Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools 9781350096066, 9781350096097, 9781350096073

Citation preview

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Also available from Bloomsbury Identity, Culture and Belonging, Tony Eaude Relationships and Sex Education 3–11, Sacha Mason and Richard Woolley Challenging Perceptions in Primary Education, Margaret Sangster

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools Alison Kington and Karen Blackmore

BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2021 This edition published in 2022 Copyright © Alison Kington, Karen Blackmore and contributors, 2021 Alison Kington and Karen Blackmore have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xi constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover design: Charlotte James Cover image © SolStock/iStock All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any thirdparty websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Control Number: 2020941215 ISBN: HB: 978-1-3500-9606-6 PB: 978-1-3502-0131-6 ePDF: 978-1-3500-9607-3 eBook: 978-1-3500-9608-0 Typeset by Newgen KnowledgeWorks Pvt. Ltd., Chennai, India To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters.

Contents List of Illustrations Foreword Professor Dame Alison Peacock Acknowledgements Notes on Contributors

vii viii xi xii

Introduction Alison Kington and Karen Blackmore

1

Part I Social Interaction and the Curriculum

7

1

2

3

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics: Developing Shape and Spatial Awareness Louise Hoskyns-Staples and Karen Blackmore Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children: Findings from the Chatterbooks Reading Groups Initiative Joy Stanton and Jane Whittenbury

31

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry: The Role of Mobile Technologies to Support Peer Learning Karen Blackmore

47

Part II Classroom Relationships and Learning 4

5

6

9

71

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools: Whole School Initiatives to Foster Effective Social Learning Relationships Rachael Paige

73

Early-Career Teacher Relationships with Peers and Mentors: Exploring Policy and Practice Kathryn Spicksley and Maxine Watkins

93

Developing Teacher–Pupil Relationships in the Classroom: The Influence of Primary Teachers’ Career Phase and Experience Ben Looker and Alison Kington

117

vi

Contents

Part III Professional Identity and Professional Development

137

7 The Role of the Built Environment in Schools: Developing Teachers’ Professional Identities and Motivation Colin Howard

139

8 Knowing Me, Knowing You: An Exploration of the Social and Learning Relationships in Teacher Education Partnerships Linzi McKerr and Jill Turner

161

9 Teachers’ Professional Identity and Self-Efficacy: A Study of Teachers with 4–7 Years of Experience Andrew Townsend and Alison Kington

181

Part IV Individual Differences and Inclusion

201

10 Planning for Children’s Voice in Sociocultural Education: Findings from the We Are Europe Project Branwen Bingle

203

11 The Role of Leadership Collaboration in Challenging Contexts: Building a Positive Community of Practice Carla Solvason

217

12 Expectations versus Reality: The Story of Gender Differences in Transition from Primary to Secondary School Louise Beattie and Suzanne Horton

237

Conclusion: Implications of Social and Learning Relationship Studies for Classroom Practice Karen Blackmore and Alison Kington

259

Index

265

Illustrations Figures 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 5.1

The process of Action Research Cantilevered balconies and open roofs Children who enjoyed reading Children who considered themselves good readers Cluster analysis depicting relatedness between different aspects of the scientific inquiry Cluster analysis revealing the social aspects of the group work Learning and social interactions observed during scientific inquiry Year 6 Children’s attitudes to working in a small group during science inquiry Actors in DfE documents, 2010–19

19 23 40 40 56 56 57 65 100

Tables 5.1 5.2 7.1 10.1

Policy documents explored in the analysis Characteristics of early-career phase teachers interviewed Schedule of research and respondent composition We Are Europe: Summary of initial findings from the use of the KW(H)L grid with UK students 12.1 Quantitative findings from the questionnaires

98 99 146 209 243

Foreword This is an important book because it is about the lived experience of school. To learn as part of a community is to engage in social and learning relationships. To work as a teacher is to celebrate the achievement of others, and to experience life as a pupil is to engage with others to make meaning. The book is divided into four key sections; in each we are invited to learn more about research that has taken place in classrooms and schools and which create opportunities not only to build social relationships but also to learn from them. We see not only the benefits for the children we teach, but also how those who teach them begin to open up and experience liberation through working with colleagues. We also gain a glimpse of the sterile alternative whereby relationships may be neglected in favour of a teacher-led agenda. This book gives plentiful examples of what can happen when young children learn to work and play together in an environment where their contributions are understood and valued by their teachers.

Social interaction and the curriculum In this section we explore examples of bringing the curriculum to life both for the children and their teachers. We see the importance of offering meaningful contexts through the example of building a town with Lego©. We hear of mixedage groupings, the joy of outcomes that are not predefined and the benefits of collaboration. Teresa Cremin’s insistence on the importance of what she terms ‘book blether’ is brought to life powerfully by the study of young teachers allowing themselves and others to experience the freedom of being inspired by story.1 What matters here is that teachers in these chapters begin to understand the impact of both their own agency and that of their pupils. When the curriculum builds opportunities for social interaction it comes to life, and engagement in learning increases. In these instances learning becomes irresistible.

1

Teresa Cremin is a Professor of Education (Literacy) at Open University. See T. Cremin, M. Mottram, F. Collins, S. Powell and K. Safford, Teachers as readers: Building communities of readers. Literacy 43(1) (2009): 11–19.

Foreword

ix

Classroom relationships and learning Leadership of schools that value agency builds a culture that offers both children and teachers the chance to engage in dialogue that reveals thinking. If we organize classrooms in a manner that expects dialogue to inform learning, suddenly we realize that everyone has a part to play in building metacognition, agency and trust. In this section of the book we see the benefits of school leaders working in partnership and learning from each other. Through snippets of quotes, we see genuine delight as head teachers engage with their colleagues. We see social and learning relationships that are valued among leaders who are moved to work together in collaboration. School improvement that is driven by fear takes us nowhere. Collegiality, on the other hand, can be truly transformative.

Professional identity and professional development The importance of building a sense of professionalism is at the heart of what the Chartered College of Teaching has been established to inspire. We know that when teachers are engaged in their own learning and build a sense of agency, it creates the energy needed to constantly seek to improve teaching on behalf of the children. Mentoring and learning with teaching colleagues requires introspection and humility. The relationships that are built during a teacher’s early career are crucially important as they grow in confidence and expertise. Creating the culture within schools that enables both children and teachers to grow and learn truly makes the difference. It follows that the more a teacher becomes aware of the importance of making connections with others through their own learning the more it will subsequently translate into practice within the classroom.

Individual differences and inclusion We teach best when we learn to listen to the needs of our children. Sometimes it is not words that we are offered but behaviours that force us to seek to understand. Too often, the insights we need are right in front of us, but we may be too busy playing the role of a teacher to learn. At this point in the book we explore the experience (both anticipated and actual) of the Year 6/7 transition.

x

Foreword

We hear from the children themselves and contrast this with the opinions and expectations of their teachers. What becomes clear is that it is the importance of friendship and fear of bullying that preoccupies the children most. Conversely, the teachers anticipate anxiety about the new academic demands. This example clearly shows how much we gain when we create the conditions for dialogue in a culture of trust. Without this school-based research, misunderstandings would have continued. Children in our classes are a rich gold mine of information who can help us if only we work together in a shared endeavour. Once we pluck the courage to create the conditions that enable open sharing about what has been learned and understood and the context to share what is still confusing us, then we start to build relationships that really matter and truly help others to make meaning. The importance of listening to children is paramount. Enabling teachers to build the confidence needed first to create conditions to listen and then, crucially, to act upon their enhanced understanding of children’s learning, is at the heart of what it means to value social and learning relationships. The professional opportunity for teachers to work together in research partnership with academics to seek greater understanding of classroom relationships offers powerful insight. As you read on, enjoy the moments of revelation when action research in someone else’s classroom or the story of some practices in other schools help you to reveal to yourself what you might do next in your own setting. Ultimately, to teach we first need to understand. In the following pages we find opportunities to give recognition to the importance of truly building a climate where friendship, dialogue and meaningful interaction is valued as a vital part of learning within a school community. Professor Dame Alison Peacock Chief Executive of the Chartered College of Teaching

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge all the participants of the studies (teachers, student teachers, headteachers, support staff and children) who generously gave their time during the research. We are grateful to Professor Dame Alison Peacock for taking time to contribute the foreword. We would also like to thank Andrea Holloway for her support during the proofreading stage of the publication. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the contributions of our co-authors who have enabled us to compile this unique set of studies into what we believe is an interesting and informative body of work.

Notes on Contributors Louise Beattie is a Senior Lecturer in English at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research interests focus on the use of drama in the classroom, literacy teaching in secondary schools and the pedagogy of speaking and listening. Branwen Bingle is Assistant Dean for Education and Professional Practice at University College Birmingham, UK. Her research interests combine children’s literature, identity and inclusion. Karen Blackmore is a Senior Lecturer in Science Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research interests focus on technology-enhanced science pedagogy, social learning within science and teacher identity. Suzanne Horton is a Principal Lecturer and course leader for the BA Honours Primary Teacher Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research focuses on pupil engagement and sense of belonging, pupil reading habits and school transitions. Louise Hoskyns-Staples is an Educational Consultant with research interests in quality textbook pedagogy and the impact of pre- and in-service teacher action research. Colin Howard is a former Senior Lecturer in Primary Education at the University of Worcester, UK. His research is in the areas of educational leadership and the professional lives, motivation, morale and job satisfaction of teachers. Alison Kington is Professor in Psychology of Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research focuses on the nature, quality and dynamics of educational relationships and identities with an emphasis on the utilization and application of research to improve professional practice. Ben Looker is a Senior Lecturer in Science Education at the University of Worcester, UK. His research focuses on effective relationships between teachers and pupils and inclusion.

Notes on Contributors

xiii

Linzi McKerr is a Senior Lecturer in Primary Teacher Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research areas are pre-service teacher identity, the transition from teacher to teacher educator and peer practice coaching for preservice teachers. Rachael Paige is a Principal Lecturer and Head of Department for Primary Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her current research explores social communication in the primary classroom. Carla Solvason is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Worcester, UK. She has research interests in Early Years education and leadership. Kathryn Spicksley is an Associate Lecturer and research student at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research explores policy constructions of early-career primary teacher identity in Multi-Academy Trust schools and the impact of these on pupil-teacher relationships and pedagogies. Joy Stanton is a Senior Lecturer in Primary Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research areas are the mentoring of primary trainee teachers in school and student peer support through the academic tutor system. Andrew Townsend is Professor of Education at the University of Nottingham, UK. He is interested in educational change, practitioner and institutional development, educational leadership and networks. Jill Turner is a former Senior Lecturer in Primary Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research focuses on mathematical pedagogy and teacher education. Maxine Watkins is a Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research explores teacher identity, commitment and career phase. Jane Whittenbury is a Senior Lecturer in Primary Education at the University of Worcester, UK. Her research interests are mentoring, reflective practice and primary English.

All contributors are members of the Social Psychology of Education Research Group.

Introduction Alison Kington and Karen Blackmore

This collection of studies explores a wide area of interest in primary education today, namely the nature and effectiveness of social learning within schools. At the heart of social learning is the ability of humans to forge and sustain positive social and learning relationships. Children from a young age (some would argue in utero) learn to interact with other human beings to fulfil a central need. As young children develop and are afforded opportunities to socialize, they gain gratification in terms of forging positive relationships with their siblings and peers. Such is the nature of these interactions and the innate curiosity of young children that some of these interfaces result in learning in the widest sense of the word, including adopting behaviours, developing skills and assimilating material. For the purpose of this book social learning is defined as A mode of learning where human interactions within the accepted social norm impact positively on cognitive processing of information and assimilation of beliefs and values.

This definition builds on early works of contemporary social constructivists by examining modes of building and sustaining social and learning relationships and evaluating their value in terms of learning (Roffey, 2012). The book illuminates the different social contexts in which children learn and the varied human interactions that take place in primary schools. The diverse range of studies presented examines the range of human ‘actors’ in primary schools and their interactions including, children as peers, student teachers and children, teachers and children, teachers as peers and nuances of these relationships, for example, more knowledgeable peers (due to age or experience) acting as mentors. This

2

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

edited volume provides important insights into the contribution social learning relationships can make to learning across the primary curriculum and examines social learning opportunities in terms of people, time and space. Social learning is also examined in terms of conceptual educational understanding with links to psychology and sociology, for example, professional identity and self-efficacy. This book consists of four parts each relating to an important area of social and learning relationships, namely: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Social Interaction and the Curriculum Classroom Relationships and Learning Professional Identity and Professional Development Individual Differences and Inclusion

Part One, exploring social interaction and the curriculum, highlights the primacy of social interactions inside and outside the classroom for supporting the development of effective learning opportunities. Analysis of the literature from a variety of perspectives reveals that teaching and learning efficacy is defined by the particular quality of interpersonal relationships between teachers and learners (Faulkner, Littleton and Woodhead, 1998). Shared meaning derived between teachers and learners with respect to both the nature and purpose of the learning task or ‘intersubjectivity’ is an important indicator of success (Beck, 2006). In Chapter  1, Hoskyns-Staples and Blackmore start by discussing recent studies which have established the importance of spatial awareness for academic success in STEM subjects and also identify the fact that girls tend to perform less well than their male peers due to a lack of childhood experience through play. The chapter reports on a research project conducted in an English primary school that addressed these key issues. The task, which involved female pupils planning and constructing a ‘town’ from Lego©, was chosen to develop girls’ mathematical skills, particularly their spatial awareness. To enable success, the children were required to work collaboratively to plan the town, construct the buildings and then assemble the final town. The findings show that the girls were able to work collaboratively to construct complex models and also address the social needs of a town. Chapter 2 reports on the study of a national reading initiative undertaken in primary schools. The Chatterbooks programme engaged student teachers in developing reading groups for children, especially those unwilling to read for pleasure. Stanton and Whittenbury discuss the many perceived benefits of the initiative from the perspective of the student teachers and pupils involved, exploring the opportunities for social and learning

Introduction

3

relationships. Chapter  3 describes a small-scale study of the use of mobile technologies to facilitate social learning in science inquiry. There is now a plethora of examples where children’s understanding across the curriculum is facilitated by technology enhanced learning (TEL) approaches using small handheld devices which are used (often in pairs) to observe, record and analyze experimental outcomes. Since this undertaking requires both physical and social cooperation, Blackmore’s qualitative research explores how the use of mobile technologies in a social learning context could impact on the effectiveness of investigative science sessions. Her findings go some way to identify the degree of social learning associated with this TEL approach and illuminate where social relationships impact positively or negatively on learning outcomes. Part Two of this book consists of three studies investigating the nature of classroom relationships in a range of learning situations. Of particular importance in these studies are the social conditions and contexts of the relationships (Howes, 2000), the emerging patterns and forms of interactions (Pianta, Hamre and Allen, 2012), and the influence on learning opportunities for a number of key stakeholders. Chapter  4 discusses the importance of developing a positive culture for learning through relationships and social interaction. In her study, Paige explores the role of school leadership in nurturing the culture and ethos within the primary school context. Also examined is the contribution and investment of all those participating in the school community to create a relational environment, with a focus upon the teacher as the relationship builder in the classroom. Chapter 5 introduces the notion of early-career teachers and their evolving relationships with colleagues and mentors. Mobilizing findings from two research studies, Spicksley and Watkins focus on issues of recruitment and retention of new teachers and how this has become a particular focus of policy and media attention in England. The studies use the complementary methodologies of critical discourse analysis and grounded theory to compare and contrast how peer and mentor relationships are influenced by policymakers and constructed by early-career primary teachers. Interestingly, findings indicate that development of informal social and learning relationships among peers is crucial to ensuring the selfefficacy of new teachers. However, the discourse of education policy fails to recognize the importance of informal peer relationships to new teachers, and locates the difficulties encountered by new teachers primarily within the individual. In Chapter  6, the focus shifts to the relationship between teacher and pupils and reports on data collected from thirty primary school teachers across England using a critical event narrative approach. Findings highlight

4

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

the complex nature of the teacher–pupil relationships and its influence on children’s learning, centring on four key areas identified as differentiating between the three career phases; interaction, behaviour, expectations and proximity. Co-authors Looker and Kington discuss the fact that teachers seem to go through a series of relationship transitions in relation to these four areas, and that these transitions can often confront teachers with conflicting views of what positive teacher–pupil relationships are and create personal dissonance as they try to make sense of their role in these relationships. Part Three consists of three chapters exploring the concept of professional identity and professional development. The formation and maturation of professional identity is crucial to the development and retention of effective classroom practitioners (Beijaard, Meijer and Verloop, 2004). In addition, the concept of professional identity is associated with motivation, job satisfaction and sense of self-efficacy (Canrinus et  al., 2012). Chapter  7 looks at the role of the physical environment and the perceived impact of this on teachers’ professional identity. The study examines how changes to the situational context in which teachers work influences their feelings towards a sense of professionalism, alongside social and learning relationships. This qualitative research study, conducted by Howard, focuses on two new schools in a rural/ urban authority in the Midlands region of England and the findings support the notion that, by creating new, purpose-built school environments, teachers’ sense of professional identity is positively influenced. In addition, the study illustrates how these contextual factors may serve to influence the social and learning relationships of practitioners. In Chapter 8, McKerr and Turner focus on university tutors, school-based mentors and student teachers and how this triadic relationship can enable professional development in the classroom. Fundamentally, the findings support the perspective that these relationships are key to successful learning experiences for student teachers in school, as well as affording university tutors and mentor teachers the opportunity to see current policy embedded into everyday practice. Chapter 9 discusses the potential links between professional identity and self-efficacy in those relatively new to the profession. The focus of the study by Townsend and Kington is on teachers with between four and seven years of experience who are thought to have a particularly challenging time, potentially influencing their decision to remain (or leave) the profession. The chapter outlines the emerging themes from a qualitative study of these teachers, identifying key issues said to influence teachers’ sense of professional identity and self-efficacy, for example, role expectations and support from colleagues.

Introduction

5

Finally, Part Four of the volume focuses on individual differences and inclusion, recognizing that gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic status are all important elements in facilitating an inclusive social learning environment. It begins with Chapter 10, which reports on an international project entitled We are Europe involving six European countries. The chapter outlines the study, involving pupils aged 9–14 years of age, that focuses on citizenship education, consisting of children’s perceptions of their developing social and cultural identity. Furthermore, as Bingle explains, the project was designed to promote the idea of inclusiveness and of purposive activism to increase pupils’ awareness of, and engagement with, social justice across Europe. Chapter  11 shifts the emphasis to the role of school leaders in developing community cohesion in socially diverse contexts. The study conducted by Solvason investigates the impact that a collaborative leadership development programme has upon the wider school community. In particular, it focuses upon the ways that positive, trusting and respectful relationships enable a shared vision, which still appreciates individual difference. The themes emerged through a smallscale mixed methods research project which was co-created with twenty-nine leaders who were involved in the programme. Findings strongly suggest that the confidence and security generated by effective relationships with like-minded peers working towards shared goals has a significant impact upon performance at individual, school and community level. Chapter  12 completes the final section of the book by discussing a piece of research carried out by Horton and Beattie on the role of pupil gender in the transition from primary to secondary school. This is acknowledged as being a difficult time for young adolescents in terms of forging social relationships within the context of academic change. However, this can be exacerbated by organizational differences between primary and secondary schools and associated myths which affect pupil perceptions. Through this small-scale qualitative study, the authors focus on the extent to which the expectations of the transition match the reality for a group of pupils with the aim of improving approaches to social relationships and organization of learning during this challenging time of transition. Each of these research-based chapters has a common format which includes the use of empirical data to illustrate key findings. The individual studies, with their specific research questions and methods, aim to provide information about the processes and conditions that can make schools and classrooms positive environments within which social and learning relationships can flourish. In selecting these chapters, the book aims to offer new and interesting insights into research on aspects of social and learning relationships, clarifying theoretical

6

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

perspectives in this area, and identifying ways in which children’s learning experiences may be improved.

References Beck, S. (2006). Subjectivity and intersubjectivity in the teaching and learning of writing. Research in the Teaching of English, 40(4): 413–60. Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. and Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2): 107–28. Canrinus, E., Helms-Lorenz, M., Beijaard, D., Buitink, J. and Hofman, A. (2012). Selfefficacy, job satisfaction, motivation and commitment: Exploring the relationships between indicators of teachers’ professional identity. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 27(1): 115–32. Faulkner, D., Littleton, K. and Woodhead, M. (1998). Learning Relationships in the Classroom (Milton Keynes: Routledge), 1–10. Howes, C. (2000). Social-emotional classroom climate in child care, child-teacher relationships and children’s second grade peer relations. Social Development, 9(2): 191–204. Pianta, R., Hamre, B. and Allen, J. (2012). Teacher-student relationships and engagement: Conceptualizing, measuring, and improving the capacity of classroom interactions. In Handbook of Research on Student Engagement, edited by S. Christenson, A. Reschly and C. Wylie (New York: Springer), 365–86. Roffey, S. (2012). Developing Positive Relationships in Schools, in Positive Relationships: Evidence Based Practice across the World, edited by S. Roffey, 145–62.

