validity of computer-based approach for scoring concept maps. Journal of Instructional Media, 33 (3), 317–325. Conrad, W. H. III, & Eller, B. (2003). District data-informed decision making. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 475 365) Duran, R. (1985). Testing in the schools: Scientific challenges to practice and policy implications. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 468). Espin, C., Wallace, T., Campbell, H., Lembke, E., Long, J., & Ticha, R. (2008). Curriculum-based measurement in writing: Predicting the success of high school students on state standards test. Exceptional Children, 74 (2), 174–193. Fisher, D., Grant, M., Frey, N., & Johnson, C. (2007/2008). Taking formative assessment school wide. Educational Leadership, 65 (4), 64–68. Given, B. K. (2002). Teaching to the brain’s natural learning systems. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Haladyna, T. M. (1992). The effectiveness of several multiple choice formats. Applied Measurements in Education, 5 (1), 73–88. Hart, L. A. (2002). Human brain and human learning (3rd ed.). Covington, WA: Books for Educators, Inc. Hill-Winstead, F., & Stader, D. (2002). Portfolios, performance assessments, and standards based learning in educational leadership. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 480 133). Horn, P., Sterling, H., & Subhan, S. (2002). Accountability through ‘best practice’ induction models. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 464 039)

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Krajcik, J., & Talsma, V. (2002) Comparing apples and oranges: Using the national science education standards as a tool when assessing scientific understandings. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 468 034) Louks-Horsley, S., Styles, K., & Hewson, P. (1996). Principles of effective professional development for mathematics and science education: A synthesis of standards. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 409 201) Madeja, S. (2004). Alternative assessment strategies for schools. Arts Education Policy Review, 105 (5), 3–13. Marshak, D. (1995). District-based program assessment: One way to create ‘schools that learn.’ Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 392 828) Marzano, R. J. (2000). Transforming classroom grading. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. McMillan, J. H., & Nash, S. (2000). Teacher classroom assessment and grading practices decision making. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 447 195) Moon, T. R., Callahan, C. M., Brighton, C. M., & Tomlinson, C. A. (2002). Development of differentiated performance assessment tasks for middle school classrooms. Arlington, VA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 476 371) Pattiz, A.E. (2004). The idea of history teaching: Using Collingwood’s idea of history to promote critical thinking in the high school history classroom. History Teacher, 37 (2), 239–49. Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2007). Classroom assessment for student learning: Doing it right—using it well. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Strudler, N., & Wetzel, K. (2005). The diffusion of electronic portfolios in teacher education: Next steps and recommendations from accomplished users. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38 (2), 231–243. Tomlinson, C. (2008). Learning to love assessment. Educational Leadership, 65 (4), 8–13. Wilen, W. (2003). Conducting effective issue based discussions in social studies classrooms. International Journal of Social Education, 18 (1), 99–110.

Index

academic controversy, cooperative learning strategy, 191–92 adolescence: body image. See adolescent body image; cognitive development in. See adolescent cognitive development; developmentally appropriate schools for, 83–84; developmental needs and parental role, 119–20; and education, 10; emotional development in. See adolescent emotional development; and gender. See gender; interest in reading, 149; and LGBTQ youth. See sexual minority adolescence; media influence on, 47–49; moral development in. See adolescent cognitive development; peer acceptance, 77; period of adolescence, 76; physical development in. See adolescent physical development; proficient adolescent readers, 150–52; rite of passage, 76; as a social creation, 8–9; social development in. See adolescent social development adolescent body image: definition of, 42; female body image, 42–43; male

body image, 42–43; medial influence on, 47–49; peer group acceptance and, 45–49; physical changes during adolescence, 77; teasing and, 47; “thin” ideal, 48, 49 adolescent cognitive development: blossoming and brain organization, 78–79; Gilligan’s female moral development theory, 82–83; Kohlberg’s moral development theory, 82; moral development, 82; moral reasoning, 82, 83; Piaget’s theory and, 78–79 adolescent emotional development: brain development and, 80; depression and, 80; effect of hormones on, 80; mood swings, 80; reading other’s emotions, 80; relationship to social development, 81 adolescent moral development. See adolescent cognitive development adolescent physical development: memory function and sleep; puberty, 76, 77; relatively unpredictable, 77; sleep and, 77–78; sleep cycle and, 78