Part One

Social Interaction and the Curriculum

1

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics: Developing Shape and Spatial Awareness Louise Hoskyns-Staples and Karen Blackmore

Introduction Two internationally recognized areas of development to ensure future economic success are an increase in women working in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) careers (Bryant, 2017) and the development of a workforce with twenty-first-century skills, including the ability to work collaboratively to solve problems (Her Majesty’s Treasury, 2015; OECD, 2017). Spatial awareness is a key contributor to success in STEM (Gold et  al., 2018) and is an area where women traditionally perform more poorly than their male peers. There is a need for more science graduates, generally, to meet the needs of industry and the fact that women are hugely under-represented in STEM careers is a cause for international concern (Reilly, Neumann and Andrews, 2019). The link between construction toys in childhood and later ability in spatial awareness was explored by Gold et al. (2018) with undergraduates engaged in a STEM course and demonstrated that early opportunities to construct resulted in improved mathematical engagement. The interplay between collaborative problem-solving, an area where girls perform well in international tests (OECD, 2017), and spatial awareness, where girls are traditionally less successful, is explored further through the analysis of a project that took place in an English school with pupils (predominantly girls) aged 5–11  years. The girls were given the meaningful task (Van Den HeuvelPanhuizen, 2003; Cambridge Mathematics, 2019) of designing and then building a town, working as ‘town planners’. Lego© was used as the tool for construction and the girls were asked to plan for the needs of a town, construct the buildings

10

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

and subsequently design the most expedient layout taking into consideration the needs of the people.

Research rationale This research project was conceived as part of a whole school endeavour to raise the profile of mathematics within a predominantly female school (aged 4–16  years) in England. Traditionally there has been a tendency for society to accept that certain curriculum subjects are more favoured by boys than girls, for example, science and mathematics (Whitehead, 1996). Fortunately, we are moving away from an accommodation that there are boys’ and girls’ subjects; however, recent data in England focusing on the uptake of Key Stage 5 (post-16) study still show there is a significant deficit in the number of girls studying mathematics and physics at A level: 40 per cent mathematics; 29 per cent further mathematics; and 22 per cent physics (Smith and Golding, 2015; Department for Education, 2018). This is problematic on many levels, not least because the vast majority of engineering and science courses at university require capability with these subjects (Foyn, Solomon and Braathe, 2018) and hence female representation within these areas and subsequent careers is still at a very modest level (Bryant, 2017). Within the discipline of mathematics, the ability to define and manipulate shapes (both two- and three-dimensional) within space is paramount and is a central premise of children being able to understand the world around them. While there has been speculation that the male brain is more adept at processing three-dimensional shape information (Bryant, 2017), few reliable differences have been found and there are no differences that explain the gender difference in mathematics achievement. This is, in any case, unhelpful for female learners. Hence this topic was chosen since it arguably represents one of the more challenging barriers to girls’ learning of mathematics and hence was worthy of exploration of effective pedagogic approaches. The rationale behind this study was to move from a position of strength within the research context. There were two main facilitative strategies within the school, namely that due to the small size and well-developed house system, pupils were used to being afforded frequent opportunities to work in vertical house groups, containing pupils from 4 to 11  years old. Additionally, it was common to see pupils from a year group design and share learning resources with their peers and also within different age groups. Pupils also had multiple opportunities

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

11

to socialize with each other during the school day and as a result developed long-lasting learning and social relationships. Since it was accepted that social learning relationships could be an effective means of fostering attainment and engagement within study it was decided to implement a rolling year-on-year programme of whole school workshops where pupils worked collaboratively on mathematical design-based projects. The emphasis on building was drawn from a need to provide younger pupils with a concrete stimulus for their mathematical study of shape and space (Nath and Szücs, 2014; Verdine et  al., 2014), and a shared social purpose of designing, creating and assembling large construction projects.

Literature review Collaborative and individual problem-solving Collaborative problem-solving (CPS) involves the solving of complex problems while working with others – giving pupils non-routine problems that need them to apply their knowledge and work together to break the problem down into smaller, simpler steps (Luckin et al., 2017). CPS requires teachers to give careful consideration to the problems presented and to ensure that opportunity and necessity to work together is provided. In recognition of the increasing importance of CPS in the workplace and the fact that collaboration can prove challenging due to conflict or a mismatch of skills, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) created a framework to assess this skill in their Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2017). One key finding is that girls perform better than boys in collaborative problem-solving, whereas boys tend to perform more highly in individual problem-solving (OECD, 2017). The OECD (2017, p. 47) defines CPS as follows: The capacity of an individual to effectively engage in a process whereby two or more agents attempt to solve a problem by sharing the understanding and effort required to come to a solution and pooling their knowledge, skills and efforts to reach that solution.

CPS can be seen as proving opportunities for pupils to: • develop a shared understanding of what the problem involves; • negotiate (and re-negotiate) the route to solve the problem;

12

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

• manage conflicting ideas; • jointly construct knowledge and learning; • learn from their peers. The shared goals enable pupils to work together with equality among the learners, in situations where all ideas are valued; and mutuality is achieved through discourse (Luckin et al., 2017, p. 11). The importance of problem-solving, rather than CPS, is recognized in the English mathematics National Curriculum including the use of non-routine problems: All pupils can solve problems by applying their mathematics to a variety of routine and non-routine problems with increasing sophistication, including breaking down problems into a series of simpler steps and persevering in seeking solutions. (DfE, 2013, p. 2)

Luckin et  al. (2017) found that although CPS is evident in classrooms it is less likely to be used as a teaching technique in mathematics than in other subjects and recommend that teachers are supported in developing CPS in their classrooms. It is generally accepted that in order to foster life-long engagement with mathematical study it is imperative for children to experience positive learning opportunities from a young age (Pound and Lee, 2011). To encourage participation in mathematics, it has been posited that pupils ‘learn better … think harder and process more deeply when they have an interest in the material’ (Stylianides and Stylianides, 2010, p. 165). In order to achieve this, we need to give our pupils problems that are meaningful to them; tasks need to be relevant and realistic although not necessarily real (Hussain, Lindh and Shukur, 2006). There is a strong relationship between the ability of pupils to explain their thinking to their peers and achievement in collaborative groups (Webb et al., 2017). Pupils learn from the explanations of others as well as develop their own ideas through supporting and stimulating each other. Hussain, Lindh and Shukur (2006) used programmable Lego© materials to look at the relationship between pupils’ mathematics performance and their problem-solving ability and found that pupils learnt how to use the materials in multiple ways through trial and error and cooperation, seeking support from their peers. Pupils commented that working collaboratively had enhanced their feeling of community. The role of the teacher was important in supporting pupils to resolve the occasional conflicts that occurred by reminding the pupils of the benefits that were available to them through cooperating together. They

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

13

also found that there were no general differences concerning the ability to build with the Lego© between the genders of pupils. In a small case study in Norway, Foyn, Solomon and Braathe (2018) found that girls who were performing highly in mathematics preferred to work collaboratively to solve some of the more difficult problems. This was linked to their desire to avoid asking the teacher for support and their need to keep their mathematical prowess hidden in the classroom.

The impact of gender on mathematical learning Given the sustained differences in take up of STEM subjects between girls and boys in post-compulsory education (Smith and Golding, 2015; Department for Education, 2018), it is vital that we look at opportunities for increasing girls’ participation including interventions that help increase girls’ engagement with STEM education. This needs to include building their spatial skills bearing in mind the fact that linguistic, spatial and number skills in early education strongly predict later achievement in STEM; at a school level this should include developing and delivering a gender-responsive curriculum (Bryant, 2017). Boys are considered to have better spatial skills than girls, which are probably developed through opportunities to practice these skills. Research has shown that these skills along with linguistic skills are malleable and can be improved through early experiences. Genetic factors show that genes associated with one learning ability, for example, reading, are likely to be associated with other learning abilities, thus contradicting the gendered stereotypes that boys are good at mathematics and girls are good at literacy (Bryant, 2017). Casey, Pezaris and Bassi (2012) conducted two studies with adolescent children looking at the relationship between block-building and mathematical attainment in both males and females. The choice of adolescents was to ensure that the early childhood period of block play was completed and the benefits of this learning on the spatial aspects (geometry and calculus) of mathematical study could be revealed. Study 1 was conducted with 106 US eighth graders and the participants were asked to ‘build something as interesting as possible’. The boys constructed ‘taller and more structurally balanced’ structures than the girls. The structural balance measure, rather than height, was shown to have a small correlation with attainment in mathematics (pp. 28–9). Study 2 was conducted with a hundred US high school seniors; in this study the participants were given the specific task of building a tall structure that was complicated and balanced. This study replicated the findings of the first study with regard to gender: boys

14

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

built taller and more structurally balanced structures than the girls. Once again, this structural balance feature was a predictor in mathematics attainment. Bearing in mind the fact that spatial reasoning is critical to success in STEM subjects, Gold et al. (2018) evaluated the spatial capabilities of 345 undergraduate STEM students looking at the influence of gender and childhood play among other factors. Their study found that there were significant differences in male and female performances in their spatial tests but that these could be mitigated against when including the informal learning experiences of childhood play with construction-based toys and also the skills developed through playing computer games. Their main findings were that sociocultural experiences, such as childhood constructive play, could explain much of the gender difference in spatial skills. Although Casey, Pezaris and Bassi (2012) found significant differences in the performance of boys and girls in their studies, they also found that both genders had the capacity to improve their spatial skills and these appeared to be malleable: Despite this male advantage, the critical factor for girls and women is whether their spatial skills are sufficiently developed to effectively apply them to highlevel math and science problems, not whether the significant gender differences are eliminated. (Casey, Pezaris and Bassi, 2012, p. 35)

Psychological and social factors would appear to account for girls’ attitudes towards mathematics study. Bian, Leslie and Cimpian (2017) look at how stereotypes impact on female performance and interest in certain subjects including mathematics. They found that by the age of 6, girls were less likely to believe that members of their gender were as clever as boys, which has an impact on careers that are seen to need high intellect, such as mathematics and physics. The need for a group identity also impacts on girls who find it hard to identify with STEM professions as they view them as more compatible with males (Archer et al., 2010). One result of gender stereotypes is that girls’ self-efficacy becomes a contributing factor towards their take up of mathematics and sciences. Negative attitudes towards mathematics and beliefs in their own ability to learn mathematics, including greater mathematics anxiety, are also reported in girls despite the fact that girls often obtain more highly than boys (Bryant, 2017; Reilly, Neumann and Andrews, 2019). This lack of self-belief can lead to lower attainment and, it has been argued, can be more important than an aptitude for a subject when explaining the under-representation of women in STEM fields.

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

15

The importance of dialogue and peers within collaborative learning and mathematics learning Central to CPS is the ability to communicate and the use of dialogue. It is wellknown that explanation, exemplification and elaboration as well as questioning and clarification are beneficial to pupils’ learning (Webb et  al., 2014, 2017). Webb et al. (2014) filmed pupils and teachers during group discussions on how to solve mathematical problems and found that the role of the teacher was highly important in enabling pupils to engage with each other at a high level. They found that ground rules were necessary to ensure ‘desirable’ talk, that pupils needed to be able to clearly elaborate their own thoughts so that others could engage with them in a more constructive manner and that detailed explanations enabled other pupils to ameliorate ideas. Chinn, O’Donnell and Jinks (2000) looked at the structure of discourse in collaborative learning and also found that training was necessary to enable the maximum to be gained from explanations. Simple explanations that were descriptive did not have a great impact on learning whereas reasons that were supported by further evidence provoked greater learning. Askew (2016a, 2016b) has written about the different types of talk found in a classroom:  private talk, either as ‘talk partners’ prior to a teacher taking an answer from the class or when two individuals are working independently; public conversation, where pupils share the ideas developed in their private talk through dialogue with the teacher or where the teacher notes all ideas and then pupils discuss the solutions that have been volunteered. Listening is an essential part of dialogue, which is often difficult to achieve as pupils often take turns waiting patiently while their partner talks before then voicing their own opinions (Askew, 2016b). Ernest (2003) also discusses the moral need for individuals to engage with another human being as a listener of a speaker rather than merely exchanging information. He concludes that for teaching and learning mathematics to be successful there is a need to treat ‘real subjects’ that are of mutual interest and benefit to all involved. Alexander (2018), writing about a randomized control trial of dialogic teaching to maximize the power of classroom talk, discusses the principles of this pedagogy. Dialogic teaching is collective, reciprocal, supportive, cumulative and purposeful. The cumulative aspect where ideas build on their own and others’ contributions develops upon the need for both pupils and teachers to listen carefully to each other. The purposeful aspect links clearly to the conclusion of Stylianides and Stylianides (2010) that pupils must have an interest in the subject.

16

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

None of this is new to us. For example, Dewey (1897) emphasized the huge importance of children’s interactions during learning, stating that language is ‘the tool through which one individual comes to share the ideas and feelings of others’ (p. 79). He advocated collaboration through ongoing dialogue between student and teacher, leading to collecting and interpreting of information as a group, giving pupils the opportunity to reflect on their experiences to further develop their understanding. Fawcett and Garton (2005) investigated the effect of collaborative learning on children’s problem-solving abilities and explored the relationship between Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories through a study with a hundred 6- to 7-yearold children. They found that learning occurs best when children interact socially, enabling them to learn from their more knowledgeable peers and share ideas. They cite other studies where children, working together either in a Piagetian cognitive conflict situation or in a Vygotskian ‘knowledgeable other’ context, found higher levels of understanding than where children had worked individually. These findings would build upon the argument for CPS in our classrooms. The key areas of working in a classroom as described by Askew (2016a) are as follows: individual practice to consolidate ideas; paired talk, to develop an understanding, which is shown to raise the achievement of each partner despite initial differences; and group work, to extend the learning further to provide a deeper understanding. Paul Ernest (2003) looks at conversation as a metaphor for mathematics learning and how this develops competence in mathematics. This learning begins in domestic life prior to entering formal education: Personal knowledge or competence in mathematics is acquired through prolonged participation in many socially situated conversations in different contexts with different persons. (Ernest, 2003, p. 6)

Learning about three-dimensional shape and space: Challenges of the primary curriculum Piaget and Inhelder (1956) believed that young children, prior to the age of 7 years, had a purely egocentric perspective and were unable to perceive objects from an aspect different from their own. This was demonstrated through their ‘mountain problem’. Hughes and Donaldson (1979) argued that for a child to have an understanding of another’s view of an object, the activity had to be meaningful to them and should be related to their own experience, a view which

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

17

is supported by Van Hiele (1999), who argues that it is experience rather than age which affects children’s understanding of geometry, and a ‘rich and stimulating instruction in geometry’ can be provided through play, and proposes the use of puzzles and construction (p. 310). In order to develop children’s deductive thinking, they first have to have had the requisite experience, which can be provided both formally and informally in a classroom. Children will struggle to visualize a situation when they have limited experience, so they need to have classroom opportunities to develop this understanding more fully: Using building blocks to create bridges, towers and designs and patterns fitting blocks together. The physical act of manipulating, joining together, selecting and choosing is one natural way to develop spatial awareness and spatial thinking. (Newell, 2017, p. 237)

Stannard et  al. (2001) conducted a small longitudinal study looking at the predictive relations of construction play and later mathematical achievement. A  group of 37 4-year-old children were assessed on a Lunzer Five Point Play Scale in several kinds of constructive play; 16  years later the standardized mathematical attainment scores in grades 3, 5, 7 and high school of 27 of the children were compared with their initial play scores. Stannard et  al. (2001) found little significance between construction play in grades 3 and 5; however, they did find that a high construction play score and mathematical attainment in grade 7 and beyond was significant. Perhaps, the lack of significance in earlier grades was due to the more numeric curriculum in these years rather than the spatial skills required for higher-level mathematics in later years (Clements and Battista, 1992; Casey, Pezaris and Bassi, 2012). Clements and Battista (1992) also found that geometry in the elementary school curriculum was predominantly focused on the naming of geometric shapes, using tools such as a compass and protractor, and using formulae. The English National Curriculum for primary schools is also mainly focused on numbers, with geometry being limited to the names and properties of shapes and the position and movement of geometric objects through coordinates, reflection and translation (Department for Education, 2013). In their paper describing a spatial reasoning mathematics programme in Australia, Mulligan et  al. (2018) cite compelling evidence that certain spatial skills are predictive of mathematical achievement and can be developed from early childhood. They found that spatial skills were critical to the development of pupils’ awareness of mathematical pattern and structure. They also cite studies

18

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

where ‘spatializing’ the curriculum had a positive impact on pupils’ learning. Richardson, Hunt and Richardson (2014) chose to control for spatial ability in their study of 96 children aged 7–8, 10–11 and 13–14 years to establish a link between construction play performance and later mathematical attainment, which proved to be the case. Given the malleability of these skills (Casey, Pezaris and Bassi, 2012; Bryant, 2017), this would appear to bolster the case made by Mulligan et al. (2018). Hussain, Lindh and Shukur (2006) in their programmable Lego© project found that pupils needed a large space to spread the materials and test different solutions to the problems that arose and also that the tasks given to the pupils needed to be relevant and realistic to solve.

Methodology The study described was primarily an exploratory, qualitative study of pupils’ learning, undertaken from an Action Research (AR) perspective. The key foci were the following: ●

●

Explore pupils’ learning about the concept of shape and space within a social learning context. Evaluate the use of vertical peer support through dialogue and modelling to support three-dimensional shape and spatial awareness, and construction skills.

Action Research as a research paradigm Action Research within education is based on the premise that by its nature teaching and learning are reciprocal entities, in that while learners are learning, their teachers are also exploring effective pedagogic strategies. An innovation from the 1950s in the United States, AR confers the opportunity for teachers to engage with a ‘systematic inquiry’ as a result of ‘a direct, vested interest in the teaching and learning process’ in a particular setting (Mertler, 2013, p. 39). Facilitative to this approach is the acceptance that learning is an essentially iterative process by which new learning is affected by supplementing and in some cases reconstructing prior knowledge. AR affords the opportunity for teacher-researchers to make sequential changes to their teaching approaches (sometimes called interventions) and then evaluate the success or not of these

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

19

methods. In this way pedagogical strategies can be continuously refined so that optimal learning can take place. Mertler (2012) defined the term ‘Action Research Cycle’ (see Figure  1.1) whereby sequential rounds of teaching and concomitant learning can be assessed and augmented. In this way the rolling year-on-year whole school construction workshops were used as a means of planning, deploying and developing, reflecting and Deployment of town planning workshop

First Action Research cycle

Developing learning opportunities, e.g. maths dialogue

Planning initial LEGO workshop design

Reflection on emergent pedagogy

Increasing challenge, e.g. including town transport Second Action Research cycle

Developing learning opportunities, e.g. complex direction problem solving

Planning enhanced LEGO workshop

Reflection on pedagogy and learning

Cyclical Process of Action Research continues ...

Figure 1.1 The process of Action Research (redrawn from Mertler, 2012, p. 38)

20

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

subsequently refining, collaborative problem-solving workshops that could enhance mathematical learning.

Data collection tools Three data collection tools were deployed in order to achieve triangulation of data (Denscombe, 2003) and view the findings from multiple perspectives, as follows: ●

●

●

Researcher diary entries were made on a continual basis and detailed what learning activities were undertaken with the pupils as well as the pupils’ reactions and thoughts expressed during and after the tasks. Unstructured observations were undertaken during the workshops to harvest data concerning the social learning that took place. Visual documentation comprising of photographs of the group and individual work created by the pupils was collected both during the learning process and at the end of the workshops.

Coding for emergent themes established the following: symmetry, three-dimensional construction, two-dimensional layout, problem-solving (both collaborative and individual), visualization, skilled other and window arrangements.

The phases of three-dimensional construction Construction took place in a large open space (the school gymnasium) in six phases within a single six-hour school day: Phase 1 Initial introduction to the construction task and advice on building techniques. Phase 2 Group discussion in vertical peer groups of six to eight pupils, where the pupils prepared themselves to build. Phase 3 Open construction by individuals and groups – no teacher prompt. Facilitated by generic boxes of Lego© bricks on each mat and boxes of specific bricks placed at strategic points throughout the room to enable them to be easily shared. Phase 4 Mini-plenary comprising of a review of construction progress and troubleshooting, particularly with roofing. The pupils were also

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

21

reminded to bear in mind the fact that nearly finished buildings would need to go in a whole town. This was facilitated by almost all having large rectangular green bases. Phase 5 Summative assembly of the whole large build construction, which also involved the addition of municipal structures and attention to aesthetic details. Phase 6 Sharing, celebration and evaluation of the whole construction project. At the end of the school day, the youngest pupils rejoined the group to observe the outcome of the project and to ask questions.

Findings Room structure and dialogue Construction was facilitated by the use of a large space in which the girls could move freely, observe the work of other groups, share difficulties and collectively overcome them. The positioning of the specific boxes of Lego© bricks throughout the room enabled them to be easily shared, their use and other issues encountered were discussed. Throughout the day, the girls worked in their mixed-age groupings of six to eight, sharing knowledge and information, as well as providing supporting roles. When girls were in need of additional information to solve a problem, they could easily move from one group to another and this was observed regularly throughout the day. This resulted in challenges, such as roofing, being overcome by the whole group.

Age and role Older girls supported younger girls initially and then worked in parallel with the younger girls on their own more complex models, choosing a peer to facilitate the building of more intricate structures. Younger girls were happy copying the older girls and creating similar, although less sophisticated, structures. Some of the youngest girls were happiest with an assigned role, either building a specific structure or sorting through the bricks to find the exact shape, size and colour that was required; the older girls ensured that the younger girls knew where the bricks were to go.

22

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Symmetry The girls had a strong need to construct symmetrical structures. Almost all models were symmetrical; if not symmetrical the girls took the model apart and reconstructed it to ensure this aesthetic. The majority of the models were symmetrical on the horizontal plane from left to right, but others also incorporated symmetry from front to back and some also had vertical symmetry with windows and brick patterns matching from storey to storey. The girls who did not adhere to a symmetrical design fell into two distinct categories: those who constructed very simple structures and those where the girls were more interested in the complexity of the construction rather than worrying about the aesthetic aspects of the models. Only three girls fell into the latter category: one who had had extensive experience from a very young age (2 years old); the other pair of girls who were both in the oldest year group and had demonstrated a very high degree of mathematical reasoning in the classroom.

Construction Structures Of the main buildings, the simplest structures were single-storey houses with a single door and a single window at the front. These were mainly built by the younger girls working alongside their more able peers or early in the day when the girls were less sophisticated in their thinking. Initially, some girls constructed single walls that were unstable when put together as a building. This was one of the earliest problems and was overcome by the girls discussing the models that other girls had created where the walls were ‘stitched’ together with bricks going around corners. Some girls were initially ambitious and wanted to create more complex structures. Two older girls worked together to create a hotel; this was one of the buildings without any horizontal symmetry as the focus was on the features of the hotel. The initial problem the girls had was that they did not want to build on a green base board but to construct the hotel base from the yellow bricks that were to be used for the building. As the bricks do not attach sideways, the base was held together with the bricks from the walls. The ‘hotel’ had a large number of windows, one for each room, and none on the ends where the stair wells would be. The windows on the front and the back of the ‘hotel’ were not aligned so that it was not possible to see through from one side to the other, creating a

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

23

Figure 1.2 Cantilevered balconies and open roofs

more realistic feel. To ensure the model held together over several storeys, the girls carefully interleaved the corner bricks in a traditional brick pattern. Two other girls wanted to add balconies to their luxury house. To achieve this, they used small base plates that were cantilevered at the appropriate heights in the building, showing a good understanding of counterbalance (see Figure 1.2, left photograph). When a younger pupil wanted to create the same effect, one of the older girls took the time to demonstrate and clearly explain how to proceed.

Roofing The structures contained a variety of different approaches to roofing:  some structures had flat roofs, which avoided the problems with the difficulty of manipulating the ridge (roof) tiles. Roofing caused such significant difficulties for the group that all girls were called together, during Phase 4, to share successful methods more widely. The flat roofs were given additional features such as gardens and perimeter fencing to ensure ‘safety’. Some of the older girls had successfully constructed rafters which were demonstrated (see Figure  1.2, middle photograph). These girls showed the different stages involved in roof construction: initial struts, rafters and then the ridge tiles. When construction recommenced, some girls were still experiencing difficulties, so those who were successful carefully explained with the use of their own models the steps they had undergone. The girls were mutually persistent at this stage with the older girls repeatedly going back to younger girls to support and younger girls coming for help to older girls as they struggled. Some of the girls still had difficulties manipulating the ridge tiles, so they placed rafters in the remaining spaces (the central model in Figure 1.2). Rafters were evenly placed to ensure that each ridge tile could be supported by at least one rafter. Figure 1.2 (right photograph), shows the roof of a house that has no rafters and these two

24

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

girls had very carefully constructed the roof with the ridge tiles by working together, one supporting the tiles while the other added another layer.

Two to three dimensions Some pupils did not want to follow the suggested option of creating their own buildings and then assembling the town but wanted the large floor mat to lay out the different elements and then build up from a two-dimensional representation to the final three-dimensional town. This facilitated the later construction of the town as these girls had already thought about the important features of the layout of a town.

Construction of the town The construction of the whole town from the many individual buildings involved a large degree of problem-solving as this involved approximately a hundred girls. The town was predominantly laid out ‘ribbon’ style with buildings on both sides of the road. However, junctions and crossroads were also included. Buildings were arranged to ensure that corner spaces were well used. During the town construction the girls also decided to interlock various structures so that multiple heights could be created, including the use of stilts to enable a building to span a lake. The girls recognized that in the town they would need a park, footpaths, play areas and so on. When the girls established some key features of a town that were missing, these were also then built into the fabric of the town: ●

●

●

Play features including a play park with swings and seesaws that were constructed from car axels, a slide built from ridge tiles to generate the slope; a paddling pool and a maze using complex pathways and dead-ends – the pupil worked backwards from the centre of the maze to ensure that it worked. Sports features including a football pitch, complete with teams facing each other and a five-a-side football pitch with car windows used to create goals, a swimming pool constructed from blue bricks with different depths of water generated by building up layers of bricks, and a sports centre. Social features including a school with tables and chairs, a town hall, a prison, a small castle, churches of different denominations one of which was in the shape of a cross with a raised area for a pulpit created from interlayering flat floor tiles and the other had a steeple created by staggering the bricks to create a pyramid on top of the tower.

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

25

The girls demonstrated their social knowledge by the positioning of the buildings. Similar housing was collected together and placed in the town, mirroring a reallife housing estate. The churches caused considerable discussion as they both needed to be placed centrally to the inhabitants of the town but not next to each other. The prison could not be placed in the centre of the town, so was positioned at the far edge of the town. Other features were slotted into available gaps rather than following any plan, arguably mirroring a modern town environment. Areas were included for parked cars at this point too. Following the main construction, the girls looked at the town from a humanistic perspective and felt the need to decorate the blank spaces with flowers, borders and place vehicles on the roads including a fire engine. The project outcomes were so successful and enjoyed by the pupils that the day was repeated five months later, at which time teachers noted the vast improvement in the pupils’ construction skills. Pupils had also requested that parents purchase Lego© sets that were played with during the intervening period. The planned day was altered to include more sophisticated equipment and an increased complexity of town design with the introduction of trains to transport people throughout the town. The older pupils were able to plan for this, but the younger pupils found the task too complex and so were organized by the older pupils. The train tracks were constructed with points and gates to ensure that a single track could go in both directions through looping back on itself. Other tracks were single directional and shuttled inhabitants from one area of the town to another.

Discussion The project achieved many of the requirements of CPS (Luckin et al., 2017): ● ●

●

●

●

The problem was non-routine and meaningful for the girls; Within the time constraints of a single day, the project necessitated working together; The prior experience of both the girls and the teachers facilitated successful working together; The pupils were able to support each other in overcoming difficulties and ameliorating their models while working cooperatively through exemplification and explanation; and There was a feeling of shared endeavour and pride in their achievement.

26

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

The role of the teachers was minimal throughout the day as the pupils were so used to working together cooperatively that they did not need support to engage with each other at a high level as found by Webb et al. (2014). The continual improvement and refinement throughout the day enabled all learners to develop a higher-level understanding either through learning from each other or experiencing the wider variety of problems that were encountered by the group as a whole (Dewey, 1897; Fawcett and Garton, 2005). Dialogue (between both pairs and small groups) of peers and different aged learners was crucial for the success of this project and it was clear that, in agreement with Alexander (2018), sharing challenges afforded opportunities to find solutions. The girls showed a high level of creativity and demonstrated mathematical knowledge in their problem-solving during both the initial construction of the buildings and then during the construction of the town and the features within the town. Slopes were created by building up layers of flatter bricks, angles and rotation were evident in the play park through the creation of a slide (roof tiles), a climbing frame, a seesaw, and a tyre swing using an axel from the car construction. This sense of achievement generated by this collaborative, spatial project will, hopefully, begin to mitigate the psychological factors that impact girls’ achievement in STEM (Archer et al., 2010; Bian, Leslie and Cimpian, 2017) with the physical success of creating a town from Lego© enabling the girls to see that they are able to tackle complex mathematical tasks. The experience of ‘play’ to generate both the two-dimensional layout and the three-dimensional construction of the town will enable the girls to have a much greater ability to visualize and understand geometry (Van Hiele, 1999; Newell, 2017) and through their spatial skills develop a stronger awareness of mathematical pattern and structure (Mulligan et al., 2018). In terms of pedagogic research, the AR approach gave an opportunity for the systematic review and refinement of the effectiveness of both teaching and learning activities. During the third cycle of research, girls from Key Stage 3 who were part of a transition initiative were able to share their knowledge of circuits with the primary phase girls to electrify the buildings and light the whole town. This was a significant outcome and evidenced the in-depth knowledge of spatial awareness acquired by the girls. It was interesting to note that during this process, upper Key Stage 2 girls were comfortable to be supported by older Key Stage 3 girls, perhaps given their experience of vertical peer support in the first and second cycles of the research project. In this way the research gave rise to a sustainable system of peer learning where social and learning relationships were utilized to ensure deep learning of key mathematical principles.

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

27

Conclusion To generate the needed increase of the workforce in STEM careers, women are needed in significantly larger numbers. The shortage of women is partially due to the paucity of childhood opportunities to develop spatial awareness through play. The two key areas that are demonstrated by this project are that given sufficient time girls show a sophisticated ability to use construction toys such as Lego© and that providing opportunities for genuine collaboration facilitates this learning. Often, problem-solving in school mathematics is an individual task that can be shared once solved, which denies girls the opportunity to use their strong collaborative skills. The need for both CPS and spatial skills in the next generation has been emphasized in the literature but there is little in the English (and many other jurisdictions) primary mathematics curriculum to develop either skill set. Girls often see themselves as less likely to be successful in mathematics through societal influences. The girls in this study showed a sophisticated social knowledge and were concerned about these aspects of a town, which is partially mirrored in the STEM subject choices and careers that girls choose, for example, medicine and teaching (Bryant, 2017). Perhaps building on their social awareness would be a good opportunity to encourage them into other wider STEM subjects and careers, such as civil engineering, where the needs of society are highly valued.

References Alexander, R. (2018). Developing dialogic teaching: Genesis, process, trial, Research Papers in Education, 33(5): 561–98. doi: 10.1080/02671522.2018.1481140. Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osbourne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B. and Wong, B. (2010). ‘Doing’ science versus ‘being’ a scientist: Examining 10/11-year-old school children’s constructions of science through the lens of identity, Science Education, 94(4): 617– 39. doi: 10.1002/sce.20399. Askew, M. (2016a). A Practical Guide to Transforming Primary Mathematics. London: Routledge. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CaxGCgAAQBA J&printsec=frontcover&dq=askew+a+practical+guide+to+transforming+prim ary+mathematics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZr6u_ybTiAhVWSxUIHR_ eAH0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=askew a practical guide to transforming pr (Accessed 24 May 2019). Askew, M. (2016b). Transforming Primary Mathematics. 2nd edn. Abingdon: Routledge.

28

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Bian, L., Leslie, S. and Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355(6323): 389–91. doi: 10.1126/science.aah6524. Bryant, M. (2017). Cracking the code: Girls’ and women’s education in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), UNESCO. doi: 10.1097/01. NURSE.0000415850.98266.c0. Cambridge Mathematics (2019). What are the issues surrounding the use of realistic contexts in the mathematics classroom? Espresso. Available at: https://www. cambridgemaths.org/Images/espresso_18_using_realistic_contexts_in_mathematics. pdf (Accessed 4 April 2019). Casey, B., Pezaris, E. and Bassi, J. (2012). Adolescent boys’ and girls’ block constructions differ in structural balance: A block-building characteristic related to math achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 22: 25–36. doi: 10.1016/j. lindif.2011.11.008. Chinn, C., O’Donnell, A. and Jinks, T. (2000). The structure of discourse in collaborative learning. Journal of Experimental Education, 69(1): 77–97. doi: 10.1080/00220970009600650. Clements, D., and Battista, M. (1992). Geometry and spatial reasoning. In Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning: A Project of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, edited by D. A. Grouws. New York: MacMillan, 420–64. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1992-97586-018 (Accessed 3 February 2019). Denscombe, M. (2003). The Good Research Guide. 2nd edn. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Department for Education (2013). Key stages 1 and 2 National Curriculum in England. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-inengland-mathematics-programmes-of-study (Accessed 19 March 2019). Department for Education (2018). Provisional A level and other 16–18 results in England. London. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/performancepoints-a-practical-guide-to-key-stage-4-and-5-points (Accessed 19 March 2019). Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. School Journal, 54(3): 77–80. Available at: http:// playpen.meraka.csir.co.za/~acdc/education/Dr_Anvind_Gupa/Learners_Library_7_ March_2007/Resources/books/readings/17.pdf (Accessed 27 January 2019). Ernest, P. (2003). Conversation as a metaphor for mathematics and learning. Philosophy of Mathematics Education Journal, 17. Available at: http://people.exeter.ac.uk/ PErnest/pome17/pdf/metaphor.pdf (Accessed 3 February 2019). Fawcett, L., and Garton, A. (2005). The effect of peer collaboration on children’s problem-solving ability. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75: 157–69. doi: 10.1348/000709904X23411. Foyn, T., Solomon, Y. and Braathe, H. (2018). Clever girls’ stories: The girl they call a nerd. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 98(1): 77–93. doi: 10.1007/ s10649-017-9801-4.

Collaborative Problem-Solving in Primary Mathematics

29

Gold, A., Pendergast, P., Ormand, C., Budd, D., Stempien, J., Mueller, K. and Karvitz, K. (2018). Spatial skills in undergraduate students-Influence of gender, motivation, academic training, and childhood play. Geosphere, 14(2): 668–83. doi: 10.1130/ GES01494.1. Her Majesty’s Treasury (2015). Fixing the Foundations. London. Available at: https:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/443897/Productivity_Plan_print.pdf (Accessed 19 March 2019). Hughes, M., and Donaldson, M. (1979). The use of hiding games for studying the coordination of viewpoints. Educational Review, 31(2): 133–40. doi: 10.1080/0013191790310207. Hussain, S., Lindh, J. and Shukur, G. (2006). The effect of LEGO training on pupils’ school performance in mathematics, problem solving ability and attitude: Swedish data. Educational Technology and Society, 182–94. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2017.11.001. Luckin, R., Baines, E., Cukurova, M., Holmes, W. and Mann, M. (2017). Solved! Making the case for collaborative problem-solving. Available at: https://media.nesta.org.uk/ documents/solved-making-case-collaborative-problem-solving.pdf (Accessed 3 February 2019). Mertler, C. (2012). Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators. 3rd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mertler, C. (2013). Classroom-based action research: Revisiting the process as customizable and meaningful professional development for educators. Journal of Pedagogic Development, 3(3): 38–42. Available at: https://www.beds.ac.uk/__data/ assets/pdf_file/0005/298130/Classroom-based-action-research-revisiting-theprocess-as-customizable-and-meaningful-professional-development-for-educators. pdf (Accessed 5 April 2019). Mulligan, J., Woolcott, G., Mitchelmore, M. and Davis, B. (2018). Connecting mathematics learning through spatial reasoning. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 30(1): 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-017-0210-x (Accessed 5 April 2019). Nath, S., and Szücs, D. (2014). Construction play and cognitive skills associated with the development of mathematical abilities in 7-year-old children. Learning and Instruction, 32: 73–80. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.006. Newell, R. (2017). Big Ideas in Primary Mathematics. London: Sage, 1–294. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2017). Collaborative problem solving, PISA, PISA 2015 Results. Paris. doi: 10.1787/9789264285521-en. Piaget, J., and Inhelder, B. (1956). The Child’s Conception of Space. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Pound, L., and Lee, T. (2011). Teaching Mathematics Creatively. Oxon: Routledge, 1–152. Reilly, D., Neumann, D. and Andrews, G. (2019). Investigating gender differences in mathematics and science: Results from the 2011 trends in mathematics and science survey. Research in Science Education, 49(1): 25–50. doi: 10.1007/s11165-017-9630-6.

30

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Richardson, M., Hunt, T. and Richardson, C. (2014). Children’s construction task performance and spatial ability: Controlling task complexity and predicting mathematics performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 119(3): 741–57. doi: 10.2466/22.24.pms.119c28z8. Smith, C., and Golding, J. (2015). Raising girls’ participation in A-level mathematics: initial findings from ‘good practice’ case studies. Proceedings of the British Society for Research into Learning Mathematics. Available at: http:// discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1476786/1/Golding_Raising girls participation in a level math. pdf (Accessed 26 January 2019). Stannard, L., Wolfgang, C., Jones, I. and Phelps, P. (2001). A longitudinal study of the predictive relations among construction play and mathematical achievement. Early Child Development and Care, 167(1): 115–25. doi: 10.1080/0300443011670110. Stylianides, G., and Stylianides, A. (2010). Mathematics for teaching: A form of applied mathematics. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(2): 161–72. doi: 10.1016/j. tate.2009.03.022. Van Den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M. (2003). The didactical use of models in realistic mathematics education: An example from a longitudinal trajectory on percentage. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 54: 9–35. Available at: http://www.fi.uu.nl/ publicaties/literatuur/2003_heuvel_panhuizen_model.pdf (Accessed 4 April 2019). Van Hiele, P. (1999). Developing geometric thinking through activities that begin with play. Teaching Children Mathematics, 5: 310–16. Verdine, B., Golinkoff, R., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Newcombe, N., Filipowicz, A. and Chang, A. (2014). Deconstructing building blocks: Preschoolers’ spatial assembly performance relates to early mathematical skills. Child Development, 85(3): 1062–76. doi: 10.1111/ cdev.12165. Webb, N., Franke, M., Ing, M., Turrou, A., Johnson, N. and Zimmerman, J. (2017). Teacher practices that promote productive dialogue and learning in mathematics classrooms. International Journal of Educational Research: 1–11. doi: 10.1016/j. ijer.2017.07.009. Webb, N., Franke, M., Ing, M., Wong, J., Fernandez, C., Shin, N. and Turrou, A. (2014). Engaging with others’ mathematical ideas: Interrelationships among student participation, teachers’ instructional practices, and learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 63: 79–93. doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2013.02.001. Whitehead, J. (1996). Sex stereotypes, gender identity and subject choice at A-level. Educational Research, 38(2): 147–60. doi: 10.1080/0013188960380203.

2

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children: Findings from the Chatterbooks Reading Groups Initiative Joy Stanton and Jane Whittenbury

Introduction The Reading Agency’s Chatterbooks scheme was designed to promote reading for pleasure (RfP) and create lifelong readers through the setting up of reading groups in schools and libraries. In these groups, children have the opportunity to hear books read aloud as well as share, read and review books around a given theme. Chatterbooks is estimated to be the UK’s largest network of children’s reading groups, with the scheme having successfully run since 2001. It is estimated that nearly 9,000 children belong to Chatterbooks reading groups nationwide. On closer examination of this scheme it seemed not only an effective means to encourage children to enjoy reading and develop the reading habit but also a potential pedagogical learning tool for primary student teachers during their training. As researchers and primary English teacher educators, we were keen to focus on the potential of forging social learning relationships between student teachers working collaboratively together in order to plan and deliver engaging Chatterbooks sessions. This process was supported by experienced English tutors and it was envisaged that student teachers would be able to increase their literacy pedagogic content knowledge (PCK) by working with primary-aged children through initiating and managing their own Chatterbooks reading groups. In addition, such an approach was intended to support the schools’ ‘reading for pleasure’ agenda, as advocated by the National Curriculum (DfE, 2014) which aims to promote RfP and lifelong learning through sustained engagement with reading.