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adolescent social development: brain and, 82; Erikson’s identity formation, 81; experimentation and, 81; group processing and social development, 189–90; interpersonal and small group social skills, 188–89; love and first crush, 82; relationship to emotional development, 81; seeking independence, 81 adolescents: body image and. See adolescent body image; and family. See family; interest in reading, 149; and LGBTQ youth. See sexual minority adolescents; and peer groups. See peer groups and subcultures; proficient readers, 15–52; social class and, 6; social problems and, 3; and their social world, 8–9; and societal norms and values, 6; and status in society, 7–8; subcultures and, 5 alternate-choice assessment format, 200 anorexia nervosa. See eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders, Inc. (ANRED), 43 Anticipation/Reaction Guide literacy strategy, 156–59 assessment: alternate-choice format as summative assessment, 200; assessment and differentiated instruction, 177–78; checklists as preassessment, 177; communication opportunities and, 205; data-based decision making and, 204–7; datainfluenced culture and, 204; data support teams and, 204; educational standards and policies and, 205–7; essay questions as summative assessment, 201; exit cards as formative assessment, 178; forcedchoice formative assessments, 198–99; formative assessment, 177–78, 198–200, 206, 207; grading practices and, 203–4, 206–7; journal entries as formative assessment,

178; multiple-choice format as summative assessment, 200; oral reports as summative assessments, 202; peer evaluation as formative assessment, 178; portfolios and journals as summative assessments, 202–3; preassessment, 177, 206; pretests as preassessments, 177; projects as summative assessments, 202; portfolio checks as formative assessment, 178; self-assessments as summative assessments, 203–4; short-answer responses as formative assessments, 199; studentcentered experiences as formative assessments, 199–200; questioning as preassessment, 177; summative assessment, 178–79, 200–4, 206, 207; “talk arounds” as formative assessment, 178; teacher observations as preassessments, 177; “teaching to the test,” 205–6 assessment and instruction, 143–44 basic ingredients for content area reading strategies, 156 black adolescents, 23–24 Bloom’s taxonomy, 176 brain-based instruction, 135–38 brain’s natural learning systems, 135 Bruner, J., 138–39 bulimia nervosa. See eating disorders Canter, L., (assertive discipline), 102 cell phones/PDAs, 92–93 classroom climate check list, 109–11 classrooms: and building community, 20–21, 64, 108–9; caring classrooms, 100–101; character education in, 66–67; checklist for creating a positive classroom climate, 109–11; “community as family” in, 61–62, 63, 64, 65; constructivist instruction in, 138–41; and content area literacy. See literacy practices in the secondary

Index

classroom; cooperative learning and. See cooperation in the classroom; culturally relevant curriculum in, 120–21; democratic classrooms, 58– 59. See also developing democratic classrooms; differentiated instruction and. See differentiated instruction; explicit instruction and, 134–35, 141–42, 170; grouping strategies in. See cooperation in the classroom; implementing instruction in, 142–43; and issues of LGBTQ youth, 31–32; physical layout of, 108; planning for instruction and classroom considerations, 141–42; rules for behavior in, 103–4; as society, 60–61; student-focused, 58; teacher control of, 101; teaching a disciplined curriculum in, 21–23; thematic/brain-based curriculum in, 136–37. See also creating a classroom climate for engagement communication and instruction, 131 computers in the classroom, 89–90 constructivist instruction, 138–41 content area literacy. See literacy practices in the secondary classroom cooperation in the classroom: the academic controversy strategy, 191–92; cooperative learning in the classroom, 185–87, 193; cooperative learning strategies, 190–92; essential components of cooperative learning lessons, 187–90; the face-to-face interaction strategy, 188; the graffiti strategy, 190–91; group processing skills in cooperative learning, 189–90; history of cooperative learning, 184; individual accountability/personal responsibility in cooperative learning, 188; interpersonal and small group skills in cooperative learning, 188–89; the jigsaw strategy; learning is a