32

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Reading for pleasure The motivation to set up Chatterbooks reading groups was underpinned by the knowledge that children’s engagement with reading is crucial to their personal, social, emotional and creative development (Clark and Rumbold, 2006). Previous research has identified that some children are not developing pleasure in reading (McGrane et al., 2017 Clark and Teravainen, 2017), and moreover, the 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), a large-scale study providing internationally comparable data, revealed that 20 per cent of Year 5 children did not enjoy reading. Similarly, although the National Literacy Trust’s Annual Literacy Survey showed a rise in reading enjoyment levels, with levels in 2016 being 14 per cent higher than they were in 2015, it also revealed that one in four children either ‘only enjoy reading a bit or not at all’ (Clark and Teravainen, 2017, p. 3). Furthermore, their data indicated a clear link between children who enjoy reading and higher reading attainment – a very significant finding. Conversely, the report found that those who do not enjoy reading run the risk of falling further behind in their reading attainment with the gap between those who enjoy reading and those who do not at age 10 rising from 1 year to over 3 years by the age of 15. The OECD report ‘Reading for Change’ (2002) and ‘PISA 2009 Results: Learning to Learn’ (2010) both clearly identified a link between students who engaged with and enjoyed reading the most, and higher reading performance. Additionally, it was found that on average across countries, 37 per cent of students reported that they did not read for enjoyment at all (OECD, 2002). Of particular interest was the finding that being an engaged reader and reading regularly could be viewed as more of an advantage in terms of educational achievement than having educated, well-off parents (OECD, 2002): Thus, it is more advantageous to be engaged but from a less privileged social background than to be privileged but less engaged. This is a key finding, indicating that engaging disadvantaged students is likely to be central to improving their reading literacy performance. (OECD, 2002, p. 9)

Hempel-Jorgensen et al. (2018) also identified the benefits of promoting a RfP pedagogy in low socio-economic schools (SES). Their research found the focus was often on a more proficiency-based approach in these schools. Benefits of a RfP included:

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

33

Increased skill in reading (and other subject areas) and more sustained reader engagement, which is particularly important for children in low SES areas whose educational outcomes tend to be significantly lower than their more advantaged peers. (Hempel-Jorgensen et al., 2018, p. 86)

As part of this research was based in a low SES, this could have played an important role in the engagement of the children in Chatterbooks. However, this was not a main focus of the study. Therefore, the evidence appeared very clear: if teachers can embed RfP into the literacy curriculum, then they will be providing children with the best possible chance of becoming engaged, enthusiastic readers with good levels of reading attainment and subsequent attainment overall. The study was also influenced by the United Kingdom Literacy Association (UKLA) research project ‘Teachers as Readers: Building Communities of Readers’ (Cremin et al., 2008). The initial phase of this project surveyed 1,200 primary teachers from eleven local authorities and found that teachers generally relied on a limited range of fiction in their teaching, while the later phase focused on the need to improve teachers’ knowledge and use of literature so that children’s enthusiasm and motivation as readers could develop. As teacher educators, this was pertinent since we had a vested interest in trying to ensure that the next generation of teachers developed knowledge of as wide a range of literature as possible, in order to be able to draw upon this in their teaching. The second phase of the UKLA project identified clearly that talk and positive relationships were at the heart of a RfP agenda and that it can be developed effectively through the creation of classroom reading communities of reciprocity and interaction. (UKLA, 2008, p. 3)

As such, Chatterbooks reading groups seemed to be highly suitable vehicles for such ‘interaction and reciprocity’ where book talk, recommendations, reading aloud and engaging in activities relating to literature could flourish. Cremin reminds us: At the core of reading for pleasure is the reader’s volition, their agency and desire to read, their anticipation of the satisfaction gained through the experience and/ or afterwards in interaction with others. (Cremin et al., 2014, p. 5)

Chambers (2011, p.  70) found that sharing opinions on texts and discussing preferences through ‘Have you read this?’ sessions were beneficial to engagement with, and enjoyment of, reading. Through this collaborative approach, the key concepts of choice and volition are right at the heart of the Chatterbooks book

34

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

group practice. Additionally, the student teachers were made familiar with Daniel Pennac’s poster ‘The Rights of the Reader’ (2006) prior to the start of the research, and they explored how these rights could be effectively ‘lived out’ through the Chatterbooks groups.

Development of research questions The overarching aim of the research was to explore the potential of the Chatterbooks project in schools to help engage children who had previously shown little interest in reading for themselves through a carefully planned programme of literature and related activities. In addition, there was a focus on the benefits of such a project for the student teachers in terms of expanding their knowledge of children’s literature and developing knowledge and practice in planning and carrying out creative, engaging activities with the children centred on a book or literary theme. After initial discussions with the research team, made up of university teacher educators and student teachers, two research questions were formulated: 1. How do the learning interactions established between student teachers influence their knowledge of children’s literature, acquisition of literacy PCK and confidence in teaching children reading? 2. How does the implementation of the Chatterbooks initiative in schools impact on children’s attitudes towards reading?

Research design The project took place in two phases: phase one focused on the student teachers and phase two on the primary-aged children’s attitudes towards reading. For the first phase of the project, discussions took place with personnel from The Reading Agency (TRA), head teachers from four local primary schools and the local Schools’ Library Service (SLS). Based on these, it was decided to set up a number of Chatterbooks reading groups in local schools which would take place over a single term and be led by volunteer second year undergraduate student teachers. This would focus on the student teachers’ learning in a social context. The SLS was willing to support this project by purchasing Chatterbooks packs consisting of a book bag, book log and pen

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

35

from TRA for each child involved, along with themed boxes of books from their collections which the student teachers would take into school and use for their Chatterbooks sessions. The intention of phase one was for children to be selected by their class teachers for the groups based on their attitudes towards reading: that is, children with a level of ‘skill’ to read appropriately for their age group but not necessarily the ‘will’ to do so. Other universities were also interested in the potential of the Chatterbooks reading groups to enhance student teacher professional learning, and so phase one of the research was undertaken in collaboration with colleagues at the universities of Winchester, Roehampton and Christ Church University Canterbury. Phase two focused on the children’s views of themselves as readers and their attitudes towards reading and whether, through the social learning environment of a book group focused on RfP, their perceptions and attitudes would develop. Central to Chatterbooks sessions were a number of fun and creative activities often involving art, craft and drama around one or more texts relating to a theme. Landay and Wootton (quoted in Cremin et  al., 2014, p.  10) talk of ‘bringing a literary text to life’ through such activities, which in turn helps readers to respond to and engage with the text and motivate them to read for themselves. Turner and Paris (1995, p. 672) state: Because children come to know and understand literacy primarily through the activities through which they engage, literacy tasks have enormous potential to influence students’ feelings and attitudes towards literacy as well as their use of learning strategies and self-regulation.

The student teachers were aware of the need to ensure that the children had free choice in the books they chose to take away from the sessions, along with a clear emphasis on enthusing the children by ‘sharing’ some of the books through reading aloud to the children at each session as well as promoting ample opportunities for book talk and recommendations from the children.

Ethical considerations As phase one of the project was focused on the pedagogical outcomes for the student teachers and in particular their PCK and professional knowledge, learning through the experience of running Chatterbooks reading groups, careful implementation was required to ensure the research had a positive but unobtrusive impact on their training. Participants were recruited from the

36

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

second year undergraduate BA QTS (Qualified Teacher Status) student cohort and eleven of the student teachers gave their consent to take part in the project. In keeping with ethical best practices, student teachers were invited to take part in the project even if they chose not to be involved in the research, since they could still be involved in the Chatterbooks reading groups. With respect to phase two of the project, certain issues became evident after the deployment of the initial questionnaire, where it was observed that several pupils within the class found difficulties in reading the questionnaire. In addition, some children appeared to be worried that they may not give the correct responses to the questions. Therefore, it was decided that the student teachers would introduce and explain the questionnaire to the pupils, reducing any influence of the researchers. Pupils would not be judged on their answers and they did not have to answer a question if they did not want to. The student teachers then read each question to the group. Those who were able to answer independently were given time to do this. Those who needed help were assisted, generally through the aid of a scribe (the student teachers).

Organization of the Chatterbooks reading groups After discussion with personnel from TRA, head teachers from four local primary schools and the local SLS, it was decided to set up a number of Chatterbooks reading groups in these schools which would be led by volunteer second year undergraduate student teachers. For both phase one and two of the project, the student teachers went into their assigned school to work with their Chatterbooks group on a regular basis (usually once every two weeks on a Wednesday afternoon) over a period of one term. Prior to each session, the student teachers met with primary English tutors to discuss plans based on a theme chosen by either the student teachers or the children themselves (e.g. ‘funny animals’ or ‘poetry’). Ideas were shared and discussed. Sessions were carefully planned to try to meet the needs of the different groups of children and afford the student teachers an opportunity to work collaboratively in both planning and leading the sessions. The school chosen for the second phase of Chatterbooks research was an average sized primary school with approximately 250 pupils on role. It had a white British majority, above average pupil premium and above average numbers of pupils identified as having special educational needs. The literacy co-ordinator had worked with the researchers previously and was keen to see Chatterbooks

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

37

used in her current school as RfP had been identified as an area to develop. It was decided that the Year 2 class would be split into three Chatterbooks groups, each group consisting of about eight pupils.

Data collection tools Phase one: Questionnaires for student teachers Questionnaires were used to discern student teacher expectations in terms of their own development in addition to focusing on their current level of knowledge and confidence in teaching children’s literature. In the first questionnaire prior to sessions in school, the volunteer students were asked questions such as, ‘How confident do you currently feel teaching children’s literature?’ and ‘How confident do you feel with regard to your knowledge of children’s literature (authors, titles, content etc)?’ They were invited to respond on a scale of 1 (very confident) to 4 (not at all confident). In addition to these questions being repeated at the end of the project, some open questions were included, which invited more personal and detailed responses. For example, ‘Please list any children’s authors, poets, picture book writers or illustrators whose work you have read’, ‘What would you say have been the most significant outcomes of this project for you?’ and ‘Are there ways in which this project will impact on your future teaching?’.

Phase two: Questionnaires for children The questionnaires consisted of twelve questions and took the form of open questions where the children were asked about their reading choices, for example, ‘How often do you read or share books at home?’ and ‘Who do you talk to about the books you are reading?’ They were also asked about their attitudes to reading, for example, ‘If you enjoyed Chatterbooks, what did you enjoy about it? If you didn’t enjoy it, can you say why not?’ and ‘Was there a particular activity which you enjoyed at Chatterbooks? Why did you like it?’ Other open questions related to pupils’ enjoyment and knowledge of children’s literature and to how they saw themselves as readers in order to ascertain if there was a link between these aspects and being part of a Chatterbooks group. In order to ensure all pertinent data was harvested, the following question was included: ‘Is there anything else you would like to say about your time in the Chatterbooks reading group?’ Pupil questionnaires were deployed at the outset of phase two and after completion of the Chatterbooks reading groups at the end of term.

38

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Findings Phase one It was clear from a comparison between the two student teacher questionnaires that there had been a significant increase in their confidence in teaching literature over the course of the project. Analysis of the data revealed that at the outset of the project the majority of the teachers judged themselves to be reasonably confident in teaching literature (67 per cent), whereas after the project the student teachers’ responses showed a discernible shift, with 37 per cent rating themselves as very confident to teach children’s literature. Notably one student’s level increased from ‘not very confident’ at the start of the project to ‘very confident’ by the end. The qualitative data revealed there was less of a change in terms of the students’ overall knowledge of children’s literature, although some students mentioned titles and genres of books that they had not encountered previously. One student commented:  ‘There are a lot more nonfiction texts available than I first thought.’ A number of additional themes relating to children’s literature emerged from the qualitative data. A key theme was the value placed by the student teachers on the opportunity to work with a small group of children. They outlined how they could be more experimental and creative in their teaching in a way that they would not have tried with a large class during school experience. One student stated, ‘I have tried things and activities in school with the group that I would be afraid to try with a class of thirty.’ Clearly, this student felt ‘liberated’ from the expectations and pressures of a formal school experience where the prospect of judgements being made by school or university staff tended to result in less creative and ‘safer’ practices. What was interesting from this comment (and other similar ones) was that the student teachers felt empowered to be creative in their planning knowing that this was shared planning and so the responsibility for this and the outcomes were also shared. As a result, student teachers appeared to feel less ‘exposed’ and worried about what might happen in the sessions. Perhaps most significant was the impact on the students’ professional growth in terms of understanding and values in relation to children’s reading. When asked what their future aspirations might be following this project, some of the responses were revealing, for example, a commitment to be more experimental with their pedagogy, ‘Be adventurous in the way I teach reading and literature’ and ‘Leave my comfort zone and explore themes with the children that I don’t

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

39

think will interest me.’ Additionally, with respect to expanding their teaching repertoire and developing their pedagogic content knowledge, one student teacher reported that they had used ‘drama more, the children loved it.’ It was also evident that for some student teachers there was a deeper understanding of the challenges that young readers faced, with one participant stating that they had to ‘keep an open-minded attitude toward reading and the pressure children experience in having to read.’ Coupled with these findings, some student teachers identified a shift in attitude to their own relationships with literature. This shift in perspective following some reflection on the part of the student teachers went even further, with some likening the development of their own literacy knowledge acquisition with their commitment to promote a love of reading for their young learners. One participant commented, ‘I want to continue to promote a love of literature and in order to do this I need to extend my repertoire of known texts further.’ It seems reasonable to deduce that such reflections were a result of positive learning relationships between the students and children that had developed over a period of time during the project. Student teachers also, through the process of sharing ideas and planning together, were able to develop their understanding about children’s learning and pedagogical practices from each other. Not only this, they were also able to witness the teaching approaches of their peers during the sessions with the children and the perceived impact of these approaches on the children and their learning. One student reflected, ‘I enjoyed being able to see the techniques and teaching styles used by my peers that I could use myself.’ Consequently, the student teachers were able to reflect on their own practice and learning as a result of their experiences of collaborative planning and teaching and use these reflections as a basis to identify their own future learning needs. Having identified a number of positive outcomes for student teachers as a result of productive social and learning relationships, it was then time to focus on the learning of the children within the Chatterbooks groups and whether these groups had a positive impact on the children’s attitudes towards reading.

Phase two The data was examined on a question by question basis to ensure full consideration of the children’s responses. As can be seen in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, the majority of pupils felt they enjoyed reading and saw themselves as good readers. Only one pupil stated that they did not enjoy reading, and three pupils did not think they were good readers after attending the Chatterbooks sessions.

40

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Responses to the statement: I enjoy reading Percentage of children

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 strongly disagree/disagree

undecided Before Chaerbooks

strongly agree/agree

Aer Chaerbooks

Figure 2.1 Children who enjoyed reading

Responses to the statement: I think I am a good reader Percentage of children

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 strongly disagree/disagree

undecided Before Chaerbooks

strongly agree/agree

Aer Chaerbooks

Figure 2.2 Children who considered themselves good readers

When examining the changes in responses over time to these two questions, there was an increase of 16 per cent of pupils reporting that they enjoyed reading by the end of the Chatterbooks sessions. In terms of their perceptions of themselves as a good reader, the data were inconclusive since three children changed their response to from ‘agree’ to ‘undecided’, perhaps as a result of increased reading frequency. A further question asked the pupils about whom they talked to about reading. While this is not necessarily linked to RfP, the question explored whether reading was seen as a social experience by the pupils involved. Again, the majority (N = 18) of children did read or share books at home. However, of concern was the fact that two pupils did not talk at all about the books they were reading. After the Chatterbooks sessions, both these pupils responded that they did share books, one with a teacher and one with a parent. The range of people pupils shared books with seemed to increase for most pupils, with parents and teachers being the most popular.

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

41

After the sessions had finished, pupils were asked to consider if they had enjoyed Chatterbooks and the response was very positive with twentyone pupils agreeing this had been the case. Typically, Chatterbooks sessions included reading part of the story aloud, sharing opinions about the books, and then practical activities linked to the books including making masks, maps, bookmarks and puppets. It was interesting to explore if these extra activities had prompted engagement with the texts. Indeed, many of the positive qualitative responses to the questionnaire referred to these supplementary activities, with pupils stating they liked: ‘Reading, making things and doing activities’, ‘Getting my own folder and books to read and making things like bookmarks’. Several pupils related their enjoyment to being with others, both adults and peers, stating ‘I enjoyed being with the adults and doing activities and . . . I liked reading with my friends.’ An important aspect of the project was improving engagement for the more reluctant readers. One pupil who initially responded that she did not enjoy reading, changed her perspective and confirmed by the end of the Chatterbooks project that she particularly enjoyed reading with others. Another pupil who also strongly disagreed that he enjoyed reading and felt that he was not a good reader identified he enjoyed making things and liked the fact that ‘you sit and read stuff to us.’

Discussion Just as Cremin identifies the need for there to be ‘communities of reciprocity and interaction’ (Cremin et  al., 2014, p.  158) within the classroom so that learning about books and pleasure in reading can be fostered, so it would seem in phase one of this project that such learning communities are vital for student teachers’ growth and development. From the qualitative comments made by the students, it is clear that collaborative learning relationships enabled them to take more risks than they would otherwise have done if they were teaching a group of children alone. It seemed that they felt, in terms of running shared reading sessions, there was greater safety in numbers. Additionally, they benefited from the collaborative nature of the planning that they undertook as they shared ideas and learned from one another. The evaluative follow up process that took place after the Chatterbooks sessions also provided the students with the chance to not only reflect on the children’s engagement in the session but also to reflect on which teaching approaches had been most successful and to provide feedback

42

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

to each other on the parts of the session each student had led. As such, the Chatterbooks reading group sessions were a rich source of pedagogical learning for the students as they worked closely, in collaboration, supporting each other and offering feedback on how well different parts of the sessions had gone. During phase two, activities were designed to be carried out on an individual level but included collaborative aspects. Students sat with pupils as they were making items and discussed the focus book and other books that the children had been reading. This seems to link to Cremin’s (2014) work on creating communities of engaged readers. Had this practical approach, in a more relaxed environment than the usual formal classroom, helped to engage the boy who had enjoyed being read to and making things? Had sharing books and being part of a reading group helped to engage pupils more? It was interesting that none of the children made specific references to the book-talk activity which started each session when asked about what they had enjoyed. It was noted that some children were not able, or not willing, to talk about the book they had taken home in this focussed section. Reasons for this may be related to the home environment, parental aspirations or engagement with reading materials (Goodman and Gregg, 2010). Another possibility was that teachers are not confident in giving effective feedback about books (Cremin et al., 2008). This seems to be an aspect of RfP that could be developed further. Discussion between researchers and student teachers about the perceived reading ability of the children questioned whether the negative shift (from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘undecided’ by three pupils and ‘agree’ to ‘undecided’ by one pupil) was due to the books being more challenging than pupils were used to, or pupils questioning their own ability. It could be seen that being able to choose their own books had encouraged pupils to choose more challenging books, possibly in the knowledge that they were not going to be formally assessed on their understanding. If the books and activities had challenged the pupils’ thinking or their reading ability, this could be seen as a positive outcome. When considering the question, ‘Who do you talk to about the books you are reading?’, it is possible that the increase in number of pupils sharing books with ‘others’, might be due to pupils sharing books with student teachers during Chatterbooks sessions. If so, this would seem to indicate that pupils had acknowledged that the sessions provided an opportunity for positive social interaction. It also raises the issue of teacher confidence and PCK – had the focus on Chatterbooks and promoting RfP enabled the student teachers to develop an environment more conducive to social learning through reading than a formal

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

43

classroom-based literacy lesson? Chambers (2011) identified the benefits of sharing books with peers to promote discussion and forming opinions, with enthusiastic recommendations influencing others to try something new. These recommendations could come from the student teachers, but an important part of the process was also sharing ideas about the books the pupils had read with each other. At the start of each session, pupils were encouraged to talk to a partner about the books they had taken home. At first, it seemed that the pupils found this quite difficult. It could have been that some of them had not actually read the book and, therefore, did not know what to say. As this part of the session became a clear expectation, discussions seemed to become easier, although further research would be needed to examine the quality of those discussions. It would seem, however, that Chatterbooks had provided the pupils with social opportunities to share ideas, and listen to and form opinions in order to influence pupils to try something new. Cremin et al. (2014) described the way that teachers’ enjoyment of reading improved when they joined the reading groups as part of the Teachers as Readers (TaRs) project. Hempel-Jorgensen (2018) found that volitional engagement with reading was restricted by providing teacher-led activities for which pupils were expected to give right or wrong answers. Yet every day, literacy lessons take place where children are often expected to read in silence, unless reading to the teacher as an assessment activity, and where short extracts are used to highlight the language feature focus for that day. In contrast, Chatterbooks sessions seem to have sparked the interest of the pupils involved:  the bookmarks produced following a story about amazing animals were valued and talked about when used for the books borrowed from the Chatterbooks boxes; the pirate patches were worn with delight as pupils searched the classroom to read the next clues in the treasure hunt and wearing the climbing gear added to the pupils’ task of researching things needed when preparing to climb a mountain. Had social and learning relationships formed through Chatterbooks led to not just a greater enjoyment of reading but also a better understanding of reading?

Conclusion Although this was a small-scale research project, it was clear that pupils had enjoyed the opportunities to collaborate with peers and adults and engage with books and activities associated with texts. This, in turn, had led to pupils wanting to take books away to read independently. The opportunity to choose their own

44

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

books, outside of a prescriptive scheme, was valued by the pupils. Chatterbooks played an important role as it occurred in a non-instructional environment where pupils did not feel that they were being assessed but were still able to learn. It was satisfying to find that pupils had enjoyed being read to. For the student teachers, there was increased knowledge of children’s literature through being exposed to unfamiliar texts from a wide range of authors. Chatterbooks allowed them to explore creative opportunities related to literature through collaborating with peers and tutors as well as responding to the pupils’ reactions. This collaborative approach had increased confidence in teaching through literature allowing student teachers to be prepared to take risks in their teaching in order to promote RfP. Seeing pupils engage with social learning environments had enabled student teachers to consider their own position as a teacher and their preferred pedagogical approaches.

References Chambers, A. (2011). Tell Me. Children, Reading and Talk with The Reading Environment. Stroud: Thimble Press. Clark, C., and Rumbold, K. (2006). Reading for Pleasure: A Research Overview. London: National Literacy Trust. Clark, C., and Teravainen, A. (2017). Celebrating Reading for Enjoyment: Findings from our Annual Literacy Survey 2016. London: National Literacy Trust. Cremin, T., Mottram, M., Collins, F. and Powell, S. (2008). Building Communities of Readers. London: UKLA. Cremin, T., Mottram, M., Collins, F., Powell, S. and Safford, K. (2014). Building Communities of Engaged Readers: Reading for Pleasure. London: Routledge. Department for Education (2014). National Curriculum in England: English Programmes of Study. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nationalcurriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study (Accessed 5 May 2019). Department for Education (2017). Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): National Report for England Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/664562/PIRLS_2016_ National_Report_for_England-_BRANDED.pdf (Accessed 5 May 2019). Goodman, A., and Gregg, P. (eds) (2010). Poorer Children’s Educational Attainment: How Important Are Attitudes? York. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Hempel-Jorgensen, A., Cremin, T., Harris, D. and Chamberlain, L. (2018). Pedagogy for reading for pleasure in low-socio-economic primary schools: Beyond ‘pedagogy of poverty’? Literacy, 52(3): 86–94.

Social Learning for Student Teachers and Children

45

McGrane, J., Stiff, J., Baird, J., Lenkeit, J. and Hopfenbeck, T. (2017). ‘Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): National Report for England’ (DFE-RR770). London: DfE. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2002). Reading for change: Performance and engagement across countries: Results from PISA 2002. New York: OECD. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2010). PISA 2009 results: Learning to learn – Student engagement, strategies and practices (Volume 1111). Paris: OECD. Pennac, D. (2006). The Rights of the Reader. London. Walker Books. The Reading Agency (2019). Chatterbooks. Available at: https://readingagency.org.uk/ children/quick-guides/Chatterbooks/ (Accessed 5 May 2019). Turner, J., and Paris, S. (1995). How literacy tasks influence children’s motivation for literacy. Reading Teacher, 48(8): 662–73. United Kingdom Literacy Association (UKLA) (2008). Teachers as readers: Building communities of readers 2007–08. Executive Summary. Available at: https://ukla.org/ downloads/teachers_as_readers.pdf (Accessed 5 May 2019). United Kingdom Literacy Association (UKLA) (2015). Creating STARS – Student Teachers as Readers: An exploration of student teachers’ developing knowledge and understanding of children’s literature and how this impacts on pedagogy. Available at: https://ukla.org/research/projects/details/creating-stars-student-teachers-asreaders (Accessed 5 May 2019).

3

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry: The Role of Mobile Technologies to Support Peer Learning Karen Blackmore

Introduction This chapter explores the naturally synergistic relationship between STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) within the primary curriculum as viewed through the lens of social learning opportunities. A variety of studies (Blatchford, Kutnick and Baines, 2007; Bennet, 2010) have described the use of bespoke approaches to support students’ learning in science, primarily through small group work. In most cases, these represent inquirybased endeavours that seek to introduce or consolidate knowledge acquisition of a particular science topic. While several authorities in the field assert that group work within primary science classrooms is prevalent (Kutnick and Berdonini, 2009), others argue that it is a ‘neglected art in school’ (Galton and Hargreaves, 2009). The author’s experience in primary, secondary and through schools is, that while it is common for children to be organized into groups to undertake experimental work, this is often for reasons of expediency (e.g. shortage of equipment or classroom space) rather than for sound pedagogical reasons. For children to work together effectively it is necessary for them to negotiate the complexities of social, cognitive and technical aspects of group work. Group work is a complex social learning enterprise, which requires the management of motivations, emotions, social relationships and physical movement (Kershner et al., 2012) within an already busy and sometimes confined learning space. For effective learning to be achieved it is essential that teachers consider the merits and limitations of this type of approach carefully, before making this the main approach within their teaching of primary STEM subjects.

48

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

The grouping of STEM subjects is not merely convenient or coincidental; rather educators have argued that this group of subjects are intrinsically linked through overlaps within the curriculum (Sanders, 2012). The connections between these subjects may have long-term implications for life-long learning and arguably impact on employability (Wilcox, 2015). If we accept that it is advantageous for these skills and associated knowledge to develop in parallel from the outset of a learner’s education rather than just be made explicit during tertiary education, it makes sense to flag the links between these subjects at an early stage. A review of the primary curriculum (Department for Education, 2015) shows the connections between the STEM subjects. For science, all pupils are required to do the following: Develop understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science through different types of science enquiries that help them to answer scientific questions about the world around them. (p. 144)

In order to achieve this remit, they would need to meet the following needs of the mathematics curriculum where pupils are required to: Reason mathematically by following a line of enquiry, conjecturing relationships and generalisations, and developing an argument, justification or proof using mathematical language. (p. 99)

and in the case of design technology, pupils are required to: Develop the creative, technical and practical expertise needed to perform everyday tasks confidently and to participate successfully in an increasingly technological world. (p. 180)

From this fairly rudimentary review we can see that the present learners and future producers of STEM knowledge need to be familiar with and understand the interrelatedness of knowledge across the curriculum. Since modern day commerce, production and service industries consist of labour forces that often operate as teams, workers need to be confident to deploy their skills within a social context. Hence, it is advantageous to afford children social learning opportunities and foster effective relationship-building in their early formative years. Set against a backdrop of changing workplace practices is a rapidly evolving technological society where the use of handheld devices is firmly embedded within day-to-day life. Miniaturization and the resultant mobility of a range of devices mean that young people are often ‘digitally tethered’ for significant

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

49

portions of their time, a fact which has caused concern from some perspectives (Savin-Baden, 2015). A  study by Ofcom (2014), which focused on the safe use of media for children, showed that by the time they turn 5, three-quarters of children have access to a smartphone or tablet. This immersion within a technological revolution, where 69 per cent of 5- to 7-year olds and 85 per cent of 8- to 11-year olds confidently use devices to find information for their school work, clearly impacts on the way children learn. Traditionalists might argue that this represents an overexposure to technology, which could potentially hamper social interaction; pragmatists will say children want to use technology, are often adept at using it, and need to become familiar with its use in a rapidly developing technological age. Current research suggests mobile technology has afforded children a high degree of autonomy in terms of finding resources for their own learning (Kearney, Burden and Rai, 2015). Seminal studies have shown that as children move from the concrete operational stage of learning to more formal operational learning, they gain the ability to abstractly conceptualize and hence can cope with more autonomous study (Piaget, 1964; Richardson, 2003). This independent research requires the fostering of secure inquiry skills, in order for authentic and pertinent study support material to be acquired (Minner, Levy and Century, 2010). Since children often relish the opportunity to share the results of their own learning with others (Dunlop et al., 2015), social learning opportunities can be used to capitalize on this windfall in learner efficacy. In other words, if children can use technology for the purposes of social and learning gain, why not deploy inquiry-based pedagogies in primary classrooms? Detractors of this approach might argue that this methodology may risk the propagation of scientific misconceptions or the acquisition of learning material tangential to the key outcomes. This view is accepted to a degree, and as with many activities in the primary classroom, judicious and thoughtful interaction by teaching and support staff is essential for effective learning to occur (Booren, 2012). Given the potential advantages of such an approach, it is unsurprising that primary teachers have adapted their pedagogies to assimilate and exploit mobile capabilities within the classroom (Burden et  al., 2012). It has been suggested that in some cases this has resulted in a ‘transformation’ of learning ‘into a seamless part of daily life, to the point where it is not recognised as learning at all’ (Naismith et al., 2004, p. 5). This arguably represents a paradigm shift, where it is the aspiration of educators to extend learning far beyond the boundaries of the classroom both in terms of independent and socially based study.

50

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

The specific aim of the research study described in this chapter is multifaceted but it focused on an exploration of how social learning, in the form of small group work using a mobile data collection device (in this case a data-logger), could act as a conduit for learning. It was postulated that effective social learning relationships could be forged as a result of children working in small groups, carrying out a STEM-based inquiry. The attitudes of the children involved in this research were studied in-depth, using semi-structured interviews, observations and a short questionnaire. The qualitative and quantitative data acquired were then examined to explore key social constructivist learning opportunities.

Research context: Background of the school The school chosen for the research was a larger than average primary school in the West Midlands situated in an area of significant socioeconomic deprivation. A  high proportion of children were designated as being entitled to pupil premium funding and the number of children with special educational needs and disability (SEND) was above national average. Most of the children’s special needs related to speech and language and communication difficulties. Despite these challenges, the school was rated by Ofsted as good, with a higher than national average proportion of Year 6 children gaining level four or above for Standardized Assessment Tests (SATs). The school benefited from a strong leadership that advocated a broad and creative curriculum which engaged all pupils. This was particularly evident in science, where there was an emphasis on scientific inquiry as a means of harnessing children’s natural curiosity (as advocated by Ofsted, 2013). It was evident that there was careful coordination of the science curriculum throughout the school, from the Early Years to Upper Key Stage 2. Such was the strength of the coordination that the school frequently engaged in whole school scientific inquiries with children working together in a social learning context.

Research design Structure of the whole school science inquiry The inquiry arose from serendipity within the day-to-day learning at the school. The children in Year 6 (N  =  46) were asked as part of their work in

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

51

personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education lessons, what things in school were helpful in terms of creating an effective learning environment. The majority of children (61 per cent) agreed that space to move around and bright classrooms were helpful and about half (46 per cent) said outdoor spaces were also useful learning environments. Some children (57 per cent) offered suggestions on aspects that could be improved, and the predominant condition they were concerned about was noise. The children argued that high noise levels, on occasion, interfered with them listening to instructions from their teacher, understanding what was required of them and interacting with their peers. They seemed unsure what constituted an unhelpful noise level and questioned where noise was generated in the classroom. Some children pointed out there were external noise sources at different times of the day, for example, in the form of chairs and tables being moved in preparation for lunchtime. These discussions culminated in pupils suggesting that noise levels should be measured in their classroom and around the school. This child-led inquiry was supported by the science coordinator and teachers across the school and the following aims were established: ●

●

●

All children were asked to predict which would be the noisiest and quietest places in the school. Some children were interested in exploring how the noise levels varied in different places within the school and during the school day. Year 6 children were tasked with suggesting solutions to high noise levels by deploying some kind of sound muffling strategy.

Phases of the scientific inquiry There were four distinct phases to the science inquiry which took place during a science week. The school was in possession of high-quality data-loggers which were suitable to measure noise levels, and these had been used by the children on several previous occasions. The first phase of the science investigation was scaffolded by what the school described as ‘playful inquiry’. This was an approach pioneered by the science coordinator where children were encouraged to choose resources and play with equipment and materials which could be useful during inquiry. During this phase, children were not required to undertake fair tests, take measurements or formalize experimental processes, rather they were urged to explore aspects which interested them and undertake problem-solving activities together. This

52

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

phase could last up to an hour and usually resulted in children refining their own key investigative questions and gaining confidence in ways to address them. The second phase was characterized by the development of a rigorous scientific approach to obtaining data to address the question. Teaching at this point was characterized by a ‘light touch approach’ where the teacher or teaching assistant spent a significant amount of time observing children and only occasionally asking questions. Children were encouraged to be critical of their methodology and question their own choices in terms of experimental set up and choice of materials. Adults asked skilled questions such as ‘I noticed you placed the datalogger there. Was there a particular reason for that?’ or ‘Tell me about how you have layered the materials. Has that had any effect on your measurements?’ The third phase focused on obtaining accurate scientific data to address the questions. In this particular inquiry, it involved the children using handheld data-loggers to measure noise levels across the whole school site and within classrooms. During this measurement phase, children interacted with other children in different key stages and asked them questions about noise levels and demonstrated how they were using the data-loggers. To determine potential solutions to the noise issue, some children also built noise generators using buzzers integrated into a simple electric circuit and investigated the abilities of different materials to muffle sound. The fourth and arguably the most important phase consisted of the children analysing, discussing and making sense of the data they obtained. They could then formulate recommendations for changes within the school to lower noise levels. This was undertaken through a mode of social constructivist learning with children undertaking extensive dialog among themselves.

Ethics The researcher adopted the position of insider/outsider at the school as a relationship with the school had developed during frequent visits and previous work with the science coordinator. The researcher and science coordinator co-constructed the application for ethical approval, which was reviewed and accepted by the school senior management team. The head teacher acted as a gatekeeper for the protection of the children and the Year 6 teaching staff were active in gaining informed consent from the parents by means of an information sheet for participants and a consent letter. Parents were encouraged to talk to their children about the research study prior to its commencement and ask whether they were willing to take part. As another level of assurance, children

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

53

were spoken to by the researcher and the class teachers and it was emphasized that it was entirely optional to take part in the research and they could stop at any point. For the questionnaire, the children denoted their own secret word, in case they wanted to withdraw their responses and they were asked for their assent to take part in any paired interviews. Pseudonyms were assigned to specific quotes to protect the anonymity of the children.

Sampling Six small groups of children, ranging in size from three to five members, were observed, and a pair from each group was interviewed during the study. The class teacher chose the groups based on her experience and knowledge of the children after discussion with the researcher. Children were assigned so that there would be an assortment of mixed- and single-sex groups and the groups would contain children who were friends as well as acquaintances.

Data collection tools There were three data collection tools deployed in this study which were chosen for their ability to provide a holistic approach to data acquisition and facilitate triangulation of findings.

Semi structured observations The observation schedule was designed using four key learning facilitators for using technology, identified by Burden and Younie (2014) as follows: ● ● ● ●

learners undertaking scientific processes through social interaction learners initiating their own inquiry strategies learners exploiting the mobility of the handheld technology learners demonstrating engagement and motivation during the scientific inquiry.

Descriptions of each type of learning behaviour were produced prior to undertaking the observations and discussed at length with the teaching staff to ensure all observers were conversant with the measure. In addition, the observation schedule was piloted in another school using similar aged learners to check for reliability. During the four phases of the inquiry, observations were undertaken by the researcher, two class teachers and a teaching assistant. The

54

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

observations were pooled and subsequently collated electronically prior to analysis.

Questionnaires A simple questionnaire using a Likert scale with ten questions was deployed with the children in both Year 6 classes. They were asked to rate their response to the statements using:  strongly agree, agree, neither, disagree and strongly disagree. The statements pertained to their enjoyment of the scientific inquiry, attitudes to working in small groups or pairs and their interactions with other learners during the inquiry.1 Data from the thirty-five completed questionnaires were pooled and analysed using Microsoft Excel. Statements that were prevalently agreed with (both strongly and very strongly) and statements that were disagreed with (again strongly and very strongly) were identified and percentages calculated for each statement as a measure of children’s attitudes to the scientific inquiry.

Semi-structured interviews These were designed according to the strategy outlined by Kvale (1996). Initial general questions were asked about the scientific inquiry as a means of creating rapport and making the children comfortable; these questions were then followed by more probing questions exploring social interactions within the group. The interviews were completed by asking questions to discern attitudes towards group work in science and determine levels of enjoyment and engagement. Frequently during the interviews, responses were read back to the participants to check for meaning and understanding on behalf of the researcher.

Data integration The data were brought together or integrated at two levels. First, sociograms were drawn up for each group (typically three to five children). Observations for each of these groups were assembled with interview material from one pair of children from each group. Points made by the children during the interview were cross-referenced with observations made by the researcher and the school observers. It was highly evident that what the children said in the interviews 1

Examples of statements that children were asked to respond to in the questionnaire were:  ‘I like thinking about how to set up an experiment with another’ and ‘I like to discuss data with other members of my group’.

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

55

was substantiated by the observations. The children appeared to be perceptive in terms of their social interactions and were honest; they even admitted there had been a small number of negative interactions, that is, arguments, during the largely positive experience. Second, the results of the questionnaires were matched with the themes that emerged from the interviews and observations. Close scrutiny was undertaken to see if the consensus of opinion (where evident) from the interviews correlated with the overall findings from the questionnaires. Generally, there seemed to be close alignment between what the children said during the interviews and how they responded to the statements within the questionnaires.

Findings Cluster analysis was used as an initial exploratory tool to determine relationships between the qualitative data obtained from the interviews with the children. The researcher used her knowledge of small group work in science to ascribe open codes (termed nodes) to the transcripts of the interviews. NVivo Pro software was then used to analyse the language used by children during the interviews. Figure 3.1 shows a dendrogram plot of all the coding nodes attributed to the interviews and illustrates the relatedness between different aspects of the scientific inquiry. It can be seen, for example, that science reasoning is the least related to the other processes but that mathematical and physical cooperation are spoken about in a similar manner by the children, as are communication and discussion. It is also interesting to note that science observation and decision-making are linked, presumably through the need to react to the emergent experimental outcomes throughout the inquiry. It was clear that decision-making was linked to significant discourse between the children in the group. Subsequent analysis focusing on the social aspects of the group work revealed the clusters as seen in Figure 3.2. It can be seen that the children saw play as a separate aspect from the social components of the inquiry but that they appreciated there were aspects of physical collaboration between different roles within the group. In addition, they linked communication with friends and discussion and derived enjoyment from pooling ideas. The children also made several insightful comments about group composition and displayed largely positive attitudes to social constructivist learning opportunities.

56

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools Nodes clustered by word similarity Science reasoning Pooling ideas Mathematical collaboration Physical collaboration Sense making Communication Discussion Recording Access to equipment Decision making Science observation

Figure  3.1 Cluster analysis depicting relatedness between different aspects of the scientific inquiry Nodes clustered by word similarity Play Physical collaboration Roles Communication Friends Group composition Positive attitude group work Sense making Enjoyment Pooling ideas

Figure 3.2 Cluster analysis revealing the social aspects of the group work

Qualitative findings Since the study was centred on a scientific inquiry, the findings will be reported in order of the four phases of the investigations. Themes within the social learning opportunities were identified from the observations and interviews with the children and will be highlighted with illustrative quotes. The children were also asked generally about their feelings with respect to working in small groups during science investigations. They described both positive and negative aspects, which will be detailed at the end of the findings section.

Play

Experimental observation

Roles

Group work Scientific processes

Scientific reasoning

Social learning opportunities Handling technology Decision making

Discussion

Making sense of data

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

Physical collaboration

Data recording

Mathematical collaboration

Communication

Pooling ideas

57

Figure 3.3 Learning and social interactions observed during scientific inquiry

58

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Figure 3.3 shows the learning and social interactions observed during the science inquiry. The direction of the arrows denotes the initial influence; for example, roles and play both defined the nature of the group work observed. Where arrows are bidirectional between elements, it denotes how each element had an effect on the other often through small incremental adjustments in social learning behaviours.

Initial playful inquiry phase The scientific processes that were observable as being undertaken by the children during their small group work are depicted in Figure 3.3. It can be seen that the full array of activities associated with investigative science was evident. Exploratory talk was the most prevalent learning behaviour observed where pupils discussed their ideas during the initial playful inquiry and suggested many potential ways the investigation could be undertaken. The children were observed asking many questions of each other and sought other’s advice as to whether their approaches were tenable. During interviews, the children from several groups stated they were quite happy to listen to everyone’s ideas; one group containing girls from the same class illustrated their collaborative approach: We all talked together in a group and then we planned it together … we were asking each other different questions. (Alice, Year 6)

Another mixed group containing children from different classes affirmed their cooperative stance: We all talked to each other and tried out and discussed what materials to use. (Stephan, Year 6)

It was a prevalent feature of this phase that the children undertook protracted periods of time discussing and modelling different ways of undertaking the investigation. They appeared to enjoy being able to choose their own materials and equipment and suggest solutions to challenges as they arose.

Setting up of the experiment phase Further discussion led to a process of trialling, revision and optimization to achieve the best experimental design. In the groups where several children’s suggested approaches differed, the groups negotiated a running order and each experimental set up was worked through sequentially in order to optimize the

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

59

design. Children described the decision-making process during the interview as follows: We all said what our ideas were, and we all tested all of our ideas … they did work but some of them were better than the others. (Jacob, Year 6)

In other groups where there were differences of opinion as to the most effective approach, it appeared that children were able to listen to the ideas of others and make logical conclusions as to the efficacy of each experimental method. There did not appear to be any cases of ideas being dismissed without being considered. A group of four boys and one girl who describe themselves as best friends declared: He had an idea and then me and Jacob had an idea and then we just decided to test them all. (Brian, Year 6)

When asked if they thought the fact that they were best friends helped them with optimizing the experimental approach, they responded: Yes, because you can share ideas and communicate better. (Jacob, Year 6)

This suggests that the children appreciated there were several ways in which the investigation could be undertaken and that a process of negotiation was required. They also understood that there was a social element to working within small groups.

Obtaining and recording data phase Overall, the children were observed to undertake the scientific investigation in a logical and systematic manner, using different materials in turn to determine how well they muffled sound. Their empirical discoveries were well-controlled, and they came to appropriate conclusions. For example: Thicker materials like the bubble wrap blocked out more of the sound. (Lisa, Year 6)

In order to execute the investigation effectively, the children were observed to physically collaborate when manipulating the experimental apparatus. When describing how they wrapped the buzzer in bubble wrap, one student said: We all held it down, so it was quite tight. (Craig, Year 6)

Groups experienced difficulty when the integrity of the wrapping failed, which resulted in the whole group working together to ensure accurate readings were obtained:

60

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools So, we had like people holding it on … then it was Craig sellotaping it all around. (Lisa, Year 6)

Approximately half of the groups informally assigned different children to complementary roles; for example, one child might take the readings using the data-logger while another ensured the sound generating circuit was in the right position. One group of a mixed gender of children from the same class described how they all had different roles: There were people doing different jobs, someone looking at the data logger, someone making sure the buzzer was all covered up … someone measuring how far the data logger was from the buzzer, and someone was switching it on and off .(Jacob, Year 6)

The children were committed to obtaining high quality data in the form of reproducible results and they described how they worked cooperatively together to achieve this, by constantly checking and rechecking the experimental set up and the readings: When we did the test, it was … five centimetres away so we didn’t move it, so no one really touched the data-logger. The noise from the buzzer was at one hundred and ten and … with the bubble wrap in the seventies. Everyone looked at the numbers to check. (Craig, Year 6)

When asked how they had chosen which roles each child would undertake, the children showed maturity in terms of making informed decisions. They had considered each child’s strengths and assigned a role based on that premise, as illustrated by the following exchange between the researcher and a child in a small single-sex group of friends: How do you sort out how to do group work? (Researcher) We find out what they are actually good at and what skills they have and then we go with the skills and compare what jobs there are to do. (Alice, Year 6) So, you see if someone has particularly strong skills in say recording? (Researcher) Yes, say I was good at writing then I would be good at recording things down. (Alice, Year 6)

In other groups the experimental procedure was more ad hoc as illustrated by an exchange between two boys within a predominantly male group:

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

61

We all tried to pitch in, didn’t we? (David, Year 6) But we seemed to be able to ration it between all of us, didn’t we? (Damien, Year 6)

Several children expressed satisfaction at being given the opportunity to be self-sufficient within their group, as evidenced from the following exchanges between the researcher and two groups:  one larger mixed group (i)  and one smaller group of three girls (ii): Do you think it helps having a group to work with in science? (Researcher) (i) I think it does because you can discuss it with each other and they can explain it if you don’t understand, instead of you having to go to the teacher all the time saying ‘hmm, I don’t understand’. (David, Year 6) So overall, tell me if you were pleased with how the experiment went and why? (Researcher) (ii) I was pleased because everyone knew what to do and other people don’t need to tell you what to do, you already know how to do it, and we worked all together to build it up. (Tamsin, Year 6)

The absence of adult input also did not appear to hold groups back in terms of refining their investigations. Some groups were ambitious and extended their inquiry to see how combinations of materials would perform as sound insulators: We saw how loud the actual buzzer was and then we compared it with different materials, first individually, and then we started mixing materials together. (Tamara, Year 6)

Over a third of the children mentioned during the interview how pleased they were in being able to work together without too much adult supervision.