213

social activity, 185; lesson design and, 184–85; preparing for cooperative learning, 192–93. See also cooperative group reading strategies cooperative learning. See cooperation in the classroom cooperative group reading strategies, 160–62 creating a classroom climate for engagement: Assertive Discipline, 102; caring classroom climate, 100– 101; checklist for creating a positive classroom climate, 109–11; classroom climate free of stereotyping and bullying, 63; climate for emotional and social growth, 66; classroom control and level of student trust, 101; community building, 108–9; engaging students in the learning process, 105–6; motivation and classroom climate, 104–5; physical layout and classroom environment, 108; Reality Theory, 102; relationship to classroom management, 99, 101–2; sense of belongingness and success, 60; supportive environments for LGBTQ youth, 36–38; Teacher Effectiveness Training, 102–3; teacher expectations and rules for appropriate behavior, 103–4, 107. See also classrooms cultural roots. See culture culturally relevant curriculum, 120–21 culture: and beliefs of teachers, 18, 169; and the color-blind creed, 19; culturally relevant curriculum, 120–21; and cultural roots, 18–20; and the culture of power, 20, 21; “culture of thinness,” 44; and the diversity of learners, 62–63; LGBTQ youth and, 36–37; and the melting pot metaphor, 19; and parental involvement, 115–16; and Teacher as Culturally Responsive Decision

214

Index

Maker, 16–17, 23–24; and the theory of meritocracy, 19. See also society data-based decision-making, 204–7 data support assessment teams, 204 developing democratic classrooms: character education and, 66–67; communication is crucial in, 67; cooperative learning and, 68. See also cooperation in the classroom; content area literacy strategies and, 68. See also literacy practices in the secondary content area classroom; definition of character education, 66; differentiated instruction and, 67–68. See also differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; educating the whole child, 63–64, 66; four steps to a good character education program, 67; the multilevel classroom and, 64–65; providing student choices and goal setting and, 106; suggestions for instructional practice and, 67–68 Dewey, J., 59, 60, 184 didactic instruction, 133–35, 141–42 differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom: assessment and, 177–78. See also assessment; beliefs of teachers about, 169; brain-based learning and, 171–73; curriculum practices and, 174; definition of, 172; the 4MAT system and, 175–76; instructional practices for, 174–76; multiple intelligences and, 175; principles of differentiated instruction, 170; student achievement and, 173–74; the Thinking/Learning (T/L) system and, 176–77 diversity of learners, 62–64, 169 eating disorders: age at onset of, 49; anorexia nervosa, 43; bulimia nervosa, 43; effects of anorexia and bulimia, 43–44; females and, 42–43,

44–45, 46, 48; forces behind the development of, 44–45; males and, 42–43, 45, 48–49; media influence on, 47–49; prevalence in society of, 43; role of school counselor, 50 education: assessment and instruction, 143–44. See also assessment; brainbased instruction and, 135–38; constructivist instruction and, 135–41; content area literacy and education. See literacy practices in the secondary classroom; cooperative learning and. See cooperation in the classroom; culturally relevant curriculum in, 120–21; didactic instruction in, 133–35, 141–42, 170; differentiated instruction and. See differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; grouping strategies for. See cooperation in the classroom; factory model of, 60, 64; flexible instruction and, 135–38; global, 58; implementing instruction and, 142–43; media influence on, 58; parental involvement and. See parental involvement; planning for instruction and, 141–42; responsibility of education in a democracy, 59–60; and society, 58. See also society; teacher responsibility and, 59; and technology. See technology educational standards and policies, 205–7 educating the whole child, 63–64 e-mail, 92 emotional and social character traits, 66 emotions and learning, 136, 137–38 engaging the passion of the learner, 132 essay questions, 201 essential components for effective cooperative learning lessons, 187–90 Erikson, E., 81, 117

Index

family: changing family structure, 115–16; classroom “community as family,” 61–62, 63; and gender role in. See gender; and LGBTQ youth, 27, 31, 32, 36–37; and social development of adolescents, 81–82; in society, 9; involvement in adolescents’ education, 121–23; school and community partnerships and, 116 factory model of education, 60, 64 flexible instruction, 135–42 forced-choice assessments, 198–99 formative assessment, 177–78, 198–200. See also assessment 4MAT System, 175–76 Gardner, H., 171, 175 Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Educators Network (GLSEN), 38 Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs), 38 gender: female and male moral development, 82–83; and LGBTQ youth. See sexual minority adolescents; and self image, 44–45; and society, 11–12 Gilligan, C., 82 Glasser, W. (reality theory), 102 Gordon, T. (teacher effectiveness training), 102–3 grading practices, 203–4, 206–7 graffiti cooperative learning strategy, 190–91 grouping strategies. See cooperation in the classroom groups in society. See society habits of mind, 142 individual reading strategies, 162–63 interactive instruction, 131 instruction: assessment and, 143–44. See also assessment; brain-based instruction, 135–38, 171–72; and the brain’s natural learning systems, 135;

215

Bruner’s theory of constructivism, 138–39; communication and instruction, 131; and content area literacy. See literacy practices in the secondary classroom; controversy about brain-based instruction, 136–37; controversy about constructivist instruction, 139–40; constructivist instruction, 138–41; cooperative learning. See cooperation in the classroom; definition of, 129–30; definition of constructivist instruction, 139; demonstrating and modeling, 130; didactic/traditional instruction, 133, 141, 142, 170; differentiated instruction. See differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; directive instruction, 130, 133–35; discussing, 130, 141, 183; emotions and, 137–38, 172; and engaging the passion of the learner, 132, 137–38; evaluation and measurement in, 143; explanatory instruction, 130; flexible instruction, 135, 141–42; grouping strategies. See cooperation in the classroom. habits of mind, 142; implementing instruction, 142–43; interactive instruction, 131; LGBTQ youth issues and, 35–36; mentoring, 130; movement during, 137; and performance-based and standardized assessments, 143–44, 172; planning for instruction, 141–42; principles of brain-based instruction, 136; role of the learner in constructivist instruction, 140; scaffolding, 139; student-centered instruction, 132; technology and. See technology; understanding by design, 142; vicarious and experiential instruction, 132–33; Vygotsky’s theory of constructivism, 138–39 instructional practices that differentiate instruction, 174–76

216

Index

jigsaw cooperative learning strategy, 191 Kohlberg, L., 82 laptop computers in the classroom, 90 literacy practices in the secondary classroom: basic ingredients necessary for all reading strategies, 156; characteristics of proficient adolescent readers, 150–52; content area literacy skills, 152–53; content area literacy strategies, 155–63; cooperative group reading strategies, 160–62; definition of content area literacy, 147; gaps in literacy achievement, 149–50; importance of content area literacy, 148; individual reading strategies, 162–63; Probable Passage strategy, 160–62; Reciprocal Teaching strategy, 160; ReQuest: Reciprocal Questioning strategy, 156–57; Story Impressions strategy, 162; the Taco Bell theory, 156; V?P! chart strategy, 162–63; views about literacy strategies of preservice and beginning teachers, 153–55; whole class reading strategies, 156–59 LGBTQ youth. See sexual minority adolescents Mann, H., 184 Maslow, A., 117 McCarthy, B., 176 multilevel classroom, 64–65 multiple-choice assessment format, 200 multiple intelligences, 175 No Child Left Behind, 123, 155, 172, 174, 206 oral reports, 202 parental involvement: adolescent development and change in parental role, 119–20; in adolescent social

development, 81; in character education, 67; Clark’s spheres of influence and, 117; classroom concerns about technology and, 93–94; decrease in parental involvement in secondary schools, 118–19; definition of, 113–14; at the elementary level, 117; e-mail and, 92; and facilitating moral growth in adolescents, 83; at the high school level, 118; increase in academic learning and success of students and, 114, 121, 179; at the middle school level, 117–18; No Child Left Behind and, 123, 203–4; promising practices for secondary teachers to involve parents, 121–23; school and community partnerships and, 116; strengths of technology and, 95 peers and peer groups: cooperative learning and, 184, 188–89; groups and cliques, 46; group norms, 45–46; influence on adolescent social development, 81; influence on school success, 120; peer group acceptance. See adolescent body image; peer subcultures, 10–11, 21, 41–42; teasing among, 47 Piaget, J., 78 planning for instruction, 142–43 portfolios and journals, 202–3 PowerPoint presentations, 90–91 preassment as formative assessment, 177 principles of brain-based instruction, 135–38 Probable Passage literacy strategy, 160–62 proficient adolescent readers, 150–52 projects as assessment, 202 Reciprocal Teaching, 160 ReQuest: Reciprocal Questioning literacy strategy, 156–57 Rogers, C., 102, 103 roles in society. See society rubrics, 201