Discussion and analysis of data phase There was less discussion during the interviews about how children had used group work to analyse and make sense of the data. They spoke about sharing the sound readings and then putting them in a table but were not very forthcoming with respect to specific mechanisms they used to analyse the data. They described what they physically did, for example, helping each other to draw a results table but not what they thought, for example, analysing trends in the numerical data.

62

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Observations by class teachers, teaching assistants and the researcher confirmed that social learning interactions (mostly in the form of discussions between the children) still seemed to be occurring but that they were at a lower intensity. Indeed, this seemed the point at which some groups fractured, and children went on to write up their scientific inquiry on their own. Unsurprisingly, children cited the high noise levels in the classroom as being inhibitory during this phase of the investigation, as other groups were still carrying out sound readings. Other groups said they valued the discussions and reported that they sought a quieter place to carry on their discussions. In terms of core skill acquisition, there was a significant amount of evidence that children facilitated each other’s learning with the mathematical aspects of the data analysis. More mathematically able children were seen modelling how to undertake simple data manipulation prior to the plotting of the graphs. Children were also observed aiding each other in plotting graphs and determining suitable scales for the axis. These observations were corroborated by interview testimony, as shown by this exchange between a boy and girl from a mixed gender group: We shared our results, then we worked out the mean average. (Craig, Year 6) So, everyone ended up with the data treated in the same way, because you shared the mean averages? (Researcher) Yes, but we did it ourselves. (Lisa, Year 6)

The comment by Lisa implies that the children appeared to understand that it was necessary for all group members to be able to manipulate the data, albeit with some initial assistance from their peers.

Children’s attitudes to group work overall Positive aspects The children appreciated that there were social elements to interacting, when undertaking the different phases of the scientific inquiry. When asked whether there was any effect on communication within a group if it contained friends, one boy responded: Well we are all in the same class, so we have obviously worked with them before so you really know what they are like to be with, you would know how to speak to them or how to treat them, and it’s fun to work with your friends. (Craig, Year 6)

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

63

Most children were happy for the class teacher to choose the members of the group that would work together. They indicated that a successful end result was most important to them and that this would inform future decisions about choosing group members, when and if they had the choice: If I had the choice to work with these people again I would, because they were helpful and made me understand. (Damien, Year 6)

Interestingly most of children did not want to work with a group exclusively consisting of friends; in fact, they indicated they would prefer a mix of friends and acquaintances: I would probably say, one best friend and like a few of them friends and a few of them that I wouldn’t have worked with ever. (Stuart, Year 6)

In mixed groups, lack of a strong friendship between group members did not seem to preclude the development of effective working relationships. The following quotation among a group of mixed genders who were not best friends illustrates this: We are friends, but I don’t think we are like best friends … we don’t play together but … we work together really nicely as a group because we help each other. (Lisa, Year 6)

Several children also went on to describe how working together during science inquiry strengthened friendships and on occasion encouraged them to initiate new friendships through play at break time: A pupil that you are friends with, but you don’t really spend time with them, then you will get on … but at the same time making more of the friendship. (Tamara, Year 6) We worked with two people who we don’t usually work with and we got on. Sometimes we try to play now. (Stephen, Year 6)

Overall, children appeared to enjoy working together in small groups and expressed satisfaction at the outcomes of their shared inquiry. They seemed to suggest that working in groups enabled them to achieve outcomes that would have been unreachable on their own, as evidenced by the following exchange between children who were not particular friends: Tell me about why you were pleased? (Researcher) Umm … at first, we all thought we wouldn’t be able to do it, but then we did it in the end. (Laura, Year 6)

64

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

And within a group of good friends: You can combine … two ideas to make one really good one. (Stephan, Year 6)

Negative aspects There were a small number of negative aspects reported within the groups which centred on the possibility and occurrence of arguments. Tensions appeared to arise when different approaches were taken during the second phase of the inquiry. In response to the researcher’s question of whether they had experienced difficulties, one boy in a predominantly male group stated: Yes, because some people want to do something else … so it turns into an argument and we can’t really stop it. (David, Year 6)

When a disagreement occurred, the majority of children thought this was due to group members not actively listening to each other, as illustrated by one girl and boy from the same group: Yes um … someone was always like talking after we tried to make them listen. (Craig, Year 6) Then people disagree and … challenged each other. (Lisa, Year 6)

However, there was a seemingly pragmatic stance taken by the children on this type of conflict: Sometimes we disagree and have an argument … but that is what science is about … debating and arguing. (Brian, Year 6)

There was a consensus among the children that non-useful talk could be exacerbated by too large a group size, as illustrated by the following quote from a pair of boys in a mostly male group: If you go with ten people then all you are going to hear is like wittering … and laughing. (Jacob, Year 6) And it’s more likely that you are going to have friends in your group, and that you are going to want to talk and not get anything done. (Brian, Year 6)

In a small number of cases, the accuracy of obtaining and recording data led to disagreements. A case where a child took additional measurements after the initial readings caused controversy: They got … another result for it … so they are saying let’s rub it out and put that one in. (Craig, Year 6)

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

65

The other children in the group, however, thought it was poor investigative science to rub out a result and replace it with other readings: Well, all of us were thinking … let’s keep the result we got before and use the other ones to see if there is a difference. (Lisa, Year 6)

Questionnaire findings A short optional questionnaire was administered to all children in Year 6 to assess how representative the qualitative data was over the whole year group. The response rate (76 per cent) illustrated the strong engagement of the children with the research. Figure 3.4 illustrates the data which is depicted in terms of the percentage of the children responding to the ten statements. It can be seen that the majority of children (91 per cent, N = 35) enjoyed the scientific inquiry and felt they worked together well as a group, including sharing the data-loggers. In terms of learning, the children affirmed they liked thinking about and discussing data together which helped them understand the outcomes of the investigation. There was less of a consensus when it came to the social aspects of group work; while 74 per cent of children were pleased with their results, only just over half (57 per cent) said they liked working in small groups and 37 per cent expressed

A graph to show Year 6 children's attitudes to small group work in science 100

Percentage of children

90 80 70 60 50 40 30

(Strongly) Agree

20

Neither

10

(Strongly) Disagree

0

Figure  3.4 Year 6 children’s attitudes to working in a small group during science inquiry

66

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

no preference. In terms of group composition, just under half (49 per cent) said they did not mind who they worked with, while three-quarters preferred it if the group contained a friend.

Discussion There were several interesting aspects of children’s testimony which are instructive in developing effective inquiry-based teaching approaches. First, children valued choice highly. Whether this was in terms of working with their friends, assigning roles within the group or opportunities to work with minimal scaffolding from a teacher, it was appreciated, in agreement with other studies (Dunlop et al., 2015). They enjoyed making decisions themselves within groups as to what the agreed experimental design would consist of and how data would be acquired and collated. Linked to this was a clear voice that children did not want to be told what to do when undertaking an inquiry by adults. They were happy to politely respond to suggestions and questions by facilitators, but they used these interactions as prompts to assess their own practice rather than just request instructions. Second, they appeared to appreciate the efficacy of group work to produce high quality investigations. They appeared to understand that scientific knowledge is not all proven and essentially static, but rather that the processes of discussion and debate play a valuable part in refining and developing skills and know-how. The findings pertaining to children appreciating the worth of discussion echoes the work of Lindahl (cited by Lyons, 2006) with slightly older children in the first two years of secondary education. Indeed, considering their ages, the children in this study seemed to have a well-developed conception of the effectiveness of small group work in science. They displayed the ability to eloquently describe the advantages of constructivist learning approaches. With respect to the social interactions that took place within the small groups, technology appears to act as a facilitator as agreed with recent research (Burden et al., 2012, 2016; Kearney et al., 2012). Without exception, the children stated that the equipment used during the investigation (including the mobile devices) had been shared fairly and that other children were given or chose a role which they were satisfied with. The handheld devices seemed to act as both a focus for the investigation in terms of data accrual and a conduit in terms of promoting positive social interaction in the form of sharing equipment and roles. These successful outcomes could have been due in part to the fact that the

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

67

children were experienced with using the data-loggers and hence the ‘novelty value’ had worn off. Additionally, all children had undertaken small group work within primary science from the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) through to Key Stage 2 study. Due to the endeavours of the highly experienced science coordinator, during this six-year period of scientific development, they were used to working together cooperatively and hence had developed the necessary social skills. This study has also been informative in terms of prompting reflection on some accepted facets of small group work within inquiry-based teaching. It was assumed that children would show preferences for working with their friends during group work (Hartup, 1989). This was shown not to be the case with the majority of children stating that they only needed one friend in their group and that the rest of the group could consist of both friends and acquaintances. What was also evident in contrast to other studies (Kutnick and Berdondini, 2009; Kutnick and Kington, 2005) was that there seemed to be no preference by children to work with children of a specific gender. However, this was a tentative finding as it was not possible, due to the small scale of the study, to examine the attitudes of all the permutations of girls and boys working in both single and mixed groups with both friends and acquaintances. Children also seemed to appreciate that they all had strengths and development areas within their own learning, as evidenced by the more scientifically and mathematically minded children supporting the learning of the other children, who were less so. This was observed to have taken place with some sensitivity and maturity by the children who were both friends and acquaintances. The other striking aspect of the data was that children saw for themselves how STEM subjects contain natural connections which could be developed by co-working in a social context. A series of comments exemplified by one boy in the mixed group about enjoying ‘Sci-Maths’ seemed to indicate he could see how both mathematical and scientific skills were necessary for the completion of a high-quality investigation and also that co-construction with his peers in a social learning context maximized the probability of a successful and enjoyable outcome.

Limitations There were several inherent methodological limitations to this study. The first and foremost was that it was small scale and only involved one school where the science organization and teaching practice was strong. Second, while the whole

68

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

school contributed to the science inquiry, data was predominantly obtained from the oldest children in the school and hence the most scientifically developed. In addition, it was only possible due to time constraints to observe two-thirds of the groups and interview approximately one-fifth of the children involved. In terms of the data collection tools, the limitations of both questionnaires and interviews are well-known (Visser, 2000; Hofisi, 2014). There is a tendency for children to ‘second guess’ what the researcher and/or their teachers want them to say and furnish compliant responses. It is also likely that the majority of children in Year 6 wish to appear well socialized, so they are unlikely to give responses which would give the impression of social inadequacy. Both these limitations were abrogated to a degree by the interviewer asking particularly and repeatedly about problems or tricky aspects of group work and triangulating data from the children with that of the adult observers. In the case of the questionnaire responses, there appears to be some variability in children’s attitudes to group work expressed during interviews compared with the responses to the questionnaire data (questions 2 and 9). A larger study would be required to explore whether this is a validity or sampling issue.

Conclusion To fully realize all children’s learning potential, it would seem vital that teachers are fully conversant with the benefits of both technology enhanced learning and socially constructed learning and that they are proactive in providing opportunities for children to exploit their confidence in using technology within the classroom. An appreciation that Upper Key Stage 2 children value the challenges afforded by small group work, including designating roles for data gathering and analysis, deploying problem-solving strategies and sense-making in a social learning context, would seem important for developing effective teaching approaches.

References Baines, E., Blatchford, P. and Kutnick, P. (2003). Changes in grouping practices over primary and secondary school, International Journal of Educational Research, 39: 9–34. Bennett, J., Hogarth, S., Lubben, F., Canipbell, B. and Robinson, A. (2010). Talking science: The research evidence on the use of small group discussions in science teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 32(1): 69–95.

Enabling Primary Science Inquiry

69

Blatchford, P., Baines, E., Rubie-Davies, C., Bassett, P. and Chowne, A. (2006). The effect of a new approach to group-work on pupil–pupil and teacher–pupil interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98: 750–65. Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P. and Baines, E. (2007). Pupil grouping for learning in classrooms: Results from the UK SPRinG Study presented at symposium ‘International Perspectives on Effective Groupwork: Theory, Evidence and Implications’. American Educational Research Annual Meeting, Chicago. Booren, L., Downer, J. and Vitiello, V. (2012). Observations of children’s interactions with teachers, peers, and asks across preschool classroom activity settings. Early Education and Development, 23(4): 517–38. Burden, K., Hopkins, P., Male, T. Martin, S. and Trala, C. (2012). iPad Scotland Evaluation. University of Hull. Available at: http://www.janhylen.se/wpcontent/ uploads/2013/01/Skottland.pdf (Accessed 5 March 2019). Burden, K., and Kearney, M. (2016). Future scenarios for mobile science learning, Research in Science Education (RISE), 46(2): 287–308. Burden, K., and Younie, S. (2014). MESH guide: Using tablets effectively to enhance learning in schools. Available at: http://www.meshguides.org/guides/node/28 (Accessed 5 March 2019). Department for Education (2015). Statutory guidance National Curriculum in England: Science programmes of study. Available at:  https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/national-curriculum-in-england-science-programmes-of-study/nationalcurriculum-in-england-science-programmes-of-study (Accessed 5 March 2019). Dunlop, L., Compton, K., Clarke, L. and McKelvey-Martin, V. (2015). Child-led enquiry in primary science. Education, 3–13, 43(5): 462–81. Galton, M., and Hargreaves, L. (2009). Group work: Still a neglected art? Cambridge Journal of Education, 39: 1–6. Hartup, W. (1989) Social relationships and their developmental significance. American Psychologist, 44(2), 120–12. Hofisi, C., Hofisi, M. and Mago, S. (2014). Critiquing interviewing as a data collection method. MCSER Publishing, Rome. Available at: http://www.mcser.org/journal/ index.php/mjss/article/viewFile/3280/3234 (Accessed 5 March 2019). Howe, C., and Tolmie, A. (2003). Group work in primary school science: Discussion, consensus and guidance from experts. International Journal of Educational Research, 39: 51–72. Kearney, M., Burden, K. and Rai, T. (2015). Investigating teachers’ adoption of signature mobile pedagogies. Computers and Education, 80: 48–57. Kearney, M., Schuck, S., Burden, K. and Aubusson, P. (2012). Viewing mobile learning from a pedagogical perspective. Research in Learning Technology, 20(1): 1–17. Kershner, R., Warwick, P., Mercer, N. and Kleine Staarman, J. (2012). Primary children’s management of themselves and others in collaborative group work: ‘Sometimes it takes patience …’. Education, 3–13, 42(2): 201–16. Kutnick, P., and Berdondini, L. (2009). Can the enhancement of group working in classrooms provide a basis for effective communication in support of school-based

70

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

cognitive achievement in classrooms of young learners? Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(1, March): 71–94. Kutnick, P., Blatchford, P. and Baines, E. (2002). Pupil groupings in primary school classrooms: sites for learning and social pedagogy? British Educational Research Journal, 28(2): 188–206. Kutnick, P., and Kington, A. (2005). Children’s friendships and learning in school: Cognitive enhancement through social interaction? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 521–38. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. London: Sage. Lyons, T. (2006). Different countries, same science classes: Students’ experiences of school science in their own words. International Journal of Science Education, 28(6): 591–613. Minner, D., Jurist Levy, A. and Century, J. (2002). Teaching inquiry-based science instruction – what is it and does it matter? Results from a Research Synthesis Years 1984 to 2002. Journal of Research in Science 47(4): 474–96. Naismith, L., Lonsdale, P., Vavoula, G. and Sharples, M. (2004). Mobile technologies and learning. Futurelab. Available at: http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/ publications-reports-articles/literature-reviews/Literature-Review203 (Accessed 5 March 2019). Ofcom Children and Parents: Media use and Attitudes report (2014). Available at: https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/76266/childrens_2014_ report.pdf (Accessed 5 March 2019). Ofsted. (2013). Maintaining Curiosity: A Survey into Science Education in Schools. London: Ofsted. Palmer, D. (2007). What is the best way to motivate students in science? Teaching Science, 53(1): 38–4. Piaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. In Piaget Rediscovered, edited by R. Ripple and V. Rockcastle, 7–20. Reprinted in Readings on the Development of Children. Available at: http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/35piaget64.pdf (Accessed 5 March 2019). Richardson, K. (2003). Models of Cognitive Development. East Sussex: Psychology Press. Sanders, M. (2012). Integrative STEM education as best practice. In Explorations of Best Practice in Technology, Design, & Engineering Education, edited by H. Middleton, vol. 2. Queensland: Griffith Institute for Educational Research, 103–17. Savin-Baden, M. (2015). Rethinking Learning in an Age of Digital Fluency: Is Being Digitally Tethered a New Learning Nexus? London: Routledge. Visser, P., Krosnick, J. and Lavrikas, P. (2000). Survey research. In Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology, edited by H. Reis and C. Judd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 223–52. Wilcox, J., Kruse, J. and Clough, M. (2015). Teaching science through inquiry: Seven common myths about this time-honoured approach. Science Teacher, 82(6): 62–7.

Part Two

Classroom Relationships and Learning

4

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools: Whole School Initiatives to Foster Effective Social Learning Relationships Rachael Paige

Introduction This chapter focuses upon the importance of developing a positive culture for learning and how relationships and opportunities for social learning support that goal. The role of leadership in nurturing the culture and ethos within a primary school will be explored as will how the placing of relationships at the centre of a school community enable all to flourish. The contribution and investment of all those participating in the school community to create a relational environment will also be acknowledged, with a focus upon the teacher as the relationshipbuilder in the classroom.

A leadership shift from ‘me’ to ‘us’ The literature pertaining to school leadership and its impact is vast, with different models of leadership promoted within specific spaces and times. Recently, writers in this field of leadership have drawn the focus towards the importance of the relational (Chrobot-Mason, Gerbasi, Cullen-Lester, 2016) as a foundation upon which to nurture successful teams. The relational aspect of professional practice within the school environment is not only acknowledged as a supportive leadership approach but also identified as a characteristic of meaningful teacher presence in the classroom and an aspect of creating a positive classroom environment for all pupils (Rodgers and Raider-Roth, 2006; Meijer, Korthagen, and Vasalos, 2009; Stiehar and Raider-Roth, 2012). The shift

74

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

from leadership, as the holder of a formal role within a hierarchical structure (with perhaps the traditional ‘hero’ leadership view), to leading a team towards a collective identity (and for primary schools, this can involve the entire school community) strengthens the impact of leaders and gives depth to its execution (Lord and Brown, 2004; Lord and Hall, 2005; Johnson et al., 2012). In essence, the influence and direction a leader can provide when they have followership from the individuals within a team may be more evident when the leader is committed to the collective identity, while still appreciating the uniqueness and contribution of the individuals (Johnson et al., 2012). The nuance from the leader as an individual driving the organization and priorities of leadership as a position any member of the team could contribute towards (Contractor et  al., 2012) can be quite powerful. In this way resources are maximized, impacting performance and aspects of well-being, such as satisfaction in work (Van Dick et al., 2006; Johnson et al., 2012). As Chrobot-Mason, Gerbasi and Cullen-Lester (2016) express it, a shift from the ‘me’ of leadership to ‘us’.

‘Knowing me, knowing you’ In establishing a school environment that adopts a relational leadership perspective, that is prioritizing relationships as a vehicle to build success and support opportunities for individuals to be fulfilled, the individual in the formal role still has an obligation to drive that approach. Day (2000) makes a distinction between leadership and leadership development, the latter term referencing an understanding of how leadership traits can be exhibited across a team without formal role assignment. Values-based leadership has long been explored in leadership literature, and in some studies, values have been an important leadership trait that members of a team or ‘followers’ will identify as a key aspect of successful leadership (Day, Harris and Hatfield, 1999). Therefore, there is an argument that the formal leader role (in this context, the head teacher/head of school), must demonstrate some personal ‘moral purpose’ (Sergiovanni, 1992; Fullan 2002) or distinctive values that others can see in the leader to enable them to create a culture of relational leadership. Knowing each other and coming to encounters with an assurance of the formal leader’s values and their knowledge of the team member is important for productive and constructive environments. It is worth briefly mentioning the current climate for education in England, in which a recruitment and retention concern is cascading through layers of

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

75

educational establishments from initial teacher education and training, to primary and secondary schools and further education colleges. To understand the retention situation, several recent studies have explored why teachers say they are leaving the profession. Newton’s (2016) study expresses ‘push’ factors of workload and disillusionment in the profession as influential, which links to Sims’ (2017) assertion that good leaders are key in teacher retention. Leaders who are driven by values and a clear commitment to people in their school community make a difference to a positive climate in the school environment. Johnson et al. (2012) offer a link to perceived identity and how this can influence behaviours. Where a collective identity is adopted, leader behaviour will facilitate the transformation; these characteristics include internalizing the group norms and fulfilling roles in the context of the group. At the relational level, behaviours will be influenced by relationships and the connections and even reciprocity of that relationship. Both these levels offer an approach which can build a culture that enables all to flourish and potentially challenge the ‘push’ factors linked to how valued staff feel in their roles in schools (Newton, 2016).