Index

scaffolding, 139 self-assessment, 203–4 sexual minority adolescents: becoming a transformational teacher of, 37–38; “coming out” and, 29–30, 34; conservative students and, 33; definition of, 29; gender identity and, 31–32; homophobia and, 27, 31, 34; LGBTQ youth, 12, 27–28; parental involvement and, 115–16; school concerns and, 32–34. See also classrooms; supportive environments in school, 36–37; teacher support of, 34–36. See also differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; instruction short-answer response assessments, 199 socialization: and family, 9–10; and gender role. See gender; and human agency, 8; in society, 5 society: components of, 4–5; and culture, 4–5; definition of, 4; education in, 58–63, 171; groups, status, and roles in, 7; issues in, x–xi; literacy influences of, 152; sense of belonging of and, 60–61; social class in, 5–6; social institutions in, 6–7; social interaction in, 8 status in society. See society, groups, status, and roles Story Impressions literacy strategy, 162 student-centered assessment, 199–200 student-centered instruction, 132 summative assessment, 178–79, 200– 204. See also assessment Taco Bell theory of teaching literacy, 156 teachers: activating student interest, 106–7; assessment and instruction, 143–44. See also assessment; biases about parental involvement, 116; brain-based instruction, 135–38, 171–72; building a sense of classroom community, 63, 108–9; cell phones/ PDAs in class, 92–93; character

217

education and, 67; checklist for creating a positive classroom climate, 109–11; classroom control and student trust, 101; cooperative learning, 68. See also cooperation in the classroom; constructivist instruction and, 138–41; content area literacy. See literacy practices in the secondary classroom; didactic/ traditional instruction and, 133, 141–42, 155, 170; differentiated instruction. See differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; emotional development of adolescents, 80–81; engaging students in the learning process, 105–6; explicit instruction and, 134–35; facilitating adolescent moral growth, 83; grouping strategies. See cooperation in the classroom; implementing instruction, 142–43; implications of technology, 94–95. See also technology; in multilevel classrooms, 64–65; and planning for instruction, 141–42; promoting positive peer interactions and life choices, 119–20; social development of adolescents, 81–82; parental involvement and, 114–16, 117–18, 119–20, 121–23; providing classroom structure and classroom rules, 103–4, 107; responsibilities of, 59, 62, 66, 68–69 Teacher as Culturally Responsive Decision Maker (TCRDM). See culture “teaching to the test,” 205–6 teaching in urban schools: beliefs of teachers and, 18; black students and, 15–16, 23–24; challenge of, 17–18; differentiated instruction for. See differentiated instruction in the secondary classroom; discipline and, 21–23. See also classrooms, creating a classroom climate for engagement;

218

Index

literacy achievement, 149–50; novice teachers and, 17; teacher power and, 22–23, 101, 104, 105 technology: cell phones/PDAs, 92–93; computers in the classroom, 89–90; effect on student motivation, 88–89; e-mail, 92; implications for students using technology, 93–94; implications for teachers using technology, 94–95; laptop computers in the classroom, 90; power point presentations, 90–91; self-efficacy and, 88–89; strengths of students’ use of technology, 94; strengths of teachers’ use of technology, 95, 105; student barriers to using technology, 93; student concerns about using technology, 94; social institutions and, 6; teacher barriers to using

technology, 94; teacher concerns about using technology, 95; World Wide Web and the Internet, 91, 152; virtual classrooms, 91–92 Thinking/Learning (T/L) system, 176–77 traits of good citizens, 63 V?P! literacy strategy, 162–63 vicarious and experiential learning, 132–33 virtual classrooms, virtual fieldtrips, online classrooms, 91–92 Vygotsky, L., 138–39 whole class reading strategies, 156–59 zone of proximal development (ZPD), 139

About the Contributors

Suzanne M. Booth currently teaches at the middle level in a public school district in Eastpointe, Michigan. She has earned her master’s degree in secondary classroom teaching at Saginaw Valley State University. She has taught in the public and private sector within the last fifteen years. Her public school teaching career has been spent at the middle school level at various grades including multiple subject areas, and she has taught skill trades preparation courses for General Motors Corporation at their Tech Center in Warren, Michigan. She has a direct interest in character education and democratic classrooms. LaCreta M. Clark, Ph.D., is a faculty member in educational leadership at Saginaw Valley State University. In that position, her focus is preparing both teachers and administrators in understanding the necessity and power of initiating and sustaining parental involvement and community partnerships at every level of education. She brings fifteen years of research and experience in the area of parental involvement and school, family, community partnerships, with a particular focus on middle and secondary school practices. She has facilitated numerous professional development opportunities about parental involvement for teachers and administrators, and she regularly presents her research at regional, national, and state conferences. Additionally, she brings a personal lens of rich parental involvement experiences at every level of education that informs her research. Kelli M. Clemmensen, a language arts and social studies teacher, has taught for six years, experiencing many different styles of learning, teaching, and — 219 —

220

About the Contributors

classrooms. Graduating from the University of Wisconsin–Madison with a major in education (grades one through nine) and a minor in psychology, she began her teaching career in the Madison, Wisconsin, public schools. Before beginning her official career as an educator, she had the opportunity to travel to Australia to teach and observe classrooms in the urban and rural areas of New South Wales. On her return to the United States, she taught a sixth-grade class for one year at Toki Middle School (in Madison) and for two years she taught a multi-age class servicing sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-graders at Sennett Middle School, also in Madison. At present, she teaches sixth grade at Iroquois Middle School, Chippewa Valley School District, Macomb, Michigan. Through Saginaw Valley State University she continues her journey as an educator and is currently working on a master’s degree in middle level classroom teaching. As a teacher, she designs opportunities for her middle level students around the concepts of democratic and multi-grade classes. Jennifer E. Ellero has been dedicated to teaching emerging adolescents, both at public and private middle level schools, since 2002. Beginning her education at the University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, she has continued her effort to gain perspective on the middle level learner. Through earning her master’s degree in middle level classroom teaching at Saginaw Valley State University, she participated in research and implemented school-wide strategies gained from that program. She is especially interested in eating disorders displayed by adolescent females (and now males). Ms. Ellero teaches at Hart Middle School in the Rochester Community School District, Rochester, Michigan, where she continues to be in positions of leadership, both district-wide and school-based. Jennifer J. Fager, Ph.D., is associate dean of the College of Social Sciences, Health, and Education and director of the School of Education at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. She has been a teacher educator and an administrator for seventeen years and has focused her teaching and research in the areas of LGBT youth and adolescent development. She serves as a regular consultant to colleges and universities in the areas of outcomes assessment and accreditation. Barbara D. Garii, Ph.D., is assistant professor at the State University of New York, Oswego. She has taught at the high school and college levels for over fifteen years. Her teaching and research address issues of social justice across the curriculum as both content and pedagogy. She has presented her work addressing homophobia in classroom settings to local and national audi-

About the Contributors

221

ences, and she has published several articles in national journals addressing homophobia and social justice. Jonathon A. Gould, Ed.D., is a teacher educator at Saginaw Valley State University, where he is active in math and science education and the appropriate use of technology in the classroom. He taught in public education for over a decade, devoting the greater part of his career to the education of at-risk students. He served as chair of multiple school improvement teams (with special focus on the implementation of classroom technology), was head coach for Science Olympiad and Math Counts, and for many schools in Michigan was Academic Track Master of Ceremonies Natalie A. Haupt attended both public and private schools throughout her adolescent and collegiate years. She studied at OakHill College in Southgate, England, as part of Concordia University’s study abroad program and received a BA from Concordia University Ann Arbor in secondary education social studies. She has been teaching social studies courses at Lutheran North High School in Macomb, Michigan, for the past seven years. As a teacher at Lutheran North High School, she introduced the Advanced Placement U.S. history course; she served as student council adviser; she was a faculty representative for the North Central Accreditation (NCA) process; and she served on various committees related to assessment issues. Also, she participated in Kalamazoo College’s Center for International Programs Teach Asia: Summer Institute for Secondary Teachers “Changes and Continuity in Modern China” program. She earned her master’s degree in secondary classroom teaching at Saginaw Valley State University. Pamela L. Ross McClain, Ph.D., attended public schools until college. She earned a bachelor’s of arts degree at the University of Michigan–Ann Arbor in English and Afro-American and African studies. She also studied at Cornell University’s Africana Studies and Research Center where she earned an MPS in Afro-American and African studies and history. She completed her doctoral studies at Michigan State University in curriculum, instruction, and educational policy. Subsequent to a career as an urban middle school teacher and youth program director for a nonprofit agency, she became a teacher educator at Saginaw Valley State University. She views schools and classrooms as complex cultural systems that play a major role in shaping students’ dispositions to learning. Her academic interests are in urban middle/secondary education with an emphasis in the socio-cultural contexts and functions of schooling.