Whole child, whole teacher, whole curriculum The themes in this chapter are drawn from data collected as part of a study funded by the Church of England Foundation for Educational Leadership and Bishop Grosseteste University. The original study focused upon the development of the ‘whole child’ in a performativity culture with a specific focus upon small, rural primary schools and concluded with a resource for schools to support exploration of how ethos and culture can be developed (Adams et  al., 2017). Within this chapter we shall consider how the relational also relates to engaging with the individual with a sense of the whole person. Sanderse, Walker and Jones (2015) conclude from their qualitative study with teachers across the UK that a particular approach that teachers adopt in developing the ‘whole child’ is through an investment in their pedagogical relationships with the pupils. As findings from the data are explored, this concept is helpful in understanding the nature of the class teacher relationship with the pupils in their class. Miller (2010) further extends the notion of the ‘whole child’ by setting this in the context of acknowledging and nurturing the ‘whole teacher’ and how the sense of complete beings then is set within the concept of the ‘whole curriculum’ (rather than a narrowly focused curriculum driven by performance indicators).

76

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Methodology Aims of the study and focus of this chapter The study set out to explore how schools support pupils to flourish and the role of leaders in setting the culture and ethos within the school. This chapter focuses particularly upon one topic from the outcomes of the research:  the priority that leaders (at all levels) place upon relationships and how that priority offers a foundation to a culture and ethos that supports the development of the whole child and the nurturing of the whole teacher (Miller, 2010), the latter being an aspect that is often overlooked. This topic does incorporate more than one of the themes from the study that also demonstrates the interlinked and multilayered nature of creating a positive culture in the school environment. Also, although evidence is drawn upon from all the schools, two schools particularly (School 1 and School 2) offer a focus upon relational leaders and these will be shared as case studies later in the chapter.

Sample While this chapter offers a wider discussion about creating a positive culture within the primary school context, primary evidence has been drawn from five small, rural primary schools in the East Midlands region of England. In selecting the settings, aspects such as the social deprivation index of school location, most recent Ofsted1 rating, and the religious foundation of the schools were considered. As a research team, we also looked at the information on the school websites to gain a sense of the published mission statements and visions shared; schools were selected where there was some suggestion of a commitment to a holistic approach in working with children and nurturing those within the school community. The study was concerned with how small schools in rural locations navigate the performativity culture and agenda from external bodies (such as Ofsted) and government dictats and how the whole school community perceive and enact the shared values related to the development and nurturing of each child. School leaders (including governors), parents and pupils contributed to the research and this supported a depth of understanding around how leaders can support a positive climate for learning with a view to nurturing the whole child. This chapter offers a focus specifically 1

Ofsted – The Office for Standards in Education. This body inspects schools in England, assigning a grading from criteria on a four point scale of outstanding, good, requires improvement and special measures.

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

77

upon information drawn from two of these schools as case studies, although there was evidence of the role of relationships across all schools in the study.

Ethics Ethical approval was granted from the relevant University Ethics Committee and participants were provided with participant information sheets and consent forms, outlining the procedures for asking questions, the right to withdraw and how data will be handled securely. We maintained an awareness of our professional and moral obligation in data collection and researcher integrity (Steneck, 2006; McDonald and Cox, 2009). The names of schools and participants have been anonymized throughout the presentation of findings, and where names support illustrations, pseudonyms have been used.

Research methods The research design allowed deeper exploration of particular contexts in which leadership direction (through ethos, culture, policy and practice) supported the concept of nurturing the whole person. To facilitate this design, qualitative data was collected through initial interviews with senior school leaders. From those interviews, analysis was undertaken, which informed the themes for a focus group discussion conducted with leaders in the schools but the sample was expanded to include governors and teachers. This staged design enabled an initial gathering of information and ideas from each school with subsequent opportunity to explore in more detail and depth some of the specifics of the leaders’ approaches and how these are shared and embedded within the whole school culture. While gaining this depth of understanding from key members of the school communities who influence the ethos, culture, policy and practice of the school, there was also an intention to discover whether the information on websites and in school policy documents were simply rhetoric. The study sought to explore how a verbalized culture, clearly set out in the school by leaders (including governors) was evident through the school day; therefore, opportunity to shadow a pupil was undertaken, which involved observing a child over the course of a morning to witness interactions with others (including the class teacher), activities and the environment. Where possible, interviews were also held with the child and their parent to offer further triangulation. In evaluating the research design, the selection of initial, individual interviews followed by a second stage of focus group interviews enabled a robust

78

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

exploration of the way a leader sets the culture and ethos within these schools. There was an acknowledgement of concrete examples in these discussions to support the rhetoric from the leaders. As Krueger and Casey (2009) identify, focus group interviews can provide a sense of commonality or disagreement and so this staged approach became a strength of the methodology.

Analysis tools The interviews with leaders and the focus group interviews with staff from the school and governors provided significant data for this strand, focusing upon relationships and the relational leadership view (Chrobot-Mason, Gerbasi and Cullen-Lester, 2016), with the additional data from the pupil and parent offering further insight. Thematic analysis of the transcripts was carried out using a process involving both individual and collective analysis in order to further refine the themes. These themes were then discussed with representatives from the participating schools, providing further refinement and interpretation of the findings.

Findings In this section, there will be a focus upon the data specific to relationships so that the original intention of this chapter can be further explored and developed. Examples will be drawn from two schools that appeared to have adopted a relational leadership and relationships-centred approach. Towards the end of this section, the overall findings from the research will briefly be presented to give a holistic picture of the outcomes (and some context to the specific strand of focus here). This will demonstrate how relationship-centred approaches infiltrate many aspects of the school environment, which strengthens the argument presented in this chapter; that the relational is a foundation for successful communities and teams. The findings are drawn upon to support the discussion regarding the creation of a positive culture within the primary school context.

Creating a positive culture through relational approaches The underpinning argument in this chapter is that there is a connection between leaders adopting a relational approach and building a positive culture where

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

79

the whole school community works together so that all, adults and children alike, can flourish. This includes teachers viewing themselves as leaders in the classroom and setting that same culture with their pupils. In this section, the voices of the participants will be heard through direct quotations, alongside a summary of the main ideas (values-driven leaders, relational, culture and whole person approach), to frame the discussion later in the chapter.

Values-driven leaders The literature on values-based leaders has been introduced earlier in this chapter and the findings of this study support that leaders (at all levels) who are impacting their school environment in a positive way look beyond performativity only and have clear values that are verbalized and shared. The key values shared by the head teachers in the first interview were often evident in the way that other members of the school community talked about the school. It is interesting that the notion of happiness emerges several times across schools and participants when they are talking about their values, which could suggest a link between the individual’s sense of contentment and the clear and shared values of the community. One head teacher, who has been in education for nearly four decades states: I’m really concerned about … this inexorable trend towards academic levels and academic progress. And we seem to have forgotten that the purpose of life really is to be happy … I think it is wrong … that some children should fail for others to be successful. (Head of school, School 3)

The senior leader at School 3 responds: Yeah, and it’s the valuing of every child, and they’re not just words here, I think that really is what we do … I want us to be the best that we can be, and that’s all of us, every single child, every single adult in the school. (Senior leader, School 3)

Within the study, values were expressed in the context of encompassing the whole school community. While there was a focusing on what was best for the pupils (a pupil-focused drive to the work within the school), there was also a sense of shift from the ‘whole child’ alone, and that considering the well-being for all within the school community impacted upon the individual’s sense of contentment within their work. The quotations above from the head teacher and the senior leader illustrate how the values and focus upon the wholeness of

80

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

each individual in school is considered. This is further supported by a teacher in another school, who said: We’re not here as ‘I am a teacher; I  am a learning mentor’. We are ourselves, pretty much … We show them (the pupils) real people. (Teacher, School 5)

Relational environments What was particularly evident in the interviews and focus groups across the school communities who took part in the study was a sense of a focus on people first (rather than systems, initiatives, activities, etc.). While for some schools there was a need to ensure that changes in aspects beyond relationships did occur, it was a sense of team work, being valued, supported and nurtured that emerged as characteristics which make the difference. These are all states that cannot be achieved through leadership rhetoric or with drive from one leader; it has to be built on attitudes and behaviours adopted by the community. Senior leaders working in particularly challenging situations maintained that investing time in people and being as supportive and constructive as possible was key: Being constructive. Constructive conversations from a leadership point of view with members of staff …. (Head teacher, School 1)

Another head teacher gave an example where she talks about an ‘openness’ between staff members, regardless of status or position in the school. This is also an interesting idea as we start to consider the relational and what this means in a community where there are levels of responsibility and accountability. When we consider the ‘us’ leadership model, which advocates leadership behaviours rather than status, we also need to think about how that concept positions with accountability. The staff at School 1 also viewed the building of relationships with pupils, parents and each other as extremely precious, with participants talking about knowing their pupils well but also supporting each other. For example, in one school, the school briefings have become a time when staff notice each other’s well-being as well as ensuring tasks are covered: Teacher 1: Things like staff briefing and staff meeting would give you the feel of the team and I think almost, particularly staff briefing, because it is every day … where we all come together and I think there is a, within the staff room, there is quite a positive feel …

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

81

Teacher 2: …The fact that you see people with a give and, there’s a give and take part of the morning briefing you know, I need help with this, I am not going to be able to manage that, I am not here for playtime, you know and different ways of managing the flexibility of the, yes, the supportiveness of school. (Teachers, School 1)

This school has built a culture where there is a reciprocal ‘give and take’ to ensure all are able to manage the workload and where relationships with each other are given a priority. A particularly interesting quotation from one of the senior leaders encapsulates a general impression from all the schools involved in the study, and that is how important and precious relationships are. In this quotation, this senior leader uses the term ‘luxury’ and this was presented in the context of appreciating the opportunity to get to know the pupils in the school and be part of their development: We have the luxury … of having relationships with them (the children). (Senior leader, School 2)

Finally, the concept of nurture was expressed by several of the schools (particularly Schools 1 and 2) and how relationships with the children were seen as key to any success. For School 1, they were able to explore in more detail what this nurturing culture included:  empathy, listening and observing, emotional well-being and having an awareness of others. For example, one staff member described this awareness of each other in the following way: Staff are out and about especially at the end of the day. If it’s been a difficult day they might target somebody just to say, ‘how are you? Is there anything I can do?’ If there is workload or a pressure for some reason people are there to say, ‘is there anything I can do?’ … there are people there, and they are monitored. It might be just very discreetly but I think there is monitoring going on just to make sure that whoever it is, is held up until they get through whatever it is that is difficult. (Teacher, School 1)

These qualities help to unpick what nurturing might look like within a whole school culture. It is also interesting to read how a sense of the whole school culture and shared characteristics are expressed, rather than identification of particular characteristics of the school leader. For example, nurturing is not viewed as a particular trait of individual members of the team but is a shared approach expected of all, pupils included: We have nurture, empathy, listen, emotional well-being and observe, of which the more fundamental ones of those was nurture as the kind of vehicle for

82

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools delivering the other values … nurturing environment has to be nurturing: the teachers have to be nurturing; the pupils have to be nurturing … the right kind of nurture so that they fulfil potential in every way  – academically, socially, personally. (Head teacher, School 1)

This quotation exemplifies how having shared values and a shared understanding of the culture in the school can be more influential than the characteristics of a leader alone.

Making conscious decisions about the school culture As the themes presented at the beginning of this section move from valuesdriven leaders to the relational and the importance of genuine relationships that are characterized by a nurturing approach, person-related aspects that influence and build a shared culture are now considered. In the research, an important idea was that the culture created within a school is constructed consciously and that features can be identified explicitly (rather than being tacit). That is to say, this culture does not happen by accident and should not rely on the presence of particular people. In School 1 it was identified that the culture established was a ‘constant cycle you have to keep up’ (Head teacher, School 1). Although culture will emerge with any group, there has to be a sense of ‘how it is here’ (Head teacher, School 1). Of course, leaders will model and reinforce agreed culture, and a well-embedded culture means that behaviours and decisions will rest upon that framework without the need for intense monitoring, but this takes time to establish. For example, one of the head teachers spoke about the impact that reactive decision-making can have upon staff morale and well-being and how decision-making needs to be thoughtful and time sensitive. When discussing decision-making and how to ensure all of the school community is part of developing a positive culture, the head teacher at School 1 said: ‘Timing’s crucial … Avoid knee jerk reactions.’ This approach is not just about the head teacher adopting strategic and well-managed action planning behaviours, but also a culture where all staff understand that perhaps responses will not be immediate, or that impact or embedding a particular approach can take time. In education, particularly in the primary and secondary phases, the new appears to be given enhanced status. There have been periods of transformation, whether that be in leadership and management style or in curriculum development, for example. Acknowledging and valuing what has gone before

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

83

can also be a strong foundation for development and improvement, by building upon already established practices that have been shown to be effective rather than moving from one initiative to another. Mindful, conscious, alert decisionmaking alongside calm and measured delivery of messages can establish a safe culture for all and one in which all members of the school feel secure. In School 1 the head teacher talked about ‘conscious decisions’ and ‘consciously choose’ what to prioritize. In the interview with School 2, the senior leader made a reference to a key driver for them which was about the culture and environment for the pupils and also spoke this sentence considering every member of the school community, and the different connotations of the words ‘safe’ and ‘happy’: They have to be safe and they have to be happy. (Senior leader, School 2)

Focusing on the word safe, this can mean physically, emotionally, socially, perhaps even professionally, and this participant did not expand on what was meant in this term. However, participants from School 1 had thought about what this means for their culture, which they described to be about ‘how we treat each other and the way we interact. Courtesy’. The head teacher and teachers in the school, through the focus group discussion, reinforced this idea: [there is a] ‘take care’ approach for pupils but also for teachers … a give and take supportiveness … it shows a team working in unison … cogs of a wheel. (Teacher, School 1)

This idea of ‘take care’ and ‘working in unison’ does not mean that individuals within the team lose their sense of challenge or individuality. However, when teams are truly working within a genuine culture that is underpinned by the courtesy that this head teacher identifies, then misunderstandings and difficult situations can be overcome and relationships can continue to be functional and even productive, assuming there is a clear sense of how we work together under these values and cultural behaviours (or how it is here). This is not an easy option. It has to be a conscious attitude and an expectation set by the leaders, modelled at every opportunity and adopted by the school community. School 1 has been provided here as a particular example of how the valuesdriven leader and the emphasis upon the relational is then part of the culture; this is triangulated by what the parents say about the school. Sometimes it can be slightly intangible: You get a general feel for the kind of atmosphere your child is coming in to. (Parent, School 1)

84

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

However, it can also be specific and supported by examples. Here, the parent uses shared language to describe the family atmosphere, a metaphor that the teachers have also used in the focus group and the interview, and this parent is able to qualify how this looks in action: They (staff ) would probably say, ‘Excuse me, Jenny’, because they speak to you very kindly and they are very approachable … because that’s the sort of surrounding and family thing you have got here. (Parent, School 1)

Apart from acknowledging the positive approach of the staff towards her as a valued member of the school community, this parent also expresses how she knows that her child is seen as an individual. Being known to the staff, even being able to use her forename when teachers greet her and seeing evidence that her child is understood as an individual is acknowledged as important by this parent. This is a particular benefit of smaller schools (which this research focused upon) because it is (arguably) possible to get to know parents, carers and members of the extended community well. However, it is a message to all school staff that the personal makes the difference, even just addressing someone by their first name. Finally, as a short case study of School 1 has been offered in this section, exploring how they have built a culture and developed a shared language in expressing what that culture looks like, the head teacher is able to verbalize that familiar question of impact and ‘so what’ (which is often heard in a performativity approach to education). For him, investing time in building a shared culture and a positive environment for learning leads to developing resilience for pupils and enabling them to have a go in a safe and supportive space. Inbuilt within that culture is valuing a willingness of pupils to always ‘try’ and knowing that the staff will be proud and celebrate that spirit of being willing to attempt new things. This also builds confidence and self-worth, all important personal skills for success: Parents who say, ‘You know, that’s my timid little boy who did that’ … and grandparents are saying, ‘You know, I  wouldn’t believe that that was my grandchild who was doing that (singing by themselves on stage)’. (Head teacher, School 1)

This is supported by the child who was part of the pupil shadowing in School 1, who reported that he does not feel pressure for his Statutory Assessment Tests (SATs):2

2

Statutory tests undertaken in English primary schools in the final year of primary education (all pupils aged 11 years old).

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

85

When I think of SATs I think like, I think of it as just like a normal test that I will do and I haven’t, like, no pressure. (Pupil, School 1)

The ‘whole person’: Whole child, whole teacher, whole school community This study set out to explore and learn about aspects of the whole child (and by that term we mean an acknowledgement of not only the cognitive and academic dimensions, but also the social, personal and spiritual) and how it was nurtured in these schools within what is observed to be a performativity approach in the English education system when measuring what is effective. A  teacher from School 1, the school which was able to express in detail how the culture of the school and their commitment to developing a relational approach had been embedded, identified the pressure that is felt by staff in getting children to ‘where they need to be’ and how teachers can be ‘blinkered’ towards the tests. What was also insightful was a follow-up explanation by this participant who identified that teachers may absorb this pressure (recall how the pupil at this school said that he did not feel the pressure of SATs) so that this was not projected on to the pupils. One interpretation of this observation by the teacher could be an adoption of a leadership behaviour in the classroom, by consciously thinking about the approach to take and ensuring that pressure and anxiety about performance (whether real or perceived) is not projected or re-assigned. Recalling what this teacher’s head teacher expressed about conscious and careful leadership (not ‘knee jerk’), a similar approach is seen here when this teacher is leading her own class: I think we protect the children from the stress that is going around, particularly at those points in a school life (SATs). There is a tension there (between performativity and nurturing the whole child) and we prioritize. (Teacher, School 1)

It is not clear how this teacher has aligned the wider discussion about values, relational approaches and a shared culture with her own worry about whether the pupils in her care attain academic standards, but what is clear is an approach modelled by her head teacher and is also reflected in her practice. One of the senior leaders in School 2 takes a simple philosophical approach: Get them (the pupils) safe. Get them happy. Then they learn. (Senior leader, School 2)

86

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

This statement is interesting as it places personal security and contentment before the acquisition of knowledge. In such a simple sentence, this participant has captured the reason why values and culture have to underpin a school environment and why all those involved in working with pupils need to have a shared understanding of the responsibility to nurture and develop the whole. We return to this idea of how an individual, with their own values and beliefs, has the greatest impact when they work as part of the whole school community and demonstrate the values and culture agreed within the school. However, there does need to be an initial commitment to the whole teacher (as well as the whole child) before a whole school approach can be adopted. Throughout this chapter there have been various presentations of the importance of knowing the child (and the teacher) through valuing the individuality and appreciating that each person is multidimensional. The alignment, however, of the individual with a shared school identity becomes a pivotal idea in this chapter’s consideration of the findings and a key part of developing a positive climate across a whole school. Furthermore, an example from members of staff in School 4 supports this idea of the shared identity and how collective identity and individual identity can coexist. Teacher colleagues were reflecting together upon how even challenging times with pupils do often lead to opportunities for those pupils to flourish, even if it is in adulthood. One teacher recalled how she meets parents who had attended the school as children and how she is able to celebrate their success even though she may have had to deploy a ‘firm but fair’ approach when they were pupils. Her colleague attempts to praise this teacher with regard to the influence she has had upon the parents when they were children, but there is a clear acknowledgement that the culture is bigger than any one individual: Teacher 1 (to colleague): If it wasn’t for you! Teacher 2: It isn’t me, it’s the whole thing. Teacher 1: It’s your whole school; it’s your whole school! (Teachers, School 4)

Of course, the individual has to enact the values through their interactions with the pupils, but it is interesting to sense the energy within this short exchange which goes beyond simple humility by teacher 2 (‘it isn’t me’) to a recognition by both teachers that there is something important about being part of something bigger than just themselves (the school community). Within the discussions with Schools 1 and 2, the participants talked about how these attitudes, values and ethos then exhibited in behaviours, and all of

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

87

this was centred on knowing each child in a holistic sense. Two specific ideas emerged from this strand of the discussion:  (1) individuality and knowing pupils beyond the work or the activity in the classroom and (2) showing interest beyond the school day. This was recognized by one of the governors who said that she observed how all members of the school community were proud of each other and celebrated a range of achievements: I think for me one of the things that stands out in this particular school is the huge family feel and the link between the oldest children and the very youngest children is very strong, they all look after one another … I think that is looking beyond the academic … knowing the child, knowing the family and the wider context of the things that children need to break through some of the academic barriers, that have nothing to do with the academic. (Governor, School 1)

Finally, and appropriately given the context of the proposed renewed focus for school inspections on the whole, broad and balanced curriculum (O’Connell, 2019), Schools 1 and 2 demonstrated a focus on the roundedness of what they offer at school to ensure that pupils have a full experience. In fact, members of staff in these schools thought carefully about where they would not compromise (e.g. the opportunity for performing arts or learning to swim well) even if there was external pressure to do so: It’s a conscious decision though to continue … to really make sure that we still continue doing those, particularly when we’re in RI3 … it is something we need to consciously choose to do. (Teacher, School 1)

For this school in particular, the values and culture drive their decisionmaking:  the conscious decision-making which is underpinned by the commitment to the relational and the development of each member of the school.