222

About the Contributors

Patricia A. Salemi, Ed.D., is a teacher educator at Saginaw Valley State University. As a language arts and Title I reading teacher for twenty-two years, she met the needs of ethnically diverse students in the urban district of Hamtramck, Michigan. She volunteered for several years at the Michigan State Department of Education, serving on the Secondary Content Literacy Committee. She served as president of the Michigan Secondary Reading Interest Council, and in 1992 was named Reading Teacher of the Year by the Michigan Reading Association. She worked as K–12 curriculum director and assistant superintendent of instruction for two public school districts. Her research interests focus on the use of cooperative learning with second-language learners and the teaching of writing. Renay M. Scott, Ph.D., taught middle school social studies prior to becoming a college professor of middle level and social studies education. She served as a technical assistant to middle schools participating in the Michigan Middle Start Project. Currently she serves as dean of arts and sciences and adjunct instructor in a graduate level program in curriculum and instruction. She is the author of numerous articles on social studies and middle level education. Byung-In Seo, Ph.D., is assistant professor at Chicago State University. There, she is in the Educational Leadership, Curriculum, and Foundations Department, and she teaches curriculum and educational foundations courses. Before becoming a teacher educator she spent fifteen years teaching mathematics and English to middle school and high school students. Through her research, she hopes to understand mathematical literacy and how improving mathematical literacy is similar to improving traditional literacy of reading and writing. Brian J. Smith has a Ph.D. in justice studies from Arizona State University. He is associate professor in the Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work at Central Michigan University. His research, writing, and publications focus on social inequalities, marginalized youth, and education processes. Recent work has appeared in The Urban Review and The High School Journal. In 2007 he received Central Michigan University’s Excellence in Teaching Award and was also named Professor of the Year by CMU’s honors program. In 2009 he was CMU’s nominee for the Michigan Distinguished Professor of the Year award. Deborah L. Smith, Ed.D., taught English as a second language and English for eight years before returning to school full time to earn her doctorate in curriculum and instruction at Montana State University. She is now a teacher educator, field placement coordinator, and chair of the writing committee

About the Contributors

223

at Saginaw Valley State University. She is dedicated to improving classroom climate and literacy learning for disadvantaged urban children through the preparation of urban teachers; her current research focus is on the development of an urban literacy cadre for Detroit-area schools. Ervin F. Sparapani, Ph.D., has eleven years of teaching experience at the elementary, middle school, and high school levels. Currently, he is a teacher educator at Saginaw Valley State University. As a teacher educator, he has been recommended for several awards for his teaching and research. His academic interests and scholarship focus on the areas of differentiated instruction and higher-level thinking, mainly at the middle school and high school levels. In these areas, he has numerous national and international conference presentations and publications. Marie E. VanTiflin has taught at the elementary, middle school, and high school levels during her twenty years of teaching general and special education in the Saginaw Township, Michigan, Community Schools. She pioneered a reading buddies program at the middle school level and received (in 2003) a Michigan Service-Learning Award. Currently, she is a high school student assembly adviser. The student assembly has received four Awards of Excellence from the Michigan Association of Student Councils. Because of the variety of experiences she has as a teacher, her main interests lie in differentiating instruction to provide varied experiences for her students. Paul J. Voydanoff attended public schools until college. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Alma College and a master’s degree from Saginaw Valley State University. He also earned teaching minors in science (chemistry and physics) from Wayne State University. He has been a science teacher at South Lake High School in a suburb of Detroit for the past twelve years. He served on the South Lake High School improvement assessment team for eight years. Additionally, he has served as president of the Macomb County (Michigan) Science Olympiad for the past six years. He also has managed and supervised events at the regional, state, and national levels for Science Olympiad. Ryan H. Walker is currently a seventh-grade English and history teacher at Cass City Middle School in the Cass City, Michigan, Public School District. He taught eighth-grade English and history prior to teaching seventh grade. He earned his BA in secondary education and MA in middle level classroom teaching from Saginaw Valley State University. He has served on curriculum committees, writing committees, and positive behavior support committees. On these committees, he promotes character education and differentiated instruction.