Discussion This chapter set out to present some ideas about developing a positive culture across a whole school community and how this culture links to the relational

3

Requires Improvement. This is an Ofsted judgement made during inspection of the school. This school moved from an RI judgement during the collection of data to a judgement of good shortly afterwards.

88

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

within a school. The presentation of findings was structured to demonstrate a conceptual framework for understanding how creating a positive culture and adopting a relational leadership approach becomes embedded in a person-centric practice; starting with a values-driven leader and leading to an approach that acknowledges the whole person. There are some helpful whole-school approaches highlighted by the data that can offer practical ideas for implementation by the ‘us’ in relational leadership, that is, approaches that can be adopted easily by the whole school community and attention is drawn to some of these in this discussion, with further ideas available from the full teaching resource (Adams et al., 2017).

Three key ideas: Interconnectivity, relational environments and conscious decision-making There are some key messages emerging from the findings, which are strengthened by our initial exploration of literature around this subject. First, Johnson et al. (2012) recognized the interconnectivity of the collective identity, relational identity and the individual identity and how these can coexist in a positive environment. This was an important finding from the research study presented in this chapter. Creating a positive culture within a primary school relies on shared values enacted by individuals and so some alignment needs to occur between the individual and the collective. This is not to say that the individual’s sense of self should be subsumed by an idealism set by the leaders in a school; in fact, it is when this is expected that problems and a disconnect may occur between the individual and their satisfaction in their job. The findings have shown that to establish shared values and for the leader to consciously and deliberately reinforce these values through expectations and through actions (e.g. the school where learning to swim became an important life skill to master) is important. Creating a positive culture with a collective identity, which includes ideals that are important to the group, does not happen by accident. Second, the concept of nurture emerged as a characteristic of schools that place an emphasis upon developing the whole person and creating a positive learning climate. School 1 identified key characteristics of this nurturing environment, as presented in the findings section: empathy, listening, observing, emotional wellbeing and having an awareness of others. A closer look at each of these qualities reflects the relational aspects presented in the literature as important for a school environment and which Stieha and Raider-Roth (2012) argue are fundamental to enable teachers to teach in the most effective manner. In creating a healthy

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

89

and positive relational environment within the school exhibited through characteristics listed above, there is also a sense of the relational again: a sense of alert awareness (Rodgers and Raider-Roth, 2006) and mindfulness towards others, in looking beyond yourself and your own needs to the collective team and the pupils in the classroom. It is interesting to consider how the participants in the study spoke about potentially abstract ideas (nurture, empathy, etc) with an assurity and affirmation that it is an expectation within their school community. The schools did give some practical examples of what these concepts look like, and these can be adopted with planning in any school. For example, older pupils were given responsibilities to work with and nurture younger members of the school. In another school, collective worship partners were assigned across year groups; this perhaps offers a different type of nurture between pupils where themes from assemblies or particular values could be discussed and modelled by pupils. This is potentially quite powerful when we consider the impact of peers or slightly older children (not adults) in developing attitudes, opinions and behaviours of younger children. An important part of the relational culture that was described by the schools was the sense of a philosophy of participation. For these schools, they celebrated an approach of ‘having a go’ and participation as an achievement. One of the schools created several pupil roles, such as being part of the sports council, so that a range of pupils were able to become involved in discussion about the school environment and school activities, developing an understanding of how citizenship responsibility occurs. Finally, throughout the research data there were examples of the leaders in school wanting their pupils and staff to feel happy, secure and appreciated in the learning environment. Newton (2016) identifies ‘push’ factors for teachers leaving the profession and how the relationship with leaders can be one of these factors. Acknowledging and valuing what has gone before can also be a strong foundation for development and improvement, by building upon already established practices that have been shown to be effective rather than moving from one initiative to the other. This frantic ‘knee jerk’ (Head teacher, School 1) approach and obsession with the new is not a supportive environment and therefore it is imperative that leaders make conscious and deliberate decisions about the direction of the school, alongside the culture they establish and promote. Within the resource produced, which analysed the full data, theme 4 begins by stating that time spent on something can be an indicator of its value (Adams et al., 2017, p. 20) and this is a point for reflection. While the busyness

90

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

(Newton, 2016) of the school environment is not undervalued in the findings, the teachers did identify the importance of using time well and prioritizing. In drawing these three key ideas together, it is pertinent to say that for the schools in this study, they continued to make lesson time for aspects such as Social Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) and Circle Time. This was a deliberate decision about teaching specific aspects of personal development and relational interactions. While some schools may have adopted other approaches (e.g. philosophy for children) and may argue for a more integrated approach to PSHE, the principle of having this focused lesson time on the class timetable as a protected and valued time to develop key aspects of the whole child is an interesting finding from this research.

Conclusion This chapter discussed some aspects of creating a positive culture within a primary school environment, with a focus upon aspects of relational leadership and interactions. Embedding a positive culture that is genuine and rooted firmly in a shared identity (Johnson et al., 2012) takes time and persistence. It should not be assumed or taken for granted. Neither should the description of a school’s culture, which includes concepts such as nurturing, be assumed to be cosy or lacking rigour. Conscious decisions about behaviours, interactions and attitudes take discipline and commitment. Illustrative quotations have been used in order to represent the voices of members of school communities, with School 1 and School 2 particularly prominent due to the focus of their responses. In spite of the relatively small sample, the research methods (initial interview, follow up focus group, pupil observation and where possible, pupil and parent interview) and the sample (formal senior leaders, teachers, governors, pupils, parents) have provided a depth to the data collected and some opportunity for triangulation. The data for this particular strand (relational leadership) has brought to life some practical ways that a positive culture can be developed and sustained, even in challenging circumstances.

References Adams, K. (2017). Towards an interdisciplinary approach to understanding and nurturing spirituality and the whole child. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 22(1): 1–3.

Creating a Positive Culture within Primary Schools

91

Adams, K., Lumb, A., Paige, R. and Tapp, J. (2017). Education and the Whole Child: Enabling Children to Flourish and Achieve in Small Primary Schools. Available at: https://cofefoundation.contentfiles.net/media/assets/file/Education_and_the_ whole_child_report_-_2017.pdf (Accessed 20 June 2019). Chrobot-Mason, D., Gerbasi, A. and Cullen-Lester, K. (2016). Predicting leadership relationships: The importance of collective identity. Leadership Quarterly, 27(2): 298–311. Contractor, N., DeChurch, L., Carson, J., Carter, D. and Keegan, B. (2012). The topology of collective leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 23(6): 994–1011. Day, C., Harris, A. and Hadfield, M. (1999). Leading schools in times of change. Presented at the European Conference on Educational Research. Lahti, Finland, September 1999. Day, D. (2000). Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4): 581–613. Fullan, M. (2002). Moral purpose writ large. The School Administrator Web Edition. Online. Available at: http://www.michaelfullan.ca/wp-content/ uploads/2016/06/13396048660.pdf (Accessed 6 April 2019). Johnson, R., Venus, M., Lanaj, C., Mao, R. and Chang, R. (2012). Leader identity as an antecedent of the frequency and consistency of transformational, consideration and abusive leadership behaviours. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2012): 1262–72. Krueger, R., and Casey, M. (2009). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. London: Sage. Lord, R., and Brown, D. (2004). Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Lord, R., and Hall, R. (2005). Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skills. Leadership Quarterly, 16: 591–615. McDonald, M., and Cox, S. (2009). Moving towards evidence-based human participant protection. Journal of Academic Ethics, 7: 1–16. Meijer, P., Korthagen, F. and Vasalos, A. (2009). Supporting presence in teacher education: The connection between the personal and professional aspects of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(2): 297–308. Miller, J. (2010). Whole Child Education. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Newton, G. (2016). Why do teachers quit and what could help them to stay? The BERA Blog, Research Matters. Online. Available at: https://www.bera.ac.uk/ blog/why-do-teachers-quit-and-what-could-help-them-to-stay (Accessed 6 April 2019). O’Connell, S. (2019). Ofsted’s education inspection framework: Finally moving in the right direction. Headteacher Update 2019 (2). Rodgers, C., and Raider-Roth, M. (2006). Presence in teaching. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 12(3): 265–87.

92

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

Sanderse, W., Walker, D. and Jones, C. (2015). Developing the whole child in an age of academic measurement: Can this be done according to U.K. teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education, 47: 195–203. Sergiovanni, T. (1992). Moral Leadership: Getting to the Heart of School Improvement. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Sims, S. (2017). TALIS 2013: Working conditions, teacher job satisfaction and retention. London: DfE. Steneck, N. (2006). Fostering integrity in research: Definitions, current knowledge, and future directions. Science and Engineering Ethics, 12(1): 53–74. Stieha, V., and Raider-Roth, M. (2012). Presence in context: Teachers’ negotiations with the relational environment of schools. Journal of Educational Change, 13: 511–34. Van Dick, R., Grojean, M., Christ, O. and Wieseke, J. (2006). Identity and the extra mile: Relationships between organizational identification and organisational citizenship behaviour. British Journal of Management, 17: 283–301.

5

Early-Career Teacher Relationships with Peers and Mentors: Exploring Policy and Practice Kathryn Spicksley and Maxine Watkins

Introduction The recruitment and retention of teachers in England presents an ongoing challenge, with teacher shortages and teacher attrition causing concerns for school leaders (National Association of Head Teachers, 2015). The House of Commons Education Committee reported on the recruitment and retention of teachers in England in 2017, concluding as follows: Government struggles to recruit enough teachers to ITT [Initial Teacher Training] each year, making the retention of teachers ever more important. Introducing initiatives to help improve teachers’ job satisfaction may well be a much more cost effective way of improving teacher supply in the long term. (p. 25)

There is a growing body of research evidence which suggests that an increased focus on the ways in which teachers develop and sustain their sense of professional identity could be a productive way of promoting commitment within the teaching profession (Day et  al., 2007). This chapter will argue that informal peer relationships between teachers are an important factor in building professional identity, self-efficacy and commitment, particularly in the early stages of teachers’ careers when they are more vulnerable to attrition. However, it will also show that informal peer relationships have been neglected in post2010 education policy documents, receiving little or no attention. The ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’ (Department for Education [DfE], 2019a) indicates that the government is beginning to consider a wider range of factors as impacting on teacher recruitment and retention

94

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

than simply workload. The first priority of the government’s new strategy is to create ‘more supportive school cultures’ as well as ‘reduced workload’ (DfE, 2019b, p. 1). However, as this chapter will argue, the ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’ is consistent with previous policy documents since 2010 in failing to recognize the importance of informal peer relationships in supporting new teachers. It also fails to construct an adequate template for developing supportive mentoring relationships in schools. This consistent lack of attention by policymakers to the importance of relationships between teachers, is likely to have real-world consequences. With informal peer support and mentoring a low priority for policymakers, it is possible that facilitating informal peer support and building positive mentoring relationships also remains a low priority for school leaders. The findings discussed in this chapter were drawn from two research projects, both of which explored the experiences of early-career teachers (0–7  years of teaching experience) working in the primary state education sector in England. The first project involved an extensive policy analysis focusing on post-2010 policy expectations of new teachers. The second project took a grounded theory approach, using narrative interviews with participants to identify key moments in their development as teachers. This chapter aims to draw together the findings of these two research projects. It will be argued that the development of informal, supportive peer relationships between teachers often coincides with increased feelings of self-efficacy and commitment for new teachers. However, these important peer and mentoring relationships are rarely discussed or recognized in policy discourse.

The importance of peer support for early-career teachers The early-career phase in teaching The early-career phase has been recognized as a distinct phase in the life trajectory of teachers (Day et al., 2007; Kington, 2012; Kington, Reed and Sammons, 2014). Researchers have identified concerns which are unique to the early-career phase, and risk factors which could prompt teachers to leave the profession at this point in their career. Research generally acknowledges that many new teachers experience what is often termed a ‘reality shock’ when they first take on responsibility for a class (Gaede, 1978; Veenman, 1984; Cherubini, 2009; Ryan et al., 2017). The exact length of the early-career phase is disputed, but two major studies into the

Early-Career Teacher Relationships with Peers and Mentors

95

life cycle of teachers (Huberman, 1993; Day et  al., 2007) argue that this phase extends until the seventh or eighth year of teaching. The first three years for beginning teachers involves a primary focus on the development of self-efficacy within the classroom context. During the next three to five years, teachers work to develop a more stable self-identity as a teacher, including the consolidation of a pedagogical style and, for some teachers, increased classroom effectiveness and self-efficacy. The DfE’s decision to limit early-career support to two years (DfE, 2019c) indicates that limited attention has been paid by policymakers to the findings of educational research in this area. A great deal of media attention in England has been given to the high rate of teacher attrition during the early-career phase (Weale, 2018; Bennett, 2018). Teacher attrition during the early-career phase is also recognized as a problem in other European countries (Dupriez, Delvaux and Lothaire, 2016), Australia (Buchanan et al., 2013) and America (Schaefer, Long and Clandinin, 2012). High attrition rates have been linked to the negative effects of high-accountability school systems on individual teachers, including teacher burnout (Hong, 2010; Ryan et al., 2017) and a lack of teacher autonomy (Smith and Ulvik, 2017). High teacher turnover has negative effect on student achievement (Ronfeldt, Loeb and Wyckoff, 2013) and has negative economic consequences. Training new teachers in England costs the state between £13,000 and £18,000 on average (Allen et al., 2014, p.  2). The publication of the ‘Early Career Framework’ (DfE, 2019c), alongside the ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’ (DfE, 2019a), indicates that the negative consequences of early-career attrition are starting to be addressed and understood as a problem by policymakers.

Teacher relationships in the early-career phase Both formal and informal school relationships can have an impact on the lives and experiences of early-career teachers. In England, schools are statutorily obliged to provide Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs) with an induction tutor who ‘should be able to provide effective coaching and mentoring’ (DfE, 2018a, p. 17). The role of the induction tutor is an example of a formal relationship, in that the induction tutor is allocated to the NQT, and alongside providing coaching and mentoring is also responsible for coordinating (and often engaging in) the assessment of the NQT. Informal relationships, in contrast, develop organically over time between teachers and their colleagues. In contrast to a formal mentoring relationship, informal relationships between peers are not explicitly hierarchical. Experienced teachers may share advice or wisdom with younger or

96

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

more inexperienced colleagues, but they are not in an official position of power over their colleagues. Informal relationships are often understood by teachers as professional friendships. Research into the early-career phase indicates that supportive peer relationships can contribute positively to the experiences of early-career teachers. In his work on the life cycle of teachers, Huberman (1993, p.  43) divided the experiences of beginning teachers into those who experienced ‘easy beginnings’ and those who experienced ‘painful beginnings’. Those who reported easy beginnings developed rapport with their teaching peers, whereas those who felt they had difficult beginnings felt isolated from their colleagues, and also reported heavy surveillance from senior colleagues. Even earlier than Huberman’s study, Fuller and Bown (1975, p. 28) had identified that ‘young teachers look to older teachers for assistance, rather than to supervisors’, suggesting that new teachers have long sought out informal opportunities to gain support from experienced colleagues. The VITAE project (Day et  al., 2007, p.  59) found that relationships between staff ‘were particularly important to newer teachers. These had the highest single positive impact (22 per cent) on teachers in their first three years, as well as those with 4–7  years experience’. More recent research into the early-career teacher experience has supported the findings of these studies, showing that close relationships with peers can help early-career teachers to build resilience (Le Cornu, 2013; Johnson et al., 2014). Some recent studies have indicated that by engaging in meaningful interactions with peers, teachers can develop their sense of self-efficacy (Canrinus at al., 2012; Uitto et al., 2016). Education researchers have, therefore, consistently recognized the importance of supportive, nonjudgemental peer relationships to teachers in the early-career phase. Successful mentoring has also been highlighted as an important factor in supporting new teachers. Gaede (1978) showed that mentoring can alleviate the reality shock experienced by new teachers. Later research has built on his findings, showing that teachers who are successfully mentored find it the most supportive aspect of their training and development (Marable and Raimonde, 2007) and that successful mentoring can help support teacher retention (Johnson, Berg and Donaldson, 2005). It has been shown that mentors themselves consider the role to be multifaceted, involving a variety of diverse roles and responsibilities (Bullough and Draper, 2004), one of which is to successfully initiate new teachers into the school culture (Edwards, 1998). Conversely, a lack of effective mentoring support in the early-career phase has been shown to increase the probability of negative outcomes for novice teachers (Cameron and Grant, 2017; Martin, Buelow and Hoffman, 2016). In their

Early-Career Teacher Relationships with Peers and Mentors

97

article on ‘judgementoring’, Hobson and Malderez (2013, p. 90) warn about the difficulties inherent in the particular type of school-based mentoring that takes place in England for trainee teachers and NQTs. They argue that the dual role of the mentor as both support and judge is problematic, meaning that supportive and trusting relationships between mentors and mentees are difficult to sustain. Mentees feel that they are unable to share their experiences of failure and ask for help, or admit that they have made mistakes, because they are not only being supported by their mentor but also being assessed by them. It is important to note that the assessments made by mentors in England are extremely highstake:  mentees may fail their ITT or NQT year because of the decisions and judgements taken by their mentors. The dual mentor role of assessor/supporter also means that some mentees become dependent on the advice of their mentors, doing exactly as they are told in order to reach the required standard rather than thinking independently about problems and being innovative in their responses to classroom challenges. As a result, it has been argued that mentoring may be more fruitful when mentors are external to the school environment (McIntyre and Hobson, 2016). Past research therefore indicates strongly that both informal and formal relationships between teachers have a particularly strong impact on teachers in the early stages of their career. However, whereas informal peer relationships are generally found to have a positive effect on the self-efficacy of early-career teachers, the formal mentoring relationship can have far more problematic consequences.

Research methodologies As explained in the introduction to this chapter, the findings of two different studies were used in the construction of this chapter. The projects took different methodological approaches to collect and analyse their data. The policy analysis was conducted using critical discourse analysis (CDA). Interviews with early-career teachers were conducted using life-history conversations and professional timeline interviews, taking a constructivist grounded theory approach. These two methodological approaches are not incompatible, and using data gathered from both approaches provides a more holistic account of attitudes towards teacher relationships than would be possible if just one methodology was used. CDA is a form of in-depth, qualitative textual analysis which aims to make evident the underlying ideologies within texts (Fairclough, 1992). The CDA

98

Social and Learning Relationships in Primary Schools

approach argues that the way texts are structured, and the grammatical and lexical choices made by the producers of texts, provide indications of how the producers of texts both understand and construct the world around them. The aim of CDA is not to identify the ‘truth’ beneath a text, but to identify how a particular text constructs the world and the social actors within it. The policy analysis detailed in this chapter employs both qualitative and quantitative methods (Baker, 2006) in order to investigate four key post-2010 education policy texts. Two white papers were sampled as they indicate the direction of education policy at that moment in time. Furthermore, ‘The Carter Review’ (DfE, 2015) and the ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’ (DfE, 2019a) were included in the sample because they involved discussion of issues which were particularly pertinent to early-career teachers. The texts included in the policy analysis are outlined in Table 5.1. The early-career phase teachers discussed in this chapter (N  =  7) were employed in a variety of state schools including maintained schools, academy schools and free schools, representing primary schools in rural, urban and semi-urban settings across England. All participants had achieved Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) and were working in different teaching roles, from NQTs based in the classroom through to assistant head teacher (see Table 5.2). Taking a constructivist grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2014), each participant was interviewed twice, spanning two academic years. Initial informal life history conversations explored teachers’ own early experiences of being at school, their family life, and their beliefs or values (Goodson, 2008). Each participant then completed a time line (Goodson and Sikes, 2017) which outlined any critical events, or turning points, in their professional lives,1 enabling each participant to review and reflect on their own career journey. Kelchtermans (2009) argues Table 5.1 Policy documents explored in the analysis Title

Type

Date

‘The Importance of Teaching’ ‘The Carter Review of Initial Teacher Training’ ‘Educational Excellence Everywhere’ ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’

White paper Independent report White paper Policy paper

2010 2015 2016 2019

1

Teachers were asked to draw a continuous line, which indicated fluctuations in their own professional identity over time (they were told that the line might be a series of peaks and troughs, with peaks indicating a stable, positive professional identity and troughs indicating an unstable, negative professional identity).

Early-Career Teacher Relationships with Peers and Mentors

99

Table 5.2 Characteristics of early-career phase teachers interviewed Pseudonyma

Years in Age Sex Teacher Role Teaching Training Route

School Type

Andrea